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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Romance of Names, by Ernest Weekley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Romance of Names
+
+
+Author: Ernest Weekley
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2008  [eBook #24374]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jon Richfield
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+Advertising material that appeared at the start of the book
+
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+THE ROMANCE OF WORDS
+
+"A book of extraordinary interest; those who do not yet realise how
+enthralling a subject word-history is could not do better than sample
+its flavour in Mr. Weekley's admirable book."
+
+--Spectator.          Third Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+
+SURNAMES
+
+"A study of the origin and significance of surnames, full of
+fascination for the general reader."
+
+--Truth.                 Second Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+
+AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH
+
+"It is a very great pleasure to get a dictionary from Mr. Weekley.
+One knows from experience that Mr. Weekley would contrive to avoid
+unnecessary dullness, even if he were compiling a railway guide, but
+that he would also get the trains right."
+
+--Mr. J. C. SQUIRE in The Observer.  Crown 4to.  £ 2 2s.  net.
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+Third Edition, Revised
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+by
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY, M.A.
+
+Professor of French and Head of the Modern Language Department
+at University College, Nottingham;
+Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London
+John Murray, Albemarle Street, W.
+1922
+
+First Edition      January 1914
+Second Edition     March 1914
+Third Edition      May 1922
+
+All Rights Reserved
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+   THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+   PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION                           1
+
+   PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION                          2
+
+   PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION                           3
+
+   CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL                      7
+
+      PERSONAL NAMES                                      8
+
+      NICKNAMES                                           9
+
+      MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES                               10
+
+      ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS                                11
+
+      NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE                     13
+
+   CHAPTER II. A MEDIEVAL ROLL                           15
+
+      LONDON JURYMEN                                     16
+
+      MIDDLESEX JURYMEN                                  23
+
+      STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS                          25
+
+   CHAPTER III. SPELLING AND SOUND                       29
+
+      VARIANT SPELLINGS                                  30
+
+      DIALECTIC VARIANTS                                 32
+
+      APHESIS                                            33
+
+      EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION                         35
+
+      METATHESIS                                         36
+
+      BABY PHONETICS                                     37
+
+   CHAPTER IV. BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON                40
+
+      OCCUPATIVE NAMES                                   40
+
+      THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES                          42
+
+   CHAPTER V. THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES            44
+
+      THE HUGUENOTS                                      44
+
+      PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES                       46
+
+      JEWISH NAMES                                       48
+
+   CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY                       49
+
+      MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES                                49
+
+      THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES                           50
+
+      FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES                             52
+
+      DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES                          53
+
+      THE SUFFIX -COCK                                   55
+
+      CELTIC NAMES                                       56
+
+   CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA                       57
+
+      FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES                     57
+
+      ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES                              59
+
+      ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS                              61
+
+      MONOSYLLABIC NAMES                                 62
+
+      "HIDEOUS NAMES"                                    63
+
+   CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES                     65
+
+      THE ROUND TABLE                                    66
+
+      THE CHANSONS DE GESTE                              68
+
+      ANTIQUE NAMES                                      69
+
+   CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR                70
+
+      OLD TESTAMENT NAMES                                70
+
+      NEW TESTAMENT NAMES                                72
+
+      FEAST-DAYS                                         73
+
+      MONTH NAMES                                        74
+
+   CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS                                76
+
+      FEMALE FONT-NAMES                                  76
+
+      DOUBTFUL CASES                                     78
+
+   CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES                            79
+
+      CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES                             80
+
+      COUNTIES AND TOWNS                                 81
+
+      NAMES PRECEDED BY DE                               81
+
+   CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES                               84
+
+      ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES                            85
+
+      HILL AND DALE                                      87
+
+      HILLS                                              87
+
+      WOODLAND AND PLAIN                                 89
+
+      FOREST CLEARINGS                                   91
+
+      MARSHES                                            92
+
+      WATER AND WATERSIDE                                93
+
+      RIVERS                                             93
+
+      ISLANDS                                            95
+
+      TREE NAMES                                         96
+
+   CHAPTER XIII. THE HAUNTS OF MAN                       98
+
+      SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES                         99
+
+      HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS                               103
+
+      WATER                                             105
+
+      BUILDINGS                                         105
+
+      DWELLINGS                                         107
+
+      SHOP SIGNS                                        109
+
+   CHAPTER XIV. NORMAN BLOOD                            110
+
+      CORRUPT FORMS                                     112
+
+      TREE NAMES                                        113
+
+   CHAPTER XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES                      115
+
+      SOCIAL GRADES                                     116
+
+      ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES                              118
+
+      NAMES IN -STER                                    119
+
+      MISSING TRADESMEN                                 120
+
+      SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES                           122
+
+      PHONETIC CHANGES                                  123
+
+      NAMES FROM WARES                                  124
+
+   CHAPTER XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER              126
+
+   CHAPTER XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS                129
+
+      ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES                              131
+
+      PILGRIMS                                          132
+
+   CHAPTER XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS                     133
+
+      ARCHERY                                           133
+
+      CLOTHIERS                                         134
+
+      METAL WORKERS                                     136
+
+      SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS                           138
+
+   CHAPTER XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS                   140
+
+      BUMBLEDOM                                         141
+
+      ITINERANT MERCHANTS                               143
+
+   CHAPTER XX. OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC                    145
+
+      THE HOUSEHOLD                                     146
+
+   CHAPTER XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL                 149
+
+      FOREIGN NICKNAMES                                 150
+
+      KINSHIP                                           152
+
+      ABSTRACTS                                         154
+
+      COSTUME                                           155
+
+      PHYSICAL FEATURES                                 157
+
+      IMPRECATIONS                                      159
+
+      PHRASE-NAMES                                      160
+
+      MISCELLANEOUS                                     162
+
+   CHAPTER XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES                   163
+
+      ARCHAIC MEANINGS                                  163
+
+      DISGUISED SPELLINGS                               165
+
+      FRENCH ADJECTIVES                                 166
+
+      COLOUR NAMES                                      167
+
+   CHAPTER XXIII. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES             170
+
+      BIRDS                                             171
+
+      HAWK NAMES                                        173
+
+      BEASTS                                            174
+
+      FISHES                                            176
+
+      SPECIAL FEATURES                                  177
+
+   Advertising material from the end of the book        180
+
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
+
+In preparing this revised edition I have been able to make use of much
+information conveyed to me by readers interested in the subject.  The
+general arrangement of the book remains unchanged, but a certain
+number of statements have been modified, corrected, or suppressed.
+The study of our surnames has been mostly left to the amateur
+philologist, and many origins given by my predecessors as ascertained
+facts turn out, on investigation, to be unsupported by a shred of
+evidence.  I cannot hope that this little book in its new form is free
+from error, but I feel that it has benefited by the years I have spent
+in research since its original publication.  I would ask reader to
+accept it, not as a comprehensive treatise containing full information
+on any name that happens to occur in it, but as a general survey of
+the subject, and an attempt to indicate and exemplify the various ways
+in which our surnames have come into existence.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM.  April 1922.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+The early demand for a new edition of this little book is a gratifying
+proof of a widespread interest in its subject, rather than a testimony
+to the value of my small contribution to that subject.  Of the
+imperfections of this contribution no one can be more conscious than
+myself, but I trust that the most palpable blemishes have been removed
+in this revised edition.  The student of etymology seldom passes a day
+without coming across some piece of evidence which throws new light on
+a difficult problem (see Chapter XVI), or invalidates what had before
+seemed a reasonable conjecture.  I have to thank many correspondents
+for sending me information of value and for indicating points in which
+conciseness has led to misunderstanding.  Some of my correspondents
+need, however, to be reminded that etymology and genealogy are
+separate sciences; so that, while offering every apology to that Mr.
+Robinson whose name is a corruption of Montmorency, I still adhere to
+my belief that the other Robinsons derive from Robert.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+NOTTINGHAM    March 1914.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
+
+The interpretation of personal names has always had an attraction for
+the learned and others, but the first attempts to classify and explain
+our English surnames date, so far as my knowledge goes, from 1605.  In
+that year Verstegan published his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,
+which contains chapters on both font-names and surnames, and about the
+same time appeared Camden's Remains Concerning Britain, in which the
+same subjects are treated much more fully.  Both of these learned
+antiquaries make excellent reading, and much curious information may
+be gleaned from their pages, especially those of Camden, whose
+position as Clarencieux King-at-Arms gave him exceptional
+opportunities for genealogical research.  From the philological point
+of view they are of course untrustworthy, though less so than most
+modern writers on the same subject.
+
+About the middle of the nineteenth century, the period of Archbishop
+Trench and Canon Taylor, began a kind of boom in works of this kind,
+and books on surnames are now numerous.  But of all these industrious
+compilers one only, Bardsley, can be taken seriously.  His Dictionary
+of English Surnames, published (Oxford Press, 1901) from his notes
+some years after his death, is invaluable to students.  It represents
+the results of twenty years' conscientious research among early rolls
+and registers, the explanations given being usually supported by
+medieval instances.  But it cannot be used uncritically, for the
+author does not appear to have been either a linguist or a
+philologist, and, although he usually refrains from etymological
+conjecture, he occasionally ventures with disastrous results.  Thus,
+to take a few instances, he identifies Prust with Priest, but the
+medieval le prust is quite obviously the Norman form of Old Fr. le
+Proust, the provost.  He attempts to connect pullen with the archaic
+Eng. pullen, poultry; but his early examples, le pulein, polayn, etc.,
+are of course Fr. Poulain, i.e. Colt.  Under Fallows, explained as
+"fallow lands," he quotes three examples of de la faleyse, i.e. Fr.
+Falaise, corresponding to our Cliff, Cleeve, etc; Pochin, explained as
+the diminutive of some personal name, is the Norman form of the famous
+name Poussin, i.e. Chick.  Or, coming to native instances, le wenchel,
+a medieval prototype of Winkle, is explained as for "periwinkle,"
+whereas it is a common Middle-English word, existing now in the
+shortened form wench, and means Child.  The obsolete Swordslipper, now
+only Slipper, which he interprets as a maker of "sword-slips," or
+sheaths, was really a sword-sharpener, from Mid. Eng. slipen, cognate
+with Old Du. slijpen, to polish, sharpen, and Ger. schleifen.
+Sometimes a very simple problem is left unexplained, e.g. in the case
+of the name Tyas, where the medieval instances of le tyeis are to a
+student of Old French clearly le tieis or tiois, i.e. the German,
+cognate with Ger. deutsch and Ital. tedesco.
+
+These examples are quoted, not in depreciation of conscientious
+student to whose work my own compilation is greatly indebted, but
+merely to show that the etymological study of surnames has scarcely
+been touched at present, except by writers to whom philology is an
+unknown science.  I have inserted, as a specimen problem (ch.  xvi.),
+a little disquisition on the name Rutter, a cursory perusal of which
+will convince most readers that it is not much use making shots in
+this subject.
+
+My aim has been to steer a clear course between a too learned and a
+too superficial treatment, and rather to show how surnames are formed
+than to adduce innumerable examples which the reader should be able to
+solve for himself.  I have made no attempt to collect curious names,
+but have taken those which occur in the London Directory (1908) or
+have caught my eye in the newspaper or the streets.  To go into proofs
+would have swelled the book beyond all reasonable proportions, but the
+reader may assume that, in the case of any derivation not expressly
+stated as a conjecture, the connecting links exist.  In the various
+classes of names, I have intentionally omitted all that is obvious,
+except in the rather frequent case of the obvious being wrong.  The
+index, which I have tried to make complete, is intended to replace to
+some extent those cross-references which are useful to students but
+irritating to the general reader.  Hundreds of names are susceptible
+of two, three, or more explanations, and I do not profess to be
+exhaustive.
+
+The subject-matter is divided into a number of rather short chapters,
+dealing with the various classes and subdivisions into which surnames
+fall; but the natural association which exists between names has often
+prevailed over rigid classification.  The quotations by which obsolete
+words are illustrated are taken as far as possible from Chaucer, whose
+writings date from the very period when our surnames were gradually
+becoming hereditary.  I have also quoted extensively from the
+Promptorium Parvulorum, our earliest English-Latin Dictionary (1440).
+
+In ch. vii, on Anglo-Saxon names, I have obtained some help from a
+paper by the late Professor Skeat (Transactions of the Philological
+Society, 1907-10, pp. 57-85) and from the materials contained in
+Searle's valuable Onomasticon Anglo-Saxonicum (Cambridge, 1897).
+Among several works which I have consulted on French and German family
+names, the most useful have been Heintze's Deutsche Familiennamen, 3rd
+ed.  (Halle a.  S., 1908) and Kremers' Beitraege zur Erforschung der
+franzoesischen Familiennamen (Bonn, 1910).  The comparative method
+which I have adopted, especially in explaining nicknames (ch.  xxi),
+will be found, I think, to clear up a good many dark points.  Of books
+on names published in this country, only Bardsley's Dictionary has
+been of any considerable assistance, though I have gleaned some scraps
+of information here and there from other compilations.  My real
+sources have been the lists of medieval names found in Domesday Book,
+the Pipe Rolls, the Hundred Rolls, and in the numerous historical
+records published by the Government and by various antiquarian
+societies.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+Nottingham, September 1913
+
+
+
+The following dictionaries are quoted without further reference:
+
+Promptorium Parvulorum (1440), ed.  Mayhew (E.E.T.S.; 1908).
+
+PALSGRAVE, L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse (1530), ed.  Génin
+(Paris, 1852).
+
+COOPER, Thesaurus Lingua Romanae et Britannicae (London; 1573).
+
+COTGRAVE A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues
+
+(London, 1611).
+
+The Middle English quotations, except where otherwise stated, are from
+Chaucer, the references being to the Globe edition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL
+
+"The French and we termed them Surnames, not because they are the
+names of the Sire, or the father, but because they are super-added to
+Christian names."
+
+(CAMDEN, Remains concerning Britain.)
+
+The study of the origin of family names is at the same time quite
+simple and very difficult.  Its simplicity consists in the fact that
+surnames can only come into existence in certain well-understood ways.
+Its difficulty is due to the extraordinary perversions which names
+undergo in common speech, to the orthographic uncertainty of our
+ancestors, to the frequent coalescence of two or more names of quite
+different Origin, and to the multitudinous forms which one single name
+can assume, such forms being due to local pronunciation, accidents of
+spelling, date of adoption, and many minor causes.  It must always
+remembered that the majority of our surnames from the various dialects
+of Middle English, i.e. of a language very different from our own in
+spelling and sound, full of words that are now obsolete, and of others
+which have completely changed their form and meaning.
+
+If we take any medieval roll of names, we see almost at a glance that
+four such individuals as--
+
+John filius Simon
+
+William de la Moor
+
+Richard le Spicer
+
+Robert le Long
+
+exhaust the possibilities of English name-making--i.e. that every
+surname must be (i) personal, from a sire or ancestor, (ii) local,
+from place of residence, [Footnote: This is by far the largest class,
+counting by names, not individuals, and many names for which I give
+another explanation have also a local origin.  Thus, when I say that
+Ely is Old Fr. Élie, i.e. Elias, I assume that the reader will know
+without being told that it has an alternative explanation from Ely in
+Cambridgeshire.]  (iii) occupative, from trade or office, (iv) a
+nickname, from bodily attributes, character, etc.
+
+This can easily be illustrated from any list of names taken at random.
+The Rugby team chosen to represent the East Midlands against Kent
+(January 22, 1913) consisted of the following fifteen names: Hancock;
+Mobbs, Poulton, Hudson, Cook; Watson, Earl; Bull, Muddiman, Collins,
+Tebbitt, Lacey, Hall, Osborne, Manton.  Some of these are simple, but
+others require a little knowledge for their explanation.
+
+
+
+PERSONAL NAMES
+
+There are seven personal names, and the first of these, Hancock, is
+rather a problem.  This is usually explained as from Flemish Hanke,
+Johnny, while the origin of the suffix -cock has never been very
+clearly accounted for (see The suffix -cock, Chapter VI).  With
+Hancock we may compare Hankin.  But, while the Flemish derivation is
+possible for these two names, it will not explain Hanson, which
+sometimes becomes Hansom (Epithesis And Assimilation, Chapter III).
+According to Camden, there is evidence that Han was also used as a
+rimed form of Ran, short for Ranolf and Randolf (cf. Hob from Robert,
+Hick from Richard), very popular names in the north during the surname
+period.  In Hankin and Hancock this Han would naturally coalesce with
+the Flemish Hanke.  This would also explain the names Hand for Rand,
+and Hands, Hance for Rands, Rance.  Mobbs is the same as Mabbs (cf.
+Moggy for Maggy), and Mabbs is the genitive of Mab, i.e. Mabel, for
+Amabel.  We have the diminutive in Mappin and the patronymic in
+Mapleson.  [Footnote: Maple and Mapple, generally tree names (Chapter
+XII), are in some cases for Mabel.  Maplethorpe is from Mablethorpe
+(Line.), thorp of Madalbert (Maethelbeorht).]  Hudson is the son of
+Hud, a very common medieval name, which seems to represent Anglo-Saxon
+Hudda (Chapter VII), the vigorous survival of which into the surname
+period is a mystery.  Watson is the son of Wat, i.e. Walter, from the
+Old N.E. Fr. Vautier (Gautier), regularly pronounced and written Water
+at one time--
+
+". . . My name is Walter Whitmore.
+How now!  Why start'st thou?  What!  doth death affright?
+
+Suffolk.          Thy name affrights me, in whose sound is death.
+A cunning man did calculate my birth,
+And told me that by water I should die."
+
+(2 Henry VI, iv.1)
+
+Hence the name Waters, which has not usually any connection with
+water; while Waterman, though sometimes occupative, is also formed
+from Walter, like Hickman from Hick (Chapter VI).  Collins is from
+Colin, a French diminutive of Col, i.e. Nicol or Nicolas.
+
+Tebbitt is a diminutive of Theobald, a favourite medieval name which
+had the shortened forms Teb, Tib, Tub, whence a number of derivatives.
+But names in Teb- and Tib- may also come from Isabel  (Chapter X).
+Osborne is the Anglo-Saxon name Osbeorn.
+
+Of course, each of these personal names has a meaning, e.g. Amabel,
+ultimately Latin, means lovable, and Walter, a Germanic name, means
+"rule army" (Modern Ger. walten and Heer), but the discussion of such
+meanings lies outside our subject.  It is, in fact, sometimes
+difficult to distinguish between the personal name and the nickname.
+Thus Pagan, whence Payn, with its diminutives Pannell, Pennell, etc.,
+Gold, Good, German, whence Jermyn, Jarman, and many other apparent
+nicknames, occur as personal names in the earliest records.  Their
+etymological origin is in any case the same as if they were nicknames.
+
+To return to our football team, Poulton, Lacey, Hall, and Manton are
+local.  There are several villages in Cheshire and Lancashire named
+Poulton, i.e. the town or homestead (Chapter XIII) by the pool.  Lacey
+occurs in Domesday Book as de Laci, from some small spot in Normandy,
+probably the hamlet of Lassy (Calvados).  Hall is due to residence
+near the great house of the neighbourhood.  If Hall's ancestor's name
+had chanced to be put down in Anglo-French as de la sale, he might now
+be known as Sale, or even as Saul.  Manton is the name of places in
+Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, so that this player, at any rate,
+has an ancestral qualification for the East Midlands.
+
+The only true occupative name in the list is Cook, for Earl is a
+nickname.  Cook was perhaps the last occupative title to hold its own
+against the inherited name.  Justice Shallow, welcoming Sir John
+Falstaff, says--
+
+"Some pigeons, Davy; a couple of short-legged hens, a joint of mutton,
+and any pretty little tiny kickshaws.  Tell William Cook" (2 Henry IV, v.
+i.).
+
+And students of the Ingoldsby Legends will remember that
+
+"Ellen Bean ruled his cuisine.--He called her Nelly Cook."
+
+(Nell Cook, 1.  32.)
+
+There are probably a goodly number of housewives of the present day
+who would be at a loss if suddenly asked for "cook's" name in full.
+It may be noted that Lequeux means exactly the same, and is of
+identical origin, archaic Fr. le queux, Lat. coquus, while Kew is
+sometimes for Anglo-Fr. le keu, where keu is the accusative of queux
+(Alternative Origins, Chapter I).
+
+
+
+NICKNAMES
+
+The nicknames are Earl, Bull, and Muddiman.  Nicknames such as Earl
+may have been acquired in various ways (Chapter XV).  Bull and
+Muddiman are singularly appropriate for Rugby scrummagers, though the
+first may be from an inn or shop sign, rather than from physique or
+character.  It is equivalent to Thoreau, Old Fr. toreau (taureau).
+Muddiman is for Moodyman, where moody has its older meaning of
+valiant; cf. its German cognate mutig.  The weather on the day in
+question gave a certain fitness both to the original meaning and the
+later form.
+
+The above names are, with the exception of Hancock, Hudson, and
+Muddiman, easy to solve; but it must not be concluded that every list
+is as simple, or that the obvious is always right.  The first page of
+Bards Dictionary of Surnames might well serve as a danger-signal to
+cocksure writers on this subject.  The names Abbey and Abbott would
+naturally seem to go back to an ancestor who lived in or near an and
+to another who had been nicknamed the abbot.
+
+But Abbey is more often from the Anglo-French entry le abbé, the
+abbot, and Abbott may be a diminutive of Ab, standing for Abel, or
+Abraham, the first of which was a common medieval font-name.  Francis
+Holyoak describes himself on the title-page of his Latin Dictionary
+(1612) as Franciscus de Sacra Quercu, but his name also represents the
+holly oak, or holm oak (Tree Names, Chapter XII).  On the other hand,
+Holliman always occurs in early rolls as hali or holi man, i.e. holy
+man.
+
+
+
+MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES
+
+It may be stated here, once for all, that etymologies of names which
+are based on medieval latinizations, family mottoes, etc., are always
+to be regarded with suspicion, as they involve the reversing of
+chronology, or the explanation of a name by a pun which has been made
+from it.  We find Lilburne latinized as de insula tontis, as though it
+were the impossible hybrid de l'isle burn, and Beautoy sometimes as de
+bella fide, whereas foy is the Old French for beech, from Lat. fagus.
+Napier of Merchiston had the motto n'a pier, "has no equal," and
+described himself on title-pages as the Nonpareil, but his ancestor
+was a servant who looked after the napery.  With Holyoak's rendering
+of his own name we may compare Parkinson's "latinization" of his name
+in his famous book on gardening(1629), which bears the title Paradisi
+in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, i.e. the Earthly Paradise of "Park in
+Sun."
+
+Many noble names have an anecdotic "explanation."  I learnt at school
+that Percy came from "pierce-eye," in allusion to a treacherous
+exploit at Alnwick.  The Lesleys claim descent from a hero who
+overthrew a Hungarian champion
+
+"Between the less lee and the Mair
+ He slew the knight and left him there."
+
+(Quentin Durward, ch. xxxvii.)
+
+Similarly, the great name of Courtenay, Courtney, of French local
+origin, is derived in an Old French epic from court nez, short nose,
+an epithet conferred on the famous Guillaume d'Orange, who, when the
+sword of a Saracen giant removed this important feature, exclaimed
+undauntedly--
+
+"Mais que mon nés ai un poi acorcié,
+Bien sai mes nons en sera alongié."
+
+(Li Coronemenz Looïs, 1.  1159.)
+
+[Footnote: "Though I have my nose a little shortened, I know well that
+my name will be thereby lengthened."]
+
+I read lately in some newspaper that the original Lockhart took the
+"heart" of the Bruce to the Holy Land in a "locked" casket.
+Practically every famous Scottish name has a yarn connected with it,
+the gem perhaps being that which accounts for Guthrie.  A Scottish
+king, it is said, landed weary and hungry as the sole survivor of a
+shipwreck.  He approached a woman who was gutting fish, and asked her
+to prepare one for him.  The kindly fishwife at once replied, "I'll
+gut three." Whereupon the king, dropping into rime with a readiness
+worthy of Mr. Wegg, said--
+
+"Then gut three, Your name shall be," [Footnote added by scanner, who
+has not read much of Dickens: Silas Wegg was a ready-witted character
+in "Our Mutual Friend."]
+
+and conferred a suitable estate on his benefactress.
+
+After all, truth is stranger than fiction.  There is quite enough
+legitimate cause for wonderment in the fact that Tyas is letter for
+letter the same name as Douch, or that Strangeways, from a district in
+Manchester which, lying between the Irwell and the Irk, formerly
+subject to floods, is etymologically strong-wash.  The Joannes Acutus
+whose tomb stands in Florence is the great free-lance captain Sir John
+Hawkwood, "omitting the h in Latin as frivolous, and the k and w as
+unusual" (Verstegan, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, ch. ix),
+which makes him almost as unrecognizable as that Peter Gower, the
+supposed founder of freemasonry, who turned out to be Pythagoras.
+
+
+
+ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS
+
+Many names are susceptible of two, three, or more explanations.  This
+is especially true of some of our commonest monosyllabic surnames.
+Bell may be from Anglo-Fr. le bel (beau), or from a shop sign, or from
+residence near the church or town bell.  It may even have been applied
+to the man who pulled the bell.  Finally, the ancestor may have been a
+lady called Isabel, a supposition which does not necessarily imply
+illegitimacy (Chapter X).  Ball is sometimes the shortened form of the
+once favourite Baldwin.  It is also from a shop sign, and perhaps most
+frequently of all is for bald.  The latter word is properly balled,
+i.e., marked with a ball, or white streak, a word of Celtic origin;
+cf. "piebald," i.e., balled like a (mag)pie, and the "bald-faced
+stag." [Footnote: Halliwell notes that the nickname Ball is the name
+of a horse in Chaucer and in Tusser, of a sheep in the Promptorium
+Parvulorum, and of a dog in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII.
+In each case the name alludes to a white mark, or what horsy people
+call a star.  A cow thus marked is called in Scotland a boasand cow,
+and from the same word comes the obsolete bawson, badger.]  From the
+same word we get the augmentative Ballard, used, according to Wyclif,
+by the little boys who unwisely called to an irritable prophet--
+
+"Stey up ballard" (2 Kings ii.  23).
+
+The name may also be personal, Anglo-Sax. Beal-heard.  Rowe may be
+local, from residence in a row (cf. Fr. Delarue), or it may be an
+accidental spelling of the nickname Roe, which also survives in the
+Mid. English form Ray (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).
+
+But Row was also the shortened form of Rowland, or Roland.  Cobb is an
+Anglo-Saxon name, as in the local Cobham, but it is also from the
+first syllable of Cobbold (for either Cuthbeald or Godbeald) and the
+second of Jacob.  From Jacob come the diminutives Cobbin and Coppin.
+
+Or, to take some less common names, House not only represents the
+medieval de la house, but also stands for Howes, which, in its turn,
+may be the plural of how, a hill (Chapter XII), or the genitive of
+How, one of the numerous medieval forms of Hugh (Chapter VI).  Hind
+may be for Hine, a farm servant (Chapter III), or for Mid. Eng. hende,
+courteous (cf. for the vowel change Ind, Chapter XIII), and is perhaps
+sometimes also an animal nickname (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).  Rouse is
+generally Fr. roux, i.e. the red, but it may also be the nominative
+form of Rou, i.e. of Rolf, or Rollo, the sea-king who conquered
+Normandy.  [Footnote: Old French had a declension in two cases.  The
+nominative, which has now almost disappeared, was usually
+distinguished by -s.  This survives in a few words, e.g. fils, and
+proper names such as Charles, Jules, etc]  Was Holman the holy man,
+the man who lived near a holm, i.e. holly (Chapter XII), on a holm, or
+river island (Chapter XII), or in a hole, or hollow?  All these
+origins have equal claims.
+
+As a rule, when an apparent nickname is also susceptible of another
+solution, baptismal, local, or occupative, the alternative explanation
+is to be preferred, as the popular tendency has always been towards
+twisting names into significant words.  Thus, to take an example of
+each class, Diamond is sometimes for an old name Daymond (Daegmund),
+Portwine is a corruption of Poitevin, the man from Poitou (Chapter
+XI), and Tipler, which now suggests alcoholic excess, was, as late as
+the seventeenth century, the regular name for an alehouse keeper.
+
+In a very large number of cases there is a considerable choice for the
+modern bearer of a name.  Any Boon or Bone who wishes to assert that
+
+                                 Of Hereford's high blood he came,
+                                 A race renown'd for knightly fame
+                                         (Lord of the Isles, vi.  15),
+
+can claim descent from de Bohun.  While, if he holds that kind hearts
+are more than coronets, he has an alternative descent from some
+medieval le bon.  This adjective, used as a personal name, gave also
+Bunn and Bunce; for the spelling of the latter name cf. Dance for
+Dans, and Pearce for Piers, the nominative of Pierre (Alternative
+Origins, Chapter I), which also survives in Pears and Pearson.  Swain
+may go back to the father of Canute, or to some hoary-headed swain
+who, possibly, tended the swine.  Not all the Seymours are St. Maurs.
+Some of them were once Seamers, i.e. tailors.  Gosling is rather
+trivial, but it represents the romantic Jocelyn, in Normandy Gosselin,
+a diminutive of the once very popular personal name Josse.  Goss is
+usually for goose, but any Goss, or Gossett, unwilling to trace his
+family back to John Goose, "my lord of Yorkes fole," [Footnote: Privy
+Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York (1502).] may likewise choose the
+French Josse or Gosse.  Goss may also be a dialect pronunciation of
+gorse, the older form of which has given the name Gorst.  Coward,
+though humble, cow-herd, is no more timid than Craven, the name of a
+district in the West Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE
+
+Mr. Chucks, when in good society, "seldom bowed, Sir, to anything
+under three syllables" (Peter Simple, ch. xvii.).  But the length of a
+name is not necessarily an index of a noble meaning.  As will be seen
+(pp.  74, 5), a great number of our monosyllabic names belong to, the
+oldest stratum of all.  The boatswain's own name, from Norman-Fr.
+chouque, a tree-stump, is identical with the rather aristocratic Zouch
+or Such, from the usual French form souche.  Stubbs, which has the
+same meaning, may be compared with Curson, Curzon, Fr. courson, a
+stump, a derivative of court, short.  [Footnote: Curson is also a
+dialect variant of Christian.]  Pomeroy has a lordly ring, but is the
+Old French for Applegarth or Appleyard (Tree Names, Chapter XIV), and
+Camoys means flat-nosed, Fr. Camus--
+
+"This wenche thikke and wel y-growen was,
+ With kamuse nose, and eyen greye as glas."
+
+(A, 3973.)
+
+Kingsley, speaking of the name assumed by John Briggs, says--
+
+"Vavasour was a very pretty name, and one of those which is [sic]
+supposed by novelists and young ladies to be aristocratic; why so is a
+puzzle; as its plain meaning is a tenant farmer and nothing more or
+less" (Two Years Ago, ch. xi.).
+
+The word is said to represent a Vulgar Lat. vassus vassorum, vassal of
+vassals.
+
+On the other hand, many a homely name has a complimentary meaning.
+Mr. Wegg did not like the name Boffin, but its oldest form is bon-fin,
+good and fine.  In 1273 Mr. Bumble's name was spelt bon-bel, good and
+beautiful.  With these we may group Bunker, of which the oldest form
+is bon-quer (bon coeur), and Boffey, which corresponds to the common
+French name Bonnefoy, good faith; while the much more assertive
+Beaufoy means simply fine beech (Chapter I).
+
+With Bunker we may compare Goodhart and Cordeaux, the oldest form of
+the latter being the French name Courdoux.  Momerie and Mummery are
+identical with Mowbray, from Monbrai in Normandy.  Molyneux impresses
+more than Mullins, of which it is merely the dim., Fr. moulins, mills.
+The Yorkshire name Tankard is identical with Tancred.  Stiggins goes
+back to the illustrious Anglo-Saxon name Stigand, as Wiggins does to
+wigand, a champion.  Cadman represents Caedmon, the name of the
+poet-monk of Whitby.  Segar is an imitative form of the Anglo-Sax.
+Saegaer, of which the normal modern representative is Sayers.  Giblett
+is not a name one would covet, but it stands in the same relationship
+to Gilbert as Hamlet does to Hamo.
+
+A small difference in spelling makes a great difference in the look of
+a name.  The aristocratic Coke is an archaic spelling of Cook, the
+still more lordly Herries sometimes disguises Harris, while the modern
+Brassey is the same as de Bracy in Ivanhoe.  The rather grisly
+Nightgall is a variant of Nightingale.  The accidental retention of
+particles and articles is also effective, e.g. Delmar, Delamere,
+Delapole, impress more than Mears and Pool, and Larpent (Fr.
+I'arpent), Lemaitre, and Lestrange more than Acres, Masters, and
+Strange.  There are few names of less heroic sound than Spark and
+Codlin, yet the former is sometimes a contraction of the picturesque
+Sparrow-hawk, used as a personal name by the Anglo-Saxons, while the
+latter can be traced back via the earlier forms Quodling (still
+found), Querdling, Querdelyoun to Coeur de Lion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. A MEDIEVAL ROLL
+
+"Quelque diversité d'herbes qu'il y alt, tout s'enveloppe sous le nom
+de salade; de mesme, sous la considération des noms, je m'en voys
+faire icy une galimafree de divers articles."  (Montaigne, Essais, i.
+46.)
+
+Just as, in studying a new language, the linguist finds it most
+helpful to take a simple text and hammer out in detail every word and
+grammatical form it contains, so the student of name-lore cannot do
+better than tackle a medieval roll and try to connect every name in it
+with those of the present day.  I give here two lists of names from
+the Hundred Rolls of 1273.  The first contains the names of London and
+Middlesex jurymen, most of them, especially the Londoners, men of
+substance and position.  The second is a list of cottagers resident in
+the village of Steeple Claydon in Bucks.  Even a cursory perusal of
+these lists should Suffice to dispel all recollection of the nightmare
+"philology" which has been so much employed to obscure what is
+perfectly simple and obvious; while a very slight knowledge of Latin
+and French is all that is required to connect these names of men who
+were dead and buried before the Battle of Crecy with those to be found
+in any modern directory.  The brief indications supplied under each
+name will be found in a fuller form in the various chapters of the
+book to which references are given.
+
+For simplicity I have given the modern English form of each Christian
+name and expanded the abbreviations used by the official compilers.
+It will be noticed that English, Latin, and Anglo-French are used
+indifferently, that le is usually, though not always, put before the
+trade-name or nickname, that de is put before place-names and at
+before spots which have no proper name.  The names in the right-hand
+column are only specimens of the, often very numerous, modern
+equivalents.
+
+
+
+LONDON JURYMEN
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+William Dibel.
+
+Dibble (Theobald).
+
+Initial t- and d- alternate (Dialectic Variants, Chapter III)
+according to locality.  In Tennyson, for Denison, son of Denis, we
+have the opposite change.  The forms assumed by Theobald are very
+numerous (Chapter I).  Besides Dibble we have the shorter Dibb.  Other
+variants are Dyball, Dipple, Tipple, Tidball, Tudball, and a number of
+names in Teb-, Tib-, Tub-.  The reason for the great popularity of the
+name is obscure.
+
+
+Baldwin le Bocher.
+
+Butcher.
+
+On the various forms of this name, see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Robert Hauteyn.
+
+Hawtin
+
+The Yorkshire name Auty is probably unconnected.  It seems rather to
+be an altered form of a Scandinavian personal name cognate with Odo.
+
+
+Henry le Wimpler.
+
+The name has apparently disappeared with the garment.  But it is never
+safe to assert that a surname is quite extinct.
+
+
+Stephen le Peron
+
+Fearon
+
+From Old Fr. feron, ferron, smith.  In a few cases French has -on as
+an agential suffix (Chapter XVIII).
+
+
+William de Paris.
+
+Paris, Parris, Parish.
+
+The commoner modern form Parish is seldom to be derived from our word
+parish.  This rarely occurs, while the entry de Paris is, on the other
+hand, very common.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Roger le Wyn.
+
+Wynne.
+
+Anglo-Saxon wine, friend.  Also a Celtic nickname, Identical with
+Gwynne (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Matthew de Pomfrait
+
+Pomfret
+
+The usual pronunciation of Pontefract, broken bridge, one of the few
+English place-names of purely Latin origin (Chapter XIII).  The Old
+French form would be Pont-frait.
+
+
+Richard le Paumer.
+
+Palmer.
+
+A man who had made pilgrimage to the Holy Land (Chapter XVII).  The
+modern spelling is restored, but the _l_ remains mute.  It is just
+possible that this name sometimes means tennis-player, as tennis, Fr.
+le jeu de paume, once played with the palm of the hand, is of great
+antiquity.
+
+
+Walter Poletar.
+
+Pointer.
+
+A dealer in poults, i.e. fowls.  For the lengthened form poulterer,
+cf. fruiterer for fruiter, and see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Reginald Aurifaber.
+
+Goldsmith.
+
+The French form orfévre may have given the name Offer.
+
+
+Henry Deubeneye.
+
+Daubeney, Dabney.
+
+Fr. d'Aubigny.  One of the many cases in which the French preposition
+has been incorporated in the name.  Cf. Danvers, for d'Anvers,
+Antwerp, and see Chapter XI.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Richard Knotte
+
+Knott
+
+From Scandinavian Cnut, Canute.  This name is also local, from knot, a
+hillock, and has of course become confused (Variant Spellings, Chapter
+III) with the nickname Nott, with cropped hair (Chapter XXII)--
+
+"Thou nott-pated fool."
+
+ (1 Henry IV, ii.  4.)
+
+
+Walter le Wyte.
+
+White
+
+The large number of Whites is partly to be accounted for by their
+having absorbed the name Wight (Chapter XXII) from Mid. Eng. wiht,
+valiant.
+
+
+Adam le Sutel.
+
+Suttle.
+
+Both Eng. subtle and Fr. subtil are restored spellings, which do not
+appear in nomenclature (Chapter III).
+
+
+Fulk de Sancto Edmundo.
+
+Tedman.
+
+The older form would be Tednam.  Bury St. Edmund's is sometimes
+referred to as Tednambury.  For the mutilation of the word saint in
+place-names, see Chapter III.
+
+
+William le Boteler.
+
+Butler.
+
+More probably a bottle-maker than what we understand by a butler, the
+origin being of course the same.
+
+
+Gilbert Lupus
+
+Wolf.
+
+Wolf, and the Scandinavian Ulf, are both common as personal names
+before the Conquest, but a good many Modern bearers of the name are
+German Jews (Chapter IV).  Old Fr. lou (loup) is one source of Low.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Stephen Juvenis.
+
+Young
+
+Senex is rarely found.  The natural tendency was to distinguish the
+younger man from his father.  Senior is generally to be explained
+differently (Chapter XV).
+
+
+William Braciator.
+
+Brewer.
+
+The French form brasseur also survives as Bracher and Brasher, the
+latter being also confused with Brazier, the worker in brass.
+
+
+John de Cruce.
+
+Cross, Crouch.
+
+A man who lived near some outdoor cross.  The form crouch survives in
+"Crutched Friars." Hence also the name Croucher.
+
+
+Matthew le Candeler.
+
+Candler, Chandler.
+
+Initial c- for ch- shows Norman or Picard origin (Chapter III).
+
+
+Henry Bernard.
+
+Barnard, Barnett.
+
+The change from _er_ to _ar_ is regular; cf. Clark, and see Chapter
+III.  The endings -ard, -ald, are generally changed to -ett; cf.
+Everett for Everard, Barrett for Berald, Garrett for Gerard, Garrard,
+whence the imitative Garrison for Garretson.
+
+
+William de Bosco.
+
+Bush, Busk, Buss.
+
+"For there is neither bush nor hay (Chapter XIII)
+In May that it nyl shrouded bene."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 54.)
+
+The name might also be translated as Wood.  The corresponding name of
+French origin is Boyce or Boyes, Fr. bois (Chapter XIV).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Henry de Sancta Ositha.
+
+Toosey.
+
+Cf. Fulk de Sancto Edmundo (supra), and cf. Tooley St.
+for St. Olave St. (Chapter III).
+
+
+Walter ate Stede.
+
+Stead.
+
+In this case the preposition has not coalesced, as in Adeane, at the
+dean, i.e. hollow, Agate, at gate, etc. (Chapter XII).
+
+
+William le Fevere.
+
+Wright, Smith.
+
+The French name survives as Feaver and Fevyer.  Cf. also the Lat.
+Faber, which is not always a modern German importation
+
+(Chapter XII).
+
+
+Thomas de Cumbe.
+
+Combe, Coombes.
+
+A West-country name for a hollow in a hillside (Chapter XII).
+
+
+John State.
+
+State, Stacey.
+
+Generally for Eustace, but sometimes perhaps for Anastasia, as we find
+Stacey used as a female name (Chapter III).
+
+
+Richard le Teynturier.
+
+Dyer, Dexter.
+
+Dexter represents Mid. Eng. dighester, with the feminine agential
+suffix (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Henry le Waleys.
+
+Wallis, Walsh, Welch.
+
+Literally the foreigner, but especially applied by the English to the
+Western Celts.  Quelch represents the: Welsh pronunciation.  With
+Wallis cf. Cornwallis, Mid. Eng. le cornwaleis (Chapter X).
+
+
+John le Bret.
+
+Brett, Britton.
+
+An inhabitant of Brittany, perhaps resident in that Breton colony in
+London called Little Britain.  Bret The Old French nominative of
+Breton (Chapter VIII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Thomas le Clerc.
+
+Clark.
+
+One of our commonest names.  We now spell the common noun clerk by
+etymological reaction, but educated people pronounce the word as it
+was generally written up to the eighteenth century (Chapter III).
+
+
+Stephen le Hatter
+
+Hatter
+
+The great rarity of this name is a curious problem (Chapter XV).  The
+name Capper exists, though it is not very common.
+
+
+Thomas le Batur.
+
+Thresher.
+
+But, being a Londoner, he was more probably a gold-beater, or perhaps
+a beater of cloth.  The name Beater also survives.
+
+
+Alexander de Leycestre
+
+Leicester, Lester.
+
+For the simpler spelling, once usual and still adopted by those who
+chalk the names on the mail-vans at St. Pancras, cf. such names as
+Worster, Wooster, Gloster, etc. (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Robert le Noreys.
+
+Norris, Nurse.
+
+Old Fr. noreis, the Northerner (Chapter XI), or norice (nourrice), the
+nurse, foster-mother (Chapter XX).
+
+
+Reginald le Blond
+
+Blount, Blunt.
+
+Fr. blond, fair.  We have also the dim. Blundell.  The corresponding
+English name is Fairfax, from Mid. Eng. fax, hair (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Randolf ate Mor.
+
+Moor.
+
+With the preposition retained (Chapter XII) it has
+given the Latin-looking Amor.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Matthew le Pevrier.
+
+Pepper.
+
+For the reduction of pepperer to Pepper cf. Armour for armourer, and
+see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Godfrey le Furmager.
+
+Cheeseman, Firminger.
+
+From Old Fr. formage (fromage).  The intrusion of the n in Firminger
+is regular; cf. Massinger, messenger, from Fr. messager, and see
+Chapter III.
+
+
+Robert Campeneys.
+
+Champness, Champneys.
+
+Old Fr. champeneis (champenois), of Champagne (Chapter XI).
+
+
+John del Pek.
+
+Peck, Peaks, Pike, Pick.
+
+A name taken from a hill-top, but sometimes referring to the unrelated
+Derbyshire Peak.
+
+
+Richard Dygun.
+
+Dickens.
+
+A diminutive of Dig, for Dick (Chapter VI).
+
+
+Peter le Hoder.
+
+Hodder.
+
+A maker of hods or a maker of hoods?  The latter is more likely.
+
+
+Alan Allutarius.
+
+Whittier.
+
+Lat. alutarius, a "white-tawer", Similarly, Mid. Eng. stan-heawere,
+stone-hewer, is contracted to Stanier, now almost swallowed up by
+Stainer.  The simple tawer is also one origin of the name Tower.
+
+
+Peter le Rus.
+
+Russ, Rush, Rouse.
+
+Fr. roux, of red complexion.  Cf. the dim. Russell, Fr. Rousseau
+(Chapter XXII).
+
+
+
+MIDDLESEX JURYMEN
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Roger de la Hale.
+
+Hall, Hale, Hales.
+
+One of our commonest local surnames.  But it has two interpretations,
+from hall and from heal (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Walter de la Hedge.
+
+Hedge, Hedges.
+
+Other names of similar meaning are Hay, Hayes, Haig, Haigh, Hawes
+(Chapter XIII)
+
+
+John Rex
+
+King.
+
+One of our commonest nicknames, the survival of which is easily
+understood (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Stephen de la Novels Meyson.
+
+Newhouse.
+
+Cf. also Newbigging, from Mid. Eng. biggen, to 'build (Chapter XIII).
+
+
+Randolf Pokoc.
+
+Pocock, Peacock.
+
+The simple Poe, Lat. pavo, has the same meaning (Chapter XXIII).
+
+
+William de Fonte.
+
+Spring, Wells, Fountain, Attewell.
+
+This is the most usual origin of the name Spring (Chapter IX).
+
+
+Robert del Parer
+
+Perrier
+
+Old Fr. périer (poirier), pear-tree.  Another origin of Perrier is,
+through French, from Lat. petrarius, a stone-hewer.
+
+
+Adam de la Denne.
+
+Denne, Dean, Done.
+
+A Mid. English name for valley (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Robertus filius Gillelmi.
+
+Wilson.
+
+For other possible names to be derived from a father named William,
+see Chapter VI.
+
+
+William filius Radolfi.
+
+Rawson.
+
+A very common medieval name, Anglo-Sax. Raedwulf, the origin of our
+Ralph, Relf, Rolfe, Roff, and of Fr. Raoul.  Some of its derivatives,
+e.g. Rolls, have got mixed with those of Roland.  To be distinguished
+from Randolf or Randall, of which the shorter form is Ran or Rand,
+whence Rankin, Rands, Rance, etc.
+
+
+
+STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Andrew Colle
+
+Collins, Colley
+
+For Nicolas (Chapter V).
+
+
+William Neuman
+
+Newman, Newcomb.
+
+A man recently settled in the village (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Adam ate Dene
+
+Dean, Denne, Adeane.
+
+The separate at survives in A'Court and A'Beckett, at the beck head;
+cf. Allan a' Dale (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Ralph Mydevynter.
+
+Midwinter.
+
+An old name for Christmas (Chapter IX).
+
+
+William ate Hull.
+
+Athill, Hill, Hull.
+
+The form hul for hil occurs in Mid. English (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Gilbert Sutor.
+
+Sutor, Soutar.
+
+On the poor representation of the shoemaker see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Walter Maraud.
+
+It is easy to understand the disappearance of this name--
+
+"A rogue, beggar, vagabond; a varlet, rascall, scoundrell, base knave"
+(Cotgrave); but it may be represented by Marratt, Marrott, unless
+these are from Mary (Chapter X).
+
+
+Nicholas le P.ker.
+
+This may be expanded into Parker, a park-keeper, Packer, a
+wool-packer, or the medieval Porker, a swine-herd, now lost in Parker.
+
+
+John Stegand
+
+Stigand, Stiggins.
+
+Anglo-Saxon names survived chiefly among the peasantry (Chapter I).
+
+
+Roger Mercator.
+
+Marchant, Chapman.
+
+The restored modern spelling merchant has affected the pronunciation
+of the common noun (Chapter III).  The more usual term Chapman is
+cognate with cheap, chaffer, Chipping, Copenhagen, Ger. kaufen, to
+buy, etc.
+
+
+Adam Hoppe.
+
+Hobbs, Hobson, Hopkins.
+
+An example of the interchange of b and P (Chapter III).  Hob is
+usually regarded as one of the rimed forms from Robert (Chapter VI).
+
+
+Roger Crom.
+
+Crum, Crump.
+
+Lit.  crooked, cognate with Ger. krumm.  The final -p of Crump is
+excrescent (Chapter III).
+
+
+Stephen Cornevaleis
+
+Cornwallis, Cornish.
+
+A name which would begin in Devonshire (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Walter de Ibernia
+
+Ireland
+
+A much more common name than Scotland, which has been squeezed out by
+Scott (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Matilda filia Matildae
+
+Mawson (for Maud-son), Till, Tilley, Tillett, Tillotson, etc.
+
+One of the favourite girl-names during the surname period (Chapter X).
+
+
+Ralph Vouler.
+
+Fowler
+
+A West-country pronunciation; cf. Vowle for Fowell, Vokes for Foakes
+(Chapter VI), Venn for Fenn, etc.
+
+
+John filius Thomae.
+
+Thompson, Tompkins, Tomlin, etc.
+
+One of the largest surname families.  It includes Toulmin, a
+metathesis of Tomlin.  In Townson and Tonson it coalesces with Tony,
+Anthony.
+
+
+Henry Bolle.
+
+Bull.
+
+In this case evidently a nickname (Chapter I).
+
+
+Roger Gyle.
+
+Gill.
+
+For names in Gil- see Chapter VI.  The form in the roll may, however,
+represent an uncomplimentary nickname, "guile."
+
+
+Walter Molendarius.
+
+Miller, Mellen, Milner.
+
+In Milne, Milner, we have the oldest form, representing Vulgar Lat.
+molina, mill cf. Kilner, from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen.  Millard
+(Chapter XIX) is perhaps sometimes the same name with excrescent -d.
+
+
+Thomas Berker.
+
+Barker.
+
+A man who stripped bark, also a tanner.  But as a surname reinforced
+by the Norman form of Fr. berger, a shepherd (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Matthew Hedde.
+
+Head.
+
+Sometimes local, at the head, but here a nickname; cf. Tate, Tail,
+sometimes from Fr. tête (Chapter XIII).
+
+
+Richard Joyet.
+
+Jowett, Jewett.
+
+A diminutive either of Joy or of Julian, Juliana.  But it is possible
+that Joy itself is not the abstract noun, but a shortened form of
+Julian.
+
+
+Adam Kyg.
+
+Ketch, Beach
+
+An obsolete adjective meaning lively (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Simon filius Johannis Nigelli.
+
+Johnson, Jones, Jennings, etc.
+
+The derivatives of John are numerous and not to be distinguished from
+those of Joan, Jane (Chapter X).
+
+
+The above lists illustrate all the simpler ways in which surnames
+could be formed.  At the time of compilation they were not hereditary.
+Thus the last man on the list is Simon Johnson, but his father was
+John Neilson, or Nelson (Chapter X), and his son would be ---- Simpson,
+Sims, etc.  This would go on until, at a period varying with the
+locality, the wealth and importance of the individual, one name in the
+line would become accidentally petrified and persist to the present
+day.  The chain could, of course, be broken at any time by the
+assumption of a name from one of the other three classes (Chapter I).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. SPELLING AND SOUND
+
+"Do you spell it with a V or a W?" inquired the judge.
+
+"That depends upon the taste and fancy of the speller, my lord,"
+replied Sam.  "I never had occasion to spell it more than once or
+twice in my life, but I spells it with a V."
+
+(Pickwick, ch. xxxiv.)
+
+Many people are particular about the spelling of their names.  I am
+myself, although, as a student of philology, I ought to know better.
+The greatest of Englishmen was so careless in the matter as to sign
+himself Shakspe, a fact usually emphasized by Baconian when speaking
+of the illiterate clown of Stratford-on-Avon.  Equally illiterate must
+have been the learned Dr. Crown, who, in the various books he
+published in the latter half of the seventeenth century, spelt his
+name, indifferently Cron, Croon, Croun, Crone, Croone, Croune.  The
+modern spelling of any particular name Is a pure accident.  Before the
+Elementary Education Act of 1870 a considerable proportion of English
+people did not spell their names at all.  They trusted to the parson
+and the clerk, who did their best with unfamiliar names.  Even now old
+people in rural districts may find half a dozen orthographic variants
+of their own names among the sparse documentary records of their
+lives.  Dugdale the antiquary is said to have found more than 130
+variants of Mainwaring among the parchments of that family.  Bardsley
+quotes, under the name Blenkinsop--
+
+"On April 2 3, 1470, Elizabeth Blynkkynesoppye, of Blynkkynsoppe,
+widow of Thomas Blynkyensope, of Blynkkensope, received a general
+pardon"--
+
+four variants in one sentence.  In the List of Foreign Protestants and
+Aliens in England (1618) we have Andrian Medlor and Ellin Medler his
+wife, Johan Cosen and Abraham Cozen, brethren.  The death of Sarah
+Inward, daughter of Richard Inwood, was registered in 1685.
+
+
+
+VARIANT SPELLINGS
+
+Medieval spelling was roughly phonetic, i.e. it attempted to reproduce
+the sound of the period and region, and even men of learning, as late
+as the eighteenth century, were very uncertain in matters of
+orthography.  The spelling of the language is now practically
+normalized, although in conformity with no sort of principle; but the
+family name, as a private possession, has kept its freedom.  Thus, if
+we wish to speak poetically of a meadow, I suppose we should call it a
+lea, but the same word is represented by the family names Lea, Lee,
+Ley, Leigh, Legh, Legge, Lay, Lye, perhaps the largest group of local
+surnames we possess.
+
+In matters of spelling we observe various tendencies.  One is the
+retention of an archaic form, which does not necessarily affect
+pronunciation.  Late Mid. English was fond of y for i, of double
+consonants, and of final -e.  All these appear in the names Thynne
+(thin) and Wyllie (wily).  Therefore we should not deride the man who
+writes himself Smythe.  But in some cases the pronunciation suffers,
+e.g. the name Fry represents Mid. Eng. fri, one of the forms of the
+adjective that is now written free.  Burt represents Anglo-Sax.
+beorht, the normal result of which is Bright.  We now write subtle and
+perfect, artificial words, in the second of which the pronunciation
+has been changed in accordance with the restored spelling; but the
+older forms survive in the names Suttle and Parfitt--
+
+"He was a verray parfit, gentil knyght."
+
+(A, 72.)
+
+The usual English pronunciation of names like Mackenzie, Menzies,
+Dalziel, is due to the substitution by the printer of a z for an
+obsolete letter that represented a soft palatal sound more like y.
+[Footnote: This substitution has led one writer on surnames, who
+apparently confuses bells with beans, to derive the rare surname
+Billiter, whence Billiter's Lane in the City, from "Belzetter, i.e.,
+the Bell-setter." The Mid. Eng. "bellezeter, campanarius" (Prompt.
+Parv.), was a bell-founder, from a verb related to geysir, ingot, and
+Ger. giessen, to pour.  Robert le bellegeter was a freeman of York in
+1279.]
+
+We have an archaic plural ending in Knollys (Knowles), the plural of
+knoll, and in Sandys, and an archaic spelling in Sclater for Slater or
+Slatter, for both slat and slate come from Old Fr. esclat (éclat), a
+splinter.  With Knollys and Sandys we may put Pepys, for the existence
+of the dims.  Pipkin, Peppitt, and Peppiatt points to the medieval
+name Pipun, corresponding to the royal Pepin.  Streatfeild preserves
+variant spellings of street and field.  In Gardiner we have the Old
+Northern French word which now, as a common noun, gardener, is
+assimilated to garden, the normal French form of which appears in
+Jardine.
+
+Such orthographic variants as i and y, Simons, Symons, Ph and f,
+Jephcott, Jeffcott, s and c, Pearce, Pearce, Rees, Reece, Sellars
+(cellars), ks and x, Dickson, Dixon, are a matter of taste or
+accident.  Initial letters which became mute often disappeared in
+spelling, e.g. Wray, a corner (Chapter XIII), has become hopelessly
+confused with Ray, a roe, Knott, from Cnut, i.e. Canute, or from
+dialect knot, a hillock, with Noll, crop-haired.  Knowlson is the son
+of Nowell (Chapter IX) or of Noll, i.e. Oliver.
+
+Therefore, when Mr. X. asserts that his name has always been
+spelt in such and such a way, he is talking nonsense.  If his
+great-grandfather's will is accessible, he will probably find two or
+three variants in that alone.  The great Duke of Wellington, as a
+younger man, signed himself Arthur Wesley--
+
+"He was colonel of Dad's regiment, the Thirty-third foot, after Dad
+left the army, and then he changed his name from Wesley to Wellesley,
+or else the other way about"
+
+(KIPLING, Marklake Witches);
+
+and I know two families the members of which disagree as to the
+orthography of their names.  We have a curious affectation in such
+spellings as ffrench, ffoulkes, etc., where the ff is merely the
+method of indicating the capital letter in early documents.
+
+The telescoping of long names is a familiar phenomenon.  Well-known
+examples are Cholmondeley, Chumley, Marjoribanks, Marchbanks,
+Mainwaring, Mannering.  Less familiar are Auchinleck, Affleck,
+Boutevilain, Butlin, Postlethwaite, Posnett, Sudeley, Sully,
+Wolstenholme, Woosnam.  Ensor is from the local Edensor, Cavendish was
+regularly Candish for the Elizabethans, while Cavenham in Suffolk has
+given the surname Canham.  Daventry has become Daintree, Dentry, and
+probably the imitative Dainty, while Stepson is for Stevenson.  It is
+this tendency which makes the connection between surnames and village
+names so difficult to establish in many cases, for the artificial name
+as it occurs in the gazetteer often gives little clue to the local
+pronunciation.  It is easy to recognize Bickenhall or Bickenhill in
+Bicknell and Puttenham in Putnam, but the identity of Wyndham with
+Wymondham is only clear when we know the local Pronunciation of the
+latter name.  Milton and Melton are often telescoped forms of
+Middleton.
+
+
+
+DIALECTIC VARIANTS
+
+Dialectic variants must also be taken into account.  Briggs and Rigg
+represent the Northern forms of Bridges and Ridge, and Philbrick is a
+disguised Fellbrigg.  In Egg we have rather the survival of the Mid.
+English spelling of Edge.  Braid, Lang, Strang, are Northern variants
+of Broad, Long, Strong.  Auld is for Old while Tamson is for Thompson
+and Dabbs for Dobbs (Robert).  We have the same change of vowel in
+Raper, for Roper.  Venner generally means hunter, Fr. veneur, but
+sometimes represents the West-country form of Fenner, the fen-dweller;
+cf. Vidler for fiddler, and Vanner for Fanner, the winnower.
+
+We all the difficulty we have in catching a new and unfamiliar name,
+and the subterfuges we employ to find out what it really is.  In such
+cases we do not get the help from association and analogy which serves
+us in dealing with language in general, but find ourselves in the
+position of a foreigner or child hearing unfamiliar word for the first
+time.  We realize how many imperceptible shades there are between a
+short i and a short e, or between a fully voiced g and a voiceless k,
+examples suggested to me by my having lately understood a Mr. Riggs to
+be a Mr. Rex.
+
+We find occurring in surnames examples of those consonantal changes
+which do not violate the great Phonetic law that such changes can only
+occur regularly within the same group, i.e. that a labial cannot
+alternate with a palatal, or a dental with either.  It is thus that we
+find b alternating with p, Hobbs and Hopps (Robert), Bollinger and
+Pullinger, Fr. boulanger; g with k, Cutlack and Goodlake (Anglo-Sax.
+Guthlac), Diggs and Dix (Richard), Gipps and Kipps (Gilbert), Catlin
+and Galling (Catherine); j with ch, Jubb or Jupp and Chubb (Job); d
+with t, Proud and Prout (Chapter XXII), Dyson and Tyson (Dionisia),
+and also with th, Carrodus and Carruthers (a hamlet in Dumfries).  The
+alternation of c and ch or g and j in names of French origin is
+dialectic, the c and g representing the Norman-Picard pronunciation,
+e.g. Campion for Champion, Gosling for Joslin.  In some cases we have
+shown a definite preference for one form, e.g. Chancellor and
+Chappell, but Carpenter and Camp.  In English names c is northern, ch
+southern, e.g. Carlton, Charlton, Kirk, Church.
+
+There are also a few very common vowel changes.  The sound er usually
+became ar, as in Barclay (Berkeley), Clark, Darby, Garrard (Gerard),
+Jarrold (Gerald), Harbord (Herbert), Jarvis (Gervase), Marchant,
+Sargent, etc., while Larned, our great-grandfathers' pronunciation of
+"learned," corresponds to Fr. Littri.  Thus Parkins is the same name
+as Perkins.  (Peter), and these also give Parks and Perks, the former
+of which is usually not connected with Park.  To Peter, or rather to
+Fr. Pierre, belong also Parr, Parry and Perry, though Parry is
+generally Welsh (Chapter VI).  The dims.  Parrott, Perrott, etc., were
+sometimes nicknames, the etymology being the same, for our word parrot
+is from Fr. pierrot.  To the freedom with which this sound is spelt,
+e.g. in Herd, Heard, Hird, Hurd, we also owe Purkiss for Perkins; cf.
+appurtenance for appartenance.
+
+The letter l seems also to exercise a demoralizing influence on the
+adjacent vowel.  Juliana became Gillian, and from this, or from the
+masculine form Julian, we get Jalland, Jolland, and the shortened
+Gell, Gill (Chapter VI), and Jull.  Gallon, which Bardsley groups with
+these, is more often a French name, from the Old German Walo, or a
+corruption of the still commoner French name Galland, likewise of
+Germanic origin.
+
+We find also such irregular vowel changes as Flinders for Flanders,
+and conversely Packard for Picard.  Pottinger (see below) sometimes
+becomes Pettinger as Portugal gives Pettingall.  The general tendency
+is towards that thinning of the vowel that we get in mister for master
+and Miss Miggs's mim for ma'am.  Littimer for Lattimer is an example
+of this.  But in Royle for the local Ryle we find the same broadening
+which has given boil, a swelling, for earlier bile.
+
+
+
+APHESIS
+
+Among phonetic changes which occur with more or less regularity are
+those called aphesis, epenthesis, epithesis, assimilation,
+dissimilation, and metathesis, convenient terms which are less learned
+than they appear.  Aphesis is the loss of the unaccented first
+syllable, as in 'baccy and 'later.  It occurs almost regularly in
+words of French origin, e.g. squire and esquire, Prentice and
+apprentice.  When such double forms exist, the surname invariably
+assumes the popular form, e.g. Prentice, Squire.  Other examples are
+Bonner, i.e. debonair, Jenner, Jenoure, for Mid. Eng. engenour,
+engineer, Cator, Chaytor, Old Fr. acatour (acheteur), a buyer--
+
+"A gentil maunciple was they of a temple,
+ Of which achatours mighte take exemple" (A. 567),
+
+Spencer, dispenser, a spender, Stacey for Eustace, Vick and Veck for
+Levick, i.e. l'évêque, the bishop, Pottinger for the obsolete potigar,
+an apothecary, etc.
+
+The institution now known as the "orspittle" was called by our
+unlettered forefathers the "spital," hence the names Spittle and
+Spittlehouse.  A well-known amateur goal-keeper has the appropriate
+name Fender, for defender.
+
+Many names beginning with n are due to aphesis, e.g. Nash for atten
+ash, Nalder, Nelms, Nock, atten oak, Nokes, Nye, atten ey, at the
+island, Nangle, atten angle, Nind or Nend, atten ind or end.  With
+these we may compare Twells, at wells, and the numerous cases in which
+the first part of a personal name is dropped, e.g. Tolley,
+Bartholomew, Munn, Edmund, Pott, Philpot, dim. of Philip (see p.87),
+and the less common Facey, from Boniface, and Loney, from Apollonia,
+the latter of which has also given Applin.
+
+When a name compounded with Saint begins with a vowel, we get such
+forms as Tedman, St. Edmund, Tobin, St. Aubyn, Toosey, St. Osith,
+Toomey, St. Omer, Tooley, St. Olave; cf. Tooley St. for St. Olave St.
+and tawdry from St. Audrey.  When the saint's name begins with a
+consonant, we get, instead of aphesis, a telescoped pronunciation,
+e.g. Selinger, St. Leger, Seymour, St. Maur, Sinclair, St. Clair,
+Semark, St. Mark, Semple, St. Paul, Simper, St. Pierre, Sidney,
+probably for St. Denis, with which we may compare the educated
+pronunciation of St. John.  These names are all of local origin, from
+chapelries in Normandy or England.
+
+Epenthesis is the insertion of a sound which facilitates
+pronunciation, such as that of b in Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera.
+The intrusive sound may be a vowel or a consonant, as in the names
+Henery, Hendry, perversions of Henry.  [Footnote: On the usual fate of
+this name in English, see below.]
+
+To Hendry we owe the northern Henderson, which has often coalesced
+with Anderson, from Andrew.  These are contracted into Henson and
+Anson, the latter also from Ann and Agnes (Chapter IX).  Intrusion
+of a vowel is seen in Greenaway, Hathaway, heath way, Treadaway,
+trade (i.e. trodden) way, etc., also in Horniman, Alabone, Alban,
+Minister, minster, etc.  But epenthesis of a consonant is more common,
+especially b or p after m, and d after n.  Examples are Gamble for
+the Anglo-Saxon name Gamel, Hamblin for Hamlin, a double diminutive
+of Hamo, Simpson, Thompson, etc., and Grindrod, green royd (see p. III).
+There is also the special case of n before g in such names as Firminger
+(Chapter XV), Massinger (Chapter XX), Pottinger (Chapter XVIII), etc.
+
+
+
+EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION
+
+Epithesis, or the addition of a final consonant, is common in
+uneducated speech, e.g. scholard, gownd, garding, etc.  I say
+"uneducated," but many such forms have been adapted by the language,
+e.g. sound, Fr. son, and we have the name Kitching for kitchen.  The
+usual additions are -d, -t, or -g after n, e.g. Simmonds, Simon,
+Hammond, Hammant, Fr. Hamon, Hind, a farm labourer, of which the older
+form is Hine (Chapter XVII), Collings for Collins, Jennings, Fr.
+Jeannin, dim. of Jean, Aveling from the female name Avelina or Evelyn.
+Neill is for Neil, Nigel.  We have epithetic -b in Plumb, the man who
+lived by the plum-tree and epithetic -p in Crump (Chapter II).
+
+Assimilation is the tendency of a sound to imitate its neighbour.
+Thus the d of Hud (Chapter I) sometimes becomes t in contact with the
+sharp s, hence Hutson; Tomkins tends to become Tonkin, whence Tonks,
+if the m and k are not separated by the epenthetic p, Tompkins.  In
+Hopps and Hopkins we have the b of Hob assimilated to the sharp s and
+k, while in Hobbs we pronounce a final -z.  It is perhaps under the
+influence of the initial labial that Milson, son of Miles or Michael,
+sometimes becomes Milsom, and Branson, son of Brand, appears as
+Bransom.
+
+The same group of names is affected by dissimilation, i.e. the
+instinct to avoid the recurrence of the same sound.  Thus Ranson, son
+of Ranolf or Randolf, becomes Ransom [Footnote: So also Fr, rançon
+gives Eng. ransom.  The French surname Rançon is probably aphetic for
+Laurançon.]  by dissimilation of one n, and Hanson, son of Han
+(Chapter I), becomes Hansom.  In Sansom we have Samson assimilated to
+Samson and then dissimilated.  Dissimilation especially affects the
+sounds l, n, r.  Bullivant is found earlier as bon enfaunt
+(Goodchild), just as a braggart Burgundian was called by Tudor
+dramatists a burgullian.  Bellinger is for Barringer, an Old French
+name of Teutonic origin.  [Footnote: "When was Bobadil here, your
+captain?  that rogue, that foist, that fencing burgullian" (Jonson,
+Every Man in his Humour, iv. 2).]  Those people called Salisbury who
+do not hail from Salesbury in Lancashire must have had an ancestor de
+Sares-bury, for such was the earlier name of Salisbury (Sarum).  A
+number of occupative names have lost the last syllable by
+dissimilation, e.g. Pepper for pepperer, Armour for armourer.  For
+further examples see Chapter XV.
+
+It may be noted here that, apart from dissimilation, the sounds l, n,
+r, have a general tendency to become confused, e.g. Phillimore is for
+Finamour (Dearlove), which also appears as Finnemore and Fenimore, the
+latter also to be explained from fen and moor.  Catlin is from
+Catherine.  Balestier, a cross-bow man, gives Bannister, and Hamnet
+and Hamlet both occur as the name of one of Shakespeare's sons.
+Janico or Jenico, Fr. Janicot may be the origin of Jellicoe.
+
+We also get the change of r to l in Hal, for Harry, whence Hallett,
+Hawkins (Halkins), and the Cornish Hockin, Mal or Mol for Mary, whence
+Malleson, Mollison, etc., and Pell for Peregrine.  This confusion is
+common in infantile speech, e.g. I have heard a small child express
+great satisfaction at the presence on the table of "blackbelly dam."
+
+
+
+METATHESIS
+
+Metathesis, or the transposition of sound, chiefly affects l and r,
+especially the latter.  Our word cress is from Mid. Eng. kers, which
+appears in Karslake, Toulmin is for Tomlin, a double dim., -el-in, of
+Tom, Grundy is for Gundry, from Anglo-Sax. Gundred, and Joe Gargery
+descended from a Gregory.  Burnell is for Brunel, dim. of Fr. brun,
+brown, and Thrupp is for Thorp, a village (Chapter XIII).  Strickland
+was formerly Stirkland, Cripps is the same as Crisp, from Mid. Eng.
+crisp, curly.  Prentis Jankin had--
+
+"Crispe here, shynynge as gold so fyn"
+
+(D. 304);
+
+and of Fame we are told that
+
+"Her heer was oundie (wavy) and crips."
+
+(House of Fame, iii.  296.)
+
+Both names may also be short for Crispin, the etymology being the same
+in any case.  Apps is sometimes for asp, the tree now called by the
+adjectival name aspen (cf. linden).  We find Thomas atte apse in the
+reign of Edward III.
+
+The letters l, n, r also tend to disappear from no other cause than
+rapid or careless pronunciation.
+
+Hence we get Home for Holme (Chapter XII), Ferris for Ferrers, a
+French local name, Batt for Bartholomew, Gatty for Gertrude, Dallison
+for d'Alençon.  The loss of _r_ after a vowel is also exemplified by
+Foster for Forster, Pannell and Pennell for Parnell (sometimes), Gath
+for Garth (Chapter XIII), and Mash for Marsh.  To the loss of n before
+s we owe such names as Pattison, Paterson, etc., son of Paton, the
+dim. of Patrick, and Robison for Robinson, and also a whole group of
+names like Jenks and Jinks for Jenkins (John), Wilkes for Wilkins,
+Gilkes, Danks, Perks, Hawkes, Jukes for Judkins (Chapter VI), etc.
+Here I should also include Biggs, which is not always connected with
+Bigg, for we seldom find adjectival nicknames with -s.  It seems to
+represent Biggins, from obsolete biggin, a building (Chapter XIII).
+
+The French nasal n often disappeared before r.  Thus denrée, lit.  a
+pennyworth, appears in Anglo-French as darree.  Similarly Henry became
+Harry, except in Scotland, and the English Kings of that name were
+always called Harry by their subjects.  It is to this pronunciation
+that we owe the popularity of Harris and Harrison, and the frequency
+of Welsh Parry, ap, Harry, as compared with Penry.  A compromise
+between Henry and Harry is seen in Hanrott, from the French dim.
+Henriot.
+
+The initial h-, which we regard with such veneration, is treated quite
+arbitrarily in surnames.  We find a well-known medieval poet called
+indifferently Occleve and Hoccleve.  Harnett is the same as Arnett,
+for Arnold, Ewens and Heavens are both from Ewan, and Heaven is an
+imitative form of Evan.  In Hoskins, from the medieval Osekin, a dim.
+of some Anglo-Saxon name such as Oswald (Chapter VII), the aspirate
+has definitely prevailed.  The Devonshire name Hexter is for Exeter,
+Arbuckle is a corruption of Harbottle, in Northumberland.  The Old
+French name Ancel appears as both Ansell and Hansell, and Earnshaw
+exists side by side with Hearnshaw (Chapter XII).
+
+The loss of h is especially common when it is the initial letter of a
+suffix, e.g. Barnum for Barnham, Haslam, (hazel), Blenkinsop for
+Blenkin's hope (see hope, Chapter XII), Newall for Newhall, Windle for
+Wind Hill, Tickell for Tick Hill, in Yorkshire, etc.  But Barnum and
+Haslam may also represent the Anglo-Saxon dative plural of the words
+barn and hazel.  A man who minded sheep was once called a Shepard, or
+Sheppard, as he still is, though we spell it shepherd.  The letter w
+disappears in the same way; thus Greenish is for Greenwich, Horridge
+for Horwich, Aspinall for Aspinwall, Millard for Millward, the
+mill-keeper, Boxall for Boxwell, Caudle for Cauldwell (cold); and the
+Anglo-Saxon names in -win are often confused with those in -ing, e.g.
+Gooding, Goodwin; Golding, Goldwin; Gunning, Gunwin, etc.  In this way
+Harding has prevailed over the once equally common Hardwin.
+
+
+
+BABY PHONETICS
+
+Finally, we have to consider what may be called baby phonetics, the
+sound-changes which seem rather to transgress general phonetic laws.
+Young children habitually confuse dentals and palatals, thus a child
+may be heard to say that he has "dot a told." This tendency is,
+however, not confined to children.  My own name, which is a very
+uncommon one, is a stumbling-block to most people, and when I give it
+in a shop the scribe has generally got as far as Wheat- before he can
+be stopped.
+
+We find both Estill and Askell for the medieval Asketil, and Thurtle
+alternating with Thurkle, originally Thurketil (Chapter VII).
+Bertenshave is found for Birkenshaw, birch wood, Bartley, sometimes
+from Bartholomew, is more often for Berkeley, and both Lord Bacon and
+Horace Walpole wrote Twitnam for Twickenham.  Jeffcock, dim. of
+Geoffrey, becomes Jeffcott, while Glascock is for the local Glascott.
+Here the palatal takes the place of the dental, as in Brangwin for
+Anglo-Sax. Brandwine.  Middleman is a dialect form of Michaelmas
+(Chapter IX).  We have the same change in tiddlebat for stickleback, a
+word which exemplifies another point in baby phonetics, viz. the loss
+of initial s-, as in the classic instance tummy.  To this loss of
+s- we owe Pick for Spick (Chapter XXIII), Pink for Spink, a dialect
+word for the chaffinch, and, I think, Tout for Stout.  The name Stacey
+is found as Tacey in old Notts registers.  On the other hand, an
+inorganic s- is sometimes prefixed, as in Sturgess for the older
+Turgis.  For the loss of s- we may compare Shakespeare's parmaceti (1
+Henry IV. i.  3), and for its addition the adjective spruce, from
+Pruce, i.e. Prussia.
+
+We also find the infantile confusion between th and f e.g. in Selfe,
+which appears to represent a personal name Seleth, probably from
+Anglo-Sax, saelth, bliss.  Perhaps also in Fripp for Thripp, a variant
+of Thrupp, for Thorp.  Bickerstaffe is the name of a place in
+Lancashire, of which the older form appears in Bickersteth, and the
+local name Throgmorton is spelt by Camden Frogmorton, just as Pepys
+invariably writes Queenhive for Queenhythe.
+
+Such are some of the commoner phenomena to be noticed in connection
+with the spelling and sound of our names.  The student must always
+bear in mind that our surnames date from a period when nearly the
+whole population was uneducated.  Their modern forms depend on all
+sorts of circumstances, such as local dialect, time of adoption,
+successive fashions in pronunciation and the taste and fancy of the
+speller.  They form part of our language, that is, of a living and
+ever-changing organism.  Some of us are old enough to remember the
+confusion between initial v and w which prompted the judge's question
+to Mr. Weller.  The vulgar i for a, as in "tike the kike," has been
+evolved within comparatively recent times, as well as the loss of
+final -g, "shootin and huntin," in sporting circles.  In the word
+warmint--
+
+"What were you brought up to be?"
+
+"A warmint, dear boy"
+
+(Great Expectations, ch. xl.),
+
+we have three phonetic phenomena, all of which have influenced the
+form and sound of modern surnames, e.g. in Winter, sometimes for
+Vinter, i.e. vintner, Clark for Clerk, and Bryant for Bryan; and
+similar changes have been in progress all through the history of our
+language.
+
+In conclusion it may be remarked that the personal and accidental
+element, which has so much to do with the development of surnames,
+releases this branch of philology to some extent from the iron rule of
+the phonetician.  Of this the preceding pages give examples.  The
+name, not being subject as other words are to a normalizing influence,
+is easily affected by the traditional or accidental spelling.
+Otherwise Fry would be pronounced Free.  The o is short in Robin and
+long in Probyn, and yet the names are the same (Chapter VI).  Sloper
+and Smoker mean a maker of slops and smocks respectively, and Smale is
+an archaic spelling of Small, the modern vowel being in each case
+lengthened by the retention of an archaic spelling.  The late
+Professor Skeat rejects Bardsley's identification of Waring with Old
+Fr. Garin or Warin, because the original vowel and the suffix are both
+different.  But Mainwaring, which is undoubtedly from mesnil-Warin
+(Chapter XIV), shows Bardsley to be right.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON
+
+"Talbots and Stanleys, St. Maurs and such-like folk, have led armies
+and made laws time out of mind; but those noble families would be
+somewhat astonished-if the accounts ever came to be fairly taken-to
+find how small their work for England has been by the side of that of
+the Browns."  (Tom Brown's Schooldays, ch. i.)
+
+Brown, Jones, and Robinson have usurped in popular speech positions
+properly belonging to Smith, Jones and Williams.  But the high
+position of Jones and Williams is due to the Welsh, who, replacing a
+string of Aps by a simple genitive at a comparatively recent date,
+have given undue prominence to a few very common names; cf. Davies,
+Evans, etc.  If we consider only purely English names, the triumvirate
+would be Smith, Taylor, and Brown.  Thus, of our three commonest
+names, the first two are occupative and the third is a nickname.
+French has no regular equivalent, though Dupont and Durand are
+sometimes used in this way--
+
+"Si Chateaubriand avait eu nom Durand ou Dupont, qui sait si son Génie
+du Christianisme n'eût point passé pour une capucinade?"
+
+(F. Brunetiére.)
+
+The Germans speak of Müller, Meyer and Schulze, all rural names, and
+it is perhaps characteristic that two of them are official.  Meyer is
+an early loan from Lat. major, and appears to have originally meant
+something like overseer.  Later on it acquired the meaning of farmer,
+in its proper sense of one who farms, i.e. manages on a profit-sharing
+system, the property of another.  It is etymologically the same as our
+Mayor, Mair, etc.  Schulze, a village magistrate, is cognate with Ger.
+Schuld, debt, and our verb shall.
+
+
+
+OCCUPATIVE NAMES
+
+Taking the different classes of surnames separately, the six commonest
+occupative names are Smith, Taylor, Clark, Wright, Walker, Turner.  If
+we exclude Clark, as being more often a nickname for the man who could
+read and write, the sixth will be Cooper, sometimes spelt Cowper.
+
+The commanding position of Smith is due to the fact that it was
+applied to all workers in every kind of metal.  The modern Smiths no
+doubt include descendants of medieval blacksmiths, whitesmiths,
+bladesmiths, locksmiths, and many others, but the compounds are not
+common as surnames.  We find, however, Shoosmith, Shearsmith, and
+Nasmyth, the last being more probably for earlier Knysmith, i.e.
+knife-smith, than for nail-smith, which was supplanted by Naylor.
+Grossmith I guess to be an accommodated form of the Ger. Grobschmied,
+blacksmith, lit.  rough smith, and Goldsmith is very often a Jewish
+name for Ger. Goldschmid.
+
+Wright, obsolete perhaps as a trade name, has given many compounds,
+including Arkwright, a maker of bins, or arks as they were once
+called, Tellwright, a tile maker, and many others which need no
+interpretation.  The high position of Taylor is curious, for there
+were other names for the trade, such as Seamen, Shapster, Parmenter
+(Chapter XVIII), and neither Tailleur nor Letailleur are particularly
+common in French.  The explanation is that this name has absorbed the
+medieval Teler and Teller, weaver, ultimately belonging to Lat. tela,
+a web;--cf. the very common Fr. Tellier and Letellier.  In some cases
+also the Mid. Eng. teygheler, Tyler, has been swallowed up.  Walker,
+i.e. trampler, meant a cloth fuller, but another origin has helped to
+swell the numbers of the clan--
+
+"Walkers are such as are otherwise called foresters.  They are
+foresters assigned by the King, who are walkers within a certain space
+of ground assigned to their care" (Cowel's Interpreter).
+
+Cooper, a derivative of Lat. cupa or cuppa, a vessel, is cognate with
+the famous French name Cuvier, which has given our Cover, though this
+may also be for coverer, i.e. tiler (Chapter XV).
+
+Of occupative names which have also an official meaning, the three
+commonest are Ward, Bailey, and Marshall.  Ward, originally abstract,
+is the same word as Fr. garde.  Bailey, Old Fr. bailif (bailli),
+ranges from a Scottish magistrate to a man in possession.  It is
+related to bail and to bailey, a ward in a fortress, as in Old Bailey.
+Bayliss may come from the Old French nominative bailis (Chapter I), or
+may be formed like Parsons, etc. (Chapter XV).  Marshall (Chapter XX)
+may stand for a great commander or a shoeing-smith, still called
+farrier-marshal in the army.  The first syllable is cognate with mare
+and the second means servant.  Constable, Lat. comes stabuli,
+stableman, has a similar history.
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES
+
+The commonest local names naturally include none taken from particular
+places.  The three commonest are Hall, Wood and Green, from residence
+by the great house, the wood, and the village green.  Cf. the French
+names Lasalle, Dubois, Dupré.  Hall is sometimes for Hale (Chapter
+II), and its Old French translation is one source of Sale.  Next to
+these come Hill, Moore, and Shaw (Chapter XII); but Lee would probably
+come among the first if all its variants were taken into account
+(Chapter III).
+
+Of baptismal names used unaltered as surnames the six commonest are
+Thomas, Lewis, Martin, James, Morris, Morgan.  Here again the Welsh
+element is strong, and four of these names, ending in -s, belong also
+to the next group, i.e. the class of surnames formed from the genitive
+of baptismal names.  The frequent occurrence of Lewis is partly due to
+its being adopted as a kind of translation of the Welsh Llewellyn, but
+the name is often a disguised Jewish Levi, and has nearly absorbed the
+local Lewes.  Next to the above come Allen, Bennett, Mitchell, all of
+French introduction.  Mitchell may have been reinforced by Mickle, the
+northern for Bigg.  It is curious that these particularly common
+names, Martin, Allen, Bennett (Benedict), Mitchell (Michael), have
+formed comparatively few derivatives and are generally found in their
+unaltered form.  Three of them are from famous saints' names, while
+Allen, a Breton name which came in with the Conquest, has probably
+absorbed to some extent the Anglo-Saxon name Alwin (Chapter VII).
+Martin is in some cases an animal nickname, the marten.  Among the
+genitives Jones, Williams, and Davi(e)s lead easily, followed by
+Evans, Roberts, and Hughes, all Welsh in the main.  Among the twelve
+commonest names of this class those that are not preponderantly Welsh
+are Roberts, Edwards, Harris, Phillips, and Rogers.  Another Welsh
+patronymic, Price (Chapter VI), is among the fifty commonest English
+names.
+
+The classification of names in -son raises the difficult question as
+to whether Jack represents Fr. Jacques, or whether it comes from
+Jankin, Jenkin, dim. of John.  [Footnote: See E. B. Nicholson, The
+Pedigree of Jack.]
+
+Taking Johnson and Jackson as separate names, we get the order
+Johnson, Robinson, Wilson, Thompson, Jackson, Harrison.  The variants
+of Thompson might put it a place or two higher.  Names in -kins
+(Distribution of names, Chapter IV), though very numerous in some
+regions, are not so common as those in the above classes.  It would be
+hard to say which English font-name has given the largest number of
+family names.  In Chapter V. will be found some idea of the
+bewildering and multitudinous forms they assume.  It has been
+calculated, I need hardly say by a German professor, that the possible
+number of derivatives from one given name is 6, 000, but fortunately
+most of the seeds are abortive.
+
+Of nicknames Brown, Clark, and White are by far the commonest.  Then
+comes King, followed by the two adjectival nicknames Sharp and Young.
+
+The growth of towns and facility of communication are now bringing
+about such a general movement that most regions would accept Brown,
+Jones and Robinson as fairly typical names.  But this was not always
+so.  Brown is still much commoner in the north than in the south, and
+at one time the northern Johnson and Robinson contrasted with the
+southern Jones and Roberts, the latter being of comparatively modern
+origin in Wales (Chapter IV).  Even now, if we take the farmer class,
+our nomenclature is largely regional, and the directories even of our
+great manufacturing towns represent to a great extent the medieval
+population of the rural district around them.  [Footnote: See Guppy,
+Homes of Family Names.] The names Daft and Turney, well known in
+Nottingham, appear in the county in the Hundred Rolls.  Cheetham, the
+name of a place now absorbed in Manchester, is as a surname ten times
+more numerous there than in London, and the same is true of many
+characteristic north-country names, such as the Barraclough,
+Murgatroyd, and Sugden of Charlotte Brontë's Shirley.  The
+transference of Murgatroyd (Chapter XII) to Cornwall, in Gilbert and
+Sullivan's Ruddigore, must have been part of the intentional
+topsy-turvydom in which those two bright spirits delighted.
+
+Diminutives in -kin, from the Old Dutch suffix -ken, are still found
+in greatest number on the east coast that faces Holland, or in Wales,
+where they were introduced by the Flemish weavers who settled in
+Pembrokeshire in the reign of Henry I.  It is in the border counties,
+Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, that we find the old
+Welsh names such as Gough, Lloyd, Onion (Enion), Vaughan (Chapter
+XXII).  The local Gape, an opening in the cliffs, is pretty well
+confined to Norfolk, and Puddifoot belongs to Bucks and the adjacent
+counties as it did in 1273.  The hall changes hands as one conquering
+race succeeds another--
+
+"Where is Bohun?  Where is de Vere?  The lawyer, the farmer, the silk
+mercer, lies perdu under the coronet, and winks to the antiquary to
+say nothing" (Emerson, English Traits),
+
+but the hut keeps its ancient inhabitants.  The descendant of the
+Anglo-Saxon serf who cringed to Front de Boeuf now makes way
+respectfully for Isaac of York's motor, perhaps on the very spot where
+his own fierce ancestor first exchanged the sword for the ploughshare
+long before Alfred's day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES
+
+"I was born in the year 1632, in the city of York, of a good family,
+though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who
+settled first at Hull.  He got a good estate by merchandize, and
+leaving off his trade, lived afterwards at York, from whence he
+married my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a very good
+family in that country, and from whom I was called Robinson
+Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in English, we are
+now called--nay, we call ourselves and write our name--Crusoe" (Robinson
+Crusoe, ch. i.).
+
+Any student of our family nomenclature must be struck by the fact that
+the number of foreign names now recognizable in England is out of all
+proportion to the immense number which must have been introduced at
+various periods of our history.  Even the expert, who is often able to
+detect the foreign name in its apparently English garb, cannot rectify
+this disproportion for us.  The number of names of which the present
+form can be traced back to a foreign origin is inconsiderable when
+compared with the much larger number assimilated and absorbed by the
+Anglo-Saxon.
+
+
+
+THE HUGUENOTS
+
+The great mass of those names of French or Flemish origin which do not
+date back to the Conquest or to medieval times are due to the
+immigration of Protestant refugees in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries.  It is true that many names for which Huguenot ancestry is
+claimed were known in England long before the Reformation.  Thus,
+Bulteel is the name of a refugee family which came from Tournay about
+the year 1600, but the same name is found in the Hundred Rolls Of
+1273.  The Grubbe family, according to Burke, came from Germany about
+1450, after the Hussite persecution; but we find the name in England
+two centuries earlier, "without the assistance of a foreign
+persecution to make it respectable" (Bardsley, Dictionary of English
+Surnames).  The Minet family is known to be of Huguenot origin, but
+the same name also figures in the medieval Rolls.  The fact is that
+there was all through the Middle Ages a steady immigration of
+foreigners, whether artisans, tradesmen, or adventurers, some of whose
+names naturally reappear among the Huguenots.  On several occasions
+large bodies of Continental workmen, skilled in special trades, were
+brought into the country by the wise policy of the Government.  Like
+the Huguenots later on, they were protected by the State and
+persecuted by the populace, who resented their habits of industry and
+sobriety.
+
+During the whole period of the religious troubles in France and
+Flanders, starting from the middle of the sixteenth century, refugees
+were reaching this country in a steady stream; but after the
+Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) they arrived in thousands,
+and the task of providing for them and helping on their absorption
+into the population became a serious problem.  Among the better class
+of these immigrants was to be found the flower of French intellect and
+enterprise, and one has only to look through an Army or Navy list, or
+to notice the names which are prominent in the Church, at the Bar, and
+in the higher walks of industry and commerce, to realize the madness
+of Louis XIV. and the wisdom of the English Government.
+
+Here are a few taken at random from Smiles's History of the
+Huguenots--Bosanquet, Casaubon, Chenevix Trench, Champion de Crespigny,
+Dalbiac, Delane, Dollond, Durand, Fonblanque, Gambier, Garrick,
+Layard, Lefanu, Lefroy, Ligonier, Luard, Martineau, Palairet, Perowne,
+Plimsoll, Riou, Romilly--all respectable and many distinguished, even
+cricket being represented.  These more educated foreigners usually
+kept their names, sometimes with slight modifications which do not
+make them unrecognizable.  Thus, Bouverie, literally "ox-farm," is
+generally found in its unaltered form, though the London Directory has
+also examples of the perverted Buffery.  But the majority of the
+immigrants were of the artisan class and illiterate.  This explains
+the extraordinary disappearance, in the course of two centuries, of
+the thousands of French names which were introduced between 1550 and
+1700.
+
+We have many official lists of these foreigners, and in these lists we
+catch the foreign name in the very act of transforming itself into
+English.  This happens sometimes by translation, e.g. Poulain became
+Colt, Poisson was reincarnated as Fish, and a refugee bearing the
+somewhat uncommon name Petitoeil transformed himself into Little-eye,
+which became in a few generations Lidley.  But comparatively few
+surnames were susceptible of such simple treatment, and in the great
+majority of cases the name underwent a more or less arbitrary
+perversion which gave it a more English physiognomy.  Especially
+interesting from this point of view is the list of--"Straungers
+residing and dwellinge within the city of London and the liberties
+thereof," drawn up in 1618.  The names were probably taken down by the
+officials of the different wards, who, differing themselves in
+intelligence and orthography, produced very curious results.
+
+As a rule the Christian name is translated, while the surname is
+either assimilated to some English form or perverted according to the
+taste and fancy of the individual constable.  Thus, John Garret, a
+Dutchman, is probably Jan Gerard, and James Flower, a milliner, born
+in Rouen, is certainly Jaques Fleur, or Lafleur.  John de Cane and
+Peter le Cane are Jean Duquesne and Pierre Lequesne (Norman quêne,
+oak), though the former may also have come from Caen.  John Buck, from
+Rouen, is Jean Bouc, and Abraham Bushell, from Rochelle, was probably
+a Roussel or Boissel.  James King and John Hill, both Dutchmen, are
+obvious translations of common Dutch names, while Henry Powell, a
+German, is Heinrich Paul.  Mary Peacock, from Dunkirk, and John
+Bonner, a Frenchman, I take to be Marie Picot and Jean Bonheur, while
+Nicholas Bellow is surely Nicolas Belleau.  Michael Leman, born in
+Brussels, may be French Leman or Lemoine, or perhaps German Lehmann.
+
+To each alien's name is appended that of the monarch whose subject he
+calls himself, but a republic is outside the experience of one
+constable, who leaves an interrogative blank after Cristofer Switcher,
+born at Swerick (Zürich) in Switcherland.  The surname so ingeniously
+created appears to have left no pedagogic descendants.  In some cases
+the harassed Bumble has lost patience, and substituted a plain English
+name for foreign absurdity.  To the brain which christened Oliver
+Twist we owe Henry Price, a subject of the King of Poland, Lewis
+Jackson, a "Portingall," and Alexander Faith, a steward to the Venice
+Ambassador, born in the dukedom of Florence.
+
+
+
+PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES
+
+In the returns made outside the bounds of the city proper the aliens
+have added their own signatures, or in some cases made their marks.
+Jacob Alburtt signs himself as Jacob Elbers, and Croft Castell as
+Kraft Kassels.  Harman James is the official translation of Hermann
+Jacobs, Mary Miller of Marija Moliner, and John Young of Jan le Jeune.
+Gyllyam Spease, for Wilbert Spirs, seems to be due to a Welsh
+constable, and Chrystyan Wyhelhames, for Cristian Welselm, looks like
+a conscientious attempt at Williams.  One registrar, with a phonetic
+system of his own, has transformed the Dutch Moll into the more
+familiar Maule, and has enriched his list with Jannacay Yacopes for
+Jantje Jacobs.  Lowe Luddow, who signs himself Louij Ledou, seems to
+be Louis Ledoux.  An alien who writes himself Jann Eisankraott (Ger.
+Eisenkraut?  ) cannot reasonably complain plain at being transformed
+into John Isacrocke, but the substitution of John Johnson for Jansen
+Vandrusen suggests that this individual's case was taken at the end of
+a long day's work.
+
+These examples, taken at random, show how the French and Flemish names
+of the humbler refugees lost their foreign appearance.  In many cases
+the transformation was etymologically justified.  Thus, some of our
+Druitts and Drewetts may be descended from Martin Druett, the first
+name on the list.  But this is probably the common French name Drouet
+or Drouot, assimilated to the English Druitt, which we find in 1273.
+And both are diminutives of Drogo, which occurs in Domesday Book, and
+is, through Old French, the origin of our Drew.  But in many cases the
+name has been so deformed that one can only guess at the continental
+original.  I should conjecture, for instance, that the curious name
+Shoppee is a corruption of Chappuis, the Old French for a carpenter,
+and that
+
+Jacob Shophousey, registered as a German cutler, came from
+Schaffhausen.  In this particular region of English nomenclature a
+little guessing is almost excusable.  The law of probabilities makes
+it mathematically certain that the horde of immigrants included
+representatives of all the very common French family names, and it
+would be strange if Chappuis were absent.
+
+This process of transformation is still going on in a small way,
+especially in our provincial manufacturing towns, in which most large
+commercial undertakings have slipped from the nerveless grasp of the
+Anglo-Saxon into the more capable and prehensile fingers of the
+foreigner--
+
+"Hilda then learnt that Mrs.  Gailey had married a French modeller
+named Canonges. . .  and that in course of time the modeller had
+informally changed the name to Cannon, because no one in the five
+towns could pronounce the true name rightly."
+
+(Arnold Bennett, Hilda Lessways, i.  5.)
+
+This occurs most frequently in the case of Jewish names of German
+origin.  Thus, Löwe becomes Lowe or Lyons, Meyer is transformed into
+Myers, Goldschmid into Goldsmith, Kohn into Cowan, Levy into Lee or
+Lewis, Salamon into Salmon, Hirsch or Hertz into Hart, and so on.
+Sometimes a bolder flight is attempted--
+
+"Leopold Norfolk Gordon had a house in Park Lane, and ever so many
+people's money to keep it up with.  As may be guessed from his name,
+he was a Jew."
+
+(Morley Roberts, Lady Penelope, ch. ii.)
+
+
+
+JEWISH NAMES
+
+The Jewish names of German origin which are now so common in England
+mostly date from the beginning of the nineteenth century, when laws
+were passed in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria to compel all Jewish
+families to adopt a fixed surname.  Many of them chose personal names,
+e.g. Jakobs, Levy, Moses, for this purpose, while others named
+themselves from their place of residence, e.g. Cassel, Speyer
+(Spires), Hamburg, often with the addition of the syllable -er, e.g.
+Darmesteter, Homburger.  Some families preferred descriptive names
+such as Selig (Chapter XXII), Sonnenschein, Goldmann, or invented
+poetic and gorgeous place-names such as Rosenberg, Blumenthal,
+Goldberg, Lilienfeld.  The oriental fancy also showed itself in such
+names as Edelstein, jewel, Glueckstein, luck stone, Rubinstein, ruby,
+Goldenkranz, golden wreath, etc. [Footnote: Our Touchstone would seem
+also to be a nickname.  The obituary of a Mr. Touchstone appeared in
+the Manchester Guardian, December 12, 1912.] It is owing to the
+existence of the last two groups that our fashionable intelligence is
+now often so suggestive of a wine-list.  Among animal names adopted
+the favourites were Adler, eagle, Hirsch, hart, Löwe, lion, and Wolf,
+each of which is used with symbolic significance in the Old Testament.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY
+
+"Watte vocat, cui Thomme venit, neque Symme retardat,
+  Betteque, Gibbe simul, Hykke venire jubent;
+Colle furit, quem Geffe juvat nocumenta parantes,
+  Cum quibus ad dampnum Wille coire vovet.
+Grigge rapit, dum Dawe strepit, comes est quibus Hobbe,
+  Lorkyn et in medio non minor esse putat:
+Hudde ferit, quem Judde terit, dum Tebbe minatur,
+  Jakke domosque viros vellit et ense necat."
+
+(GOWER, On Wat Tyler's Rebellion.)
+
+Gower's lines on the peasant rebels give us some idea of the names
+which were most popular in the fourteenth century, and which have
+consequently impressed themselves most strongly on our modern
+surnames.  It will be noticed that one member of the modern
+triumvirate, Harry, or Hal, is absent.  [Footnote: The three names
+were not definitely established till the nineteenth century.  Before
+that period they had rivals.  French says Pierre et Paul, and German
+Heinz and Kunz, i.e. Heinrich and Conrad.] The great popularity of
+this name probably dates from a rather later period and is connected
+with the exploits of Henry V. Moreover, all the names, with the
+possible exception of Hud, are of French introduction and occur rarely
+before the Conquest.  The old Anglo-Saxon names did survive,
+especially in the remoter parts of the country, and have given us many
+surnames (see ch. vii.), but even in the Middle Ages people had a
+preference for anything that came over with the Conqueror.  French
+names are nearly all of German origin, the Celtic names and the Latin
+names which encroached on them having been swept away by the Frankish
+invasion, a parallel to the wholesale adoption of Norman names in
+England.  Thus our name Harvey, no longer usual as a font-name, is Fr.
+Herod, which represents the heroic German name Herewig, to the second
+syllable of which belongs such an apparently insignificant name as
+Wigg.
+
+
+
+MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES
+
+The disappearance of Latin names is not to be regretted, for the Latin
+nomenclature was of the most unimaginative description, while the Old
+German names are more like those of Greece; e.g. Ger. Ludwig, which
+has passed into most of the European languages (Louis, Lewis,
+Ludovico, etc), is from Old High Ger. hlut-wig, renowned in fight,
+equivalent to the Greek Clytomachus, with one-half of which it is
+etymologically cognate.
+
+Some of the names in Gower's list, e.g. Watte (Chapter I), Thomme,
+Symme, Geffe (Chapter VI), Wille, Jakke, are easily recognized.  Bette
+is for Bat, Bartholomew, a name, which has given Batty, Batten, Bates,
+Bartle (cf. Bartlemas), Bartlett, Badcock, Batcock.  But this group of
+names belongs also to the Bert- or -bent, which is so common in
+Teutonic names, such as Bertrand, Bertram, Herbert, Hubert, many of
+which reached us in an Old French form.  For the loss of the _r_, cf.
+Matty from Martha.  Gibe is for Gilbert.  Hick is rimed on Dick:
+(Chapter VI).  Colle is for Nicolas.  Grig is for Gregory, whence
+Gregson and Scottish Grier.  Dawe, for David, alternated with Day and
+Dow, which appear as first element in many surnames, though Day has
+another origin (Chapter XIX) and Dowson sometimes belongs to the
+female name Douce, sweet.  Hobbe is a rimed form from Robert.  Lorkyn,
+or Larkin, is for Lawrence, for which we also find Law, Lay, and Low,
+whence Lawson, Lakin, Lowson, Locock, etc.  For Hudde see Chapters I,
+VII.  Judde, from the very popular Jordan, has given Judson, Judkins,
+and the contracted Jukes.  Jordan (Fr. Jourdain, Ital. Giordano) seems
+to have been adopted as a personal name in honour of John the Baptist.
+Tebbe is for Theobald (Chapter I).
+
+
+
+THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES
+
+Many people, in addressing a small boy with whom they are
+unacquainted, are in the habit of using Tommy as a name to which any
+small boy should naturally answer.  In some parts of Polynesia the
+natives speak of a white Mary or a black Mary, i.e. woman, just as the
+Walloons round Mons speak of Marie bon bec, a shrew, Marie grognon, a
+Mrs.  Gummidge, Marie quatre langues, a chatterbox, and several other
+Maries still less politely described.  We have the modern silly Johnny
+for the older silly Billy, while Jack Pudding is in German Hans Wurst,
+John Sausage.  Only the very commonest names are used in this way,
+and, if we had no further evidence, the rustic Dicky bird, Robin
+redbreast, Hob goblin, Tom tit, Will o' the Wisp, Jack o' lantern,
+etc., would tell us which have been in the past the most popular
+English font-names.  During the Middle Ages there was a kind of race
+among half a dozen favourite names, the prevailing order being John,
+William, Thomas, Richard, Robert, with perhaps Hugh as sixth.
+
+Now, for each of these there is a reason.  John, a favourite name in
+so many languages (Jean, Johann, Giovanni, Juan, Ian, Ivan, etc.), as
+the name of the Baptist and of the favoured disciple, defied even the
+unpopularity of our one King of that name.  The special circumstances
+attending the birth and naming of the Baptist probably supplied the
+chief factor in its triumph.
+
+For some time after the Conquest William led easily.  We usually
+adopted the W- form from the north-east of France, but Guillaume has
+also supplied a large number of surnames in Gil-, which have got
+inextricably mixed up with those derived from Gilbert, Gillian
+(Juliana), and Giles.  Gilman represents the French dim. Guillemin,
+the local-looking Gilliam is simply Guillaume, and Wilmot corresponds
+to Fr. Guillemot.
+
+The doubting disciple held a very insignificant place until the shrine
+of St. Thomas of Canterbury became one of the holy places of
+Christendom.  To Thomas belong Macey, Massie, and Masson, dims.  of
+French aphetic forms, but the first two are also from Old French forms
+of Matthew, and Masson is sometimes an alternative form of Mason.
+
+Robert and Richard were both popular Norman names.  The first was
+greatly helped by Robin Hood and the second by the Lion-Heart.
+
+The name Hugh was borne by several saints, the most famous of whom in
+England was the child-martyr, St. Hugh of Lincoln, said to have been
+murdered by the Jews C. 1250.  It had a dim. Huggin and also the forms
+Hew and How, whence Hewett, Hewlett, Howitt, Howlett, etc., while from
+the French dim. Huchon we get Hutchin and its derivatives, and also
+Houchin.  Hugh also appears in the rather small class of names
+represented by Littlejohn, Meiklejohn, etc. [Footnote: This formation
+seems to be much commoner in French.  In the "Bottin" I find
+Grandblaise, Grandcollot (Nicolas), Grandgeorge, Grandgérard,
+Grandguillaume, Grandguillot, Grandjacques, Grand-jean, Grandperrin
+(Pierre), Grandpierre, Grandremy, Grandvincent, and Petitcolin,
+Petitdemange (Dominique), Petitdidier (Desiderius), Petit-Durand,
+Petit-Etienne (Stephen), Petit-Gérard, Petit-Huguenin, Petitjean,
+Petitperrin, Petit-Richard.]  We find Goodhew, Goodhue.  Cf.
+Gaukroger, i.e. awkward Roger, and Goodwillie.  But the more usual
+origin of Goodhew, Goodhue is from Middle Eng. heave, servant, hind.
+Cf. Goodhind.
+
+Most of the other names in Gower's list have been prolific.  We might
+add to them Roger, whence Hodge and Dodge, Humfrey, which did not lend
+itself to many variations, and Peter, from the French form of which we
+have many derivatives (Chapter III), including perhaps the Huguenot
+Perowne, Fr. Perron, but this can also be local, du Perron, the
+etymology, Lat. Petra, rock, remaining the same.
+
+The absence of the great names Alfred [Footnote: The name Alured is
+due to misreading of the older Alvred, v being written u in old MSS.
+Allfrey is from the Old French form of the name.]  and Edward is not
+surprising, as they belonged to the conquered race.  Though Edward was
+revived as the name of a long line of Kings, its contribution to
+surnames has been small, most names in Ed-, Ead-, e.g. Ede, Eden,
+Edison, Edkins, Eady, etc., belonging rather to the once popular
+female name Eda or to Edith, though in some cases they are from Edward
+or other Anglo-Saxon names having the same initial syllable.  James is
+a rare name in medieval rolls, being represented by Jacob, and no
+doubt partly by Jack (Chapter IV).  It is--
+
+"Wrested from Jacob, the same as Jago [Footnote: Jago is found, with
+other Spanish names, in Cornwall; cf. Bastian or Baste, for
+Sebastian.]  in Spanish, Jaques in French; which some Frenchified
+English, to their disgrace, have too much affected" (Camden).
+
+It appears in Gimson, Jemmett, and the odd-looking Gem, while its
+French form is somewhat disguised in Jeakes and Jex.
+
+
+
+FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES
+
+The force of royal example is seen in the popularity under the Angevin
+kings of Henry, or Harry, Geoffrey and Fulk, the three favourite names
+in that family.  For Harry see Chapter III.  Geoffrey, from Ger.
+Gottfried, Godfrey, has given us a large number of names in Geff-,
+Jeff-, and Giff-, Jiff-, and probably also Jebb, Gepp and Jepson,
+while to Fulk we owe Fewkes, Foakes, Fowkes, Vokes, etc., and perhaps
+in some cases Fox.  But it is impossible to catalogue all the popular
+medieval font-names.  Many others will be found scattered through this
+book as occasion or association suggests them.
+
+Three names whose poor representation is surprising are Arthur,
+Charles and George, the two great Kings of medieval romance and the
+patron saint of Merrie England.  All three are fairly common in their
+unaltered form, and we find also Arter for Arthur.  But they have
+given few derivatives, though Atkins, generally from Ad-, i.e. Adam,
+may sometimes be from Arthur (cf. Bat for Bart, Matty for Martha,
+etc.).  Arthur is a rare medieval font-name, a fact no doubt due to
+the sad fate of King John's nephew.  Its modern popularity dates from
+the Duke of Wellington, while Charles and George were raised from
+obscurity by the Stuarts and the Brunswicks.  To these might be added
+the German name Frederick, the spread of which was due to the fame of
+Frederick the Great.  It gave, however, in French the dissimilated
+Ferry, one source of our surnames Ferry, Ferris, though the former is
+generally local.  [Footnote: "For Frideric, the English have commonly
+used Frery and Fery, which hath been now a long time a Christian name
+in the ancient family of Tilney, and lucky to their house, as they
+report." (Camden.)]
+
+If, on the other hand, we take from Gower's list a name which is
+to-day comparatively rare, e.g. Gilbert, we find it represented by a
+whole string of surnames, e.g. Gilbart, Gibbs, Gibson, Gibbon,
+Gibbins, Gipps, Gipson, to mention only the most familiar.  From the
+French dim. Gibelot we get the rather rare Giblett; cf. Hewlett for
+Hew-el-et, Hamlet for Ham-el-et (Hamo), etc.
+
+
+
+DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES
+
+In forming patronymics from personal names, it is not always the first
+syllable that is selected.  In Toll, Tolley, Tollett, from
+Bartholomew, the second has survived, while Philpot, dim. of Philip,
+has given Potts.  From Alexander we get Sanders and Saunders.  But,
+taking, for simplicity, two instances in which the first syllable has
+survived, we shall find plenty of instruction in those two pretty men
+Robert and Richard.  We have seen (Chapter VI) that Roger gave Hodge
+and Dodge, which, in the derivatives Hodson and Dodson, have coalesced
+with names derived from Odo and the Anglo-Sax. Dodda (Chapter VII).
+Similarly Robert gave Rob, Hob and Dob, and Richard gave Rick, Hick
+and Dick.  [Footnote: I believe, however, that Hob is in some cases
+from Hubert, whence Hubbard, Hibbert, Hobart, etc.] Hob, whence Hobbs,
+was sharpened into Hop, whence Hopps.  The diminutive Hopkin, passing
+into Wales, gave Popkin, just as ap-Robin became Probyn, ap-Hugh Pugh,
+ap-Owen Bowen, etc.  In the north Dobbs became Dabbs (p. A. Hob also
+developed another rimed form Nob cf. to "hob-nob" with anyone),
+whence Nobbs and Nabbs, the latter, of course, being sometimes rimed
+on Abbs, from Abel or Abraham.  Bob is the latest variant and has not
+formed many surnames.  Richard has a larger family than Robert, for,
+besides Rick, Hick and Dick, we have Rich and Hitch, Higg and Digg.
+The reader will be able to continue this genealogical tree for
+himself.
+
+The full or the shortened name can become a surname, either without
+change, or with the addition of the genitive -s or the word -son, the
+former more usual in the south, the latter in the north.  To take a
+simple case, we find as surnames William, Will, Williams, Wills,
+Williamson, Wilson.  [Footnote: This suffix has squeezed out all the
+others, though Alice Johnson is theoretically absurd.  In Mid. English
+we find daughter, father, mother, brother and other terms of
+relationship used in this way, e.g. in 1379, Agnes Dyconwyfdowson, the
+wife of Dow's son Dick.  Dawbarn, child of David, is still found.  See
+also Chapter XXI]
+
+From the short form we get diminutives by means of the English
+suffixes -ie or -y (these especially in the north), -kin (Chapter IV),
+and the French suffixes -et, -ot (often becoming -at in English), -in,
+-on (often becoming -en in English).  Thus Willy, Wilkie, Willett.  I
+give a few examples of surnames formed from each class
+
+Ritchie (Richard), Oddy (Odo, whence also Oates), Lambie (Lambert),
+Jelley (Julian); [Footnote: Lamb is also, of course, a nickname cf.
+Agnew, Fr. agneau]
+
+Dawkins, Dawkes (David), Hawkins, Hawkes (Hal), Gilkins (Geoffrey),
+Perkins, Perks (Peter), Rankin (Randolf);
+
+Gillett (Gil, Chapter VI), Collett (Nicholas), Bartlett (Bartholomew),
+Ricketts (Richard), Marriott, Marryat (Mary), Elliott (Elias, see
+Chapter IX), Wyatt (Guy), Perrott (Peter);
+
+Collins (Nicholas), Jennings (John, see Chapter X), Copping (Jacob,
+see Chapter I), Rawlin (Raoul, the French form of Radolf, whence Roll,
+Ralph, Relf), Paton (Patrick), Sisson (Sirs, i.e. Cecilia), Gibbons
+(Gilbert), Beaton (Beatrice).
+
+In addition to the suffixes and diminutives already mentioned, we have
+the two rather puzzling endings -man and -cock.  Man occurs as an
+ending in several Germanic names which are older than the Conquest,
+e.g. Ashman, Harman, Coleman; and the simple Mann is also an
+Anglo-Saxon personal name.  It is sometimes to be taken literally,
+e.g. in Goodman, i.e. master of the house (Matt.  xx. ii), Longman,
+Youngman, etc.  In Hickman, Homan (How, Hugh), etc., it may mean
+servant of, as in Ladyman, Priestman, or may be merely an augmentative
+suffix.  In Coltman, Runciman, it is occupative, the man in charge of
+the colts, rouncies or nags.  Chaucer's Shipman--
+
+"Rood upon a rouncy as he kouthe" (A. 390).
+
+In Bridgeman, Pullman, it means the man who lived near, or had some
+office in connection with, the bridge or pool.  But it is often due to
+the imitative instinct.  Dedman is for the local Debenham, and Lakeman
+for Lakenham, while Wyman represents the old name Wymond, and Bowman
+and Beeman are sometimes for the local Beaumont (cf. the pronunciation
+of Belvoir).  But the existence in German of the name Bienemann shows
+that Beeman may have meant bee-keeper.  Sloman may be a nickname, but
+also means the man in the slough (Chapter XII), and Godliman is an old
+familiar spelling of Godalming.  We of course get doubtful cases, e.g.
+Sandeman may be, as explained by Bardsley, the servant of Alexander
+(Chapter VI), but it may equally well represent Mid. Eng. sandeman, a
+messenger, and Lawman, Layman, are rather to be regarded as
+derivatives of Lawrence (Chapter VI) than what they appear to be.
+
+
+
+THE SUFFIX -COCK
+
+Many explanations have been given of the suffix -cock, but I cannot
+say that any of them have convinced me.  Both Cock and the patronymic
+Cocking are found as early personal names.  The suffix was added to
+the shortened form of font-names, e.g. Alcock (Allen), Hitchcock
+(Richard), was apparently felt as a mere diminutive, and took an -s
+like the diminutives in -kin, e.g. Willcocks, Simcox.  In Hedgecock,
+'Woodcock, etc., it is of course a nickname.  The modern Cox is one of
+our very common names, and the spelling Cock, Cocks, Cox, can be found
+representing three generations in the churchyard of Invergowrie, near
+Dundee.
+
+The two names Bawcock and Meacock had once a special significance.
+Pistol, urged to the breach by Fluellen, replies
+
+"Good bawcock, bate thy rage!  use lenity, sweet chuck"
+
+(Henry V., iii, 2);
+
+and Petruchio, pretending that his first interview with Katherine has
+been most satisfactory, says--
+
+"'Tis a world to see
+How tame, when men and women are alone,
+A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew."
+
+(Taming of the Shrew, ii.1.)
+
+These have been explained as Fr. beau coq, which is possible, and meek
+cock, which is absurd.  As both words are found as surnames before
+Shakespeare's time, it is probable that they are diminutives which
+were felt as suited to receive a special connotation, just as a man
+who treats his thirst generously is vulgarly called a Lushington.
+Bawcock can easily be connected with Baldwin, while Meacock, Maycock,
+belong to the personal name May or Mee, shortened from the Old Fr.
+Mahieu (Chapter IX).
+
+Although we are not dealing with Celtic names, a few words as to the
+Scottish, Irish, and Welsh surnames which we find in our directories
+may be useful.  Those of Celtic origin are almost invariably
+patronymics.  The Scottish and Irish Mac, son, used like the Anglo-Fr.
+Fitz-, ultimately means kin, and is related to the -mough of Watmough
+(Chapter XXI) and to the word maid.  In MacNab, son of the abbot, and
+MacPherson, son of the parson, we have curious hybrids.  In Manx
+names, such as Quilliam (Mac William), Killip (Mac Philip), Clucas
+(Mac Lucas), we have aphetic forms of Mac.  The Irish 0', grandson,
+descendant, has etymologically the same meaning as Mac, and is related
+to the first part of Ger. Oheim, uncle, of Anglo-Sax. eam (see Eames,
+Chapter XXI), and of Lat. avus, grandfather.  Oe or oye is still used
+for grandchild in Scottish--
+
+"There was my daughter's wean, little Eppie Daidle, my oe, ye ken"
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. iv.).
+
+The names of the Lowlands of Scotland are pretty much the same as
+those of northern England, with the addition of a very large French
+element, due to the close historical connection between the two
+countries.  Examples of French names, often much corrupted, are
+Bethune (Pas de Calais), often corrupted into Beaton, the name of one
+of the Queen's Maries, Boswell (Bosville, Seine Inf.), Bruce (Brieux,
+Orne), Comyn, Cumming (Comines, Nord), Grant (le grand), Rennie
+(René), etc.
+
+
+
+CELTIC NAMES
+
+Welsh Ap or Ab, reduced from an older Map, ultimately cognate with
+Mac, gives us such names as Probyn, Powell (Howell, Hoel), Price
+(Rhys), Pritchard, Prosser (Rosser), Prothero (Roderick), Bedward,
+Beddoes (Eddowe), Blood (Lud, Lloyd), Bethell (Ithel), Benyon (Enion),
+whence also Binyon and the local-looking Baynham.  Onion and Onions
+are imitative forms of Enion.  Applejohn and Upjohn are corruptions of
+Ap-john.  The name Floyd, sometimes Flood, is due to the English
+inability to grapple with the Welsh Ll--
+
+"I am a gentylman and come of Brutes [Brutus'] blood,
+ My name is ap Ryce, ap Davy, ap Flood."
+
+(Andrew Boorde, Book of the Introduction of Knowledge, ii 7.)
+
+While Welsh names are almost entirely patronymic, Cornish names are
+very largely local.  They are distinguished by the following prefixes
+and others of less common occurrence: Caer-, fort, Lan-, church, Pen-,
+hill, Pol-, pool, Ros-, heath, Tre-, settlement, e.g. Carthew, Lanyon,
+Penruddock, Polwarth, Rosevear, Trethewy.  Sometimes these elements
+are found combined, e.g. in Penrose.
+
+A certain number of Celtic nicknames and occupative names which are
+frequently found in England will be mentioned elsewhere (pp.  173,
+216).  In Gilchrist, Christ's servant, Gildea, servant of God,
+Gillies, servant of Jesus, Gillespie, bishop's servant, Gilmour,
+Mary's servant, Gilroy, red servant, we have the Highland "gillie."
+Such names were originally preceded by Mac-, e.g. Gilroy is the same
+as MacIlroy; cf. MacLean, for Mac-gil-Ian, son of the servant of John.
+To the same class of formation belong Scottish names in Mal-, e.g.
+Malcolm, and Irish names in Mul-, e.g. Mulholland, in which the first
+element means tonsured servant, shaveling, and the second is the name
+of a saint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA
+
+"England had now once more (A.D. 1100) a King born on her own soil, a
+Queen of the blood of the hero Eadmund, a King and Queen whose
+children would trace to AElfred by two descents.  Norman insolence
+mocked at the English King and his English Lady under the English
+names of Godric and Godgifu." [Footnote: "Godricum eum, et comparem
+Godgivam appellantes" (William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum).]
+
+(FREEMAN, Norman Conquest, v. 170.)
+
+In dealing with surnames we begin after the Conquest, for the simple
+reason that there were no surnames before.  Occasionally an important
+person has come down in history with a nickname, e.g. Edmund
+Iron-side, Harold Harefoot, Edward the Confessor; but this is
+exceptional, and the Anglo-Saxon, as a rule, was satisfied with one
+name.  It is probable that very many of the names in use before the
+Conquest, whether of English or Scandinavian origin, were chosen
+because of their etymological meaning, e.g. that the name Beornheard
+(Bernard, Barnard, Barnett) was given to a boy in the hope that he
+would grow up a warrior strong, just as his sister might be called
+AEthelgifu, noble gift.  The formation of these old names is both
+interesting and, like all Germanic nomenclature, poetic.
+
+
+
+FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES
+
+As a rule the name consists of two elements, and the number of those
+elements which appear with great frequency is rather limited.  Some
+themes occur only in the first half of the name, e.g. Aethel-, whence
+Aethelstan, later Alston; AElf-, whence AElfgar, now Elgar and Agar
+(AEthel- and AElf- soon got confused, so that Allvey, Elvey may
+represent both AEthelwig and AElfwig, or perhaps in some cases
+Ealdwig); Cuth-, whence Cuthbeald, now Cobbold [Footnote: This is also
+the origin of Cupples, and probably of Keble and Nibbles.  It shares
+Cobbett and Cubitt with Cuthbeorht.]; Cyne-, whence Cynebeald now
+Kimball and Kemble, both of which are also local, Folc-, whence
+Folcheard and Folchere, now Folkard and Fulcher; Gund-, whence
+Gundred, now Gundry and Grundy (Metathesis, Chapter III); Os-, whence
+Osbert, Osborn,
+
+Other themes only occur as the second half of the name.  Such are
+-gifu, in Godgifu, i.e. Godiva, whence Goodeve; -lac in Guthlac, now
+Goodlake and Goodluck (Chapter XXI); -laf in Deorlaf, now Dearlove;
+-wacer in Eoforwacer, now Earwaker.
+
+Other themes, and perhaps the greater number, may occur indifferently
+first and second, e.g. beald, god, here, sige, weald, win, wulf or
+ulf.  Thus we have complete reversals in Beald-wine, whence Baldwin,
+and Wine-beald, whence Winbolt, Here-weald, whence Herald, Harold,
+Harrod, and Weald-here, whence Walter (Chapter I).  With these we may
+compare Gold-man and Man-gold, the latter of which has given Mangles.
+So also we have Sige-heard, whence Siggers, and Wulf-sige, now Wolsey,
+Wulf-noth, now the imitative Wallnutt, and Beorht-wulf, later Bardolph
+and Bardell.  The famous name Havelock was borne by the hero of a
+medieval epic, "Havelock the Dane," but Dunstan is usually for the
+local Dunston.  On the other hand, Winston is a personal name,
+Wine-stan, whence Winstanley.
+
+These examples show that the pre-Norman names are by no means
+unrepresented in the twentieth century, but, in this matter, one must
+proceed with caution.  To take as examples the two names that head
+this chapter, there is no doubt that Goderic and Godiva are now
+represented by Goodrich and Goodeve, but these may also belong to the
+small group mentioned in Chapter VI, and stand for good Richard and
+good Eve.  Also Goodrich comes in some cases from Goodrich, formerly
+Gotheridge, in Hereford, which has also given Gutteridge.
+
+Moreover, it must not be forgotten that our medieval nomenclature is
+preponderantly French, as the early rolls show beyond dispute, so
+that, even where a modern name appears susceptible of an Anglo-Saxon
+explanation, it is often safer to refer it to the Old French cognate;
+for the Germanic names introduced into France by the Frankish
+conquerors, and the Scandinavian names which passed into Normandy,
+contained very much the same elements as our own native names, but
+underwent a different phonetic development.  Thus I would rather
+explain Bawden, Bowden, Boulders, Boden, and the dims.  Body and
+Bodkin, as Old French variants from the Old Ger. Baldawin than as
+coming directly from Anglo-Saxon.  Boyden undoubtedly goes back to Old
+Fr. Baudouin.
+
+Practically all the names given in Gower's lines (Chapter V), and many
+others to which I have ascribed a continental origin, are found
+occasionally in England before the Conquest, but the weight of
+evidence shows that they were either adopted in England as French
+names or were corrupted in form by the Norman scribes and officials.
+To take other examples, our Tibbald, Tibbles, Tibbs suggest the Fr.
+Thibaut rather than the natural development of Anglo-Sax. Thiudbeald,
+i.e. Theobald; and Ralph, Relf, Roff, etc., show the regular Old
+French development of Raedwulf, Radolf.  Tibaut Wauter, i.e. Theobald
+Walter, who lived in Lancashire in 1242, had both his names in an old
+French form.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES
+
+As a matter of fact, the various ways of forming nicknames or
+descriptive names, are all used in the pre-Conquest personal names.
+We find Orme, i.e. serpent or dragon (cf. Great Orme's Head), Wulf,
+i.e. Wolf, Hwita, i.e. White, and its derivative Hwiting, now Whiting,
+Saemann, i.e. Seaman, Bonda, i.e. Bond, Leofcild, dear child, now Leif
+child, etc.  But, except the case of Orme, so common as the first
+element of place-names, I doubt the survival of these as purely
+personal names into the surname period and regard White, Seaman, Bond,
+Leif child rather as new epithets of Mid. English formation.  Whiting
+is of course Anglo-Saxon, -ing being the regular patronymic suffix.
+Cf. Browning, Benning, Dering, Dunning, Gunning, Hemming, Kipping,
+Manning, and many others which occur in place-names.  But not all
+names in -ing are Anglo-Saxon, e.g. Baring is German; cf. Behring, of
+the Straits; and Jobling is Fr. Jobelin, a double dim. of Job.
+
+I will now give a few examples of undoubted survival of these
+Anglo-Saxon compounds, showing how the suffixes have been corrupted
+and simplified.  Among the commonest of these suffixes are -beald,
+-beorht, -cytel (Chapter VII.), -god, -heard, -here, -man, -mund,
+-raed, -ric, -weald, -weard, -wine, [Footnote: Bold, bright, kettle,
+god, strong, army, man, protection, counsel, powerful, ruling, guard,
+friend.] which survive in Rumball and Rumbold (Rumbeald), Allbright
+[Footnote: AIbert is of modern German introduction.] and Allbutt
+(Ealdbeorht, i.e. Albert), Arkle (Earncytel), Allgood and Elgood
+(AElfgod), Everett (Eoforheard, i.e. Everard), Gunter (Gundhere),
+Harman (Hereman), Redmond (Raedmund), [Footnote: Pure Anglo-Saxon,
+like the names of so many opponents of English tyranny.  Parnell is of
+course not Irish (Chapter X).] Aldred, Eldred (AEthelraed or
+Ealdraed), Aldridge, Alderick, Eldridge (AEthelric or Ealdric),
+Thorold (Thurweald), and, through Fr. Turold, Turrell, Terrell, and
+Tyrrell, Harward and Harvard (Hereweard), Lewin (Leofwine).
+
+In popular use some of these endings got confused, e.g. Rumbold
+probably sometimes represents Rumweald, while Kennard no doubt stands
+for Coenweard as well as for Coenheard.  Man and round were often
+interchanged (Chapter VI), so that from Eastmund come both Esmond and
+Eastman.  Gorman represents Gormund, and Almond (Chapter XI) is so
+common in the Middle Ages that it must sometimes be from AEthelmund.
+
+Sometimes the modern forms are imitative.  Thus Allchin is for
+Ealhwine (Alcuin), and Goodyear, Goodier and Goodair may represent
+Godhere.  [Footnote: This may, however, be taken literally.  There is
+a German name Gutjahr and a Norfolk name Feaveryear.] Good-beer,
+Godbehere, Gotobed are classed by Bardsley under Godbeorht, whence
+Godber.  But in these three names the face value of the words may well
+be accepted (pp.  156, 203, 206).  Wisgar or Wisgeard has given the
+imitative Whisker and Vizard, and, through French, the Scottish
+Wishart, which is thus the same as the famous Norman Guiscard.
+Garment and Rayment are for Garmund and Regenmund, i.e. Raymond.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS
+
+Other names which can be traced directly to the group of Anglo-Saxon
+names dealt with above are Elphick (AElfheah), which in Norman French
+gave Alphege, Elmer (AElfmaer), Allnutt (AElfnoth), Alwin, Elwin,
+Elvin (AElfwine), Aylmer (AEthelmaer), Aylward (AEthelweard), Kenrick
+(Coenric), Collard (Ceolheard), Colvin (Ceolwine), Darwin (Deorwine),
+Edridge (Eadric), Aldwin, Auden (Ealdwine), Baldry (Bealdred or
+Bealdric), Falstaff (Fastwulf), Filmer (Filumaer), Frewin eowine),
+Garrard, Garrett, Jarrold (Gaerheard, Gaerweald), but probably these
+are through French, Garbett (Garbeald, with which cf. the Italian
+Garibaldi), Gatliffe (Geatleof), Goddard (Godheard), Goodliffe
+(Godleof), Gunnell (Gunhild), Gunner (Gunhere), [Footnote: It is
+unlikely that this name is connected with gun, a word of too late
+appearance.  It may be seen over a shop in Brentford, perhaps kept by
+a descendant of the thane of the adjacent Gunnersbury.] Haines
+(Hagene), Haldane (Haelfdene), Hastings (Haesten, the Danish chief who
+gave his name to Hastings, formerly Haestinga-ceaster), Herbert
+(Herebeorht), Herrick Hereric), Hildyard (Hildegeard), Hubert,
+Hubbard, Hobart, Hibbert (Hygebeorht), Ingram (Ingelram), Lambert
+(Landbeorht), Livesey (Leofsige), Lemon (Leofman), Leveridge
+(Leofric), Loveridge (Luferic), Maynard (Maegenheard), Manfrey
+(Maegenfrith),  Rayner (Regenhere), Raymond (Regenmund), Reynolds
+(Regenweald), Seabright (Sigebeorht or Saebeorht), Sayers (Saegaer),
+[Footnote: The simple Sayer is also for "assayer," either of metals or
+of meat and drink--"essayeur, an essayer; one that tasts, or takes an
+essay; and particularly, an officer in the mint, who touches every
+kind of new Coyne before it be delivered out" (Cotgrave).  Robert le
+sayer, goldsmith, was a London citizen c. 1300.]  Sewell (Saeweald or
+Sigeweald), Seward (Sigeweard), Turbot (Thurbeorht), Thoroughgood
+(Thurgod), Walthew (Waltheof), Warman (Waermund), Wyberd (Wigbeorht),
+Wyman (Wigmund), Willard (Wilheard), Winfrey (Winefrith), Ulyett and
+Woollett (Wulfgeat), Wolmer (Wulfmaer), Woodridge (Wulfric).
+
+In several of these, e.g. Fulcher, Hibbert, Lambert, Reynolds, the
+probability is that the name came through French.  Where an
+alternative explanation is possible, the direct Anglo-Saxon origin is
+generally the less probable.  Thus, although Coning occurs as an
+Anglo-Saxon name, Collings is generally a variant of Collins (cf.
+Jennings for Jennins), and though Hammond is etymologically Haganmund,
+it is better to connect it with the very popular French name Hamon.
+Simmonds might come from Sigemund, but is more likely from Simon with
+excrescent -d (Epithesis, Chapter III).
+
+In many cases the Anglo-Saxon name was a simplex instead of a
+compound.  The simple Cytel survives as Chettle, Kettle.  [Footnote:
+Connected with the kettle or cauldron of Norse mythology.  The
+renowned Captain Kettle, described by his creator as a Welshman, must
+have descended from some hardy Norse pirate.  Many names in this
+chapter are Scandinavian.]  Beorn is one of the origins of Barnes.
+Brand also appears as Braund, Grim is common in place-names, and from
+Grima we have Grimes.  Cola gives Cole, the name of a monarch of
+ancient legend, but this name is more usually from Nicolas (Chapter
+VI).  Gonna is now Gunn, Serl has given the very common Searle, and
+Wicga is Wigg.  From Hacun we have Hack and the dim. Hackett.
+
+To these might be added many examples of pure adjectives, such as
+Freo, Free, Froda, (prudent), Froude, Gods, Good, Leof (dear), Leif,
+Leaf, Read (red), Read, Reid, Reed, Rica, Rich, Rudda (ruddy), Rudd
+and Rodd, Snel (swift, valiant), Snell, Swet, Sweet, etc., or epithets
+such as Boda (messenger), Bode, Cempa (warrior), Kemp, Cyta, Kite,
+Dreng (warrior), Dring, Eorl, Earl, Godcild, Goodchild, Nunna, Nunn,
+Oter, Otter, Puttoc (kite), Puttock, Saemann, Seaman, Spearhafoc,
+Sparhawk, Spark (Chapter I), Tryggr (true), Triggs, Unwine (unfriend),
+Unwin, etc.  But many of these had died out as personal names and, in
+medieval use, were nicknames pure and simple.
+
+
+
+MONOSYLLABIC NAMES
+
+Finally, there is a very large group of Anglo-Saxon dissyllabic names,
+usually ending in -a, which appear to be pet forms of the longer
+names, though it is not always possible to establish the connection.
+Many of them have double forms with a long and short vowel
+respectively.  It is to this class that we must refer the large number
+of our monosyllabic surnames, which would otherwise defy
+interpretation.  Anglo-Sax. Dodds gave Dodd, while Dodson's partner
+Fogg had an ancestor Focga.  Other examples are Bacga, Bagg, Benna,
+Benn, Bota, Boot and dim. Booty, Botts, Bolt, whence Bolting, Bubba,
+Bubb, Budda, Budd, Bynna, Binns, Cada, Cade, Cobbs, Cobb, Coda, Coad,
+Codda, Codd, Cuffs, Cuff, Deda, Deedes, Duda, Dowd, Duna, Down, Donna,
+Dunn, Dutta, Dull, Eada, Eade, Edes, etc., Ebba, Ebbs; Eppa, Epps,
+Hudda, Hud, whence Hudson, Inga, Inge, Sibba, Sibbs, Sicga, Siggs,
+Tata, Tate and Tait, Tidda, Tidd, Tigga, Tigg, Toca, Tooke, Tucca,
+Tuck, Wada, Wade, Wadda, Waddy, etc.  Similarly French took from
+German a number of surnames formed from shortened names in -o, with an
+accusative in -on, e.g. Old Ger. Bodo has given Fr. Bout and Bouton,
+whence perhaps our Butt and Button.
+
+But the names exemplified above are very thinly represented in early
+records, and, though their existence in surnames derived from
+place-names (Dodsley, Bagshaw, Bensted, Bedworth, Cobham, Ebbsworth,
+etc.) would vouch for them even if they were not recorded, their
+comparative insignificance is attested by the fact that they form very
+few derivatives.
+
+Compare, for instance, the multitudinous surnames which go back to
+monosyllables of the later type of name, such as John and Hugh, with
+the complete sterility of the names above.  Therefore, when an
+alternative derivation for a surname is possible, it is usually ten to
+one that this alternative is right.  Dodson is a simplified Dodgson,
+from Roger (Chapter VI); Benson belongs to Benedict, sometimes to
+Benjamin; Cobbett is a disguised Cuthbert or Cobbold (cf. Garrett,
+Chapter II); Down is usually local, at the down or dune; Dunn is
+medieval le dun, a colour nickname; names in Ead-, Ed-, are usually
+from the medieval female name Eda (Chapter VI); Sibbs generally
+belongs to Sibilla or Sebastian; Tait must sometimes be for Fr. Tête,
+with which cf. Eng. Head; Tidd is an old pet form of Theodore; and
+Wade is more frequently atte wade, i.e. ford.  Even Ebbs and Epps are
+more likely to be shortened forms of Isabella, usually reduced to Ib,
+or Ibbot (Chapter X), or of the once popular Euphemia.
+
+To sum up, we may say that the Anglo-Saxon element in our surnames is
+much larger than one would imagine from Bardsley's Dictionary, and
+that it accounts, not only for names which have a distinctly
+Anglo-Saxon suffix or a disguised form of one, but also for a very
+large number of monosyllabic names which survive in isolation and
+without kindred.  In this chapter I have only given sets of
+characteristic examples, to which many more might be added.  It would
+be comparatively easy, with some imagination and a conscientious
+neglect of evidence, to connect the greater number of our surnames
+with the Anglo-Saxons.
+
+Thus Honeyball might very well represent the Anglo-Sax. Hunbeald, but,
+in the absence of links, it is better to regard it as a popular
+perversion of Hannibal (Chapter VIII).  In dealing with this subject,
+the via media is the safe one, and one cannot pass in one stride from
+Hengist and Horsa to the Reformation period.
+
+
+
+"HIDEOUS NAMES"
+
+Matthew Arnold, in his essay on the Function of Criticism at the
+Present Time, is moved by the case of Poor Wragg, who was "in
+custody," to the following wail--
+
+"What a touch of grossness in our race, what an original shortcoming
+in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural
+growth amongst us of such hideous names-Higginbottom, Stiggins, Bugg!"
+
+But this is the poet's point of view.  Though there may have been "no
+Wragg by the Ilissus," it is not a bad name, for, in its original form
+Ragg, it is the first element of the heroic Ragnar, and probably
+unrelated to Raggett, which is the medieval le ragged.  Bugg, which
+one family exchanged for Norfolk Howard, is the Anglo-Saxon Bucgo, a
+name no doubt borne by many a valiant warrior.  Stiggins, as we have
+seen (Chapter XIII), goes back to a name great in history, and
+Higginbottom (Chapter XII) is purely geographical.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES
+
+"Morz est Rollanz, Deus en ad l'anme es ciels.
+ Li Emperere en Rencesvals parvient...
+ Carles escriet: 'U estes vus, bels niés?
+ U l'Arcevesques e li quens Oliviers?
+ U est Gerins e sis cumpainz Geriers?
+ Otes u est e Ii quens Berengiers?
+ Ives e Ivories que j'aveie tant chiers?
+ Qu'est devenuz li Guascuinz Engeliers,
+ Sansun li dux e Anseïs li fiers?
+ U est Gerarz de Russillun li vielz,
+ Li duze per que j'aveie laissiet?'"
+
+(Chanson de Roland, 1.  2397.)
+
+[Footnote: "Dead is Roland, God has his soul in heaven.  The Emperor
+arrives at Roncevaux... Charles cries: 'Where are you, fair nephew?
+Where the archbishop (Turpin) and Count Oliver?  Where is Gerin and
+his comrade Gerier?  Where is Odo and count Berenger?  Ivo and Ivory
+whom I held so dear?  What has become of the Gascon Engelier?  Samson
+the duke and Anseis the proud?  Where is Gerard of Roussillon the old,
+the twelve peers whom I had left?' "]
+
+It is natural that many favourite names should be taken from those of
+heroes of romance whose exploits were sung all over Europe by
+wandering minstrels.  Such names, including those taken from the Round
+Table legends, usually came to us through French, though a few names
+of the British heroes are Welsh, e.g. Cradock from Caradoc
+(Caractacus) and Maddox from Madoc.
+
+
+
+THE ROUND TABLE
+
+But the Round Table stories were versified much later than the true
+Old French Chansons de Geste, which had a basis in the national
+history, and not many of Arthur's knights are immortalized as
+surnames.  We have Tristram, Lancelot, whence Lance, Percival, Gawain
+in Gavin, and Kay.  But the last named is, like Key, more usually from
+the word we now spell "quay," though Key and Keys can also be
+shop-signs, as of course Crosskeys is.  Linnell is sometimes for
+Lionel, as Neil, [Footnote: But the Scottish Neil is a Gaelic name
+often exchanged for the unrelated Nigel.]  Neal for Nigel.  The ladies
+have fared better.  Vivian, which is sometimes from the masculine
+Vivien, is found in Dorset as Vye, and Isolt and Guinevere, which long
+survived as font-names in Cornwall, have given several names.  From
+Isolt come Isard, Isitt, Izzard, Izod, and many other forms, while
+Guinever appears as Genever, Jennifer, Gaynor, Gilliver, Gulliver,
+[Footnote: There is also an Old Fr. Gulafre which will account for
+some of the Gullivers.]  and perhaps also as Juniper.  It is probably
+also the source of Genn and Ginn, though these may come also from
+Eugenia or from Jane.  The later prose versions of the Arthurian
+stories, such as those of Malory, are full of musical and picturesque
+names like those used by Mr. Maurice Hewlett, but this artificial
+nomenclature has left no traces in our surnames.
+
+Of the paladins the most popular was Roland or Rowland, who survives
+as Rowe, Rowlinson, Rolls, Rollit, etc., sometimes coalescing with the
+derivations of Raoul, another epic hero.  Gerin or Geri gave Jeary,
+and Oates is the nominative (Chapter VIII) of Odo, an important Norman
+name.  Berenger appears as Barringer and Bellinger (Chapter III).  The
+simple Oliver is fairly common, but it also became the Cornish Olver.
+But perhaps the largest surname family connected with the paladins is
+derived from the Breton Ives or Ivon [Footnote: A number of Old French
+names had an accusative in -on or -ain.  Thus we find Otes, Oton,
+Ives, Ivain, and feminines such as Ide, Idain, all of which survive as
+English surnames.] whose name appears in that of two English towns.
+It is the same as Welsh Evan, and the Yvain of the Arthurian legends,
+and has given us Ives, Ivison, Ivatts, etc.  The modern surname Ivory
+is usually an imitative form of Every or Avery (p, 82).  Gerard has a
+variety of forms in Ger- and Gar-, Jerand Jar- (see p.32).  The others
+do not seem to have survived, except the redoubtable Archbishop
+Turpin, whose fame is probably less than that of his namesake Dick.
+
+Besides the paladins, there are many heroes of Old French epic whose
+names were popular during the two centuries that followed the
+Conquest.  Ogier le Danois, who also fought at Roncevaux, has given us
+Odgers; Fierabras occasionally crops up as Fairbrass, Firebrace;
+Aimeri de Narbonne, from Almaric, [Footnote: A metathesis of Amalric,
+which is found in Anglo-Saxon.]  whence Ital. Amerigo, is in English
+Amery, Emery, Imray, etc.; Renaud de Montauban is represented by
+Reynolds (Chapter VII) and Reynell.
+
+The famous Doon de Mayence may have been an ancestor of Lorna, and the
+equally famous Garin, or Warin, de Monglane has given us Gearing,
+Gearing, Waring, sometimes Warren, and the diminutives Garnett and
+Warnett.  Milo, of Greek origin, became Miles, with dim. Millett, but
+the chief origin of the surname Miles is a contracted form of the
+common font-name Michael.  Amis and Amiles were the David and Jonathan
+of Old French epic and the former survives as Ames, Amies, and Amos,
+the last an imitative form.
+
+We have also Berner from Bernier, Bartram from Bertran, Farrant from
+Fernand, Terry and Terriss from Thierry, the French form of Ger.
+Dietrich (Theodoric), which, through Dutch, has given also Derrick.
+Garner, from Ger. Werner, is our Garner and Warner, though these have
+other origins (pp.  154, 185).  Dru, from Drogo, has given Drew, with
+dim. Druitt (Chapter V), and Druce, though the latter may also come
+from the town of Dreux.  Walrond and Waldron are for Waleran, usually
+Galeran, and King Pippin had a retainer named Morant.  Saint Leger, or
+Leodigarius, appears as Ledger, Ledgard, etc., and sometimes in the
+shortened Legg.  Among the heroines we have Orbell from Orable, while
+Blancheflour may have suggested Lillywhite; but the part played by
+women in the Chansons de Geste was insignificant.
+
+
+
+THE CHANSONS DE GESTE
+
+As this element in our nomenclature has hitherto received no
+attention, it may be well to add a few more examples of names which
+occur very frequently in the Chansons de Geste and which have
+undoubted representatives in modern English.  Allard was one of the
+Four Sons of Aymon.  The name is etymologically identical with Aylward
+(Chapter VII), but in the above form has reached us through French.
+Acard or Achard is represented by Haggard, Haggett, and Hatchard,
+Hatchett, though Haggard probably has another origin (Chapter XXIII).
+Harness is imitative for Harnais, Herneis.  Clarabutt is for
+Clarembaut; cf. Archbutt for Archembaut, the Old French form of
+Archibald, Archbold.  Durrant is Durand, still a very common French
+surname.  Ely is Old Fr. Élie, i.e. Elias (Chapter IX), which had the
+dim. Elyot.  [Footnote: For other names belonging to this group see
+Chapter IX.]  We also find Old Fr. Helye, whence our Healey.
+Enguerrand is telescoped to Ingram, though this may also come from the
+English form Ingelram.  Fawkes is the Old Fr. Fauques, nominative
+(Chapter VIII) of Faucon, i.e. falcon.  Galpin is contracted from
+Galopin, a famous epic thief, but it may also come from the common
+noun galopin--
+
+"Galloppins, under cookes, or scullions in monasteries."
+
+(Cotgrave.)
+
+In either case it means a "runner." Henfrey is from Heinfrei or
+Hainfroi, identical with Anglo-Sax. Haganfrith, and Manser from
+Manesier.  Neame (Chapter XXI) may sometimes represent Naime, the
+Nestor of Old French epic and the sage counsellor of Charlemagne.
+Richer, from Old Fr. Richier, has generally been absorbed by the
+cognate Richard.  Aubrey and Avery are from Alberic, cognate with
+Anglo-Sax. AElfric.  An unheroic name like Siggins may be connected
+with several heroes called Seguin.
+
+
+
+ANTIQUE NAMES
+
+Nor are the heroes of antiquity altogether absent.  Along with Old
+French national and Arthurian epics there were a number of romances
+based on the legends of Alexander, Caesar, and the tale of Troy.
+Alexander, or Saunder, was the favourite among this class of names,
+especially in Scotland.  Cayzer was generally a nickname (Chapter
+XIII), its later form Cesar being due to Italian influence, [Footnote:
+Julius Cesar, physician to Queen Elizabeth, was a Venetian
+(Bardsley).] and the same applies to Hannibal, [Footnote: But the
+frequent occurrence of this name and its corruptions in Cornwall
+suggests that it may really have been introduced by Carthaginian
+sailors.] when it is not an imitative form of the female name Annabel,
+also corrupted into Honeyball.  Both Dionisius and Dionisia were once
+common, and have survived as Dennis, Dennett, Denny, and from the
+shortened Dye we get Dyson.  But this Dionisius was the patron saint
+of France.  Apparent names of heathen gods and goddesses are almost
+always due to folk-etymology, e.g. Bacchus is for back-house or
+bake-house, and the ancestors of Mr. Wegg's friend Venus came from
+Venice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR
+
+" 'O Now you see, brother Toby,' he would say, looking up, 'that
+Christian names are not such indifferent things;--had Luther here been
+called by any other name but Martin, he would have been damn'd to all
+eternity' "
+
+ (Tristram Shandy, ch. xxxv).
+
+
+
+OLD TESTAMENT NAMES
+
+The use of biblical names as font-names does not date from the
+Puritans, nor are surnames derived from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
+necessarily Jewish.  The Old Testament names which were most popular
+among the medieval peasants from whom we nearly all spring were
+naturally those connected with the most picturesque episodes of sacred
+history.  Taking as an example the father of all men, we find derived
+from the name Adam the following: Adams, Adamson, Adcock, Addis,
+Addison, Adds, Addy, Ade, Ades, Adey, Adis, Ady, Addey, Aday, Adee,
+Addyman, Adkin, Adkins, Adkinson, Adnett, [Footnote: Adenet (little
+Adam) le Roi was an Old French epic hero.] Adnitt, Adnet, Adnot,
+Atkin, Atkins, Atkinson, and the northern Aitken, etc.  This list,
+compiled from Bardsley's Dictionary of Surnames, is certainly not
+exhaustive.  Probably Taddy is rimed on Addy as Taggy is on Aggy
+(Agnes).  To put together all the derivatives of John or Thomas would
+be a task almost beyond the wit of man.  Names in Abb-, App-, may come
+from either Abraham or Abel, and from Abbs we also have Nabbs.  Cain
+was of course unpopular.  Cain, Cane, Kain, when not Manx, is from the
+town of Caen or from Norman quêne, an oak.
+
+Moses appears in the French form Moyes (Moïse) as early as 1273, and
+still earlier as Moss.  Of the patriarchs the favourites were perhaps
+Jacob and Joseph, the name Jessop from the latter having been
+influenced by Ital. Giuseppe.  Benjamin has sometimes given Benson and
+Bennett, but these are generally for Benedict (Chapter IV).  The
+Judges are poorly represented, except Samson, a name which has
+obviously coalesced with the derivatives of Samuel.  David had, of
+course, an immense vogue, especially in Wales (for some of its
+derivatives see Chapter VI), and Solomon was also popular, the modern
+Salmon not always being a Jewish name.
+
+But almost the favourite Old Testament name was Elijah, Elias, which,
+usually through its Old French form Élie, whence Ely, is the parent of
+Ellis, Elliot, and many other names in El-, some of which, however,
+have to be shared with Ellen and Alice (Chapter X).  Job was also
+popular, and is easily recognized in Jobson, Jobling, etc., but less
+easily in Chubb (Chapter III) and Jupp.  The intermediate form was the
+obsolete Joppe.  Among the prophetic writers Daniel was an easy
+winner, Dann, Dance (Chapter I), Dannatt, Dancock, etc.  Balaam is an
+imitative spelling of the local Baylham.
+
+In considering these Old Testament names it must be remembered that
+the people did not possess the Bible in the vernacular.  The teaching
+of the parish priests made them familiar with selected episodes, from
+which they naturally took the names which appeared to contain the
+greatest element of holiness or of warlike renown.  It is probable
+that the mystery plays were not without influence; for the personal
+name was not always a fixed quantity, and many of the names mentioned
+in the preceding paragraph may have been acquired rather on the
+medieval stage than at the font.
+
+This would apply with still more force to names taken from the legends
+of saints and martyrs on which the miracle plays were based.  We even
+find the names Saint, Martyr and Postill, the regular aphetic form of
+apostle (Chapter III), just as we find King and Pope.  Camden,
+speaking of the freedom with which English names are formed, quotes a
+Dutchman, who--
+
+"When he heard of English men called God and Devil, said, that the
+English borrowed names from all things whatsoever, good or bad."
+
+The medieval name Godde may of course be for Good, Anglo-Sax. Goda,
+but Ledieu is common enough in France.  The name seems to be obsolete,
+unless it is disguised as Goad.  The occurrence in medieval rolls of
+Diabolus and le Diable shows that Deville need not always be for de
+Eyville.  There was probably much competition for this important part,
+and the name would not be always felt as uncomplimentary.  Among
+German surnames we find not only Teufel, but also the compounds
+Manteufel and Teufelskind.
+
+
+
+NEW TESTAMENT NAMES
+
+Coming to the New Testament, we find the four Evangelists strongly
+represented, especially the first and last.  Matthew appears not only
+in an easily recognizable form, e.g. in Matheson, but also as Mayhew
+and Mayo, Old Fr. Mahieu.  From the latter form we have the shortened
+May and Mee, whence Mayes, Makins, Meakin, Meeson, [Footnote: One
+family of Meeson claims descent from Malvoisin.]  and sometimes Mason.
+Mark is one of the sources of March (p, 90), as Luke is of Luck,
+whence Lucock, Luckett, etc, though we more often find the learned
+form Lucas.
+
+Of John there is no need to speak.  Of the apostles the great
+favourites, Simon, or Peter, John, and Bartholomew have already been
+mentioned.  Almost equally popular was Philip, whence Philp, Phipps,
+Phelps, and the dim. Philpot, whence the aphetic Pott, Potts.  Andrew
+flourished naturally in Scotland, its commonest derivative being
+Anderson, while Dendy is for the rimed form Dandy.  Paul has of course
+had a great influence and is responsible for Pawson or Porson,
+Pawling, Polson, Pollett, and most names in Pol-. [Footnote: This does
+not of course apply to Cornish names in Pol- (Chapter VI)]  It is
+also, in the form Powell, assimilated to the Welsh Ap Howel.  Paul is
+regularly spelt Poule by Chaucer, and St. Paul's Cathedral is often
+called Powles in Tudor documents.  Paul's companions are poorly
+represented, for Barnby is local, while names in Sil- and Sel- come
+from shortened form of Cecil, Cecilia, and Silvester.  Another great
+name from the Acts of the Apostles is that of the protomartyr Stephen,
+among the numerous derivatives of which we must include Stennett and
+Stimpson.
+
+Many non-biblical saints whose names occur very frequently have
+already been mentioned, e.g. Antony, Bernard, Gregory, Martin,
+Lawrence, Nicholas, etc To these may be added Augustine, or Austin,
+Christopher, or Kit, with the dim. Christie and the patronymic Kitson,
+Clement, whence a large family of names in Clem-, Gervase or Jarvis,
+Jerome, sometimes represented by Jerram, and Theodore or Tidd (cf.
+Tibb fron Theobald), who becomes in Welsh Tudor.  Vincent has  given
+Vince, Vincey and Vincett, and Baseley, Blazey are from Basil and
+Blaine.  The Anglo-Saxon saints are poorly represented, though
+probably most of them survive in a disguised form, e.g. Price is
+sometimes for Brice, Cuthbert has sometimes given Cubitt and Cobbett,
+and also Cutts.  Bottle sometimes represents Botolf, Neate may be for
+Neot, and Chad (Ceadda) survives as Chatt and in many local names.
+The Cornish Tangye is from the Breton St. Tanneguy.  The Archangel
+Michael has given one of our commonest names, Mitchell (Chapter IV).
+This is through French, but we have also the contracted Miall--
+
+"At Michael's term had many a trial,
+Worse than the dragon and St. Michael."
+
+(Hudibras, III. ii. 51.)
+
+[Footnote: Cf. Vialls from Vitalis, also a saint's name.]
+
+This name exists in several other forms, e.g. Mihell, Myhill, Mighill,
+and most frequently of all as Miles (Chapter VIII).  The reader will
+remember the famous salient of Saint-Mihiel, on the Meuse, held by the
+Germans for so long a period of the war.  From Gabriel we have Gabb,
+Gabbett, etc.  The common rustic pronunciation Gable has given Cable
+(Chapter III).
+
+Among female saints we find Agnes, pronounced Annis, the derivatives
+of which have become confused with those of Anne, or Nan, Catherine,
+whence Call, Catlin, etc., Cecilia, Cicely, whence Sisley, and of
+course Mary and Margaret.  For these see Chapter X.  St. Bride, or
+Bridget, survives in Kirkbride.
+
+
+
+FEAST-DAYS
+
+A very interesting group of surnames are derived from font-names taken
+from the great feasts of the Church, date of birth or baptism, etc.
+[Footnote: Names of this class were no doubt also sometimes given to
+foundlings.]  These are more often French or Greco-Latin than English,
+a fact to be explained by priestly influence.  Thus Christmas is much
+less common than Noel or Nowell, but we also find Midwinter (Chapter
+II) and Yule.  Easter has a local origin (from a place in Essex) and
+also represents Mid. Eng. estre, a word of very vague meaning for part
+of a building, originally the exterior, from Lat. extra.  It survives
+in Fr. les êtres d'une maison.  Hester, to which Bardsley gives the
+same origin, I should rather connect with Old Fr. hestre (hêtre), a
+beech.  However that may be, the Easter festival is represented in our
+surnames by Pascall, Cornish Pascoe, and Pask, Pash, Pace, Pack.
+
+Patch, formerly a nickname for a jester (Chapter XX), from his motley
+clothes, is also sometimes a variant of Pash.  And the dim. Patchett
+has become confused with Padgett, from Padge, a rimed form of Madge.
+Pentecost is recorded as a personal name in Anglo-Saxon times.
+Michaelmas is now Middleman (Chapter III), and Tiffany is an old name
+for Epiphany.  It comes from Greco-Latin theophania (while Epiphany
+represents epiphania), which gave the French female name Tiphaine,
+whence our Tiffin.  Lammas (loaf mass) is also found as a personal
+name, but there is a place called Lammas in Norfolk.  We have
+compounds of day in Halliday or Holiday, Hay-day, for high day,
+Loveday, a day appointed for reconciliations, and Hockaday, for a
+child born during Hocktide, which begins on the 15th day after Easter.
+It was also called Hobday, though it is hard to say why; hence the
+name Hobday, unless this is to be taken as the day, or servant
+(Chapter XIX), in the service of Hob; cf. Hobman.
+
+The days of the week are puzzling, the only one at all common being
+Munday, though most of the others are found in earlier nomenclature.
+We should rather expect special attention to be given to Sunday and
+Friday, and, in fact, Sonntag and Freytag are by far the most usual in
+German, while Dimanche and its perversions are common in France, and
+Vendredi also occurs.  This makes me suspect some other origin,
+probably local, for Munday, the more so as Fr. Dimanche, Demange,
+etc., is often for the personal name Dominicus, the etymology
+remaining the same as that of the day-name, the Lord's day.  Parts of
+the day seem to survive in Noon, Eve, and Morrow, but Noon is local,
+Fr. Noyon (cf. Moon, earlier Mohun, from Moyon), Eve is the mother of
+mankind, and Morrow is for moor-wro, the second element being Mid.
+Eng. wra, comer, whence Wray.
+
+
+
+MONTH NAMES
+
+We find the same difficulty with the names of the months.  Several of
+these are represented in French, but our March has four other origins,
+from March in Cambridgeshire, from march, a boundary, from marsh, or
+from Mark; while May means in Mid. English a maiden (Chapter XXI), and
+is also a dim. of Matthew (Chapter IX).  The names of the seasons also
+present difficulty.  Spring usually corresponds to Fr. La Fontaine
+(Chapter II), but we find also Lent, the old name for the season, and
+French has Printemps. [Footnote: The cognate Ger. Lenz is fairly
+common, hence the frequency of Lent in America.]  Summer and Winter
+[Footnote: Winter was one of Hereward's most faithful comrades.]  are
+found very early as nicknames, as are also Frost and Snow; but why
+always Summers or Somers with s and Winter without? [Footnote: Two
+other common nicknames were Flint and Steel.]  The latter has no doubt
+in many cases absorbed Vinter, vintner (Chapter III) but this will not
+account for the complete absence of genitive forms.  And what has
+become of the other season?  We should not expect to find the learned
+word "autumn," but neither Fall nor Harvest, the true English
+equivalents, are at all common as surnames.
+
+I regard this group, viz. days, months, seasons, as one of the least
+clearly accounted for in our nomenclature, and cannot help thinking
+that the more copious examples which we find in French and German are
+largely distorted forms due to the imitative instinct, or are
+susceptible of other explanations.  This is certainly true in some
+cases, e.g. Fr. Mars is the regular French development of Medardus, a
+saint to whom a well-known Parisian church is dedicated; and the
+relationship of Janvier to Janus may be via the Late Lat. januarius,
+for janitor, a doorkeeper.
+
+[Footnote: Medardus was the saint who, according to Ingoldsby, lived
+largely on oysters obtained by the Red Sea shore.  At his church in
+Paris were performed the 'miracles' of the Quietists in the
+seventeenth century.  When the scenes that took place became a
+scandal, the government intervened, with the result that a wag adorned
+the church door with the following:
+
+"De par le Roi, défense à Dieu
+De faire miracle en ce lieu."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS
+
+"During the whole evening Mr. Jellyby sat in a corner with his head
+against the wall, as if he were subject to low spirits."
+
+(Bleak House, ch. iv.)
+
+Bardsley first drew attention to the very large number of surnames
+derived from an ancestress.  His views have been subjected to much
+ignorant criticism by writers who, taking upon themselves the task of
+defending medieval virtue, have been unwilling to accept this terrible
+picture of the moral condition of England, etc.  This anxiety is
+misplaced.  There are many reasons, besides illegitimacy, for the
+adoption of the mother's name.  In medieval times the children of a
+widow, especially posthumous children, would often assume the mother's
+name.  Widdowson itself is sufficiently common.  In the case of second
+marriages the two families might sometimes be distinguished by their
+mothers' names.  Orphans would be adopted by female relatives, and a
+medieval Mrs.  Joe Gargery would probably have impressed her own name
+rather than that of her husband on a medieval Pip.  In a village which
+counted two Johns or Williams, and few villages did not, the children
+of one might assume, or rather would be given by the public voice, the
+mother's name.  Finally, metronymics can be collected in hundreds by
+anyone who cares to work through a few early registers.
+
+
+
+FEMALE FONT-NAMES
+
+Thus, in the Lancashire Inquests 205-1307 occur plenty of people
+described as the sons of Alice, Beatrice, Christiana, Eda, Eva,
+Mariot, Matilda, Quenilda, [Footnote: An Anglo-Saxon name, Cynehild,
+whence Quennell.]  Sibilla, Ysolt.  Even if illegitimacy were the only
+reason, that would not concern the philologist.
+
+Female names undergo the same course of treatment as male names.  Mary
+gave the diminutives Marion and Mariot, whence Marriott.  It was
+popularly shortened into Mal (cf. Hal for Harry), which had the
+diminutive Mally.  From these we have Mawson and Malleson, the former
+also belonging to Maud.  Mal and Mally became Mol and Molly, hence
+Mollison.  The rimed forms Pol, Polly are later, and names in
+Pol- usually belong to Paul (Chapter IX).  The name Morris has three
+other origins (the font-name Maurice, the nickname Moorish, and the local
+marsh), but both Morris and Morrison are sometimes to be referred to
+Mary.  Similarly Margaret, popularly Mar-get, became Mag, Meg, Mog,
+whence Meggitt, Moxon, etc.  The rarity of Maggot is easily
+understood, but Poll Maggot was one of Jack Sheppard's accomplices and
+Shakespeare uses maggot-pie for magpie (Macbeth, iii, 4).  Meg was
+rimed into Peg, whence Peggs, Mog into Pog, whence Pogson, and Madge
+into Padge, whence Padgett, when this is not for Patchett (Chapter
+IX), or for the Fr. Paget, usually explained as Smallpage.  The royal
+name Matilda appears in the contracted Maud, Mould, Moule, Mott,
+Mahood (Old Fr. Maheut).  Its middle syllable Till gave Tilly, Tillson
+and the dim. Tillet, Tillot, whence Tillotson.  From Beatrice we have
+Bee, Beaton and Betts, and the northern Beattie, which are not
+connected with the great name Elizabeth.  This is in medieval rolls
+represented by its cognate Isabel, of which the shortened form was
+Bell (Chapter I), or Ib, the latter giving Ibbot, Ibbotson, and the
+rimed forms Tib-, Nib-, Bib-, Lib-.  Here also belong Ebbs and Epps
+rather than to the Anglo-Sax. Ebba (Chapter VII).
+
+Many names which would now sound somewhat ambitious were common among
+the medieval peasantry and are still found in the outlying parts of
+England, especially Devon and Cornwall.  Among the characters in Mr.
+Eden Phillpotts's Widecombe Fair are two sisters named Sibley and
+Petronell.  From Sibilla, now Sibyl, come most names in Sib-, though
+this was used also as a dim. of Sebastian (see also Chapter VII),
+while Petronilla, has given Parnell, Purnell.  As a female name it
+suffered the eclipse to which certain names are accidentally subject,
+and became equivalent to wench.  References to a "prattling Parnel"
+are common in old writers, and the same fate overtook it in French--
+
+"Taisez-vous, péronnelle" (Tartufe, i.  1).
+
+Mention has already been made of the survival of Guinevere (Chapter
+VIII).  From Cassandra we have Cash, Cass, Case, and Casson, from
+Idonia, Ide, Iddins, Iddison; these were no doubt confused with the
+derivatives of Ida.  William filius Idae is in the Fine Rolls of
+John's reign, and John Idonyesone occurs there, temp. Edward I.  Pim,
+as a female font-name, may be from Euphemia, and Siddons appears to
+belong to Sidonia, while the pretty name Avice appears as Avis and
+Haweis.  From Lettice, Lat. laetitia, joy, we have Letts, Lettson,
+while the corresponding Joyce, Lat. jocosa, merry, has become confused
+with Fr. Josse (Chapter I).  Anstey, Antis, is from Anastasia,
+Precious from Preciosa, and Royce from Rohesia.
+
+
+
+DOUBTFUL CASES
+
+It is often difficult to separate patronymics from metronymics.  We
+have already seen (Chapter VI) that names in Ed- may be from Eda or
+from Edward, while names in Gil- must be shared between Julian,
+Juliana, Guillaume, Gilbert, and Giles.  There are many other cases
+like Julian and Juliana, e.g. Custance is for Constance, but Cust may
+also represent the masculine Constant, while among the derivatives of
+Philip we must not forget the warlike Philippa.  Or, to take pairs
+which are unrelated, Kitson may be from Christopher or from Catherine,
+and Mattison from Matthew or from Martha, which became Matty and
+Patty, the derivatives of the latter coalescing with those of Patrick
+(Chapter VI).  It is obvious that the derivatives of Alice would be
+confused with those of Allen, while names in El- may represent Elias
+or Eleanor.  Also names in Al- and El- are sometimes themselves
+confused, e.g. the Anglo-Saxon AElfgod appears both as Allgood and
+Elgood.  More Nelsons are derived from Neil, i.e. Nigel, than from
+Nell, the rimed dim. of Ellen.  Emmett is a dim. of Emma, but Empson
+may be a shortened Emerson from Emery (Chapter VIII).  The rather
+commonplace Tibbles stands for both Theobald and Isabella, and the
+same is true of all names in Tib- and some in Teb-.  Lastly, the
+coalescence of John, the commonest English font-name, with Joan, the
+earlier form of Jane, was inevitable, while the French forms Jean and
+Jeanne would be undistinguishable in their derivatives.  These names
+between them have given an immense number of surnames, the masculine
+or feminine interpretation of which must be left to the reader's
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES
+
+"Now as men have always first given names unto places, so hath it
+afterwards grown usuall that men have taken their names from places"
+
+(VERSTEGAN, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence).
+
+There is an idea cherished by some people that the possession of a
+surname which is that of a village or other locality points to
+ancestral ownership of that region.  This is a delusion.  In the case
+of quite small features of the landscape, e.g. Bridge, Hill, the name
+was given from place of residence.  But in the case of counties, towns
+and villages, the name was usually acquired when the locality was
+left.  Thus John Tiler leaving Acton, perhaps for Acton's good, would
+be known in his new surroundings as John Acton.  A moment's reflection
+will show that this must be so.  Scott is an English name, the
+aristocratic Scotts beyond the border representing a Norman family
+Escot, originally of Scottish origin.  English, early spelt Inglis, is
+a Scottish name.  The names Cornish and Cornwallis first became common
+in Devonshire, as Devenish did outside that county.  French and
+Francis, Old Fr. le franceis, are English names, just as  Langlois
+(l'Anglais) is common in France.  For the same reason Cutler is a rare
+name in Sheffield, where all are cutlers.  By exception the name
+Curnow, which is Cornish for a Cornishman, is fairly common in its
+native county, but it was perhaps applied especially to those
+inhabitants who could only speak the old Cornish language.
+
+
+
+CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES
+
+The local name may range in origin from a country to a plant (France,
+Darbishire, Lankester, Ashby, Street, House, Pound, Plumptre, Daisy),
+and, mathematically stated, the size of the locality will vary in
+direct proportion to the distance from which the immigrant has come.
+Terentius Afer was named from a continent.  I cannot find a parallel
+in England, but names such as the nouns France, Ireland, Pettingell
+(Portugal), or the adjectives Dench, Mid. Eng. dense, Danish, Norman,
+Welsh, (Walsh, Wallis, etc.), Allman (Allemand), often perverted to
+Almond, were considered a sufficient mark of identification for men
+who came from foreign parts.  But the untravelled inhabitant, if
+distinguished by a local name, would often receive it from some very
+minute feature of the landscape, e.g. Solomon Daisy may have been
+descended from a Robert Dayeseye, who lived in Hunts in 1273.  It is
+not very easy to see how such very trifling surnames as this last came
+into existence, but its exiguity is surpassed in the case of a
+prominent French airman who bears the appropriately buoyant name of
+Brindejonc, perhaps from some ancestor who habitually chewed a straw.
+
+An immense number of our countrymen are simply named from the points
+of the compass, slightly disguised in Norris, Anglo-Fr. le noreis,
+[Footnote: The corresponding le surreis is now represented by
+Surridge.] Sotheran, the southron, and Sterling, for Easterling, a
+name given to the Hanse merchants.  Westray was formerly le westreis.
+A German was to our ancestors, as he still is to sailors, a Dutchman,
+whence our name Douch, Ger. deutsch, Old High Ger. tiutisc, which,
+through Old French tieis, has given Tyas.  [Footnote: Tyars, or Tyers,
+which Bardsley puts with this, seems to be rather Fr. Thiers, Lat.
+tertius.]
+
+But not every local name is to be taken at its face value.  Holland is
+usually from one of the Lancashire Hollands, and England may be for
+Mid. Eng. ing-land, the land of Ing (cf. Ingulf, Ingold, etc.), a
+personal name which is the first element in many place-names, or from
+ing, a meadow by a stream.  Holyland is not Palestine, but the
+holly-land.  Hampshire is often for Hallamshire, a district in
+Yorkshire.  Dane is a variant of Mid. Eng. dene, a valley, the
+inhabitant of Denmark having given us Dench (Chapter XI) and Dennis
+(le daneis).  Visitors to Margate will remember the valley called the
+Dane, which stretches from the harbour to St. Peters.  Saxon is not
+racial, but a perversion of sexton (Chapter XVII).  Mr. Birdofredum
+Sawin, commenting on the methods employed in carrying out the great
+mission of the Anglo-Saxon race, remarks that--
+
+"Saxons would be handy
+To du the buryin' down here upon the Rio Grandy"
+
+(Lowell, Biglow Papers).
+
+The name Cockayne was perhaps first given derisively to a sybarite--
+
+"Paris est pour le riche un pays de Cocagne" (Boileau),
+
+but it may be an imitative form of Coken in Durham.
+
+Names such as Morris, i.e. Moorish, or Sarson, i.e. Saracen (but also
+for Sara-son), are rather nicknames, due to complexion or to an
+ancestor who was mine host of the Saracen's Head.  Moor is sometimes
+of similar origin.  Russ, like Rush, is one of the many forms of Fr.
+roux, red-complexioned (Chapter II).  Pole is for Pool, the native of
+Poland being called Polack--
+
+"He smote the sledded Polack on the ice" (Hamlet, I. i).
+
+But the name Pollock is local (Renfrewshire).
+
+
+
+COUNTIES AND TOWNS
+
+As a rule it will be found that, while most of our counties have given
+family names, sometimes corrupted, e.g. Lankshear, Willsher, Cant,
+Chant, for Kent, with which we may compare Anguish for Angus, the
+larger towns are rather poorly represented, the movement having always
+been from country to town, and the smaller spot serving for more exact
+description.  An exception is Bristow (Bristol), Mid. Eng. brig-stow,
+the place on the bridge, the great commercial city of the west from
+which so many medieval seamen hailed; but the name is sometimes from
+Burstow (Surrey), and there were possibly smaller places called by so
+natural a name, just as the name Bradford, i.e. broad ford, may come
+from a great many other places than the Yorkshire wool town.  Rossiter
+is generally for Rochester, but also for Wroxeter (Salop); Coggeshall
+is well disguised as Coxall, Barnstaple as Bastable, Maidstone as
+Mayston, Stockport as Stopford.  On the other hand, there is not a
+village of any antiquity but has, or once had, a representative among
+surnames.
+
+
+
+NAMES PRECEDED BY DE
+
+The provinces and towns of France and Flanders have given us many
+common surnames.  From names of provinces we have Burgoyne and Burgin,
+Champain and Champneys (Chapter II), Gascoyne and Gaskin, Mayne,
+Mansell, Old Fr. Mancel (manceau), an inhabitant of Maine or of its
+capital Le Mans, Brett and Britton, Fr. le Bret and le Breton,
+Pickard, Power, sometimes from Old Fr. Pohier, a Picard, Peto,
+formerly Peitow, from Poitou, Poidevin and Puddifin, for
+
+Poitevin, Loring, Old Fr. le Lohereng, the man from Lorraine,
+assimilated to Fleming, Hammy, an old name for Hainault, Brabazon, le
+Brabançon, and Brebner, formerly le Brabaner, Angwin, for Angevin,
+Flinders, a perversion of Flanders, Barry, which is sometimes for
+Berri, and others which can be identified by everybody.
+
+Among towns we have Allenson, Alençon, Amyas, Amiens, Ainger, Angers,
+Aris, Arras, Bevis, Beauvais, Bullen, Boulogne, Bloss, Blois, Bursell,
+Brussels, Callis and Challis, Calais, Challen, from one of the French
+towns called Chalon or Chalons, Chaworth, Cahors, Druce, Dreux, Gaunt,
+Gand (Ghent), Luck, Luick (Liege), Loving, Louvain, Malins, Malines
+(Mechlin), Raynes, Rennes and Rheims, Roan, Rouen, Sessions, Soissons,
+Stamp, Old Fr. Estampes (ttampes), Turney, Tournay, etc.  The name de
+Verdun is common enough in old records for us to connect with it both
+the fascinating Dolly and the illustrious Harry. [Footnote added by
+scanner: Some modern readers might not realise that Weekley was
+referring to Harry Vardon, a famous golfer of the late nineteenth and
+early twentieth century.  Dolly Varden was a character in Dickens'
+"Barnaby Rudge", a pretty girl in flowered hats and skirts.  Her name
+was borrowed for various clothing styles, breeds of flowers, shows,
+theatres and even angling fishes among other things.  There seem to
+have been several references to "the fascinating Dolly Varden", though
+the expression does not occur in the book.]  To the above may be
+added, among German towns, Cullen, Cologne, and Lubbock, Luebeck, and,
+from Italy, Janes, Gênes (Genoa), Janaway or Janways, i.e. Genoese,
+and Lombard or Lombard.  Familiar names of foreign towns were often
+anglicized.  Thus we find Hamburg called Hamborough, Bruges Bridges,
+and Tours Towers.
+
+To the town of Angers we sometimes owe, besides Ainger, the forbidding
+names Anger and Danger.  In many local names of foreign origin the
+preposition de has been incorporated, e.g. Dalmain, d'Allemagne,
+sometimes corrupted into Dallman and Dollman, though these are also
+for Doleman, from the East Anglian dole, a boundary, Dallison, d'Alenç
+on, Danvers, d'Anvers, Antwerp, Devereux, d'Évreux, Daubeney,  Dabney,
+d'Aubigny, Disney, d'Isigny, etc.  Doyle is a later form of Doyley, or
+Dolley, for d'Ouilli, and Darcy and Durfey were once d'Arcy and
+d'Urfé.  Dew is sometimes for de Eu.  Sir John de Grey, justice of
+Chester, had in 1246 two Alice in Wonderland clerks named Henry de Eu
+and William de Ho.  A familiar example, which has been much disputed,
+is the Cambridgeshire name Death, which some of its possessors prefer
+to write D'Aeth or De Ath.  Bardsley rejects this, without, I think,
+sufficient reason.  It is true that it occurs as de Dethe in the
+Hundred Rolls, but this is not a serious argument, for we find also de
+Daubeney (Chapter XI), the original de having already been absorbed at
+the time the Rolls were compiled.  This retention of the de is also
+common in names derived from spots which have not become recognized
+place-names; see Chapter XIV.
+
+But to derive a name of obviously native origin from a place in France
+is a snobbish, if harmless, delusion.  There are quite enough moor
+leys in England without explaining Morley by Morlaix.  To connect the
+Mid. English nickname Longfellow with Longueville, or the patronymic
+Hansom (Chapter III) with Anceaumville, betrays the same belief in
+phonetic epilepsy that inspires the derivation of Barber from the
+chapelry of Sainte-Barbe.  The fact that there are at least three
+places, in England called Carrington has not prevented one writer from
+seeking the origin of that name in the appropriate locality of
+Charenton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES
+
+"In ford, in ham, in ley and tun
+The most of English surnames run"
+
+(VERSTEGAN).
+
+Verstegan's couplet, even if it be not strictly true, makes a very
+good text for a discourse on our local names.  The ham, or home, and
+the ton, or town, originally an enclosure (cf. Ger. Zaun, hedge),
+were, at any rate in a great part of England, the regular nucleus of
+the village, which in some cases has become the great town and in
+others has decayed away and disappeared from the map.  In an age when
+wool was our great export, flock keeping was naturally a most
+important calling, and the ley, or meadow land, would be quickly taken
+up and associated with human activity.  When bridges were scarce,
+fords were important, and it is easy to see how the inn, the smithy,
+the cartwright's booth, etc., would naturally plant themselves at such
+a spot and form the commencement of a hamlet.
+
+
+
+ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES
+
+Each of these four words exists by itself as a specific place-name and
+also as a surname.  In fact Lee and Ford are among our commonest local
+surnames.  In the same way the local origin of such names as Clay and
+Chalk may be specific as well as general.  But I do not propose to
+deal here with the vast subject of our English village names, but only
+with the essential elements of which they are composed, elements which
+were often used for surnominal purposes long before the spot itself
+had developed into a village.  [Footnote: A good general account of
+our village names will be found in the Appendix to Isaac Taylor's
+Names and their Histories.  It is reprinted as chapter xi of the same
+author's Words and Places (Everyman Library).  See also Johnston's
+Place-names of England and Wales, a glossary of selected names with a
+comprehensive introduction.  There are many modern books on the
+village names of various counties, e.g. Bedfordshire, Berkshire,
+Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk (Skeat),
+Oxfordshire (Alexander), Lancashire (Wyld and Hirst), West Riding of
+Yorkshire (Moorman), Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire
+(Duignan), Nottinghamshire (Mutschmann), Gloucestershire (Baddeley),
+Herefordshire (Bannister), Wiltshire (Elsblom), S.W. Yorkshire
+(Goodall), Sussex (Roberts), Lancashire (Sephton), Derbyshire
+(Walker), Northumberland and Durham (Mawer).]  Thus the name Oakley
+must generally have been borne by a man who lived on meadow land which
+was surrounded or dotted with oak-trees.  But I should be shy of
+explaining a given village called Oakley in the same way, because the
+student of place-names might be able to show from early records that
+the place was originally an ey, or island, and that the first syllable
+is the disguised name of a medieval churl.  These four simple etymons
+themselves may also become perverted.  Thus -ham is sometimes confused
+with -holm (Chapter XII), -ley, as I have just suggested, may in some
+cases contain -ey, -ton occasionally interchanges with -don and
+-stone, and -lord with the French -fort (Chapter XIV).
+
+In this chapter will be found a summary of the various words applied
+by our ancestors to the natural features of the land they lived on.
+To avoid too lengthy a catalogue, I have classified them under the
+three headings--
+
+(1) Hill and Dale,
+
+(2) Plain and Woodland,
+
+(3) Water and Waterside,
+
+reserving for the next chapter the names due to man's interference
+with the scenery, e.g. roads, buildings, enclosures, etc.
+
+They are mostly Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, the Celtic name remaining
+as the appellation of the individual hill, stream, etc. (Helvellyn,
+Avon, etc.).  The simple word has in almost all cases given a fairly
+common surname, but compounds are of course numerous, the first
+element being descriptive of the second, e.g. Bradley, broad lea,
+Radley and Ridley, red lea, Brockley, brook lea or badger lea (Chapter
+XXIII), Beverley, beaver lea, Cleverley, clover lea, Hawley, hedge
+lea, Rawnsley, raven's lea, and so ad infinitum.  In the oldest
+records spot names are generally preceded by the preposition at,
+whence such names as Attewell, Atwood, but other prepositions occur,
+as in Bythesea, Underwood and the hybrid Suttees, on Tees.  Cf. such
+French names as Doutrepont, from beyond the bridge.
+
+One curious phenomenon, of which I can offer no explanation, is that
+while many spot names occur indifferently with or without -s, e.g.
+Bridge, Bridges; Brook, Brooks; Platt, Plaits, in others we find a
+regular preference either for the singular or plural form.  [Footnote:
+In some cases no doubt a plural, in others a kind of genitive due to
+the influence of personal names, such as Wills, Perkins, etc.]
+Compare the following couples:
+
+Field    Meadows
+
+Lake     Rivers
+
+Pool     Mears (metes)
+
+Spying   Wells
+
+House    Coates (P, 133)
+
+Marsh    Myers   (mires)
+
+[Footnote: Myers is very often a Jewish name, from the very common
+Ger. Meyer, for which see Chapter IV.]
+
+to which many more might be added.  So we find regularly Nokes but
+Nash (Chapter III), Beech but Willows.  The general tendency is
+certainly towards the -s forms in the case of monosyllables, e.g.
+Banks, Foulds, Hayes, Stubbs, Thwaites, etc., but we naturally find
+the singular in compounds, e.g. Windebank (winding), Nettlefold,
+Roundhay, etc.
+
+There is also a further problem offered by names in -er.  We know that
+a Waller was a mason or wall-builder, but was a Bridger really a
+Pontifex, [Footnote: An example of a Latinized name.  Cf. Sutor,
+Faber, and the barbarous Sartorius, for sartor, a tailor.  Pontifex
+may also be the latinized form of Pope or Bishop.  It is not known why
+this title, bridge-builder, was given to high-priests.]  did he merely
+live near the bridge, or was he the same as a Bridgman, and what was
+the latter?  Did Sam Weller's ancestor sink wells, possess a well, or
+live near someone else's well?  Probably all explanations may be
+correct, for the suffix may have differed in meaning according to
+locality, but I fancy that in most cases proximity alone is implied.
+The same applies to many cases of names in -man, such as Hillman,
+Dickman (dyke), Parkman.
+
+Many of the words in the following paragraphs are obsolete or survive
+only in local usage.  Some of them also vary considerably in meaning,
+according to the region in which they are found.  I have included many
+which, in their simple form, seem too obvious to need explanation,
+because the compounds are not always equally clear.
+
+
+
+HILL AND DALE
+
+We have a fair number of Celtic words connected with natural scenery,
+but they do not as a rule form compounds, and as surnames are usually
+found in their simple form.  Such are Cairn, a stony hill, Crag,
+Craig, and the related Carrick and Creagh, Glen or Glynn, and Lynn, a
+cascade.  Two words, however, of Celtic origin, don, or down, a hill,
+and combe, a hollow in the hills, were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and
+enter into many compounds.  Thus we find Kingdon, whence the imitative
+Kingdom, Brandon, from the name Brand (Chapter VII), Ashdown, etc.
+The simple Donne or Dunne is sometimes the Anglo-Saxon name Dunna,
+whence Dunning, or a colour nickname, while Down and Downing may
+represent the Anglo-Sax. Duna and Duning (Chapter VII).  From Combe,
+used especially in the west of England, we have Compton, and such
+compounds as Acomb, at combe, Addiscombe, Battiscombe, etc.  But
+Newcomb is for Newcome (Chapter II).  See also Slocomb (Chapter XXI).
+
+
+
+HILLS
+
+The simple Hill and Dale are among our common surnames.  Hill also
+appears as Hull and is easily disguised in compounds, e.g. Brummel for
+broom-hill, Tootell and Tuttle for Toothill, a name found in many
+localities and meaning a hill on which a watch was kept.  It is
+connected with the verb to tout, originally to look out
+
+"David dwellide in the tote hil" (Wyc, 2 Sam. v. 9).
+
+We have Dale and its cognate Dell in Swindell (swine), Tindall (Tyne),
+Twaddell, Tweddell (Tweed), etc.--
+
+"Mr. H. T. Twaddle announced the change of his name to Tweeddale in
+the Times, January 4, 1890" (Bardsley).
+
+Other names for a hill are Fell (Scand.), found in the lake country,
+whence Grenfell; and Hough or How (Scand.), as in the north country
+names Greenhow, Birchenough.
+
+This is often reduced to -o, as in Clitheroe, Shafto, and is easily
+confused with scough, a wood (Scand.), as in Briscoe (birch), Ayscough
+(ash).
+
+In the north hills were also called Law and Low, with such compounds
+as Bradlaugh, Whitelaw, and Harlow.  To these must be added Barrow,
+often confused with the related borough (Chapter XIII).  Both belong
+to the Anglo-Sax. beorgan, to protect, cover.  The name Leatherbarrow
+means the hill, perhaps the burial mound, of Leather, Anglo-Sax.
+Hlothere, cognate with Lothair and Luther.
+
+A hill-top was Cope or Copp.  Chaucer uses it of the tip of the
+Miller's nose
+
+"Upon the cope right of his nose he hade
+A werte, and thereon stood a toft of herys."
+
+(A. 554.)
+
+Another name for a hill-top appears in Peak, Pike, Peck, or Pick, but
+the many compounds in Pick-, e.g. Pickbourne, Pickford, Pickwick,
+etc., suggest a personal name Pick of which we have the dim. in
+Pickett (cf. Fr. Picot) and the softened Piggot.  Peak may be in some
+cases from the Derbyshire Peak, which has, however, no connection with
+the common noun peak.  A mere hillock or knoll has given the names
+Knapp, Knollys or Knowles, Knock, and Knott.  But Knapp may also be
+for Mid. Eng. nape, cognate with knave and with Low Ger. Knappe,
+squire--
+
+"Wer wagt es, Rittersmann oder Knapp'.
+Zu tauchen in diesen Schlund?"
+
+(Schiller, Der Taucher, 1.  I.)
+
+Redknap, the name of a Richmond boat-builder, is probably a nickname,
+like Redhead.  A Knapper may have lived on a "knap," or may have been
+one of the Suffolk flint-knappers, who still prepare gun-flints for
+weapons to be retailed to the heathen.
+
+Knock and Knocker are both Kentish names, and there is a reef off
+Margate known as the Kentish Knock.  We have the plural Knox (cf. Bax,
+Settlements and Enclosures, Chapter XIII).  Knott is sometimes for
+Cnut, or Canute, which generally becomes Nutt.  Both have got mixed
+with the nickname Nott.
+
+A green knoll was also called Toft (Scand.), whence Langtoft, and the
+name was used later for a homestead.  From Cliff we have Clift,
+[Footnote: This may also be from Mid. Eng, clift, a cleft.] with
+excrescent -t, and the cognates Cleeve and Clive.  Compounds of
+Cliff are Radcliffe (red), Sutcliffe (south), Wyclif (white).  The
+c- sometimes disappears in compounds, e.g. Cunliffe, earlier Cunde-clive,
+and Topliff; but Ayliffe is for AElfgifu or AEthelgifu and Goodliffe
+from Godleof (cf. Ger. Gottlieb).  The older form of Stone appears in
+Staines, Stanhope, Stanton, etc.  Wheatstone is either for "white
+stone" or for the local Whetstone (Middlesex).  In Balderstone,
+Johnston, Edmondstone, Livingstone, the suffix is -ton, though the
+frequence of Johnston points to corruption from Johnson, just as in
+Nottingham we have the converse case of Beeson from the local Beeston.
+In Hailstone the first element may be Mid. Eng, half, holy.  Another
+Mid. English name for a stone appears in Hone, now used only of a
+whetstone.
+
+A hollow or valley in the hillside was called in the north Clough,
+also spelt Clow, Cleugh (Clim o' the Cleugh), and Clew.  The compound
+Fairclough is found corrupted into Faircloth.  Another obscure
+northern name for a glen was Hope, whence Allsop, Blenkinsop, the
+first element in each being perhaps the name of the first settler, and
+Burnup, Hartopp, (hart), Harrap (hare), Heslop (hazel).
+
+Gill (Scand.), a ravine, has given Fothergill, Pickersgill, and
+Gaskell, from Gaisgill (Westmorland).  These, like most of our names
+connected with mountain scenery, are naturally found almost
+exclusively in the north.  Other surnames which belong more or less to
+the hill country are Hole, found also as Holl, Hoole, and Hoyle, but
+perhaps meaning merely a depression in the land, Ridge, and its
+northern form Rigg, with their compounds Doddridge, Langridge,
+Brownrigg, Hazelrigg, etc.  Ridge, Rigg, also appear as Rudge, Rugg.
+From Mid. Eng. raike, a path, a sheep-track (Scand.), we get Raikes
+and perhaps Greatorex, found earlier as Greatrakes, the name of a
+famous faith-healer of the seventeenth century.
+
+
+
+WOODLAND AND PLAIN
+
+The compounds of Wood itself are very numerous, e.g. Braidwood,
+Harwood, Norwood, Sherrard and Sherratt (Sherwood).  But, in
+considering the frequency of the simple Wood, it must be remembered
+that we find people described as le wode, i.e. mad (cf. Ger. Wut,
+frenzy), and that mad and madman are found as medieval names
+
+"Thou told'st me they were stolen unto this wood;
+ And here am I, and wode within this wood,
+ Because I cannot meet my Hermia."
+
+(Midsummer Night's Dream, ii. 1.)
+
+As a suffix -wood is sometimes a corruption of -ward, e.g. Haywood is
+occasionally for Hayward, and Allwood, Elwood are for Aylward,
+Anglo-Sax. AEthelweard.  Another name for a wood was Holt, cognate
+with Ger. Holz--
+
+"But right so as thise holtes and thise hayis,
+ That han in winter dede ben and dreye,
+ Revesten hem in grene whan that May is."
+
+(Troilus and Criseyde, iii.  351.)
+
+Hurst or Hirst means a wooded hill (cf. Ger. Horst), and Shaw was once
+almost as common a word as wood itself--
+
+"Wher rydestow under this grene-wode shawe?"
+
+(D, 1386.)
+
+Hurst belongs especially to the south and west, though Hirst is very
+common in Yorkshire; Shaw is found in the north and Holt in the east
+and south.  We have compounds of Shaw in Bradshaw, Crashaw (crow),
+Hearnshaw (heron), Earnshaw (Mid.  Eng, earn, eagle), Renshaw (raven)
+[Footnote: It is obvious that this may also be for raven's haw
+(Chapter XIII).  Raven was a common personal name and is the first
+element in Ramsbottom (Chapter XII), Ramsden.], etc., of Hurst in
+Buckhurst (beech), Brockhurst (badger), and of Holt in Oakshott.
+
+We have earlier forms of Grove in Greaves--
+
+"And with his stremes dryeth in the greves
+ The silver dropes, hangynge on the leves"
+
+(A. 1495)--
+
+and Graves, the latter being thus no more funereal than Tombs, from
+Thomas (cf. Timbs from Timothy).  But Greaves and Graves may also be
+variants of the official Grieves (Chapter XIX), or may come from Mid.
+Eng. graefe, a trench, quarry.  Compounds are Hargreave (hare),
+Redgrave, Stangrave, the two latter probably referring to an
+excavation.  From Mid. Eng, strope, a small wood, appear to come
+Strode and Stroud, compound Bulstrode, while Struthers is the cognate
+strother, marsh, still in dialect use.  Weald and wold, the cognates
+of Ger. Wald, were applied rather to wild country in general than to
+land covered with trees.  They are probably connected with wild.
+
+Similarly the Late Lat. foresta, whence our forest, means only what is
+outside, Lat, foris, the town jurisdiction.  From the Mid. Eng. waeld
+we have the names Weld and Weale, the latter with the not uncommon
+loss of final -d.  Scroggs (Scand.) and Scrubbs suggest their meaning
+of brushwood.  Scroggins, from its form, is a patronymic, and probably
+represents Scoggins with intrusive _r_.  This is perhaps from Scogin,
+a name borne by a poet who was contemporary with Chaucer and by a
+court-fool of the fifteenth century--
+
+"The same Sir John, the very same.  I saw him break Skogan's head at
+the court gate, when he was a crack, not thus high." (2 Henry IV.,
+iii.  2.)
+
+With Scrubb of cloudy ammonia fame we may compare Wormwood Scrubbs.
+Shrubb is the same word, and Shropshire is for Anglo-Sax. scrob-scire.
+
+
+
+FOREST CLEARINGS
+
+The two northern names for a clearing in the wood were Royd and
+Thwaite (Scand.).  The former is cognate with the second part of
+Baireut and Wernigerode, and with the Rütli, the small plateau on
+which the Swiss patriots took their famous oath.  It was so called--
+
+"Weil dort die Waldung ausgerodet ward."
+
+(SCHILLER, Wilhelm Tell.)
+
+Among its compounds are Ackroyd (oak), Grindrod (green), Murgatroyd
+(Margaret), Learoyd (lea), Ormerod, etc.  We also find the name Rodd,
+which may belong here or to Rudd (Chapter VII), and both these names
+may also be for Rood, equivalent to Cross or Crouch (Chapter II), as
+in Holyrood.  Ridding is also related to Royd.  Hacking may be a dim.
+of Hack (Chapter VII), but we find also de le hacking, which suggests
+a forest clearing.
+
+Thwaite,  from Anglo-Sax. þwitan, to cut, is found chiefly in
+Cumberland and the adjacent region in such compounds as Braithwaite
+(broad), Hebbelthwaite, Postlethwaite, Satterthwaite.  The second of
+these is sometimes corrupted into Ablewhite as Cowperthwaite is into
+Copperwheat, for "this suffix has ever been too big a mouthful in the
+south" (Bardsley).  A glade or valley in the wood was called a Dean,
+Dene, Denne, cognate with den.  The compounds are numerous, e.g.
+Borden (boar), Dibden (deep), Sugden (Mid.  Eng. suge, sow), Hazeldean
+or Heseltine.  From the fact that swine were pastured in these glades
+the names Denman and Denyer have been explained as equivalent to
+swineherd.  As a suffix -den is often confused with -don (Chapter
+XII).  At the foot of Horsenden Hill, near Harrow, two boards announce
+Horsendon Farm and Horsenden Golf-links.  An opening in the wood was
+also called Slade--
+
+"And when he came to Barnesdale,
+ Great heavinesse there hee hadd;
+ He found two of his fellowes
+ Were slain both in a Slade."
+
+(Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne.)
+
+The maps still show Pond Slade in Richmond Park, The compound Hertslet
+may be for hart-Slade.
+
+Acre, a field, cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. ager, occurs
+in Goodacre, Hardacre, Linacre, Whittaker, etc., and Field itself
+gives numerous compounds, including Butterfield (bittern, Chapter
+XXIII), Schofield (school), Streatfeild (street), Whitfield.
+
+Pasture-land is represented above all by Lea, for which see Chapter
+III.  It is cognate with Hohenlohe and Waterloo, while Mead and Medd
+are cognate with Zermatt (at the mead).  Brinsmead thus means the same
+as Brinsley.
+
+
+
+MARSHES
+
+Marshy land has given the names Carr or Kerr (Scand.) and Marsh,
+originally an adjective, merisc, from mer, mere.  The doublet Marris
+has usually become Morris.  The compounds Tidmarsh and Titchmarsh
+contain the Anglo-Saxon names Tidda and Ticca.  Moor also originally
+had the meaning morass (e.g. in Sedgemoor), as Ger. Moor still has, so
+that Fenimore is pleonastic.  The northern form is Muir, as in
+Muirhead.  Moss was similarly used in the north; cf. moss-trooper and
+Solway Moss, but the surname Moss is generally for Moses (Chapter IX).
+From slough we get the names Slow, Slowley, and Sloman (also perhaps a
+nickname), with which we may compare Moorman and Mossman.  This seems
+to be also the most usual meaning of Slack or Slagg, also used of a
+gap in the hills
+
+"The first horse that he rode upon,
+For he was raven black,
+He bore him far, and very far,
+But failed in a slack."
+
+(Ballad of Lady Maisry.)
+
+Tye means common land.  Platt is a piece, or plot, of level country--
+
+"Oft on a plat of rising ground
+ I hear the far-off curfew sound"
+
+(Penseroso, 1.  73);
+
+and shape is expressed by Gore, a triangular piece of land (cf.
+Kensington Gore), of which the older form Gare, Geare, also survives.
+In Lowndes we have laund or lound--
+
+"And to the laund he rideth hym ful right,
+ For thider was the hart wont have his flight
+
+(A. 1691)--
+
+a piece of heath land, the origin of the modern word lawn.  In Lund
+and Lunn it has become confused with the Old Norse lundr, a sacred
+grove.
+
+Laund itself is of French origin--
+
+"Lande, a land, or laund; a wild, untilled, shrubbie, or bushie
+plaine"
+
+(Cotgrave).
+
+Its relation to land is uncertain, and it is not possible to
+distinguish them in such compounds as Acland (Chapter XII), Buckland,
+Cleveland, etc.  The name Lander or Launder is unconnected with these
+(see p.186).  Flack is Mid. Eng. flagge, turf.  Snape is a dialect
+word for boggy ground, and Wong means a meadow.
+
+A rather uncouth-looking set of names, which occur chiefly on the
+border of Cheshire and Lancashire, are compounded from bottom or
+botham, a wide shallow valley suited for agriculture.  Hotspur,
+dissatisfied with his fellow-conspirators' map-drawing, expresses his
+intention of damming the Trent so that
+
+"It shall not wind with such a deep indent
+ To rob me of so rich a bottom here."
+
+(1 Henry IV, iii.  1.)
+
+Familiar compounds are Higginbottom, Rowbotham, Sidebottom.  The first
+element of Shufflebotham is, in the Lancashire Assize Rolls
+(1176-1285), spelt Schyppewalle- and Schyppewelle-, where schyppe is
+for sheep, still so pronounced in dialect.  Tarbottom, earlier
+Tarbutton, is corrupted from Tarbolton (Ayrshire).
+
+
+
+WATER AND WATERSIDE
+
+RIVERS
+
+Very few surnames are taken, in any language, from the names of
+rivers.  This is quite natural, for just as the man who lived on a
+hill became known as Hill, Peake, etc., and not as Skiddaw or Wrekin,
+so the man who lived by the waterside would be known as Bywater,
+Rivers, etc.  No Londoner talks of going on the Thames, and the
+country-dweller also usually refers to his local stream as the river
+or the water, and not by its geographical name.  Another reason for
+the absence of such surnames is probably to be found in the fact that
+our river (and mountain) names are almost exclusively Celtic, and had
+no connotation for the English population.  We have many apparent
+river names, but most of them are susceptible of another explanation.
+Dee may be for Day as Deakin is for Dakin, i.e. David, Derwent looks
+like Darwin (Chapter VII) or the local Darwen with excrescent -t
+(Chapter III), Humber is Humbert, a French name corresponding to the
+Anglo-Sax, Hunbeorht, Medway may be merely "mid-way," and Trent is a
+place in Somerset.  This view as to river surnames is supported by the
+fact that we do not appear to have a single mountain surname, the
+apparent exception, Snowdon, being for Snowden (see den, Dean, Dene,
+Denne).  [Footnote: But see my Surnames, Chapter XVI.]
+
+Among names for streams we have Beck, [Footnote: The simple Beck is
+generally a German name of modern introduction (see pecch).]  cognate
+with Ger. Bach; Bourne, [Footnote: Distinct from bourne, a boundary,
+Fr. borne.] or Burn, cognate with Ger. Brunnen; Brook, related to
+break; Crick, a creek; Fleet, a creek, cognate with Flood; and Syke, a
+trench or rill.  In Beckett and Brockett the suffix is head (Chapter
+XIII).  Troutbeck, Birkbeck explain themselves.  In Colbeck we have
+cold, and Holbrook contains hollow, but in some names -brook has been
+substituted for -borough, -burgh.  We find Brook latinized as Torrens.
+Aborn is for atte bourne, and there are probably many places called
+Blackburn and Otterburn.
+
+Firth, an estuary, cognate with fjord, often becomes Frith, but this
+surname usually comes from frith, a park or game preserve (Chapter
+XIII).
+
+Another word for a creek, wick or wick (Scand.), cannot be
+distinguished from wick, a settlement.  Pond, a doublet of Pound
+(Chapter XIII), means a piece of water enclosed by a dam, while
+natural sheets of water are Lake, or Lack, not limited originally to a
+large expanse, Mere, whence Mears and such compounds as Cranmer
+(crane), Bulmer (bull), etc., and Pool, also spelt Pull and Pole.  We
+have compounds of the latter in Poulton (Chapter I), Claypole, and
+Glasspool.
+
+In Kent a small pond is called Sole, whence Nethersole.  The bank of a
+river or lake was called Over, cognate with Ger. Ufer, whence Overend,
+Overall (see below), Overbury, Overland.  The surname Shore, for atte
+shore, may refer to the sea-shore, but the word sewer was once
+regularly so pronounced and the name was applied to large drains in
+the fen country (cf. Gott, Water, Chapter XIII).  Beach is a word of
+late appearance and doubtful origin, and as a surname is usually
+identical with Beech.
+
+Spits of land by the waterside were called Hook  (cf. Hook of Holland
+and Sandy Hook) and Hoe or Hoo, as in Plymouth Hoe, or the Hundred of
+Hoo, between the Thames and the Medway.  From Hook comes Hooker, where
+it does not mean a maker of hooks, while Homan and Hooman sometimes
+belong to the second.  Alluvial land by a stream was called halgh,
+haugh, whence sometimes Hawes.  Its dative case gives Hale and Heal.
+These often become -hall, -all, in place-names.  Compounds are
+Greenhalgh, Greenall and Featherstonehaugh, perhaps our longest
+surname.
+
+Ing, a low-lying meadow, Mid. Eng. eng, survives in Greening, Fenning,
+Wilding, and probably sometimes in England (Chapter XI).  But Inge and
+Ings, the latter the name of one of the Cato Street conspirators, also
+represent an Anglo-Saxon personal name.  Cf. Ingall and Ingle, from
+Ingwulf, or Ingold, whence Ingoldsby.
+
+
+
+ISLANDS
+
+Ey, an island, [Footnote: Isle of Sheppey, Mersea Island, etc, are
+pleonasms.]survives as the last element of many names, and is not
+always to be distinguished from hey (hay, Settlements, Chapter III)
+and ley.  Bill Nye's ancestor lived atten ey (Chapter III).  Dowdney
+or Dudeney has been explained from the Anglo-Saxon name Duda, but it
+more probably represents the very common French name Dieudonné,
+corresponding to Lat. Deodatus.  In the north a river island was
+commonly called Holm (Scand.), also pronounced Home, Hulme, and Hume,
+in compounds easily confused with -ham, e.g. Durham was once
+Dun-holmr, hill island.  The very common Holmes is probably in most
+cases a tree-name (Chapter XII).  In Chisholm the first element may
+mean pebble; cf. Chesil Beach.  The names Bent, whence Broadbent, and
+Crook probably also belong sometimes to the river, but may have arisen
+from a turn in a road or valley.  But Bent was also applied to a tract
+covered with bents, or rushes, and Crook is generally a nickname
+(Chapter XXII).  Lastly, the crossing of the unbridged stream has
+given us Ford or Forth whence Stratford, Strafford (street), Stanford,
+Stamford, Staniforth (stone), etc.  The alternative name was Wade,
+whence the compound Grimwade.  The cognate wath (Scand.) has been
+confused with with (Scand.), a wood, whence the name Wythe and the
+compound Askwith or Asquith.  Both -wath and -with have been often
+replaced by -worth and -wood.
+
+
+
+TREE NAMES
+
+In conclusion a few words must be said about tree names, so common in
+their simple form and in topographical compounds.  Here, as in the
+case of most of the etymons already mentioned in this chapter, the
+origin of the surname may be specific as well as general, i.e. the
+name Ash may come from Ash in Kent rather than from any particular
+tree, the etymology remaining the same.  Many of our surnames have
+preserved the older forms of tree names, e.g. the lime was once the
+line, hence Lines, Lynes, and earlier still the Lind, as in the
+compounds Lyndhurst, Lindley, etc.  The older form of Oak appears in
+Acland, Acton, and variants in Ogden and Braddock, broad oak.  We have
+ash in Aston, Ascham.  The holly was once the hollin, whence Hollins,
+Hollis, Hollings; cf. Hollings-head, Holinshed.  But hollin became
+colloquially holm, whence generally Holmes.  Homewood is for
+holm-wood.  The holm oak, ilex, is so called from its holly-like
+leaves.  For Birch we also find Birk, a northern form.  Beech often
+appears in compounds as Buck-; cf. buckwheat, so called because the
+grains are of the shape of beech-mast.  In Poppleton, Popplewell we
+have the dialect popple, a poplar.  Yeo sometimes represents yew,
+spelt yowe by Palsgrave.  [Footnote: The yeo of yeoman, which is
+conjectured to have meant district, cognate with Ger. Gau in Breisgau,
+Rheingau, etc., is not found by itself.]
+
+In Sallows we have a provincial name for the willow, cognate with Fr,
+saule and Lat. salix.  Rowntree is the rowan, or mountain ash, and
+Bawtry or Bawtree is a northern name for the elder.  The older forms
+of Alder and Elder, in both of which the _d_ is intrusive (Chapter
+III), appear in Allerton and Ellershaw.  Maple is sometimes Mapple and
+sycamore is corrupted into Sicklemore.
+
+Tree-names are common in all languages.  Beerbohm Tree is pleonastic,
+from Ger. Bierbaum, for Birnbaum, pear-tree.  A few years ago a
+prominent Belgian statesman bore the name Vandenpereboom, rather
+terrifying till decomposed into "van den pereboom." Its Mid. English
+equivalent appears in Pirie, originally a collection of pear-trees,
+but used by Chaucer for the single tree
+
+"And thus I lete hym sitte upon the pyrie."
+
+(E. 2217.)
+
+From trees we may descend gradually, via Thorne, Bush, Furze, Gorst
+(Chapter I), Ling, etc., until we come finally to Grace, which in some
+cases represents grass, for we find William atte grase in 1327, while
+the name Poorgrass, in Mr. Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd, seems
+to be certified by the famous French names Malherbe and Malesherbes.
+But Savory is the French personal name Savary.
+
+The following list of trees is given by Chaucer in the Knight's tale--
+
+"The names that the trees highte,--
+ As ook, firre, birch, aspe, alder, holm, popeler,
+ Wylugh, elm, plane, assh, box, chasteyn, lynde, laurer,
+ Mapul, thorn, beck, hasel, ew, whippeltre."  (A. 2920.)
+
+They are all represented in modern directories.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. THE HAUNTS OF MAN
+
+"One fels downs firs, another of the same
+ With crossed poles a little lodge doth frame:
+ Another mounds it with dry wall about,
+ And leaves a breach for passage in and out:
+ With turfs and furze some others yet more gross
+ Their homely sties in stead of walls inclose:
+ Some, like the swallow, mud and hay doe mixe
+ And that about their silly [p.  209] cotes they fixe
+ Some heals [thatch] their roofer with fearn, or reeds, or rushes,
+ And some with hides, with oase, with boughs, and bushes,"
+
+(SYLVESTER, The Devine Weekes, )
+
+In almost every case where man has interfered with nature the
+resulting local name is naturally of Anglo-Saxon or, in some parts of
+England, of Scandinavian origin.  The Roman and French elements in our
+topographical names are scanty in number, though the former are of
+frequent occurrence.  The chief Latin contributions are -Chester,
+-cester, -caster, Lat. castrum, a fort, or plural castra, a camp;
+-street, Lat. via strata, a levelled way; -minster, Lat. monasterium;
+and -church or -kirk, Greco-Lat. kuriakon, belonging to the Lord.
+Eccles, Greco-Lat. ecclesia, probably goes back to Celtic
+Christianity.  Street was the high-road, hence Greenstreet.  Minster
+is curiously corrupted in Buckmaster for Buckminster and Kittermaster
+for Kidderminster, while in its simple form it appears as Minister
+(Chapter III).
+
+We have a few French place-names, e.g. Beamish (Chapter XIV),
+Beaumont, Richmond, Richemont, and Malpas (Cheshire), the evil pass,
+with which we may compare Maltravers.  We have the apparent opposite
+in Bompas, Bumpus, Fr. bon pas, but this was a nickname.  Of late
+there has been a tendency to introduce the French ville, e.g.
+Bournville, near Birmingham.  That part of Margate which ought to be
+called Northdown is known as Cliftonville, and the inhabitants of the
+opposite end of the town, dissatisfied with such good names as
+Westbrook and Rancorn, hanker after Westonville.  But these
+philological atrocities are fortunately too late to be perpetuated as
+surnames.
+
+I have divided the names in this chapter into those that are connected
+with
+
+(1)  Settlements and Enclosures,
+
+(2)  Highways and Byways,
+
+(3)  Watercourses,
+
+(4)  Buildings,
+
+(5)  Shop Signs.
+
+And here, as before, names which neither in their simple nor compound
+form present any difficulty are omitted.
+
+
+
+SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES
+
+The words which occur most commonly in the names of the modern towns
+which have sprung from early homesteads are borough or bury,
+[Footnote: Originally the dative of borough.]  by, ham, stoke, stow,
+thorp, tun or ton, wick, and worth.  These names are all of native
+origin, except by, which indicates a Danish settlement, and wick,
+which is supposed to be a very early loan from Lat. vicus, cognate
+with Greek oikos, house.  Nearly all of them are common, in their
+simple form, both as specific place-names and as surnames.  Borough,
+cognate with Ger. Burg, castle, and related to Barrow (Chapter XII),
+has many variants, Bury, Brough, Borrow, Berry, whence Berryman, and
+Burgh, the last of which has become Burke in Ireland.
+
+In Atterbury the preposition and article have both remained, while in
+Thornber the suffix is almost unrecognizable.  By, related to byre and
+to the preposition by, is especially common in Yorkshire and
+Lincolnshire.  It is sometimes spelt bee, e.g. Ashbee for Ashby.  The
+simple Bye is not uncommon.  Ham is cognate with home.  In compounds
+it is sometimes reduced to -um, e.g. Barnum, Holtum, Warnum.  But in
+some such names the -um is the original form, representing an old
+dative plural (Chapter III).  Allum represents the usual Midland
+pronunciation of Hallam.  Cullum, generally for Culham, may also
+represent the missionary Saint Colomb.  In Newnham the adjective is
+dative, as in Ger. Neuenheim, at the new home.  In Bonham, Frankham,
+and Pridham the suffix -ham has been substituted for the French homme
+of bonhomme, franc homme, prudhomme, while Jerningham is a perversion
+of the personal name Jernegan or Gernegan, as Garnham is of Gernon,
+Old French for Beard (Chapter XXI).  Stead is cognate with Ger. Stadt,
+place, town, and with staith, as in Bickersteth(Chapter III).
+Armstead means the dwelling of the hermit, Bensted the stead of Benna
+(Chapter VII) or Bennet.
+
+Stoke is originally distinct from Stock, a stump, with which it has
+become fused in the compounds Bostock, Brigstocke.  Stow appears in
+the compound Bristol (Chapter XI) and in Plaistow, play-ground (cf.
+Playsted).  Thorp, cognate with Ger. Dorf, village, is especially
+common in the eastern counties
+
+"By twenty thorps, a little town,
+ And half a hundred bridges."
+
+(Tennyson, The Brook, 1.  5.)
+
+It has also given Thrupp and probably Thripp, whence Calthrop,
+Winthrop, Westrupp, etc.
+
+Ton, later Town, gave also the northern Toon, still used in Scotland
+with something of its original sense (Chapter XII).  Boston is
+Botolf's town, Gunston Gunolf's town.  So also Tarleton (Thurweald),
+Monkton (monk), Preston (priest).  Barton meant originally a
+barley-field, and is still used in the west of England for a paddock.
+Wick appears also as Wych, Weech.  Its compounds cannot be separated
+from those of wick, a creek (Chapter XII).  Bromage is for Bromwich,
+Greenidge for Greenwich, Prestage for Prestwich; cf. the place-name
+Swanage (Dorset), earlier Swanewic.
+
+Worth was perhaps originally applied to land by a river or to a holm
+(Chapter XII); cf. Ger. Donauwert, Nonnenwert, etc.  Harmsworth is for
+Harmondsworth; cf. Ebbsworth (Ebba), Shuttleworth (Sceotweald),
+Wadsworth (Wada).  Sometimes we find a lengthened form, e.g.
+Allworthy, from ald, old (cf. Aldworth), Langworthy.  Rickworth,
+further corrupted to Record, is the Anglo-Saxon name Ricweard.
+Littleworth may belong to this class, but may also be a nickname.
+This would make it equivalent to the imitative Little-proud, formerly
+Littleprow, from Old French and Mid. Eng. prou, worth, value.
+
+To this group may be added two more, which signify a mart, viz. Cheap
+or Chipp (cf. Chepstow, Chipping Barnet) and Staple, whence Huxtable,
+Stapleton, etc.  Liberty, that part of a city which, though outside
+the walls, shares in the city privileges, and Parish also occur as
+surnames, but the latter is usually for Paris.
+
+Many other words connected with the delimitation of property occur
+commonly in surnames.  Croft or Craft, a small field, is common in
+compounds such as Beecroft or Bearcroft (barley), Haycraft (see hay,
+below),  Oscroft(ox), Rycroft, Meadowcroft. [Footnote: I remember
+reading in some story of a socially ambitious lady who adopted this
+commonplace name instead of Gubbins.  The latter name came over, as
+Gobin, with the Conqueror, and goes back to Old Ger. Godberaht, whence
+Old Fr. Godibert.] Fold occurs usually as Foulds, but we have
+compounds such as Nettlefold, Penfold or Pinfold (Chapter XIII).  Sty,
+not originally limited to pigs, has given Hardisty, the sty of
+Heardwulf.  Frith, a park or game preserve, is probably more often the
+origin of a surname than the other frith (Chapter XII).  It is cognate
+with Ger. Friedhof, cemetery.  Chase is still used of a park and Game
+once meant rabbit-warren.  Warren is Fr. garenne.  Garth, the
+Scandinavian doublet of Yard, and cognate with Garden, has given the
+compounds Garside, Garfield, Hogarth (from a place in Westmorland),
+and Applegarth, of which Applegate is a corruption.  We have a
+compound of yard in Wynyard, Anglo-Sax. win, vine.  We have also the
+name Close and its derivative Clowser.  Gate, a barrier or opening,
+Anglo-Sax. geat, is distinct from the Scandinavian gate, a street
+(Chapter XIII), though of course confused with it in surnames.  From
+the northern form we have Yates, Yeats, and Yeatman, and the compounds
+Byatt, by gate, Hyatt, high gate.  Agate is for atte gate, and
+Lidgate, whence Lidgett, means a swing gate, shutting like a lid.
+Fladgate is for flood-gate.  Here also belongs Barr.  Hatch, the gate
+at the entrance to a chase, survives in Colney Hatch.  The apparent
+dim. Hatchett is for Hatchard (Chapter VIII); cf. Everett for Everard
+(Chapter II).  Hay, also Haig, Haigh, Haw, Hey, is cognate with Hedge.
+Like most monosyllabic local surnames, it is commonly found in the
+plural, Hayes, Hawes.  The bird nickname Hedgecock exists also as
+Haycock.  The curious-looking patronymics Townson and Orchardson are
+of course corrupt.  The former is for Tomlinson and the latter perhaps
+from Achard (Chapter VIII).
+
+Several places and families in England are named Hide or Hyde, which
+meant a certain measure of land.  The popular connection between this
+word and hide, a skin, as in the story of the first Jutish settlement,
+is a fable.  It is connected with an Anglo-Saxon word meaning
+household, which appears also in Huish, Anglo-Sax. hi-wisc.  Dike, or
+Dyke, and Moat, also Mott, both have, or had, a double meaning.  We
+still use dike, which belongs to dig and ditch, both of a trench and a
+mound, and the latter was the earlier meaning of Fr. motte, now a
+clod, In Anglo-French we find moat used of a mound fortress in a
+marsh.  Now it is applied to the surrounding water.  From dike come
+the names Dicker, Dickman, Grimsdick, etc.  Sometimes the name Dykes
+may imply residence near some historic earthwork, such as Offa's Dyke,
+just as Wall, for which Waugh was used in the north, may show
+connection with the Roman wall.  With these may be mentioned the
+French name Fosse, whence the apparently pleonastic Fosdyke and the
+name of Verdant Green's friend, Mr. Four-in-hand Fosbrooke.  Delves is
+from Mid. Eng. dell, ditch.  Jury is for Jewry, the quarter allotted
+to the Jews, but Jewsbury is no doubt for Dewsbury; cf. Jewhurst for
+Dewhurst.
+
+Here may be mentioned a few local surnames which are hard to classify.
+We have the apparently anatomical Back, Foot, Head, and, in compounds,
+-side.  Back seems to have been used of the region behind a building
+or dwelling, as it still is at Cambridge.  Its plural has given Bax.
+But it was also a personal name connected with Bacon (Chapter XXIII).
+
+We should expect Foot to mean the base of a hill, but it always occurs
+in early rolls without a preposition.  It may represent in some cases
+an old personal name of obscure origin, but it is also a nickname with
+compounds such as Barfoot, Lightfoot.  The simple Head, found as Mid.
+Eng. del heved, is perhaps generally from a shop sign.  Fr. Tête, one
+origin of Tait, Tate, and Ger. Haupt, Kopf, also occur as surnames.
+As a local suffix -head appears to mean top-end and is generally
+shortened to -ett, e.g. Birkett (cf. Birkenhead), [Footnote: No doubt
+sometimes, like Burchett, Burkett, for the personal name Burchard,
+Anglo-Sax. Burgheard]  Brockett (brook), Bromet, Bromhead (broom),
+Hazlitt (hazel).  The same suffix appears to be present in Fossett,
+from fosse, and Forcett from force, a waterfall (Scand.).  Broadhead
+is a nickname, like Fr. Grossetête and Ger. Breitkopf.  The face-value
+of Evershed is boar's head.  Morshead may be the nickname of mine host
+of the Saracen's Head or may mean the end of the moor.  So the names
+Aked (oak), Blackett, Woodhead may be explained anatomically or
+geographically according to the choice of the bearer.  Perrett,
+usually a dim. of Peter, may sometimes represent the rather effective
+old nickname "pear-head."
+
+Side is local in the uncomfortable sounding Akenside (oak), Fearenside
+(fern), but Heaviside appears to be a nickname.  Handyside may mean
+"gracious manner," from Mid. Eng. side, cognate with Ger. Sitte,
+custom.  See Hendy (Chapter XXII).  The simple end survives as Ind or
+Nind (Chapter III) and in Overend (Chapter XII), Townsend.  Edge
+appears also in the older form Egg, but the frequency of place-names
+beginning with Edge, e.g. Edgeley, Edgington, Edgworth, etc., suggests
+that it was also a personal name.
+
+Lynch, a boundary, is cognate with golf-links.  The following sounds
+modern, but refers to people sitting in a hollow among the
+sand-ridges--
+
+"And are ye in the wont of drawing up wi' a' the gangrel bodies that
+ye find cowering in a sand-bunker upon the links?"
+
+(Redgauntlet, ch. xi.)
+
+Pitt is found in the compound Bulpitt, no doubt the place where the
+town bull was kept.  It is also the origin of the Kentish names Pett
+and Pettman (Chapter XVII).  Arch refers generally to a bridge.
+Lastly, there are three words for a corner, viz. Hearne, Herne, Hurne,
+Horn; Wyke, the same word as Wick, a creek (Chapter XII); and Wray
+(Scand.).  The franklin tell us that "yonge clerkes" desirous of
+knowledge--
+
+"Seken in every halke and every herne
+ Particular sciences for to lerne"
+
+(F, 1119).
+
+Wray has become confused with Ray (Chapter III).  Its compound
+thack-wray, the corner where the thatch was stored, has given
+Thackeray.
+
+
+
+HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS
+
+The word road was not used in its current sense during the surname
+period, but meant the art of riding, and specifically a raid or
+inroad.  Therefore the name Roades is unconnected with it and
+represents merely a variant of Royds (Chapter XII).  This name and its
+compounds belong essentially to the north, the prevailing spelling,
+Rhodes, being artificial.  It has no connection with the island of
+Rhodes.
+
+The meaning of Street has changed considerably since the days when
+Icknield Street and Watling Street were great national roads.  It is
+now used exclusively of town thoroughfares, and has become such a mere
+suffix that, while we speak of the Oxford Róad, we try to suppress the
+second word in Ox'ford Street.  To street belong our place-names and
+surnames in Strat-, Stret-, etc., e.g. Stratton, Stretton, Stredwick.
+Way has a number of compounds with intrusive _a_, e.g. Challaway,
+Dallaway (dale), Greenaway, Hathaway (heath), Westaway.  But Hanway is
+the name of a country (Chapter XI), and Otway, Ottoway, is Old Fr.
+Otouet, a dim. of Odo.  Shipway is for sheep-way.  In the north of
+England the streets in a town are often called gates (Scand.).  It is
+impossible to distinguish the compounds of this gate from those of the
+native gate, a barrier (Chapter XIII), e.g. Norgate may mean North
+Street or North Gate.
+
+Alley and Court both exist as surnames, but the former is for a'lee,
+i.e. Atlee (Chapter XII), and the latter is from court in the sense of
+mansion, country house.  The curious spelling Caught may be seen over
+a shop in Chiswick.  Rowe (Chapter I) sometimes means row of houses,
+but in Townroe the second element is identical with Wray (Chapter
+XIII).  Cosway, Cossey, is from causeway, Fr. chaussée; and Twitchers,
+Twitchell represent dialect words used of a narrow passage and
+connected with the Mid. English verb twiselen, to fork, or divide;
+Twiss must be of similar origin, for we find Robert del twysse in
+1367.  Cf. Birtwistle and Entwistle.  With the above may be classed
+the west-country Shute, a narrow street; Vennell, a north-country word
+for alley, Fr. venelle, dim. of Lat. versa, vein; Wynd, a court, also
+a north-country word, probably from the verb wind, to twist; and the
+cognate Went, a passage--
+
+"Thorugh a goter, by a prive wente."
+
+(Troilus and Criseyde, iii.  788.)
+
+
+
+WATER
+
+Names derived from artificial watercourses are Channell, now replaced
+as a common noun by the learned form canal; Condy or Cundy, for the
+earlier Cunditt, conduit; Gott, cognate with gut, used in Yorkshire
+for the channel from a mill-dam, and in Lincolnshire for a water-drain
+on the coast; Lade, Leete, connected with the verb to lead; and
+sometimes Shore (Chapter XII), which was my grandfather's
+pronunciation of sewer.  From weir, lit.  a protection, precaution,
+cognate with beware and Ger. wehren, to protect, we have not only
+Weir, but also Ware, Warr, Wear, and the more pretentious Delawarr.
+The latter name passed from an Earl Delawarr to a region in North
+America, and thus to Fenimore Cooper's noble red men.  But this group
+of names must sometimes be referred to the Domesday wars, an outlying
+potion of a manor.  Lock is more often a land name, to be classed with
+Hatch (Chapter XIII), but was also used of a water-gate.  Key was once
+the usual spelling of quay.  The curious name Keylock is a perversion
+of Kellogg, Mid. Eng. Kill-hog.  Port seldom belongs here, as the Mid.
+English is almost always de la Porte, i.e. Gates.  From well we have a
+very large number of compounds, e.g. Cauldwell (cold), Halliwell, the
+variants of which, Holliwell, Hollowell, probably all represent Mid.
+Eng. hali, holy.  Here belongs also Winch, from the device used for
+drawing water from deep wells.
+
+
+
+BUILDINGS
+
+The greater number of the words to be dealt with under this heading
+enter into the composition of specific place-names.  A considerable
+number of surnames are derived from the names of religious buildings,
+usually from proximity rather than actual habitation.  Such names are
+naturally of Greco-Latin origin, and were either introduced directly
+into Anglo-Saxon by the missionaries, or were adopted later in a
+French form after the Conquest.  It has already been noted (Chapter I)
+that Abbey is not always what it seems; but in some cases it is local,
+from Fr, abbaye, of which the Provençal form Abadie was introduced by
+the Huguenots.  We find much earlier Abdy, taken straight from the
+Greco-Lat. abbatia.  The famous name Chantrey is for chantry, Armitage
+was once the regular pronunciation of Hermitage, and Chappell a common
+spelling of Chapel--
+
+"Also if you finde not the word you seeke for presently after one sort
+of spelling, condemne me not forthwith, but consider how it is used to
+be spelled, whether with double or single letters, as Chappell, or
+Chapell" (Holyoak, Latin Dict., 1612).
+
+We have also the Norman form Capel, but this may be a nickname from
+Mid. Eng. capel, nag--
+
+"Why nadstow (hast thou not) pit the capul in the lathe (barn)?" (A,
+4088.)
+
+A Galilee was a chapel or porch devoted to special purposes--
+
+"Those they pursued had taken refuge in the galilee of the church"
+
+(Fair Maid of Perth, ch. ix.).
+
+The tomb of the Venerable Bede is in the Galilee of Durham Cathedral.
+I had a schoolfellow with this uncommon name, now generally perverted
+to Galley.  In a play now running (Feb.  1913) in London, there is a
+character named Sanctuary, a name found also in Crockford and the
+London Directory.
+
+I have only once come across the contracted form Sentry [Footnote: On
+the development in meaning of this word, first occurring in the phrase
+"to take sentrie," i.e. refuge, see my Romance of Words, ch. vii.]
+(Daily Telegraph, Dec.  26, 1912), and then under circumstances which
+might make quotation actionable.  Purvis is Mid. Eng. parvis, a porch,
+Greco-Lat. paradises.  It may be the same as Provis, the name selected
+by Mr. Magwitch on his return from the Antipodes (Great Expectations,
+ch. xl.), unless this is for Provost.  Porch and Portch both occur as
+surnames, but Porcher is Fr. porcher, a swineherd, and Portal is a
+Huguenot name.  Churcher and Kirker, Churchman and Kirkman, are
+usually local; cf. Bridges and Bridgman.
+
+The names Temple and Templeman were acquired from residence near one
+of the preceptories of the Knights Templars, and Spittlehouse (Chapter
+III) is sometimes to be accounted for in a similar way (Knights of the
+Hospital).  We even find the surname Tabernacle.  Musters is Old Fr.
+moustiers (moutiers), common in French place-names, from Lat.
+monasterium.  The word bow, still used for an arch in some old towns,
+has given the names Bow and Bowes.  A medieval statute, recently
+revived to baffle the suffragettes, was originally directed against
+robbers and "pillers," i.e. plunderers, but the name Piller is also
+for pillar; cf. the French name Colonise.  With these may be mentioned
+Buttress and Carvell, the latter from Old Fr. carnet (créneau), a
+battlement.
+
+As general terms for larger dwellings we find Hall, House, also
+written Hose, and Seal, the last-named from the Teutonic original
+which has given Fr. Lasalle, whence our surname Sale.  To the same
+class belong Place, Plaice, as in Cumnor Place.
+
+The possession of such surnames does not imply ancestral possession of
+Haddon Hall, Stafford House, etc., but merely that the founder of the
+family lived under the shadow of greatness.  In compounds -house is
+generally treated as in "workus," e.g. Bacchus (Chapter VIII),
+Bellows, Brewis, Duffus (dove), Kirkus, Loftus, Malthus, Windus (wynd,
+Chapter XIII).  In connection with Woodhouse it must be remembered
+that this name was given to the man who played the part of a "wild man
+of the woods" in processions and festivities.  William Power, skinner,
+called "Wodehous," died in London in 1391.  Of similar origin is
+Greenman.  The tavern sign of the Green Man is sometimes explained as
+representing a forester in green, but it was probably at first
+equivalent to the German sign "Zum wilden Mann." Cassell is sometimes
+for Castle, but is more often a local German name of recent
+introduction.  The northern Peel, a castle, as in the Isle of Man, was
+originally applied to a stockade, Old Fr. pel (pieu), a stake, Lat.
+Palos.  Hence also Peall, Peile.  Keep comes from the central tower of
+the castle, where the baron and his family kept, i.e. lived.  A moated
+Grange is a poetic figment, for the word comes from Fr, grange, a barn
+(to Lat. granum); hence Granger.
+
+With Mill and the older Milne (Chapter II) we may compare Mullins, Fr.
+Desmoulins.  Barnes is sometimes, but not always, what it seems
+(Chapter XXI).  With it we may put Leathes, from an obsolete
+Scandinavian word for barn (see quot. Chapter XIII), to which we owe
+also the names Leatham and Latham.  Mr. Oldbuck's "ecstatic
+description" of the Roman camp with its praetorium was spoilt by Edie
+Ochiltree's disastrous interruption
+
+"Praetorian here, praetorian there, I mind the bigging o't."
+(Antiquary, ch. iv.).
+
+
+
+DWELLINGS
+
+The obsolete verb to big, i.e. build, whence Biggar, a builder, has
+given us Biggins, Biggs (Chapter III), and Newbigging, while from to
+build we have Newbould and Newbolt.  Cazenove, Ital. casa nuova, means
+exactly the same.  Probably related to build is the obsolete Bottle, a
+building, whence Harbottle.  A humble dwelling was called a Board--
+
+Borde, a little house, lodging, or cottage of timber (Cotgrave)--
+
+whence Boardman, Border.  Other names were Booth, Lodge, and Folley,
+Fr. feuillée, a hut made of branches--
+
+"Feuillée, an arbor, or bower, framed of leav'd plants, or branches"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+Scale, possibly connected with shealing, is a Scandinavian word used
+in the north for a shepherd's hut, hence the surname Scales.  Bower,
+which now suggests a leafy arbour, had no such sense in Mid. English.
+Chaucer says of the poor widow--
+
+"Ful sooty was hir bour and eek hire halle."
+
+(B, 4022.)
+
+Hence the names Bowerman, Boorman, Burman.
+
+But the commonest of names for a humble dwelling was cot or cote
+
+Born and fed in rudenesse
+
+As in a cote or in an oxe stalle
+
+(E, 397)
+
+the inhabitant of which was a Colman, Cotter, or, diminutively,
+Cottrell, Cotterill.  Hence the frequent occurrence of the name
+Coates.
+
+There are also numerous compounds, e.g. Alcott (old), Norcott,
+Kingscote, and the many variants of Caldecott, Calcott, the cold
+dwelling, especially common as a village name in the vicinity of the
+Roman roads.  It is supposed to have been applied, like Coldharbour,
+to deserted posts.  The name Cotton is sometimes from the dative
+plural of the same word, though, when of French origin, it represents
+Colon, dim. of Cot, aphetic for Jacot.
+
+Names such as Kitchin, Spence, a north-country word for pantry
+(Chapter XX), and Mews, originally applied to the hawk-coops (see
+Mewer, Chapter XV), point to domestic employment.  The simple Mew,
+common in Hampshire, is a bird nickname.  Scammell preserves an older
+form of shamble(s), originally the benches on which meat was exposed
+for sale.  The name Currie, or Curry, is too common to be referred
+entirely to the Scot.  Corrie, a mountain glen, or to Curry in
+Somerset, and I conjecture that it sometimes represents Old French and
+Mid. Eng. curie, a kitchen, which is the origin of Petty Cury in
+Cambridge and of the famous French name Curie.  Nor can Furness be
+derived exclusively from the Furness district of Lancashire.  It must
+sometimes correspond to the common French name Dufour, from four,
+oven.  We also have the name Ovens.  Stables, when not identical with
+Staples (Chapter XIII), belongs to the same class as Mews.  Chambers,
+found in Scotland as Chalmers, is official, the medieval de la Chambre
+often referring to the Exchequer Chamber of the City of London.
+Bellchambers has probably no connection with this word.  It appears to
+be an imitative spelling of Belencombre, a place near Dieppe, for the
+entry de Belencumbre is of frequent occurrence.
+
+Places of confinement are represented by Gale, gaol (Chapter III),
+Penn, whence Inkpen (Berkshire), Pond, Pound, and Penfold or Pinfold.
+But Gales is also for Anglo-Fr. Galles, Wales.  Butts may come from
+the archery ground, while Butt is generally to be referred to the
+French name Bout (Chapter VII) or to Budd (Chapter VII).  Cordery, for
+de la corderie, of the rope-walk, has been confused with the much more
+picturesque Corderoy, i.e. coeur de roi.
+
+
+
+SHOP SIGNS
+
+As is well known, medieval shops had signs instead of numbers, and
+traces of this custom are still to be seen in country towns.  It is
+quite obvious that town surnames would readily spring into existence
+from such signs.  The famous name Rothschild, always mispronounced in
+English, goes back to the "red shield" over Nathan Rothschild's shop
+in the Jewry of Frankfurt; and within the writer's memory two brothers
+named Grainge in the little town of Uxbridge were familiarly known as
+Bible Grainge and Gridiron Grainge.  Many animal surnames are to be
+referred partly to this source, e.g. Bull, Hart, Lamb, Lyon, Ram,
+Roebuck, Stagg; Cock, Falcon, Peacock, Raven, Swann, etc., all still
+common as tavern signs.  The popinjay, or parrot, is still
+occasionally found as Pobgee, Popjoy.  These surnames all have, of
+course, an alternative explanation (ch.  xxiii.).  Here also usually
+belong Angel and Virgin.
+
+A considerable number of such names probably consist of those taken
+from figures used in heraldry or from objects which indicated the
+craft practised, or the special commodity in which the tradesman
+dealt.  Such are Arrow, Bell, Buckle, Crosskeys, Crowne, Gauntlett,
+Hatt, Horne, Image, Key, Lilley, Meatyard, measuring wand--
+
+"Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment, in meteyard, in weight,
+or in measure" (Lev. xix. 35)--
+
+Mullett, [Footnote: A five-pointed star, Old Fr. molette, rowel of a
+spur.]  Rose, Shears, and perhaps Blades, Shipp, Spurr, Starr, Sword.
+Thomas Palle, called "Sheres," died in London, 1376.
+
+But here again we must walk delicately.  The Germanic name Hatto,
+borne by the wicked bishop who perished in the Mäuseturm, gave the
+French name Hatt with the accusative form Hatton, [Footnote: In Old
+French a certain number of names, mostly of Germanic origin, had an
+accusative in -on, e.g. Guy, Guyon, Hugues, Hugon.  From Lat. Pontius
+came Poinz, Poinson, whence our Poyntz, less pleasingly Punch, and
+Punshon.  In the Pipe Rolls these are also spelt Pin-, whence Pinch,
+Pinchin, and Pinches.] Horn is an old personal name, as in the
+medieval romance of King Horn, Shipp is a common provincialism for
+sheep, [Footnote: Hence the connection between the ship and the
+"ha'porth of tar."]  Starr has another explanation (see Starling) and
+Bell has several (chapter 1).  I should guess that Porteous was the
+sign used by some medieval writer of mass-books and breviaries.  Its
+oldest form is the Anglo-Fr. Porte-hors, corresponding to medieval
+Lat. portiforium, a breviary, lit.  what one carries outside, a
+portable prayer-book--
+
+"For on my porthors here I make an oath." (B, 1321.)
+
+But as the name is found without prefix in the Hundred Rolls, it may
+have been a nickname conferred on some clericus who was proud of so
+rare a possession.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. NORMAN BLOOD
+
+"Such, however, is the illusion of antiquity and wealth that decent
+and dignified men now existing boast their descent from these filthy
+thieves"
+
+(EMERSON, English Traits, ch. iv.).
+
+Not every Norman or Old French name need be included in the group
+described by Emerson when talking down to an uneducated audience.  In
+fact, it is probable that the majority of genuine French names belong
+to a later period; for, although the baron who accompanied the
+Conqueror would in many cases keep his old territorial designation,
+the minor ruffian would, as a rule, drop the name of the obscure
+hamlet from which he came and assume some surname more convenient in
+his new surroundings.  Local names of Old French origin are usually
+taken from the provinces and larger towns which had a meaning for
+English ears.  I have given examples of such in chapter xi.  Of course
+it is easy to take a detailed map of Northern France and say, without
+offering any proof, that "Avery (Chapter VIII) is from Evreux, Belcher
+(Chapter XXI) from Bellecourt, Custance (Chapter X) from Coutances,"
+and so on.  But any serious student knows this to be idiotic nonsense.
+The fact that, except in the small minority composed of the senior
+branches of the noblest houses, the surname was not hereditary till
+centuries after the Conquest, justifies any bearer of a Norman name
+taken from a village or smaller locality in repudiating all connection
+with the "filthy thieves" and conjecturing descent from some decent
+artisan belonging to one of the later immigrations.
+
+That a considerable number of aristocratic families, and others, bear
+an easily recognizable French town or village name is of course well
+known, but it will usually be found that such names are derived from
+places which are as plentiful in France as our own Ashleys, Barton,
+Burton, Langleys, Newtons, Suttons, etc., are in England.  In some
+cases a local French name has spread in an exceptional manner.
+Examples are Baines (Gains, 2 [Footnote: The figures in brackets
+indicate the number of times that the French local name occurs in the
+Postal Directory.  The above is the usual explanation of Baines.
+found with de in the Hundred Rolls.  But I think it was sometimes a
+nickname, bones, applied to a thin man.  I find William Banes in
+Lancashire in 1252; cf. Langbain.] ), Gurney (Gournai, 6), Vernon (3).
+But usually in such cases we find a large number of spots which may
+have given rise to the surname, e.g. Beaumont (46, without counting
+Belmont), Dampier (Dampierre, i.e. St. Peter's, 28), Daubeney, Dabney
+(Aubigné, 4, Aubigny, 17), Ferrers (Ferriéres, 22), Nevill (Neuville,
+58), Nugent (Nogent, 17), Villiers (58).  This last name, representing
+Vulgar Lat. villarium, is the origin of Ger. -weiler, so common in
+German village names along the old Roman roads, e.g. Badenweiler,
+Froschweiler, etc.
+
+When we come to those surnames of this class which have remained
+somewhat more exclusive, we generally find that the place-name is also
+comparatively rare.  Thus Hawtrey is from Hauterive (7), Pinpoint from
+Pierrepont (5), Furneaux from Fourneaux (5), Vipont and Vipan from
+Vieux-Pont (3), and there are three places called Percy.
+
+The following have two possible birthplaces each-Bellew or Pellew
+(Belleau), Cantelo (Canteloup [Footnote: But the doublet Chanteloup is
+common.]), Mauleverer (Maulévrier), Mompesson (Mont Pinçon or
+Pinchon), Montmorency, Mortimer (Morte-mer).  The following are
+unique--Carteret, Doll [Footnote: This may also be a metronymic, from
+Dorothy.]  (Dol), Fiennes, Furnival (Fournival), Greville, Harcourt,
+Melville (Meleville), Montresor, Mowbray (Monbrai), Sackville
+(Sacquenville), Venables.  These names are taken at random, but the
+same line of investigation can be followed up by any reader who thinks
+it worth while.
+
+
+
+CORRUPT FORMS
+
+Apart from aristocratic questions, it is interesting to notice the
+contamination which has occurred between English and French surnames
+of local origin.  The very common French suffix -ville is regularly
+confounded with our -field.  Thus Summerfield is the same name as
+Somerville, Dangerfield is for d'Angerville, Belfield for Belleville,
+Blomfield for Blonville, and Stutfield for Estouteville, while
+Grenville, Granvillehave certainly become confused with our Grenfell,
+green fell, and Greenfield.  Camden notes that Turberville became
+Troublefield, and I have found the intermediate Trubleville in the
+twelfth century.  The case of Tess Durbeyfield will occur to every
+reader.  The suffix -fort has been confused with our -ford and -forth,
+so that Rochford is in some cases for Rochefort and Beeforth for
+Beaufort or Belfort.  With the first syllable of Beeforth we may
+compare Beevor for Beauvoir, Belvoir, Beecham  for Beauchamp, and
+Beamish for Beaumais.
+
+The name Beamish actually occurs as that of village in Durham, the
+earlier form of which points Old French origin, from beau mes, Lat.
+bellum mansum, a fair manse, i.e. dwelling.  Otherwise it would be
+tempting to derive the surname Beamish from Ger, böhmisch, earlier
+behmisch, Bohemian.
+
+A brief survey of French spot-names which have passed into English
+will show that they were acquired in exactly the same way as the
+corresponding English names.  Norman ancestry, is, however, not always
+to be assumed in this case.  Until the end of the fourteenth century a
+large proportion of our population was bi-lingual, and names
+accidentally recorded in Anglo-French may occasionally have stuck.
+Thus the name Boyes or Boyce may spring from a man of pure English
+descent who happened to be described as del boil instead of atte wood,
+just as Capron (Chapter XXI) means Hood.  While English spot-names
+have as a rule shed both the preposition and the article (Chapter
+XII), French usually keeps one or both, though these were more often
+lost when the name passed into England.  Thus our Roach is not a
+fish-name, but corresponds to Fr. Laroche or Delaroche; and the blind
+pirate Pew, if not a Welshman, ap Hugh, was of the race of Dupuy, from
+Old Fr. Puy, a hill, Lat. podium, a height, gallery, etc., whence also
+our Pew, once a raised platform.
+
+In some cases the prefix has passed into English; e.g. Diprose is from
+des préaux, of the meadows, a name assumed by Boileau among others.
+There are, of course, plenty of places in France called Les Préaux,
+but in the case of such a name we need not go further than possession
+of, or residence by, a piece of grass-land--
+
+"Je sais un paysan qu'on appelait Gros-Pierre,
+ Qui, n'ayant pour tout bien qu'un seul quartier de terre,
+ Y fit tout alentour faire un fossé bourbeux,
+ Et de monsieur de l'Isle en prit le nom pompeux."
+
+(Molière L'Ecole des Femmes, i. 1.)
+
+The Old French singular préal is perhaps the origin of Prall, Prawle.
+Similarly Preece, Prees, usually for Price, may sometimes be for des
+Pres.  With Boyes (Chapter XIV) we may compare Tallis from Fr.
+taillis, a copse (tailler, to cut).  Garrick, a Huguenot name, is Fr,
+gangue, an old word for heath.
+
+
+
+TREE NAMES
+
+Trees have in all countries a strong influence on topographical names,
+and hence on surnames.  Frean, though usually from the Scandinavian
+name Fraena, is sometimes for Fr. frêne, ash, Lat. fraxinus, while
+Cain and Kaines [Footnote: There is one family of Keynes derived
+specifically from Chahaignes (Sarthe).]  are Norm.  quêne (chêne),
+oak.  The modern French for beech is hêtre, Du. heester, but Lat.
+fagus has given a great many dialect forms which have supplied us with
+the surnames Fay, Foy, and the plural dim. Failes.  Here also I should
+put the name Defoe, assumed by the writer whose father was satisfied
+with Foe.  With Quatrefages, four beeches, we may compare such English
+names as Fiveash, Twelvetrees, and Snooks, for "seven oaks."
+
+In Latin the suffix -etum was used to designate a grove or plantation.
+This suffix, or its plural -eta, is very common in France, becoming
+successively -ei(e), -oi(e), -ai(e).  The name Dobree is a Guernsey
+spelling of d'Aubray, Lat. arboretum, which was dissimilated (Chapter
+III) into arboretum.  Darblay, the name of Fanny Burney's husband, is
+a variant.  From au(l)ne, alder, we have aunai, whence our Dawnay.  So
+also frênai has given Freeney, chênai, Chaney, and the Norm.  quênai
+is one origin of Kenney, while the older chesnai appears in Chesney.
+Houssaie, from hoax, holly, gives Hussey; chastenai, chestnut grove,
+exists in Nottingham as Chastener; coudrai, hazel copse, gives Cowdrey
+and Cowdery; Verney and Varney are from vernai, grove of alders, of
+Celtic origin, and Viney corresponds to the French name Vinoy, Lat.
+vinetum.
+
+We have also Chinnery, Chenerey from the extended chênerai, and
+Pomeroy from pommerai.  Here again the name offers no clue as to the
+exact place of origin.  There are in the French Postal Directory eight
+places called Épinay, from épine, thorn, but these do not exhaust the
+number of "spinnies" in France.  Also connected with tree-names are
+Conyers, Old Fr, coigniers, quince-trees, and Pirie, Perry, Anglo-Fr.
+périe, a collective from peire (poire).
+
+Among Norman names for a homestead the favourite is mesnil, from
+Vulgar Lat. mansionile, which enters into a great number of local
+names.  It has given our Meynell, and is also the first element of
+Mainwaring, Mannering, from mesnil-Warin.  The simple mes, a southern
+form of which appears in Dumas, has given us Mees and Meese, which are
+thus etymological doublets of the word manse.  With Beamish (Chapter
+XIV) we may compare Bellasis, from bel-assis, fairly situated.  Poyntz
+is sometimes for des ponts; cf. Pierpoint for Pierrepont.
+
+Even Norman names which were undoubtedly borne by leaders among the
+Conqueror's companions are now rarely found among the noble, and many
+a descendant of these once mighty families cobbles the shoes of more
+recent invaders.  Even so the descendants of the Spanish nobles who
+conquered California are glad to peddle vegetables at the doors of San
+Francisco magnates whose fathers dealt in old clothes in some German
+Judengasse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES
+
+"When Adam delved and Eve span,
+ Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+Chant of Wat Tyler's followers.
+
+The occupative name would, especially in villages, tend to become a
+very natural surname.  It is not therefore surprising to find so large
+a number of this class among our commonest surnames, e.g. Smith,
+Taylor, Wright, Walker, Turner, Clark, Cooper, etc.  And, as the same
+craft often persisted in a family for generations, it was probably
+this type of surname which first became hereditary.  On the other
+hand, such names as Cook, Gardiner, Carter, etc., have no doubt in
+some cases prevailed over another surname lawfully acquired (Chapter
+I).  It is impossible to fix an approximate date for the definite
+adoption of surnames of this class.  It occurred earlier in towns than
+in the country, and by the middle of the fourteenth century we often
+find in the names of London citizens a contradiction between the
+surname and the trade-name; e.g. Walter Ussher, tanner, John Botoner,
+girdler, Roger Carpenter, pepperer, Richard le Hunte, chaundeler,
+occur 1336-52.
+
+The number of surnames belonging to this group is immense, for every
+medieval trade and craft was highly specialized and its privileges
+were jealously guarded.  The general public, which now, like Issachar,
+crouches between the trusts and the trades unions, was in the middle
+ages similarly victimized by the guilds of merchants and craftsmen.
+
+Then, as now, it grumblingly recognized that, "Plus ça change, plus ça
+reste la même chose," and went on enduring.  [Footnote: If a student
+of philology were allowed to touch on such high matters as
+legislation, I would moralize on the word kiddle, meaning an illegal
+kind of weir used for fish-poaching, whence perhaps the surname
+Kiddell.  From investigations made with a view to discovering the
+origin of the word, I came to the conclusion that all the legislative
+powers in England spent three centuries in passing enactments against
+these devices, with the inevitable consequence that they became ever
+more numerous.]
+
+
+
+SOCIAL GRADES
+
+By dealing with a few essential points at the outset we shall clear
+the ground for considering the various groups of surnames connected
+with trade, craft, profession or office.  To begin with, it is certain
+that such names as Pope, Cayzer, King, Earl, Bishop are nicknames,
+very often conferred on performers in religious plays or acquired in
+connection with popular festivals and processions--
+
+"Names also have been taken of civil honours, dignities and estate, as
+King, Duke, Prince, Lord, Baron, Knight, Valvasor or Vavasor, Squire,
+Castellon, partly for that their ancestours were such, served such,
+acted such parts; or were Kings of the Bean, Christmas-Lords, etc."
+(Camden).
+
+We find corresponding names in other languages, and some of the French
+names, usually preceded by the definite article, have passed into
+English, e.g. Lempriere, a Huguenot name, and Levêque, whence our
+Levick, Vick, Veck (Chapter III).  Baron generally appears as Barron,
+and Duke, used in Mid. English of any leader, is often degraded to
+Duck, whence the dim. Duckett.  But all three of these names can also
+be referred to Marmaduke.
+
+It would be tempting to put Palsgrave in this class.  Prince Rupert,
+the Pfalzgraf, i.e. Count Palatine, was known as the Palsgrave in his
+day, but I have not found the title recorded early enough.
+
+With Lord we must put the northern Laird, and, in my opinion, Senior;
+for, if we notice how much commoner Young is than Old, and Fr. Lejeune
+than Levieux, we must conclude that junior, a very rare surname, ought
+to be of much more frequent occurrence than Senior, Synyer, a fairly
+common name.  There can be little doubt that Senior is usually a
+latinization of the medieval le seigneur, whence also Saynor.  Knight
+is not always knightly, for Anglo-Sax. cniht means servant; cf. Ger.
+Knecht.  The word got on in the world, with the consequence that the
+name is very popular, while its medieval compeers, knave, varlet,
+villain, have, even when adorned with the adj.  good, dropped out of
+the surname list, Bonvalet, Bonvarlet, Bonvillain are still common
+surnames in France.  From Knight we have the compound Road-night, a
+mounted servitor.  Thus Knight is more often a true occupative name,
+and the same applies to Dring or Dreng, a Scandinavian name of similar
+meaning.
+
+Other names from the middle rungs of the social ladder are also to be
+taken literally, e.g. Franklin, a freeholder, Anglo-Fr. frankelein--
+
+"How called you your franklin, Prior Aylmer?"
+
+"Cedric," answered the Prior, "Cedric the Saxon"
+
+(Ivanhoe, ch. i.)--
+
+Burgess, Freeman, Freeborn.  The latter is sometimes for Freebairn and
+exists already as the Anglo-Saxon personal name Freobeorn.  Denison
+(Chapter II) is occasionally an accommodated form of denizen,
+Anglo-Fr. deinzein, a burgess enjoying the privileges belonging to
+those who lived "deinz (in) la cité." In 1483 a certain Edward
+Jhonson--
+
+"Sued to be mayde Denison for fer of ye payment of ye subsedy."
+
+(Letter to Sir William Stonor, June 9, 1483.)
+
+Bond is from Anglo-Sax, bonda, which means simply agriculturist.  The
+word is of Icelandic origin and related to Boor, another word which
+has deteriorated and is rare as a surname, though the cognate Bauer is
+common enough in Germany.  Holder is translated by Tennant.  For some
+other names applied to the humbler peasantry see Chapter XIII.
+
+To return to the social summit, we have Kingson, often confused with
+the local Kingston, and its Anglo-French equivalent Fauntleroy.
+Faunt, aphetic for Anglo-Fr. enfaunt, is common in Mid. English.  When
+the mother of Moses had made the ark of bulrushes, or, as Wyclif calls
+it, the "junket of resshen," she--
+
+"Putte the litil faunt with ynne"
+
+(Exodus ii. 3)
+
+The Old French accusative (Chapter I) was also used as a genitive, as
+in Bourg-le-roi, Bourg-la-rein, corresponding to our Kingsbury and
+Queensborough.  We have a genitive also in Flowerdew, found in French
+as Flourdieu.  Lower, in his Patronymics Britannica (1860), the first
+attempt at a dictionary of English surnames, conjectures Fauntleroy to
+be from an ancient French war-cry Défendez le roi!  for "in course of
+time, the meaning of the name being forgotten, the de would be
+dropped, and the remaining syllables would easily glide into
+Fauntleroy." [Footnote: I have quoted this "etymology" because it is
+too funny to be lost; but a good deal of useful information can be
+found in Lower, especially with regard to the habitat of well-known
+names.]
+
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES
+
+Names of ecclesiastics must usually be nicknames, because medieval
+churchmen were not entitled to have descendants.  This appears clearly
+in such an entry as "Bishop the crossbowman," or "Johannes Monacus et
+uxor ejus Emma," living in Kent in the twelfth century.  But these
+names are so numerous that I have put them with the Canterbury
+Pilgrims (ch.  xvii.).  Three of them may be mentioned here in
+connection with a small group of occupative surnames of puzzling form.
+We have noticed (Chapter XII) that monosyllabic, and some other,
+surnames of local origin frequently take an -s, partly by analogy with
+names like Wills, Watts, etc.  We rarely find this -s in the case of
+occupative names, but Parsons, Vicars or Vickers, and Monks are
+common, and in fact the first two are scarcely found without the -s.
+To these we may add Reeves (Chapter XVII), Grieves (Chapter XIX), and
+the well-known Nottingham name Mellers (Chapter XVII).  The
+explanation seems to be that these names are true genitives, and that
+John Parsons was John the Parson's man, while John Monks was employed
+by the monastery.  This is confirmed by such entries as "Walter atte
+Parsons," "John del Parsons," "Allen atte Prestes," "William del
+Freres," "Thomas de la Vicars," all from the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries.
+
+Another exceptional group is that of names formed by adding -son to
+the occupative names, the commonest being perhaps Clarkson, Cookson,
+Smithson, and Wrightson.  To this class belongs Grayson, which
+Bardsley shows to be equivalent to the grieve's son.
+
+Our occupative names are both English and French, [Footnote: We have
+also a few Latinizations, e.g. Faber (wright), Messer (mower).  This
+type of name is much commoner in Germany, e.g. Avenarius, oat man,
+Fabricius, smith, Textor, weaver, etc.  Mercator, of map projection
+fame, was a Fleming named Kremer, i.e. dealer.]  the two languages
+being represented by those important tradesmen Baker and Butcher.  The
+former is reinforced by Bollinger, Fr. boulanger, Pester, Old Fr.
+pestour (Lat. piston), and Furner--
+
+"Fournier, a baker, or one that keeps, or governs a common oven"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+The English and French names for the same trade also survive in
+Cheeseman and Firminger, Old Fr. formagier (fromage).
+
+We have as endings -er, -ier, the latter often made into -yer, -ger,
+as in Lockyer, Sawyer, Kidger (Chapter XIX), Woodger, [Footnote:
+Woodyer, Woodger, may also be for wood-hewer.  See Stanier] and -or,
+-our, as in Taylor, Jenoure (Chapter III).  The latter ending,
+corresponding to Modern Fr. -eur, represents Lat. -or, -orem, but we
+tack it onto English words as in "sailor," or substitute it for -er,
+-ier, as in Fermor, for Farmer, Fr. fermier.  In the Privy Purse
+Expenses of that careful monarch Henry VII. occurs the item--
+
+"To bere drunken at a fermors house . . .  1s."
+
+In the same way we replace the Fr. -our, -eur by -er, as in Turner,
+Fr. tourneur, Ginner, Jenner for Jenoure.
+
+The ending -er, -ier represents the Lat. -arius.  It passed not only
+into French, but also into the Germanic languages, replacing the
+Teutonic agential suffix which consisted of a single vowel.  We have a
+few traces of this oldest group of occupative names, e.g. Webb, Mid.
+Eng. webbe, Anglo-Sax. webb-a, and Hunt, Mid. Eng. hunte, Anglo-Sax.
+hunt-a--
+
+"With hunte and horne and houndes hym bisyde"
+
+(A, 1678)--
+
+which still hold the field easily against Webber and Hunter.
+
+So also, the German name Beck represents Old High Ger. pecch-o, baker.
+To these must be added Kemp, a champion, a very early loan-word
+connected with Lat. campus, field, and Wright, originally the worker,
+Anglo-Sax. wyrht-a.  Camp is sometimes for Kemp, but is also from the
+Picard form of Fr, champ, i.e. Field.  Of similar formation to Webb,
+etc., is Clapp, from an Anglo-Sax. nickname, the clapper--
+
+"Osgod Clapa, King Edward Confessor's staller, was cast upon the
+pavement of the Church by a demon's hand for his insolent pride in
+presence of the relics (of St. Edmund, King and Martyr)."
+
+(W. H. Hutton, Bampton Lectures, 1903.)
+
+
+
+NAMES IN -STER
+
+The ending -ster was originally feminine, and applied to trades
+chiefly carried on by women, e.g. Baxter, Bagster, baker, Brewster,
+Simister, sempster, Webster, etc., but in process of time the
+distinction was lost, so that we find Blaxter and Whitster for
+Blacker, Blakey, and Whiter, both of which, curiously enough, have the
+same meaning--
+
+"Bleykester or whytster, candidarius" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+for this black represents Mid. Eng. bla-c, related to bleak and
+bleach, and meaning pale--
+
+"Blake, wan of colour, blesme (blême)" (Palsgrave).
+
+Occupative names of French origin are apt to vary according to the
+period and dialect of their adoption.  For Butcher we find also
+Booker, Bowker, and sometimes the later Bosher, Busher, with the same
+sound for the ch as in Labouchère, the lady butcher.  But Booker may
+also mean what it appears to mean, as Mid. Eng. bokere is used by
+Wyclif for the Latin scriba.
+
+Butcher, originally a dealer in goat's flesh, Fr. bouc, has ousted
+flesher.  German still has half a dozen surnames derived from names
+for this trade, e.g. Fleischer, Fleischmann, [Footnote: Hellenized as
+Sarkander.  This was a favourite trick of German scholars at the
+Renaissance period.  Well-known examples are Melancthon (Schwarzerd),
+Neander (Neumann).]  Metzger, Schlechter; but our flesher has been
+absorbed by Fletcher, a maker of arrows, Fr. flêche.  Fletcher Gate at
+Nottingham was formerly Flesher Gate.  The undue extension of Taylor
+has already been mentioned (Chapter IV).  Another example is Barker,
+which has swallowed up the Anglo-Fr. berquier, a shepherd, Fr. berger,
+with the result that the Barkers outnumber the Tanners by three to one
+
+"'What craftsman are you?' said our King,
+'I pray you, tell me now.'
+'I am a barker,' quoth the tanner;
+'What craftsman art thou?'"
+
+(Edward IV. and the Tanner of Tamworth.)
+
+The name seems to have been applied also to the man who barked trees
+for the tanner.
+
+
+
+MISSING TRADESMEN
+
+With Barker it seems natural to mention Mewer, of which I find one
+representative in the London Directory.  The medieval le muur had
+charge of the mews in which the hawks were kept while moulting (Fr.
+muer, Lat. mutare).  Hence the phrase "mewed up." The word seems to
+have been used for any kind of coop.  Chaucer tells us of the
+Franklin--
+
+"Ful many a fat partrich hadde he in muw" (A, 349).
+
+I suspect that some of the Muirs (Chapter XII) spring from this
+important office.  Similarly Clayer has been absorbed by the local
+Clare, Kayer, the man who made keys, by Care, and Blower, whether of
+horn or bellows, has paid tribute to the local Bloor, Blore.
+
+Sewer, an attendant at table, aphetic for Old Fr. asseour, a setter,
+is now a very rare name.  As we know that sewer, a drain, became
+shore, it is probable that the surname Shore sometimes represents this
+official or servile title.  And this same name Shore, though not
+particularly common, and susceptible of a simple local origin, labours
+under grave suspicion of having also enriched itself at the expense of
+the medieval le suur, the shoemaker, Lat. sutor-em, whence Fr.
+Lesueur.  This would inevitably become Sewer and then Shore, as above.
+Perhaps, in the final reckoning, Shaw is not altogether guiltless, for
+I know of one family in which this has replaced earlier Shore.
+
+The medieval le suur brings us to another problem, viz. the poor show
+made by the craftsmen who clothed the upper and lower extremities of
+our ancestors.  The name Hatter, once frequent enough, is almost
+extinct, and Capper is not very common.  The name Shoemaker has met
+with the same fate, though the trade is represented by the Lat. Sutor,
+whence Scot.  Souter.  Here belong also Cordner, Codner, [Footnote:
+Confused, of course, with the local Codnor (Derbyshire)]  Old Fr.
+cordouanier (cordonnier), a cordwainer, a worker in Cordovan leather,
+and Corser, Cosser, earlier corviser, corresponding to the French name
+Courvoisier, also derived from Cordova.  Chaucer, in describing the
+equipment of Sir Thopas, mentions
+
+"His shoon of cordewane" (B, 1922).
+
+The scarcity of Groser, grocer, is not surprising, for the word,
+aphetic for engrosser, originally meaning a wholesale dealer, one who
+sold en gros, is of comparatively late occurrence.  His medieval
+representative was Spicer.
+
+On the other hand, many occupative titles which are now obsolete, or
+practically so, still survive strongly as surnames.  Examples of these
+will be found in chapters xvii.-xx.
+
+Some occupative names are rather deceptive.  Kisser, which is said
+still to exist, means a maker of cuishes, thigh-armour, Fr, cuisses--
+
+"Helm, cuish, and breastplate streamed with gore."
+
+(Lord of the Isles, iv. 33.)
+
+Corker is for caulker, i.e. one who stopped the chinks of ships and
+casks, originally with lime (Lat. calx)--
+
+"Sir, we have a chest beneath the hatches, caulk'd and bitumed ready"
+(Pericles iii.  1).
+
+Cleaver represents Old Fr, clavier, a mace-bearer, Lat. clava, a club,
+or a door-keeper, Lat. clavis, a key.  Perhaps even clavus, a nail,
+must also be considered, for a Latin vocabulary of the fifteenth
+century tells us--
+
+"Claves, -vos vet -vas qui fert sit claviger."
+
+Neither Bowler nor Scorer are connected with cricket.  The former made
+wooden bowls, and the latter was sometimes a scourer, or scout, Mid.
+Eng. scurrour, a word of rather complicated origin, but perhaps more
+frequently a peaceful scullion, from Fr. écurer, to scour, Lat.
+ex-curare--
+
+"Escureur, a scourer, cleanser, feyer" (Cotgrave).
+
+[Footnote: Feyer: A sweeper, now perhaps represented by Fayer.]
+
+A Leaper did not always leap (Chapter XVII).  The verb had also in
+Mid. English the sense of running away, so that the name may mean
+fugitive.  In some cases it may represent a maker of leaps, i.e. fish
+baskets, or perhaps a man who hawked fish in such a basket.
+
+A Slayer made slays, part of a weaver's loom, and a Bloomer worked in
+a bloom-smithy, from Anglo-Sax. blo-ma, a mass of hammered iron.
+Weightman and Warman represent Mid. Eng, waþeman, hunter; cf. the
+common German surname Weidemann, of cognate origin.  Reader and Booker
+are not always literary.  The former is for Reeder, a thatcher--
+
+"Redare of howsys, calamator, arundinarius" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and the latter is a Norman variant of Butcher, as already mentioned.
+
+
+
+SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES
+
+The spelling of occupative surnames often differs from that now
+associated with the trade itself.  In Naylor, Taylor, and Tyler we
+have the archaic preference for y.  [Footnote: It may be noted here
+that John Tiler of Dartford, who killed a tax-gatherer for insulting
+his daughter, was not Wat Tiler, who was killed at Smithfield for
+insulting the King.  The confusion between the two has led to much
+sympathy being wasted on a ruffian.]  Our ancestors thought sope as
+good a spelling as soap, hence the name Soper.  A Plummer, i.e. a man
+who worked in lead, Lat. plumbum, is now written, by etymological
+reaction, plumber, though the restored letter is not sounded.  A man
+who dealt in 'arbs originated the name Arber, which we should now
+replace by herbalist.  We have a restored spelling in clerk, though
+educated people pronounce the word as it was once written
+
+"Clarke, or he that readeth distinctly, clericus." (Holyoak's Lat.
+Dict., 1612.)
+
+In many cases we are unable to say exactly what is the ocpupation
+indicated.  We may assume that a Setter and a Tipper did setting and
+tipping, and both are said to have been concerned in the arrow
+industry.  If this is true, I should say that Setter might represent
+the Old Fr, saieteur, arrow-maker, from saiete, an arrow, Lat.
+sagitta.  But in a medieval vocabulary we find "setter of mes,
+dapifer," which would make it the same as Sewer (Chapter XV).
+Similarly, when we consider the number of objects that can be tipped,
+we shall be shy of defining the activity of the Tipper too closely.
+Trinder, earlier trenden, is from Mid. Eng. trender, to roll (cf.
+Roller).  In the west country trinder now means specifically a
+wool-winder--
+
+"Lat hym rollen and trenden withynne hymself the lyght of his ynwarde
+sighte" (Boece, 1043).
+
+There are also some names of this class to which we can with certainty
+attribute two or more origins.  Boulter means a maker of bolts for
+crossbows, [Footnote: How many people who use the expression "bolt
+upright," associate it with "straight as a dart"?]  but also a sifter,
+from the obsolete verb to bolt--
+
+"The fanned snow, that's bolted
+ By the northern blasts twice o'er."
+
+(Winter's Tale, iv. 3.)
+
+Corner means horn-blower, Fr, cor, horn, and is also a contraction of
+coroner, but its commonest origin is local, in angulo, in the corner.
+Curren and Curryer are generally connected with leather, but Henry
+VII. bestowed £3 on the Curren that brought tidings of Perkin
+War-beck.  Garner has five possible origins: (i) a contraction of
+gardener, (ii) from the French personal name Garner, Ger. Werner,
+(iii) Old Fr. grenier, grain-keeper, (iv) Old Fr, garennier, warren
+keeper, (v) local, from garner, Fr. grenier, Lat. granarium.  In the
+next chapter will be found, as a specimen problem, an investigation of
+the name Rutter.
+
+
+
+PHONETIC CHANGES
+
+Two phonetic phenomena should also be noticed.  One is the regular
+insertion of n before the ending -ger, as in Firminger (Chapter XV),
+Massinger (Chapter XX), Pottinger (Chapter XVIII), and in Arminger,
+Clavinger, from the latinized armiger, esquire, and claviger,
+mace-bearer, etc.  (Chapter XV).  The other is the fact that many
+occupative names ending in -rer lose the -er by dissimilation (Chapter
+III).  Examples are Armour for armourer, Barter for barterer, Buckler
+for bucklerer, but also for buckle-maker, Callender for calenderer,
+one who calendered, i.e. pressed, cloth
+
+"And my good friend the Callender
+ Will lend his horse to go."
+
+(John Gilpin, 1.  22)--
+
+Coffer, for cofferer, a treasurer, Cover, for coverer, i.e. tiler, Fr.
+couvreur, when it does not correspond to Fr. cuvier, i.e. a maker of
+coves, vats, Ginger, Grammer, for grammarer, Paternoster, maker of
+paternosters or rosaries, Pepper, Sellar, for cellarer (Chapter III),
+Tabor, for Taberer, player on the taber.  Here also belongs Treasure,
+for treasurer.  Salter is sometimes for sautrier, a player on the
+psaltery.  We have the opposite process in poulterer for Pointer
+(Chapter II), and caterer for Cator (Chapter III).
+
+
+
+NAMES FROM WARES
+
+Such names as Ginger, Pepper, may however belong to the class of
+nicknames conferred on dealers in certain commodities; cf. Pescod,
+Peskett, from pease-cod.  Of this we have several examples which can
+be confirmed by foreign parallels, e.g. Garlick, found in German as
+Knoblauch, [Footnote: The cognate Eng. Clove-leek occurs as a surname
+in the Ramsey Chartulary.]  Straw, represented in German by the
+cognate name Stroh, and Pease, which is certified by Fr. Despois.  We
+find Witepease in the twelfth century.
+
+Especially common are those names which deal with the two staple foods
+of the country, bread and beer.  In German we find several compounds
+of Brot, bread, and one of the greatest of chess-players bore the
+amazing name Zuckertort, sugar-tart.  In French we have such names as
+Painchaud, Painlevê, Pain-tendre--
+
+"Eugene Aram was usher, in 1744, to the Rev. Mr. Painblanc, in
+Piccadilly"
+
+ (Bardsley).
+
+Hence our Cakebread and Whitbread were probably names given to bakers.
+Simnel is explained in the same way, and Lambert Simnel is understood
+to have been a baker's lad, but the name could equally well be from
+Fr. Simonel, dim. of Simon.  Wastall is found in the Hundred Rolls as
+Wasted, Old Fr. gastel (gâteau).  Here also belongs Cracknell--
+
+"Craquelin, a cracknell; made of the yolks of egges, water, and
+flower; and fashioned like a hollow trendle" (Cotgrave).
+
+Goodbeer is explained by Bardsley as a perversion of Godber (Chapter
+VII), which may be true, but the name is also to be taken literally.
+We have Ger. Gutbier, and the existence of Sourale in the Hundred
+Rolls and Sowerbutts at the present day justifies us in accepting both
+Goodbeer and Goodale at their face-value.  But Rice is an imitative
+form of Welsh Rhys, Reece, and Salt, when not derived from Salt in
+Stafford, is from Old Fr. sault, a wood, Lat. saltus.  [Footnote: This
+is common in place-names, and I should suggest, as a guess, that
+Sacheverell is from the village of Sault-Chevreuil-du-Tronchet
+(Manche).]  It is doubtful whether the name Cheese is to be included
+here.  Jan Kees, for John Cornelius, said to have been a nickname for
+a Hollander, may easily have reached the Eastern counties.  Bardsley's
+earliest instance for the name is John Chese, who was living in
+Norfolk in 1273.  But still I find Furmage as a medieval surname.
+
+We also have the dealer in meat represented by the classical example
+of Hogsflesh, with which we may compare Mutton and Veal, two names
+which may be seen fairly near each other in Hammersmith Road (but for
+these see also Chapter XXIII), and I have known a German named
+Kalbfleisch.  Names of this kind would sometimes come into existence
+through the practice of crying wares; though if Mr. Rottenherring, who
+was a freeman of York in 1332, obtained his in this way, he must have
+deliberately ignored an ancient piece of wisdom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER
+
+"Howe sayst thou, man?  am not I a joly rutter?"
+
+(Skelton, Magnyfycence, 1.  762.)
+
+The fairly common name Rutter is a good example of the difficulty of
+explaining a surname derived from a trade or calling no longer
+practised.  Even so careful an authority as Bardsley has gone
+hopelessly astray over this name.  He says, "German ritter, a rider,
+i.e. a trooper," and quotes from Halliwell, "rutter, a rider, a
+trooper, from the German; a name given to mercenary soldiers engaged
+from Brabant, etc."  Now this statement is altogether opposed to
+chronology.  The name occurs as le roter, rotour, ruter in the Hundred
+Rolls of 1273, i.e. more than two centuries before any German name for
+trooper could possibly have become familiar in England.  Any stray
+Mid. High Ger. Riter would have been assimilated to the cognate Eng.
+Rider.  It is possible that some German Reuters have become English
+Rutters in comparatively modern times, but the German surname Reuter
+has nothing to do with a trooper.  It represents Mid. High Ger.
+riutaere, a clearer of land, from the verb riuten (reuten),
+corresponding to Low Ger. roden, and related to our royd, a clearing
+(Chapter XII).  This word is apparently not connected with our root,
+though it means to root out, but ultimately belongs to a root ru which
+appears in Lat. rutrum, a spade, rutabulum, a rake, etc.
+
+There is another Ger. Reuter, a trooper, which has given the
+sixteenth-century Eng. rutter, but not as a surname.  The word appears
+in German about 1500, i.e. rather late for the surname period, and
+comes from Du. ruiter, a mercenary trooper.  The German for trooper is
+Reiter, really the same word as Ritter, a knight, the two forms having
+been differentiated in meaning; cf. Fr. cavalier, a trooper, and
+chevalier, a knight.  In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ger.
+Reiter was confused with, and supplanted by, this borrowed word
+Reuter, which was taken to mean rider, and we find the cavalry called
+Reuterei well into the eighteenth century.  As a matter of fact the
+two words are quite unrelated, though the origin of Du. ruiter is
+disputed.
+
+The New English Dictionary gives, from the year 1506, rutter (var.
+ruter, ruiter), a cavalry soldier, especially German, from Du. ruiter,
+whence Ger. Reuter, as above.  It connects the Dutch word with
+medieval Lat. rutarius, i.e. ruptarius, which is also Kluge's view.
+[Footnote: Deutsches Etymologisches Wrterbuch.]  But Franck [Footnote:
+Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal.]  sees phonetic
+difficulties and prefers to regard ruiter as belonging rather to
+ruiten, to uproot.  The application of the name up-rooter to a lawless
+mercenary is not unnatural.
+
+But whatever be the ultimate origin of this Dutch and German military
+word, it is sufficiently obvious that it cannot have given an English
+surname which is already common in the thirteenth century.  There is a
+much earlier claimant in the field.
+
+The New English Dictionary has roter (1297), var. rotour, rotor, and
+router (1379), a lawless person, robber, ruffian, from Old Fr. rotier
+(routier), and also the form rutar, used by Philemon Holland, who, in
+his translation of Camden's Britannia (1610), says "That age called
+foraine and willing souldiours rutars."  The reference is to King
+John's mercenaries, c. 1215.  Fr, routier, a mercenary, is usually
+derived from route, a band, Lat. rupta, a piece broken off, a
+detachment.  References to the grander routes, the great mercenary
+bands which overran France in the fourteenth century, are common in
+French history.  But the word was popularly, and naturally, connected
+with route, Lat. (via) rupta, a highway, so that Godefroy [Footnote:
+Dictionnaire de rancien Français.]  separates routier, a vagabond,
+from routier, a bandit soldier.  Cotgrave has--
+
+"Routier, an old traveller, one that by much trotting up and down is
+grown acquainted with most waies; and hence, an old beaten souldier;
+one whom a long practise hath made experienced in, or absolute master
+of, his profession; and (in evill part) an old crafty fox, notable
+beguiler, ordinary deceiver, subtill knave; also, a purse-taker, or a
+robber by the high way side."
+
+It is impossible to determine the relative shares of route, a band,
+and route, a highway, in this definition, but there has probably been
+natural confusion between two words, separate in meaning, though
+etymologically identical.
+
+Now our thirteenth-century rotors and rulers may represent Old Fr.
+routier, and have been names applied to a mercenary soldier or a
+vagabond.  But this cannot be considered certain.  If we consult du
+Cange, [Footnote: Glossarium ad Scriptures medics et inflows
+Latinitatis.]  we find, s.v. rumpere, "ruptarii, pro ruptuarii, quidam
+praedones sub xi saeculum, ex rusticis. . .  collecti ac conflati,"
+which suggests connection with "ruptuarius, colonus qui agrum seu
+terram rumpit, proscindit, colic," i.e. that the ruptarii, also called
+rutarii, rutharii, rotharii, rotarii, etc., were so named because they
+were revolting peasants, i.e. men connected with the roture, or
+breaking of the soil, from which we get roturier, a plebeian.  That
+would still connect our Rutters with Lat. rumpere, but by a third
+road.
+
+Finally, Old French has one more word which seems to me quite as good
+a candidate as any of the others, viz. roteur, a player on the rote,
+i.e. the fiddle used by the medieval minstrels, Chaucer says of his
+Frere--
+
+"Wel koude he synge and playen on a rote."
+
+(A, 236.)
+
+The word is possibly of Celtic origin (Welsh crwth) and a doublet of
+the archaic crowd, or crowth, a fiddle.  Both rote and crowth are used
+by Spenser.  Crowd is perhaps not yet obsolete in dialect, and the
+fiddler in Hudibras is called Crowdero.  Thus Rutter may be a doublet
+of Crowther.  There may be other possible etymologies for Rutter, but
+those discussed will suffice to show that the origin of occupative
+names is not always easily guessed.
+
+Since the above was written I have found strong evidence for the
+"fiddler" derivation of the name.  In 1266 it was decided by a
+Lancashire jury that Richard le Harper killed William le Roter, or
+Ruter, in self-defence.  I think there can be little doubt that some,
+if not all, of our Rutters owe their names to the profession
+represented by this enraged musician.  William le Citolur and William
+le Piper also appear from the same record (Patent Rolls) to have
+indulged in homicide in the course of the year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS
+
+"In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay,
+ Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage,
+ To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
+ At nyght were come into that hostelrye
+ Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
+ Of sondry folk, by aventure y-falle
+ In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,
+ That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde."
+
+(Prologue, 1.  20.)
+
+This famous band of wayfarers includes representatives of all classes,
+save the highest and the lowest, just at the period when our surnames
+were becoming fixed.  It seems natural to distinguish the following
+groups.  The leisured class is represented by the Knight (Chapter XV)
+and his son the Squire, also found as Swire or Swyer, Old Fr. escuyer
+(écuyer), a shield-bearer (Lat. Scutum), with their attendant Yeoman,
+a name that originally meant a small landowner and later a trusted
+attendant of the warlike kind--
+
+"And in his hand he baar a myghty bow"
+
+(A, 108.)
+
+With these goes the Franklin (Chapter XV), who had been Sherriff, i.e.
+shire-reeve.  He is also described as a Vavasour (p. ii)--
+
+"Was nowher such a worthy vavasour" (A, 360.)
+
+From the Church and the professions we have the Nunn, her attendant
+priests, whence the names Press, Prest, the Monk, the Frere, or Fryer,
+"a wantowne and a merye," the Clark of Oxenforde, the Sargent of the
+lawe, the Sumner, i.e. summoner or apparitor, the doctor of physic,
+i.e. the Leech or Leach--
+
+"Make war breed peace; make peace stint war; make each
+ Prescribe to other, as each other's leech"
+
+(Timon of Athens, v. 4)--
+
+[Footnote: The same word as the worm leech, from an Anglo-Saxon word
+for healer.]
+
+and the poor parson.  Le surgien and le fisicien were once common
+surnames, but the former is almost swallowed up by Sargent, and the
+latter seems to have died out.  The name Leach has been reinforced by
+the dialect lache, a bog, whence also the compounds Blackleach,
+Depledge.  Loosely attached to the church is the Pardoner, with his
+wallet--
+
+"Bret-ful of pardon, comen from Rome al hoot."
+
+(A, 687.)
+
+His name still survives as Pardner, and perhaps as Partner, though
+both are very rare.
+
+Commerce is represented by the Marchant, depicted as a character of
+weight and dignity, and the humbler trades and crafts by--
+
+"An haberdasher, and a Carpenter,
+ A Webbe, a deyer (Dyer), and a tapiser."
+
+(A, 361.)
+
+To these may be added the Wife of Bath, whose comfortable means were
+drawn from the cloth trade, then our staple industry.
+
+From rural surroundings come the Miller and the Plowman, as kindly a
+man as the poor parson his brother, for--
+
+"He wolde threshe, and therto dyke and delve,
+ For Cristes sake, for every poure wight,
+ Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght."
+
+(A, 536.)
+
+The Miller is the same as the Meller or Mellor--
+
+"Upon the whiche brook ther stant a melle;
+ And this is verray sooth, that I yow tell."
+
+(A, 3923.)
+
+[Footnote: Melle is a Kentish form, used by Chaucer for the rime; cf.
+pet for pit (Chapter XIII).]
+
+The oldest form of the name is Milner, from Anglo-Sax. myln, Lat.
+molina; cf. Kilner from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen.
+
+The official or servile class includes the manciple, or buyer for a
+fraternity of templars, otherwise called an achatour, whence Cator,
+Chaytor, Chater (Chapter III), [Footnote: Chater, Chaytor may be also
+from escheatour, an official who has given us the word cheat.]  the
+Reeve, an estate steward, so crafty that--
+
+"Ther nas baillif (Chapter IV), ne herde (Chapter III), nor oother
+ hyne (Chapter III),
+ That he ne knew his sleights and his covyne"
+
+(A, 603);
+
+and finally the Cook, or Coke (Chapter I)--
+
+"To boylle the chicknes and the marybones."
+
+(A, 380.)
+
+In a class by himself stands the grimmest figure of all, the Shipman,
+of whom we are told
+
+"If that he faught, and hadde the hyer hond,
+ By water he sente hem hoom to every lond."
+
+(A, 399.)
+
+The same occupation has given the name Marner, for mariner, and
+Seaman, but the medieval forms of the rare name Saylor show that it is
+from Fr. sailleur, a dancer, an artist who also survives as Hopper and
+Leaper--
+
+"To one that leped at Chestre, 6s.  8d."
+
+(Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VII,  1495.)
+
+[Footnote: He was usually more generous to the high arts, e.g. "To a
+Spaynarde that pleyed the fole, £2," "To the young damoysell that
+daunceth, £30." With which cf. "To Carter for writing of a boke, 7s.
+4d."]
+
+The pilgrims were accompanied by the host of the Tabard Inn, whose
+occupation has given us the names Inman and Hostler, Oastler, Old Fr.
+hostelier (hôtelier), now applied to the inn servant who looks after
+the 'osses.  Another form is the modern-looking Hustler.  Distinct
+from these is Oster, Fr. oiseleur, a bird-catcher; cf. Fowler.
+
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES
+
+If we deal here with ecclesiastical names, as being really nicknames
+(Chapter XV), that will leave the trader and craftsman, the peasant,
+and the official or servile class to be treated in separate chapters.
+Social, as distinguished from occupative, surnames have already been
+touched on, and the names, not very numerous, connected with warfare
+have also been mentioned in various connections.
+
+Among ecclesiastical names Monk has the largest number of variants.
+Its Anglo-French form is sometimes represented by Munn and Moon, while
+Money is the oldest Fr. monie; cf. Vicary from Old Fr. vicarie.  But
+the French names La Monnaie, de la Monnaie, are local, from residence
+near the mint.  The canon appears as Cannon, Channen, and Shannon, Fr.
+chanoine--
+
+"With this chanoun I dwelt have seven yere"
+
+(G, 720);
+
+but Dean is also local sometimes (Chapter XII) and Deacon is an
+imitative form of Dakin or Deakin, from David (Chapter VI).  Charter
+was used of a monk of the Charter-house, a popular corruption of
+Chartreuse
+
+"With a company dyde I mete,
+ As ermytes, monkes, and freres,
+ Chanons, chartores . . ."
+
+(Cock Lorelles Bote.)
+
+Charter also comes from archaic Fr. chartier (charretier), a carter,
+and perhaps sometimes from Old Fr. chartrier, "a jaylor; also, a
+prisoner" (Cotg.), which belongs to Lat. carcer, prison.  [Footnote:
+The sense development of these two words is curious.]
+
+Charters may be from the French town Chartres, but is more likely a
+perversion of Charterhouse, as Childers is of the obsolete
+"childer-house," orphanage.
+
+Among lower orders of the church we have Lister, a reader, [Footnote:
+Found in Late Latin as legista, from Lat. Legere, to read.]  Bennet,
+an exorcist, and Collet, aphetic for acolyte.  But each of these is
+susceptible of another origin which is generally to be preferred.
+Chaplin is of course for chaplain, Fr. chapelain.  The legate appears
+as Leggatt.  Crosier or Crozier means cross-bearer.  At the funeral of
+Anne of Cleves (1557) the mass was executed--
+
+"By thabbott in pontificalibus wthis croysyer, deacon and subdeacon."
+
+Canter, Caunter is for chanter, and has an apparent dim. Cantrell,
+corresponding to the French name Chantereau.  The practice, unknown in
+English, of forming dims.  from occupative names is very common in
+French, e.g. from Mercier we have Mercerot, from Berger, i.e.
+Shepherd, a number of derivatives such as Bergerat, Bergeret,
+Bergerot, etc.  Sanger and Sangster were not necessarily
+ecclesiastical Singers.  Converse meant a lay-brother employed as a
+drudge in a monastery.  Sacristan, the man in charge of the sacristy,
+from which we have Secretan, is contracted into Saxton and Sexton, a
+name now usually associated with grave-digging and bell-ringing,
+though the latter task once belonged to the Knowler--
+
+"Carilloneur, a chymer, or knowler of bells" (Cotgrave).
+
+This is of course connected with "knell," though the only Kneller who
+has become famous was a German named Kniller.
+
+Marillier, probably a Huguenot name, is an Old French form of
+marguillier, a churchwarden, Lat. matricularius.  The hermit survives
+as Armatt, Armitt, with which cf. the Huguenot Lermitte (l'ermite),
+and the name of his dwelling is common (Chapter XIII); Anker, now
+anchorite, is also extant.  Fals-Semblant says--
+
+"Somtyme I am religious,
+ Now lyk an anker in an hous."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 6348.)
+
+
+
+PILGRIMS
+
+While a Pilgrim acquired his name by a journey to any shrine, a Palmer
+must originally have been to the Holy Land, and a Romer to Rome.  But
+the frequent occurrence of Palmer suggests that it was often a
+nickname for a pious fraud.  We have a doublet of Pilgrim in Pegram,
+though this may come from the name Peregrine, the etymology being the
+same, viz. Lat. peregrines, a foreigner.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS
+
+"What d'ye lack, noble sir?--What d'ye lack, beauteous madam?"
+
+(Fortunes of Nigel, ch. i.)
+
+In the Middle Ages there was no great class of retail dealers distinct
+from the craftsmen who fashioned objects.  The same man made and sold
+in almost every case.  There were of course general dealers, such as
+the French Marchant or his English equivalent the Chapman (Chapter
+II), the Dutch form of which has given us the Norfolk name Copeman.
+The Broker is now generally absorbed by the local Brooker.  There were
+also the itinerant merchants, of whom more anon; but in the great
+majority of cases the craftsman made and sold one article, and was, in
+fact, strictly forbidden to wander outside his special line.
+
+
+
+ARCHERY
+
+Fuller tells us that--
+
+"England were but a fling,
+ Save for the crooked stick and the gray-goose-wing,"
+
+and the importance of the bow and arrow is shown by the number of
+surnames connected with their manufacture.  We find the Bowyer, Bower
+or Bowmaker, who trimmed and shaped the wand of yew, [Footnote: This
+is also one source of Boyer, but the very common French surname Boyer
+means ox-herd.]  the Fletcher (Chapter XV), Arrowsmith, or Flower, who
+prepared the arrow--
+
+"His bowe he bente and sette therinne a flo" (H, 264)--
+
+[Footnote: The true English word for arrow, Anglo-Sax. fla.]
+
+and the Tipper, Stringer, and Horner, who attended to smaller details,
+though the Tipper and Stringer probably tipped and strung other
+things, and the Horner, though he made the horn nocks of the long-bow,
+also made horn cups and other objects.
+
+The extent to which specialization was carried is shown by the trade
+description of John Darks, longbowstringemaker, who died in 1600.  The
+Arblaster may have either made or used the arblast or cross-bow,
+medieval Lat. arcubalista, bow-sling.  His name has given the
+imitative Alabaster.  We also find the shortened Ballister and
+Balestier, from which we have Bannister (Chapter III).  Or, to take an
+example from comestibles, a Flanner limited his activity to the making
+of flat cakes called flans or flawns, from Old Fr. flaon (flan), a
+word of Germanic origin, ultimately related to flat
+
+"He that is hanged in May will eat no flannes in Midsummer."
+
+(The Abbot, ch. xxxiii.)
+
+Some names have become strangely restricted in meaning, e.g. Mercer,
+now almost limited to silk, was a name for a dealer in any kind of
+merchandise (Lat. merx); in Old French it meant pedlar--
+
+"Mercier, a good pedler, or meane haberdasher of small wares"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+On the other hand Chandler, properly a candle-maker, is now used in
+the compounds corn-chandler and ship's chandler.  Of all the -mongers
+the only common survival is Ironmonger or Iremonger, with the variant
+Isemonger, from Mid. Eng. isen, iron.  Ironmonger is also dealer in
+eggs, Mid. Eng. eiren.
+
+
+
+CLOTHIERS
+
+The wool trade occupied a very large number of workers and has given a
+good many surnames.  The Shearer was distinct from the Shearman or
+Sherman, the former operating on the sheep and the latter on the nap
+of the cloth.  For Comber we also have the older Kempster, and
+probably Kimber, from the Mid. Eng. kemben, to comb, which survives in
+"unkempt".  The Walker, Fuller, and Tucker, all did very much the same
+work of "waulking," or trampling, the cloth.  All three words are used
+in Wyclif's Bible in variant renderings of Mark ix. 3.  Fuller is from
+Fr. fouler, to trample, and Tucker is of uncertain origin.  Fuller is
+found in the south and south-east, Tucker in the west, and Walker in
+the north.  A Dyer was also called Dyster, and the same trade is the
+origin of the Latin-looking Dexter (Chapter II).  From Mid. Eng.
+litster, a dyer, a word of Scandinavian origin, comes Lister, as in
+Lister Gate, Nottingham.  With these goes the Wadman, who dealt in, or
+grew, the dye-plant called woad; cf. Flaxman.  A beater of flax was
+called Swingler--
+
+"Fleyl, swyngyl, verga, tribulum"  (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+A Tozer teased the cloth with a teasel.  In Mid. English the verb is
+taesen or tosen, so that the names Teaser and Towser, sometimes given
+to bull-terriers, are doublets.  Secker means sack-maker.
+
+We have already noticed the predominance of Taylor.  This is the more
+remarkable when we consider that the name has as rivals the native
+Seamer and Shapster and the imported Parmenter, Old Fr. parmentier, a
+maker of parements, now used chiefly of facings on clothes.  But
+another, and more usual, origin of Parmenter, Parminter, Parmiter, is
+parchmenter, a very important medieval trade.  The word would
+correspond to a Lat. pergamentarius, which has given also the German
+surname Berminter.  Several old German cities had a Permentergasse,
+i.e. parchment-makers' street.  A Pilcher made pilches, i.e. fur
+cloaks, an early loan-word from Vulgar Lat. pellicia (pellis, skin).
+Chaucer's version of
+
+"Till May is out, ne'er cast a clout"
+
+is
+
+"After greet heet cometh colde;
+ No man caste his pilche away."
+
+Another name connected with clothes is Chaucer, Old Fr. chaussier, a
+hosier (Lat. calceus, boot), while Admiral Hozier's Ghost reminds us
+of the native word.  The oldest meaning of hose seems to have been
+gaiters.  It ascended in Tudor times to the dignity of breeches (cf.
+trunk-hose), the meaning it has in modern German.  Now it has become a
+tradesman's euphemism for the improper word stocking, a fact which led
+a friend of the writer's, imperfectly acquainted with German, to ask a
+gifted lady of that nationality if she were a Blauhose.  A Chaloner or
+Chawner dealt in shalloon, Mid. Eng. chalons, a material supposed to
+have been made at Châlons-sur-Marne--
+
+"And in his owene chambre hem made a bed,
+ With sheetes and with chalons faire y-spred."
+
+(A. 4139.)
+
+Ganter or Gaunter is Fr. gantier, glove-maker.
+
+
+
+METAL WORKERS
+
+Some metal-workers have already been mentioned in connection with
+Smith (Chapter IV), and elsewhere.  The French Fèvre, from Lat. faber,
+is found as Feaver.  Fearon comes from Old Fr, feron, ferron, smith.
+Face le ferrun, i.e. Boniface (Chapter III) the smith, lived in
+Northampton in the twelfth century.  This is an example of the French
+use of -on as an agential suffix.  Another example is Old Fr. charton,
+or charreton, a waggoner, from the Norman form of which we have
+Carton.  In Scriven, from Old Fr. escrivain (écrivain), we have an
+isolated agential suffix.  The English form is usually lengthened to
+Scrivener.  In Ferrier, for farrier, the traditional spelling has
+prevailed over the pronunciation, but we have the latter in Farrar.
+Ferrier sometimes means ferryman, and Farrar has absorbed the common
+Mid. English nickname Fayrhayr.  Aguilar means needle-maker, Fr.
+aiguille, but Pinner is more often official (Chapter XIX).  Culler,
+Fr. coutelier, Old Fr. coutel, knife, and Spooner go together, but the
+fork is a modern fad.  Poynter is another good example of the
+specialization of medieval crafts: the points were the metal tags by
+which the doublet and hose were connected.  Hence, the play on words
+when Falstaff is recounting his adventure with the men in buckram--
+
+Fal.  "Their points being broken--"
+
+Poins.  "Down fell their hose."
+
+(I Henry IV., ii, 4.)
+
+Latimer, Latner sometimes means a worker in latten, a mixed metal of
+which the etymological origin is unknown.  The Pardoner--
+
+"Hadde a croys of latoun ful of stones" (A, 699).
+
+For the change from -n to -m we may compare Lorimer for Loriner, a
+bridle-maker, belonging ultimately to Lat. lorum, "the reyne of a
+brydle" (Cooper).  But Latimer comes also from Latiner, a man skilled
+in Latin, hence an interpreter, Sir John Mandeville tells us that, on
+the way to Sinai--
+
+"Men alleweys fynden Latyneres to go with hem in the contrees."
+
+The immortal Bowdler is usually said to take his name from the art of
+puddling, or buddling, iron ore.  But, as this process is
+comparatively modern, it is more likely that the name comes from the
+same verb in its older meaning of making impervious to water by means
+of clay.  Monier and Minter are both connected with coining, the
+former through French and the latter from Anglo-Saxon, both going back
+to Lat. moneta, [Footnote: On the curiously accidental history of this
+word see the Romance of Words, ch. x.]  mint.  Conner, i.e. coiner, is
+now generally swallowed up by the Irish Connor.
+
+Leadbitter is for Leadbeater.  The name Hamper is a contraction of
+hanapier, a maker of hanaps, i.e. goblets.  Fr. hanap is from Old High
+Ger. hnapf (Napf), and shows the inability of French to pronounce
+initial hn- without inserting a vowel: cf. harangue from Old High Ger.
+hring.  There is also a Mid. Eng. nap, cup, representing the cognate
+Anglo-Sax. hnaep, so that the name Napper may sometimes be a doublet
+of Hamper, though it is more probably for Napier (Chapter I) or
+Knapper (Chapter XII).  The common noun hamper is from hanapier in a
+sense something like plate-basket.  With metal-workers we may also put
+Furber or Frobisher, i.e. furbisher, of armour, etc.  Poyser, from
+poise, scales, is official.  Two occupative names of Celtic origin are
+Gow, a smith, as in The Fair Maid of Perth, and Caird, a tinker--
+
+"The fellow had been originally a tinker or caird."
+
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. xlix.)
+
+A few more names, which fall into no particular category, may conclude
+the chapter.  Hillyer or Hellier is an old name for a Thacker, or
+thatcher, of which we have the Dutch form in Dekker.  It comes from
+Mid. Eng. helen, to cover up.  In Hillard, Hillyard we sometimes have
+the same name (cf. the vulgar scholard), but these are more often
+local (Chapter XIII).  Hellier also meant tiler, for the famous Wat is
+described as tiler, tegheler, and hellier.
+
+An Ashburner prepared wood-ash for the Bloomer (Chapter XV), and
+perhaps also for the Glaisher, or glass-maker, and Asher is best
+explained in the same way, for we do not, I think, add -er to
+tree-names.  Apparent exceptions can be easily accounted for, e.g.
+Elmer is Anglo-Sax. AElfmaer, and Beecher is Anglo-Fr. bechur, digger
+(Fr. bêche, spade).  Neither Pitman nor Collier had their modern
+meaning of coal-miner.  Pitman is local, of the same class as
+Bridgeman, Pullman, etc., and Collier meant a charcoal-burner, as in
+the famous ballad of Rauf Colyear.  Not much coal was dug in the
+Middle Ages.  Even in 1610 Camden speaks with disapproval, in his
+Britannia, of the inhabitants of Sherwood Forest who, with plenty of
+wood around them, persist in digging up "stinking pit-cole."
+
+Croker is for Crocker, a maker of crocks or pitchers.  The Miller's
+guests only retired to bed--
+
+"Whan that dronken al was in the crowke" (A, 4158)
+
+The spelling has affected the pronunciation, as in Sloper and Smoker
+(Chapter III).  Tinker is sometimes found as the frequentative
+Tinkler, a name traditionally due to his approach being heralded by
+the clatter of metal utensils--
+
+"My bonny lass, I work on brass,
+ A tinkler is my station."
+
+(BURNS, Jolly Beggars, Air 6.)
+
+The maker of saddle-trees was called Fewster, from Old Fr. fust (fût),
+Lat. fustis.  This has sometimes given Foster, but the latter is more
+often for Forster, i.e. Forester--
+
+"An horn he bar, the bawdryk was of grene,
+ A forster was he soothly as I gesse,"
+
+(A, 116.)
+
+The saddler himself was often called by his French name sellier,
+whence Sella', but both this and Sellars are also local, at the
+cellars (Chapter III).  Pargeter means dauber, plasterer, from Old Fr.
+parjeter, to throw over.  A Straker made the strakes, or tires, of
+wheels.  A Stanger made stangs, i.e. poles, shafts, etc.
+
+The fine arts are represented by Limmer, for limner, a painter, an
+aphetic form of illumines, and Tickner is perhaps from Dutch tekener,
+draughtsman, cognate with Eng, token, while the art of self-defence
+has given us the name Scrimgeoure, with a number of corruptions,
+including the local-looking Skrimshire.  It is related to scrimmage
+and skirmish, and ultimately to Ger. schirmen, to fence, lit.  to
+protect.  The name was applied to a professional swordplayer--
+
+"Qe nul teigne escole de eskermerye ne de bokeler deins la citee."
+
+(Liber Albus.)
+
+
+
+SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS
+
+A particularly idiotic form of snobbishness has sometimes led people
+to advance strange theories as to the origin of their names.  Thus
+Turner has been explained as from la tour noire.  Dr. Brewer, in his
+Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, [Footnote: Thirteenth edition, revised
+and corrected.]  apparently desirous of dissociating himself from malt
+liquor, observes that--
+
+"Very few ancient names are the names of trades. . .  A few examples
+of a more scientific derivation will suffice for a hint:--
+
+Brewer.  This name, which exists in France as Bruhière and Brugère, is
+not derived from the Saxon briwan (to brew), but the French bruyère
+(heath), and is about tantamount to the German Plantagenet (broom
+plant).  Miller is the old Norse melia, our mill and maul, and means a
+mauler or fighter.
+
+Ringer is the Anglo-Saxon hring-gar (the mailed warrior).  Tanner,
+German Thanger, Old German Dane-gaud, is the Dane-Goth...
+
+This list might easily be extended."
+
+There is of course no reason why such a list should not be
+indefinitely extended, but the above excerpt is probably quite long
+enough to make the reader feel dizzy.  The fact is that there is no
+getting away from a surname of this class, and the bearer must try to
+look on the brighter side of the tragedy.  Brewer is occasionally an
+accommodated form of the French name Bruyère or Labruyère, but is
+usually derived from an occupation which is the high-road to the House
+of Lords.  The ancestor of any modern Barber may, like Salvation Yeo's
+father, have "exercised the mystery of a barber-surgeon," which is
+getting near the learned professions.  A Pottinger (Chapter XV) looked
+after the soups, Fr. potage, but the name also represents Pothecary
+(apothecary), which had in early Scottish the aphetic forms Poticar,
+potigar--
+
+"'Pardon me,' said he, 'I am but a poor pottingar.  Nevertheless, I
+have been bred in Paris and learnt my humanities and my cursus
+medendi'"
+
+(Fair Maid of Perth, ch. vii.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS
+
+"Jacque, il me faut troubler ton Somme;
+ Dans le village, un gros huissier
+ Rôde et court, suivi du messier.
+ C'est pour l'impôt, las!  mon pauvre homme.
+ Lève-toi, Jacque, lève-toi:
+ Voici venir I'huissier du roi."
+
+BÉRANGER.
+
+General terms for what we now usually call a farmer are preserved in
+the surnames Bond (Chapter XV), whence the compound Husband, used both
+for the goodman of the house and in the modern sense, and Tillman.
+The labouring man was Day, from the same root as Ger. Dienen, to
+serve.  It persists in "dairy" and perhaps in the puzzling name
+Doubleday (?  doing two men's work).  A similar meaning is contained
+in the names Swain, Hind, for earlier Hine (Chapter III), Tasker,
+Mann.  But a Wager was a mercenary soldier.  The mower has given us
+the names Mather (cf. aftermath), and Mawer, while Fenner is sometimes
+for Old Fr. feneur, haymaker (Lat. foenum, hay).  For mower we also
+find the latinized messor, whence Messer.  Whether the Ridler and the
+Sivier made, or used, riddles and sieves can hardly be decided.
+[Footnote: Riddle is the usual word for sieve in the Midlands.  Hence
+the phrase "riddled with holes, or wounds."]
+
+With the Wenman, who drove the wain, we may mention the Leader or
+Loader.  The verbs "lead" and "load" are etymologically the same, and
+in the Midlands people talk of "leading," i.e. carting, coal.  But
+these names could also come from residence near an artificial
+watercourse (Chapter XIII).  Beecher has already been explained, and
+Shoveler is formed in the same way from dialect showl, a shovel--
+
+" 'I,' said the owl,
+
+  'With my spade and showl.' "
+
+To the variants of the Miller (Chapter XXIII) may be added Mulliner,
+from Old French.  Tedder means a man who teds, i.e. spreads, hay, the
+origin of the word being Scandinavian
+
+"I teede hey, I tourne it afore it is made in cockes, je fene."
+(Palsgrave.)
+
+But the greater number of surnames drawn from rural occupations are
+connected with the care of animals.  We find names of this class in
+three forms, exemplified by Coltman, Goater, Shepherd, and it seems
+likely that the endings -er and -erd have sometimes been interchanged,
+e.g. that Goater may stand for goat-herd, Calver for calf-herd, and
+Nutter sometimes for northern nowt-herd, representing the dialect
+neat-herd.  The compounds of herd include Bullard, Calvert, Coltard,
+Coward, for cow-herd, not of course to be confused with the common
+noun coward (Fr. couard, a derivative of Lat. cauda, tail), Evart,
+ewe-herd, but also a Norman spelling of Edward, Geldard, Goddard,
+sometimes for goat-herd, Hoggart, often confused with the local
+Hogarth (Chapter XIII), Seward, for sow-herd, or for the historic
+Siward, Stobart, dialect stob, a bull, Stodart, Mid. Eng. stot,
+meaning both a bullock and a nag.  Chaucer tells us that--
+
+"This reve sat upon a ful good stot" (A, 615 ).
+
+Stoddart is naturally confused with Studdart, stud-herd, stud being
+cognate with Ger. Stute, mare.  We also have Swinnert, and lastly
+Weatherhead, sometimes a perversion of wether-herd, though usually a
+nickname, sheep's head.  The man in charge of the tups, or rams, was
+called Tupman or Tupper, the latter standing sometimes for tup-herd,
+just as we have the imitative Stutter for Stodart or Studdart.  We
+have also Tripper from trip, a dialect word for flock, probably
+related to troop.  Another general term for a herdsman was Looker,
+whence Luker.
+
+
+
+BUMBLEDOM
+
+I have headed this chapter "Hodge and his Friends," but as, a matter
+of strict truth he had none, except the "poure Persons," the most
+radiant figure in Chaucer's pageant.  But his enemies were
+innumerable.  Béranger's lines impress one less than the uncouth "Song
+of the Husbandman" (temp.  Edward I.), in which we find the woes of
+poor Hodge incorporated in the persons of the hayward, the bailif, the
+wodeward, the budel and his cachereles (catchpoles)--
+
+"For ever the furthe peni mot (must) to the kynge."
+
+The bailiff has already been mentioned (Chapter IV).  The budel, or
+beadle, has given us several surnames.  We have the word in two forms,
+from Anglo-Sax. bytel, belonging to the verb to bid, whence the names
+Biddle and Buddle, and from Old Fr. bedel (bedeau), whence Beadle and
+its variants.  The animal is probably extinct under his original name,
+but modern democracy is doing its best to provide him with an army of
+successors.  The "beadle" group of names has been confused with
+Bithell, Welsh Ap Ithel.
+
+Names in -ward are rather numerous, and, as they mostly come from the
+titles of rural officials and are often confused with compounds of
+-herd, they are all put together here.  The simple Ward, cognate with
+Fr. garde, is one of our commonest surnames.  Like its derivative
+Warden it had a very wide range of meanings.  The antiquity of the
+office of church-warden is shown by the existence of the surname
+Churchward.  Sometimes the surname comes from the abstract or local
+sense, de la warde.  As the suffix -weard occurs very frequently in
+Anglo-Saxon personal names, it is not always possible to say whether a
+surname is essentially occupative or not, e.g. whether Durward is
+rather "door-ward" or for Anglo-Sax. Deorweard.  Howard, which is
+phonetically Old Fr. Huard, is sometimes also for Hayward or Haward
+(Hereward), or for Hayward.  It has no doubt interchanged with the
+local Howarth, Haworth.
+
+Owing to the loss of w- in the second part of a word (Chapter III),
+-ward and -herd often fall together, e.g. Millard for Milward, and
+Woodard found in Mid. English as both wode-ward and wode-hird.
+Hayward belongs to hay, hedge, enclosure (Chapter XIII), from which we
+also get Hayman.  The same functionary has given the name Haybittle, a
+compound of beadle.  Burward and Burrard may represent the once
+familiar office of bear-ward; cf. Berman.  I had a schoolfellow called
+Lateward, apparently the man in charge of the lade or leet (Chapter
+XIII).  Medward is for mead-ward.
+
+The name Stewart or Stuart became royal with Walter the Steward of
+Scotland, who married Marjorie Bruce in 1315.  It stands for sty-ward,
+where sty means pen, not necessarily limited to pigs.  Like most
+official titles, it has had its ups and downs, with the result that
+its present meaning ranges from a high officer of the crown to the
+sympathetic concomitant of a rough crossing.
+
+The Reeve, Anglo-Sax. ge-refa, was in Chaucer a kind of land agent,
+but the name was also applied to local officials, as in port-reeve,
+shire-reeve.  It is the same as Grieve, also originally official, but
+used in Scotland of a land steward--
+
+"He has got a ploughman from Scotland who acts as grieve."
+
+(Scott, Diary, 1814.)
+
+This may be one source of the names Graves and Greaves.  The name
+Woodruff, Woodroffe is too common to be referred to the plant
+woodruff, and the fact that the male and female of a species of
+sand-piper are called the ruff and reeve suggests that Woodruff may
+have some relation to wood-reeve.  It is at any rate a curious
+coincidence that the German name for the plant is Waldmeister,
+wood-master.  Another official surname especially connected with
+country life is Pinder, also found as Pinner, Pender, Penner, Ponder
+and Poynder, the man in charge of the pound or pinfold; cf. Parker,
+the custodian of a park, of which the Palliser or Pallister made the
+palings.
+
+
+
+ITINERANT MERCHANTS
+
+The itinerant dealer was usually called by a name suggesting the pack
+which he carried.  Thus Badger, Kidder, Kiddier, Pedder, now pedlar,
+are from bag, kid, related to kit, and the obsolete ped, basket; cf.
+Leaper, Chapter XV.  The badger, who dealt especially in corn, was
+unpopular with the rural population, and it is possible that his name
+was given to the stealthy animal formerly called the bawson (Chapter
+I.), brock or gray (Chapter XXIII).  That Badger is a nickname taken
+from the animal is chronologically improbable, as the word is first
+recorded in 1523 (New English Dictionary).
+
+To the above names may be added Cremer, Cramer, a huckster with a
+stall in the market, but this surname is sometimes of modern
+introduction, from its German cognate Krämer, now generally used for a
+grocer.  Packman, Pakeman, and Paxman belong more probably to the
+font-name Pack (Chapter IX), which also appears in Paxon, either
+Pack's son, or for the local Paxton.
+
+The name Hawker does not belong to this group.  Nowadays a hawker is a
+pedlar, and it has been assumed, without sufficient evidence, that the
+word is of the same origin as huckster.  The Mid. Eng. le haueker or
+haukere (1273) is quite plainly connected with hawk, and the name may
+have been applied either to a Falconer, Faulkner, or to a dealer in
+hawks.  As we know that itinerant vendors of hawks travelled from
+castle to castle, it is quite possible that our modern hawker is an
+extended use of the same name.
+
+Nor is the name Coster to be referred to costermonger, originally a
+dealer in costards, i.e. apples.  It is sometimes for Mid. Eng.
+costard (cf. such names as Cherry and Plumb), but may also represent
+Port.  da Costa and Ger. Köster, both of which are found in early
+lists of Protestant refugees.
+
+Jagger was a north-country name for a man who worked draught-horses
+for hire.  Mr. Hardy's novel Under the Greenwood Tree opens with "the
+Tranter's party." A carrier is still a "tranter" in Wessex.  In
+Medieval Latin he was called travetarius, a word apparently connected
+with Lat. transvehere, to transport.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX. OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC
+
+"Big fleas have little fleas
+ Upon their backs to bite 'em
+ Little fleas have smaller fleas,
+ And so ad infinitum."
+
+Anon.
+
+It is a well-known fact that official nomenclature largely reflects
+the simple housekeeping of early times, and that many titles, now of
+great dignity, were originally associated with rather lowly duties.
+We have seen an example in Stewart.  Another is Chamberlain.  Hence
+surnames drawn from this class are susceptible of very varied
+interpretation.  A Chancellor was originally a man in charge of a
+chancel, or grating, Lat. cancelli.  In Mid. English it is usually
+glossed scriba, while it is now limited to very high judicial or
+political office.  Bailey, as we have seen (Chapter IV), has also a
+wide range of meanings, the ground idea being that of care-taker.
+Cotgrave explains Old Fr. mareschal maréchal as--
+
+"A marshall of a kingdoms, or of a camp (an honourable place); also, a
+blacksmith; also, a farrier, horse-leech, or horse-smith; also, a
+harbinger,"
+
+[Footnote: i.e. a quartermaster.  See Romance of Words, ch. vii.]
+
+which gives a considerable choice of origins to any modern Marshall or
+Maskell.
+
+Another very vague term is sergeant, whence our Sargent.  Its oldest
+meaning is servant, Lat. serviens, servient--.  Cotgrave defines
+sergent as--
+
+"A sergeant, officer, catchpole, pursuyvant, apparitor; also (in Old
+Fr.) a footman, or souldier that serves on foot." I
+
+Probably catchpole was the commonest meaning--
+
+"Sargeauntes, katche pollys, and somners" (Cocke Lorelles Bote).
+
+The administration of justice occupied a horde of officials, from the
+Justice down to the Catchpole.  The official title Judge is rarely
+found, and this surname is usually from the female name Judge, which,
+like Jug, was used for Judith, and later for Jane--
+
+"Jannette, Judge, Jennie; a woman's name" (Cotgrave).
+
+The names Judson and Juxon sometimes belong to these.  Catchpole has
+nothing to do with poles or polls.  It is a Picard cache-poule
+(chasse-poule), collector of poultry in default of money.  Another
+name for judge was Dempster, the pronouncer of doom, a title which
+still exists in the Isle of Man.  We also find Deemer--
+
+"Demar, judicator" (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+Mayor is a learned spelling of Mair, Fr. maire, Lat. major, but Major,
+which looks like its latinized form, is perhaps imitative for the Old
+French personal name Mauger.  Bishop Mauger of Worcester pronounced
+the interdict in 1208, and the surname still exists.
+
+Gaylor, Galer, is the Norman pronunciation of gaoler--
+
+"And Palamon, this woful prisoner,
+ As was his wone, bi leve of his gayler,
+ Was risen"  (A, 1064).
+
+
+
+THE HOUSEHOLD
+
+Usher is Fr. huissier, door-keeper, Fr. huis, door, Lat. ostium.  I
+conjecture that Lusher is the French name Lhuissier, and that Lush is
+local, for Old Fr. le huis; cf. Laporte.  Wait, corruptly Weight, now
+used only of a Christmas minstrel, was once a watchman.  It is a
+dialect form of Old Fr. gaite, cognate with watch.  The older sense
+survives in the expression "to lie in wait."  Gate is the same name,
+when not local (Chapter XIII).
+
+The Todhunter, or fox-hunter (Chapter XXIII), was an official whose
+duty was to exterminate the animal now so carefully preserved.  Warner
+is often for Warrener.  The Grosvenor (gros veneur), great hunter, was
+a royal servant.  Bannerman is found latinized as Penninger (Chapter
+XV).  Herald may be official or from Harold (Chapter VII), the
+derivation being in any case the same.  Toller means a collector of
+tolls.  Cocke Lorelle speaks of these officials as "false Towlers."
+Connected with administration is the name Mainprice, lit.  taken by
+hand, used both for a surety and a man out on bail--
+
+"Maynprysyd, or memprysyd, manucaptus, fideijussus" (Prompt.  Parv.);
+
+and Shurety also exists.
+
+The individual bigwig had a very large retinue, the members of which
+appear to have held very strongly to the theory of one man, one job.
+The Nurse, or Norris, Fr. nourrice, was apparently debarred from
+rocking the cradle.  This was the duty of the rocker--
+
+"To the norice and rokker of the same lord, 25s.  8d."
+
+(Household Accounts of Elizabeth of York, March, 1503),
+
+from whom Mr. Roker, chief turnkey at the Fleet in Mr. Pickwick's
+time, may have sprung The Cook was assisted by the Baster and Hasler,
+or turnspit, the latter from Old Fr. hastille, spit, dim. of Lat.
+hasta, spear.  The Chandler was a servant as well as a manufacturer.
+
+A Trotter and a Massinger, i.e. messenger, were perhaps much the same
+thing.  Wardroper is of course wardrobe keeper, but Chaucer uses
+wardrope (B. 1762) in the sense which Fr. garde-robe now usually has.
+The Lavender, Launder or Lander saw to the washing.  Napier, from Fr.
+nappe, cloth, meant the servant who looked after the napery.  The
+martial sound with which this distinguished name strikes a modern ear
+is due to historical association, assisted, as I have somewhere read,
+by its riming with rapier!  The water-supply was in charge of the
+Ewer.
+
+The provisioning of the great house was the work of the Lardner, Fr.
+lard, bacon, the Panter, or Pantler, who was, at least etymologically,
+responsible for bread, and the Cator (Chapter III) and Spencer
+(Chapter III), whose names, though of opposite meaning, buyer and
+spender, come to very much the same thing.  Spence is still the
+north-country word for pantry, and is used by Tennyson in the sense of
+refectory--
+
+"Bluff Harry broke into the Spence
+ And turn'd the cowls adrift."
+
+(The Talking Oak, 1.  47.)
+
+Purser, now used in connection with ships only, was also a medieval
+form of bursar, and every castle and monastery had its almoner, now
+Amner.  Here also belongs Carver.  In Ivey Church (Bucks) is a tablet
+to Lady Mary Salter with a poetic tribute to her husband--
+
+"Full forty years a carver to two kings."
+
+As the importance of the horse led to the social elevation of the
+marshal and constable (Chapter IV), so the hengstman, now henchman,
+became his master's right-hand man.  The first element is Anglo-Sax.
+hengest, stallion, and its most usual surnominal forms are Hensman and
+Hinxman.  Historians now regard Hengist and Horsa, stallion and mare,
+as nicknames assumed by Jutish braves on the war-path.  Sumpter, Old
+Fr. sommetier, from Somme, burden, was used both of a packhorse and
+its driver, its interpretation in King Lear being a matter of dispute--
+
+"Return with her?
+ Persuade me rather to be slave and Sumpter
+ To this detested groom" (Lear, ii, 4).
+
+As a surname it probably means the driver, Medieval Lat. sumetarius.
+
+Among those who ministered to the great man's pleasures we must
+probably reckon Spelman, Speller, Spillman, Spiller, from Mid. Eng.
+spel, a speech, narrative, but proof of this is lacking
+
+"Now holde your mouth, par charitee,
+ Bothe knyght and lady free,
+ And herkneth to my spelle" (B, 2081).
+
+The cognate Spielmann, lit.  Player, was used in Medieval German of a
+wandering minstrel.
+
+The poet is now Rymer or Rimmer, while Trover, Fr. trouvère, a poet,
+minstrel, lit.  finder, has been confused with Trower, for Thrower, a
+name connected with weaving.  Even the jester has come down to us as
+Patch, a name given regularly to this member of the household in
+allusion to his motley attire.  Shylock applies it, to Launcelot--
+
+"The patch is kind enough; but a huge feeder."
+
+(Merchant of Venice, ii.  5.)
+
+But the name has another origin (Chapter IX).  Buller and Cocker are
+names taken from the fine old English sports of bull-baiting and
+cock-fighting.
+
+Two very humble members of the parasitic class have given the names
+Bidder and Maunder, both meaning beggar.  The first comes from Mid.
+Eng. bidden, to ask.  Piers Plowman speaks of "bidderes and beggers."
+Maunder is perhaps connected with Old Fr. quemander--
+
+"Quemander, or caimander, to beg; or goe a begging; to beg from doore
+to doore" (Cotgrave),
+
+but it may mean a maker of "maunds," i.e. baskets.
+
+A Beadman spent his time in praying for his benefactor.  A medieval
+underling writing to his superior often signs himself "your servant
+and bedesman."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL
+
+"Here is Wyll Wyly the myl pecker,
+ And Patrick Pevysshe heerbeter,
+ With lusty Hary Hangeman,
+ Nexte house to Robyn Renawaye;
+ Also Hycke Crokenec the rope maker,
+ And Steven Mesyllmouthe muskyll taker."
+
+(Cocke Lorelles Bote.)
+
+[Footnote: This humorous poem, inspired by Sebastian Brandt's
+Narrenschiff, known in England in Barclay's translation, was printed
+early in the reign of Henry VIII.  It contains the fullest list we
+have of old trade-names.]
+
+Every family name is etymologically a nickname, i.e. an eke-name,
+intended to give that auxiliary information which helps in
+identification.  But writers on surnames have generally made a special
+class of those epithets which were originally conferred on the bearer
+in connection with some characteristic feature, physical or moral, or
+some adjunct, often of the most trifling description, with which his
+personality was associated.  Of nicknames, as of other things, it may
+be said that there is nothing new under the sun.  Ovidius Naso might
+have received his as a schoolboy, and Moss cum nano, whom we find in
+Suffolk in 1184, lives on as "Nosey Moss" in Whitechapel.  Some of our
+nicknames occur as personal names in Anglo-Saxon times (Chapter VII),
+but as surnames they are seldom to be traced back to that period, for
+the simple reason that such names were not hereditary.  An Anglo-Saxon
+might be named Wulf, but his son would bear another name, while our
+modern Wolfe does not usually go farther back than some Ranulf le wolf
+of the thirteenth or fourteenth century.  This is of course stating
+the case broadly, because the personal name Wolf also persisted and
+became in some cases a surname.  In this and the following chapters I
+do not generally attempt to distinguish between such double origins.
+
+Nicknames are formed in very many ways, but the two largest classes
+are sobriquets taken from the names of animals, e.g. Hogg, or from
+adjectives, either alone or accompanied by a noun, e.g. Dear,
+Goodfellow.  Each of these classes requires a chapter to itself, while
+here we may deal with the smaller groups.
+
+Some writers have attempted to explain all apparent nicknames as
+popular perversions of surnames belonging to the other three classes.
+As the reader will already have noticed, such perversions are
+extremely common, but it is a mistake to try to account for obvious
+nicknames in this way.  Any of us who retain a vivid recollection of
+early days can call to mind nicknames of the most fantastic kind, and
+in some cases of the most apparently impossible formation, which stuck
+to their possessors all through school-life.  A very simple test for
+the genuineness of a nickname is a comparison with other languages.
+Camden says that Drinkwater is a corruption of Derwentwater.  The
+incorrectness of this guess is shown by the existence as surnames of
+Fr. Boileau, It.  Bevilacqua, and Ger. Trinkwasser.  It is in fact a
+perfectly natural nickname for a medieval eccentric, the more normal
+attitude being represented by Roger Beyvin (boi-vin), who died in
+London in 1277.
+
+
+
+FOREIGN NICKNAMES
+
+Corresponding to our Goodday, we find Ger. Gutentag and Fr. Bonjour.
+The latter has been explained as from a popular form of George, but
+the English and German names show that the explanation is.
+unnecessary.  With Dry we may compare Fr. Lesec and Ger. Dürr, with
+Garlick Ger. Knoblauch (Chapter XV), and with Shakespeare Ger.
+Schüttespeer.  Luck is both for Luke and Luick (Liège, Chapter XI),
+but Rosa Bonheur and the composer Gluck certify it also as a nickname.
+Merryweather is like Fr. Bontemps, and Littleboy appears in the Paris
+Directory as Petitgas, gas being the same as gars, the old nominative
+(Chapter I) of garçon--
+
+"Gars, a lad, boy, stripling, youth, yonker" (Cotgrave).
+
+Bardsley explains Twentyman as an imitative corruption of twinter-man,
+the man in charge of the twinters, two-year-old colts.  This may be
+so, but there is a German confectioner in Hampstead called Zwanziger,
+and there are Parisians named Vingtain.  Lover is confirmed by the
+French surnames Amant and Lamoureux, and Wellbeloved by Bienaimé.
+Allways may be the literal equivalent of the French name Partout.  On
+the other hand, the name Praisegod Barebones has been wrongly fixed on
+an individual whose real name was Barbon or Barborne.
+
+It may seem strange that the nickname, conferred essentially on the
+individual, and often of a very offensive character, should have
+persisted and become hereditary.  But schoolboys know that, in the
+case of an unpleasant nickname, the more you try to pull it off, the
+more it sticks the faster.  Malapert and Lehideux are still well
+represented in the Paris Directory.  Many objectionable nicknames
+have, however, disappeared, or have been so modified as to become
+inoffensive.
+
+Sometimes such disappearance has resulted from the depreciation in the
+meaning of a word, e.g. le lewd, the layman, the unlettered, was once
+as common as its opposite le learned, whence the name Larned.  But
+many uncomplimentary names are no longer objected to because their
+owners do not know their earlier meanings.  A famous hymn-writer of
+the eighteenth century bore all unconsciously a surname that would
+almost have made Rabelais blush.  Drinkdregs, Drunkard, Sourale,
+Sparewater, Sweatinbed, etc. have gone, but we still have Lusk--
+
+"Falourdin, a luske, loot, lurden, a lubberlie sloven, heavie sot,
+lumpish hoydon" (Cotgrave)--
+
+and many other names which can hardly have gratified their original
+possessors.
+
+A very interesting group of surnames consists of those which indicate
+degrees of kinship or have to do with the relations existing between
+individuals.  We find both Master and Mann, united in Masterman,
+meaning the man in the service of one locally known as the master.
+With this we may compare Ladyman, Priestman, etc. But Mann is often of
+local origin, from the Isle of Man.  In some cases such names are
+usually found with the patronymic -s, e.g. Masters, Fellows, while in
+others this is regularly absent, e.g. Guest, Friend.  The latter name
+is sometimes a corruption of Mid. Eng. fremed, stranger, cognate with
+Ger. fremd, so that opposite terms, which we find regularly contrasted
+in Mid. Eng. "frend and fremed," have become absorbed in one surname.
+
+The frequent occurrence of Fellows is due to its being sometimes for
+the local Fallows.  From Mid. Eng. fere, a companion, connected with
+faren, to travel, we get Littlefair and Playfair.  In Wyclif's Bible
+we read that Jephthah's daughter--
+
+"Whanne sche hadde go with hir felowis and pleiferis, sche biwept hir
+maydynhed in the hillis" (Judges xi.  38).
+
+Springett is for springald, and Arlett is Mid. Eng. harlot, fellow,
+rascal, a word which has changed its gender and meaning--
+
+"He was a gentil harlot and a kynde,
+ A betre felawe sholde men noght fynde."
+
+(A, 647.)
+
+
+
+KINSHIP
+
+In surnames taken from words indicating family relationship we come
+across some survivals of terms no longer used, or occurring only in
+rustic dialect.  The Mid. Eng. eme, uncle, cognate with Ger. Oheim,
+has given Eames.  In Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, the heroine
+addresses Pandarus as "uncle dere" and "uncle mine," but also uses the
+older word--
+
+"'In good feith, em,' quod she, 'that liketh me'" (ii.  162);
+
+and the word is used more than once by Scott--
+
+"Didna his eme die. . .  wi' the name of the Bluidy Mackenzie?"
+
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. xii.)
+
+It is also one of the sources of Empson, which thus corresponds to
+Cousins or Cozens.  In Neame we have a prosthetic n- due to the
+frequent occurrence of min eme (cf. the Shakespearean nuncle, Lear, i.
+4).  The names derived from cousin have been reinforced by those from
+Cuss, i.e. Constant or Constance (Chapter X).  Thus Cussens is from
+the Mid. English dim. Cussin.  Anglo-Sax. nefa, whence Mid. Eng. neve,
+neave, is cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. nepos.  [Footnote:
+In all books on surnames that I have come across this is referred to
+Old Fr. le neve.  There is no such word in old French, which has nom.
+niés, acc.  neveu.]
+
+This is now replaced as a common noun by the French word nephew, but
+it survives in the surname Neave.  It also meant in Mid. English a
+prodigal or parasite, as did also Lat. nepos--
+
+"Neve, neverthryfte, or wastowre"  (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+It is likely that Nevison and Nevinson are sometimes derivatives of
+this word.
+
+Child was sometimes used in the special sense of youth of gentle
+blood, or young knight; cf. Childe Harold and Childe Rowland (Lear,
+iii.  4).  But the more general meaning may be assumed in its
+compounds, of which the most interesting is Leifchild, dear-child, a
+fairly common name in Anglo-Saxon.  The corresponding Faunt, whence
+Fauntleroy (Chapter XV), is now rare.  Another word, now only used in
+dialect or by affectation, is "bairn," a frequent source of the very
+common surname Barnes; cf. Fairbairn and Goodbairn, often perverted to
+Fairburn, Goodburn, Goodban.  Barnfather is about equivalent to Lat.
+paterfamilias, but Pennefather is an old nickname for a miser--
+
+"Caqueduc, a niggard, micher, miser, scrape-good, pinch-penny,
+penny-father; a covetous and greedy wretch" (Cotgrave).
+
+The name Bastard was once considered no disgrace if the dishonour came
+from a noble source, and several great medieval warriors bore this
+sobriquet.  With this we may compare Leman or Lemon, Mid. Eng.
+leof-man, dear man, beloved, and Paramor, Fr. par amour, an example of
+an adverbial phrase that has become a noun.  This expression, used of
+lawful love in Old French, in the stock phrase "aimer une belle dame
+par amour," had already an evil meaning by Chaucer's time--
+
+"My fourthe housbonde was a revelour,
+ This is to seyn, he hadde a paramour" (D, 453).
+
+With these names we may put Drewry or Drury, sweetheart, from the Old
+French abstract druerie, of Germanic origin and cognate with true--
+
+"For certeynly no such beeste
+ To be loved is not worthy,
+ Or bere the name of druerie."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 5062.)
+
+Suckling is a nickname applied to a helpless person; cf. Littlechild
+and "milksop," which still exists, though rare, in the forms Milsopp
+and Mellsop.  The heir survives as Ayre and Eyre.  Batchelor, the
+origin of which is one of the etymological problems yet unsolved, had
+in Old French and Mid. English also the meaning of young warrior or
+squire.  Chaucer's Squier is described as--
+
+"A lovyere and a lusty bacheler" (A, 80).
+
+May, maiden, whence Mildmay, is used by Chaucer for the Holy Virgin
+
+"Now, lady bright, to whom alle woful cryen,
+ Thow glorie of wommanhede, thow faire may,
+ Thow haven of refut, brighte sterre of day" (B, 850).
+
+This is the same word as Mid. Eng. mai, relative, cognate with maid
+and Gaelic Mac- (Chapter VI).  A form of it survives in the Nottingham
+name Watmough and perhaps in Hickmott--
+
+"Mow, housbandys sister or syster in law" (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+I imagine that William Echemannesmai, who owed the Treasury a mark in
+1182, was one of the sponging fraternity.
+
+Virgoe, a latinization of Virgin, is perhaps due to a shop-sign.
+Rigmaiden, explained by Lower as "a romping girl," is local, from a
+place in Westmorland.  Richard de Riggemayden was living in Lancashire
+in 1307.  With this group of names we may put Gossip, originally a
+god-parent, lit.  related in God, from Mid. Eng. sib, kin.
+
+With names like Farebrother, Goodfellow, we may compare some of French
+origin such as Bonser (bon sire), Bonamy, and Bellamy
+
+"Thou beel amy, thou pardoner, he sayde,
+ Telle us som myrth, or japes, right anon."
+
+(B, 318.)
+
+Beldam (belle dame), originally a complimentary name for grandmother
+or grandam, has become uncomplimentary in meaning--
+
+First Witch.  "Why, how now, Hecate!  you look angerly."
+
+Hecate.  "Have I not reason, beldams as you are,
+Saucy and overbold?" (Macbeth, iii.  5).
+
+From the corresponding Old Fr. bel-sire, beau-sire, we have Bewsher,
+Bowser, and the Picard form Belcher
+
+"The great belsire, the grandsire, sire, and sonne,
+ Lie here interred under this grave stone."
+
+(Weever, Ancient Funeral Monuments.)
+
+Relationship was often expressed by the use of French words, so that
+for son-in-law we find Gender, Ginder, corresponding to Fr. Legendre.
+Fitch, usually an animal nickname (Chapter XXIII), is occasionally for
+le fiz, the son, which also survives as Fitz.  Goodson, from the
+personal name Good (Chapter I), is sometimes registered as Fiz Deu.
+Cf. Fr. Lefilleul, i.e. the godson.
+
+
+
+ABSTRACTS
+
+A possible derivative of the name May (Chapter XXI) is Ivimey.  Holly
+and Ivy were the names of characters in Christmas games, and an old
+rime says
+
+"Holy and his mery men, they dawnsyn and they syng,
+ Ivy and hur maydins, they wepen and they wryng."
+
+If Ivimey is from this source, the same origin must sometimes be
+allowed to Holliman (Chapter I).  This conjecture [Footnote: Probably
+a myth.  See my Surnames, p. 197.]  has in its favour the fact that
+many of our surnames are undoubtedly derived from characters assumed
+in dramatic performances and popular festivities.  To this class
+belong many surnames which have the form of abstract nouns, e.g.
+Charity, Verity, Virtue, Vice.  Of similar origin are perhaps Bliss,
+Chance, Luck, and Goodluck; cf. Bonaventure.  Love, Luff, occurs
+generally as a personal name, hence the dim. Lufkins, but it is
+sometimes a nickname.  Lovell, Lovett, more often mean little wolf.
+Both Louvet and Louveau are common French surnames.  The name Lovell,
+in the wolf sense, was often applied to a dog, as in the famous
+couplet
+
+"The ratte, the catte, and Lovell, our dogge
+ Rule all England under the hogge,"
+
+for which William Collingborne was executed in 1484.  Lowell is a
+variant of Lovell.
+
+But many apparent abstract names are due to folk-etymology, e.g.
+Marriage is local, Old Fr. marage, marsh, and Wedlock is imitative for
+Wedlake; cf. Mortlock for Mortlake and perhaps Diplock for deep-lake.
+Creed is the Anglo-Saxon personal name Creda.  Revel, a common French
+surname, is a personal name of obscure origin.  Want is the Mid. Eng.
+wont, mole, whence Wontner, mole-catcher.  It is difficult to see how
+such names as Warr, Battle, and Conquest came into existence.  The
+former, found as de la warre, is no doubt sometimes local (Chapter
+XIII), and Battle is a dim. of Bat (Chapter VI).  But de la batayle is
+also a common entry, and Laguerre and Labataille are common French
+surnames.
+
+
+
+COSTUME
+
+A nickname was often conferred in connection with some external object
+regularly associated with the individual.  Names taken from shop-signs
+really belong to this class.  Corresponding to our Hood  [Footnote:
+Hood may also be for Hud (Chapter I), but the garment is made into a
+personal name in Little Red Ridinghood, who is called in French le
+petit Chaperon Rouge.]  we have Fr. Capron (chaperon).  Burdon, Fr.
+bourdon, meant a staff, especially a pilgrim's staff.  Daunger is
+described as having--
+
+"In his honde a gret burdoun"
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 3401).
+
+But the name Burdon is also local.  Bracegirdle, i.e. breeks-girdle,
+must have been the nickname of one who wore a gorgeous belt.  It is a
+curious fact that this name is chiefly found in the same region
+(Cheshire) as the somewhat similar Broadbelt.  The Sussex name Quaile
+represents the Norman pronunciation of coif.  More usually an
+adjective enters into such combinations.  With the historic Curthose,
+Longsword, Strongbow we may compare Shorthouse, a perversion of
+shorthose, Longstaff, Horlock (hoar), Silverlock, Whitlock, etc.
+Whitehouse is usually of local origin, but has also absorbed the
+medieval names Whitehose and White-hawse, the latter from Mid. Eng.
+hawse, neck.  Woollard may be the Anglo-Saxon personal name Wulfweard,
+but is more probably from woolward, i.e. without linen, a costume
+assumed as a sign of penitence
+
+"Wolwarde, without any lynnen nexte ones body, sans chemyse."
+(Palsgrave.)
+
+The three names Medley, Medlicott, and Motley go together, though all
+three of them may be local (the mid-lea, the middle-cot, and the
+moat-lea).  Medley mixed, is the Anglo-French past participle of Old
+Fr. mesler (mêler).  Motley is of unknown origin, but it was not
+necessarily a fool's dress--
+
+"A marchant was ther with a forked berd,
+ In mottelye, and hye on horse he sat,
+ Upon his heed a Flaundryssh bevere hat" (A, 270).
+
+So also the Serjeant of the Law was distinguished his, for the period,
+plain dress--
+
+"He rood but hoomly in a medlee cote" (A, 328).
+
+Gildersleeve is now rare in England, though it still flourishes in the
+United States.  [Footnote: We have several instances of this
+phenomenon.  A familiar example is Lippincott, a surname of local
+origin (Devonshire).  But Bardsley's inclusion of American statistics
+is often misleading.  It is a well-known fact that the foreign names
+of immigrants are regularly assimilated to English forms in the United
+States.  In some cases, such as Cook for Koch, Cope (Chapter XII) for
+Kopf, Stout (Chapter XXII) for Stolz or Stultz, the change is
+etymologically justified.  But in other cases, such as Tallman for
+Thalmann, dale-man, Trout for Traut, faithful, the resemblance is
+accidental.  Beam and Chestnut, common in the States but very rare in
+England, represent an imitative form of Böhm or Behm, Bohemian, and a
+translation of Kestenbaum, chestnut tree, both Jewish names.  The
+Becks and Bowmans of New York outnumber those of London by about five
+to one, the first being for Beck, baker (Chapter XV), and the second
+for Baumann, equivalent to Bauer, farmer.  Bardsley explains the
+common American name Arrison by the fact that there are Cockneys in
+America.  It comes of course from Arend, a Dutch name related to
+Arnold.
+
+"A remarkable record in changes of surname was cited some years ago by
+an American correspondent of Notes and Queries.  'The changes which
+befell a resident of New Orleans were that when he moved from an
+American quarter to a German neighbourhood his name of Flint became
+Feuerstein, which for convenience was shortened to Stein.  Upon his
+removal to a French district he was re-christened Pierre.  Hence upon
+his return to an English neighbourhood he was translated into Peters,
+and his first neighbours were surprised and puzzled to find Flint
+turned Peters.'"
+
+(Daily Chronicle, April 4, 1913.)]
+
+
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES
+
+Names like Beard, Chinn, Tooth were conferred because of some
+prominent feature.  In Anglo-French we find Gernon, moustache, now
+corrupted to Garnham, and also al gernon, with the moustache, which
+has become Algernon.  But we have already seen (Chapter XIII) that
+some names which appear to belong to this class are of local origin.
+So also Tongue is derived from one of several places named Tong or
+Tonge, though the ultimate origin is perhaps in some cases the same, a
+"tongue" of land.  Quartermain is for Quatre-mains, perhaps bestowed
+on a very acquisitive person; Joscius Quatre-buches, four mouths, and
+Roger Tunekes, two necks, were alive in the twelfth century; and there
+is record of a Saracen champion named Quinze-paumes, though this is
+perhaps rather a measure of height.  Cheek I conjecture to be for
+Chick.  The odd-looking Kidney is apparently Irish.  There is a rare
+name Poindexter, appearing in French as Poingdestre, "right fist."
+[Footnote: President Poincaré's name appears to mean "square fist."]
+I have seen it explained as from the heraldic term point dexter, but
+it is rather to be taken literally.  I find Johannes cum pugno in
+1184, and we can imagine that such a name may have been conferred on a
+medieval bruiser.  There is also the possibility, considering the
+brutality of many old nicknames, that the bearer of the name had been
+judicially deprived of his right hand, a very common punishment,
+especially for striking a feudal superior.  Thus Renaut de Montauban,
+finding that his unknown opponent is Charlemagne, exclaims--
+
+"J'ai forfait le poing destre dont je l'ai adesé (struck)."
+
+We have some nicknames describing gait, e.g. Ambler and Shaylor--
+
+"I shayle, as a man or horse dothe that gothe croked with his leggs,
+je vas eschays" (Palsgrave)--
+
+and perhaps sometimes Trotter.  If George Eliot had been a student of
+surnames she would hardly have named a heroine Nancy Lammiter, i.e.
+cripple--
+
+"Though ye may think him a lamiter, yet, grippie for grippie, he'll
+make the bluid spin frae under your nails" (Black Dwarf, ch. xvii.).
+
+Pettigrew and Pettifer are of French origin, pied de grue (crane) and
+pied de fer.  The former is the origin of the word pedigree, from a
+sign used in drawing genealogical trees.  The Buckinghamshire name
+Puddifoot or Puddephatt (Podefat, 1273) and the aristocratic
+Pauncefote are unsolved.  The former may be a corruption of Pettifer,
+which occurs commonly, along with the intermediate Puddifer, in the
+same county.  But the English Dialect Dictionary gives as an obsolete
+Northants word the adjective puddy, stumpy, pudgy, applied especially
+to hands, fingers, etc., and Pudito (puddy toe) occurs as a surname in
+the Hundred Rolls.  As for Pauncefote, I believe it simply means what
+it appears to, viz. "belly-foot," a curious formation, though not
+without parallels, among obsolete rustic nicknames.  If these two
+conjectures are correct, both Puddifoot and Pauncefote may be almost
+literal equivalents of the Greek OEdipus, i.e. "swell-foot."
+
+In other languages as well as English we find money nicknames.  It is
+easy to understand how some of these come into existence, e.g. that
+Pierce.  Pennilesse was the opposite of Thomas Thousandpound, whose
+name occurs c. 1300.  With the latter we may compare Fr. Centlivre,
+the name of an English lady dramatist of the eighteenth century.
+Moneypenny is found in 1273 as Manipeni, and a Londoner named Manypeny
+died in 1348.  The Money- is partly north country, partly imitative.
+
+Money itself is usually occupative or local (Chapter XVII), and
+Shilling is the Anglo-Saxon name Scilling.  The oldest and commonest
+of such nicknames is the simple Penny, with which we may compare the
+German surname Pfennig and its compounds Barpfennig, Weisspfennig,
+etc.  The early adoption of this coin-name as a personal name is due
+to the fact that the word was taken in the sense of money in general.
+We still speak of a rich man as "worth a pretty penny." Hallmark is
+folk-etymology for the medieval Half-mark.  Such medieval names as
+Four-pence, Twenty-mark, etc., probably now obsolete, are paralleled
+by Fr. Quatresous and Sixdenier, still to be found in the Paris
+Directory.  It would be easy to form conjectures as to the various
+ways in which such names may have come into existence.  To the same
+class must belong Besant, the name of a coin from Byzantium, its
+foreign origin giving it a dignity which is absent from the native
+Farthing and Halfpenny, though the latter, in one instance, was
+improved beyond recognition into MacAlpine.
+
+
+
+IMPRECATIONS
+
+There is also a small group of surnames derived from oaths or
+exclamations which by habitual use became associated with certain
+individuals.  We know that monarchs had a special tendency to indulge
+in a favourite expletive.  To Roger de Collerye we owe some
+information as to the imprecations preferred by four French kings--
+
+"Quand la Pasque-Dieu (Louis XI.) décéda,
+ Le Bon Jour Dieu (Charles VIII.) luy succéda,
+ Au Bon Jour Dieu deffunct et mort
+ Succéda le Dyable m'emport (Louis XII).
+ Luy décédé, nous voyons comme
+ Nous duist (governs) la Foy de Gentilhomme (Francis I.)."
+
+So important was this branch of linguistics once considered that
+Palsgrave, the French tutor of Princess Mary Tudor, includes in his
+Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse a section on "The Maners of
+Cursyng." Among the examples are "Le grant diable luy rompe le col et
+les deux jambes," "Le diable l'emporte, corps et ame, tripes et
+boyaux," which were unfortunately too long for surname purposes, but
+an abridged form of "Le feu Saint Anthoyne l'arde" [Footnote: Saint
+Anthony's fire, i.e. erysipelas, burn him!] has given the French name
+Feulard.  Such names, usually containing the name of God, e.g.
+Godmefetch, Helpusgod, have mostly disappeared in this country; but
+Dieuleveut and Dieumegard are still found in Paris, and Gottbehüt, God
+forbid, and Gotthelf, God help, occur in German.  Godbehere still
+exists, and there is not the slightest reason why it should not be of
+the origin which its form indicates.  In Gracedieu, thanks to God, the
+second element is an Old French dative.  Pardoe, Purdue, whence
+Purdey, is for par Dieu--
+
+"I have a wyf pardee, as wel as thow" (A, 3158).
+
+There is a well-known professional footballer named Mordue ('sdeath),
+and a French composer named Boieldieu (God's bowels).  The French
+nickname for an Englishman, goddam--
+
+"Those syllables intense,
+ Nucleus of England's native eloquence"
+
+(Byron, The Island, iii. 5)--
+
+goes back to the fifteenth century, in which invective references to
+the godons are numerous.  [Footnote: "Les Anglais en vérité ajoutent
+par-ci, par-là quelques autres mots en conversant; mais il est bien
+aisé de voir que goddam est le fond de la langue" (Beaumarchais,
+Mariage de Figaro, iii.  5).]
+
+Such nicknames are still in common use in some parts of France--
+
+"Les Berrichons se désignent souvent par le juron qui leur est
+familier.  Ainsi ils diront: 'Diable me brûle est bien malade.  Nom
+d'un rat est à la foire.  La femme à Diable m'estrangouille est morte.
+Le garçon à Bon You (Dieu) se marie avec la fille à Dieu me confonde.'"
+
+(Nyrop, Grammaire historique de la langue française, iv. 209).
+
+
+
+PHRASE-NAMES
+
+Perhaps the most interesting group of nicknames is that of which we
+may take Shakespeare as the type.  Incidentally we should be thankful
+that our greatest poet bore a name so much more picturesque than
+Corneille, crow, or Racine, root.  It is agreed among all competent
+scholars that in compounds of this formation the verb was originally
+an imperative.  This is shown by the form; cf. ne'er-do-well, Fr.
+vaurien, Ger. Taugenichts, good-for-naught.  Thus Hasluck cannot
+belong to this class, but must be an imitative form of the personal
+name Aslac, which we find in Aslockton.
+
+As Bardsley well says, it is impossible to retail all the nonsense
+that has been written about the name Shakespeare--"never a name in
+English nomenclature so simple or so certain in its origin; it is
+exactly what it looks--shake-spear."  The equivalent Schüttespeer is
+found in German, and we have also in English Shakeshaft, Waghorn,
+Wagstaff, Breakspear, Winspear.  "Winship the mariner" was a freeman
+of York in the fourteenth century.  Cf. Benbow (bend-bow), Hurlbatt,
+and the less athletic Lovejoy, Makepeace.  Gathergood and its opposite
+Scattergood are of similar origin, good having here the sense of
+goods.  Dogood is sometimes for Toogood, and the latter may be, like
+Thoroughgood, an imitative form of Thurgod (Chapter VII); but both
+names may also be taken literally, for we find Ger. Thunichtgut, do no
+good, and Fr. Trodoux (trop doux).
+
+As a pendant to Dolittle we find a medieval Hack-little, no doubt a
+lazy wood-cutter, while virtue is represented by a twelfth-century
+Tire-little.  Sherwin represents the medieval Schere-wynd, applied to
+a swift runner; cf. Ger. Schneidewind, cut wind, and Fr. Tranchevent.
+A nurseryman at Highgate has the appropriate name Cutbush, the French
+equivalent of which, Taillebois, has given us Tallboys; and a famous
+herbalist was named Culpepper.  In Gathercole the second element may
+mean cabbage or charcoal.  In one case, Horniblow for horn-blow, the
+verb comes after its object.
+
+Names of this formation are very common in Mid. English as in Old
+French, and often bear witness to a violent or brutal nature.  Thus
+Scorch-beef, which is found in the Hundred Rolls, has no connection
+with careless cookery; it is Old Fr. escorche (écorche) -buef, flay
+ox, a name given to some medieval "Skin-the-goat."  Catchpole (Chapter
+XX) is formed in the same way, and in French we find, applied to law
+officials, the surnames Baillehart, give halter, [Footnote: Bailler,
+the usual Old French for to give, is still used colloquially and in
+dialect.]  and Baillehache, give axe, the latter still appropriately
+borne, as Bailhache, by an English judge.
+
+It has sometimes been assumed that most names of this class are due to
+folk-etymology.  The frequency of their occurrence in Mid. English and
+in continental languages makes it certain that the contrary is the
+case and that many surnames of obscure origin are perversions of this
+very large and popular class.  I have seen it stated somewhere that
+Shakespeare is a corruption of an Old French name Sacquespée,
+[Footnote: Of common occurrence in Mid. English records.]  the
+theorist being apparently unable to see that this latter, meaning
+draw-sword, is merely an additional argument, if such were needed, for
+the literal interpretation of the English name.  [Footnote: In one
+day's reading I came across the following Mid. English names:
+Baillebien (give good), Baysedame (kiss lady), Esveillechien (wake
+dog), Lievelance (raise lance), Metlefrein (put the bridle),
+Tracepurcel (track hog), Turnecotel (turn coat), together with the
+native Cachehare and Hoppeschort.]
+
+Tredgold seems to have been conferred on some medieval stoic, for we
+find also Spurnegold.  Without pinning our faith to any particular
+anecdote, we need have no hesitation in accepting Turnbull as a
+sobriquet conferred for some feat of strength and daring on a stalwart
+Borderer.  We find the corresponding Tornebeuf in Old French, and
+Turnbuck also occurs.  Trumbull and Trumble are variants due to
+metathesis followed by assimilation (Chapter III), while Tremble is a
+very degenerate form.  In Knatchbull we have the obsolete verb knatch,
+which in Mid. English meant to strike on the head, fell.  Crawcour is
+Fr. Crèvecoeur, breakheart, which has also become a local name in
+France.  With Shacklock, shake-lock, and Sherlock, Shurlock,
+shear-lock, we may compare Robin Hood's comrade Scathelock, though the
+precise interpretation of all three names is difficult.  Rackstraw,
+rake-straw, corresponds to Fr. Grattepaille.  Golightly means much the
+same as Lightfoot (Chapter XIII), nor need we hesitate to regard the
+John Gotobed  who lived in Cambridgeshire in 1273 as a notorious
+sluggard compared with whom his neighbour Serl Gotokirke was a shining
+example.  [Footnote: The name is still found in the same county.
+Undergraduates contemporary with the author occasionally slaked their
+thirst at a riverside inn kept by Bathsheba Gotobed.]
+
+Telfer is Fr. Taillefer, the iron cleaver, and Henry II.'s yacht
+captain was Alan Trenchemer, the sea cleaver.  He had a contemporary
+named Ventados, wind abaft.
+
+Slocomb has assumed a local aspect, but may very well correspond to
+Fr. Tardif or Ger. Mühsam, applied to some Weary Willie of the Middle
+Ages.  Doubtfire is a misspelling of Dout-fire, from the dialect dout,
+to extinguish (do out), formed like don and doff.  Fullalove, which
+does not belong to the same formation, is also found as Plein d'amour--
+
+"Of Sir Lybeux and Pleyndamour" (B, 2090)--
+
+and corresponds to Ger. Liebevoll.  Waddilove actually occurs in the
+Hundred Rolls as Wade-in-love, presumably a nickname conferred on some
+medieval Don Juan.
+
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+There is one curious little group of nicknames which seem to
+correspond to such Latin names as Piso, from pisum, a pea, and Cicero,
+from cicer--
+
+"Cicer, a small pulse, lesse than pease" (Cooper).
+
+Such are Barleycorn and Peppercorn, the former found in French as
+Graindorge.  The rather romantic names Avenel and Peverel seem to be
+of similar formation, from Lat. avena, oats, and piper, pepper.  In
+fact Peverel is found in Domesday as Piperellus, and Pepperell still
+exists.  With these may be mentioned Carbonel, corresponding to the
+French surname Charbonneau, a little coal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES
+
+"The man replied that he did not know the object of the building; and
+to make it quite manifest that he really did not know, he put an
+adjective before the word 'object,' and another--that is, the
+same--before the word 'building.' With that he passed on his way, and
+Lord Jocelyn was left marvelling at the slender resources of our
+language, which makes one adjective do duty for so many
+qualifications."
+
+(BESANT, All Sorts and Conditions of Men, ch. xxxviii.)
+
+The rejection by the British workman of all adjectives but one is due
+to the same imaginative poverty which makes the adjective "nice"
+supreme in refined circles, and which limits the schoolgirl to
+"ripping" and her more self-conscious brother to the tempered
+"decent." But dozens of useful adjectives, now either obsolete or
+banished to rustic dialect, are found among our surnames.  The
+tendency to accompany every noun by an adjective seems to belong to
+some deep-rooted human instinct.  To this is partly due the Protean
+character of this part of speech, for the word, like the coin, becomes
+dulled and worn in circulation and needs periodically to be withdrawn
+and replaced.  An epithet which is complimentary in one generation is
+ironical in the next and eventually offensive.  Moody, with its
+northern form Mudie, which now means morose, was once valiant (Chapter
+I); and pert, surviving in the name Peart, meant active, brisk, etc.--
+
+"Awake the pert and nimble spirit of mirth."
+
+(Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 1.)
+
+
+
+ARCHAIC MEANINGS
+
+To interpret an adjectival nickname we must go to its meaning in
+Chaucer and his contemporaries.  Silly, Seeley, Seely
+
+"This sely, innocent Custance" (B, 682)--
+
+still means innocent when we speak of the "silly sheep," and happy in
+the phrase "silly Suffolk." It is cognate with Ger. selig, blessed,
+often used in speaking of the dead.  We have compounds in Sillilant,
+simple child (Chapter X), and Selibarn.  Seely was also used for Cecil
+or Cecilia.  Sadd was once sedate and steadfast
+
+"But thogh this mayde tendre were of age,
+ Yet in the brest of hire virginitee
+ Ther was enclosed rype and sad corage"
+
+(E, 218);
+
+and as late as 1660 we find a book in defence of Charles I. described
+as--
+
+"A sad and impartial inquiry whether the King or Parliament began the
+war."
+
+Stout, valiant, now used euphemistically for fat, is cognate with Ger.
+stolz, proud, and possibly with Lat. stultus, foolish.  The three
+ideas are not incompatible, for fools are notoriously proud of their
+folly and are said to be less subject to fear than the angels.
+Sturdy, Sturdee, once meant rebellious, pig-headed--
+
+"Sturdy, unbuxum, rebellis, contumax, inobediens."  (Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Cotgrave offers a much wider choice for the French original--
+
+"Estourdi (étourdi), dulled, amazed, astonished, dizzie-headed, or
+whose head seemes very much troubled; (hence) also, heedlesse,
+inconsiderate, unadvised, witlesse, uncircumspect, rash, retchlesse,
+or carelesse; and sottish, blockish, lumpish, lusk-like, without life,
+metall, spirit"
+
+Sly and its variant Sleigh have degenerated in the same way as crafty
+and cunning, both of which once meant skilled.  Chaucer calls the
+wings of Daedalus "his playes slye," i.e. his ingenious contrivances.
+Quick meant alert, lively, as in "the quick and the dead." Slight,
+cognate with Ger. schlecht, bad, once meant plain or simple.
+
+Many adjectives which are quite obsolete in literary English survive
+as surnames.  Mid. Eng. Lyle has been supplanted by its derivative
+Little, the opposite pair surviving as Mutch and Mickle.  The poor
+parson did not fail--
+
+"In siknesse nor in meschief to visite
+ The ferreste in his parisshe, muche and lyte."
+
+(A, 493.)
+
+We have for Lyte also the imitative Light; cf. Lightwood.  With Little
+may be mentioned Murch, an obsolete word for dwarf--
+
+"Murch, lytyl man, nanus."
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Lenain is a fairly common name in France.  Snell, swift or valiant,
+had become a personal name in Anglo-Saxon, but we find le snel in the
+Middle Ages.  Freake, Frick, also meant valiant or warrior--
+
+"Ther was no freke that ther wolde flye"
+
+(Chevy Chase);
+
+but the Promptorium Parvulorum makes it equivalent to Craske (Chapter
+XXII)--
+
+"Fryke, or craske, in grete helth, crassus."
+
+It is cognate with Ger. frech, which now means impudent.  Nott has
+already been mentioned (Chapter II).  Of the Yeoman we are told--
+
+"A not hed hadde he, with a broun visage."
+
+(A, 109.)
+
+Stark, cognate with starch, now usually means stiff, rather than
+strong--
+
+"I feele my lymes stark and suffisaunt
+ To do al that a man bilongeth to."
+
+(E, 1458.)
+
+
+
+DISGUISED SPELLINGS
+
+But Stark is also for an earlier Sterk (cf. Clark and Clerk), which
+represents Mid. Eng. stirk, a heifer.  In the cow with the crumpled
+horn we have a derivative of Mid. Eng. crum, crooked, whence the names
+Crum and Crump.  Ludwig's German Dict. (1715) explains krumm as
+"crump, crooked, wry." The name Crook generally has the same meaning,
+the Ger. Krummbein corresponding to our Cruikshank or Crookshanks.  It
+is possible that Glegg and Gleig are Mid. Eng. gleg, skilful, of
+Scand. origin.
+
+There are some adjectival surnames which are not immediately
+recognizable.  Bolt, when not local (Chapter XIII) is for bold, Leaf
+is imitative for lief, i.e. dear.  Dear itself is of course hopelessly
+mixed up with Deer...  The timorous-looking Fear is Fr. le fier, the
+proud or fierce.  Skey is an old form of shy; Bligh is for Blyth;
+Hendy and Henty are related to handy, and had in Mid. English the
+sense of helpful, courteous--
+
+"Oure hoost tho spak, 'A, sire, ye sholde be hende
+ And curteys, as a man of youre estat.'"
+
+(D, 1286.)
+
+For Savage we find also the archaic spelling Salvage (Lat.
+silvaticus).  Curtis is Norman Fr. curteis (courtois).  The adjective
+garish, now only poetical, but once commonly applied to gaudiness in
+dress, has given Gerrish.  Quaint, which has so many meanings
+intermediate between its etymological sense of known or familiar (Lat.
+cognitus) and its present sense of unusual or unfamiliar, survives as
+Quint.  But Coy is usually local, from Quy (Cambridgeshire).
+
+Orpwood is a corruption of Mid. Eng. orped, bold, warlike.  Craske is
+an East Anglian word for fat, and Crouse is used in the north for
+sprightly, confident.  To these we may add Ketch, Kedge, Gedge, from
+an East Anglian adjective meaning lively--
+
+"Kygge, or joly, jocundus" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and Spragg, etymologically akin to Spry.  Bragg was once used for bold
+or brave, without any uncomplimentary suggestion.  The New English
+Dictionary quotes (c. 1310) from a lyric poem--
+
+"That maketh us so brag and bolde
+ And biddeth us ben blythe."
+
+Crease is a West-country word for squeamish, but the East Anglian name
+Creasey, Cressy, is usually for the local Kersey (Suffolk).  The only
+solution of Pratt is that it is Anglo-Sax. praett, cunning, adopted
+early as a personal name, while Storr, of Scandinavian origin, means
+big, strong.  It is cognate with Steer, a bull.  Devey and Dombey seem
+to be diminutive forms of deaf and dumb, still used in dialect in
+reference to persons thus afflicted.  We find in French and German
+surnames corresponding to these very natural nicknames.  Cf. Crombie
+from Crum (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+
+FRENCH ADJECTIVES
+
+A large proportion of our adjectival nicknames are of French origin.
+Le bel appears not only as Bell but also, through Picard, as Beal.
+Other examples are Boon, Bone, Bunn (bon), Grant (grand), Bass (bas)
+and its derivative Bassett, Dasent (décent), Follett and Folliott,
+dim. of fol (fou), mad, which also appears in the compound Foljambe,
+Fulljames.
+
+Mordaunt means biting.  Power is generally Anglo-Fr. le poure (le
+pauvre) and Grace is for le gras, the fat.  Jolige represents the Old
+French form of joli--
+
+"This Absolon, that jolif was and gay,
+ Gooth with a sencer (censer) on the haliday."
+
+(A, 3339.)
+
+Prynne, now Pring, is Anglo-Fr. le prin, the first, from the Old
+French adjective which survives in printemps.  Cf. our name Prime and
+the French name Premier.  The Old French adjective Gent, now replaced
+by gentil, generally means slender in Mid. English--
+
+"Fair was this yonge wyf, and therwithal
+ As any wezele hir body gent and smal."
+
+(A, 3233)
+
+Petty and Pettit are variant forms of Fr. petit, small.  In Prowse and
+Prout we have the nominative and objective (Chapter I) of an Old
+French adjective now represented by preux and prude, generally thought
+to be related in some way to Lat. pro in prosum, and perhaps also the
+source of our Proud.
+
+Gross is of course Fr. le gros, but Grote represents Du. groot, great,
+probably unconnected with the French word.  The Devonshire name
+Coffin, which is found in that county in the twelfth century, is the
+same as Caffyn, perhaps representing Fr. Chauvin, bald, the name of
+the theologian whom we know better in the latinized form Calvin.  Here
+belongs probably Shovel, Fr. Chauvel.  We also have the simple Chaffe,
+Old Fr. chauf (chauve), bald.  Gaylard, sometimes made into the
+imitative Gaylord, is Fr. gaillard, brisk, lively
+
+"Gaillard he was as goldfynch in the shawe."
+
+(A, 4367.)
+
+
+
+COLOUR NAMES
+
+Especially common are colour nicknames, generally due to the
+complexion, but sometimes to the garb.  As we have already seen
+(Chapter XV), Black and its variant Blake sometimes mean pale.  Blagg
+is the same word; cf. Jagg for Jack.  White has no doubt been
+reinforced by wight, valiant
+
+"Oh for one hour of Wallace wight
+ Or well-skilled Bruce to rule the fight."
+
+(Marmion, vi.  20.)
+
+As an epithet applied to the hair we often find Hoar; cf. Horlock.
+Redd is rare, the usual forms being the northern Reid, Reed, Read; but
+we also have Rudd from Anglo-Sax. rud, whence ruddy and the name
+Ruddock, really a bird nickname, the redbreast.  To these must be
+added Rudge, Fr. rouge, Rouse, Rush and Russ, Fr, roux, and Russell or
+Rowsell, Old Fr. roussel (Rousseau).  The commonest nickname for a
+fair-haired person was Blunt, Blount, Fr. blond, with its dim.
+Blundell, but the true English name is Fairfax, from Anglo-Sax. feax,
+hair.  The New English Dictionary quotes from the fifteenth century
+
+"Then they lowsyd hur feyre faxe,
+ That was yelowe as the waxe."
+
+The adjective dun was once a regular name, like Dobbin or Dapple, for
+a cart-horse; hence the name of the old rural sport "Dun in the mire"--
+
+"If thou art dun we'll draw thee from the mire." (Romeo and Juliet, i.
+4.)
+
+It is possible that the name Dunn is sometimes due to this specific
+application of the word.  The colour blue appears as Blew--
+
+"At last he rose, and twitch'd his mantle blew:
+ To-morrow to fresh woods and pastures new"
+
+(Lycidas, 1.  192)--
+
+and earlier still as Blow--
+
+"Blak, blo, grenysh, swartysh, reed."
+
+(House of Fame, iii.  557.)
+
+Other colour names of French origin are Morel, swarthy, like a Moor,
+also found as Murrell [Footnote: This, like Merrill, is sometimes from
+Muriel.]; and Burnell, Burnett, dims.  of brun, brown.  Chaucer speaks
+of--
+
+"Daun Burnet the asse" (B, 4502);
+
+[Footnote: Lat. dominus; the masculine form of dame in Old French.]
+
+"Daun Russel the fox" (B, 4524.)
+
+But both Burnell and Burnett may also be local from places ending in
+-hill and -head (), and Burnett is sometimes for Burnard.  The same
+applies to Burrell, usually taken to be from Mid. Eng. borel, a rough
+material, Old Fr. burel (bureau), also used metaphorically in the
+sense of plain, uneducated
+
+"And moore we seen of Cristes secree thynges
+ Than burel folk, al though they weren kynges."
+
+(D, 1871.)
+
+The name can equally well be the local Burhill or Burwell.
+
+Murray is too common to be referred entirely to the Scottish name and
+is sometimes for murrey, dark red (Fr. mûre, mulberry).  It may also
+represent merry, in its variant form murie, which is Mid. English, and
+not, as might appear, Amurrican--
+
+"His murie men comanded he
+ To make hym bothe game and glee."
+
+(B, 2029.)
+
+Pook, of uncertain origin, is supposed to have been a dark russet
+colour.  Bayard, a derivative of bay, was the name of several famous
+war-horses.  Cf. Blank and Blanchard.  The name Soar is from the Old
+French adjective sor, bright yellow.  It is of Germanic origin and
+cognate with sere.
+
+The dim. Sorrel may be a colour name, but it was applied in venery to
+a buck in the third year, of course in reference to colour; and some
+of our names, e.g. Brocket and Prickett, [Footnote: Both words are
+connected with the spiky young horns, Fr. broche, spit, being applied
+in venery to the pointed horns of the second year.]  both applied to a
+two-year-old stag, must sometimes be referred to this important
+department of medieval language.  Holofernes uses some of these terms
+in his idiotic verses
+
+"The preyful princess pierc'd and prick'd a pretty pleasing priket;
+ Some say a sore; but not a sore, till now made sore with shooting.
+ The dogs did yell; put l to sore, then sorel jumps from thicket."
+
+(Love's Labour's Lost, iv. 2.)
+
+A few adjective nicknames of Celtic origin are so common in England
+that they may be included here.  Such are the Welsh Gough, Goff,
+Gooch, Gutch, red, Gwynn and Wynne, white, Lloyd, grey, Sayce, Saxon,
+foreigner, Vaughan, small, and the Gaelic Bain, Bean, white, Boyd,
+Bowie, yellow-haired, Dow, Duff, black, Finn, fair, Glass, grey, Roy,
+Roe, red.  From Cornish come Coad, old, and Couch, [Footnote: Cognate
+with Welsh Gough.]  red, while Bean is the Cornish for small, and
+Tyacke means a farmer.  It is likely that both Begg and Moore owe
+something to the Gaelic adjectives for little and big, as in the
+well-known names of Callum Beg, Edward Waverley's gillie, and McCallum
+More.  The Gaelic Begg is cognate with the Welsh Vaughan.  Two other
+famous Highland nicknames which are very familiar in England are
+Cameron, crooked nose, and Campbell, wry mouth.  With these may be
+mentioned the Irish Kennedy, ugly head, the name of the father of
+Brian Boru.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES
+
+"As I think I have already said, one of Umslopogaas'
+ Zulu names was The Woodpecker."
+
+(HAGGARD, Allan Quatermain, ch. vii.)
+
+The great majority of nicknames coming under the headings typified by
+Bird and Fowell, Best, and Fish or Fisk (Scand.) are easily
+identified.  But here, as everywhere in the subject, pitfalls abound.
+The name Best itself is an example of a now misleading spelling
+retained for obvious reasons--
+
+"First, on the wal was peynted a forest,
+ In which ther dwelleth neither man nor best."
+
+(A, 1976.)
+
+We do not find exotic animals, nor even the beasts of heraldry, at all
+frequently.  Leppard, leopard, is in some cases for the Ger. Liebhart;
+and Griffin, when not Welsh, should no doubt be included among
+inn-signs.  Oliphant, i.e. elephant--
+
+"For maystow surmounten thise olifauntes in gretnesse or weighte of
+body" (Boece, 782)--
+
+may be a genuine nickname, but Roland's ivory horn was also called by
+this name, and the surname may go back to some legendary connection of
+the same kind.  Bear is not uncommon, captive bears being familiar to
+a period in which the title bear-ward is frequently met with.
+
+It is possible that Drake may sometimes represent Anglo-Sax. draca,
+dragon, rather than the bird, but the latter is unmistakable in
+Sheldrick, for sheldrake.  As a rule, animal nicknames were taken
+rather from the domestic species with which the peasantry were
+familiar and whose habits would readily suggest comparisons, generally
+disparaging, with those of their neighbours.
+
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+Bird names are especially common, and it does not need much
+imagination to see how readily and naturally a man might be nicknamed
+Hawke for his fierceness, Crowe from a gloomy aspect, or Nightingale
+for the gift of sweet song.  Many of these surnames go back to words
+which are now either obsolete or found only in dialect.  The peacock
+was once the Poe, an early loan from Lat. pavo, or, more fully, Pocock
+
+"A sheaf of pocok arwes, bright and kene,
+ Under his belt he bar ful thriftily."
+
+(A, 104.)
+
+The name Pay is another form of the same word.  Coe, whence Hedgecoe,
+is an old name for the jackdaw--
+
+"Cadow, or coo, or chogh (chough), monedula" (Prompt. Parv.)--
+
+but may also stand for cow, as we find, in defiance of gender and sex,
+such entries as Robert le cow, William le vache.  Those birds which
+have now assumed a font-name, such as Jack daw, Mag pie, of course
+occur without it as surnames, e.g. Daw and Pye--
+
+"The thief the chough, and eek the jangelyng pye" (Parliament of
+Fowls, 305).
+
+The latter has a dim. Pyatt.
+
+Rainbird is a local name for the green woodpecker, but as an
+East-Anglian name it is most likely an imitative form of Fr. Rimbaud
+or Raimbaud, identical with Anglo-Sax. Regenbeald.  Knott is the name
+of a bird which frequents the sea-shore and, mindful of Cnut's wisdom,
+retreats nimbly before the advancing surf--
+
+"The knot that called was Canutus' bird of old."
+
+(Drayton, Polyolbion, xxv. 368.)
+
+This historical connection is most probably due to folk-etymology.
+Titmus is of course for tit-mouse.  Dialect names for the woodpecker
+survive in Speight, Speke, and Spick, Pick (Chapter III).  The same
+bird was also called woodwall--
+
+"In many places were nyghtyngales,
+ Alpes, fynches, and wodewales"
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 567)--
+
+hence, in some cases, the name Woodall.  The Alpe, or bullfinch,
+mentioned in the above lines, also survives as a surname.  Dunnock and
+Pinnock are dialect names for the sparrow.  It was called in
+Anglo-Norman muisson, whence Musson.  Starling is a dim. of Mid. Eng.
+stare, which has itself given the surname Starr
+
+"The stare, that the counseyl can be-wrye." (Parliament of Fowls,
+348.)
+
+Heron is the French form of the bird-name which was in English Herne--
+
+"I come from haunts of coot and hern." (Tennyson, The Brook, 1.  1.)
+
+The Old French dim. heronceau also passed into English--
+
+"I wol nat tellen of hir strange sewes (courses),
+ Ne of hir swannes, ne of hire heronsewes."
+
+(F, 67.)
+
+As a surname it has been assimilated to the local, and partly
+identical, Hearnshaw (Chapter XII).  Some commentators go to this word
+to explain Hamlet's use of handsaw--
+
+"I am but mad north-north-west: when the wind is southerly,
+ I know a hawk from a handsaw" (Hamlet, ii.  2).
+
+When the author's father was a boy in Suffolk eighty years ago, the
+local name for the bird was pronounced exactly like answer.  Grew is
+Fr. grue, crane, Lat. grus, gru-.  Butter, Fr. butor, "a bittor"
+(Cotgrave), is a dialect name for the bittern, called a "butter-bump"
+by Tennyson's Northern Farmer (1.  31).  Culver is Anglo-Sax. culfre,
+a pigeon--
+
+"Columba, a culver, a dove"
+
+(Cooper)--
+
+hence the local Culverhouse.  Dove often becomes Duff.  Gaunt is
+sometimes a dialect form of gannet, used in Lincolnshire of the
+crested grebe.  Popjoy may have been applied to the successful archer
+who became king of the popinjay for the year.  The derivation of the
+word, Old Fr. papegai, whence Mid. Eng. papejay--
+
+"The briddes synge, it is no nay,
+ The sparhawk and the papejay,
+That joye it was to heere"
+
+(B, 1956)--
+
+is obscure, though various forms of it are found in most of the
+European languages.  In English it was applied not only to the parrot,
+but also to the green woodpecker.  The London Directory form is
+Pobgee.
+
+With bird nicknames may be mentioned Callow, unfledged, cognate with
+Lat. calvus, bald.  Its opposite also survives as Fleck and Flick--
+
+"Flygge, as byrdis, maturus, volabilis."
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Margaret Paston, writing (1460) of the revived hopes of Henry VI.,
+says--
+
+"Now he and alle his olde felawship put owt their fynnes, and arn
+ryght flygge and mery."
+
+
+
+HAWK NAMES
+
+We have naturally a set of names taken from the various species of
+falcons.  To this class belongs Haggard, probably related to
+Anglo-Sax. haga, hedge, and used of a hawk which had acquired
+incurable habits of wildness by preying for itself.  But Haggard is
+also a personal name (Chapter VIII).  Spark, earlier Sparhawk, is the
+sparrow-hawk.  It is found already in Anglo-Saxon as a personal name,
+and the full Sparrowhawk also exists.  Tassell is a corruption of
+tiercel, a name given to the male peregrine, so termed, according to
+the legendary lore of venery--
+
+"Because he is, commonly, a third part lesse than the female."
+(Cotgrave, )
+
+Juliet calls Romeo her "tassell gentle" (ii.  2).  Muskett was a name
+given to the male sparrow-hawk.
+
+"Musket, a lytell hauke, mouchet."  (Palsgrave.)
+
+Mushet is the same name.  It comes from Ital. moschetto, a little fly.
+For its later application to a firearm cf. falconet.  Other names of
+the hawk class are Buzzard and Puttock, i.e. kite--
+
+"Milan, a kite, puttock, glead"
+
+(Cotgrave);
+
+and to the same bird we owe the name Gleed, from a Scandinavian name
+for the bird
+
+"And the glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his kind." (Deut.
+xiv. 13.)
+
+To this class also belongs Ramage--
+
+"Ramage, of, or belonging to, branches; also, ramage, hagard, wild,
+homely, rude"
+
+(Cotgrave)--
+
+and sometimes Lennard, an imitative form of "lanner," the name of an
+inferior hawk--
+
+"Falcunculus, a leonard."
+
+(Holyoak, Lat. Dict., 1612.)
+
+Povey is a dialect name for the owl, a bird otherwise absent from the
+surname list.
+
+
+
+BEASTS
+
+Among beast nicknames we find special attention given, as in modern
+vituperation, to the swine, although we do not find this true English
+word, unless it be occasionally disguised as Swain.  Hogg does not
+belong exclusively to this class, as it is used in dialect both of a
+young sheep and a yearling colt.  Anglo-Sax. sugu, sow, survives in
+Sugg.  Purcell is Old Fr. pourcel (pourceau), dim. of Lat. porcus, and
+I take Pockett to be a disguised form of the obsolete porket--
+
+"Porculus, a pygg: a shoote: a porkes."
+
+(Cooper.)
+
+The word shoote in the above gloss is now the dialect shot, a young
+pig, which may have given the surname Shott.  But Scutt is from a Mid.
+English adjective meaning short--
+
+"Scute, or shorte, curtus, brevis"
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and is also an old name for the hare.  Two other names for the pig are
+the northern Galt and the Lincolnshire Grice--
+
+"Marcassin, a young wild boare; a shoot or grice." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Grice also represents le gris, the grey; cf. Grace for le gras
+(Chapter XXII).  Bacon looks like a nickname, but is invariably found
+without the article.  As it is common in French, it would appear to be
+an Old French accusative to Back, going back to Germanic Bacco
+(Chapter XIII).  Hinks is Mid. Eng. hengst, a stallion, and is thus
+identical with Hengist (Chapter XX).  Stott means both a bullock and a
+nag (Chapter XIX).
+
+Everyone remembers Wamba's sage disquisition on the names of animals
+in the first chapter of Ivanhoe.  Like much of Scott's archaeology it
+is somewhat anachronistic, for the live animals were also called veals
+and muttons for centuries after Wamba's death
+
+"Mouton, a mutton, a weather"; "veau, a calfe, or veale." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Calf has become very rare as a surname, though Kalb is still common in
+Germany.  Bardsley regards Duncalf and Metcalf as perverted from
+dun-croft and meadow-croft.  It seems possible that they may be for
+down-calf and mead-calf, from the locality of the pasture, but this is
+a pure guess on my part.  It is curious that beef does not appear to
+have survived, though Leboeuf is common in French, and bullocks are
+still called "beeves" in Scotland.  Tegg is still used by butchers for
+a two-year-old sheep.  Palsgrave gives it another meaning--
+
+"Tegg, or pricket (Chapter XXII), saillant."
+
+Roe is also found in the older forms Rae and Ray, of course confused
+with Wray (Chapter XIII), as Roe itself is with Rowe (Chapter I).  Doe
+often becomes Dowe.  Hind is usually occupative (Chapter III), but Fr.
+Labiche suggests that it must sometimes be a nickname--
+
+"Biche, a hind; the female of a stagge." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Pollard was applied to a beast or stag that had lost its horns--
+
+"He has no horns, sir, has he?
+
+"No, sir, he's a pollard."
+
+(Beaumont and Fletcher, Philaster, v. 4.)
+
+Leverett is certified by the French surname Levrault.  Derivation from
+Lever, Anglo-Sax. Leofhere, whence Levers, Leverson, or Leveson, is
+much less probable, as these Anglo-Saxon names rarely form dims.
+(Chapter VII).  Luttrel is in French Loutrel, perhaps a dim. of
+loutre, otter, Lat. lutra.  From the medieval lutrer or lutrarius,
+otter hunter, we get Lutterer, no doubt confused with the musical
+Luter.
+
+While Catt is fairly common in the eastern counties, Robertus le chien
+and Willelmus le curre, who were living about the end of the twelfth
+century, are now completely disguised as Ken and Kerr.  Modern French
+has both Lechien and the Norman Lequien.  [Footnote: Lekain, the name
+of a famous French actor, has the same origin.]  We owe a few other
+surnames to the friend of man.  Kennett, from a Norman dim. of chien,
+meant greyhound--
+
+"Kenette, hounde, leporarius." (Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+The origin of the name Talbot is unknown, and it is uncertain whether
+the hound or the family should have precedence; but Chaucer seems to
+use it as the proper name of a hound
+
+"Ran Colle our dogge, and Talbot, and Gerland,
+ And Malkyn, with a dystaf in hir hand."
+
+(B, 4573.)
+
+The great Earl of Shrewsbury is affectionately called "Talbot, our
+good dogge" in political rimes of the fifteenth century.
+
+In early dictionaries may be found long lists of the fanciful names,
+such as Bright, Lightfoot, Ranger, Ringwood, Swift, Tempest, given to
+hounds.  This practice seems to throw some light on such surnames as
+Tempest, with which we may compare the German names Storm and Sturm.
+In the Pipe Rolls the name le esturmi, the stormy, occurs several
+times.  To the same class belongs Thunder, found in the Pipe Rolls as
+Tonitruus, and not therefore necessarily a perversion of Tunder, i.e.
+Sherman (Chapter XVIII)--
+
+"Tondeur de draps, a shearman, or clothworker." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Garland, used by Chaucer as a dog's name, was earlier graland, and, as
+le garlaund is also found, it may be referred to Old Fr. grailler, to
+trumpet.  It no doubt has other origins.
+
+We should expect Fox to be strongly represented, and we find the
+compounds Colfox and Stelfox.  The first means black fox--
+
+"A colfox ful of sly iniquitee"
+
+(B, 4405)--
+
+and I conjecture that the first part of Stelfox is connected with
+stealing, as in the medieval name Stele-cat--
+
+"The two constables made a thorough search and found John Stelfox
+hiding behind some bushes.  Some of the jewellery was found upon him"
+
+(Daily Chronicle, June 3, 1913).
+
+In the north a fox is called Tod, whence Todhunter.  This Tod is
+probably a personal name, like the French Renard and the Scottish
+Lawrie or Lowrie, applied to the same animal.  Allan Ramsay calls him
+"slee Tod Lowrie." From the badger we have Brock and sometimes Gray--
+
+Blaireau, a badger, gray, boason, brock (Cotgrave)--
+
+but Badger itself is occupative (Chapter XIX).  The polecat survives
+as Fitch, Fitchett, and Fitchew--
+
+"Fissau, a filch, or fulmart."
+
+(Cotgrave.)
+
+
+
+FISHES
+
+On fish-names Bardsley remarks, "We may quote the famous chapter on
+'Snakes in Iceland': 'There are no snakes in Iceland,' and say there
+are no fish-names in England." This is almost true.  The absence of
+marked traits of character in the, usually invisible, fish would
+militate against the adoption of such names.  We should not expect to
+find the shark to be represented, for the word is of too late
+occurrence.  But Whale is fairly common.  Whale the mariner received
+two pounds from Henry VII's privy purse in 1498.  The story of Jonah,
+or very generous proportions, may have originated the name Whalebelly,
+"borne by a respectable family in south-east England"  (Bardsley).
+
+But there would obviously be no great temptation to go fishing for
+nicknames when the beasts of the farmyard and the forest, the birds of
+the marshes and the air, offered on every side easily understood
+comparisons.  At the same time Bardsley's statement goes a little too
+far.  He explains Gudgeon as a corruption of Goodison.  But this, true
+though it may be in some cases, will not explain the very common
+French surname Goujon.  The phrase "greedy gudgeon" suggests that in
+this case a certain amount of character had been noticed in the fish.
+Sturgeon also seems to be a genuine fish-name.  We find Fr. Lesturgeon
+and Ger. Stoer, both meaning the same.  We have also Smelt and the
+synonymous Spurling.  In French and German we find other surnames
+which undoubtedly belong to this class, but they are not numerous and
+probably at first occurred only in regions where fishing or
+fish-curing were important industries.
+
+A few examples will show that apparent fish-names are usually not
+genuine.  Chubb is for Job (Chapter III), Eeles is one of the numerous
+derivatives of Elias (Chapter IX), Hake is, like Hack, from the
+Scandinavian Hacun, Haddock is sometimes a perversion of the local
+Haydock, Lamprey comes via Old French from Old High Ger. Landprecht,
+which has usually given Lambert.
+
+Pike is local (Chapter XII), Pilchard is for Pilcher (Chapter XVIII),
+Roach is Fr. Laroche, Salmon is for Salomon, and Turbot is the
+Anglo-Sax. Thurbeorht, which has also given Tarbut, as Thurgod has
+given Targett.  But in few of the above examples is the possibility of
+fish origin absolutely excluded.
+
+
+
+SPECIAL FEATURES
+
+We have also many surnames due to physical resemblances not extending
+beyond one feature.  Birdseye may be sometimes of local origin, from
+ey, island (Chapter XII), but as a genuine nickname it is as natural
+as the sobriquet of Hawkeye which Natty Bumppo received from the
+Hurons.  German has the much less pleasing Gansauge, goose-eye; and
+Alan Oil de larrun, thief's eye, was fined for very reprehensible
+conduct in 1183.  To explain Crowfoot as an imitative variant of
+Crawford is absurd when we find a dozen German surnames of the same
+class and formation and as many in Old or Modern French beginning with
+pied de.  Cf. Pettigrew (Chapter XXI) and Sheepshanks.  We find in the
+Paris Directory not only Piedeleu (Old Fr. leu, wolf) and Piedoie
+(oie, goose), but even the full Pied-de-Lièvre, Professeur à la
+Faculté de droit.  The name Bulleid was spelt in the sixteenth century
+bul-hed, i.e. bull-head, a literal rendering of Front de Boeuf.
+Weatherhead (Chapter XIX) is perhaps usually a nickname
+
+"For that old weather-headed fool, I know how to laugh at him."
+
+(Congreve, Love for Love, ii.  7.)
+
+Coxhead is another obvious nickname.  A careful analysis of some of
+the most important medieval name-lists would furnish hundreds of
+further examples, some too outspoken to have survived into our
+degenerate age, and others which are now so corrupted that their
+original vigour is quite lost.
+
+Puns and jokes upon proper names are, pace Gregory the Great and
+Shakespeare, usually very inept and stupid; but the following lines by
+James Smith, which may be new to some of my readers, are really
+clever--
+
+Men once were surnamed from their shape or estate
+   (You all may from History worm it);
+There was Lewis the Bulky, and Henry the Great,
+   John Lackland, and Peter the Hermit.
+But now, when the door-plates of Misters and Dames
+   Are read, each so constantly varies
+From the owner's trade, figure, and calling, Surnames
+   Seem given by the rule of contraries.
+
+Mr. Box, though provoked, never doubles his fist,
+   Mr. Burns, in his grate, has no fuel;
+Mr. Playfair won't catch me at hazard or whist,
+   Mr. Coward was wing'd in a duel.
+Mr. Wise is a dunce, Mr. King is a whig,
+   Mr. Coffin's uncommonly sprightly,
+And huge Mr. Little broke down in a gig,
+   While driving fat Mrs. Golightly.
+
+Mrs.  Drinkwater's apt to indulge in a dram,
+   Mrs.  Angel's an absolute fury,
+And meek Mr. Lyon let fierce Mr. Lamb
+   Tweak his nose in the lobby of Drury.
+At Bath, where the feeble go more than the stout,
+   (A conduct well worthy of Nero),
+Over poor Mr. Lightfoot, confined with the gout,
+   Mr. Heaviside danced a Bolero.
+
+Miss Joy, wretched maid, when she chose Mr. Love,
+   Found nothing but sorrow await her;
+She now holds in wedlock, as true as a dove,
+   That fondest of mates, Mr. Hayter.
+Mr. Oldcastle dwells in a modern-built hut,
+   Miss Sage is of madcaps the archest;
+Of all the queer bachelors Cupid e'er cut,
+   Old Mr. Younghusband's the starchest.
+
+Mr. Child, in a passion, knock'd down Mr. Rock,
+   Mr. Stone like an aspen-leaf shivers;
+Miss Poole used to dance, but she stands like a stock
+   Ever since she became Mrs.  Rivers;
+Mr. Swift hobbles onward, no mortal knows how,
+   He moves as though cords had entwin'd him;
+Mr. Metcalfe ran off, upon meeting a cow,
+   With pale Mr. Turnbull behind him.
+
+Mr. Barker's as mute as a fish in the sea,
+   Mr. Miles never moves on a journey;
+Mr. Gotobed sits up till half-after three,
+   Mr. Makepeace was bred an attorney.
+Mr. Gardiner can't tell a flower from a root,
+   Mr. Wilde with timidity draws back,
+Mr. Ryder performs all his journeys on foot,
+   Mr. Foote all his journeys on horseback.
+
+Mr. Penny, whose father was rolling in wealth,
+   Kick'd down all his fortune his dad won;
+Large Mr. Le Fever's the picture of health,
+   Mr. Goodenough is but a bad one.
+Mr. Cruickshank stept into three thousand a year,
+   By showing his leg to an heiress:--
+Now I hope you'll acknowledge I've made it quite clear
+   That surnames ever go by contraries.
+
+
+
+
+Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England.
+
+
+
+
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+
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+
+AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH
+
+Crown 4to.  Pounds 2 2s.  net.
+
+This is somewhat of a new departure in etymological dictionaries.  It
+embraces a much larger vocabulary than has been handled by previous
+etymologists and pays special attention to the colloquialisms and
+neologisms which, to the curious mind, are often of more interest than
+the established literary language.  The origin and cognates of each
+word are given as concisely as possible, but "etymology" has been
+taken in its widest sense as a science dealing not only with the
+phonetic elements of which words are composed, but also with the
+adventures which they have met with during their life in the language
+and the strange paths that many of them have followed in reaching a
+current sense or use often widely remote from the original.  So far as
+possible, the date or epoch of the first appearance of each word is
+noted, and the book will be found to contain much curious information
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+Transcriber's notes:
+
+* Although I worked from material in good condition, scanning and
+preparing subject matter of this type is much harder work than
+preparing a novel or the like, so obviously I should never have
+bothered with preparing this book if I had not though it to be
+worthwhile.  In fact I consider it to be very rewarding, informative,
+and entertaining.  I hope you also find it rewarding, and I present it
+in much the same mood that I assume it was written in: not that it is
+fully correct or definitive, but that both the material and the lines
+of thought that the book comprises, are useful, thoughtful, and
+enjoyable, taken for what they are worth.  The book certainly is based
+on a formidable level of erudition, however cheerful the author's
+style may be.
+
+* For the most part I have tried to remain true to the source, but
+this is not an attempt to reproduce the volume I scanned; my objective
+was to render its content available.  Accordingly, I did not hesitate
+to correct minor, obvious errors, or to adopt my preferences for
+spacing and the like.  Also, the means that I employed in preparing
+this material did not lend themselves satisfactorily to preservation
+of the original pagination or of numbering and cross reference of pages.
+However, as the product is machine readable, search is easier than
+working from an index, and I tried to support the use of such
+facilities.  Anyone who feels strongly that an index remains necessary,
+is welcome to add an index to the version that I have presented here,
+without crediting me for the body of the work.
+
+* I have however, substituted cross-reference between sections or
+chapters for  the (now meaningless) cross-references between pages.
+Also, like many books of that day, the original had many page headings
+such as "MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES" or "HILL AND DALE", without
+incorporating them in the table of contents or the text, or even
+making it clear just where those page headings fitted into the text.
+I have changed such page headings to sub-headings within the text,
+where they are more useful, given that they no longer are necessary
+for the original purpose of aiding the process of flipping through the
+pages of a paper book.
+
+* I have relocated footnotes from the feet of the pages to just after
+the text that they qualified.  Apart from thereby rendering the text
+less dependent of changes of format, this arguably renders the
+footnotes more useful and less disruptive to the reader.  Footnotes
+are marked as such, so as to avoid confusion.
+
+* I have of course tried to produce as clean a product as possible,
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<html>
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Romance of Names, by Ernest Weekley</title>
+<style type="text/css">
+   h1, h2, h3, h4 {text-align: center; }
+    hr.full { width: 100%;
+             height: 5px; }
+    hr.narrow { width: 40%;
+               text-align: center; }
+	a:link {color:#0000ff;
+			text-decoration:none; }
+	link {color:#0000ff;
+			text-decoration:none; }
+	a:visited {color:#0000ff;
+			text-decoration:none; }
+	a:hover {color:#ff0000;
+            text-decoration: underline; }
+	pre		{font-size: 85%; }
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Romance of Names, by Ernest Weekley</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: The Romance of Names</p>
+<p>Author: Ernest Weekley</p>
+<p>Release Date: January 20, 2008  [eBook #24374]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***</p>
+<br><br><center><h3>E-text prepared by Jon Richfield</h3></center><br><br>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<center>
+<table border=0 bgcolor="ccccff" cellpadding=10>
+  <tr>
+    <td>
+      <a href="#Toc80817">Transcriber's notes</a> will be found at the end
+      of the text.
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</center>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" noshade>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="6">THE
+ROMANCE OF NAMES</font></b></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow">
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p align="center"><b>Advertising material that appeared at the
+start of the book</b></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p align="center">BY <i>THE</i> <i>SAME</i> <i>AUTHOR</i></p>
+<p align="center">THE ROMANCE OF WORDS</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A book
+of extraordinary interest; those who do not yet realise how
+enthralling a subject word-history is could not do better<br>than sample its flavour in Mr.
+Weekley's admirable book."</font></p>
+<p align="center">&mdash; <i>Spectator</i>. Third Edition. 6s.
+net.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">SURNAMES</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"A study of the origin and significance of
+surnames, full of fascination for the general reader."</font></p>
+<p align="center">&mdash;<i>Truth</i>. Second Edition. 6s.
+net.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN
+ENGLISH</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"It is a very great pleasure to get a
+dictionary from Mr. Weekley. One knows from experience that <br>Mr.
+Weekley would contrive to avoid unnecessary dullness,<br>even if he
+were compiling a railway guide, but that he would also get the
+trains right."</font></p>
+<p align="center">&mdash; Mr. J. C. SQUIRE in <i>The</i>
+<i>Observer</i>. Crown 4to. &pound; 2 2s. net.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow">
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">THIRD
+EDITION, REVISED</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="5">THE
+ROMANCE OF NAMES</font></b></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="6"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">BY</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="6"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">ERNEST
+WEEKLEY, M.A.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Professor of French and Head of the Modern Language
+Department</font></p>
+<p align="center">at University College, Nottingham;</p>
+<p align="center">Sometime Scholar of Trinity College,
+Cambridge</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">London</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">1922</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">FIRST
+EDITION <i>January</i> 1914</font></p>
+<p align="center">SECOND EDITION <i>March</i> 1914</p>
+<p align="center">THIRD EDITION <i>May</i> <i>1922</i></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">CONTENTS</font></b></p>
+
+<center>
+<table cellpadding="1">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#Toc80696"><i>THE ROMANCE OF NAMES</i></a><br>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80697" >PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80698" >PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80699" >PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER I.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80700" ><b>OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80701" >PERSONAL NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80702" >NICKNAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80703" >MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80704" >ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80705" >NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80706" ><b>A MEDIEVAL ROLL</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80707" >LONDON JURYMEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80708" >MIDDLESEX JURYMEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80709" >STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80710" ><b>SPELLING AND SOUND</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80711" >VARIANT SPELLINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80712" >DIALECTIC VARIANTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80713" >APHESIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80714" >EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80715" >METATHESIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80716" >BABY PHONETICS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER IV.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80717" ><b>BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80718" >OCCUPATIVE NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80719" >THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER V.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80720" ><b>THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80721" >THE HUGUENOTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80722" >PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80723" >JEWISH NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER VI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80724" ><b>TOM, DICK AND HARRY</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80725" >MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80726" >THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80727" >FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80728" >DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80729" >THE SUFFIX -<i>COCK</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80730" >CELTIC NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER VII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80731" ><b>GODERIC AND GODIVA</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80732" >FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80733" >ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80734" >ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80735" >MONOSYLLABIC NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80736" >"HIDEOUS NAMES"</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER VIII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80737" ><b>PALADINS AND HEROES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80738" >THE ROUND TABLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80739" >THE CHANSONS DE GESTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80740" >ANTIQUE NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER IX.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80741" ><b>THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80742" >OLD TESTAMENT NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80743" >NEW TESTAMENT NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80744" >FEAST-DAYS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80745" >MONTH NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER X.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80746" ><b>METRONYMICS</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80747" >FEMALE FONT-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80748" >DOUBTFUL CASES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80749" ><b>LOCAL SURNAMES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80750" >CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80751" >COUNTIES AND TOWNS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80752" >NAMES PRECEDED BY <i>DE</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80753" ><b>SPOT NAMES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80754" >ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80755" >HILL AND DALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80756" >HILLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80757" >WOODLAND AND PLAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80758" >FOREST CLEARINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80759" >MARSHES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80760" >WATER AND WATERSIDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80761" >RIVERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80762" >ISLANDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80763" >TREE NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XIII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80764" ><b>THE HAUNTS OF MAN</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80765" >SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80766" >HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80767" >WATER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80768" >BUILDINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80769" >DWELLINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80770" >SHOP SIGNS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XIV.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80771" ><b>NORMAN BLOOD</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80772" >CORRUPT FORMS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80773" >TREE NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XV.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80774" ><b>OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80775" >SOCIAL GRADES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80776" >ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80777" >NAMES IN -<i>STER</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80778" >MISSING TRADESMEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80779" >SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80780" >PHONETIC CHANGES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80781" >NAMES FROM WARES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XVI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80782" ><b>A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XVII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80783" ><b>THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80784" >ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80785" >PILGRIMS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XVIII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80786" ><b>TRADES AND CRAFTS</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80787" >ARCHERY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80788" >CLOTHIERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80789" >METAL WORKERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80790" >SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XIX.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80791" ><b>HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80792" >BUMBLEDOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80793" >ITINERANT MERCHANTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XX.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80794" ><b>OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80795" >THE HOUSEHOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XXI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80796" ><b>OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80797" >FOREIGN NICKNAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80798" >KINSHIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80799" >ABSTRACTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80800" >COSTUME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80801" >PHYSICAL FEATURES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80802" >IMPRECATIONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80803" >PHRASE-NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80804" >MISCELLANEOUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XXII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80805" ><b>ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80806" >ARCHAIC MEANINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80807" >DISGUISED SPELLINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80808" >FRENCH ADJECTIVES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80809" >COLOUR NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">CHAPTER XXIII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80810" ><b>BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80811" >BIRDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80812" >HAWK NAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80813" >BEASTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80814" >FISHES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80815" >SPECIAL FEATURES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Toc80816" ><b><i>Advertising material from the end of the book</i></b></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</center>
+
+<p><a name="Toc2144724" id="Toc2144724"></a></p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80696" id="Toc80696">THE ROMANCE OF
+NAMES</a></font></b></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><a name="Toc80697" id="Toc80697">PREFACE TO THE
+THIRD EDITION</a></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In preparing this revised
+edition I have been able to make use of much information conveyed
+to me by readers interested in the subject. The general
+arrangement of the book remains unchanged, but a certain number
+of statements have been modified, corrected, or suppressed. The
+study of our surnames has been mostly left to the amateur
+philologist, and many origins given by my predecessors as
+ascertained facts turn out, on investigation, to be unsupported
+by a shred of evidence. I cannot hope that this little book in
+its new form is free from error, but I feel that it has benefited
+by the years I have spent in research since its original
+publication. I would ask reader to accept it, not as a
+comprehensive treatise containing full information on any name
+that happens to occur in it, but as a general survey of the
+subject, and an attempt to indicate and exemplify the various
+ways in which our surnames have come into existence.</font></p>
+<p align="right">ERNEST WEEKLEY.</p>
+<p>UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. <i>April</i> <i>1922</i>.</p>
+<p><i> &nbsp; </i></p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80698" id="Toc80698">PREFACE TO THE SECOND
+EDITION</a></font></b></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The early demand for a new
+edition of this little book is a gratifying proof of a widespread
+interest in its subject, rather than a testimony to the value of
+my small contribution to that subject. Of the imperfections of
+this contribution no one can be more conscious than myself, but I
+trust that the most palpable blemishes have been removed in this
+revised edition. The student of etymology seldom passes a day
+without coming across some piece of evidence which throws new
+light on a difficult problem (see Chapter XVI), or invalidates
+what had before seemed a reasonable conjecture. I have to thank
+many correspondents for sending me information of value and for
+indicating points in which conciseness has led to
+misunderstanding. Some of my correspondents need, however, to be
+reminded that etymology and genealogy are separate sciences; so
+that, while offering every apology to that Mr. Robinson whose
+name is a corruption of Montmorency, I still adhere to my belief
+that the other Robinsons derive from Robert.</font></p>
+<p align="right">ERNEST WEEKLEY.</p>
+<p>NOTTINGHAM <i>March</i> <i>1914</i>.</p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p><i> &nbsp; </i></p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80699" id="Toc80699">PREFACE TO THE FIRST
+EDITION</a></font></b></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The interpretation of personal
+names has always had an attraction for the learned and others,
+but the first attempts to classify and explain our English
+surnames date, so far as my knowledge goes, from 1605. In that
+year Verstegan published his <i>Restitution</i> <i>of</i>
+<i>Decayed</i> <i>Intelligence</i>, which contains chapters on
+both font-names and surnames, and about the same time appeared
+Camden's <i>Remains</i> <i>Concerning</i> <i>Britain</i>, in
+which the same subjects are treated much more fully. Both of
+these learned antiquaries make excellent reading, and much
+curious information may be gleaned from their pages, especially
+those of Camden, whose position as Clarencieux King-at-Arms gave
+him exceptional opportunities for genealogical research. From the
+philological point of view they are of course untrustworthy,
+though less so than most modern writers on the same
+subject.</font></p>
+<p>About the middle of the nineteenth century, the period of
+Archbishop Trench and Canon Taylor, began a kind of boom in works
+of this kind, and books on surnames are now numerous. But of all
+these industrious compilers one only, Bardsley, can be taken
+seriously. His <i>Dictionary</i> <i>of</i> <i>English</i>
+<i>Surnames</i>, published (Oxford Press, 1901) from his notes
+some years after his death, is invaluable to students. It
+represents the results of twenty years' conscientious research
+among early rolls and registers, the explanations given being
+usually supported by medieval instances. But it cannot be used
+uncritically, for the author does not appear to have been either
+a linguist or a philologist, and, although he usually refrains
+from etymological conjecture, he occasionally ventures with
+disastrous results. Thus, to take a few instances, he identifies
+<i>Prust</i> with <i>Priest</i>, but the medieval <i>le</i>
+<i>prust</i> is quite obviously the Norman form of Old Fr.
+<i>le</i> <i>Proust</i>, the provost. He attempts to connect
+<i>pullen</i> with the archaic Eng. <i>pullen</i>, poultry; but
+his early examples, <i>le</i> <i>pulein</i>, <i>polayn</i>, etc.,
+are of course Fr. <i>Poulain</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Colt</i>. Under
+<i>Fallows</i>, explained as "fallow lands," he quotes three
+examples of <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>faleyse</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Fr.
+<i>Falaise</i>, corresponding to our <i>Cliff</i>, <i>Cleeve</i>,
+etc; <i>Pochin</i>, explained as the diminutive of some personal
+name, is the Norman form of the famous name <i>Poussin</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. <i>Chick</i>. Or, coming to native instances,
+<i>le</i> <i>wenchel</i>, a medieval prototype of <i>Winkle</i>,
+is explained as for "periwinkle," whereas it is a common
+Middle-English word, existing now in the shortened form
+<i>wench</i>, and means <i>Child</i>. The obsolete
+<i>Swordslipper</i>, now only <i>Slipper</i>, which he interprets
+as a maker of "sword-slips," or sheaths, was really a
+sword-sharpener, from Mid. Eng. <i>slipen</i>, cognate with Old
+Du. <i>slijpen</i>, to polish, sharpen, and Ger.
+<i>schleifen</i>. Sometimes a very simple problem is left
+unexplained, e.g. in the case of the name <i>Tyas</i>, where the
+medieval instances of <i>le</i> <i>tyeis</i> are to a student of
+Old French clearly <i>le</i> <i>tieis</i> or <i>tiois</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. the German, cognate with Ger. <i>deutsch</i> and
+Ital. <i>tedesco</i>.</p>
+<p>These examples are quoted, not in depreciation of
+conscientious student to whose work my own compilation is greatly
+indebted, but merely to show that the etymological study of
+surnames has scarcely been touched at present, except by writers
+to whom philology is an unknown science. I have inserted, as a
+specimen problem (ch. xvi.), a little disquisition on the name
+<i>Rutter</i>, a cursory perusal of which will convince most
+readers that it is not much use making shots in this subject.</p>
+<p>My aim has been to steer a clear course between a too learned
+and a too superficial treatment, and rather to show how surnames
+are formed than to adduce innumerable examples which the reader
+should be able to solve for himself. I have made no attempt to
+collect curious names, but have taken those which occur in the
+<i>London</i> <i>Directory</i> (1908) or have caught my eye in
+the newspaper or the streets. To go into proofs would have
+swelled the book beyond all reasonable proportions, but the
+reader may assume that, in the case of any derivation not
+expressly stated as a conjecture, the connecting links exist. In
+the various classes of names, I have intentionally omitted all
+that is obvious, except in the rather frequent case of the
+obvious being wrong. The index, which I have tried to make
+complete, is intended to replace to some extent those
+cross-references which are useful to students but irritating to
+the general reader. Hundreds of names are susceptible of two,
+three, or more explanations, and I do not profess to be
+exhaustive.</p>
+<p>The subject-matter is divided into a number of rather short
+chapters, dealing with the various classes and subdivisions into
+which surnames fall; but the natural association which exists
+between names has often prevailed over rigid classification. The
+quotations by which obsolete words are illustrated are taken as
+far as possible from Chaucer, whose writings date from the very
+period when our surnames were gradually becoming hereditary. I
+have also quoted extensively from the <i>Promptorium</i>
+<i>Parvulorum</i>, our earliest English-Latin Dictionary
+(1440).</p>
+<p>In ch. vii, on Anglo-Saxon names, I have obtained some help
+from a paper by the late Professor Skeat <i>(Transactions</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Philological</i> <i>Society</i>, 1907-10,
+pp. 57-85) and from the materials contained in Searle's valuable
+<i>Onomasticon</i> <i>Anglo</i>-<i>Saxonicum</i> (Cambridge,
+1897). Among several works which I have consulted on French and
+German family names, the most useful have been Heintze's
+<i>Deutsche</i> <i>Familiennamen</i>, 3rd ed. (Halle a. S., 1908)
+and Kremers' <i>Beitraege</i> <i>zur</i> <i>Erforschung</i>
+<i>der</i> <i>franzoesischen</i> <i>Familiennamen</i> (Bonn,
+1910). The comparative method which I have adopted, especially in
+explaining nicknames (ch. xxi), will be found, I think, to clear
+up a good many dark points. Of books on names published in this
+country, only Bardsley's <i>Dictionary</i> has been of any
+considerable assistance, though I have gleaned some scraps of
+information here and there from other compilations. My real
+sources have been the lists of medieval names found in Domesday
+Book, the Pipe Rolls, the Hundred Rolls, and in the numerous
+historical records published by the Government and by various
+antiquarian societies.</p>
+<p>ERNEST WEEKLEY.</p>
+<p>Nottingham, <i>September</i> 1913</p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p>The following dictionaries are quoted without further
+reference:</p>
+<p><i>Promptorium</i> <i>Parvulorum</i> (1440), ed. Mayhew
+(E.E.T.S.; 1908).</p>
+<p>PALSGRAVE, <i>L'Esclarcissement</i> <i>de</i> <i>la</i>
+<i>langue</i> <i>francoyse</i> (1530), ed. G&eacute;nin (Paris,
+1852).</p>
+<p>COOPER, <i>Thesaurus</i> <i>Lingua</i> <i>Romanae</i>
+<i>et</i> <i>Britannicae</i> (London; 1573).</p>
+<p>COTGRAVE <i>A</i> <i>Dictionarie</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i>
+<i>French</i> <i>and</i> <i>English</i> <i>Tongues</i></p>
+<p>(London, 1611).</p>
+<p>The Middle English quotations, except where otherwise stated,
+are from Chaucer, the references being to the Globe edition.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144725" id="Toc2144725"></a><a name="Toc80700"
+id="Toc80700">CHAPTER I <b>OF SURNAMES IN
+GENERAL</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The French and we
+termed them <i>Surnames</i>, not because they are the names of
+the <i>Sire</i>, or the father,<br> but because they are
+<i>super</i></font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">added to Christian names."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(CAMDEN, <i>Remains</i> <i>concerning</i>
+<i>Britain</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The study of the origin of
+family names is at the same time quite simple and very difficult.
+Its simplicity consists in the fact that surnames can only come
+into existence in certain well-understood ways. Its difficulty is
+due to the extraordinary perversions which names undergo in
+common speech, to the orthographic uncertainty of our ancestors,
+to the frequent coalescence of two or more names of quite
+different Origin, and to the multitudinous forms which one single
+name can assume, such forms being due to local pronunciation,
+accidents of spelling, date of adoption, and many minor causes.
+It must always remembered that the majority of our surnames from
+the various dialects of Middle English, <i>i.e</i>. of a language
+very different from our own in spelling and sound, full of words
+that are now obsolete, and of others which have completely
+changed their form and meaning.</font></p>
+<p>If we take any medieval roll of names, we see almost at a
+glance that four such individuals as&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">John <i>filius</i>
+<i>Simon</i></font><br>
+William <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>Moor</i><br>
+Richard <i>le</i> <i>Spicer</i><br>
+Robert <i>le</i> <i>Long</i><br>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">exhaust the possibilities of
+English name-making&mdash;i.e. that every surname must be (i)
+personal, from a sire or ancestor, (ii) local, from place of
+residence, <i>[Footnote:</i> This is by far the largest class,
+counting by names, not individuals, and many names for which I
+give another explanation have also a local origin. Thus, when I
+say that <i>Ely</i> is Old Fr. &Eacute;lie, <i>i.e</i>. Elias, I
+assume that the reader will know without being told that it has
+an alternative explanation from Ely in Cambridgeshire.<i>]</i>
+(iii) occupative, from trade or office, (iv) a nickname, from
+bodily attributes, character, etc.</font></p>
+<p>This can easily be illustrated from any list of names taken at
+random. The Rugby team chosen to represent the East Midlands
+against Kent (January <font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">22,</font> <font face="Bookman Old Style">1913) consisted of
+the following fifteen names: <i>Hancock;</i> <i>Mobbs</i>,
+<i>Poulton</i>, <i>Hudson</i>, <i>Cook;</i> <i>Watson</i>,
+<i>Earl;</i> <i>Bull</i>, <i>Muddiman</i>, <i>Collins</i>,
+<i>Tebbitt</i>, <i>Lacey</i>, <i>Hall</i>, <i>Osborne</i>,
+<i>Manton</i>. Some of these are simple, but others require a
+little knowledge for their explanation.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80701" id="Toc80701">PERSONAL NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>There are seven personal names, and the first of these,
+<i>Hancock</i>, is rather a problem. This is usually explained as
+from Flemish <i>Hanke</i>, Johnny, while the origin of the suffix
+-<i>cock</i> has never been very clearly accounted for (see The
+suffix &ndash;<i>cock</i>, Chapter VI). With <i>Hancock</i> we
+may compare <i>Hankin</i>. But, while the Flemish derivation is
+possible for these two names, it will not explain <i>Hanson</i>,
+which sometimes becomes <i>Hansom</i> (Epithesis And
+Assimilation, Chapter III). According to Camden, there is
+evidence that <i>Han</i> was also used as a rimed form of
+<i>Ran</i>, short for Ranolf and Randolf (cf. Hob from Robert,
+Hick from Richard), very popular names in the north during the
+surname period. In <i>Hankin</i> and <i>Hancock</i> this
+<i>Han</i> would naturally coalesce with the Flemish
+<i>Hanke</i>. This would also explain the <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">names</font> <i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Hand</font> for</i> Rand, and <i>Hands</i>,
+<i>Hance</i> for <i>Rands</i>, <i>Rance</i>. <i>Mobbs</i>
+<i>is</i> the same as <i>Mabbs</i> (cf. Moggy for Maggy), and
+<i>Mabbs</i> <i>is</i> the genitive of Mab, <i>i.e</i>. Mabel,
+for Amabel. We have the diminutive in <i>Mappin</i> and the
+patronymic in <i>Mapleson</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Maple</i> and
+<i>Mapple</i>, generally tree names (Chapter XII), are in some
+cases for Mabel. <i>Maplethorpe</i> <i>is</i> from Mablethorpe
+(Line.), thorp of Madalbert (Maethelbeorht).<i>]</i>
+<i>Hudson</i> <i>is</i> the son of Hud, a very common medieval
+name, which seems to represent Anglo-Saxon Hudda (Chapter VII),
+the vigorous survival of which into the surname period is a
+mystery. <i>Watson</i> is the son of <i>Wat</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+Walter, from the Old N.E. Fr. Vautier (Gautier), regularly
+pronounced and written Water at one time&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+
+"My name is <i>Walter</i> Whitmore.
+
+<div style="margin-left: -12em">
+  &nbsp; &nbsp;  How now! Why start'st thou? What! doth death affright?
+</div> </div>
+<div style="margin-left: 5em"><p><i>Suffolk</i>. &nbsp; Thy name affrights me, in whose sound
+is death.
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+A cunning man did calculate my birth,<br>
+And told me that by <i>water</i> I should die."
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(2 <i>Henry</i> <i>VI</i>, <i>iv</i>.1)</p>
+</div> </div> </div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hence the name <i>Waters</i>,
+which has not usually any connection with water; while
+<i>Waterman</i>, though sometimes</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">occupative, is also formed from Walter, like
+<i>Hickman</i> from Hick (Chapter VI). <i>Collins</i> <i>is</i>
+from Colin, a French diminutive of Col, <i>i.e</i>. Nicol or
+Nicolas.</font></p>
+<p><i>Tebbitt</i> <i>is</i> a diminutive of Theobald, a favourite
+medieval name which had the shortened forms <i>Teb</i>,
+<i>Tib</i>, <i>Tub</i>, whence a number of derivatives. But names
+in <i>Teb-</i> and <i>Tib-</i> may also come from Isabel (Chapter
+X). <i>Osborne</i> is the Anglo-Saxon name Osbeorn.</p>
+<p>Of course, each of these personal names has a meaning, e.g.
+Amabel, ultimately Latin, means lovable, and Walter, a Germanic
+name, means "rule army" (Modern Ger. <i>walten</i> and
+<i>Heer)</i>, but the discussion of such meanings lies outside
+our subject. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to distinguish
+between the personal name and the nickname. Thus <i>Pagan</i>,
+whence Payn, with its diminutives <i>Pannell</i>, <i>Pennell</i>,
+etc., <i>Gold</i>, <i>Good</i>, <i>German</i>, whence
+<i>Jermyn</i>, <i>Jarman</i>, and many other apparent nicknames,
+occur as personal names in the earliest records. Their
+etymological origin is in any case the same as if they were
+nicknames.</p>
+<p>To return to our football team, <i>Poulton</i>, <i>Lacey</i>,
+<i>Hall</i>, and <i>Manton</i> are local. There are several
+villages in Cheshire and Lancashire named <i>Poulton</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. the town or homestead (Chapter XIII) by the pool.
+<i>Lacey</i> occurs in <i>Domesday</i> <i>Book</i> as <i>de</i>
+<i>Laci</i>, from some small spot in Normandy, probably the
+hamlet of Lassy (Calvados). <i>Hall</i> <i>is</i> due to
+residence near the great house of the neighbourhood. If Hall's
+ancestor's name had chanced to be put down in Anglo-French as
+<i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>sale</i>, he might now be known as
+<i>Sale</i>, or even as <i>Saul</i>. <i>Manton</i> <i>is</i> the
+name of places in Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, so that this
+player, at any rate, has an ancestral qualification for the East
+Midlands.</p>
+<p>The only true occupative name in the list is <i>Cook</i>, for
+<i>Earl</i> <i>is</i> a nickname. <i>Cook</i> was perhaps the
+last occupative title to hold its own against the inherited name.
+Justice Shallow, welcoming Sir John Falstaff, says&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Some pigeons, Davy; a
+couple of short</font><font size="3">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">legged hens, a joint of mutton,
+and</font><br>
+any pretty little tiny kickshaws. Tell William <i>Cook</i>"
+&nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp; &nbsp;  &nbsp;  (2
+<i>Henry</i> <i>IV</i>, <i>v. i</i>.<i>)</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">And students of the
+<i>Ingoldsby</i> <i>Legends</i> <i>will</i> remember
+that</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Ellen Bean ruled his
+cuisine.&mdash;He called her Nelly
+<i>Cook</i>.<i>"</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p><i>(Nell</i> <i>Cook</i>, <i>1</i>. 32.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">There are probably a goodly
+number of housewives of the present day who would be at a loss if
+suddenly asked for "cook's" name in full. It may be noted that
+<i>Lequeux</i> means exactly the same, and is of identical
+origin, archaic Fr. <i>le</i> <i>queux</i>, Lat. <i>coquus</i>,
+while <i>Kew</i> <i>is</i> sometimes for Anglo-Fr. <i>le</i>
+<i>keu</i>, where <i>keu</i> <i>is</i> the accusative of
+<i>queux</i> (Alternative Origins, Chapter I).</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80702" id="Toc80702">NICKNAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The nicknames are <i>Earl</i>, <i>Bull</i>, and
+<i>Muddiman</i>. Nicknames such as <i>Earl</i> may have been
+acquired in various ways (Chapter XV). <i>Bull</i> and
+<i>Muddiman</i> are singularly appropriate for Rugby scrummagers,
+though the first may be from an inn or shop sign, rather than
+from physique or character. It is equivalent to <i>Thoreau</i>,
+Old Fr. <i>toreau</i> <i>(taureau)</i>. <i>Muddiman</i> <i>is</i>
+for <i>Moodyman</i>, where moody has its older meaning of
+valiant; cf. its German cognate <i>mutig</i>. The weather on the
+day in question gave a certain fitness both to the original
+meaning and the later form.</p>
+<p>The above names are, with the exception of <i>Hancock</i>,
+<i>Hudson</i>, and <i>Muddiman</i>, easy to solve; but it must
+not be concluded that every list is as simple, or that the
+obvious is always right. The first page of Bards
+<i>Dictionary</i> <i>of</i> <i>Surnames</i> might well serve as a
+danger-signal to cocksure writers on this subject. The names
+<i>Abbey</i> and <i>Abbott</i> would naturally seem to go back to
+an ancestor who lived in or near an and to another who had been
+nicknamed the abbot.</p>
+<p>But <i>Abbey</i> <i>is</i> more often from the Anglo-French
+entry <i>le</i> <i>abb&eacute;</i>, the abbot, and <i>Abbott</i>
+may be a diminutive of Ab, standing for Abel, or Abraham, the
+first of which was a common medieval font-name. Francis
+<i>Holyoak</i> describes himself on the title-page of his Latin
+Dictionary (1612) as Franciscus <i>de</i> <i>Sacra</i>
+<i>Quercu</i>, but his name also represents the holly oak, or
+holm oak (Tree Names, Chapter XII). On the other hand,
+<i>Holliman</i> always occurs in early rolls as <i>hali</i>
+<i>or</i> <i>holi</i> <i>man</i>, <i>i.e</i>. holy man.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80703" id="Toc80703">MYTHICAL
+ETYMOLOGIES</a></b></p>
+<p>It may be stated here, once for all, that etymologies of names
+which are based on medieval latinizations, family mottoes, etc.,
+are always to be regarded with suspicion, as they involve the
+reversing of chronology, or the explanation of a name by a pun
+which has been made from it. We find <i>Lilburne</i> latinized as
+<i>de</i> <i>insula</i> <i>tontis</i>, as though it were the
+impossible hybrid <i>de</i> <i>l'isle</i> <i>burn</i>, and
+<i>Beautoy</i> sometimes as <i>de</i> <i>bella</i> <i>fide</i>,
+whereas <i>foy</i> <i>is</i> the Old French for beech, from Lat.
+<i>fagus</i>. <i>Napier</i> of Merchiston had the motto
+<i>n'a</i> <i>pier</i>, <i>"</i>has no equal," and described
+himself on title-pages as the Nonpareil, but his ancestor was a
+servant who looked after the napery. With Holyoak's rendering of
+his own name we may compare Parkinson's "latinization" of his
+name in his famous book on gardening(1629), which bears the title
+<i>Paradisi</i> <i>in</i> <i>Sole</i> <i>Paradisus</i>
+<i>Terrest</i>ris, <i>i.e</i>. the Earthly Paradise of "Park in
+Sun."</p>
+<p>Many noble names have an anecdotic "explanation." I learnt at
+school that <i>Percy</i> came from "pierce-eye," in allusion to a
+treacherous exploit at Alnwick. The <i>Lesleys</i> claim descent
+from a hero who overthrew a Hungarian champion</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Between the
+<i>less</i> <i>lee</i> and the  mair</font><br>
+He slew the knight and left him there."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>(Quentin Durward</i>, ch. xxxvii.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Similarly, the great name
+<i>of</i> <i>Courtenay</i>, <i>Courtney</i>, <i>of</i> French
+local origin, is derived in an Old French epic from <i>court</i>
+<i>nez</i>, short nose, an epithet conferred on the famous
+Guillaume d'Orange, who, when the sword of a Saracen giant
+removed this important feature, exclaimed
+undauntedly&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Mais que mon
+n&eacute;s ai un poi acorci&eacute;,</font><br>
+Bien sai mes nons en sera alongi&eacute;."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Li</i> <i>Coronemenz</i> <i>Loo&iuml;s</i>, <i>1</i>.
+<i>1159</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p>[Footnote: "Though I have my nose a little shortened, I know
+well that my name will be thereby lengthened."<i>]</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">I read lately in some newspaper
+that the original <i>Lockhart</i> took the "heart" of the Bruce
+to the Holy Land in a "locked" casket. Practically every famous
+Scottish name has a yarn connected with it, the gem perhaps being
+that which accounts for <i>Guthrie</i>. A Scottish king, it is
+said, landed weary and hungry as the sole survivor of a
+shipwreck. He approached a woman who was gutting fish, and asked
+her to prepare one for him. The kindly fishwife at once replied,
+"I'll gut three." Whereupon the king, dropping into rime with a
+readiness worthy of Mr. Wegg, said&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">"Then <i>gut</i> <i>three</i>,
+Your name shall be,"<br></font>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<i>[Footnote added by scanner, who has not read much of
+Dickens:</i><br>
+<font face="Bookman Old Style">Silas Wegg was a ready-witted
+character in "Our Mutual Friend."<i>]</i></font>
+</div></div>
+<p>and conferred a suitable estate on his benefactress.</p>
+<p>After all, truth is stranger than fiction. There is quite
+enough legitimate cause for wonderment in the fact that
+<i>Tyas</i> <i>is</i> letter for letter the same name as
+<i>Douch</i>, or that <i>Strangeways</i>, from a district in
+Manchester which, lying between the Irwell and the Irk, formerly
+subject to floods, is etymologically <i>strong</i>-<i>wash</i>.
+The Joannes <i>Acutus</i> whose tomb stands in Florence is the
+great free-lance captain Sir John <i>Hawkwood</i>, "omitting the
+<i>h</i> in Latin as frivolous, and the <i>k</i> and <i>w</i> as
+unusual" (Verstegan, <i>Restitution</i> <i>of</i> <i>Decayed</i>
+<i>Intelligence</i>, ch. ix), which makes him almost as
+unrecognizable as that Peter Gower, the supposed founder of
+freemasonry, who turned out to be Pythagoras.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80704" id="Toc80704">ALTERNATIVE
+ORIGINS</a></b></p>
+<p>Many names are susceptible of two, three, or more
+explanations. This is especially true of some of our commonest
+monosyllabic surnames. <i>Bell</i> may be from Anglo-Fr.
+<i>le</i> <i>bel</i> <i>(beau)</i>, or from a shop sign, or from
+residence near the church or town bell. It may even have been
+applied to the man who pulled the bell. Finally, the ancestor may
+have been a lady called Isabel, a supposition which does not
+necessarily imply illegitimacy (Chapter X). <i>Ball</i> <i>is</i>
+sometimes the shortened form of the once favourite Baldwin. It is
+also from a shop sign, and perhaps most frequently of all is for
+<i>bald</i>. The latter word is properly <i>balled</i>,
+<i>i</i>.<i>e</i>., marked with a <i>ball</i>, or white streak, a
+word of Celtic origin; cf. "piebald," <i>i</i>.<i>e</i>.,
+<i>balled</i> like a (mag)pie, and the "bald-faced stag."
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Halliwell notes that the nickname <i>Ball</i>
+<i>is</i> the name of a horse in Chaucer and in Tusser, of a
+sheep in the <i>Promptorium</i> <i>Parvulorum</i>, and of a dog
+in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII. In each case the name
+alludes to a white mark, or what horsy people call a star. A cow
+thus marked is called in Scotland a <i>boasand</i> <i>cow</i>,
+and from the same word comes the obsolete <i>bawson</i>,
+badger.<i>]</i> From the same word we get the augmentative
+<i>Ballard</i>, used, according to Wyclif, by the little boys who
+unwisely called to an irritable prophet&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Stey up
+<i>ballard"</i> (2 Kings ii. 23).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name may also be personal,
+Anglo-Sax. Beal-heard. <i>Rowe</i> may be local, from residence
+in a row (cf. Fr. <i>Delarue)</i>, or it may be an accidental
+spelling of the nickname <i>Roe</i>, which also survives in the
+Mid. English form <i>Ray</i> (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).</font></p>
+<p>But <i>Row</i> was also the shortened form of Rowland, or
+Roland. <i>Cobb</i> <i>is</i> an Anglo-Saxon name, as in the
+local Cobham, but it is also from the first syllable of
+<i>Cobbold</i> (for either Cuthbeald or Godbeald) and the second
+of Jacob. From Jacob come the diminutives <i>Cobbin</i> and
+Coppin.</p>
+<p>Or, to take some less common names, <i>House</i> not only
+represents the medieval <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>house</i>, but
+also stands for <i>Howes</i>, which, in its turn, may be the
+plural of <i>how</i>, a <i>hill</i> (Chapter XII), or the
+genitive of <i>How</i>, one of the numerous medieval forms of
+Hugh (Chapter VI). <i>Hind</i> may be for <i>Hine</i>, a farm
+servant (Chapter III), or for Mid. Eng. <i>hende</i>, courteous
+(cf. for the vowel change <i>Ind</i>, Chapter XIII), and is
+perhaps sometimes also an animal nickname (Beasts, Chapter
+XXIII). <i>Rouse</i> <i>is</i> generally Fr. roux, <i>i.e</i>.
+the red, but it may also be the nominative form of Rou,
+<i>i.e</i>. of Rolf, or Rollo, the sea-king who conquered
+Normandy. <i>[Footnote:</i> Old French had a declension in two
+cases. The nominative, which has now almost disappeared, was
+usually distinguished by -<i>s</i>. This survives in a few words,
+e.g. <i>fils</i>, and proper names such as <i>Charles</i>,
+<i>Jules</i>, <i>etc]</i> <i>Was</i> <i>Holman</i> the holy man,
+the man who lived near a <i>holm</i>, <i>i.e</i>. holly (Chapter
+XII), on a <i>holm</i>, or river island (Chapter XII), or in a
+<i>hole</i>, or hollow? All these origins have equal claims.</p>
+<p>As a rule, when an apparent nickname is also susceptible of
+another solution, baptismal, local, or occupative, the
+alternative explanation is to be preferred, as the popular
+tendency has always been towards twisting names into significant
+words. Thus, to take an example of each class, <i>Diamond</i> is
+sometimes for an old name Daymond (Daegmund), <i>Portwine</i> is
+a corruption of Poitevin, the man from Poitou (Chapter XI), and
+<i>Tipler</i>, which now suggests alcoholic excess, was, as late
+as the seventeenth century, the regular name for an alehouse
+keeper.</p>
+<p>In a very large number of cases there is a considerable choice
+for the modern bearer of a name. Any <i>Boon</i> or <i>Bone</i>
+who wishes to assert that</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Of Hereford's high
+blood he came,</font><br>A race renown'd for knightly fame</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Lord</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Isles</i>, <i>vi</i>.
+<i>15)</i>,</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">can claim descent from de
+Bohun. While, if he holds that kind hearts are more than
+coronets, he has an alternative descent from some medieval
+<i>le</i> <i>bon</i>. This adjective, used as a personal name,
+gave also <i>Bunn</i> and <i>Bunce;</i> for the spelling of the
+latter name cf. <i>Dance</i> for Dans, and <i>Pearce</i> for
+Piers, the nominative of Pierre <a name="lastbookmark1" id=
+"lastbookmark1"></a>(Alternative Origins, Chapter I), which also
+survives in <i>Pears</i> and <i>Pearson</i>. <i>Swain</i> may go
+back to the father of Canute, or to some hoary-headed swain who,
+possibly, tended the swine. Not all the <i>Seymours</i> are
+<i>St. Maurs</i>. Some of them were once <i>Seamers</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. tailors. <i>Gosling</i> <i>is</i> rather trivial, but
+it represents the romantic Jocelyn, in Normandy Gosselin, a
+diminutive of the once very popular personal name Josse.
+<i>Goss</i> is usually for goose, but any <i>Goss</i>, or
+<i>Gossett</i>, unwilling to trace his family back to John
+<i>Goose</i>, "my lord of Yorkes fole," <i>[Footnote:</i> Privy
+Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York (1502).<i>]</i> may likewise
+choose the French Josse or Gosse. <i>Goss</i> may also be a
+dialect pronunciation of gorse, the older form of which has given
+the name <i>Gorst</i>. <i>Coward</i>, though humble, cow-herd, is
+no more timid than <i>Craven</i>, the name of a district in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80705" id="Toc80705">NAMES DESIRABLE OR
+UNDESIRABLE</a></b></p>
+<p>Mr. <i>Chucks</i>, when in good society, "seldom bowed, Sir,
+to anything under <i>three</i> syllables" <i>(Peter</i>
+<i>Simple</i>, ch. xvii.). But the length of a name is not
+necessarily an index of a noble meaning. As will be seen (pp. 74,
+5), a great number of our monosyllabic names belong to, the
+oldest stratum of all. The boatswain's own name, from Norman-Fr.
+<i>chouque</i>, a tree-stump, is identical with the rather
+aristocratic <i>Zouch</i> or <i>Such</i>, from the usual French
+form <i>souche</i>. <i>Stubbs</i>, which has the same meaning,
+may be compared with <i>Curson</i>, <i>Curzon</i>, Fr.
+<i>courson</i>, a stump, a derivative of <i>court</i>, short.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Curson</i> <i>is</i> also a dialect variant
+of <i>Christian</i>.<i>]</i> <i>Pomeroy</i> has a lordly ring,
+but is the Old French for <i>Applegarth</i> or <i>Appleyard</i>
+(Tree Names, Chapter XIV), and <i>Camoys</i> means flat-nosed,
+Fr. <i>Camus&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"This wenche thikke
+and wel y</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+growen was,</font><br>With <i>kamuse</i> nose, and eyen greye as glas."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 3973.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Kingsley, speaking of the name
+assumed by John Briggs, says&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Vavasour</i> was a
+very pretty name, and one of those which is <i>[sic]</i> supposed
+by novelists and young ladies to be aristocratic; why so is a
+puzzle; as its plain meaning is a tenant farmer and nothing more
+or less" <i>(Two</i> <i>Years</i> <i>Ago</i>, ch.
+xi.).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The word is said to represent a
+Vulgar Lat. <i>vassus</i> <i>vassorum</i>, vassal of
+vassals.</font></p>
+<p>On the other hand, many a homely name has a complimentary
+meaning. Mr. Wegg did not like the name <i>Boffin</i>, but its
+oldest form is <i>bon</i>-<i>fin</i>, good and fine. In 1273 Mr.
+<i>Bumble's</i> name was spelt <i>bon</i>-<i>bel</i>, good and
+beautiful. With these we may group <i>Bunker</i>, of which the
+oldest form is <i>bon</i>-<i>quer</i> <i>(bon</i> <i>coeur)</i>,
+and <i>Boffey</i>, which corresponds to the common French name
+<i>Bonnefoy</i>, good faith; while the much more assertive
+Beaufoy means simply fine beech (Chapter I).</p>
+<p>With <i>Bunker</i> we may compare <i>Goodhart</i> and
+<i>Cordeaux</i>, the oldest form of the latter being the French
+name <i>Courdoux</i>. <i>Momerie</i> and <i>Mummery</i> are
+identical with <i>Mowbray</i>, from Monbrai in Normandy.
+<i>Molyneux</i> impresses more than <i>Mullins</i>, of which it
+is merely the dim., Fr. <i>moulins</i>, mills. The Yorkshire name
+<i>Tankard</i> is identical with Tancred. <i>Stiggins</i> goes
+back to the illustrious Anglo-Saxon name Stigand, as
+<i>Wiggins</i> does to <i>wigand</i>, a champion. <i>Cadman</i>
+represents Caedmon, the name of the poet-monk of Whitby.
+<i>Segar</i> is an imitative form of the Anglo-Sax. Saegaer, of
+which the normal modern representative is <i>Sayers</i>.
+<i>Giblett</i> is not a name one would covet, but it stands in
+the same relationship to Gilbert as <i>Hamlet</i> does to
+Hamo.</p>
+<p>A small difference in spelling makes a great difference in the
+look of a name. The aristocratic <i>Coke</i> is an archaic
+spelling of <i>Cook</i>, the still more lordly <i>Herries</i>
+sometimes disguises <i>Harris</i>, while the modern
+<i>Brassey</i> is the same as de Bracy in <i>Ivanhoe</i>. The
+rather grisly <i>Nightgall</i> is a variant of
+<i>Nightingale</i>. The accidental retention of particles and
+articles is also effective, e.g. <i>Delmar</i>, <i>Delamere</i>,
+<i>Delapole</i>, impress more than <i>Mears</i> and <i>Pool</i>,
+and <i>Larpent</i> (Fr. I'arpent), <i>Lemaitre</i>, and
+<i>Lestrange</i> more than <i>Acres</i>, <i>Masters</i>, and
+<i>Strange</i>. There are few names of less heroic sound than
+<i>Spark</i> and <i>Codlin</i>, yet the former is sometimes a
+contraction of the picturesque Sparrow-hawk, used as a personal
+name by the Anglo-Saxons, while the latter can be traced back
+<i>via</i> the earlier forms <i>Quodling</i> (still found),
+Querdling, Querdelyoun to Coeur de Lion.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144726" id="Toc2144726"></a><a name="Toc80706"
+id="Toc80706">CHAPTER II <b>A MEDIEVAL ROLL</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Quelque
+diversit&eacute; d'herbes qu'il y alt, tout s'enveloppe sous le
+nom de salade; de mesme, sous la consid&eacute;ration<br>des noms,
+je m'en voys faire icy une galimafree de divers articles."
+(<i>Montaigne</i>, <i>Essais</i>, i. 46.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Just as, in studying a new
+language, the linguist finds it most helpful to take a simple
+text and hammer out in</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">detail every word and grammatical form it
+contains, so the student of name-lore cannot do better than
+tackle a medieval roll and try to connect every name in it with
+those of the present day. I give here two lists of names from the
+Hundred Rolls of 1273. The first contains the names of London and
+Middlesex jurymen, most of them, especially the Londoners, men of
+substance and position. The second is a list of cottagers
+resident in the village of Steeple Claydon in Bucks. Even a
+cursory perusal of these lists should Suffice to dispel all
+recollection of the nightmare "philology" which has been so much
+employed to obscure what is perfectly simple and obvious; while a
+very slight knowledge of Latin and French is all that is required
+to connect these names of men who were dead and buried before the
+Battle of Crecy with those to</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">be found in any modern directory. The brief
+indications supplied under each name will be found in a fuller
+form in the various chapters of the book to which references are
+given.</font></p>
+<p>For simplicity I have given the modern English form of each
+Christian name and expanded the abbreviations used by the
+official compilers. It will be noticed that English, Latin, and
+Anglo-French are used indifferently, that <i>le</i> is usually,
+though not always, put before the trade-name or nickname, that
+<i>de</i> <i>is</i> put before place-names and <i>at</i> before
+spots which have no proper name. The names in the right-hand
+column are only specimens of the, often very numerous, modern
+equivalents.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80707" id="Toc80707">LONDON
+JURYMEN</a></font></b></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William
+<b>Dibel</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Dibble</font>
+(Theobald).</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Initial <i>t</i>- and <i>d-</i>
+alternate (Dialectic Variants, Chapter III) according to
+locality. In <i>Tennyson</i>, for <i>Denison</i>, son of Denis,
+we have the opposite change. The forms assumed by Theobald are
+very numerous (Chapter I). Besides <i>Dibble</i> we have the
+shorter <i>Dibb</i>. Other variants are <i>Dyball</i>,
+<i>Dipple</i>, <i>Tipple</i>, <i>Tidball</i>, <i>Tudball</i>, and
+a number of names in <i>Teb-</i>, <i>Tib-</i>, <i>Tub-</i>. The
+reason for the great popularity of the name is
+obscure.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Baldwin <b>le
+Bocher</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Butcher</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">On the various
+forms of this name, see Chapter XV.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Robert
+<b>Hauteyn</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Hawtin</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The Yorkshire name <i>Auty</i>
+is probably unconnected. It seems rather to be an altered form of
+a Scandinavian personal name cognate with Odo.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Henry <b>le
+Wimpler.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top"> &nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name has apparently
+disappeared with the garment. But it is never safe to assert that
+a surname is quite extinct.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Stephen le
+Peron</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Fearon</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">From Old Fr. <i>feron</i>,
+<i>ferron</i>, smith. In a few cases French has -<i>on</i> as an
+agential suffix (Chapter XVIII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William de
+<b>Paris.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Paris,
+Parris, Parish.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The commoner modern form
+<i>Parish</i> <i>is</i> seldom to be derived from our word
+<i>parish</i>. This rarely occurs, while the entry <i>de</i>
+<i>Paris</i> is, on the other hand, very common.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></b></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Roger <b>le
+Wyn</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Wynne</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Anglo-Saxon <i>wine</i>,
+friend. Also a Celtic nickname, Identical with <i>Gwynne</i>
+(Chapter XXII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Matthew <b>de
+Pomfrait</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Pomfret</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The usual pronunciation of
+Pontefract, broken bridge, one of the few English place-names of
+purely Latin origin (Chapter XIII). The Old French form would be
+<i>Pont</i>-<i>frait</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Richard
+<b>le</b> <b>Paumer.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Palmer.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A man who had made pilgrimage
+to the Holy Land (Chapter XVII). The modern spelling is restored,
+but the -<i>l</i>- remains mute. It is just possible that this
+name sometimes means tennis-player, as tennis, Fr. <i>le</i>
+<i>jeu</i> <i>de</i> <i>paume</i>, once played with the palm of
+the hand, is of great antiquity.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Walter
+<b>Poletar</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Pointer</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A dealer in poults, <i>i.e</i>.
+fowls. For the lengthened form <i>poulterer</i>, cf.
+<i>fruiterer</i> for <i>fruiter</i>, and see Chapter
+XV.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Reginald
+<b>Aurifaber.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Goldsmith.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The French form
+<i>orf&eacute;vre</i> may have given the name
+<i>Offer</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Henry
+<b>Deubeneye.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Daubeney,
+Dabney.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Fr. <i>d'Aubigny</i>. One of
+the many cases in which the French preposition has been
+incorporated in the name. Cf. <i>Danvers</i>, for
+<i>d'Anvers</i>, Antwerp, and see Chapter XI.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></b></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Richard
+<b>Knotte</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Knott</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">From Scandinavian Cnut, Canute.
+This name is also local, from <i>knot</i>, a hillock, and has of
+course become confused (Variant Spellings, Chapter III<i>)</i>
+with the nickname <i>Nott</i>, with cropped hair (Chapter
+XXII)&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p align="justify"><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Thou</font> nott</i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">pated fool."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p align="justify">(1 Henry IV, ii. 4.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Walter <b>le
+Wyte</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">White</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The large number of
+<i>Whites</i> <i>is</i> partly to be accounted for by their
+having absorbed the name <i>Wight</i> (Chapter XXII) from Mid.
+Eng. <i>wiht</i>, valiant.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Adam <b>le
+Sutel</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Suttle</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Both Eng. <i>subtle</i> and Fr.
+<i>subtil</i> are restored spellings, which do not appear in
+nomenclature (Chapter III).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Fulk <b>de
+Sancto Edmundo.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Tedman.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The older form would be
+<i>Tednam</i>. Bury St. Edmund's is sometimes referred to as
+Tednambury. For the mutilation of the word <i>saint</i> in
+place-names, see Chapter III.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William <b>le
+Boteler.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Butler.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">More probably a bottle-maker
+than what we understand by a butler, the origin being of course
+the same.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Gilbert
+<b>Lupus</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Wolf.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Wolf, and the Scandinavian Ulf,
+are both common as personal names before the Conquest, but a good
+many Modern bearers of the name are German Jews (Chapter IV). Old
+Fr. <i>lou</i> <i>(loup)</i> is one source of
+<i>Low</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Stephen
+<b>Juvenis</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Young</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">Senex</font> is rarely
+found. The natural tendency was to distinguish the younger man
+from his father. Senior is generally to be explained differently
+(Chapter XV).</i></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William
+<b>Braciator</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Brewer</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The French form <i>brasseur</i>
+<i>also</i> survives as <i>Bracher</i> and <i>Brasher</i>, the
+latter being also confused with <i>Brazier</i>, the worker in
+brass.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John <b>de
+Cruce.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Cross,
+Crouch.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A man who lived near some
+outdoor cross. The form <i>crouch</i> survives in "Crutched
+Friars." Hence also the name <i>Croucher</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Matthew <b>le
+Candeler</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Candler,
+Chandler</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Initial <i>c</i>- for
+<i>ch</i>- shows Norman or Picard origin (Chapter
+III).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Henry
+<b>Bernard</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Barnard,
+Barnett.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The change from -<i>er</i>- to
+-<i>ar</i>- <i>is</i> regular; cf. <i>Clark</i>, and see Chapter
+III. The endings -<i>ard</i>, -<i>ald</i>, are generally changed
+to -<i>ett;</i> cf. <i>Everett</i> for Everard, <i>Barrett</i>
+for Berald, <i>Garrett</i> for Gerard, Garrard, whence the
+imitative <i>Garrison</i> for Garretson.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William <b>de
+Bosco.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Bush, Busk,
+Buss.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"</font>For there
+is neither <i>bush</i> nor hay (</b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Chapter XIII</font><font face="Bookman Old Style"
+size="3">)</font><br>
+In May that it nyl shrouded bene."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Romaunt</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Rose</i>, 54.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name might also be
+translated as <i>Wood</i>. The corresponding name of French
+origin is <i>Boyce</i> or <i>Boyes</i>, Fr. <i>bois</i> (Chapter
+XIV).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Henry de Sancta
+<b>Ositha.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Toosey.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Cf. Fulk de Sancto Edmundo
+<i>(supra</i>), and cf. Tooley St.</font></p>
+<p>for St. Olave St. (Chapter III).</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Walter</font> <b><font face="Bookman Old Style">ate
+Stede.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Stead.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In this case the preposition
+has not coalesced, as in <i>Adeane</i>, at the dean, <i>i.e</i>.
+hollow, <i>Agate</i>, at gate, etc. (Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William <b>le
+Fevere.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Wright,
+Smith</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The French name survives as
+<i>Feaver</i> and <i>Fevyer</i>. Cf. also the Lat. <i>Faber</i>,
+which is not always a modern German importation</font></p>
+<p>(Chapter XII).</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Thomas <b>de
+Cumbe</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Combe,
+Coombes</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A West-country name for a
+hollow in a hillside (Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John
+<b>State</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">State,
+Stacey</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Generally for Eustace, but
+sometimes perhaps for Anastasia, as we find Stacey used as a
+female name (Chapter III).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Richard <b>le
+Teynturier.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Dyer,
+Dexter.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">Dexter</font> represents
+Mid. Eng. dighester, with the feminine agential suffix (Chapter
+XV).</i></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Henry <b>le
+Waleys</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Wallis,
+Walsh, Welch.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Literally the foreigner, but
+especially applied by the English to the Western Celts.
+<i>Quelch</i> represents the: Welsh pronunciation. With
+<i>Wallis</i> cf. <i>Cornwallis</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>le</i>
+<i>cornwaleis</i> (Chapter X).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John <b>le
+Bret.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Brett,
+Britton.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">An inhabitant of Brittany,
+perhaps resident in that Breton colony in London called Little
+Britain. Bret The Old French nominative of Breton (Chapter
+VIII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p align="right"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></b></p>
+<p align="right"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="right"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Thomas <b>le
+Clerc.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Clark.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">One of our commonest names. We
+now spell the common noun <i>clerk</i> by etymological reaction,
+but educated people pronounce the word as it was generally
+written up to the eighteenth century (Chapter III).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p align="right"> &nbsp; </p>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Stephen <b>le
+Hatter</b></font></p>
+</div>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Hatter</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The great rarity of this name
+is a curious problem (Chapter XV). The name <i>Capper</i> exists,
+though it is not very common.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Thomas <b>le
+Batur</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Thresher</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But, being a Londoner, he was
+more probably a gold-beater, or perhaps a beater of cloth. The
+name <i>Beater</i> also survives.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Alexander <b>de
+Leycestre</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Leicester,
+Lester.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">For the simpler spelling, once
+usual and still adopted by those who chalk the names on the
+mail-vans at St. Pancras, cf. such names as <i>Worster</i>,
+<i>Wooster</i>, <i>Gloster</i>, etc. (Chapter XI).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Robert <b>le
+Noreys</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Norris,
+Nurse</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Old Fr. <i>noreis</i>, the
+Northerner (Chapter XI), or <i>norice</i> <i>(nourrice)</i>, the
+nurse, foster-mother (Chapter XX).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Reginald <b>le
+Blond</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Blount,
+Blunt</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Fr. <i>blond</i>, fair. We have
+also the dim. <i>Blundell</i>. The corresponding English name is
+<i>Fairfax</i>, from Mid. Eng. <i>fax</i>, hair (Chapter
+XXII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Randolf <b>ate
+Mor</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Moor</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">With the preposition retained
+(Chapter XII) it has<br>
+given the Latin-looking <i>Amor</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Matthew <b>le
+Pevrier.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Pepper.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">For the reduction of pepperer
+to <i>Pepper</i> cf. <i>Armour</i> for armourer, and see Chapter
+XV.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Godfrey</font> <b><font face="Bookman Old Style">le
+Furmager.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Cheeseman,
+Firminger.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">From Old Fr. <i>formage</i>
+<i>(fromage)</i>. The intrusion of the <i>n</i> in
+<i>Firminger</i> is regular; cf. <i>Massinger</i>, messenger,
+from Fr. <i>messager</i>, and see Chapter III.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Robert
+<b>Campeneys.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Champness,
+Champneys.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Old Fr. <i>champeneis</i>
+<i>(champenois)</i>, of Champagne (Chapter XI).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John <b>del
+Pek.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Peck, Peaks,
+Pike, Pick.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A name taken from a hill-top,
+but sometimes referring to the unrelated Derbyshire
+Peak.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Richard
+<b>Dygun</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Dickens.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A diminutive of Dig, for Dick
+(Chapter VI).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Peter <b>le
+Hoder.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Hodder.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A maker of hods or a maker of
+hoods? The latter is more likely.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Alan
+<b>Allutarius.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Whittier.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Lat. <i>alutarius</i>, a
+"white-tawer", Similarly, Mid. Eng. <i>stan</i>-<i>heawere</i>,
+stone-hewer, is contracted to <i>Stanier</i>, now almost
+swallowed up by <i>Stainer</i>. The simple tawer is also one
+origin of the name <i>Tower</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Peter <b>le
+Rus.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Russ, Rush,
+Rouse.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Fr. <i>roux</i>, of red
+complexion. Cf. the dim. <i>Russell</i>, Fr.
+<i>Rousseau</i></font></p>
+<p>(Chapter XXII).</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80708" id="Toc80708">MIDDLESEX
+JURYMEN</a></font></b></p>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Roger <b>de la
+Hale.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hall, Hale,
+Hales.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">One of our commonest local
+surnames. But it has two interpretations, from <i>hall</i> and
+from <i>heal</i> (Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Walter <b>de la
+Hedge</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hedge,
+Hedges</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Other names of similar meaning
+are <i>Hay</i>, <i>Hayes</i>, <i>Haig</i>, <i>Haigh</i>,
+<i>Hawes</i> (Chapter XIII)</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John
+<b>Rex</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">King.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">One of our commonest nicknames,
+the survival of which is easily understood (Chapter
+XV).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="53%" valign="top">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Stephen <b>de la Novels
+Meyson.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="47%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Newhouse.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Cf. also <i>Newbigging</i>,
+from Mid. Eng. <i>biggen</i>, to 'build (Chapter
+XIII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Randolf
+<b>Pokoc.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Pocock,
+Peacock.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The simple <i>Poe</i>, Lat.
+p<i>avo</i>, has the same meaning (Chapter XXIII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William <b>de
+Fonte.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Spring,
+Wells, Fountain, Attewell.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This is the most usual origin
+of the name <i>Spring</i> (Chapter IX).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Robert <b>del
+Parer</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Perrier</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Old Fr. <i>p&eacute;rier</i>
+<i>(poirier)</i>, pear-tree. Another origin of <i>Perrier</i> is,
+through French, from Lat. <i>petrarius</i>, a
+stone-hewer.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Adam <b>de la
+Denne.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Denne, Dean,
+Done.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A Mid. English name for valley
+(Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><b><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></b></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Robertus
+<b>filius Gillelmi</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Wilson</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">For other possible names to be
+derived from a father named William, see Chapter VI.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William
+<b>filius Radolfi</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Rawson</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A very common medieval name,
+Anglo-Sax. Raedwulf, the origin of our <i>Ralph</i>, <i>Relf</i>,
+<i>Rolfe</i>, <i>Roff</i>, and of Fr. <i>Raoul</i>. Some of its
+derivatives, e.g. <i>Rolls</i>, have got mixed with those of
+Roland. To be distinguished from Randolf or <i>Randall</i>, of
+which the shorter form is <i>Ran</i> or <i>Rand</i>, whence
+<i>Rankin</i>, <i>Rands</i>, <i>Rance</i>, etc.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80709" id="Toc80709">STEEPLE CLAYDON
+COTTAGERS</a></font></b></p>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Andrew
+<b>Colle</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Collins,
+Colley</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">For Nicolas (Chapter
+V).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William
+<b>Neuman</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Newman,
+Newcomb.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A man recently settled in the
+village (Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Adam <b>ate
+Dene</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Dean, Denne,
+Adeane.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The separate <i>at</i> survives
+in <i>A'Court</i> and <i>A'Beckett</i>, at the beck head; cf.
+Allan <i>a'</i> <i>Dale</i> (Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Ralph
+<b>Mydevynter.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Midwinter.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">An old name for Christmas
+(Chapter IX).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">William
+<b>ate</b> <b>Hull.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Athill, Hill,
+Hull.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The form <i>hul</i> for
+<i>hil</i> occurs in Mid. English (Chapter XII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Gilbert
+<b>Sutor.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Sutor,
+Soutar.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">On the poor representation of
+the shoemaker see Chapter XV.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Walter
+<b>Maraud</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top"> &nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is easy to understand the
+disappearance of this name&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A rogue, beggar,
+vagabond; a varlet, rascall, scoundrell, base knave"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(Cotgrave)<font face="Bookman Old Style">;</font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>but it may be represented by <i>Marratt</i>, <i>Marrott</i>,
+unless these are from Mary (Chapter X).</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Nicholas <b>le
+P.ker.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top"> &nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This may be expanded into
+<i>Parker</i>, a park-keeper, <i>Packer</i>, a wool-packer, or
+the medieval <i>Porker</i>, a swine-herd, now lost in
+<i>Parker</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John
+<b>Stegand</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Stigand,
+Stiggins.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Anglo-Saxon names survived
+chiefly among the peasantry (Chapter I).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Roger
+<b>Mercator.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Marchant,
+Chapman.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The restored modern spelling
+<i>merchant</i> has affected the pronunciation of the common noun
+(Chapter III). The more usual term <i>Chapman</i> is cognate with
+<i>cheap</i>, <i>chaffer</i>, <i>Chipping</i>, <i>Copenhagen</i>,
+Ger. <i>kaufen</i>, to buy, etc.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Adam
+<b>Hoppe.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hobbs,
+Hobson, Hopkins</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">An example of the interchange
+of <i>b</i> and <i>P</i> (Chapter III). Hob is usually regarded
+as one of the rimed forms from Robert (Chapter VI).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Roger
+<b>Crom</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Crum,
+Crump</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Lit. crooked, cognate with Ger.
+<i>krumm</i>. The final -<i>p</i> of <i>Crump</i> is excrescent
+(Chapter III).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Stephen
+<b>Cornevaleis</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Cornwallis,
+Cornish</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A name which would begin in
+Devonshire (Chapter XI).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Walter <i>de</i>
+<i>Ibernia</i></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Ireland</font></i></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A much more common name than
+<i>Scotland</i>, which has been squeezed out by <i>Scott</i>
+(Chapter XI).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Matilda <b>filia
+Matildae</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Mawson</font>
+(for Maud-son), Till, Tilley, Tillett, Tillotson, etc.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">One of the favourite girl-names
+during the surname period (Chapter X).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Ralph
+<b>Vouler.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Fowler</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A West-country pronunciation;
+cf. <i>Vowle</i> for <i>Fowell</i>, <i>Vokes</i> for
+<i>Foakes</i> (Chapter VI), <i>Venn</i> for <i>Fenn</i>,
+etc.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">John <b>filius
+Thomae</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Thompson,
+Tompkins, Tomlin,</font> etc.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">One of the largest surname
+families. It includes <i>Toulmin</i>, a metathesis of
+<i>Tomlin</i>. In <i>Townson</i> and <i>Tonson</i> it coalesces
+with Tony, Anthony.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="right"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Henry
+<b>Bolle.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Bull.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In this case evidently a
+nickname (Chapter I).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="right"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Roger
+<b>Gyle</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Gill</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">For names in <i>Gil</i>- see
+Chapter VI. The form in the roll may, however, represent an
+uncomplimentary nickname, "guile."</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="right"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Walter
+<b>Molendarius.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Miller,
+Mellen, Milner.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In <i>Milne</i>, <i>Milner</i>,
+we have the oldest form, representing Vulgar Lat. <i>molina</i>,
+mill cf. <i>Kilner</i>, from kiln, Lat. <i>culina</i>, kitchen.
+<i>Millard</i> (Chapter XIX) is perhaps sometimes the same name
+with excrescent -<i>d</i>.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="right"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Thomas
+<b>Berker.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Barker.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A man who stripped bark, also a
+tanner. But as a surname reinforced by the Norman form of Fr.
+<i>berger</i>, a shepherd (Chapter XV).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hundred
+Rolls</font></b></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Modern
+Form</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Matthew
+<b>Hedde.</b></font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">Head.</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Sometimes local, at the head,
+but here a nickname; cf. <i>Tate</i>, <i>Tail</i>, sometimes from
+Fr. t&ecirc;<i>te</i> (Chapter XIII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Richard
+<b>Joyet</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Jowett,
+Jewett</font>.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A diminutive either of Joy or
+of Julian, Juliana. But it is possible that Joy itself is not the
+abstract noun, but a shortened form of Julian.</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="44%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Adam
+<b>Kyg</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="56%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Ketch,
+Beach</font></b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">An obsolete adjective meaning
+lively (Chapter XXII).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<table summary=""  border cellspacing="1" cellpadding="7" width="568">
+<tr>
+<td width="46%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Simon <b>filius
+Johannis Nigelli</b>.</font></p>
+</td>
+<td width="54%" valign="top">
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style">Johnson,
+Jones, Jennings</font>, etc.</b></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td valign="top" colspan="4">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The derivatives of John are
+numerous and not to be distinguished from those of Joan, Jane
+(Chapter X).</font></p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>The above lists illustrate all the simpler ways in which
+surnames could be formed. At the time of compilation they were
+not hereditary. Thus the last man on the list is Simon
+<i>Johnson</i>, but his father was John <i>Neilson</i>, or
+<i>Nelson</i> (Chapter X), and his son would be &mdash;
+<i>Simpson</i>, <i>Sims</i>, etc. This would go on until, at a
+period varying with the locality, the wealth and importance of
+the individual, one name in the line would become accidentally
+petrified and persist to the present day. The chain could, of
+course, be broken at any time by the assumption of a name from
+one of the other three classes (Chapter I).</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="justify"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="justify"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="justify"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144727" id="Toc2144727"></a><a name="Toc80710"
+id="Toc80710">CHAPTER III <b>SPELLING AND SOUND</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Do you spell it with
+a V or a W?" inquired the judge.</font></p>
+<p>"That depends upon the taste and fancy of the speller, my
+lord," replied Sam. "I never had occasion to spell it more than
+once or twice in my life,<br>but I spells it with a V."</p>
+</div>
+<p align="right"><i>(Pickwick</i>, ch. xxxiv.)</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Many people are particular
+about the spelling of their names. I am myself, although, as a
+student of philology, I ought to know better. The greatest of
+Englishmen was so careless in the matter as to sign himself
+<i>Shakspe</i>, a fact usually emphasized by Baconian when
+speaking of the illiterate clown of Stratford-on-Avon. Equally
+illiterate must have been the learned Dr. Crown, who, in the
+various books he published in the latter half of the seventeenth
+century, spelt his name, indifferently Cron, Croon, Croun, Crone,
+Croone, Croune. The modern spelling of any particular name Is a
+pure accident. Before the Elementary Education Act of 1870 a
+considerable proportion of English people did not spell their
+names at all. They trusted to the parson and the clerk, who did
+their best with unfamiliar names. Even now old people in rural
+districts may find half a dozen orthographic variants of their
+own names among the sparse documentary records of their lives.
+Dugdale the antiquary is said to have found more than 130
+variants of <i>Mainwaring</i> among the parchments of that
+family. Bardsley quotes, under the name
+<i>Blenkinsop</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"On April 2 3, 1470,
+Elizabeth <i>Blynkkynesoppye</i>, <i>of</i> <i>Blynkkynsoppe</i>,
+widow of Thomas <i>Blynkyensope</i>, <i>of</i>
+<i>Blynkkensope</i>, received a general pardon"
+</font><font face="Bookman Old Style">&mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+<p>four variants in one sentence. In the List of Foreign
+Protestants and Aliens in England (1618) we have Andrian
+<i>Medlor</i> and Ellin <i>Medler</i> his wife, Johan
+<i>Cosen</i> and Abraham <i>Cozen</i>, brethren. The death of
+Sarah <i>Inward</i>, daughter of Richard <i>Inwood</i>, was
+registered in 1685.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80711" id="Toc80711">
+VARIANT SPELLINGS</a></b></p>
+<p>Medieval spelling was roughly phonetic, <i>i.e</i>. it
+attempted to reproduce the sound of the period and region, and
+even men of learning, as late as the eighteenth century, were
+very uncertain in matters of orthography. The spelling of the
+language is now practically normalized, although in conformity
+with no sort of principle; but the family name, as a private
+possession, has kept its freedom. Thus, if we wish to speak
+poetically of a meadow, I suppose we should call it a <i>lea</i>,
+but the same word is represented by the family names <i>Lea</i>,
+<i>Lee</i>, <i>Ley</i>, <i>Leigh</i>, <i>Legh</i>, <i>Legge</i>,
+<i>Lay</i>, <i>Lye</i>, perhaps the largest group of local
+surnames we possess.</p>
+<p>In matters of spelling we observe various tendencies. One is
+the retention of an archaic form, which does not necessarily
+affect pronunciation. Late Mid. English was fond of <i>y</i> for
+<i>i</i>, of double consonants, and of final -<i>e</i>. All these
+appear in the names <i>Thynne</i> (thin) and <i>Wyllie</i>
+<i>(wily)</i>. Therefore we should not deride the man who writes
+himself <i>Smythe</i>. But in some cases the pronunciation
+suffers, e.g. the name <i>Fry</i> represents Mid. Eng.
+<i>fri</i>, one of the forms of the adjective that is now written
+<i>free</i>. <i>Burt</i> represents Anglo-Sax. <i>beorht</i>, the
+normal result of which is <i>Bright</i>. We now write
+<i>subtle</i> and <i>perfect</i>, artificial words, in the second
+of which the pronunciation has been changed in accordance with
+the restored spelling; but the older forms survive <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">in</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">the names <i>Suttle</i> and
+<i>Parfitt</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"He was <i>a</i> verray
+<i>parfit</i>, gentil knyght."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 72.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The usual English pronunciation
+of names like <i>Mackenzie</i>, <i>Menzies</i>, <i>Dalziel</i>,
+is due to the substitution by the printer of a <i>z</i> for an
+obsolete letter that represented a soft palatal sound more like
+<i>y</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> This substitution has led one writer
+on surnames, who apparently confuses bells with beans, to derive
+the rare surname <i>Billiter</i>, whence Billiter's Lane in the
+City, from "<i>Belzetter</i>, <i>i</i>.<i>e</i>., the
+<i>Bell</i>-<i>setter</i>.<i>"</i> The Mid. Eng.
+"<i>bellezeter</i>, campanarius" <i>(Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i>, was a bell-founder, from a verb related to
+<i>geysir</i>, <i>ingot</i>, and Ger.
+<i>giessen</i></font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">,</font> <font face="Bookman Old Style">to pour. Robert le
+<i>bellegeter</i> was a freeman of York in
+1279.<i>]</i></font></p>
+<p>We have an archaic plural ending in <i>Knollys</i>
+<i>(Knowles)</i>, the plural of knoll, and in <i>Sandys</i>, and
+an archaic spelling <i>in</i> <i>Sclater</i> for <i>Slater</i> or
+<i>Slatter</i>, for both slat and slate come from Old Fr.
+<i>esclat</i> <i>(&eacute;clat)</i>, a splinter. With
+<i>Knollys</i> and <i>Sandys</i> we may put <i>Pepys</i>, for the
+existence of the dims. <i>Pipkin</i>, <i>Peppitt</i>, and
+<i>Peppiatt</i> points to the medieval name Pipun, corresponding
+to the royal Pepin. <i>Streatfeild</i> preserves variant
+spellings of street and field. In <i>Gardiner</i> we have the Old
+Northern French word which now, as a common noun, gardener, is
+assimilated to garden, the normal French form of which appears in
+<i>Jardine</i>.</p>
+<p>Such orthographic variants as <i>i</i> and <i>y</i>,
+<i>Simons</i>, <i>Symons</i>, <i>Ph</i> and <i>f</i>,
+<i>Jephcott</i>, <i>Jeffcott</i>, <i>s</i> and <i>c</i>,
+<i>Pearce</i>, <i>Pearce</i>, <i>Rees</i>, <i>Reece</i>,
+<i>Sellars</i> (cellars), <i>ks</i> and <i>x</i>, <i>Dickson</i>,
+<i>Dixon</i>, are a matter of taste or accident. Initial letters
+which became mute often disappeared in spelling, e.g.
+<i>Wray</i>, a corner (Chapter XIII), has become hopelessly
+confused with <i>Ray</i>, a roe, <i>Knott</i>, from Cnut,
+<i>i.e</i>. Canute, or from dialect <i>knot</i>, a hillock, with
+<i>Noll</i>, crop-haired. <i>Knowlson</i> is the son of
+<i>Nowell</i> (Chapter IX) or of Noll, <i>i.e</i>. Oliver.</p>
+<p>Therefore, when Mr. X. asserts that his name has always been
+spelt in such and such a way, he is talking nonsense. If his
+great-grandfather's will is accessible, he will probably find two
+or three variants in that alone. The great Duke of Wellington, as
+a younger man, signed himself Arthur Wesley&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"He was colonel of
+Dad's regiment, the Thirty</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">third foot,
+after Dad left the army, and then he changed<br>his
+name from <i>Wesley</i> to <i>Wellesley</i>, or else the other
+way about"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(KIPLING, <i>Marklake</i> <i>Witches);</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and I know two families the
+members of which disagree as to the orthography of their names.
+We have a curious affectation in such spellings as
+<i>ffrench</i>, <i>ffoulkes</i>, etc., where the <i>ff</i> is
+merely the method of indicating the capital letter in early
+documents.</font></p>
+<p>The telescoping of long names is a familiar phenomenon.
+Well-known examples are Cholmondeley, <i>Chumley</i>,
+Marjoribanks, <i>Marchbanks</i>, Mainwaring, <i>Mannering</i>.
+Less familiar are Auchinleck, <i>Affleck</i>, Boutevilain,
+<i>Butlin</i>, Postlethwaite, <i>Posnett</i>, Sudeley,
+<i>Sully</i>, Wolstenholme, <i>Woosnam</i>. <i>Ensor</i> is from
+the local Edensor, Cavendish was regularly <i>Candish</i> for the
+Elizabethans, while Cavenham in Suffolk has given the surname
+<i>Canham</i>. Daventry has become <i>Daintree</i>,
+<i>Dentry</i>, and probably the imitative <i>Dainty</i>, while
+<i>Stepson</i> is for Stevenson. It is this tendency which makes
+the connection between surnames and village names so difficult to
+establish in many cases, for the artificial name as it occurs in
+the gazetteer often gives little clue to the local pronunciation.
+It is easy to recognize Bickenhall or Bickenhill in
+<i>Bicknell</i> and Puttenham in <i>Putnam</i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">,</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">but the identity of <i>Wyndham</i> with
+Wymondham is only clear when we know the local Pronunciation of
+the latter name. <i>Milton</i> and <i>Melton</i> are</font>
+<font face="Bookman Old Style">often telescoped forms of
+<i>Middleton</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80712" id="Toc80712">DIALECTIC
+VARIANTS</a></b></p>
+<p>Dialectic variants must also be taken into account. Briggs and
+Rigg represent the Northern forms of Bridges and Ridge, and
+Philbrick is a disguised Fellbrigg. In Egg we have rather the
+survival of the Mid. English spelling of Edge. Braid, Lang,
+Strang, are Northern variants of Broad, Long, Strong. Auld is for
+Old while <i>Tamson</i> is for Thompson and <i>Dabbs</i> for
+Dobbs (Robert). We have the same change of vowel in Raper, for
+Roper. Venner generally means hunter, Fr. <i>veneur</i>, but
+sometimes represents the West-country form of Fenner, the
+fen-dweller; cf. Vidler for fiddler, and Vanner for Fanner, the
+winnower.</p>
+<p>We all the difficulty we have in catching a new and unfamiliar
+name, and the subterfuges we employ to find out what it really
+is. In such cases we do not get the help from association and
+analogy which serves us in dealing with language in general, but
+find ourselves in the position of a foreigner or child hearing
+unfamiliar word for the first time. We realize how many
+imperceptible shades there are between a short <i>i</i> and a
+short <i>e</i>, or between a fully voiced <i>g</i> and a
+voiceless <i><font face="Bookman Old Style">k</font>, examples
+suggested to me by my having lately understood a Mr. Riggs to be
+a Mr. Rex.</i></p>
+<p>We find occurring in surnames examples of those consonantal
+changes which do not violate the great Phonetic law that such
+changes can only occur regularly within the same group,
+<i>i.e</i>. that a labial cannot alternate with a palatal, or a
+dental with either. It is thus that we find <i>b</i> alternating
+with <i>p</i>, <i>Hobbs</i> and <i>Hopps</i> (Robert),
+<i>Bollinger</i> and <i>Pullinger</i>, Fr. <i>boulanger;</i>
+<i>g</i> with <i>k</i>, <i>Cutlack</i> and <i>Goodlake</i>
+(Anglo-Sax. Guthlac), <i>Diggs</i> and <i>Dix</i> (Richard),
+<i>Gipps</i> and <i>Kipps</i> (Gilbert), <i>Catlin</i> and
+<i>Galling</i> (Catherine); <i>j</i> with <i>ch</i>, <i>Jubb</i>
+<i>or</i> <i>Jupp</i> and <i>Chubb</i> (Job); <i>d</i>
+<font face="Bookman Old Style">with <i>t</i>, <i>Proud</i> and
+<i>Prout</i> (Chapter XXII), <i>Dyson</i> and <i>Tyson</i>
+(Dionisia), and also with <i>th</i>, <i>Carrodus</i> and
+<i>Carruthers</i> (a hamlet in Dumfries). The alternation of
+<i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> or <i>g</i> and <i>j</i> in names of
+French origin is dialectic, the <i>c</i> and <i>g</i>
+representing the Norman-Picard pronunciation, e.g. <i>Campion</i>
+for <i>Champion</i>, <i>Gosling</i> for <i>Joslin</i>. In some
+cases we have shown a definite preference for one form, e.g.
+<i>Chancellor</i> and <i>Chappell</i>, but <i>Carpenter</i> and
+<i>Camp</i>. In English names <i>c</i> is northern, <i>ch</i>
+southern, e.g. <i>Carlton</i>, <i>Charlton</i>, <i>Kirk</i>,
+<i>Church</i>.</font></p>
+<p>There are also a few very common vowel changes. The sound
+<i>er</i> <i>usually</i> became <i>ar</i>, as in <i>Barclay</i>
+(Berkeley), <i>Clark</i>, <i>Darby</i>, <i>Garrard</i> (Gerard),
+<i>Jarrold</i> (Gerald), <i>Harbord</i> (Herbert), <i>Jarvis</i>
+(Gervase), <i>Marchant</i>, <i>Sargent</i>, etc., while
+<i>Larned</i>, our great-grandfathers' pronunciation of
+"learned," corresponds to Fr. <i>Littri</i>. Thus <i>Parkins</i>
+<i>is</i> the same name as <i>Perkins</i>. (Peter), and these
+also give <i>Parks</i> and <i>Perks</i>, the former of which is
+usually not connected with <i>Park</i>. <i>To</i> Peter, or
+rather to Fr. Pierre, belong also <i>Parr</i>, <i>Parry</i> and
+<i>Perry</i>, though <i>Parry</i> <i>is</i> generally Welsh
+(Chapter VI). The dims. <i>Parrott</i>, <i>Perrott</i>, etc.,
+were sometimes nicknames, the etymology being the same, for our
+word <i>parrot</i> is from Fr. <i>pierrot</i>. <i>To</i> the
+freedom with which this sound is spelt, e.g. <i>in</i>
+<i>Herd</i>, <i>Heard</i>, <i>Hird</i>, <i>Hurd</i>, we also owe
+<i>Purkiss</i> for <i>Perkins;</i> cf. <i>appurtenance</i> for
+<i>appartenance</i>.</p>
+<p>The letter <i>l</i> seems also to exercise a demoralizing
+influence on the adjacent vowel. Juliana became Gillian, and from
+this, or from the masculine form Julian, we get <i>Jalland</i>,
+<i>Jolland</i>, and the shortened <i>Gell</i>, <i>Gill</i>
+(Chapter VI), and <i>Jull</i>. <i>Gallon</i>, which Bardsley
+groups with these, is more often a French name, from the Old
+German Walo, or a corruption of the still commoner French name
+<i>Galland</i>, likewise of Germanic origin.</p>
+<p>We find also such irregular vowel changes as <i>Flinders</i>
+for Flanders, and conversely <i>Packard</i> <i>for</i> Picard.
+<i>Pottinger</i> (see below) sometimes becomes <i>Pettinger</i>
+as Portugal gives <i>Pettingall</i>. The general tendency is
+towards that thinning of the vowel that we get in <i>mister</i>
+for <i>master</i> and Miss Miggs's <i>mim</i> for <i>ma'am</i>.
+<i>Littimer</i> for <i>Lattimer</i> <i>is</i> an example of this.
+But in <i>Royle</i> for the local <i>Ryle</i> we find the same
+broadening which has given <i>boil</i>, a swelling, for earlier
+<i>bile</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80713" id="Toc80713">APHESIS</a></b></p>
+<p>Among phonetic changes which occur with more or less
+regularity are those called aphesis, epenthesis, epithesis,
+assimilation, dissimilation, and metathesis, convenient terms
+which are less learned than they appear. Aphesis is the loss of
+the unaccented first syllable, as in <i>'baccy</i> and
+<i>'later</i>. It occurs almost regularly in words of French
+origin, e.g. <i>squire</i> and <i>esquire</i>, <i>Prentice</i>
+and <i>apprentice</i>. When such double forms exist, the surname
+invariably assumes the popular form, e.g. <i>Prentice</i>,
+<i>Squire</i>. Other examples are <i>Bonner</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+debonair, <i>Jenner</i>, <i>Jenoure</i>, for Mid. Eng.
+<i>engenour</i>, engineer, <i>Cator</i>, <i>Chaytor</i>, Old Fr.
+<i>acatour</i> <i>(acheteur)</i>, a buyer&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A gentil maunciple
+was they of a temple,</font><br>
+Of which <i>achatours</i> mighte take exemple" (A. 567),</p>
+</div>
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">Spencer</font>, dispenser, a
+spender, Stacey for Eustace, Vick and Veck for Levick, i.e.
+l'&eacute;v&ecirc;que, the bishop, Pottinger for the obsolete
+potigar, an apothecary, etc.</i></p>
+<p>The institution now known as the "orspittle" was called by our
+unlettered forefathers the "spital," hence the names
+<i>Spittle</i> and <i>Spittlehouse</i>. A well-known amateur
+goal-keeper has the appropriate name <i>Fender</i>, for
+defender.</p>
+<p>Many names beginning with <i>n</i> are due to aphesis, e.g.
+<i>Nash</i> for <i>atten</i> <i>ash</i>, <i>Nalder</i>,
+<i>Nelms</i>, <i>Nock</i>, <i>atten</i> <i>oak</i>, <i>Nokes</i>,
+<i>Nye</i>, <i>atten</i> <i>ey</i>, at the island, <i>Nangle</i>,
+<i>atten</i> <i>angle</i>, <i>Nind</i> or <i>Nend</i>,
+<i>atten</i> <i>ind</i> or <i>end</i>. With these we may compare
+<i>Twells</i>, <i>at</i> <i>wells</i>, and the numerous cases in
+which the first part of a personal name is dropped, e.g.
+<i>Tolley</i>, Bartholomew, <i>Munn</i>, Edmund, <i>Pott</i>,
+Philpot, dim. of Philip (see p.87), and the less common
+<i>Facey</i>, from Boniface, and <i>Loney</i>, from Apollonia,
+the latter of which has also given <i>Applin</i>.</p>
+<p>When a name compounded with Saint begins with a vowel, we get
+such forms as <i>Tedman</i>, St. Edmund, <i>Tobin</i>, St. Aubyn,
+<i>Toosey</i>, St. Osith, <i>Toomey</i>, St. Omer, <i>Tooley</i>,
+St. Olave; cf. <i>Tooley</i> <i>St.</i> for St. Olave St. and
+<i>tawdry</i> from St. Audrey. When the saint's name begins with
+a consonant, we get, instead of aphesis, a telescoped
+pronunciation, e.g. <i>Selinger</i>, St. Leger, <i>Seymour</i>,
+St. Maur, <i>Sinclair</i>, St. Clair, <i>Semark</i>, St. Mark,
+<i>Semple</i>, St. Paul, <i>Simper</i>, St. Pierre,
+<i>Sidney</i>, probably for St. Denis, with which we may compare
+the educated pronunciation of <i>St. John</i>. These names are
+all of local origin, from chapelries in Normandy or England.</p>
+<p>Epenthesis is the insertion of a sound which facilitates
+pronunciation, such as that of <i>b</i> in Fr. <i>chambre</i>,
+from Lat. <i>camera</i>. The intrusive sound may be a vowel or a
+consonant, as in the names <i>Henery</i>, <i>Hendry</i>,
+perversions of <i>Henry</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> On the usual fate
+of this name in English, see below.<i>]</i></p>
+<p><i>To</i> <i>Hendry</i> we owe the northern <i>Henderson</i>,
+which has often coalesced with <i>Anderson</i>, from Andrew.
+These are contracted into <i>Henson</i> and <i>Anson</i>, the
+latter also from Ann and Agnes (Chapter IX). Intrusion of a vowel
+is seen in <i>Greenaway</i>, <i>Hathaway</i>, heath way,
+<i>Treadaway</i>, trade (i.e. trodden) way, etc., also in
+<i>Horniman</i>, <i>Alabone</i>, Alban, <i>Minister</i>, minster,
+<i>etc</i>. But epenthesis of a consonant is more common,
+especially <i>b</i> or <i>p</i> after <i>m</i>, and <i>d</i>
+after <i>n</i>. Examples are <i>Gamble</i> for the Anglo-Saxon
+name Gamel, <i>Hamblin</i> for <i>Hamlin</i>, a double diminutive
+of Hamo, <i>Simpson</i>, <i>Thompson</i>, etc., and
+<i>Grindrod</i>, green royd (see p. III). There is also the
+special case of <i>n</i> before <i>g</i> in such names as
+<i>Firminger</i> (Chapter XV), <i>Massinger</i> (Chapter XX),
+<i>Pottinger</i> (Chapter XVIII), etc.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80714" id="Toc80714">EPITHESIS AND
+ASSIMILATION</a></b></p>
+<p>Epithesis, or the addition of a final consonant, is common in
+uneducated speech, e.g. <i>scholard</i>, <i>gownd</i>,
+<i>garding</i>, etc. I say "uneducated," but many such forms have
+been adapted by the language, e.g. <i>sound</i>, Fr. <i>son</i>,
+and we have the name <i>Kitching</i> for kitchen. The usual
+additions are -<i>d</i>, -<i>t</i>, or -<i>g</i> after <i>n</i>,
+e.g. <i>Simmonds</i>, Simon, <i>Hammond</i>, <i>Hammant</i>, Fr.
+Hamon, <i>Hind</i>, a farm labourer, of which the older form is
+<i>Hine</i> (Chapter XVII), <i>Collings</i> for Collins,
+<i>Jennings</i>, Fr. Jeannin, dim. of Jean, <i>Aveling</i> from
+the female name Avelina or Evelyn. <i>Neill</i> <i>is</i> for
+<i>Neil</i>, Nigel. We have epithetic -<i>b</i> in <i>Plumb</i>,
+the man who lived by the plum-tree and epithetic -<i>p</i> in
+<i>Crump</i> (Chapter II).</p>
+<p>Assimilation is the tendency of a sound to imitate its
+neighbour. Thus the <i>d</i> of <i>Hud</i> (Chapter I) sometimes
+becomes <i>t</i> in contact with the sharp <i>s</i>, hence
+<i>Hutson;</i> <i>Tomkins</i> tends to become <i>Tonkin</i>,
+whence <i>Tonks</i>, if the <i>m</i> and <i>k</i> are not
+separated by the epenthetic <i>p</i>, <i>Tompkins</i>. In
+<i>Hopps</i> and <i>Hopkins</i> we have the <i>b</i> of Hob
+assimilated to the sharp <i>s</i> and <i>k</i>, while in
+<i>Hobbs</i> we pronounce a final -<i>z</i>. It is perhaps under
+the influence of the initial labial that <i>Milson</i>, son of
+Miles or Michael, sometimes becomes <i>Milsom</i>, and
+<i>Branson</i>, son of Brand, appears as <i>Bransom</i>.</p>
+<p>The same group of names is affected by dissimilation,
+<i>i</i>.<i>e.</i> the instinct to avoid the recurrence of the
+same sound. Thus <i>Ranson</i>, son of Ranolf or Randolf, becomes
+<i>Ransom</i> <i>[Footnote:</i> So also Fr, <i>ran&ccedil;on</i>
+gives Eng. <i>ransom</i>. The French surname <i>Ran&ccedil;on</i>
+<i>is</i> probably aphetic for <i>Lauran&ccedil;on</i>.<i>]</i>
+by dissimilation of one <i>n</i>, and <i>Hanson</i>, son of Han
+(Chapter I), becomes <i>Hansom</i>. In <i>Sansom</i> we have
+Samson assimilated to <i>Samson</i> and then dissimilated.
+Dissimilation especially affects the sounds <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>,
+<i>r</i>. <i>Bullivant</i> <i>is</i> found earlier as <i>bon</i>
+<i>enfaunt</i> <i>(Goodchild)</i>, just as a braggart Burgundian
+was called by Tudor dramatists a <i>burgullian.</i>
+<i>Bellinger</i> <i>is</i> for <i>Barringer</i>, an Old French
+name of Teutonic origin. <i>[Footnote:</i> "When was Bobadil
+here, your captain? that rogue, that foist, that fencing
+<i>burgullian"</i> (Jonson, <i>Every</i> <i>Man</i> <i>in</i>
+<i>his</i> <i>Humour</i>, iv. 2).<i>]</i> Those people called
+<i>Salisbury</i> who do not hail from Salesbury in Lancashire
+must have had an ancestor <i>de</i> <i>Sares</i>-<i>bury</i>, for
+such was the earlier name of Salisbury (Sarum). A number of
+occupative names have lost the last syllable by dissimilation,
+e.g. <i>Pepper</i> for pepperer, <i>Armour</i> for armourer. For
+further examples see Chapter XV.</p>
+<p>It may be noted here that, apart from dissimilation, the
+sounds <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, have a general tendency to
+become confused, e.g. <i>Phillimore</i> <i>is</i> for Finamour
+<i>(Dearlove)</i>, which also appears as <i>Finnemore</i> and
+<i>Fenimore</i>, the latter also to be explained from fen and
+moor. <i>Catlin</i> <i>is</i> from Catherine. <i>Balestier</i>, a
+cross-bow man, gives <i>Bannister</i>, and <i>Hamnet</i> and
+<i>Hamlet</i> both occur as the name of one of Shakespeare's
+sons. Janico or Jenico, Fr. Janicot may be the origin of
+<i>Jellicoe</i>.</p>
+<p>We also get the change of <i>r</i> to <i>l</i> in Hal, for
+Harry, whence <i>Hallett</i>, <i>Hawkins</i> (Halkins), and the
+Cornish <i>Hockin</i>, Mal or Mol for Mary, whence
+<i>Malleson</i>, <i>Mollison</i>, etc., and <i>Pell</i> for
+Peregrine. This confusion is common in infantile speech, e.g. I
+have heard a small child express great satisfaction at the
+presence on the table of "blackbelly dam."</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80715" id="Toc80715">METATHESIS</a></b></p>
+<p>Metathesis, or the transposition of sound, chiefly
+<i>affects</i> <i>l</i> and <i>r</i>, especially the latter. Our
+word cress is from Mid. Eng. <i>kers</i>, which appears in
+<i>Karslake</i>, <i>Toulmin</i> <i>is</i> for <i>Tomlin</i>, a
+double dim., -<i>el</i>-<i>in</i>, of Tom, <i>Grundy</i>
+<i>is</i> for <i>Gundry</i>, from Anglo-Sax. Gundred, and Joe
+<i>Gargery</i> descended from a <i>Gregory</i>. <i>Burnell</i> is
+for <i>Brunel</i>, dim. of Fr. <i>brun</i>, brown, and
+<i>Thrupp</i> <i>is</i> for <i>Thorp</i>, a village (Chapter
+XIII). <i>Strickland</i> was formerly Stirkland, <i>Cripps</i>
+<i>is</i> the same as <i>Crisp</i>, from Mid. Eng. <i>crisp</i>,
+curly. Prentis Jankin had&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Crispe</i> here,
+shynynge as gold so fyn"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(D. 304);</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and of Fame we are told
+that</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Her heer was oundie (wavy) and <i>crips</i>.<i>"</i> </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(House <i>of</i> <i>Fame</i>, iii. 296.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Both names may also be short
+for Crispin, the etymology being the same in any case. Apps is
+sometimes for <i>asp</i>, the tree now called by the adjectival
+name aspen (cf. linden). We find Thomas <i>atte</i> <i>apse</i>
+in the reign of Edward III.</p>
+<p>The letters <i>l</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i> also tend to
+disappear from no other cause than rapid or careless
+pronunciation.</p>
+<p>Hence we get <i>Home</i> for <i>Holme</i> (Chapter XII),
+<i>Ferris</i> for <i>Ferrers</i>, a French local name,
+<i>Batt</i> for Bartholomew, <i>Gatty</i> for Gertrude,
+<i>Dallison</i> for <i>d'Alen&ccedil;on</i>. The loss of
+-<i>r</i>- after a vowel is also exemplified by <i>Foster</i> for
+<i>Forster</i>, <i>Pannell</i> and <i>Pennell</i> for
+<i>Parnell</i> (sometimes), <i>Gath</i> for <i>Garth</i> (Chapter
+XIII), and <i>Mash</i> for <i>Marsh</i>. To the loss of <i>n</i>
+before <i>s</i> we owe such names as <i>Pattison</i>,
+<i>Paterson</i>, <i>etc</i>., son of <i>Paton</i>, the dim. of
+Patrick, and <i>Robison</i> for Robinson, and also a whole group
+of names like <i>Jenks</i> and <i>Jinks</i> for <i>Jenkins</i>
+(John), <i>Wilkes</i> for <i>Wilkins</i>, <i>Gilkes</i>,
+<i>Danks</i>, <i>Perks</i>, <i>Hawkes</i>, <i>Jukes</i> for
+<i>Judkins</i> (Chapter VI), etc. Here I should also include
+<i>Biggs</i>, which is not always connected with <i>Bigg</i>, for
+we seldom find adjectival nicknames with -<i>s</i>. It seems to
+represent <i>Biggins</i>, from obsolete <i>biggin</i>, a building
+(Chapter XIII).</p>
+<p>The French nasal <i>n</i> often disappeared before <i>r</i>.
+Thus <i>denr&eacute;e</i>, lit. a pennyworth, appears in
+Anglo-French as <i>darree</i>. Similarly <i>Henry</i> became
+<i>Harry</i>, except in Scotland, and the English Kings of that
+name were always called Harry by their subjects. It is to this
+pronunciation that we owe the popularity of <i>Harris</i> and
+<i>Harrison</i>, and the frequency of Welsh <i>Parry</i>, ap,
+Harry, as compared with <i>Penry</i>. A compromise between Henry
+and Harry is seen in <i>Hanrott</i>, from the French dim.
+Henriot.</p>
+<p>The initial <i>h</i>-, which we regard with such veneration,
+is treated quite arbitrarily in surnames. We find a well-known
+medieval poet called indifferently <i>Occleve</i> and
+<i>Hoccleve</i>. <i>Harnett</i> is the same as <i>Arnett</i>, for
+Arnold, <i>Ewens</i> and <i>Heavens</i> are both from
+<i>Ewan</i>, and <i>Heaven</i> is an imitative form of
+<i>Evan</i>. In <i>Hoskins</i>, from the medieval Osekin, a dim.
+of some Anglo-Saxon name such as Oswald (Chapter VII), the
+aspirate has definitely prevailed. The Devonshire name <i>Hexter
+is</i> for Exeter, <i>Arbuckle</i> is a corruption of Harbottle,
+in Northumberland. The Old French name Ancel appears as both
+<i>Ansell</i> and <i>Hansell</i>, and <i>Earnshaw</i> exists side
+by side with <i>Hearnshaw</i> (Chapter XII).</p>
+<p>The loss of <i>h</i> is especially common when it is the
+initial letter of a suffix, e.g. <i>Barnum</i> for Barnham,
+<i>Haslam</i>, (hazel), <i>Blenkinsop</i> for Blenkin's hope (see
+hope, Chapter XII), <i>Newall</i> for Newhall, <i>Windle</i> for
+Wind Hill, <i>Tickell</i> for Tick Hill, in Yorkshire, etc. But
+<i>Barnum</i> and <i>Haslam</i> <i>may</i> also represent the
+Anglo-Saxon dative plural of the words barn and hazel. A man who
+minded sheep was once called a <i>Shepard</i>, or
+<i>Sheppard</i>, as he still is, though we spell it
+<i>shepherd</i>. The letter <i>w</i> disappears in the same way;
+thus <i>Green</i>i<i>sh</i> is for Greenwich, <i>Horridge</i> for
+Horwich, <i>Aspinall</i> for Aspinwall, <i>Millard</i> for
+<i>Millward</i>, the mill-keeper, <i>Boxall</i> for Boxwell,
+<i>Caudle</i> for <i>Cauldwell</i> (cold); and the Anglo-Saxon
+names in -<i>win</i> are often confused with those in -ing, e.g.
+<i>Gooding</i>, <i>Goodwin;</i> <i>Golding</i>, <i>Goldwin;</i>
+<i>Gunning</i>, <i>Gunwin</i>, etc. In this way <i>Harding</i>
+has prevailed over the once equally common <i>Hardwin</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80716" id="Toc80716">BABY PHONETICS</a></b></p>
+<p>Finally, we have to consider what may be called baby
+phonetics, the sound-changes which seem rather to transgress
+general phonetic laws. Young children habitually confuse dentals
+and palatals, thus a child may be heard to say that he has "dot a
+told." This tendency is, however, not confined to children. My
+own name, which is a very uncommon one, is a stumbling-block to
+most people, and when I give it in a shop the scribe has
+generally got as far as <i>Wheat</i>- before he can be
+stopped.</p>
+<p>We find both <i>Estill</i> and <i>Askell</i> for the medieval
+Asketil, and <i>Thurtle</i> alternating with <i>Thurkle</i>,
+originally Thurketil (Chapter VII). <i>Bertenshave</i> is found
+for <i>Birkenshaw</i>, birch wood, <i>Bartley</i>, sometimes from
+Bartholomew, is more often for Berkeley, and both Lord Bacon and
+Horace Walpole wrote Twitnam for Twickenham. <i>Jeffcock</i>,
+dim. of Geoffrey, becomes <i>Jeffcott</i>, while <i>Glascock</i>
+is for the local <i>Glascott</i>. Here the palatal takes the
+place of the dental, as in <i>Brangwin</i> for Anglo-Sax.
+Brandwine. <i>Middleman</i> is a dialect form of Michaelmas
+(Chapter IX). We have the same change in <i>tiddlebat</i> for
+<i>stickleback</i>, a word which exemplifies another point in
+baby phonetics, viz. the loss of initial <i>s</i>-, as in the
+classic instance <i>tummy</i>. To this loss of <i>s</i>- we owe
+<i>Pick</i> for <i>Spick</i> (Chapter XXIII), <i>Pink</i> for
+<i>Spink</i>, a dialect word for the chaffinch, and, I think,
+<i>Tout</i> for <i>Stout</i>. The name <i>Stacey</i> is found as
+<i>Tacey</i> in old Notts registers. On the other hand, an
+inorganic <i>s</i>- is sometimes prefixed, as in <i>Sturgess</i>
+for the older Turgis. For the loss of <i>s</i>- we may compare
+Shakespeare's <i>parmaceti</i> (1 Henry <i>IV.</i> i. 3), and for
+its addition the adjective <i>spruce</i>, from Pruce, <i>i.e</i>.
+Prussia.</p>
+<p>We also find the infantile confusion between <i>th</i> and
+<i>f</i> e.g. in <i>Selfe</i>, which appears to represent a
+personal name Seleth, probably from Anglo-Sax, <i>saelth</i>,
+bliss. Perhaps also in Fripp for Thripp, a variant of
+<i>Thrupp</i>, for <i>Thorp</i>. <i>Bickerstaffe</i> is the name
+of a place in Lancashire, of which the older form appears in
+<i>Bickersteth</i>, and the local name <i>Throgmorton</i> is
+spelt by Camden Frogmorton, just as Pepys invariably writes
+Queenhive for Queenhythe.</p>
+<p>Such are some of the commoner phenomena to be noticed in
+connection with the spelling and sound of our names. The student
+must always bear in mind that our surnames date from a period
+when nearly the whole population was uneducated. Their modern
+forms depend on all sorts of circumstances, such as local
+dialect, time of adoption, successive fashions in pronunciation
+and the taste and fancy of the speller. They form part of our
+language, that is, of a living and ever-changing organism. Some
+of us are old enough to remember the confusion between initial
+<i>v</i> and <i>w</i> which prompted the judge's question to Mr.
+Weller. The vulgar <i>i</i> for <i>a</i>, as in "<i>tike</i> the
+<i>kike</i>,<i>"</i> has been evolved within comparatively recent
+times, as well as the loss of final -<i>g</i>, <i>"shootin</i>
+and <i>huntin</i>,<i>"</i> in sporting circles. In the word
+<i>warmint&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"What were you brought
+up to be?"</font><br>"A <i>warmint</i>, dear boy"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+<p><i>(Great</i> <i>Expectations</i>, ch. xl.),</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">we have three phonetic
+phenomena, all of which have influenced the form and sound of
+modern surnames, e.g. in <i>Winter</i>, sometimes for
+<i>Vinter</i>, <i>i.e</i>. vintner, <i>Clark</i> for
+<i>Clerk</i>, and <i>Bryant</i> for <i>Bryan;</i> and similar
+changes have been in progress all through the history of our
+language.</font></p>
+<p>In conclusion it may be remarked that the personal and
+accidental element, which has so much to do with the development
+of surnames, releases this branch of philology to some extent
+from the iron rule of the phonetician. Of this the preceding
+pages give examples. The name, not being subject as other words
+are to a normalizing influence, is easily affected by the
+traditional or accidental spelling. Otherwise <i>Fry</i> would be
+pronounced <i>Free</i>. The <i>o</i> is short in <i>Robin</i> and
+long in <i>Probyn</i>, and yet the names are the same (Chapter
+VI). <i>Sloper</i> and <i>Smoker</i> mean a maker of slops and
+smocks respectively, and <i>Smale</i> is an archaic spelling of
+<i>Small</i>, the modern vowel being in each case lengthened by
+the retention of an archaic spelling. The late Professor Skeat
+rejects Bardsley's identification of <i>Waring</i> with Old Fr.
+Garin or Warin, because the original vowel and the suffix are
+both different. But <i>Mainwaring</i>, which is undoubtedly from
+<i>mesnil</i>-<i>Warin</i> (Chapter XIV), shows Bardsley to be
+right.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144728" id="Toc2144728"></a><a name="Toc80717"
+id="Toc80717">CHAPTER IV <b>BROWN, JONES, AND
+ROBINSON</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Talbots</font> and
+Stanleys, St. Maurs and such</i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">like folk, have led armies and made laws time out of mind;
+but those noble<br>families would be somewhat astonished&mdash;if
+the accounts ever came to be fairly taken&mdash;to find how small
+their<br>work for England has been by the side of that of the
+<i>Browns</i>.<i>"</i> <i>(Tom</i> <i>Brown's</i>
+<i>Schooldays</i>, ch. i.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Brown, Jones,</i> and
+<i>Robinson</i> have usurped in popular speech positions properly
+belonging to <i>Smith, Jones</i> and <i>Williams</i>. But the high position of
+<i>Jones</i> and <i>Williams</i> is due to the Welsh, who, replacing a string
+of <i>Aps</i> by a simple genitive at a comparatively recent date, have
+given undue prominence to a few very common names; cf. <i>Davies,
+Evans</i>, etc. If we consider only purely English names, the
+triumvirate would be <i>Smith, Taylor</i>, and <i>Brown</i>. Thus, of our three
+commonest names, the first two are occupative and the third is a
+nickname. French has no regular equivalent, though <i>Dupont</i> and
+<i>Durand</i> are sometimes used in this way &mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Si Chateaubriand
+avait eu nom <i>Durand</i> ou <i>Dupont</i>, qui sait si son
+<i>G&eacute;nie</i> <i>du</i> <i>Christianisme</i> n'e&ucirc;t
+point pass&eacute;<br>pour une capucinade?"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(F. Bruneti&eacute;re.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The Germans speak of
+<i>M&uuml;ller</i>, <i>Meyer</i> and <i>Schulze</i>, all rural
+names, and it is perhaps characteristic that two of them are
+official. <i>Meyer</i> is an early loan from Lat. <i>major</i>,
+and appears to have originally meant something like overseer.
+Later on it acquired the meaning of farmer, in its proper sense
+of one who farms, <i>i.e</i>. manages on a profit-sharing system,
+the property of another. It is etymologically the same as our
+<i>Mayor</i>, <i>Mair</i>, etc. <i>Schulze</i>, a village
+magistrate, is cognate with Ger. <i>Schuld</i>, debt, and our
+verb <i>shall</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80718" id="Toc80718">OCCUPATIVE
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Taking the different classes of surnames separately, the six
+commonest occupative names are <i>Smith</i>, <i>Taylor</i>,
+<i>Clark</i>, <i>Wright</i>, <i>Walker</i>, <i>Turner</i>. If we
+exclude <i>Clark</i>, as being more often a nickname for the man
+who could read and write, the sixth will be <i>Cooper</i>,
+sometimes spelt <i>Cowper</i>.</p>
+<p>The commanding position of <i>Smith</i> is due to the fact
+that it was applied to all workers in every kind of metal. The
+modern Smiths no doubt include descendants of medieval
+blacksmiths, whitesmiths, bladesmiths, locksmiths, and many
+others, but the compounds are not common as surnames. We find,
+however, <i>Shoosmith</i>, <i>Shearsmith</i>, and <i>Nasmyth</i>,
+the last being more probably for earlier Knysmith, <i>i.e</i>.
+knife-smith, than for nail-smith, which was supplanted by
+<i>Naylor</i>. <i>Grossmith</i> <i>I</i> guess to be an
+accommodated form of the Ger. <i>Grobschmied</i>, blacksmith,
+lit. rough smith, and <i>Goldsmith</i> is very often a Jewish
+name for Ger. <i>Goldschmid</i>.</p>
+<p><i>Wright</i>, obsolete perhaps as a trade name, has given
+many compounds, including <i>Arkwright</i>, a maker of bins, or
+<i>arks</i> as they were once called, <i>Tellwright</i>, a tile
+maker, and many others which need no interpretation. The high
+position of <i>Taylor</i> is curious, for there were other names
+for the trade, such as <i>Seamen</i>, <i>Shapster</i>,
+<i>Parmenter</i> (Chapter XVIII), and neither <i>Tailleur</i> nor
+<i>Letailleur</i> are particularly common in French. The
+explanation is that this name has absorbed the medieval
+<i>Teler</i> and <i>Teller</i>, weaver, ultimately belonging to
+Lat. <i>tela</i>, a web; &mdash; cf. the very common Fr.
+<i>Tellier</i> and <i>Letellier</i>. In some cases also the Mid.
+Eng. <i>teygheler</i>, <i>Tyler</i>, has been swallowed up.
+<i>Walker</i>, <i>i.e</i>. trampler, meant a cloth fuller, but
+another origin has helped to swell the numbers of the
+clan&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Walkers</font> are
+such as are otherwise called foresters. They are foresters
+assigned by the King, who are walkers within a certain space of
+ground assigned to their care" (Cowel's Interpreter).</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Cooper</i>, a derivative
+of Lat. <i>cupa</i> or <i>cuppa</i>, a vessel, is cognate with the famous
+French name <i>Cuvier</i>, which has given our <i>Cover</i>, though this may
+also be for coverer, <i>i.e.</i> tiler (Chapter XV).</p>
+<p>Of occupative names which have also an official meaning, the
+three commonest are <i>Ward</i>, <i>Bailey</i>, and
+<i>Marshall</i>. <i>Ward</i>, originally abstract, is the same
+word as Fr. <i>garde</i>. <i>Bailey</i>, Old Fr. <i>bailif</i>
+<i>(bailli)</i>, ranges from a Scottish magistrate to a man in
+possession. It is related to <i>bail</i> and to <i>bailey</i>, a
+ward in a fortress, as in Old Bailey. <i>Bayliss</i> may come
+from the Old French nominative <i>bailis</i> (Chapter I), or may
+be formed like <i>Parsons</i>, etc. (Chapter XV). <i>Marshall</i>
+(Chapter XX) may stand for a great commander or a shoeing-smith,
+still called farrier-marshal in the army. The first syllable is
+cognate with <i>mare</i> and the second means servant.
+<i>Constable</i>, Lat. <i>comes</i> <i>stabuli</i>, stableman,
+has a similar history.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80719" id="Toc80719">THE DISTRIBUTION OF
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The commonest local names naturally include none taken from
+particular places. The three commonest are <i>Hall</i>,
+<i>Wood</i> and <i>Green</i>, from residence by the great house,
+the wood, and the village green. Cf. the French names
+<i>Lasalle</i>, <i>Dubois</i>, <i>Dupr&eacute;</i>. <i>Hall</i>
+<i>is</i> sometimes for <i>Hale</i> (Chapter II), and its Old
+French translation is one source of <i>Sale</i>. Next to these
+come <i>Hill</i>, <i>Moore</i>, and <i>Shaw</i> (Chapter XII);
+but <i>Lee</i> would probably come among the first if all its
+variants were taken into account (Chapter III).</p>
+<p>Of baptismal names used unaltered as surnames the six
+commonest are <i>Thomas</i>, <i>Lewis</i>, <i>Martin</i>,
+<i>James</i>, <i>Morris</i>, <i>Morgan</i>. Here again the Welsh
+element is strong, and four of these names, ending in -<i>s</i>,
+belong also to the next group, <i>i.e</i>. the class of surnames
+formed from the genitive of baptismal names. The frequent
+occurrence of <i>Lewis</i> is partly due to its being adopted as
+a kind of translation of the Welsh Llewellyn, but the name is
+often a disguised Jewish Levi, and has nearly absorbed the local
+<i>Lewes</i>. Next to the above come <i>Allen</i>,
+<i>Bennett</i>, <i>Mitchell</i>, all of French introduction.
+<i>Mitchell</i> may have been reinforced by <i>Mickle</i>, the
+northern for <i>Bigg</i>. It is curious that these particularly
+common names, <i>Martin</i>, <i>Allen</i>, <i>Bennett</i>
+(Benedict), <i>Mitchell</i> (Michael), have formed comparatively
+few derivatives and are generally found in their unaltered form.
+Three of them are from famous saints' names, while <i>Allen</i>,
+a Breton name which came in with the Conquest, has probably
+absorbed to some extent the Anglo-Saxon name <i>Alwin</i>
+(Chapter VII). <i>Martin</i> is in some cases an animal nickname,
+the <i>marten</i>. Among the genitives <i>Jones</i>,
+<i>Williams</i>, and <i>Davi(e)s</i> lead easily, followed by
+<i>Evans</i>, <i>Roberts</i>, and <i>Hughes</i>, all Welsh in the
+main. Among the twelve commonest names of this class those that
+are not preponderantly Welsh are <i>Roberts</i>, <i>Edwards</i>,
+<i>Harris</i>, <i>Phillips</i>, and <i>Rogers</i>. Another Welsh
+patronymic, <i>Price</i> (Chapter VI), is among the fifty
+commonest English names.</p>
+<p>The classification of names in -<i>son</i> raises the
+difficult question as to whether <i>Jack</i> represents Fr.
+<i>Jacques</i>, or whether it comes from <i>Jankin</i>,
+<i>Jenkin</i>, dim. of John. <i>[Footnote:</i> See E. B.
+Nicholson, <i>The</i> <i>Pedigree</i> <i>of</i> <i>Jack</i>.]</p>
+<p>Taking <i>Johnson</i> and <i>Jackson</i> as separate names, we
+get the order <i>Johnson</i>, <i>Robinson</i>, <i>Wilson</i>,
+<i>Thompson</i>, <i>Jackson</i>, <i>Harrison</i>. The variants of
+<i>Thompson</i> might put it a place or two higher. Names in
+-<i>kins</i> (Distribution of names, Chapter IV), though very
+numerous in some regions, are not so common as those in the above
+classes. It would be hard to say which English font-name has
+given the largest number of family names. In Chapter V. will be
+found some idea of the bewildering and multitudinous forms they
+assume. It has been calculated, I need hardly say by a German
+professor, that the possible number of derivatives from one given
+name is 6, 000, but fortunately most of the seeds are
+abortive.</p>
+<p>Of nicknames <i>Brown</i>, <i>Clark</i>, and <i>White</i> are
+by far the commonest. Then comes <i>King</i>, followed by the two
+adjectival nicknames <i>Sharp</i> and <i>Young</i>.</p>
+<p>The growth of towns and facility of communication are now
+bringing about such a general movement that most regions would
+accept <i>Brown</i>, <i>Jones</i> and <i>Robinson</i> as fairly
+typical names. But this was not always so. <i>Brown</i> is still
+much commoner in the north than in the south, and at one time the
+northern <i>Johnson</i> and <i>Robinson</i> contrasted with the
+southern <i>Jones</i> and <i>Roberts</i>, the latter being of
+comparatively modern origin in Wales (Chapter IV). Even now, if
+we take the farmer class, our nomenclature is largely regional,
+and the directories even of our great manufacturing towns
+represent to a great extent the medieval population of the rural
+district around them. <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>See</i> Guppy,
+<i>Homes</i> <i>of</i> <i>Family</i> <i>Names</i>.] The names
+<i>Daft</i> and <i>Turney</i>, well known in Nottingham, appear
+in the county in the Hundred Rolls. <i>Cheetham</i>, the name of
+a place now absorbed in Manchester, is as a surname ten times
+more numerous there than in London, and the same is true of many
+characteristic north-country names, such as the
+<i>Barraclough</i>, <i>Murgatroyd</i>, and <i>Sugden</i> of
+Charlotte Bront&euml;'s <i>Shirley</i>. The transference of
+<i>Murgatroyd</i> (Chapter XII) to Cornwall, in Gilbert and
+Sullivan's <i>Ruddigore</i>, must have been part of the
+intentional topsy-turvydom in which those two bright spirits
+delighted.</p>
+<p>Diminutives in -<i>kin</i>, from the Old Dutch suffix
+-<i>ken</i>, are still found in greatest number on the east coast
+that faces Holland, or in Wales, where they were introduced by
+the Flemish weavers who settled in Pembrokeshire in the reign of
+Henry I. It is in the border counties, Cheshire, Shropshire,
+Hereford, and Monmouth, that we find the old Welsh names such as
+<i>Gough</i>, <i>Lloyd</i>, <i>Onion</i> (Enion), <i>Vaughan</i>
+(Chapter XXII). The local Gape, an opening in the cliffs, is
+pretty well confined to Norfolk, and <i>Puddifoot</i> belongs to
+Bucks and the adjacent counties as it did in 1273. The hall
+changes hands as one conquering race succeeds another&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Where is Bohun? Where
+is de Vere? The lawyer, the farmer, the silk mercer, lies
+<i>perdu</i> under the coronet, and winks to the antiquary to say
+nothing" (Emerson, <i>English</i> <i>Traits)</i>,</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but the hut keeps its ancient
+inhabitants. The descendant of the Anglo-Saxon serf who cringed
+to Front de Boeuf now makes way respectfully for Isaac of York's
+motor, perhaps on the very spot where his own fierce ancestor
+first exchanged the sword for the ploughshare long before
+Alfred's day.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144729" id="Toc2144729"></a><a name="Toc80720"
+id="Toc80720">CHAPTER V <b>THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN
+NAMES</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"I was born in the
+year 1632, in the city of York, of a good family, though not of
+that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled
+first at Hull. He got a good estate by merchandize, and leaving
+off his trade, lived afterwards at York, from whence he married
+my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a very good
+family in that country, and from whom I was called Robinson
+Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in English, we
+are now called&mdash;nay, we call ourselves and write our
+name&mdash;Crusoe" <i>(Robinson</i> <i>Crusoe</i>, ch.
+i.).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Any student of our family
+nomenclature must be struck by the fact that the number of
+foreign names now recognizable in England is out of all
+proportion to the immense number which must have been introduced
+at various periods of our history. Even the expert, who is often
+able to detect the foreign name in its apparently English garb,
+cannot rectify this disproportion for us. The number of names of
+which the present form can be traced back to a foreign origin is
+inconsiderable when compared with the much larger number
+assimilated and absorbed by the Anglo-Saxon.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80721" id="Toc80721">THE HUGUENOTS</a></b></p>
+<p>The great mass of those names of French or Flemish origin
+which do not date back to the Conquest or to medieval times are
+due to the immigration of Protestant refugees in the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries. It is true that many names for which
+Huguenot ancestry is claimed were known in England long before
+the Reformation. Thus, <i>Bulteel</i> <i>is</i> the name of a
+refugee family which came from Tournay about the year 1600, but
+the same name is found in the Hundred Rolls Of 1273. The
+<i>Grubbe</i> family, according to Burke, came from Germany about
+1450, after the Hussite persecution; but we find the name in
+England two centuries earlier, "without the assistance of a
+foreign persecution to make it respectable" (Bardsley,
+<i>Dictionary</i> <i>of</i> <i>English</i> <i>Surnames)</i>. The
+<i>Minet</i> family is known to be of Huguenot origin, but the
+same name also figures in the medieval Rolls. The fact is that
+there was all through the Middle Ages a steady immigration of
+foreigners, whether artisans, tradesmen, or adventurers, some of
+whose names naturally reappear among the Huguenots. On several
+occasions large bodies of Continental workmen, skilled in special
+trades, were brought into the country by the wise policy of the
+Government. Like the Huguenots later on, they were protected by
+the State and persecuted by the populace, who resented their
+habits of industry and sobriety.</p>
+<p>During the whole period of the religious troubles in France
+and Flanders, starting from the middle of the sixteenth century,
+refugees were reaching this country in a steady stream; but after
+the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) they arrived in
+thousands, and the task of providing for them and helping on
+their absorption into the population became a serious problem.
+Among the better class of these immigrants was to be found the
+flower of French intellect and enterprise, and one has only to
+look through an Army or Navy list, or to notice the names which
+are prominent in the Church, at the Bar, and in the higher walks
+of industry and commerce, to realize the madness of Louis XIV.
+and the wisdom of the English Government.</p>
+<p>Here are a few taken at random from Smiles's <i>History</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Huguenots&mdash;Bosanquet</i>,
+<i>Casaubon</i>, <i>Chenevix</i> <i>Trench</i>, <i>Champion</i>
+<i>de</i> <i>Crespigny</i>, <i>Dalbiac</i>, <i>Delane</i>,
+<i>Dollond</i>, <i>Durand</i>, <i>Fonblanque</i>, <i>Gambier</i>,
+<i>Garrick</i>, <i>Layard</i>, <i>Lefanu</i>, <i>Lefroy</i>,
+<i>Ligonier</i>, <i>Luard</i>, <i>Martineau</i>, <i>Palairet</i>,
+<i>Perowne</i>, <i>Plimsoll</i>, <i>Riou</i>, <i>Romilly</i>
+<i>&mdash;</i> <i>all</i> respectable and many distinguished,
+even cricket being represented. These more educated foreigners
+usually kept their names, sometimes with slight modifications
+which do not make them unrecognizable. Thus, <i>Bouverie</i>,
+literally "ox-farm," is generally found in its unaltered form,
+though the <i>London</i> <i>Directory</i> has also examples of
+the perverted <i>Buffery</i>. But the majority of the immigrants
+were of the artisan class and illiterate. This explains the
+extraordinary disappearance, in the course of two centuries, of
+the thousands of French names which were introduced between 1550
+and 1700.</p>
+<p>We have many official lists of these foreigners, and in these
+lists we catch the foreign name in the very act of transforming
+itself into English. This happens sometimes by translation, e.g.
+<i>Poulain</i> became <i>Colt</i>, <i>Poisson</i> was
+reincarnated as <i>Fish</i>, and a refugee bearing the somewhat
+uncommon name <i>Petitoeil</i> transformed himself into
+<i>Little</i>-<i>eye</i>, which became in <i>a</i> few
+generations <i>Lidley</i>. But comparatively few surnames were
+susceptible of such simple treatment, and in the great majority
+of cases the name underwent a more or less arbitrary perversion
+which gave it a more English physiognomy. Especially interesting
+from this point <i>of</i> view is the list of&mdash; "Straungers
+residing and dwellinge within the city of London and the
+liberties thereof," drawn up in 1618. The names were probably
+taken down by the officials of the different wards, <i>who</i>,
+differing themselves in intelligence and orthography, produced
+very curious results.</p>
+<p>As a rule the Christian name is translated, while the surname
+is either assimilated to some English form or perverted according
+to the taste and fancy of the individual constable. Thus,
+<i>John</i> <i>Garret</i>, a Dutchman, is probably <i>Jan</i>
+<i>Gerard</i>, and <i>James</i> <i>Flower</i>, a milliner, born
+in Rouen, is certainly <i>Jaques</i> <i>Fleur</i>, or
+<i>Lafleur</i>. <i>John</i> <i>de</i> <i>Cane</i> and
+<i>Peter</i> <i>le</i> <i>Cane</i> are <i>Jean</i>
+<i>Duquesne</i> and <i>Pierre</i> <i>Lequesne</i> (Norman
+<i>qu&ecirc;ne</i>, oak), though the former may also have come
+from <i>Caen</i>. <i>John</i> <i>Buck</i>, from Rouen, is
+<i>Jean</i> <i>Bouc</i>, and <i>Abraham</i> <i>Bushell</i>, from
+Rochelle, was probably a <i>Roussel</i> or <i>Boissel</i>.
+<i>James</i> <i>King</i> and <i>John</i> <i>Hill</i>, both
+Dutchmen, are obvious translations of common Dutch names, while
+<i>Henry</i> <i>Powell</i>, a German, is <i>Heinrich</i>
+<i>Paul</i>. <i>Mary</i> <i>Peacock</i>, from Dunkirk, and
+<i>John</i> <i>Bonner</i>, a Frenchman, I take to be <i>Marie</i>
+<i>Picot</i> and <i>Jean</i> <i>Bonheur</i>, while
+<i>Nicholas</i> <i>Bellow</i> is surely <i>Nicolas</i>
+<i>Belleau</i>. <i>Michael</i> <i>Leman</i>, born in Brussels,
+may be French <i>Leman</i> or <i>Lemoine</i>, or perhaps German
+<i>Lehmann</i>.</p>
+<p>To each alien's name is appended that of the monarch whose
+subject he calls himself, but a republic is outside the
+experience of one constable, who leaves an interrogative blank
+after <i>Cristofer</i> <i>Switcher</i>, born at <i>Swerick</i>
+(Z&uuml;rich) in <i>Switcherland</i>. The surname so ingeniously
+created appears to have left no pedagogic descendants. In some
+cases the harassed Bumble has lost patience, and substituted a
+plain English name for foreign absurdity. To the brain which
+christened Oliver Twist we owe <i>Henry</i> <i>Price</i>, a
+subject of the King of Poland, <i>Lewis</i> <i>Jackson</i>, a
+"Portingall," and <i>Alexander</i> <i>Faith</i>, a steward to the
+Venice Ambassador, born in the dukedom of Florence.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80722" id="Toc80722">PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>In the returns made outside the bounds of the city proper the
+aliens have added their own signatures, or in some cases made
+their marks. <i>Jacob</i> <i>Alburtt</i> signs himself as
+<i>Jacob</i> <i>Elbers</i>, and <i>Croft</i> <i>Castell</i> as
+<i>Kraft</i> <i>Kassels</i>. <i>Harman</i> <i>James</i> is the
+official translation of <i>Hermann</i> <i>Jacobs</i>, <i>Mary</i>
+<i>Miller</i> of <i>Marija</i> <i>Moliner</i>, and <i>John</i>
+<i>Young</i> of <i>Jan</i> <i>le</i> <i>Jeune</i>. <i>Gyllyam</i>
+<i>Spease</i>, for <i>Wilbert</i> <i>Spirs</i>, seems to be due
+to a Welsh constable, and <i>Chrystyan</i> <i>Wyhelhames</i>, for
+<i>Cristian</i> <i>Welselm</i>, looks like a conscientious
+attempt at Williams. One registrar, with a phonetic system of his
+own, has transformed the Dutch <i>Moll</i> into the more familiar
+<i>Maule</i>, and has enriched his list with <i>Jannacay</i>
+<i>Yacopes</i> for <i>Jantje</i> <i>Jacobs</i>. <i>Lowe</i>
+<i>Luddow</i>, who signs himself <i>Louij</i> <i>Ledou</i>, seems
+to be <i>Louis</i> <i>Ledoux</i>. An alien who writes himself
+<i>Jann</i> <i>Eisankraott</i> (Ger. <i>Eisenkraut? )</i> cannot
+reasonably complain plain at being transformed into <i>John</i>
+<i>Isacrocke</i>, but the substitution of <i>John</i>
+<i>Johnson</i> for <i>Jansen</i> <i>Vandrusen</i> suggests that
+this individual's case was taken at the end of a long day's
+work.</p>
+<p>These examples, taken at random, show how the French and
+Flemish names of the humbler refugees lost their foreign
+appearance. In many cases the transformation was etymologically
+justified. Thus, some of our <i>Druitts</i> and <i>Drewetts</i>
+may be descended from <i>Martin</i> <i>Druett</i>, the first name
+on the list. But this is probably the common French name
+<i>Drouet</i> or <i>Drouot</i>, assimilated to the English
+<i>Druitt</i>, which we find in 1273. And both are diminutives of
+Drogo, which occurs in <i>Domesday Book</i>, and is, through Old
+French, the origin of our <i>Drew</i>. But in many cases the name
+has been so deformed that one can only guess at the continental
+original. I should conjecture, for instance, that the curious
+name <i>Shoppee</i> is a corruption of <i>Chappuis</i>, the Old
+French for a carpenter, and that</p>
+<p><i>Jacob</i> <i>Shophousey</i>, registered as a German cutler,
+came from <i>Schaffhausen</i>. In this particular region of
+English nomenclature a little guessing is almost excusable. The
+law of probabilities makes it mathematically certain that the
+horde of immigrants included representatives of all the very
+common French family names, and it would be strange if
+<i>Chappuis</i> were absent.</p>
+<p>This process of transformation is still going on in a small
+way, especially in our provincial manufacturing towns, in which
+most large commercial undertakings have slipped from the
+nerveless grasp of the Anglo-Saxon into the more capable and
+prehensile fingers of the foreigner&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Hilda then learnt
+that Mrs. Gailey had married a French modeller named
+<i>Canonges</i>. . . and that in course of time the modeller had
+informally changed the name to <i>Cannon</i>, because no one in
+the five towns could pronounce the true name rightly."</font><br>
+(Arnold Bennett, <i>Hilda</i> <i>Lessways</i>, i. 5.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This occurs most frequently in
+the case of Jewish names of German origin. Thus, <i>L&ouml;we</i>
+becomes <i>Lowe</i> or <i>Lyons</i>, <i>Meyer</i> <i>is</i>
+transformed into <i>Myers</i>, <i>Goldschmid</i> into
+<i>Goldsmith</i>, <i>Kohn</i> into <i>Cowan</i>, <i>Levy</i> into
+<i>Lee</i> <i>or</i> <i>Lewis</i>, <i>Salamon</i> into
+<i>Salmon</i>, <i>Hirsch</i> <i>or</i> <i>Hertz</i> into
+<i>Hart</i>, and so on. Sometimes a bolder flight is
+attempted&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Leopold</i>
+<i>Norfolk</i> <i>Gordon</i> had a house in Park Lane, and ever
+so many people's money to keep it up with. As may be guessed from
+his name, he was a Jew."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">(Morley Roberts, <i>Lady</i>
+<i>Penelope</i>, ch. ii.)</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80723" id="Toc80723">JEWISH NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The Jewish names of German origin which are now so common in
+England mostly date from the beginning of the nineteenth century,
+when laws were passed in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria to compel
+all Jewish families to adopt a fixed surname. Many of them chose
+personal names, e.g. <i>Jakobs</i>, <i>Levy</i>, <i>Moses</i>,
+for this purpose, while others named themselves from their place
+of residence, e.g. <i>Cassel</i>, <i>Speyer</i> (Spires),
+<i>Hamburg</i>, often with the addition of the syllable
+-<i>er</i>, e.g. <i>Darmesteter</i>, <i>Homburger</i>. Some
+families preferred descriptive names such as <i>Selig</i>
+(Chapter XXII), <i>Sonnenschein</i>, <i>Goldmann</i>, or invented
+poetic and gorgeous place-names such as <i>Rosenberg</i>,
+<i>Blumenthal</i>, <i>Goldberg</i>, <i>Lilienfeld</i>. The
+oriental fancy also showed itself in such names as
+<i>Edelstein</i>, jewel, <i>Glueckstein</i>, luck stone,
+<i>Rubinstein</i>, ruby, <i>Goldenkranz</i>, golden wreath, etc.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Our <i>Touchstone</i> would seem also to be a
+nickname. The obituary of a Mr. Touchstone appeared in the
+<i>Manchester</i> <i>Guardian</i>, December 12, 1912.<i>]</i> It
+is owing to the existence of the last two groups that our
+fashionable intelligence is now often so suggestive of a
+wine-list. Among animal names adopted the favourites were
+<i>Adler</i>, eagle, <i>Hirsch</i>, hart, <i>L&ouml;we</i>, lion,
+and <i>Wolf</i>, each of which is used with symbolic significance
+in the Old Testament.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144730" id="Toc2144730"></a><a name="Toc80724"
+id="Toc80724">CHAPTER VI <b>TOM, DICK AND
+HARRY</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"Watte</font>
+vocat, cui Thomme venit, neque Symme retardat,</i><br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Betteque</i>, <i>Gibbe</i> simul, <i>Hykke</i> venire
+jubent;<br>
+<i>Colle</i> furit, quem <i>Geffe</i> juvat nocumenta
+parantes,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cum quibus ad dampnum <i>Wille</i> coire vovet.<br>
+<i>Grigge</i> rapit, dum <i>Dawe</i> strepit,
+comes est quibus <i>Hobbe</i>,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Lorkyn</i> <i>et</i> in medio non minor
+esse putat:<br><i>Hudde</i> ferit, quem <i>Judde</i> terit,
+dum <i>Tebbe</i> minatur,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Jakke</i> domosque viros vellit et ense
+necat."</p>
+</div>
+<p align="center">(GOWER, <i>On</i> <i>Wat</i> <i>Tyler's</i>
+<i>Rebellion</i>.)</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Gower's lines on the peasant
+rebels give us some idea of the names which were most popular in
+the fourteenth century, and which have consequently impressed
+themselves most strongly on our modern surnames. It will be
+noticed that one member of the modern triumvirate, Harry, or Hal,
+is absent. <i>[Footnote:</i> The three names were not definitely
+established till the nineteenth century. Before that period they
+had rivals. French says <i>Pierre</i> et <i>Paul</i>, and German
+<i>Heinz</i> and <i>Kunz</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Heinrich and
+Conrad.<i>]</i> The great popularity of this name probably dates
+from a rather later period and is connected with the exploits of
+Henry V. Moreover, all the names, with the possible exception of
+Hud, are of French introduction and occur rarely before the
+Conquest. The old Anglo-Saxon names did survive, especially in
+the remoter parts of the country, and have given us many surnames
+(see ch. vii.), but even in the Middle Ages people had a
+preference for anything that came over with the Conqueror. French
+names are nearly all of German origin, the Celtic names and the
+Latin names which encroached on them having been swept away by
+the Frankish invasion, a parallel to the wholesale adoption of
+Norman names in England. Thus our name <i>Harvey</i>, no longer
+usual as a font-name, is Fr. Herod, which represents the heroic
+German name Herewig, to the second syllable of which belongs such
+an apparently insignificant name as <i>Wigg</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80725" id="Toc80725">MEDIEVAL
+FONT-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The disappearance of Latin names is not to be regretted, for
+the Latin nomenclature was of the most unimaginative description,
+while the Old German names are more like those of Greece; e.g.
+Ger. Ludwig, which has passed into most of the European languages
+(Louis, Lewis, Ludovico, etc), is from Old High Ger.
+<i>hlut</i>-<i>wig</i>, renowned in fight, equivalent to the
+Greek Clytomachus, with one-half of which it is etymologically
+cognate.</p>
+<p>Some of the names in Gower's list, e.g. <i>Watte</i> (Chapter
+I), <i>Thomme</i>, <i>Symme</i>, <i>Geffe</i> (Chapter VI),
+<i>Wille</i>, <i>Jakke</i>, are easily recognized. <i>Bette</i>
+is for <i>Bat</i>, Bartholomew, a name, which has given
+<i>Batty</i>, <i>Batten</i>, <i>Bates</i>, <i>Bartle</i> (cf.
+Bartlemas), <i>Bartlett</i>, <i>Badcock</i>, <i>Batcock</i>. But
+this group of names belongs also to the Bert- or -bent, which is
+so common in Teutonic names, such as Bertrand, Bertram, Herbert,
+Hubert, many of which reached us in an Old French form. For the
+loss of the -<i>r</i>-, cf. Matty from Martha. <i>Gibe</i> is for
+Gilbert. <i>Hick</i> is rimed on Dick: (Chapter VI). <i>Colle</i>
+is for Nicolas. <i>Grig</i> is for Gregory, whence <i>Gregson</i>
+and Scottish <i>Grier</i>. <i>Dawe</i>, for David, alternated
+with <i>Day</i> and <i>Dow</i>, which appear as first element in
+many surnames, though <i>Day</i> has another origin (Chapter XIX)
+and <i>Dowson</i> sometimes belongs to the female name
+<i>Douce</i>, sweet. <i>Hobbe</i> is a rimed form from Robert.
+<i>Lorkyn</i>, or <i>Larkin</i>, <i>is</i> for Lawrence, for
+which we also find <i>Law</i>, <i>Lay</i>, and <i>Low</i>, whence
+<i>Lawson</i>, <i>Lakin</i>, <i>Lowson</i>, <i>Locock</i>, etc.
+For <i>Hudde</i> see Chapters I, VII. <i>Judde</i>, from the very
+popular <i>Jordan</i>, has given <i>Judson</i>, <i>Judkins</i>,
+and the contracted <i>Jukes</i>. <i>Jordan</i> (Fr. Jourdain,
+Ital. Giordano) seems to have been adopted as a personal name in
+honour of John the Baptist. <i>Tebbe</i> <i>is</i> for Theobald
+(Chapter I).</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80726" id="Toc80726">THE COMMONEST
+FONT-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Many people, in addressing a small boy with whom they are
+unacquainted, are in the habit of using Tommy as a name to which
+any small boy should naturally answer. In some parts of Polynesia
+the natives speak of a white Mary or a black Mary, <i>i.e</i>.
+woman, just as the Walloons round Mons speak of Marie bon bec, a
+shrew, Marie grognon, a Mrs. Gummidge, Marie quatre langues, a
+chatterbox, and several other Maries still less politely
+described. We have the modern silly Johnny for the older silly
+Billy, while Jack Pudding is in German Hans Wurst, John Sausage.
+Only the very commonest names are used in this way, and, if we
+had no further evidence, the rustic Dicky bird, Robin redbreast,
+Hob goblin, Tom tit, Will o' the Wisp, Jack o' lantern, etc.,
+would tell us which have been in the past the most popular
+English font-names. During the Middle Ages there was a kind of
+race among half a dozen favourite names, the prevailing order
+being John, William, Thomas, Richard, Robert, with perhaps Hugh
+as sixth.</p>
+<p>Now, for each of these there is a reason. John, a favourite
+name in so many languages (Jean, Johann, Giovanni, Juan, Ian,
+Ivan, etc.), as the name of the Baptist and of the favoured
+disciple, defied even the unpopularity of our one King of that
+name. The special circumstances attending the birth and naming of
+the Baptist probably supplied the chief factor in its
+triumph.</p>
+<p>For some time after the Conquest William led easily. We
+usually adopted the <i>W</i>- form from the north-east of France,
+but Guillaume has also supplied a large number of surnames in
+<i>Gil</i>-, which have got inextricably mixed up with those
+derived from Gilbert, Gillian (Juliana), and Giles. <i>Gilman</i>
+represents the French dim. Guillemin, the local-looking
+<i>Gilliam</i> <i>is</i> simply Guillaume, and <i>Wilmot</i>
+corresponds to Fr. Guillemot.</p>
+<p>The doubting disciple held a very insignificant place until
+the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury became one of the holy
+places of Christendom. To Thomas belong <i>Macey</i>,
+<i>Massie</i>, and <i>Masson</i>, dims. of French aphetic forms,
+but the first two are also from Old French forms of Matthew, and
+<i>Masson</i> <i>is</i> sometimes an alternative form of
+<i>Mason</i>.</p>
+<p>Robert and Richard were both popular Norman names. The first
+was greatly helped by Robin Hood and the second by the
+Lion-Heart.</p>
+<p>The name Hugh was borne by several saints, the most famous of
+whom in England was the child-martyr, St. Hugh of Lincoln, said
+to have been murdered by the Jews C. 1250. It had a dim.
+<i>Huggin</i> and also the forms <i>Hew</i> and <i>How</i>,
+whence <i>Hewett</i>, <i>Hewlett</i>, <i>Howitt</i>,
+<i>Howlett</i>, etc., while from the French dim. Huchon we get
+<i>Hutchin</i> and its derivatives, and also <i>Houchin</i>. Hugh
+also appears in the rather small class of names represented by
+<i>Littlejohn</i>, <i>Meiklejohn</i>, etc. <i>[Footnote:</i> This
+formation seems to be much commoner in French. In the "Bottin" I
+find Grandblaise, Grandcollot (Nicolas), Grandgeorge,
+Grandg&eacute;rard, Grandguillaume, Grandguillot, Grandjacques,
+Grand-jean, Grandperrin (Pierre), Grandpierre, Grandremy,
+Grandvincent, and Petitcolin, Petitdemange (Dominique),
+Petitdidier (Desiderius), Petit-Durand, Petit-Etienne (Stephen),
+Petit-G&eacute;rard<b>,</b> Petit-Huguenin, Petitjean,
+Petitperrin, Petit-Richard.<i>]</i> We find <i>Goodhew</i>,
+<i>Goodhue</i>. Cf. <i>Gaukroger</i>, <i>i.e</i>. awkward Roger,
+and <i>Goodwillie</i>. But the more usual origin of
+<i>Goodhew</i>, <i>Goodhue</i> <i>is</i> from Middle Eng.
+<i>heave</i>, servant, hind. Cf. <i>Goodhind</i>.</p>
+<p>Most of the other names in Gower's list have been prolific. We
+might add to them Roger, whence <i>Hodge</i> and <i>Dodge</i>,
+<i>Humfrey</i>, which did not lend itself to many variations, and
+Peter, from the French form of which we have many derivatives
+(Chapter III), including perhaps the Huguenot <i>Perowne</i>, Fr.
+Perron, but this can also be local, du Perron, the etymology,
+Lat. <i>Petra</i>, rock, remaining the same.</p>
+<p>The absence of the great names Alfred <i>[Footnote:</i> The
+name <i>Alured</i> is due to misreading of the older
+<i>Alvred</i>, <i>v</i> being written <i>u</i> in old MSS.
+<i>Allfrey</i> is from the Old French form of the name.<i>]</i>
+and Edward is not surprising, as they belonged to the conquered
+race. Though Edward was revived as the name of a long line of
+Kings, its contribution to surnames has been small, most names in
+<i>Ed</i>-, <i>Ead</i>-, e.g. <i>Ede</i>, <i>Eden</i>,
+<i>Edison</i>, <i>Edkins</i>, <i>Eady</i>, <i>etc</i>., belonging
+rather to the once popular female name Eda or to Edith, though in
+some cases they are from Edward or other Anglo-Saxon names having
+the same initial syllable. James is a rare name in medieval
+rolls, being represented by Jacob, and no doubt partly by Jack
+(Chapter IV). It is&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Wrested from Jacob,
+the same as Jago <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Jago</i> <i>is</i> found,
+with other Spanish names, in Cornwall; cf. <i>Bastian</i> or
+<i>Baste</i>, for Sebastian.<i>]</i> in Spanish, Jaques in
+French; which some Frenchified English, to their disgrace, have
+too much affected" (Camden).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It appears in <i>Gimson</i>,
+<i>Jemmett</i>, and the odd-looking <i>Gem</i>, while its French
+form is somewhat disguised in <i>Jeakes</i> and
+<i>Jex</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80727" id="Toc80727">FASHIONS IN
+FONT-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The force of royal example is seen in the popularity under the
+Angevin kings of Henry, or Harry, Geoffrey and Fulk, the three
+favourite names in that family. For Harry see Chapter III.
+Geoffrey, from Ger. Gottfried, Godfrey, has given us a large
+number of names in <i>Geff</i>-, <i>Jeff</i>-, and <i>Giff</i>-,
+<i>Jiff</i>-, and probably also <i>Jebb</i>, <i>Gepp</i> and
+<i>Jepson</i>, while to <i>Fulk</i> we owe <i>Fewkes</i>,
+<i>Foakes</i>, <i>Fowkes</i>, <i>Vokes</i>, etc., and perhaps in
+some cases <i>Fox</i>. But it is impossible to catalogue all the
+popular medieval font-names. Many others will be found scattered
+through this book as occasion or association suggests them.</p>
+<p>Three names whose poor representation is surprising are
+<i>Arthur</i>, <i>Charles</i> and <i>George</i>, the two great
+Kings of medieval romance and the patron saint of Merrie England.
+All three are fairly common in their unaltered form, and we find
+also <i>Arter</i> for <i>Arthur</i>. But they have given few
+derivatives, though <i>Atkins</i>, generally from <i>Ad</i>-,
+<i>i.e</i>. Adam, may sometimes be from Arthur (cf. Bat for Bart,
+Matty for Martha, etc.). Arthur is a rare medieval font-name, a
+fact no doubt due to the sad fate of King John's nephew. Its
+modern popularity dates from the Duke of Wellington, while
+Charles and George were raised from obscurity by the Stuarts and
+the Brunswicks. To these might be added the German name
+Frederick, the spread of which was due to the fame of Frederick
+the Great. It gave, however, in French the dissimilated
+<i>Ferry</i>, one source of our surnames <i>Ferry</i>,
+<i>Ferris</i>, though the former is generally local.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> "For Frideric, the English have commonly used
+Frery and Fery, which hath been now a long time a Christian name
+in the ancient family of Tilney, and lucky to their house, as
+they report." (Camden.)<i>]</i></p>
+<p>If, on the other hand, we take from Gower's list a name which
+is to-day comparatively rare, e.g. Gilbert, we find it
+represented by a whole string of surnames, e.g. <i>Gilbart</i>,
+<i>Gibbs</i>, <i>Gibson</i>, <i>Gibbon</i>, <i>Gibbins</i>,
+<i>Gipps</i>, <i>Gipson</i>, to mention only the most familiar.
+From the French dim. Gibelot we get the rather rare
+<i>Giblett;</i> cf. <i>Hewlett</i> for Hew-el-et, <i>Hamlet</i>
+for Ham-el-et (Hamo), etc.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80728" id="Toc80728">DERIVATIVES OF
+FONT-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>In forming patronymics from personal names, it is not always
+the first syllable that is selected. In <i>Toll</i>,
+<i>Tolley</i>, <i>Tollett</i>, from Bartholomew, the second has
+survived, while <i>Philpot</i>, dim. of Philip, has given
+<i>Potts</i>. From Alexander we get <i>Sanders</i> and
+<i>Saunders</i>. But, taking, for simplicity, two instances in
+which the first syllable has survived, we shall find plenty of
+instruction in those two pretty men Robert and Richard. We have
+seen (Chapter VI) that Roger gave <i>Hodge</i> and <i>Dodge</i>,
+which, in the derivatives <i>Hodson</i> and <i>Dodson</i>, have
+coalesced with names derived from Odo and the Anglo-Sax. Dodda
+(Chapter VII). Similarly Robert gave <i>Rob</i>, <i>Hob</i> and
+<i>Dob</i>, and Richard gave <i>Rick</i>, <i>Hick</i> and
+<i>Dick</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> I believe, however, that Hob is in
+some cases from Hubert, whence <i>Hubbard</i>, <i>Hibbert</i>,
+<i>Hobart</i>, etc.<i>]</i> Hob, whence <i>Hobbs</i>, was
+sharpened into Hop, whence Hopps. The diminutive <i>Hopkin</i>,
+passing into Wales, gave <i>Popkin</i>, just as ap-Robin became
+<i>Probyn</i>, ap-Hugh <i>Pugh</i>, ap-Owen <i>Bowen</i>, etc. In
+the north <i>Dobbs</i> became <i>Dabbs</i> (p. A. Hob also
+developed another rimed form Nob cf. to "hob-nob" with anyone),
+whence <i>Nobbs</i> and <i>Nabbs</i>, the latter, of course,
+being sometimes rimed on <i>Abbs</i>, from Abel or Abraham. Bob
+is the latest variant and has not formed many surnames. Richard
+has a larger family than Robert, for, besides <i>Rick</i>,
+<i>Hick</i> and Dick, we have <i>Rich</i> and <i>Hitch</i>,
+<i>Higg</i> and <i>Digg</i>. The reader will be able to continue
+this genealogical tree for himself.</p>
+<p>The full or the shortened name can become a surname, either
+without change, or with the addition of the genitive -<i>s</i> or
+the word -<i>son</i>, the former more usual in the south, the
+latter in the north. To take a simple case, we find as surnames
+<i>William</i>, <i>Will</i>, <i>Williams</i>, <i>Wills</i>,
+<i>Williamson</i>, <i>Wilson</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> This suffix
+has squeezed out all the others, though Alice John<i>son</i> is
+theoretically absurd. In Mid. English we find daughter, father,
+mother, brother and other terms of relationship used in this way,
+e.g. in 1379, Agnes <i>Dyconwyfdowson</i>, the wife of Dow's son
+Dick. Dawbarn, child of David, is still found. See also Chapter
+XXI<i>]</i></p>
+<p>From the short form we get diminutives by means of the English
+suffixes -<i>ie</i> or -<i>y</i> (these especially in the north),
+-<i>kin</i> (Chapter IV), and the French suffixes -<i>et</i>,
+-<i>ot</i> (often becoming -<i>at</i> in English), -in,
+-<i>on</i> (often becoming -<i>en</i> in English). Thus
+<i>Willy</i>, <i>Wilkie</i>, <i>Willett</i>. I give a few
+examples of surnames formed from each class</p>
+<p>Ritchie (Richard), <i>Oddy</i> (Odo, whence also
+<i>Oates)</i>, <i>Lambie</i> (Lambert), <i>Jelley</i> (Julian);
+<i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Lamb</i> is also, of course, a nickname cf.
+<i>Agnew</i>, Fr. <i>agneau</i>]</p>
+<p><i>Dawkins</i>, <i>Dawkes</i> (David), <i>Hawkins</i>,
+<i>Hawkes</i> (Hal), <i>Gilkins</i> (Geoffrey), <i>Perkins</i>,
+<i>Perks</i> (Peter), <i>Rankin</i> (Randolf);</p>
+<p><i>Gillett</i> (Gil, Chapter VI), <i>Collett</i> (Nicholas),
+<i>Bartlett</i> (Bartholomew), <i>Ricketts</i> (Richard),
+<i>Marriott</i>, <i>Marryat</i> (Mary), <i>Elliott</i> (Elias,
+see Chapter IX), <i>Wyatt</i> (Guy), <i>Perrott</i> (Peter);</p>
+<p><i>Collins</i> (Nicholas), <i>Jennings</i> (John, see Chapter
+X), <i>Copping</i> (Jacob, see Chapter I), <i>Rawlin</i> (Raoul,
+the French form of Radolf, whence <i>Roll</i>, <i>Ralph</i>,
+<i>Relf)</i>, <i>Paton</i>
+(Patrick), <i>Sisson</i> (Sirs, <i>i.e</i>. Cecilia),
+<i>Gibbons</i> (Gilbert), <i>Beaton</i> (Beatrice).</p>
+<p>In addition to the suffixes and diminutives already mentioned,
+we have the two rather puzzling endings -<i>man</i> and
+-<i>cock</i>. <i>Man</i> occurs as an ending in several Germanic
+names which are older than the Conquest, e.g. <i>Ashman</i>,
+<i>Harman</i>, <i>Coleman;</i> and the simple <i>Mann</i> is also
+an Anglo-Saxon personal name. It is sometimes to be taken
+literally, e.g. in <i>Goodman</i>, <i>i.e</i>. master of the
+house (Matt. xx. ii), <i>Longman</i>, <i>Youngman</i>,
+<i>etc</i>. In <i>Hickman</i>, <i>Homan</i> (How, Hugh), etc., it
+may mean servant of, as in <i>Ladyman</i>, <i>Priestman</i>, or
+may be merely an augmentative suffix. In <i>Coltman</i>,
+<i>Runciman</i>, it is occupative, the man in charge of the
+colts, rouncies or nags. Chaucer's Shipman&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Rood upon a
+<i>rouncy</i> as he kouthe" (A. 390).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In <i>Bridgeman</i>,
+<i>Pullman</i>, it means the man who lived near, or had some
+office in connection with, the bridge or pool. But it is often
+due to the imitative instinct. <i>Dedman</i> <i>is</i> for the
+local Debenham, and <i>Lakeman</i> for Lakenham, while
+<i>Wyman</i> represents the old name Wymond, and <i>Bowman</i>
+and <i>Beeman</i> are sometimes for the local Beaumont (cf. the
+pronunciation of Belvoir). But the existence in German of the
+name <i>Bienemann</i> shows that <i>Beeman</i> may have meant
+bee-keeper. <i>Sloman</i> may be a nickname, but also means the
+man in the slough (Chapter XII), and <i>Godliman</i> <i>is</i> an
+old familiar spelling of Godalming. We of course get doubtful
+cases, e.g. <i>Sandeman</i> may be, as explained by Bardsley, the
+servant of Alexander (Chapter VI), but it may equally well
+represent Mid. Eng. <i>sandeman</i>, a messenger, and
+<i>Lawman</i>, <i>Layman</i>, are rather to be regarded as
+derivatives of <i>Lawrence</i> (Chapter VI) than what they appear
+to be.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80729" id="Toc80729">THE SUFFIX
+-<i>COCK</i></a></b></p>
+<p>Many explanations have been given of the suffix -<i>cock</i>,
+but I cannot say that any of them have convinced me. Both
+<i>Cock</i> and the patronymic <i>Cocking</i> are found as early
+personal names. The suffix was added to the shortened form of
+font-names, e.g. <i>Alcock</i> (Allen), Hi<i>tchcock</i>
+(Richard), was apparently felt as a mere diminutive, and took an
+-<i>s</i> like the diminutives in -<i>kin</i>, e.g.
+<i>Willcocks</i>, <i>Simcox</i>. In <i>Hedgecock</i>,
+<i>'Woodcock</i>, etc., it is of course a nickname. The modern
+<i>Cox</i> is one of our very common names, and the spelling
+<i>Cock</i>, <i>Cocks</i>, <i>Cox</i>, can be found representing
+three generations in the churchyard of Invergowrie, near
+Dundee.</p>
+<p>The two names <i>Bawcock</i> and <i>Meacock</i> had once a
+special significance. Pistol, urged to the breach by Fluellen,
+replies</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Good</font>
+bawcock, bate thy rage! use lenity, sweet chuck"</i></p>
+</div>
+<p align="center"><i>(Henry</i> <i>V</i>., <i>iii</i>, 2);</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and Petruchio, pretending that
+his first interview with Katherine has been most satisfactory,
+says&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+
+&nbsp;         "'Tis a world to see
+<div style="margin-left: -8em">
+
+How tame, when men and women are alone,<br>
+A <i>meacock</i> wretch can make the curstest shrew."
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p align="justify"><i>(Taming</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i>
+<i>Shrew</i>, <i>ii</i>.<i>1</i>.<i>)</i>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">These have been explained as
+Fr. <i>beau</i> <i>coq</i>, which is possible, and <i>meek</i>
+<i>cock</i>, which is absurd. As both words are found as surnames
+before Shakespeare's time, it is probable that they are
+diminutives which were felt as suited to receive a special
+connotation, just as a man who treats his thirst generously is
+vulgarly called a <i>Lushington</i>. <i>Bawcock</i> can easily be
+connected with Baldwin, while <i>Meacock</i>, <i>Maycock</i>,
+belong to the personal name <i>May</i> or <i>Mee</i>, shortened
+from the Old Fr. <i>Mahieu</i> (Chapter IX).</font></p>
+<p>Although we are not dealing with Celtic names, a few words as
+to the Scottish, Irish, and Welsh surnames which we find in our
+directories may be useful. Those of Celtic origin are almost
+invariably patronymics. The Scottish and Irish <i>Mac</i>, son,
+used like the Anglo-Fr. <i>Fitz</i>-, ultimately means kin, and
+is related to the -<i>mough</i> of <i>Watmough</i> (Chapter XXI)
+and to the word <i>maid</i>. In <i>MacNab</i>, son of the abbot,
+and <i>MacPherson</i>, son of the parson, we have curious
+hybrids. In Manx names, such as <i>Quilliam</i> (Mac William),
+<i>Killip</i> (Mac Philip), <i>Clucas</i> (Mac Lucas), we have
+aphetic forms of <i>Mac</i>. The Irish <i>0'</i>, grandson,
+descendant, has etymologically the same meaning as <i>Mac</i>,
+and is related to the first part of Ger. <i>Oheim</i>, uncle, of
+Anglo-Sax. <i>eam</i> (see <i>Eames</i>, Chapter XXI), and of
+Lat. <i>avus</i>, grandfather. <i>Oe</i> or <i>oye</i> <i>is</i>
+still used for grandchild in Scottish&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"There was my
+daughter's wean, little Eppie Daidle, my <i>oe</i>, ye ken"
+<i>(Heart</i> <i>of</i> <i>Midlothian</i>, ch. iv.).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The names of the Lowlands of
+Scotland are pretty much the same as those of northern England,
+with the addition of a very large French element, due to the
+close historical connection between the two countries. Examples
+of French names, often much corrupted, are <i>Bethune</i> (Pas de
+Calais), often corrupted into <i>Beaton</i>, the name of one of
+the Queen's Maries, <i>Boswell</i> (Bosville, Seine Inf.),
+<i>Bruce</i> (Brieux, Orne), <i>Comyn</i>, <i>Cumming</i>
+(Comines, Nord), <i>Grant</i> <i>(le</i> <i>grand)</i>,
+<i>Rennie</i> (Ren&eacute;), etc.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80730" id="Toc80730">CELTIC NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Welsh <i>Ap</i> or <i>Ab</i>, reduced from an older
+<i>Map</i>, ultimately cognate with <i>Mac</i>, gives us such
+names as <i>Probyn</i>, <i>Powell</i> (Howell, Hoel),
+<i>Price</i> (Rhys), <i>Pritchard</i>, <i>Prosser</i> (Rosser),
+<i>Prothero</i> (Roderick), <i>Bedward</i>, <i>Beddoes</i>
+(Eddowe), <i>Blood</i> (Lud, Lloyd), <i>Bethell</i> (Ithel),
+<i>Benyon</i> (Enion), whence also <i>Binyon</i> and the
+local-looking <i>Baynham</i>. <i>Onion</i> and <i>Onions</i> are
+imitative forms of Enion. <i>Applejohn</i> and <i>Upjohn</i> are
+corruptions of Ap-john. The name <i>Floyd</i>, sometimes
+<i>Flood</i>, <i>is</i> due to the English inability to grapple
+with the Welsh <i>Ll&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"I am a gentylman and
+come of Brutes [Brutus'] blood,</font><br>
+My name is ap Ryce, ap Davy, ap <i>Flood</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>(Andrew Boorde, <i>Book</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i>
+<i>Introduction</i> <i>of</i> <i>Knowledge</i>, <i>ii</i>
+<i>7</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">While Welsh names are almost
+entirely patronymic, Cornish names are very largely local. They
+are distinguished by the following prefixes and others of less
+common occurrence: <i>Caer</i>-, fort, <i>Lan</i>-, church,
+<i>Pen</i>-, hill, <i>Pol</i>-, pool, <i>Ros</i>-, heath,
+<i>Tre</i>-, settlement, e.g. <i>Carthew</i>, <i>Lanyon</i>,
+<i>Penruddock</i>, <i>Polwarth</i>, <i>Rosevear</i>,
+<i>Trethewy</i>. Sometimes these elements are found combined,
+e.g. in <i>Penrose</i>.</font></p>
+<p>A certain number of Celtic nicknames and occupative names
+which are frequently found in England will be mentioned elsewhere
+(pp. 173, 216). In <i>Gilchrist</i>, Christ's servant,
+<i>Gildea</i>, servant of God, <i>Gillies</i>, servant of Jesus,
+<i>Gillespie</i>, bishop's servant, <i>Gilmour</i>, Mary's
+servant, <i>Gilroy</i>, red servant, we have the Highland
+"gillie." Such names were originally preceded by <i>Mac</i>-,
+e.g. <i>Gilroy</i> <i>is</i> the same as <i>MacIlroy;</i> cf.
+<i>MacLean</i>, for <i>Mac</i>-<i>gil</i>-<i>Ian</i>, son of the
+servant of John. To the same class of formation belong Scottish
+names in <i>Mal</i>-, e.g. <i>Malcolm</i>, and Irish names in
+<i>Mul</i>-, e.g. <i>Mulholland</i>, in which the first element
+means tonsured servant, shaveling, and the second is the name of
+a saint.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144731" id="Toc2144731"></a><a name="Toc80731"
+id="Toc80731">CHAPTER VII <b>GODERIC AND
+GODIVA</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"England had now once
+more (A.D. 1100) a King born on her own soil, a Queen of the
+blood of the hero Eadmund, a King and Queen whose children would
+trace to AElfred by two descents. Norman insolence mocked at the
+English King and his English Lady under the English names of
+<i>Godric</i> and <i>Godgifu</i>.<i>"</i> <i>[Footnote:</i>
+"Godricum eum, et comparem Godgivam appellantes" (William of
+Malmesbury, <i>Gesta</i> <i>Regum</i>
+<i>Anglorum)</i>.]</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(FREEMAN, <i>Norman</i> <i>Conquest</i>, <i>v.</i> 170.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In dealing with surnames we
+begin after the Conquest, for the simple reason that there were
+no surnames before. Occasionally an important person has come
+down in history with a nickname, e.g. Edmund Iron-side, Harold
+Harefoot, Edward the Confessor; but this is exceptional, and the
+Anglo-Saxon, as a rule, was satisfied with one name. It is
+probable that very many of the names in use before the Conquest,
+whether of English or Scandinavian origin, were chosen because of
+their etymological meaning, e.g. that the name Beornheard
+<i>(Bernard</i>, <i>Barnard</i>, <i>Barnett)</i> was given to a
+boy in the hope that he would grow up a warrior strong, just as
+his sister might be called AEthelgifu, noble gift. The formation
+of these old names is both interesting and, like all Germanic
+nomenclature, poetic.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80732" id="Toc80732">FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>As a rule the name consists of two elements, and the number of
+those elements which appear with great frequency is rather
+limited. Some themes occur only in the first half of the name,
+e.g. <i>Aethel</i>-, whence Aethelstan, later <i>Alston</i>;
+<i>AElf</i>-, whence AElfgar, now <i>Elgar</i> <i>and</i>
+<i>Agar</i> <i>(AEthel</i>- and <i>AElf</i>- soon got confused,
+so that <i>Allvey</i>, <i>Elvey</i> <i>may</i> represent both
+AEthelwig and AElfwig, or perhaps in some cases Ealdwig);
+<i>Cuth</i>-, whence Cuthbeald, now <i>Cobbold</i>
+<i>[Footnote:</i> This is also the origin of Cupples, and
+probably of <i>Keble</i> and <i>Nibbles</i>. It shares
+<i>Cobbett</i> and <i>Cubitt</i> with Cuthbeorht.<i>];</i>
+<i>Cyne</i>-, whence Cynebeald now <i>Kimball</i> and
+<i>Kemble</i>, both of which are also local, <i>Folc</i>-, whence
+Folcheard and Folchere, now <i>Folkard</i> and <i>Fulcher;</i>
+<i>Gund</i>-, whence Gundred, now <i>Gundry</i> and <i>Grundy</i>
+(Metathesis, Chapter III); <i>Os</i>-, whence <i>Osbert</i>,
+<i>Osborn</i>,</p>
+<p>Other themes only occur as the second half of <i>the</i> name.
+Such are -<i>gifu</i>, in Godgifu, <i>i.e</i>. Godiva, whence
+<i>Goodeve;</i> -<i>lac</i> in Guthlac, now <i>Goodlake</i> and
+<i>Goodluck</i> (Chapter XXI); -<i>laf</i> in Deorlaf, now
+<i>Dearlove;</i> -<i>wacer</i> in Eoforwacer, now
+<i>Earwaker</i>.</p>
+<p>Other themes, and perhaps the greater number, may occur
+indifferently first and second, e.g. <i>beald</i>, <i>god</i>,
+<i>here</i>, <i>sige</i>, <i>weald</i>, <i>win</i>, <i>wulf</i>
+or <i>ulf</i>. Thus we have complete reversals in Beald-wine,
+whence <i>Baldwin</i>, and Wine-beald, whence <i>Winbolt</i>,
+Here-weald, whence <i>Herald</i>, <i>Harold</i>, <i>Harrod</i>,
+and Weald-here, whence <i>Walter</i> (Chapter I). With these we
+may compare Gold-man and Man-gold, the latter of which has given
+<i>Mangles</i>. So also we have Sige-heard, whence
+<i>Siggers</i>, and Wulf-sige, now <i>Wolsey</i>, Wulf-noth, now
+the imitative <i>Wallnutt</i>, and Beorht-wulf, later Bardolph
+and <i>Bardell</i>. The famous name <i>Havelock</i> was borne by
+the hero of a medieval epic, "Havelock the Dane," but
+<i>Dunstan</i> is usually for the local Dunston. On the other
+hand, <i>Winston</i> is a personal name, Wine-stan, whence
+<i>Winstanley</i>.</p>
+<p>These examples show that the pre-Norman names are by no means
+unrepresented in the twentieth century, but, in this matter, one
+must proceed with caution. To take as examples the two names that
+head this chapter, there is no doubt that Goderic and Godiva are
+now represented by <i>Goodrich</i> and <i>Goodeve</i>, but these
+may also belong to the small group mentioned in Chapter VI, and
+stand for good Richard and good Eve. Also <i>Goodrich</i> comes
+in some cases from Goodrich, formerly Gotheridge, in Hereford,
+which has also given <i>Gutteridge</i>.</p>
+<p>Moreover, it must not be forgotten that our medieval
+nomenclature is preponderantly French, as the early rolls show
+beyond dispute, so that, even where a modern name appears
+susceptible of an Anglo-Saxon explanation, it is often safer to
+refer it to the Old French cognate; for the Germanic names
+introduced into France by the Frankish conquerors, and the
+Scandinavian names which passed into Normandy, contained very
+much the same elements as our own native names, but underwent a
+different phonetic development. Thus I would rather explain
+<i>Bawden</i>, <i>Bowden</i>, <i>Boulders</i>, <i>Boden</i>, and
+the dims. <i>Body</i> and <i>Bodkin</i>, as Old French variants
+from the Old Ger. Baldawin than as coming directly from
+Anglo-Saxon. <i>Boyden</i> undoubtedly goes back to Old Fr.
+Baudouin.</p>
+<p>Practically all the names given in Gower's lines (Chapter V),
+and many others to which I have ascribed a continental origin,
+are found occasionally in England before the Conquest, but the
+weight of evidence shows that they were either adopted in England
+as French names or were corrupted in form by the Norman scribes
+and officials. To take other examples, our <i>Tibbald</i>,
+<i>Tibbles</i>, <i>Tibbs</i> suggest the Fr. Thibaut rather than
+the natural development of Anglo-Sax. Thiudbeald, <i>i.e</i>.
+Theobald; and <i>Ralph</i>, <i>Relf</i>, <i>Roff</i>, etc., show
+the regular Old French development of Raedwulf, Radolf. Tibaut
+Wauter, <i>i.e</i>. Theobald Walter, who lived in Lancashire in
+1242, had both his names in an old French form.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80733" id="Toc80733">ANGLO-SAXON
+NICKNAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>As a matter of fact, the various ways of forming nicknames or
+descriptive names, are all used in the pre-Conquest personal
+names. We find <i>Orme</i>, <i>i.e</i>. serpent or dragon (cf.
+Great Orme's Head), Wulf, <i>i.e</i>. Wolf, Hwita, <i>i.e</i>.
+<i>White</i>, and its derivative Hwiting, now <i>Whiting</i>,
+Saemann, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Seaman</i>, Bonda, <i>i.e</i>.
+<i>Bond</i>, Leofcild, dear child, now <i>Leif</i> <i>child</i>,
+etc. But, except the case of <i>Orme</i>, <i>so</i> common as the
+first element of place-names, I doubt the survival of these as
+purely personal names into the surname period and regard
+<i>White</i>, <i>Seaman</i>, <i>Bond</i>, <i>Leif</i>
+<i>child</i> rather as new epithets of Mid. English formation.
+<i>Whiting</i> <i>is</i> of course Anglo-Saxon, -<i>ing</i> being
+the regular patronymic suffix. Cf. <i>Browning</i>,
+<i>Benning</i>, <i>Dering</i>, <i>Dunning</i>, <i>Gunning</i>,
+<i>Hemming</i>, <i>Kipping</i>, <i>Manning</i>, and many others
+which occur in place-names. But not all names in -<i>ing</i> are
+Anglo-Saxon, e.g. <i>Baring</i> <i>is</i> German; cf. Behring, of
+the Straits; and <i>Jobling</i> <i>is</i> Fr. Jobelin, a double
+dim. of Job.</p>
+<p>I will now give a few examples of undoubted survival of these
+Anglo-Saxon compounds, showing how the suffixes have been
+corrupted and simplified. Among the commonest of these suffixes
+are -<i>beald</i>, -<i>beorht</i>, -<i>cytel</i> (Chapter VII.),
+-<i>god</i>, -<i>heard</i>, -<i>here</i>, -<i>man</i>,
+-<i>mund</i>, -<i>raed</i>, -<i>ric</i>, -<i>weald</i>,
+-<i>weard</i>, -<i>wine</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> Bold, bright,
+kettle, god, strong, army, man, protection, counsel, powerful,
+ruling, guard, friend.<i>]</i> which survive in <i>Rumball</i>
+and <i>Rumbold</i> (Rumbeald), <i>Allbright</i> <i>[Footnote:</i>
+AIbert is of modern German introduction.<i>]</i> and
+<i>Allbutt</i> (Ealdbeorht, <i>i.e</i>. Albert), <i>Arkle</i>
+(Earncytel), <i>Allgood</i> and <i>Elgood</i> (AElfgod),
+<i>Everett</i> (Eoforheard, <i>i.e</i>. Everard), Gunter
+(Gundhere), <i>Harman</i> (Hereman), <i>Redmond</i> (Raedmund),
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Pure Anglo-Saxon, like the names of so many
+opponents of English tyranny. <i>Parnell</i> is of course not
+Irish (Chapter X).<i>]</i> <i>Aldred</i>, <i>Eldred</i>
+<i>(</i>AEthelraed or Ealdraed), <i>Aldridge</i>,
+<i>Alderick</i>, <i>Eldridge</i> (AEthelric or Ealdric),
+<i>Thorold</i> (Thurweald), and, through Fr. Turold,
+<i>Turrell</i>, <i>Terrell</i>, and <i>Tyrrell</i>,
+<i>Harward</i> and <i>Harvard</i> (Hereweard), <i>Lewin</i>
+(Leofwine).</p>
+<p>In popular use some of these endings got confused, e.g.
+<i>Rumbold</i> probably sometimes represents Rumweald, while
+<i>Kennard</i> no doubt stands for Coenweard as well as for
+Coenheard. <i>Man</i> and <i>round</i> were often interchanged
+(Chapter VI), so that from Eastmund come both <i>Esmond</i> and
+<i>Eastman</i>. <i>Gorman</i> represents Gormund, and
+<i>Almond</i> (Chapter XI) is so common in the Middle Ages that
+it must sometimes be from AEthelmund.</p>
+<p>Sometimes the modern forms are imitative. Thus <i>Allchin</i>
+<i>is</i> for Ealhwine (Alcuin), and <i>Goodyear</i>,
+<i>Goodier</i> and <i>Goodair</i> <i>may</i> represent Godhere.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> This may, however, be taken literally. There is
+a German name <i>Gutjahr</i> and a Norfolk name
+<i>Feaveryear</i>.] <i>Good</i>-<i>beer</i>, <i>Godbehere</i>,
+<i>Gotobed</i> are classed by Bardsley under Godbeorht, whence
+<i>Godber</i>. But in these three names the face value of the
+words may well be accepted (pp. 156, 203, 206). Wisgar or
+Wisgeard has given the imitative <i>Whisker</i> and
+<i>Vizard</i>, and, through French, the Scottish <i>Wishart</i>,
+which is thus the same as the famous Norman Guiscard.
+<i>Garment</i> and <i>Rayment</i> are for Garmund and Regenmund,
+<i>i.e</i>. Raymond.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80734" id="Toc80734">ANGLO-SAXON
+SURVIVALS</a></b></p>
+<p>Other names which can be traced directly to the group of
+Anglo-Saxon names dealt with above are <i>Elphick</i> (AElfheah),
+which in Norman French gave Alphege, <i>Elmer</i> (AElfmaer),
+<i>Allnutt</i> (AElfnoth), <i>Alwin</i>, <i>Elwin</i>,
+<i>Elvin</i> (AElfwine), <i>Aylmer</i> (AEthelmaer),
+<i>Aylward</i> (AEthelweard), <i>Kenrick</i> (Coenric),
+<i>Collard</i> (Ceolheard), Colvin (Ceolwine), <i>Darwin</i>
+(Deorwine), <i>Edridge</i> (Eadric), <i>Aldwin</i>, <i>Auden</i>
+(Ealdwine), <i>Baldry</i> (Bealdred or Bealdric), <i>Falstaff</i>
+(Fastwulf), <i>Filmer</i> (Filumaer), <i>Frewin</i> eowine),
+<i>Garrard</i>, <i>Garrett</i>, <i>Jarrold</i> (Gaerheard,
+Gaerweald), but probably these are through French, <i>Garbett</i>
+(Garbeald, with which cf. the Italian <i>Garibaldi)</i>,
+<i>Gatliffe</i> <i>(Geatle</i>of), <i>Goddard</i> (Godheard),
+<i>Goodliffe</i> (Godleof), <i>Gunnell</i> (Gunhild),
+<i>Gunner</i> (Gunhere), <i>[Footnote:</i> It is unlikely that
+this name is connected with <i>gun</i>, a word of too late
+appearance. It may be seen over a shop in Brentford, perhaps kept
+by a descendant of the thane of the adjacent Gunnersbury.<i>]</i>
+<i>Haines</i> (Hagene), <i>Haldane</i> (Haelfdene),
+<i>Hastings</i> (Haesten, the Danish chief who gave his name to
+Hastings, formerly Haestinga-ceaster), <i>Herbert</i>
+(Herebeorht), <i>Herrick</i> Hereric), <i>Hildyard</i>
+(Hildegeard), <i>Hubert</i>, <i>Hubbard</i>, <i>Hobart</i>,
+<i>Hibbert</i> (Hygebeorht), <i>Ingram</i> (Ingelram),
+<i>Lambert</i> (Landbeorht), <i>Livesey</i> (Leofsige),
+<i>Lemon</i> (Leofman), <i>Leveridge</i> (Leofric),
+<i>Loveridge</i> (Luferic), <i>Maynard</i> (Maegenheard),
+<i>Manfrey</i> (Maegenfrith), <i>Rayner</i> (Regenhere),
+<i>Raymond</i> (Regenmund), <i>Reynolds</i> (Regenweald),
+<i>Seabright</i> (Sigebeorht or Saebeorht), <i>Sayers</i>
+(Saegaer), <i>[Footnote:</i> The simple <i>Sayer</i> is also for
+"assayer," either of metals or of meat and drink&mdash;
+"<i>essayeur</i>, an essayer; one that tasts, or takes an essay;
+and particularly, an officer in the mint, who touches every kind
+of new Coyne before it be delivered out" (Cotgrave). Robert
+<i>le</i> <i>sayer</i>, goldsmith, was a London citizen <i>c</i>.
+1300.<i>]</i> <i>Sewell</i> (Saeweald or Sigeweald),
+<i>Seward</i> (Sigeweard), <i>Turbot</i> (Thurbeorht),
+<i>Thoroughgood</i> (Thurgod), <i>Walthew</i> (Waltheof),
+<i>Warman</i> (Waermund), <i>Wyberd</i> (Wigbeorht), <i>Wyman</i>
+(Wigmund), <i>Willard</i> (Wilheard), <i>Winfrey</i> (Winefrith),
+<i>Ulyett</i> and <i>Woollett</i> (Wulfgeat), <i>Wolmer</i>
+(Wulfmaer), <i>Woodridge</i> (Wulfric).</p>
+<p>In several of these, e.g. <i>Fulcher</i>, <i>Hibbert</i>,
+<i>Lambert</i>, <i>Reynolds</i>, the probability is that the name
+came through French. Where an alternative explanation is
+possible, the direct Anglo-Saxon origin is generally the less
+probable. Thus, although Coning occurs as an Anglo-Saxon name,
+<i>Collings</i> <i>is</i> generally a variant of <i>Collins</i>
+(cf. <i>Jennings</i> for Jennins), and though <i>Hammond</i>
+<i>is</i> etymologically Haganmund, it is better to connect it
+with the very popular French name Hamon. <i>Simmonds</i> might
+come from Sigemund, but is more likely from Simon with excrescent
+-<i>d</i> (Epithesis, Chapter III).</p>
+<p>In many cases the Anglo-Saxon name was a simplex instead of a
+compound. The simple Cytel survives as <i>Chettle</i>,
+<i>Kettle</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> Connected with the kettle or
+cauldron of Norse mythology. The renowned Captain Kettle,
+described by his creator as a Welshman, must have descended from
+some hardy Norse pirate. Many names in this chapter are
+Scandinavian.<i>]</i> Beorn is one of the origins of
+<i>Barnes</i>. <i>Brand</i> also appears as <i>Braund</i>,
+<i>Grim</i> <i>is</i> common in place-names, and from Grima we
+have <i>Grimes</i>. Cola gives <i>Cole</i>, the name of a monarch
+of ancient legend, but this name is more usually from Nicolas
+(Chapter VI). Gonna is now <i>Gunn</i>, Serl has given the very
+common <i>Searle</i>, and Wicga is <i>Wigg</i>. From Hacun we
+have <i>Hack</i> and the dim. <i>Hackett</i>.</p>
+<p>To these might be added many examples of pure adjectives, such
+as Freo, <i>Free</i>, Froda, (prudent), <i>Froude</i>, Gods,
+<i>Good</i>, Leof (dear), <i>Leif</i>, <i>Leaf</i>, Read (red),
+<i>Read</i>, <i>Reid</i>, <i>Reed</i>, Rica, <i>Rich</i>, Rudda
+(ruddy), <i>Rudd</i> and <i>Rodd</i>, Snel (swift, valiant),
+<i>Snell</i>, Swet, <i>Sweet</i>, etc., or epithets such as Boda
+(messenger), <i>Bode</i>, Cempa (warrior), <i>Kemp</i>, Cyta,
+<i>Kite</i>, Dreng (warrior), <i>Dring</i>, Eorl, <i>Earl</i>,
+Godcild, <i>Goodchild</i>, Nunna, <i>Nunn</i>, Oter,
+<i>Otter</i>, Puttoc (kite), <i>Puttock</i>, Saemann,
+<i>Seaman</i>, Spearhafoc, <i>Sparhawk</i>, <i>Spark</i> (Chapter
+I), Tryggr (true), <i>Triggs</i>, Unwine (unfriend),
+<i>Unwin</i>, etc. But many of these had died out as personal
+names and, in medieval use, were nicknames pure and simple.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80735" id="Toc80735">MONOSYLLABIC
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Finally, there is a very large group of Anglo-Saxon
+dissyllabic names, usually ending in -<i>a</i>, which appear to
+be pet forms of the longer names, though it is not always
+possible to establish the connection. Many of them have double
+forms with a long and short vowel respectively. It is to this
+class that we must refer the large number of our monosyllabic
+surnames, which would otherwise defy interpretation. Anglo-Sax.
+Dodds gave <i>Dodd</i>, while Dodson's partner <i>Fogg</i> had an
+ancestor Focga. Other examples are Bacga, <i>Bagg</i>, Benna,
+<i>Benn</i>, Bota, <i>Boot</i> and dim. <i>Booty</i>, Botts,
+<i>Bolt</i>, whence <i>Bolting</i>, Bubba, <i>Bubb</i>, Budda,
+<i>Budd</i>, Bynna, <i>Binns</i>, Cada, <i>Cade</i>, Cobbs,
+<i>Cobb</i>, Coda, <i>Coad</i>, Codda, <i>Codd</i>, <i>Cuffs</i>,
+<i>Cuff</i>, Deda, <i>Deedes</i>, Duda, <i>Dowd</i>, Duna,
+<i>Down</i>, Donna, <i>Dunn</i>, Dutta, <i>Dull</i>, Eada,
+<i>Eade</i>, <i>Edes</i>, etc., Ebba, <i>Ebbs;</i> Eppa,
+<i>Epps</i>, Hudda, <i>Hud</i>, whence <i>Hudson</i>, Inga,
+<i>Inge</i>, Sibba, <i>Sibbs</i>, Sicga, <i>Siggs</i>, Tata,
+<i>Tate</i> and <i>Tait</i>, Tidda, <i>Tidd</i>, Tigga,
+<i>Tigg</i>, Toca, <i>Tooke</i>, Tucca, <i>Tuck</i>, Wada,
+<i>Wade</i>, Wadda, <i>Waddy</i>, etc. Similarly French took from
+German a number of surnames formed from shortened names in
+-<i>o</i>, with an accusative in -<i>on</i>, e.g. Old Ger. Bodo
+has given Fr. Bout and Bouton, whence perhaps <i>our</i>
+<i>Butt</i> and <i>Button</i>.</p>
+<p>But the names exemplified above are very thinly represented in
+early records, and, though their existence in surnames derived
+from place-names <i>(Dodsley</i>, <i>Bagshaw</i>, <i>Bensted</i>,
+<i>Bedworth</i>, <i>Cobham</i>, <i>Ebbsworth</i>, etc.) would
+vouch for them even if they were not recorded, their comparative
+insignificance is attested by the fact that they form very few
+derivatives.</p>
+<p>Compare, for instance, the multitudinous surnames which go
+back to monosyllables of the later type of name, such as John and
+Hugh, with the complete sterility of the names above. Therefore,
+when an alternative derivation for a surname is possible, it is
+usually ten to one that this alternative is right. <i>Dodson</i>
+<i>is</i> a simplified <i>Dodgson</i>, from Roger (Chapter VI);
+<i>Benson</i> belongs to Benedict, sometimes to Benjamin;
+<i>Cobbett</i> <i>is</i> a disguised <i>Cuthbert</i> or
+<i>Cobbold</i> (cf. <i>Garrett</i>, Chapter II); <i>Down</i> is
+usually local, at the down or dune; <i>Dunn</i> is medieval
+<i>le</i> <i>dun</i>, a colour nickname; names in <i>Ead</i>-,
+<i>Ed</i>-, are usually from the medieval female name Eda
+(Chapter VI); <i>Sibbs</i> generally belongs to Sibilla or
+Sebastian; <i>Tait</i> must sometimes be for Fr.
+<i>T&ecirc;te</i>, with which cf. Eng. <i>Head;</i> <i>Tidd</i>
+<i>is</i> an old pet form of Theodore; and <i>Wade</i> <i>is</i>
+more frequently <i>atte</i> <i>wade</i>, <i>i.e</i>. ford. Even
+<i>Ebbs</i> and <i>Epps</i> are more likely to be shortened forms
+of Isabella, usually reduced to Ib, or Ibbot (Chapter X), or of
+the once popular Euphemia.</p>
+<p>To sum up, we may say that the Anglo-Saxon element <i>in</i>
+our surnames is much larger than one would imagine from
+Bardsley's <i>Dictionary</i>, and that it accounts, not only for
+names which have a distinctly Anglo-Saxon suffix or a disguised
+form of one, but also for a very large number of monosyllabic
+names which survive in isolation and without kindred. In this
+chapter I have only given sets of characteristic examples, to
+which many more might be added. It would be comparatively easy,
+with some imagination and a conscientious neglect of evidence, to
+connect the greater number of our surnames with the
+Anglo-Saxons.</p>
+<p>Thus <i>Honeyball</i> might very well represent the Anglo-Sax.
+Hunbeald, but, in the absence of links, it is better to regard it
+as a popular perversion of Hannibal (Chapter VIII). In dealing
+with this subject, the <i>via</i> <i>media</i> <i>is</i> the safe
+one, and one cannot pass in one stride from Hengist and Horsa to
+the Reformation period.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80736" id="Toc80736">"HIDEOUS
+NAMES"</a></b></p>
+<p>Matthew Arnold, in his essay on the <i>Function</i> <i>of</i>
+<i>Criticism</i> <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>Present</i> <i>Time</i>,
+<i>is</i> moved by the case of Poor <i>Wragg</i>, who was "in
+custody," to the following wail&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"What a touch of
+grossness in our race, what an original shortcoming in the more
+delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural growth
+amongst us of such hideous <i>names&mdash;Higginbottom</i>,
+<i>Stiggins</i>, <i>Bugg!"</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But this is the poet's point of
+view. Though there may have been "no <i>Wragg</i> by the
+Ilissus," it is not a bad name, for, in its original form
+<i>Ragg</i>, it is the first element of the heroic Ragnar, and
+probably unrelated to <i>Raggett</i>, which is the medieval
+<i>le</i> <i>ragged</i>. <i>Bugg</i>, which one family exchanged
+for Norfolk Howard, is the Anglo-Saxon Bucgo, a name no doubt
+borne by many a valiant warrior. <i>Stiggins</i>, as we have seen
+(Chapter XIII), goes back to a name great in history, and
+<i>Higginbottom</i> (Chapter XII) is purely
+geographical.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144732" id="Toc2144732"></a><a name="Toc80737"
+id="Toc80737">CHAPTER VIII <b>PALADINS AND
+HEROES</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"Morz est Rollanz,
+Deus en ad l'anme es ciels.</font><br>
+Li Emperere en Rencesvals parvient&hellip;<br>
+Carles escriet: 'U estes vus, bels ni&eacute;s?<br>
+U l'Arcevesques e li quens Oliviers?<br>
+U est Gerins e sis cumpainz Geriers?<br>
+Otes u est e Ii quens Berengiers?<br>
+Ives e Ivories que j'aveie tant chiers?<br>
+Qu'est devenuz li Guascuinz Engeliers,<br>
+Sansun li dux e Anse&iuml;s li fiers?<br>
+U est Gerarz de Russillun li vielz,<br>
+Li duze per que j'aveie laissiet?'"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Chanson</i> <i>de</i> <i>Roland</i>, 1. 2397.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> "Dead is Roland, God has his soul in heaven.
+The Emperor arrives at Roncevaux&hellip; Charles cries: 'Where
+are you, fair nephew? Where the archbishop (Turpin) and Count
+Oliver? Where is Gerin and his comrade Gerier? Where is Odo and
+count Berenger? Ivo and Ivory whom I held so dear? What has
+become of the Gascon Engelier? Samson the duke and Anseis the
+proud?<br>Where is Gerard of Roussillon the old, the twelve peers
+whom I had left?' "<i>]</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is natural that many
+favourite names should be taken from those of heroes of romance
+whose exploits were sung all over Europe by wandering minstrels.
+Such names, including those taken from the Round Table legends,
+usually came to us through French, though a few names of the
+British heroes are Welsh, e.g. <i>Cradock</i> from Caradoc
+(Caractacus) and <i>Maddox</i> from Madoc.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80738" id="Toc80738">THE ROUND
+TABLE</a></b></p>
+<p>But the Round Table stories were versified much later than the
+true Old French <i>Chansons</i> <i>de</i> <i>Geste</i>, which had
+a basis in the national history, and not many of Arthur's knights
+are immortalized as surnames. We have <i>Tristram</i>,
+<i>Lancelot</i>, whence <i>Lance</i>, <i>Percival</i>, Gawain in
+<i>Gavin</i>, and <i>Kay</i>. But the last named is, like
+<i>Key</i>, more usually from the word we now spell "quay,"
+though <i>Key</i> and <i>Keys</i> can also be shop-signs, as of
+course <i>Crosskeys</i> is. <i>Linnell</i> is sometimes for
+Lionel, as <i>Neil</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> But the Scottish Neil
+is a Gaelic name often exchanged for the unrelated Nigel.<i>]</i>
+<i>Neal</i> for Nigel. The ladies have fared better.
+<i>Vivian</i>, which is sometimes from the masculine Vivien, is
+found in Dorset as <i>Vye</i>, and Isolt and Guinevere, which
+long survived as font-names in Cornwall, have given several
+names. From Isolt come <i>Isard</i>, <i>Isitt</i>, <i>Izzard</i>,
+<i>Izod</i>, and many other forms, while Guinever appears as
+<i>Genever</i>, <i>Jennifer</i>, <i>Gaynor</i>, <i>Gilliver</i>,
+<i>Gulliver</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> There is also an Old Fr.
+Gulafre which will account for some of the Gullivers.<i>]</i> and
+perhaps also as <i>Juniper</i>. It is probably also the source of
+<i>Genn</i> and <i>Ginn</i>, though these may come also from
+Eugenia or from Jane. The later prose versions of the Arthurian
+stories, such as those of Malory, are full of musical and
+picturesque names like those used by Mr. Maurice Hewlett, but
+this artificial nomenclature has left no traces in our
+surnames.</p>
+<p>Of the paladins the most popular was Roland or Rowland, who
+survives as <i>Rowe</i>, <i>Rowlinson</i>, <i>Rolls</i>,
+<i>Rollit</i>, etc., sometimes coalescing with the derivations of
+Raoul, another epic hero. Gerin or Geri gave <i>Jeary</i>, and
+<i>Oates</i> is the nominative (Chapter VIII) of Odo, an
+important Norman name. Berenger appears as <i>Barringer</i> and
+<i>Bellinger</i> (Chapter III). The simple <i>Oliver</i> is
+fairly common, but it also became the Cornish <i>Olver</i>. But
+perhaps the largest surname family connected with the paladins is
+derived from the Breton Ives or Ivon <i>[Footnote:</i> A number
+of Old French names had an accusative in -<i>on</i> <i>or</i>
+-<i>ain</i>. Thus we find <i>Otes</i>, <i>Oton</i>, <i>Ives</i>,
+<i>Ivain</i>, and feminines such as <i>Ide</i>, <i>Idain</i>, all
+of which survive as English surnames.<i>]</i> whose name appears
+in that of two English towns. It is the same as Welsh Evan, and
+the Yvain of the Arthurian legends, and has given us <i>Ives</i>,
+<i>Ivison</i>, <i>Ivatts</i>, <i>etc</i>. The modern surname
+<i>Ivory</i> <i>is</i> usually an imitative form of <i>Every</i>
+or <i>Avery</i> <i>(p</i>, <i>82)</i>. Gerard has a variety of
+forms in <i>Ger</i>- and <i>Gar</i>-, <i>Jer</i>and <i>Jar</i>-
+(see <i>p</i>.<i>32)</i>. The others do not seem to have
+survived, except the redoubtable Archbishop <i>Turpin</i>, whose
+fame is probably less than that of his namesake Dick.</p>
+<p>Besides the paladins, there are many heroes of Old French epic
+whose names were popular during the two centuries that followed
+the Conquest. Ogier le Danois, who also fought at Roncevaux, has
+given us <i>Odgers;</i> Fierabras occasionally crops up as
+<i>Fairbrass</i>, <i>Firebrace;</i> Aimeri de Narbonne, from
+Almaric, <i>[Footnote:</i> A metathesis of Amalric, which is
+found in Anglo-Saxon.<i>]</i> whence Ital. Amerigo, is in English
+<i>Amery</i>, <i>Emery</i>, <i>Imray</i>, etc.; Renaud de
+Montauban is represented by <i>Reynolds</i> (Chapter VII) and
+<i>Reynell</i>.</p>
+<p>The famous <i>Doon</i> de Mayence may have been an ancestor of
+Lorna, and the equally famous Garin, or Warin, de Monglane has
+given us <i>Gearing</i>, <i>Gearing</i>, <i>Waring</i>, sometimes
+<i>Warren</i>, and the diminutives <i>Garnett</i> and
+<i>Warnett</i>. Milo, of Greek origin, became <i>Miles</i>, with
+dim. <i>Millett</i>, but the chief origin of the surname
+<i>Miles</i> <i>is</i> a contracted form of the common font-name
+Michael. Amis and Amiles were the David and Jonathan of Old
+French epic and the former survives as <i>Ames</i>, <i>Amies</i>,
+and <i>Amos</i>, the last an imitative form.</p>
+<p>We have also <i>Berner</i> from Bernier, <i>Bartram</i> from
+Bertran, <i>Farrant</i> from Fernand, Terry and <i>Terriss</i>
+from Thierry, the French form of Ger. Dietrich (Theodoric),
+which, through Dutch, has given also <i>Derrick</i>. Garner, from
+Ger. Werner, is our <i>Garner</i> <i>an</i>d <i>Warner</i>,
+though these have other origins (pp. 154, 185). Dru, from Drogo,
+has given <i>Drew</i>, with dim. <i>Druitt</i> (Chapter V), and
+<i>Druce</i>, though the latter may also come from the town of
+Dreux. <i>Walrond</i> and <i>Waldron</i> are for Waleran, usually
+Galeran, and King Pippin had a retainer named <i>Morant</i>.
+Saint Leger, or Leodigarius, appears as <i>Ledger</i>,
+<i>Ledgard</i>, <i>etc</i>., and sometimes in the shortened
+<i>Legg</i>. Among the heroines we have <i>Orbell</i> from
+Orable, while Blancheflour may have suggested <i>Lillywhite;</i>
+but the part played by women in <i>the</i> <i>Chansons</i>
+<i>de</i> <i>Geste</i> was insignificant.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80739" id="Toc80739">THE CHANSONS DE
+GESTE</a></b></p>
+<p>As this element in our nomenclature has hitherto received no
+attention, it may be well to add a few more examples of names
+which occur very frequently in the <i>Chansons</i> <i>de</i>
+<i>Geste</i> and which have undoubted representatives in modern
+English. <i>Allard</i> was one of the Four Sons of Aymon. The
+name is etymologically identical with <i>Aylward</i> (Chapter
+VII), but in the above form has reached us through French. Acard
+or Achard is represented by <i>Haggard</i>, <i>Haggett</i>, and
+<i>Hatchard</i>, <i>Hatchett</i>, though <i>Haggard</i> probably
+has another origin (Chapter XXIII). <i>Harness</i> <i>is</i>
+imitative for Harnais, Herneis. <i>Clarabutt</i> <i>is</i> for
+Clarembaut; cf. <i>Archbutt</i> for Archembaut, the Old French
+form of Archibald, <i>Archbold</i>. <i>Durrant</i> is Durand,
+still a very common French surname. <i>Ely</i> is Old Fr.
+&Eacute;lie, <i>i</i>.<i>e</i>. Elias (Chapter IX), which had the
+dim. Elyot. <i>[Footnote:</i> For other names belonging to this
+group see Chapter IX.<i>]</i> We also find Old Fr. Helye, whence
+our <i>Healey</i>. Enguerrand is telescoped to <i>Ingram</i>,
+though this may also come from the English form Ingelram.
+<i>Fawkes</i> is the Old Fr. Fauques, nominative (Chapter VIII)
+of Faucon, <i>i.e</i>. falcon. <i>Galpin</i> is contracted from
+<i>Galopin</i>, a famous epic thief, but it may also come from
+the common noun <i>galopin</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Galloppins</i>,
+under cookes, or scullions in monasteries."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(Cotgrave.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In either case it means a
+"runner." <i>Henfrey</i> is from Heinfrei or Hainfroi, identical
+with Anglo-Sax. Haganfrith, and <i>Manser</i> from Manesier.
+<i>Neame</i> (Chapter XXI) may sometimes represent Naime, the
+Nestor of Old French epic and the sage counsellor of Charlemagne.
+<i>Richer</i>, from Old Fr. Richier, has generally been absorbed
+by the cognate Richard. <i>Aubrey</i> and <i>Avery</i> are from
+Alberic, cognate with Anglo-Sax. AElfric. An unheroic name like
+<i>Siggins</i> may be connected with several heroes called
+Seguin.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80740" id="Toc80740">ANTIQUE NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Nor are the heroes of antiquity altogether absent. Along with
+Old French national and Arthurian epics there were a number of
+romances based on the legends of Alexander, Caesar, and the tale
+of Troy. Alexander, or <i>Saunder</i>, was the favourite among
+this class of names, especially in Scotland. <i>Cayzer</i> was
+generally a nickname (Chapter XIII), its later form <i>Cesar</i>
+being due to Italian influence, <i>[Footnote:</i> Julius Cesar,
+physician to Queen Elizabeth, was a Venetian (Bardsley).<i>]</i>
+and the same applies to <i>Hannibal</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> But
+the frequent occurrence of this name and its corruptions in
+Cornwall suggests that it may really have been introduced by
+Carthaginian sailors.<i>]</i> when it is not an imitative form of
+the female name Annabel, also corrupted into <i>Honeyball</i>.
+Both Dionisius and Dionisia were once common, and have survived
+as <i>Dennis</i>, <i>Dennett</i>, <i>Denny</i>, and from the
+shortened <i>Dye</i> we get <i>Dyson</i>. But this Dionisius was
+the patron saint of France. Apparent names of heathen gods and
+goddesses are almost always due to folk-etymology, e.g.
+<i>Bacchus</i> is for <i>back</i>-<i>house</i> or
+<i>bake</i>-<i>house</i>, and the ancestors of Mr. Wegg's friend
+<i>Venus</i> came from Venice.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><a name="Toc2144733" id="Toc2144733"></a></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80741" id="Toc80741">CHAPTER IX <b>THE BIBLE AND
+THE CALENDAR</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">" 'O Now you see,
+brother Toby,' he would say, looking up, 'that Christian names
+are not such indifferent things; &mdash;had Luther here been
+called by any other name but Martin, he would have been damn'd to
+all eternity' "</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p><i>(Tristram</i> <i>Shandy</i>, ch. xxxv).</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80742" id="Toc80742">OLD TESTAMENT
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The use of biblical names as font-names does not date from the
+Puritans, nor are surnames derived from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
+necessarily Jewish. The Old Testament names which were most
+popular among the medieval peasants from whom we nearly all
+spring were naturally those connected with the most picturesque
+episodes of sacred history. Taking as an example the father of
+all men, we find derived from the name <i>Adam</i> the following:
+<i>Adams</i>, <i>Adamson</i>, <i>Adcock</i>, <i>Addis</i>,
+<i>Addison</i>, <i>Adds</i>, <i>Addy</i>, <i>Ade</i>,
+<i>Ades</i>, <i>Adey</i>, <i>Adis</i>, <i>Ady</i>, <i>Addey</i>,
+<i>Aday</i>, <i>Adee</i>, <i>Addyman</i>, <i>Adkin</i>,
+<i>Adkins</i>, <i>Adkinson</i>, <i>Adnett</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i>
+Adenet (little Adam) le Roi was an Old French epic hero.<i>]</i>
+<i>Adnitt</i>, <i>Adnet</i>, <i>Adnot</i>, <i>Atkin</i>,
+<i>Atkins</i>, <i>Atkinson</i>, and the northern <i>Aitken</i>,
+etc. This list, compiled from Bardsley's <i>Dictionary</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>Surnames</i>, is certainly not exhaustive. Probably
+<i>Taddy</i> is rimed on Addy as <i>Taggy</i> is on Aggy (Agnes).
+To put together all the derivatives of John or Thomas would be a
+task almost beyond the wit of man. Names in <i>Abb</i>-,
+<i>App</i>-, may come from either Abraham or Abel, and from
+<i>Abbs</i> we also have <i>Nabbs</i>. Cain was of course
+unpopular. <i>Cain</i>, <i>Cane</i>, <i>Kain</i>, when not Manx,
+is from the town of Caen or from Norman <i>qu&ecirc;ne</i>, an
+oak.</p>
+<p>Moses appears in the French form <i>Moyes</i> (Mo&iuml;se) as
+early as 1273, and still earlier as <i>Moss</i>. Of the
+patriarchs the favourites were perhaps Jacob and Joseph, the name
+<i>Jessop</i> from the latter having been influenced by Ital.
+Giuseppe. Benjamin has sometimes given <i>Benson</i> and
+<i>Bennett</i>, but these are generally for Benedict (Chapter
+IV). The Judges are poorly represented, except <i>Samson</i>, a
+name which has obviously coalesced with the derivatives of
+Samuel. David had, of course, an immense vogue, especially in
+Wales (for some of its derivatives see Chapter VI), and Solomon
+was also popular, the modern <i>Salmon</i> not always being a
+Jewish name.</p>
+<p>But almost the favourite Old Testament name was Elijah, Elias,
+which, usually through its Old French form &Eacute;lie, whence
+<i>Ely</i>, is the parent of <i>Ellis</i>, <i>Elliot</i>, and
+many other names in <i>El</i>-, some of which, however, have to
+be shared with Ellen and Alice (Chapter X). Job was also popular,
+and is easily recognized in <i>Jobson</i>, <i>Jobling</i>,
+<i>etc</i>., but less easily in <i>Chubb</i> (Chapter III) and
+<i>Jupp</i>. The intermediate form was the obsolete Joppe. Among
+the prophetic writers Daniel was an easy winner, <i>Dann</i>,
+<i>Dance</i> (Chapter I), <i>Dannatt</i>, <i>Dancock</i>, etc.
+<i>Balaam</i> is an imitative spelling of the local Baylham.</p>
+<p>In considering these Old Testament names it must be remembered
+that the people did not possess the Bible in the vernacular. The
+teaching of the parish priests made them familiar with selected
+episodes, from which they naturally took the names which appeared
+to contain the greatest element of holiness or of warlike renown.
+It is probable that the mystery plays were not without influence;
+for the personal name was not always a fixed quantity, and many
+of the names mentioned in the preceding paragraph may have been
+acquired rather on the medieval stage than at the font.</p>
+<p>This would apply with still more force to names taken from the
+legends of saints and martyrs on which the miracle plays were
+based. We even find the names <i>Saint</i>, <i>Martyr</i> and
+<i>Postill</i>, the regular aphetic form of apostle (Chapter
+III), just as we find <i>King</i> and <i>Pope</i>. Camden,
+speaking of the freedom with which English names are formed,
+quotes a Dutchman, who&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"When he heard of
+English men called God and Devil, said, that the English borrowed
+names from all things whatsoever, good or bad."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The medieval name Godde may of
+course be for <i>Good</i>, Anglo-Sax. Goda, but <i>Ledieu</i> is
+common enough in France. The name seems to be obsolete, unless it
+is disguised as <i>Goad</i>. The occurrence in medieval rolls of
+<i>Diabolus</i> and <i>le</i> <i>Diable</i> shows that
+<i>Deville</i> need not always be for de Eyville. There was
+probably much competition for this important part, and the name
+would not be always felt as uncomplimentary. Among German
+surnames we find not only <i>Teufel</i>, but also the compounds
+<i>Manteufel</i> and <i>Teufelskind</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80743" id="Toc80743">NEW TESTAMENT
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Coming to the New Testament, we find the four Evangelists
+strongly represented, especially the first and last. Matthew
+appears not only in an easily recognizable form, e.g. in
+<i>Matheson</i>, but also as <i>Mayhew</i> and <i>Mayo</i>, Old
+Fr. Mahieu. From the latter form we have the shortened <i>May</i>
+and <i>Mee</i>, whence <i>Mayes</i>, <i>Makins</i>,
+<i>Meakin</i>, <i>Meeson</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> One family of
+<i>Meeson</i> claims descent from <i>Malvoisin</i>.<i>]</i> and
+sometimes <i>Mason</i>. Mark is one of the sources of
+<i>March</i> (p, 90), as Luke is of <i>Luck</i>, whence
+<i>Lucock</i>, <i>Luckett</i>, <i>etc</i>, though we more often
+find the learned form Lucas.</p>
+<p>Of John there is no need to speak. Of the apostles the great
+favourites, Simon, or Peter, John, and Bartholomew have already
+been mentioned. Almost equally popular was Philip, whence
+<i>Philp</i>, <i>Phipps</i>, <i>Phelps</i>, and the dim.
+<i>Philpot</i>, whence the aphetic <i>Pott</i>, <i>Potts</i>.
+Andrew flourished naturally in Scotland, its commonest derivative
+being <i>Anderson</i>, while <i>Dendy</i> is for the rimed form
+Dandy. Paul has of course had a great influence and is
+responsible for <i>Pawson</i> or <i>Porson</i>, <i>Pawling</i>,
+<i>Polson</i>, <i>Pollett</i>, and most names in Pol-.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> This does not of course apply to Cornish names
+in <i>Pol</i>- (Chapter VI)<i>]</i> It is also, in the form
+<i>Powell</i>, assimilated to the Welsh Ap Howel. Paul is
+regularly spelt Poule by Chaucer, and St. Paul's Cathedral is
+often called <i>Powles</i> in Tudor documents. Paul's companions
+are poorly represented, for <i>Barnby</i> is local, while names
+in <i>Sil</i>- and <i>Sel</i>- come from shortened form of Cecil,
+Cecilia, and Silvester. Another great name from the Acts of the
+Apostles is that of the protomartyr Stephen, among the numerous
+derivatives of which we must include <i>Stennett</i> and
+<i>Stimpson</i>.</p>
+<p>Many non-biblical saints whose names occur very frequently
+have already been mentioned, e.g. Antony, Bernard, Gregory,
+Martin, Lawrence, Nicholas, etc To these may be added Augustine,
+or <i>Austin</i>, Christopher, or Kit, with the dim.
+<i>Christie</i> and the patronymic <i>Kitson</i>, Clement, whence
+a large family of names <i>in</i> <i>Clem</i>-, Gervase or
+<i>Jarvis</i>, Jerome, sometimes represented by <i>Jerram</i>,
+and Theodore or <i>Tidd</i> (cf. <i>Tibb</i> fron Theobald), who
+becomes in Welsh <i>Tudor</i>. Vincent has given <i>Vince</i>,
+<i>Vincey</i> and <i>Vincett</i>, and <i>Baseley</i>,
+<i>Blazey</i> are from Basil and Blaine. The Anglo-Saxon saints
+are poorly represented, though probably most of them survive in a
+disguised form, e.g. <i>Price</i> is sometimes for <i>Brice</i>,
+Cuthbert has sometimes given <i>Cubitt</i> and <i>Cobbett</i>,
+and also <i>Cutts</i>. <i>Bottle</i> sometimes represents Botolf,
+<i>Neate</i> <i>may</i> be for Neot, and Chad (Ceadda) survives
+as <i>Chatt</i> and in many local names. The Cornish
+<i>Tangye</i> is from the Breton St. Tanneguy. The Archangel
+Michael has given one of our commonest names, <i>Mitchell</i>
+(Chapter IV). This is through French, but we have also the
+contracted <i>Miall</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+"At Michael's term had many a <i>trial</i>,<br>
+Worse than the dragon and St. <i>Michael</i>.<i>"</i>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Hudibras, <i>III</i>. ii. 51.)</p>
+</div>
+<p>[Footnote: Cf. <i>Vialls</i> from Vitalis, also a saint's
+name.<i>]</i></p>
+</div>
+<p>This name exists in several other forms, e.g. <i>Mihell</i>,
+<i>Myhill</i>, <i>Mighill</i>, and most frequently of all as
+<i>Miles</i> (Chapter VIII). The reader will remember the famous
+salient of Saint-Mihiel, on the Meuse, held by the Germans for so
+long a period of the war. From Gabriel we have <i>Gabb</i>,
+<i>Gabbett</i>, <i>etc</i>. The common rustic pronunciation
+<i>Gable</i> has given <i>Cable</i> (Chapter III).</p>
+<p>Among female saints we find Agnes, pronounced <i>Annis</i>,
+the derivatives of which have become confused with those of Anne,
+or Nan, Catherine, whence <i>Call</i>, <i>Catlin</i>, etc.,
+Cecilia, Cicely, whence <i>Sisley</i>, and of course Mary and
+Margaret. For these see Chapter X. St. Bride, or Bridget,
+survives in <i>Kirkbride</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80744" id="Toc80744">FEAST-DAYS</a></b></p>
+<p>A very interesting group of surnames are derived from
+font-names taken from the great feasts of the Church, date of
+birth or baptism, etc. <i>[Footnote:</i> Names of this class were
+no doubt also sometimes given to foundlings.<i>]</i> These are
+more often French or Greco-Latin than English, a fact to be
+explained by priestly influence. Thus <i>Christmas</i> is much
+less common than <i>Noel</i> or <i>Nowell</i>, but we also find
+<i>Midwinter</i> (Chapter II) and <i>Yule</i>. <i>Easter</i> has
+a local origin (from a place in Essex) and also represents Mid.
+Eng. es<i>tre</i>, a word of very vague meaning for part of a
+building, originally the exterior, from Lat. <i>extra</i>. It
+survives in Fr. <i>les</i> <i>&ecirc;tres</i> <i>d'une</i>
+<i>maison</i>. <i>Hester</i>, to which Bardsley gives the same
+origin, I should rather connect with Old Fr. <i>hestre</i>
+<i>(h&ecirc;tre)</i>, a beech. However that may be, the Easter
+festival is represented in our surnames by <i>Pascall</i>,
+Cornish <i>Pascoe</i>, and <i>Pask</i>, <i>Pash</i>, <i>Pace</i>,
+<i>Pack</i>.</p>
+<p><i>Patch</i>, formerly a nickname for a jester (Chapter XX),
+from his motley clothes, is also sometimes a variant of
+<i>Pash</i>. And the dim. <i>Patchett</i> has become confused
+with <i>Padgett</i>, from Padge, a rimed form of Madge.
+<i>Pentecost</i> is recorded as a personal name in Anglo-Saxon
+times. Michaelmas is now <i>Middleman</i> (Chapter III), and
+<i>Tiffany</i> is an old name for Epiphany. It comes from
+Greco-Latin <i>theophania</i> (while Epiphany represents
+<i>epiphania)</i>, which gave the French female name Tiphaine,
+whence our <i>Tiffin</i>. <i>Lammas</i> (loaf mass) is also found
+as a personal name, but there is a place called Lammas in
+Norfolk. We have compounds of <i>day</i> in <i>Halliday</i> or
+<i>Holiday</i>, <i>Hay</i>-<i>day</i>, for high day,
+<i>Loveday</i>, a day appointed for reconciliations, and
+<i>Hockaday</i>, for a child born during Hocktide, which begins
+on the 15th day after Easter. It was also called Hobday, though
+it is hard to say why; hence the name <i>Hobday</i>, unless this
+is to be taken as the <i>day</i>, or servant (Chapter XIX), in
+the service of Hob; cf. <i>Hobman</i>.</p>
+<p>The days of the week are puzzling, the only one at all common
+being <i>Munday</i>, though most of the others are found in
+earlier nomenclature. We should rather expect special attention
+to be given to Sunday and Friday, and, in fact, Sonntag and
+Freytag are by far the most usual in German, while Dimanche and
+its perversions are common in France, and Vendredi also occurs.
+This makes me suspect some other origin, probably local, for
+<i>Munday</i>, the more so as Fr. Dimanche, Demange, etc., is
+often for the personal name Dominicus, the etymology remaining
+the same as that of the day-name, the Lord's day. Parts of the
+day seem to survive in <i>Noon</i>, <i>Eve</i>, and
+<i>Morrow</i>, but <i>Noon</i> <i>is</i> local, Fr. Noyon (cf.
+<i>Moon</i>, earlier <i>Mohun</i>, from Moyon), <i>Eve</i>
+<i>is</i> the mother of mankind, and <i>Morrow</i> is for
+<i>moor</i>-<i>wro</i>, the second element being Mid. Eng.
+<i>wra</i>, comer, whence <i>Wray</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80745" id="Toc80745">MONTH NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>We find the same difficulty with the names of the months.
+Several of these are represented in French, but our <i>March</i>
+has four other origins, from March in Cambridgeshire, from march,
+a boundary, from marsh, or from Mark; while <i>May</i> means in
+Mid. English a maiden (Chapter XXI), and is also a dim. of
+Matthew (Chapter IX). The names of the seasons also present
+difficulty. <i>Spring</i> usually corresponds to Fr. La Fontaine
+(Chapter II), but we find also <i>Lent</i>, the old name for the
+season, and French has <i>Printemps</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> The
+cognate Ger. <i>Lenz</i> is fairly common, hence the frequency of
+<i>Lent</i> in America.<i>]</i> <i>Summer</i> and <i>Winter</i>
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Winter was one of Hereward's most faithful
+comrades.<i>]</i> are found very early as nicknames, as are also
+<i>Frost</i> and <i>Snow</i>; but why always <i>Summers</i> or
+<i>Somers</i> with <i>s</i> and <i>Winter</i> without?
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Two other common nicknames were <i>Flint</i>
+and <i>Steel</i>.<i>]</i> The latter has no doubt in many cases
+absorbed <i>Vinter</i>, vintner (Chapter III) but this will not
+account for the complete absence of genitive forms. And what has
+become of the other season? We should not expect to find the
+learned word "autumn," but neither <i>Fall</i> nor
+<i>Harvest</i>, the true English equivalents, are at all common
+as surnames.</p>
+<p>I regard this group, viz. days, months, seasons, as one of the
+least clearly accounted for in our nomenclature, and cannot help
+thinking that the more copious examples which we find in French
+and German are largely distorted forms due to the imitative
+instinct, or are susceptible of other explanations. This is
+certainly true in some cases, e.g. Fr. Mars is the regular French
+development of Medardus, a saint to whom a well-known Parisian
+church is dedicated; and the relationship of Janvier to Janus may
+be <i>via</i> the Late Lat. <i>januarius</i>, for <i>janitor</i>,
+a doorkeeper.</p>
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> Medardus was the saint who, according to
+Ingoldsby, lived largely on oysters obtained by the Red Sea
+shore. At his church in Paris were performed the 'miracles' of
+the Quietists in the seventeenth century. When the scenes that
+took place became a scandal, the government intervened, with the
+result that a wag adorned the church door with the following:</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>De par le Roi, d&eacute;fense &agrave; Dieu<br>
+De faire miracle en ce lieu."<i>]</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144734" id="Toc2144734"></a><a name="Toc80746"
+id="Toc80746">CHAPTER X <b>METRONYMICS</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"During the whole
+evening Mr. Jellyby sat in a corner with his head against the
+wall, as if he were subject to low spirits."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p align="right"><i>(Bleak</i> <i>House</i>, ch. iv.)</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Bardsley first drew attention
+to the very large number of surnames derived from an ancestress.
+His views have been subjected to much ignorant criticism by
+writers who, taking upon themselves the task of defending
+medieval virtue, have been unwilling to accept this terrible
+picture of the moral condition of England, etc. This anxiety is
+misplaced. There are many reasons, besides illegitimacy, for the
+adoption of the mother's name. In medieval times the children of
+a widow, especially posthumous children, would often assume the
+mother's name. <i>Widdowson</i> itself is sufficiently common. In
+the case of second marriages the two families might sometimes be
+distinguished by their mothers' names. Orphans would be adopted
+by female relatives, and a medieval Mrs. Joe Gargery would
+probably have impressed her own name rather than that of her
+husband on a medieval Pip. In a village which counted two Johns
+or Williams, and few villages did not, the children of one might
+assume, or rather would be given by the public voice, the
+mother's name. Finally, metronymics can be collected in hundreds
+by anyone who cares to work through a few early
+registers.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80747" id="Toc80747">FEMALE
+FONT-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Thus, in the Lancashire Inquests 205-1307 occur plenty of
+people described as the sons of Alice, Beatrice, Christiana, Eda,
+Eva, Mariot, Matilda, Quenilda, <i>[Footnote:</i> An Anglo-Saxon
+name, Cynehild, whence <i>Quennell</i>.<i>]</i> Sibilla, Ysolt.
+Even if illegitimacy were the only reason, that would not concern
+the philologist.</p>
+<p>Female names undergo the same course of treatment as male
+names. Mary gave the diminutives Marion and Mariot, whence
+<i>Marriott</i>. <i>It</i> was popularly shortened into Mal (cf.
+Hal for Harry), which had the diminutive Mally. From these we
+have <i>Mawson</i> <i>and</i> <i>Malleson</i>, the former also
+belonging to Maud. Mal and Mally became Mol and Molly, hence
+Mollison. The rimed forms Pol, Polly are later, and names in
+<i>Pol</i>- usually belong to Paul (Chapter IX). The name
+<i>Morris</i> has three other origins (the font-name Maurice, the
+nickname Moorish, and the local <i>marsh)</i>, but both
+<i>Morris</i> and <i>Morrison</i> are sometimes to be referred to
+Mary. Similarly Margaret, popularly Mar-get, became Mag, Meg,
+Mog, whence <i>Meggitt</i>, <i>Moxon</i>, <i>etc</i>. The rarity
+of <i>Maggot</i> <i>is</i> easily understood, but Poll Maggot was
+one of Jack Sheppard's accomplices and Shakespeare uses
+<i>maggot</i>-<i>pie</i> for magpie <i>(Macbeth</i>, <i>iii</i>,
+<i>4)</i>. Meg was rimed into Peg, whence <i>Peggs</i>, Mog into
+Pog, whence <i>Pogson</i>, and Madge into Padge, whence
+<i>Padgett</i>, when this is not for <i>Patchett</i> (Chapter
+IX), or for the Fr. <i>Paget</i>, usually explained as
+<i>Smallpage</i>. The royal name Matilda appears in the
+contracted <i>Maud</i>, <i>Mould</i>, <i>Moule</i>, <i>Mott</i>,
+<i>Mahood</i> (Old Fr. Maheut). Its middle syllable <i>Till</i>
+gave <i>Tilly</i>, <i>Tillson</i> and the dim. <i>Tillet</i>,
+<i>Tillot</i>, whence <i>Tillotson</i>. From Beatrice we have
+<i>Bee</i>, <i>Beaton</i> and <i>Betts</i>, and the northern
+<i>Beattie</i>, which are not connected with the great name
+Elizabeth. This is in medieval rolls represented by its cognate
+Isabel, of which the shortened form was <i>Bell</i> (Chapter I),
+or Ib, the latter giving <i>Ibbot</i>, <i>Ibbotson</i>, and the
+rimed forms <i>Tib</i>-, <i>Nib</i>-, <i>Bib</i>-, <i>Lib</i>-.
+Here also belong <i>Ebbs</i> and <i>Epps</i> rather than to the
+Anglo-Sax. Ebba (Chapter VII).</p>
+<p>Many names which would now sound somewhat ambitious were
+common among the medieval peasantry and are still found in the
+outlying parts of England, especially Devon and Cornwall. Among
+the characters in Mr. Eden Phillpotts's <i>Widecombe</i>
+<i>Fair</i> are two sisters named <i>Sibley</i> and
+<i>Petronell</i>. From Sibilla, now Sibyl, come most names in
+<i>Sib</i>-, though this was used also as a dim. of Sebastian
+(see also Chapter VII), while Petronilla, has given
+<i>Parnell</i>, <i>Purnell</i>. As a female name it suffered the
+eclipse to which certain names are accidentally subject, and
+became equivalent to wench. References to a "prattling Parnel"
+are common in old writers, and the same fate overtook it in
+French&mdash;</p>
+<p align="center">"<font face="Bookman Old Style"
+size="3">Taisez</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">vous, <i>p&eacute;ronnelle"</i> <i>(Tartufe</i>, <i>i</i>.
+<i>1</i>).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Mention has already been made
+of the survival of Guinevere (Chapter VIII). From Cassandra we
+have <i>Cash</i>, <i>Cass</i>, <i>Case</i>, and <i>Casson</i>,
+from Idonia, <i>Ide</i>, <i>Iddins</i>, <i>Iddison;</i> these
+were no doubt confused with the derivatives of Ida. William
+filius Idae is in the Fine Rolls of John's reign, and John
+Idonyesone occurs there, temp. Edward I. <i>Pim</i>, as a female
+font-name, may be from Euphemia, and <i>Siddons</i> appears to
+belong to Sidonia, while the pretty name Avice appears as
+<i>Avis</i> and <i>Haweis</i>. From Lettice, Lat.
+<i>laetitia</i>, joy, we have <i>Letts</i>, <i>Lettson</i>, while
+the corresponding <i>Joyce</i>, Lat. <i>jocosa</i>, merry, has
+become confused with Fr. Josse (Chapter I). <i>Anstey</i>,
+<i>Antis</i>, is from Anastasia, <i>Precious</i> from Preciosa,
+and <i>Royce</i> from Rohesia.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80748" id="Toc80748">DOUBTFUL CASES</a></b></p>
+<p>It is often difficult to separate patronymics from
+metronymics. We have already seen (Chapter VI) that names in
+<i>Ed</i>- may be from Eda or from Edward, while names in
+<i>Gil</i>- must be shared between Julian, Juliana, Guillaume,
+Gilbert, and Giles. There are many other cases like Julian and
+Juliana, e.g. <i>Custance</i> is for Constance, but <i>Cust</i>
+may also represent the masculine Constant, while among the
+derivatives of Philip we must not forget the warlike Philippa.
+Or, to take pairs which are unrelated, <i>Kitson</i> may be from
+Christopher or from Catherine, and <i>Mattison</i> from Matthew
+or from Martha, which became Matty and Patty, the derivatives of
+the latter coalescing with those of Patrick (Chapter VI). It is
+obvious that the derivatives of Alice would be confused with
+those of Allen, while names in <i>El</i>- may represent Elias or
+Eleanor. Also names in <i>Al</i>- and <i>El</i>- are sometimes
+themselves confused, e.g. the Anglo-Saxon AElfgod appears both as
+<i>Allgood</i> and <i>Elgood</i>. More <i>Nelsons</i> are derived
+from Neil, <i>i.e</i>. Nigel, than from Nell, the rimed dim. of
+Ellen. <i>Emmett</i> is a dim. of Emma, but <i>Empson</i>
+<i>may</i> be a shortened <i>Emerson</i> from Emery (Chapter
+VIII). The rather commonplace <i>Tibbles</i> stands for both
+Theobald and Isabella, and the same is true of all names in
+<i>Tib</i>- and some in Teb-. Lastly, the coalescence of John,
+the commonest English font-name, with Joan, the earlier form of
+Jane, was inevitable, while the French forms Jean and Jeanne
+would be undistinguishable in their derivatives. These names
+between them have given an immense number of surnames, the
+masculine or feminine interpretation of which must be left to the
+reader's imagination.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144735" id="Toc2144735"></a><a name="Toc80749"
+id="Toc80749">CHAPTER XI <b>LOCAL SURNAMES</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Now as men have
+always first given names unto places, so hath it afterwards grown
+usuall that men have taken their names from places"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(VERSTEGAN, <i>Restitution</i> <i>of</i> <i>Decayed</i>
+<i>Intelligence)</i>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">There is an idea cherished by
+some people that the possession of a surname which is that of a
+village or other locality points to ancestral ownership of that
+region. This is a delusion. In the case of quite small features
+of the landscape, e.g. <i>Bridge</i>, <i>Hill</i>, the name was
+given from place of residence. But in the case of counties, towns
+and villages, the name was usually acquired when the locality was
+left. Thus John Tiler leaving Acton, perhaps for Acton's good,
+would be known in his new surroundings as John Acton. A moment's
+reflection will show that this must be so. <i>Scott</i> <i>is</i>
+an English name, the aristocratic Scotts beyond the border
+representing a Norman family Escot, originally of Scottish
+origin. <i>English</i>, early spelt <i>Inglis</i>, is a Scottish
+name. The names <i>Cornish</i> and <i>Cornwallis</i> first became
+common in Devonshire, as <i>Devenish</i> did outside that county.
+<i>French</i> and <i>Francis</i>, Old Fr. <i>le</i>
+<i>franceis</i>, are English names, just as <i>Langlois</i>
+<i>(</i>l'Anglais) is common in France. For the same reason
+<i>Cutler</i> is a rare name in Sheffield, where all are cutlers.
+By exception the name <i>Curnow</i>, which is Cornish for a
+Cornishman, is fairly common in its native county, but it was
+perhaps applied especially to those inhabitants who could only
+speak the old Cornish language.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80750" id="Toc80750">CLASSES OF LOCAL
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The local name may range in origin from a country to a plant
+<i>(France</i>, <i>Darbishire</i>, <i>Lankester</i>,
+<i>Ashby</i>, <i>Street</i>, <i>House</i>, <i>Pound</i>,
+<i>Plumptre</i>, <i>Daisy)</i>, and, mathematically stated, the
+size of the locality will vary in direct proportion to the
+distance from which the immigrant has come. Terentius Afer was
+named from a continent. I cannot find a parallel in England, but
+names such as the nouns <i>France</i>, <i>Ireland</i>,
+<i>Pettingell</i> (Portugal), or the adjectives <i>Dench</i>,
+Mid. Eng. <i>dense</i>, Danish, <i>Norman</i>, <i>Welsh</i>,
+<i>(Walsh</i>, <i>Wallis</i>, etc.), <i>Allman</i> (Allemand),
+often perverted to <i>Almond</i>, were considered a sufficient
+mark of identification for men who came from foreign parts. But
+the untravelled inhabitant, if distinguished by a local name,
+would often receive it from some very minute feature of the
+landscape, e.g. Solomon <i>Daisy</i> may have been descended from
+a Robert <i>Dayeseye</i>, who lived in Hunts in 1273. It is not
+very easy to see how such very trifling surnames as this last
+came into existence, but its exiguity is surpassed in the case of
+a prominent French airman who bears the appropriately buoyant
+name of <i>Brindejonc</i>, perhaps from some ancestor who
+habitually chewed a straw.</p>
+<p>An immense number of our countrymen are simply named from the
+points of the compass, slightly disguised in <i>Norris</i>,
+Anglo-Fr. <i>le</i> <i>noreis</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> The
+corresponding <i>le</i> <i>surreis</i> <i>is</i> now represented
+by <i>Surridge</i>.<i>]</i> <i>Sotheran</i>, the southron, and
+<i>Sterling</i>, for Easterling, a name given to the Hanse
+merchants. <i>Westray</i> was formerly <i>le</i> <i>westreis</i>.
+A German was to our ancestors, as he still is to sailors, a
+Dutchman, whence our name <i>Douch</i>, Ger. <i>deutsch</i>, Old
+High Ger. <i>tiutisc</i>, which, through Old French <i>tieis</i>,
+has given <i>Tyas</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Tyars</i>, or
+<i>Tyers</i>, which Bardsley puts with this, seems to be rather
+Fr. <i>Thiers</i>, Lat. t<i>ertius</i>.<i>]</i></p>
+<p>But not every local name is to be taken at its face value.
+<i>Holland</i> is usually from one of the Lancashire Hollands,
+and <i>England</i> may be for Mid. Eng. <i>ing</i>-<i>land</i>,
+the land of Ing (cf. Ingulf, Ingold, etc.), a personal name which
+is the first element in many place-names, or from <i>ing</i>, a
+meadow by a stream. <i>Holyland</i> is not Palestine, but the
+holly-land. <i>Hampshire</i> is often for Hallamshire, a district
+in Yorkshire. <i>Dane</i> is a variant of Mid. Eng. <i>dene</i>,
+a valley, the inhabitant of Denmark having given us <i>Dench</i>
+(Chapter XI) and <i>Dennis</i> <i>(le</i> <i>daneis)</i>.
+Visitors to Margate will remember the valley called the Dane,
+which stretches from the harbour to St. Peters. <i>Saxon</i> is
+not racial, but a perversion of sexton (Chapter XVII). Mr.
+Birdofredum Sawin, commenting on the methods employed in carrying
+out the great mission of the Anglo-Saxon race, remarks
+that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 11em">
+"<i>Saxons</i> would be handy
+<div style="margin-left: -9em">
+To du the buryin' down here upon the Rio Grandy"
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+<p>(Lowell, <i>Biglow</i> <i>Papers)</i>.</p>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name <i>Cockayne</i> was
+perhaps first given derisively to a sybarite&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Paris est pour le
+riche un pays de <i>Cocagne"</i> (Boileau),</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but it may be an imitative form
+of Coken in Durham.</font></p>
+<p>Names such as <i>Morris</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Moorish, or
+<i>Sarson</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Saracen (but also for Sara-son), are
+rather nicknames, due to complexion or to an ancestor who was
+mine host of the Saracen's Head. <i>Moor</i> <i>is</i> sometimes
+of similar origin. <i>Russ</i>, like <i>Rush</i>, <i>is</i> one
+of the many forms of Fr. roux, red-complexioned (Chapter II).
+<i>Pole</i> is for <i>Pool</i>, the native of Poland being called
+Polack&mdash;</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"He
+smote the sledded <i>Polack</i> on the ice" <i>(Hamlet</i>, I.
+i).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But the name <i>Pollock</i> is
+local (Renfrewshire).</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80751" id="Toc80751">COUNTIES AND
+TOWNS</a></b></p>
+<p>As a rule it will be found that, while most of our counties
+have given family names, sometimes corrupted, e.g.
+<i>Lankshear</i>, <i>Willsher</i>, <i>Cant</i>, <i>Chant</i>, for
+Kent, with which we may compare <i>Anguish</i> for Angus, the
+larger towns are rather poorly represented, the movement having
+always been from country to town, and the smaller spot serving
+for more exact description. An exception is <i>Bristow</i>
+(Bristol), Mid. Eng. <i>brig</i>-<i>stow</i>, the place on the
+bridge, the great commercial city of the west from which so many
+medieval seamen hailed; but the name is sometimes from Burstow
+(Surrey), and there were possibly smaller places called by so
+natural a name, just as the name <i>Bradford</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+broad ford, may come from a great many other places than the
+Yorkshire wool town. <i>Rossiter</i> is generally for Rochester,
+but also for Wroxeter (Salop); Coggeshall is well disguised as
+<i>Coxall</i>, Barnstaple as <i>Bastable</i>, Maidstone as
+<i>Mayston</i>, Stockport as <i>Stopford</i>. On the other hand,
+there is not a village of any antiquity but has, or once had, a
+representative among surnames.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80752" id="Toc80752">NAMES PRECEDED <i>BY</i>
+<i>DE</i></a></b></p>
+<p>The provinces and towns of France and Flanders have given us
+many common surnames. From names of provinces we have
+<i>Burgoyne</i> and <i>Burgin</i>, <i>Champain</i> and
+<i>Champneys</i> (Chapter II), <i>Gascoyne</i> and <i>Gaskin</i>,
+<i>Mayne</i>, <i>Mansell</i>, Old Fr. <i>Mancel</i>
+<i>(manceau)</i>, an inhabitant of Maine or of its capital Le
+Mans, <i>Brett</i> and <i>Britton</i>, Fr. le Bret and le Breton,
+<i>Pickard</i>, <i>Power</i>, sometimes from Old Fr.
+<i>Pohier</i>, a Picard, <i>Peto</i>, formerly Peitow, from
+Poitou, <i>Poidevin</i> and <i>Puddifin</i>, for</p>
+<p>Poitevin, <i>Loring</i>, Old Fr. <i>le</i> <i>Lohereng</i>,
+the man from Lorraine, assimilated to <i>Fleming</i>,
+<i>Hammy</i>, an old name for Hainault, <i>Brabazon</i>, le
+Braban&ccedil;on, and <i>Brebner</i>, formerly le Brabaner,
+<i>Angwin</i>, for Angevin, <i>Flinders</i>, a perversion of
+Flanders, <i>Barry</i>, which is sometimes for Berri, and others
+which can be identified by everybody.</p>
+<p>Among towns we have <i>Allenson</i>, Alen&ccedil;on,
+<i>Amyas</i>, Amiens, <i>Ainger</i>, Angers, <i>Aris</i>, Arras,
+<i>Bevis</i>, Beauvais, <i>Bullen</i>, Boulogne, <i>Bloss</i>,
+Blois, <i>Bursell</i>, Brussels, <i>Callis</i> and
+<i>Challis</i>, Calais, <i>Challen</i>, from one of the French
+towns called Chalon or Chalons, <i>Chaworth</i>, Cahors,
+<i>Druce</i>, Dreux, <i>Gaunt</i>, Gand (Ghent), <i>Luck</i>,
+Luick (Liege), <i>Loving</i>, Louvain, <i>Malins</i>, Malines
+(Mechlin), <i>Raynes</i>, Rennes and Rheims, <i>Roan</i>, Rouen,
+<i>Sessions</i>, Soissons, <i>Stamp</i>, Old Fr. Estampes
+(ttampes), <i>Turney</i>, Tournay, etc. The name de Verdun is
+common enough in old records for us to connect with it both the
+fascinating Dolly and the illustrious Harry. <i>[Footnote added
+by scanner:</i> Some modern readers might not realise that
+Weekley was referring to Harry Vardon, a famous golfer of the
+late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Dolly Varden was a
+character in Dickens&rsquo; "Barnaby Rudge", a pretty girl in
+flowered hats and skirts. Her name was borrowed for various
+clothing styles, breeds of flowers, shows, theatres and even
+angling fishes among other things. There seem to have been
+several references to "the fascinating Dolly Varden", though the
+expression does not occur in the book.<i>]</i> To the above may
+be added, among German towns, <i>Cullen</i>, Cologne, and
+<i>Lubbock</i>, Luebeck, and, from Italy, <i>Janes</i>,
+G&ecirc;nes (Genoa), <i>Janaway</i> or <i>Janways</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. Genoese, and <i>Lombard</i> or <i>Lombard</i>.
+Familiar names of foreign towns were often anglicized. Thus we
+find Hamburg called <i>Hamborough</i>, Bruges <i>Bridges</i>, and
+Tours <i>Towers</i>.</p>
+<p>To the town of Angers we sometimes owe, besides <i>Ainger</i>,
+the forbidding names <i>Anger</i> and <i>Danger</i>. In many
+local names of foreign origin the preposition <i>de</i> has been
+incorporated, e.g. <i>Dalmain</i>, d'Allemagne, sometimes
+corrupted into <i>Dallman</i> and <i>Dollman</i>, though these
+are also for <i>Doleman</i>, from the East Anglian <i>dole</i>, a
+boundary, <i>Dallison</i>, d'Alen&ccedil;on, <i>Danvers</i>,
+d'Anvers, Antwerp, <i>Devereux</i>, d'&Eacute;vreux,
+<i>Daubeney</i>, <i>Dabney</i>, d'Aubigny, <i>Disney</i>,
+d'Isigny, etc. <i>Doyle</i> is a later form of <i>Doyley</i>, or
+<i>Dolley</i>, for d'Ouilli, and <i>Darcy</i> and <i>Durfey</i>
+were once d'Arcy and d'Urf&eacute;. <i>Dew</i> <i>is</i>
+sometimes for de Eu. Sir John de Grey, justice of Chester, had in
+1246 two <i>Alice</i> <i>in</i> <i>Wonderland</i> clerks named
+Henry de Eu and William de Ho. A familiar example, which has been
+much disputed, is the Cambridgeshire name <i>Death</i>, which
+some of its possessors prefer to write D'Aeth or De Ath. Bardsley
+rejects this, without, I think, sufficient reason. It is true
+that it occurs as <i>de</i> <i>Dethe</i> in the Hundred Rolls,
+but this is not a serious argument, for we find also <i>de</i>
+<i>Daubeney</i> (Chapter XI), the original <i>de</i> having
+already been absorbed at the time the Rolls were compiled. This
+retention of the <i>de</i> is also common in names derived from
+spots which have not become recognized place-names; see Chapter
+XIV.</p>
+<p>But to derive a name of obviously native origin from a place
+in France is a snobbish, if harmless, delusion. There are quite
+enough <i>moor</i> <i>leys</i> in England without explaining
+<i>Morley</i> by Morlaix. To connect the Mid. English nickname
+<i>Longfellow</i> with Longueville, or the patronymic
+<i>Hansom</i> (Chapter III) with Anceaumville, betrays the same
+belief in phonetic epilepsy that inspires the derivation of
+<i>Barber</i> from the chapelry of Sainte-Barbe. The fact that
+there are at least three places, in England called
+<i>Carrington</i> has not prevented one writer from seeking the
+origin of that name in the appropriate locality of Charenton.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><a name="Toc2144736" id="Toc2144736"></a></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80753" id="Toc80753">CHAPTER XII <b>SPOT
+NAMES</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>"In <i>ford</i>, in
+<i>ham</i>, in <i>ley</i> and <i>tun</i> <br>
+The most of English surnames run"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+(VERSTEGAN).
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Verstegan's couplet, even if it
+be not strictly true, makes a very good text for a discourse on
+our local names. The <i>ham</i>, or home, and the <i>ton</i>, or
+town, originally an enclosure (cf. Ger. <i>Zaun</i>, hedge),
+were, at any rate in a great part of England, the regular nucleus
+of the village, which in some cases has become the great town and
+in others has decayed away and disappeared from the map. In an
+age when wool was our great export, flock keeping was naturally a
+most important calling, and the <i>ley</i>, or meadow land, would
+be quickly taken up and associated with human activity. When
+bridges were scarce, <i>fords</i> were important, and it is easy
+to see how the inn, the smithy, the cartwright's booth, etc.,
+would naturally plant themselves at such a spot and form the
+commencement of a hamlet.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80754" id="Toc80754">ELEMENTS OF
+PLACE-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Each of these four words exists by itself as a specific
+place-name and also as a surname. In fact <i>Lee</i> and
+<i>Ford</i> are among our commonest local surnames. In the same
+way the local origin of such names as <i>Clay</i> and
+<i>Chalk</i> may be specific as well as general. But I do not
+propose to deal here with the vast subject of our English village
+names, but only with the essential elements of which they are
+composed, elements which were often used for surnominal purposes
+long before the spot itself had developed into a village.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> A good general account of our village names
+will be found in the Appendix to Isaac Taylor's <i>Names</i>
+<i>and</i> <i>their</i> <i>Histories</i>. It is reprinted as
+chapter xi of the same author's <i>Words</i> <i>and</i>
+<i>Places</i> (Everyman Library). See also Johnston's
+<i>Place</i>-<i>names</i> <i>of</i> <i>England</i> and
+<i>Wales</i>, a glossary of selected names with a comprehensive
+introduction. There are many modern books on the village names of
+various counties, e.g. Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Cambridgeshire,
+Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk (Skeat), Oxfordshire
+(Alexander), Lancashire (Wyld and Hirst), West Riding of
+Yorkshire (Moorman), Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire
+(Duignan), Nottinghamshire (Mutschmann), Gloucestershire
+(Baddeley), Herefordshire (Bannister), Wiltshire (Elsblom), S.W.
+Yorkshire (Goodall), Sussex (Roberts), Lancashire (Sephton),
+Derbyshire (Walker), Northumberland and Durham (Mawer).<i>]</i>
+Thus the name <i>Oakley</i> must generally have been borne by a
+man who lived on meadow land which was surrounded or dotted with
+oak-trees. But I should be shy of explaining a given village
+called Oakley in the same way, because the student of place-names
+might be able to show from early records that the place was
+originally an <i>ey</i>, or island, and that the first syllable
+is the disguised name of a medieval churl. These four simple
+etymons themselves may also become perverted. Thus -<i>ham</i> is
+sometimes confused with -<i>holm</i> (Chapter XII), -<i>ley</i>,
+as I have just suggested, may in some cases contain -<i>ey</i>,
+-<i>ton</i> occasionally interchanges with -<i>don</i> and
+-<i>stone</i>, and -<i>lord</i> with the French -<i>fort</i>
+(Chapter XIV).</p>
+<p>In. this chapter will be found a summary of the various words
+applied by our ancestors to the natural features of the land they
+lived on. To avoid too lengthy a catalogue, I have classified
+them under the three headings&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>(1) Hill and Dale,</p>
+<p>(2) Plain and Woodland,</p>
+<p>(3) Water and Waterside,</p>
+</div>
+<p>reserving for the next chapter the names due to man's
+interference with the scenery, e.g. roads, buildings, enclosures,
+etc.</p>
+<p>They are mostly Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, the Celtic name
+remaining as the appellation of the individual hill, stream, etc.
+(Helvellyn, Avon, etc.). The simple word has in almost all cases
+given a fairly common surname, but compounds are of course
+numerous, the first element being descriptive of the second, e.g.
+<i>Bradley</i>, broad lea, <i>Radley</i> and <i>Ridley</i>, red
+lea, <i>Brockley</i>, brook lea or badger lea (Chapter XXIII),
+<i>Beverley</i>, beaver lea, <i>Cleverley</i>, clover lea,
+<i>Hawley</i>, hedge lea, <i>Rawnsley</i>, raven's lea, and so
+<i>ad</i> <i>infinitum</i>. In the oldest records spot names are
+generally preceded by the preposition <i>at</i>, whence such
+names as <i>Attewell</i>, <i>Atwood</i>, but other prepositions
+occur, as in <i>Bythesea</i>, <i>Underwood</i> and the hybrid
+<i>Suttees</i>, on Tees. Cf. such French names as
+<i>Doutrepont</i>, from beyond the bridge.</p>
+<p>One curious phenomenon, of which I can offer no explanation,
+is that while many spot names occur indifferently with or without
+-<i>s</i>, e.g. <i>Bridge</i>, <i>Bridges;</i> <i>Brook</i>,
+<i>Brooks;</i> <i>Platt</i>, <i>Plaits</i>, in others we find a
+regular preference either for the singular or plural form.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> In some cases no doubt a plural, in others a
+kind of genitive due to the influence of personal names, such as
+Wills, <i>Perkins</i>, <i>etc</i>.] Compare the following
+couples:</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>Field</i> <i>Meadows</i></p>
+<p>Lake <i>Rivers</i></p>
+<p>Pool <i>Mears</i> <i>(metes)</i></p>
+<p>Spying <i>Wells</i></p>
+<p>House <i>Coates</i> <i>(P</i>, 133)</p>
+<p><i>Marsh</i> <i>Myers</i> (mires)</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Myers</i> is very often a Jewish name,
+from the very common Ger. <i>Meyer</i>, for which see Chapter
+IV.<i>]</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>to which many more might be added. So we find regularly
+<i>Nokes</i> but <i>Nash</i> (Chapter III), <i>Beech</i> but
+<i>Willows</i>. The general tendency is certainly towards the
+-<i>s</i> forms in the case of monosyllables, e.g. <i>Banks</i>,
+<i>Foulds</i>, <i>Hayes</i>, <i>Stubbs</i>, <i>Thwaites</i>,
+etc., but we naturally find the singular in compounds, e.g.
+<i>Windebank</i> (winding), <i>Nettlefold</i>, <i>Roundhay</i>,
+etc.</p>
+<p>There is also a further problem offered by names in
+-<i>er</i>. We know that a <i>Waller</i> was a mason or
+wall-builder, but was a <i>Bridger</i> really a <i>Pontifex</i>,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> An example of a Latinized name. Cf.
+<i>Sutor</i>, <i>Faber</i>, and the barbarous <i>Sartorius</i>,
+for <i>sartor</i>, a tailor. <i>Pontifex</i> <i>may</i> also be
+the latinized form of <i>Pope</i> or <i>Bishop</i>. It is not
+known why this title, bridge-builder, was given to
+high-priests.<i>]</i> did he merely live near the bridge, or was
+he the same as a <i>Bridgman</i>, and what was the latter? Did
+Sam <i>Weller's</i> ancestor sink wells, possess a well, or live
+near someone else's well? Probably all explanations may be
+correct, for the suffix may have differed in meaning according to
+locality, but I fancy that in most cases proximity alone is
+implied. The same applies to many cases of names in -<i>man</i>,
+such as <i>Hillman</i>, <i>Dickman</i> (dyke),
+<i>Parkman</i>.</p>
+<p>Many of the words in the following paragraphs are obsolete or
+survive only in local usage. Some of them also vary considerably
+in meaning, according to the region in which they are found. I
+have included many which, in their simple form, seem too obvious
+to need explanation, because the compounds are not always equally
+clear.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80755" id="Toc80755">HILL AND DALE</a></b></p>
+<p>We have a fair number of Celtic words connected with natural
+scenery, but they do not as a rule form compounds, and as
+surnames are usually found in their simple form. Such are
+<i>Cairn</i>, a stony hill, <i>Crag</i>, <i>Craig</i>, and the
+related <i>Carrick</i> and <i>Creagh</i>, <i>Glen</i> or
+<i>Glynn</i>, and <i>Lynn</i>, a cascade. Two words, however, of
+Celtic origin, <i>don</i>, or <i>down</i>, a hill, and
+<i>combe</i>, a hollow in the hills, were adopted by the
+Anglo-Saxons and enter into many compounds. Thus we find
+<i>Kingdon</i>, whence the imitative <i>Kingdom</i>,
+<i>Brandon</i>, from the name Brand (Chapter VII),
+<i>Ashdown</i>, <i>etc</i>. The simple <i>Donne</i> <i>or</i>
+<i>Dunne</i> <i>is</i> sometimes the Anglo-Saxon name Dunna,
+whence <i>Dunning</i>, or a colour nickname, while <i>Down</i>
+and <i>Downing</i> may represent the Anglo-Sax. Duna and Duning
+(Chapter VII). From <i>Combe</i>, used especially in the west of
+England, we have <i>Compton</i>, and such compounds as
+<i>Acomb</i>, at combe, <i>Addiscombe</i>, <i>Battiscombe</i>,
+etc. But <i>Newcomb</i> <i>is</i> for <i>Newcome</i> (Chapter
+II). See also <i>Slocomb</i> (Chapter XXI).</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80756" id="Toc80756">HILLS</a></b></p>
+<p>The simple <i>Hill</i> and <i>Dale</i> are among our common
+surnames. <i>Hill</i> also appears as <i>Hull</i> and is easily
+disguised in compounds, e.g. <i>Brummel</i> for broom-hill,
+<i>Tootell</i> and <i>Tuttle</i> for Toothill, a name found in
+many localities and meaning a hill on which a watch was kept. It
+is connected with the verb to <i>tout</i>, originally to look
+out</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"David
+dwellide in the <i>tote</i> <i>hil"</i> <i>(Wyc</i>, 2
+<i>Sam</i>. <i>v. 9)</i>.</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">We have <i>Dale</i> and its
+cognate <i>Dell</i> in <i>Swindell</i> (swine), <i>Tindall</i>
+(Tyne), <i>Twaddell</i>, <i>Tweddell</i> (Tweed), etc.
+&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Mr. H. T.
+<i>Twaddle</i> announced the change of his name to
+<i>Tweeddale</i> in the <i>Times</i>, January 4, 1890"
+(Bardsley).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Other names for a hill are
+<i>Fell</i> (Scand.), found in the lake country, whence
+<i>Grenfell;</i> and <i>Hough</i> or <i>How</i> (Scand.), as in
+the north country names <i>Greenhow</i>,
+<i>Birchenough</i>.</font></p>
+<p>This is often reduced to -<i>o</i>, as in <i>Clitheroe</i>,
+<i>Shafto</i>, and is easily confused with <i>scough</i>, a wood
+(Scand.), as in <i>Briscoe</i> (birch), <i>Ayscough</i>
+(ash).</p>
+<p>In the north hills were also called <i>Law</i> and <i>Low</i>,
+with such compounds as <i>Bradlaugh</i>, <i>Whitelaw</i>, and
+<i>Harlow</i>. To these must be added <i>Barrow</i>, often
+confused with the related <i>borough</i> (Chapter XIII). Both
+belong to the Anglo-Sax. <i>beorgan</i>, to protect, cover. The
+name Leatherbarrow means the hill, perhaps the burial mound, of
+<i>Leather</i>, Anglo-Sax. Hlothere, cognate with Lothair and
+Luther.</p>
+<p>A hill-top was <i>Cope</i> or <i>Copp</i>. Chaucer uses it of
+the tip of the Miller's nose</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"Upon the <i>cope</i> right of his nose he hade</font><br>
+A werte, and thereon stood a toft of herys."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A. 554.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Another name for a hill-top
+appears in <i>Peak</i>, <i>Pike</i>, <i>Peck</i>, or <i>Pick</i>,
+but the many compounds in <i>Pick</i>-, e.g. <i>Pickbourne</i>,
+<i>Pickford</i>, <i>Pickwick</i>, etc., suggest a personal name
+<i>Pick</i> of which we have the dim. in <i>Pickett</i> (cf. Fr.
+Picot) and the softened <i>Piggot</i>. <i>Peak</i> may be in some
+cases from the Derbyshire Peak, which has, however, no connection
+with the common noun peak. A mere hillock or knoll has given the
+names <i>Knapp</i>, <i>Knollys</i> or <i>Knowles</i>,
+<i>Knock</i>, and <i>Knott</i>. But <i>Knapp</i> <i>may</i> also
+be for Mid. Eng. <i>nape</i>, cognate with <i>knave</i> and with
+Low Ger. <i>Knappe</i>, squire&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"Wer wagt es, Rittersmann oder Knapp'.</font><br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Zu tauchen in diesen Schlund?"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Schiller, Der Taucher, 1. I.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">Redknap</font>, the name of
+a Richmond boat-builder, is probably a nickname, like Redhead. A
+Knapper may have lived on a "knap," or may have been one of the
+Suffolk flint-knappers, who still prepare gun-flints for weapons
+to be retailed to the heathen.</i></p>
+<p><i>Knock</i> and <i>Knocker</i> are both Kentish names, and
+there is a reef off Margate known as the Kentish Knock. We have
+the plural <i>Knox</i> (cf. <i>Bax</i>, Settlements and
+Enclosures, Chapter XIII). <i>Knott</i> is sometimes for Cnut, or
+Canute, which generally becomes <i>Nutt</i>. Both have got mixed
+with the nickname <i>Nott</i>.</p>
+<p>A green knoll was also called <i>Toft</i> (Scand.), whence
+<i>Langtoft</i>, and the name was used later for a homestead.
+From <i>Cliff</i> we have <i>Clift</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> This
+may also be from Mid. Eng, <i>clift</i>, a cleft.<i>]</i> with
+excrescent -<i>t</i>, and the cognates <i>Cleeve</i> and
+<i>Clive</i>. Compounds of <i>Cliff</i> are <i>Radcliffe</i>
+(red), <i>Sutcliffe</i> (south), <i>Wyclif</i> (white). The c-
+sometimes disappears in compounds, e.g. <i>Cunliffe</i>, earlier
+Cunde-clive, and <i>Topliff;</i> but <i>Ayliffe</i> is for
+AElfgifu or AEthelgifu and <i>Goodliffe</i> from Godleof (cf.
+Ger. Gottlieb). The older form of <i>Stone</i> appears in
+<i>Staines</i>, <i>Stanhope</i>, <i>Stanton</i>, etc.
+<i>Wheatstone</i> is either for "white stone" or for the local
+Whetstone (Middlesex). In <i>Balderstone</i>, <i>Johnston</i>,
+<i>Edmondstone</i>, <i>Livingstone</i>, the suffix is
+-<i>ton</i>, though the frequence of <i>Johnston</i> points to
+corruption from <i>Johnson</i>, just as in Nottingham we have the
+converse case of <i>Beeson</i> from the local <i>Beeston</i>. In
+<i>Hailstone</i> the first element may be Mid. Eng, <i>half</i>,
+holy. Another Mid. English name for a stone appears in
+<i>Hone</i>, now used only of a whetstone.</p>
+<p>A hollow or valley in the hillside was called in the north
+<i>Clough</i>, also spelt <i>Clow</i>, <i>Cleugh</i> (Clim o' the
+Cleugh), and <i>Clew</i>. The compound <i>Fairclough</i> is found
+corrupted into <i>Faircloth</i>. Another obscure northern name
+for a glen was <i>Hope</i>, whence <i>Allsop</i>,
+<i>Blenkinsop</i>, the first element in each being perhaps the
+name of the first settler, and <i>Burnup</i>, <i>Hartopp</i>,
+(hart), <i>Harrap</i> (hare), <i>Heslop</i> (hazel).</p>
+<p><i>Gill</i> (Scand.), a ravine, has given <i>Fothergill</i>,
+<i>Pickersgill</i>, and <i>Gaskell</i>, from Gaisgill
+(Westmorland). These, like most of our names connected with
+mountain scenery, are naturally found almost exclusively in the
+north. Other surnames which belong more or less to the hill
+country are <i>Hole</i>, found also as <i>Holl</i>, <i>Hoole</i>,
+and <i>Hoyle</i>, but perhaps meaning merely a depression in the
+land, <i>Ridge</i>, and its northern form <i>Rigg</i>, with their
+compounds <i>Doddridge</i>, <i>Langridge</i>, <i>Brownrigg</i>,
+<i>Hazelrigg</i>, etc. <i>Ridge</i>, <i>Rigg</i>, also appear as
+<i>Rudge</i>, <i>Rugg</i>. From Mid. Eng. <i>raike</i>, a path, a
+sheep-track (Scand.), we get <i>Raikes</i> and perhaps
+<i>Greatorex</i>, found earlier as <i>Greatrakes</i>, the name of
+a famous faith-healer of the seventeenth century.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p> &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80757" id="Toc80757">WOODLAND AND
+PLAIN</a></b></p>
+<p>The compounds of <i>Wood</i> itself are very numerous, e.g.
+<i>Braidwood</i>, <i>Harwood</i>, <i>Norwood</i>, <i>Sherrard</i>
+and <i>Sherratt</i> (Sherwood). But, in considering the frequency
+of the simple <i>Wood</i>, it must be remembered that we find
+people described as <i>le</i> <i>wode</i>, <i>i.e</i>. mad (cf.
+Ger. <i>Wut</i>, frenzy), and that <i>mad</i> and <i>madman</i>
+are found as medieval names</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"Thou told'st me they were stolen unto this wood;</font><br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;And here am I, and <i>wode</i> within this wood,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Because I cannot meet my Hermia."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Midsummer</i> <i>Night's</i> <i>Dream</i>, ii. 1.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">As a suffix -<i>wood</i> is
+sometimes a corruption of -<i>ward</i>, e.g. <i>Haywood</i> is
+occasionally for <i>Hayward</i>, and <i>Allwood</i>,
+<i>Elwood</i> are for <i>Aylward</i>, Anglo-Sax. AEthelweard.
+Another name for a wood was <i>Holt</i>, cognate with Ger.
+<i>Holz</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"But right so as thise <i>holtes</i> and thise hayis,</font><br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;That han in winter dede ben and dreye,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Revesten hem in grene whan that May is."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Troilus</i> <i>and</i> <i>Criseyde</i>, <i>iii</i>.
+<i>351</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hurst</font> or <i>Hirst</i>
+means a wooded hill (cf. Ger. <i>Horst)</i>, and <i>Shaw</i> was
+once almost as common a word as wood itself&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Wher rydestow under
+this grene</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">wode shaw<i>e?"</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(D, 1386.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Hurst</i> belongs
+especially to the south and west, though <i>Hirst</i> is very common in
+Yorkshire; <i>Shaw</i> is found in the north and <i>Holt</i> in the east and
+south. We have compounds of <i>Shaw</i> in <i>Bradshaw, Crashaw</i> (crow),
+<i>Hearnshaw</i> (heron), <i>Earnshaw</i> (Mid. Eng, earn, eagle), <i>Renshaw</i>
+(raven) [Footnote: It is obvious that this may also be for
+raven's haw (Chapter XIII). <i>Raven</i> was a common personal name and
+is the first element in <i>Ramsbottom</i> (Chapter XII), <i>Ramsden</i>.],
+etc., of <i>Hurst</i> in <i>Buckhurst</i> (beech), <i>Brockhurs</i>t (badger), and of
+<i>Holt</i> in <i>Oakshott</i>.</p>
+<p>We have earlier forms of <i>Grove</i> in
+<i>Greaves&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p align="justify"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"And
+with his stremes dryeth in the <i>greves</i></font><br>
+The silver dropes, hangynge on the leves"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p align="justify">(A. <i>1495)</i> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style"><i>&mdash;</i></font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>and <i>Graves</i>, the latter being thus no more funereal than
+<i>Tombs</i>, from Thomas (cf. <i>Timbs</i> from Timothy). But
+<i>Greaves</i> and <i>Graves</i> may also be variants of the
+official <i>Grieves</i> (Chapter XIX), or may come from Mid. Eng.
+<i>graefe</i>, a trench, quarry. Compounds are <i>Hargreave</i>
+(hare), <i>Redgrave</i>, <i>Stangrave</i>, the two latter
+probably referring to an excavation. From Mid. Eng,
+<i>strope</i>, a small wood, appear to come <i>Strode</i> and
+<i>Stroud</i>, compound <i>Bulstrode</i>, while <i>Struthers</i>
+is the cognate <i>strother</i>, marsh, still in dialect use.
+<i>Weald</i> and <i>wold</i>, the cognates of Ger. <i>Wald</i>,
+were applied rather to wild country in general than to land
+covered with trees. They are probably connected with
+<i>wild</i>.</p>
+<p>Similarly the Late Lat. <i>foresta</i>, whence our
+<i>forest</i>, means only what is outside, Lat, <i>foris</i>, the
+town jurisdiction. From the Mid. Eng. <i>waeld</i> we have the
+names <i>Weld</i> and <i>Weale</i>, the latter with the not
+uncommon loss of final -<i>d</i>. <i>Scroggs</i> (Scand.) and
+<i>Scrubbs</i> suggest their meaning of brushwood.
+<i>Scroggins</i>, from its form, is a patronymic, and probably
+represents <i>Scoggins</i> with intrusive -<i>r</i>-. This is
+perhaps from Scogin, a name borne by a poet who was contemporary
+with Chaucer and by a court-fool of the fifteenth
+century&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The same Sir John,
+the very same. I saw him break <i>Skogan's</i> head at the court
+gate, when he was a crack, not thus high." (<i>2</i> <i>Henry</i>
+<i>IV</i>., <i>iii</i>. <i>2</i>.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">With <i>Scrubb</i> of cloudy
+ammonia fame we may compare Wormwood Scrubbs. <i>Shrubb</i> is
+the same word, and Shropshire is for Anglo-Sax.
+<i>scrob</i>-<i>scire</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80758" id="Toc80758">FOREST
+CLEARINGS</a></b></p>
+<p>The two northern names for a clearing in the wood were
+<i>Royd</i> and <i>Thwaite</i> (Scand.). The former is cognate
+with the second part of Bai<i>reut</i> and Wernige<i>rode</i>,
+and with the <i>R&uuml;tli</i>, the small plateau on which the
+Swiss patriots took their famous oath. It was so
+called&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Weil dort die Waldung
+<i>ausgerodet</i> ward."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(SCHILLER, <i>Wilhelm</i> <i>Tell</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Among its compounds are
+<i>Ackroyd</i> (oak), <i>Grindrod</i> (green), <i>Murgatroyd</i>
+(Margaret), <i>Learoyd</i> (lea), <i>Ormerod</i>, etc. We also
+find the name <i>Rodd</i>, which may belong here or to
+<i>Rudd</i> (Chapter VII), and both these names may also be for
+<i>Rood</i>, equivalent to <i>Cross</i> or <i>Crouch</i> (Chapter
+II), as in Holyrood. <i>Ridding</i> is also related to
+<i>Royd</i>. <i>Hacking</i> may be a dim. of <i>Hack</i> (Chapter
+VII), but we find also <i>de</i> <i>le</i> <i>hacking</i>, which
+suggests a forest clearing.</font></p>
+<p><i>Thwaite</i>, from Anglo-Sax. <i>&thorn;witan</i>, to cut,
+is found chiefly in Cumberland and the adjacent region in such
+compounds as <i>Braithwaite</i> (broad), <i>Hebbelthwaite</i>,
+<i>Postlethwaite</i>, <i>Satterthwaite</i>. The second of these
+is sometimes corrupted into <i>Ablewhite</i> as
+<i>Cowperthwaite</i> is into <i>Copperwheat</i>, for "this suffix
+has ever been too big a mouthful in the south" (Bardsley). A
+glade or valley in the wood was called a <i>Dean</i>,
+<i>Dene</i>, <i>Denne</i>, cognate with <i>den</i>. The compounds
+are numerous, e.g. <i>Borden</i> (boar), <i>Dibden</i> (deep),
+<i>Sugden</i> (Mid. Eng. <i>suge</i>, sow), <i>Hazeldean</i> or
+<i>Heseltine</i>. From the fact that swine were pastured in these
+glades the names <i>Denman</i> and <i>Denyer</i> have been
+explained as equivalent to swineherd. As a suffix -<i>den</i> is
+often confused with -<i>don</i> (Chapter XII). At the foot of
+Horsenden Hill, near Harrow, two boards announce Horsendon Farm
+and Horsenden Golf-links. An opening in the wood was also called
+<i>Slade</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>"And when he came to Barnesdale,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Great heavinesse there hee hadd;<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;He found two of his fellowes<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Were slain both in a <i>Slade</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>(Robin <i>Hood</i> <i>and</i> <i>Guy</i> <i>of</i>
+<i>Gisborne</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The maps still show Pond Slade in Richmond Park, The compound
+<i>Hertslet</i> may be for hart-Slade.</p>
+<p><i>Acre</i>, a field, cognate with, but not derived from, Lat.
+<i>ager</i>, occurs in <i>Goodacre</i>, <i>Hardacre</i>,
+<i>Linacre</i>, <i>Whittaker</i>, etc., and <i>Field</i> itself
+gives numerous compounds, including <i>Butterfield</i> (bittern,
+Chapter XXIII), <i>Schofield</i> (school), <i>Streatfeild</i>
+(street), <i>Whitfield</i>.</p>
+<p>Pasture-land is represented above all by <i>Lea</i>, for which
+see Chapter III. It is cognate with Hohen<i>lohe</i> and
+Water<i>loo</i>, while <i>Mead</i> and <i>Medd</i> are cognate
+with Zer<i>matt</i> (at the mead). <i>Brinsmead</i> thus means
+the same as <i>Brinsley</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80759" id="Toc80759">MARSHES</a></b></p>
+<p>Marshy land has given the names <i>Carr</i> or <i>Kerr</i>
+(Scand.) and <i>Marsh</i>, originally an adjective,
+<i>merisc</i>, from <i>mer</i>, mere. The doublet <i>Marris</i>
+has usually become <i>Morris</i>. The compounds <i>Tidmarsh</i>
+and <i>Titchmarsh</i> contain the Anglo-Saxon names Tidda and
+Ticca. <i>Moor</i> also originally had the meaning morass (e.g.
+in Sedgemoor), as Ger. <i>Moor</i> still has, so that
+<i>Fenimore</i> is pleonastic. The northern form is <i>Muir</i>,
+as in <i>Muirhead</i>. <i>Moss</i> was similarly used in the
+north; cf. moss-trooper and Solway Moss, but the surname
+<i>Moss</i> is generally for Moses (Chapter IX). From
+<i>slough</i> we get the names <i>Slow</i>, <i>Slowley</i>, and
+<i>Sloman</i> (also perhaps a nickname), with which we may
+compare <i>Moorman</i> and <i>Mossman</i>. This seems to be also
+the most usual meaning of <i>Slack</i> or <i>Slagg</i>, also used
+of a gap in the hills</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+"The first horse that he rode upon,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;For he was raven black,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;He bore him far, and very far,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;But failed in a <i>slack</i>.<i>"</i>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Ballad <i>of</i> <i>Lady</i> <i>Maisry</i>.<i>)</i>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Tye</font> means common land.
+<i>Platt</i> is a piece, or plot, of level country&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"Oft on a <i>plat</i> <i>of</i> rising ground</font><br>
+I hear the far-off curfew sound"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Penseroso</i>, <i>1</i>. <i>73);</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and shape is expressed by
+<i>Gore</i>, a triangular piece of land (cf. Kensington Gore), of
+which the older form <i>Gare</i>, <i>Geare</i>, also survives. In
+<i>Lowndes</i> we have <i>laund</i> <i>or</i>
+<i>lound</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>
+"And to the laund he rideth hym ful right,</i><br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;For thider was the hart wont have his flight</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(A. 1691)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">a piece of heath land, the
+origin of the modern word la<i>wn</i>. In <i>Lund</i> and
+<i>Lunn</i> it has become confused with the Old Norse
+<i>lundr</i>, a sacred grove.</font></p>
+<p><i>Laund</i> itself is of French origin&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Lande</i>, a land,
+or <i>laund</i>; a wild, untilled, shrubbie, or bushie
+plaine"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(Cotgrave).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Its relation to <i>land</i> is
+uncertain, and it is not possible to distinguish them in such
+compounds as <i>Acland</i> (Chapter XII), <i>Buckland</i>,
+<i>Cleveland</i>, etc. The name <i>Lander</i> or <i>Launder</i>
+is unconnected with these (see p.186). <i>Flack</i> <i>is</i>
+Mid. Eng. <i>flagge</i>, turf. <i>Snape</i> is a dialect word for
+boggy ground, and <i>Wong</i> means a meadow.</font></p>
+<p>A rather uncouth-looking set of names, which occur chiefly on
+the border of Cheshire and Lancashire, are compounded from
+<i>bottom</i> or <i>botham</i>, a wide shallow valley suited for
+agriculture. Hotspur, dissatisfied with his fellow-conspirators'
+map-drawing, expresses his intention of damming the Trent so
+that</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>
+"It shall not wind with such a deep indent<br>
+To rob me of so rich a <i>bottom</i> here."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(1 <i>Henry</i> <i>IV</i>, iii. 1.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Familiar compounds are
+<i>Higginbottom</i>, <i>Rowbotham</i>, <i>Sidebottom</i>. The
+first element of <i>Shufflebotham</i> is, in the Lancashire
+Assize Rolls (1176-1285), spelt <i>Schyppewalle</i>- and
+<i>Schyppewelle</i>-, where <i>schyppe</i> is for sheep, still so
+pronounced in dialect. <i>Tarbottom</i>, earlier
+<i>Tarbutton</i>, is corrupted from Tarbolton
+(Ayrshire).</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80760" id="Toc80760">WATER AND
+WATERSIDE</a></b></p>
+<p><a name="Toc80761" id="Toc80761">RIVERS</a></p>
+<p>Very few surnames are taken, in any language, from the names
+of rivers. This is quite natural, for just as the man who lived
+on a hill became known as <i>Hill</i>, <i>Peake</i>, etc., and
+not as Skiddaw or Wrekin, so the man who lived by the waterside
+would be known as <i>Bywater</i>, <i>Rivers</i>, etc. No Londoner
+talks of going on the Thames, and the country-dweller also
+usually refers to his local stream as the river or the water, and
+not by its geographical name. Another reason for the absence of
+such surnames is probably to be found in the fact that our river
+(and mountain) names are almost exclusively Celtic, and had no
+connotation for the English population. We have many apparent
+river names, but most of them are susceptible of another
+explanation. <i>Dee</i> may be for <i>Day</i> as <i>Deakin</i> is
+for <i>Dakin</i>, <i>i.e</i>. David, <i>Derwent</i> looks like
+<i>Darwin</i> (Chapter VII) or the local <i>Darwen</i> with
+excrescent -<i>t</i> (Chapter III), <i>Humber</i> is
+<i>Humbert</i>, a French name corresponding to the Anglo-Sax,
+Hunbeorht, <i>Medway</i> may be merely "mid-way," and
+<i>Trent</i> is a place in Somerset. This view as to river
+surnames is supported by the fact that we do not appear to have a
+single mountain surname, the apparent exception, <i>Snowdon</i>,
+being for <i>Snowden</i> (see <i>den</i>, <i>Dean</i>,
+<i>Dene</i>, <i>Denne</i>). <i>[Footnote:</i> But see my
+<i>Surnames</i>, Chapter XVI.<i>]</i></p>
+<p>Among names for streams we have <i>Beck</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i>
+The simple <i>Bec<a name="lastbookmark2" id=
+"lastbookmark2"></a>k</i> is generally a German name of modern
+introduction (see <i>pecch</i>).<i>]</i> cognate with Ger.
+<i>Bach;</i> <i>Bourne</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> Distinct from
+<i>bourne</i>, a boundary, Fr. <i>borne</i>.<i>]</i> or
+<i>Burn</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>Brunnen;</i> <i>Brook</i>,
+related to break; <i>Crick</i>, a creek; <i>Fleet</i>, a creek,
+cognate with <i>Flood;</i> and <i>Syke</i>, a trench or rill. In
+<i>Beckett</i> and <i>Brockett</i> the suffix is <i>head</i>
+(Chapter XIII). <i>Troutbeck</i>, <i>Birkbeck</i> explain
+themselves. In <i>Colbeck</i> we have cold, and <i>Holbrook</i>
+contains hollow, but in some names -<i>brook</i> has been
+substituted for -<i>borough</i>, -<i>burgh</i>. We find
+<i>Brook</i> latinized as <i>Torrens</i>. <i>Aborn</i> <i>is</i>
+for <i>atte</i> <i>bourne</i>, and there are probably many places
+called <i>Blackburn</i> and <i>Otterburn</i>.</p>
+<p><i>Firth</i>, an estuary, cognate with <i>fjord</i>, often
+becomes <i>Frith</i>, but this surname usually comes from
+<i>frith</i>, a park or game preserve (Chapter XIII).</p>
+<p>Another word for a creek, <i>wick</i> or <i>wick</i> (Scand.),
+cannot be distinguished from <i>wick</i>, a settlement.
+<i>Pond</i>, a doublet of <i>Pound</i> (Chapter XIII), means a
+piece of water enclosed by a dam, while natural sheets of water
+are <i>Lake</i>, <i>or</i> <i>Lack</i>, not limited
+originall<i>y</i> to a large expanse, <i>Mere</i>, whence
+<i>Mears</i> and such compounds as <i>Cranmer</i> (crane),
+<i>Bulmer</i> (bull), etc., and <i>Pool</i>, also spelt
+<i>Pull</i> and <i>Pole</i>. We have compounds of the latter in
+<i>Poulton</i> (Chapter I), <i>Claypole</i>, and
+<i>Glasspool</i>.</p>
+<p>In Kent a small pond is called <i>Sole</i>, whence
+<i>Nethersole</i>. The bank of a river or lake was called
+<i>Over</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>Ufer</i>, whence
+<i>Overend</i>, <i>Overall</i> (see below), <i>Overbury</i>,
+<i>Overland</i>. The surname <i>Shore</i>, for <i>atte</i>
+<i>shore</i>, may refer to the sea-shore, but the word
+<i>sewer</i> was once regularly so pronounced and the name was
+applied to large drains in the fen country (cf. <i>Gott</i>,
+Water, Chapter XIII). <i>Beach</i> <i>is</i> a word of late
+appearance and doubtful origin, and as a surname is usually
+identical with <i>Beech</i>.</p>
+<p>Spits of land by the waterside were called <i>Hook</i> (cf.
+Hook of Holland and Sandy Hook) and <i>Hoe</i> or <i>Hoo</i>, as
+in Plymouth Hoe, or the Hundred of Hoo, between the Thames and
+the Medway. From <i>Hook</i> comes <i>Hooker</i>, where it does
+not mean a maker of hooks, while <i>Homan</i> and <i>Hooman</i>
+sometimes belong to the second. Alluvial land by a stream was
+called <i>halgh</i>, <i>haugh</i>, whence sometimes <i>Hawes</i>.
+Its dative case gives <i>Hale</i> and <i>Heal</i>. These often
+become -<i>hall</i>, -<i>all</i>, in place-names. Compounds are
+<i>Greenhalgh</i>, <i>Greenall</i> and <i>Featherstonehaugh</i>,
+perhaps our longest surname.</p>
+<p><i>Ing</i>, a low-lying meadow, Mid. Eng. <i>eng</i>, survives
+in <i>Greening</i>, <i>Fenning</i>, <i>Wilding</i>, and probably
+sometimes in <i>England</i> (Chapter XI). But <i>Inge</i> and
+<i>Ings</i>, the latter the name of one of the Cato Street
+conspirators, also represent an Anglo-Saxon personal name. Cf.
+<i>Ingall</i> and <i>Ingle</i>, from Ingwulf, or Ingold, whence
+<i>Ingoldsby</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80762" id="Toc80762">ISLANDS</a></b></p>
+<p><i>Ey</i>, an island, <i>[Footnote:</i> Isle of Sheppey,
+Mersea Island, etc, are pleonasms.]survives as the last element
+of many names, and is not always to be distinguished from
+<i>hey</i> <i>(hay</i>, Settlements, Chapter III) and <i>ley</i>.
+Bill <i>Nye's</i> ancestor lived <i>atten</i> <i>ey</i> (Chapter
+III). <i>Dowdney</i> or <i>Dudeney</i> has been explained from
+the Anglo-Saxon name Duda, but it more probably represents the
+very common French name <i>Dieudonn&eacute;</i>, corresponding to
+Lat. Deodatus. In the north a river island was commonly called
+<i>Holm</i> (Scand.), also pronounced <i>Home</i>, <i>Hulme</i>,
+and <i>Hume</i>, in compounds easily confused with -<i>ham</i>,
+e.g. Durham was once Dun-holmr, hill island. The very common
+<i>Holmes</i> <i>is</i> probably in most cases a tree-name
+(Chapter XII). In <i>Chisholm</i> the first element may mean
+pebble; cf. Chesil Beach. The names <i>Bent</i>, whence
+<i>Broadbent</i>, and <i>Crook</i> probably also belong sometimes
+to the river, but may have arisen from a turn in a road or
+valley. But <i>Bent</i> was also applied to a tract covered with
+bents, or rushes, and <i>Crook</i> is generally a nickname
+(Chapter XXII). Lastly, the crossing of the unbridged stream has
+given us <i>Ford</i> or <i>Forth</i> whence <i>Stratford</i>,
+<i>Strafford</i> (street), <i>Stanford</i>, <i>Stamford</i>,
+<i>Staniforth</i> (stone), etc. The alternative name was
+<i>Wade</i>, whence the compound <i>Grimwade</i>. The cognate
+<i>wath</i> (Scand.) has been confused with <i>with</i> (Scand.),
+a wood, whence the name <i>Wythe</i> and the compound
+<i>Askwith</i> or <i>Asquith</i>. Both -<i>wath</i> and
+<i>&ndash;with</i> have been often replaced by -<i>worth</i> and
+-<i>wood</i>.</p>
+<p><i> &nbsp; </i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80763" id="Toc80763">TREE NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>In conclusion a few words must be said about tree names, so
+common in their simple form and in topographical compounds. Here,
+as in the case of most of the etymons already mentioned in this
+chapter, the origin of the surname may be specific as well as
+general, <i>i.e</i>. the name <i>Ash</i> may come from Ash in
+Kent rather than from any particular tree, the etymology
+remaining the same. Many of our surnames have preserved the older
+forms of tree names, e.g. the <i>lime</i> was once the
+<i>line</i>, hence <i>Lines</i>, <i>Lynes</i>, and earlier still
+the <i>Lind</i>, as in the compounds <i>Lyndhurst</i>,
+<i>Lindley</i>, etc. The older form of <i>Oak</i> appears in
+<i>Acland</i>, <i>Acton</i>, and variants in <i>Ogden</i> and
+<i>Braddock</i>, broad oak. We have ash in <i>Aston</i>,
+<i>Ascham</i>. The <i>holly</i> was once the <i>hollin</i>,
+whence <i>Hollins</i>, <i>Hollis</i>, <i>Hollings;</i> cf.
+<i>Hollings</i>-<i>head</i>, <i>Holinshed</i>. But <i>hollin</i>
+became colloquially <i>holm</i>, whence generally <i>Holmes</i>.
+<i>Homewood</i> is for holm-wood. The holm oak, ilex, is so
+called from its holly-like leaves. For <i>Birch</i> we also find
+<i>Birk</i>, a northern form. <i>Beech</i> often appears in
+compounds as <i>Buck</i>-<i>;</i> cf. buckwheat, so called
+because the grains are of the shape of beech-mast. In
+<i>Poppleton</i>, <i>Popplewell</i> we have the dialect
+<i>popple</i>, a poplar. <i>Yeo</i> sometimes represents
+<i>yew</i>, spelt <i>yowe</i> by Palsgrave. <i>[Footnote:</i> The
+<i>yeo</i> of <i>yeoman</i>, which is conjectured to have meant
+district, cognate with Ger. <i>Gau</i> in <i>Breisgau</i>,
+<i>Rheingau</i>, <i>etc</i>., is not found by itself.<i>]</i></p>
+<p>In <i>Sallows</i> we have a provincial name for the willow,
+cognate with Fr, <i>saule</i> and Lat. <i>salix</i>.
+<i>Rowntree</i> <i>is</i> the <i>rowan</i>, or mountain ash, and
+<i>Bawtry</i> or <i>Bawtree</i> is a northern name for the elder.
+The older forms of <i>Alder</i> and <i>Elder</i>, in both of
+which the -<i>d</i>- is intrusive (Chapter III), appear in
+<i>Allerton</i> and <i>Ellershaw</i>. <i>Maple</i> is sometimes
+<i>Mapple</i> <i>and</i> <i>sycamore</i> is corrupted into
+<i>Sicklemore</i>.</p>
+<p>Tree-names are common in all languages. <i>Beerbohm</i>
+<i>Tree</i> is pleonastic, from Ger. <i>Bierbaum</i>, for
+<i>Birnbaum</i>, pear-tree. A few years ago a prominent Belgian
+statesman bore the name <i>Vandenpereboom</i>, rather terrifying
+till decomposed into "van den pereboom." Its Mid. English
+equivalent appears in <i>Pirie</i>, originally a collection of
+pear-trees, but used by Chaucer for the single tree</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>"And thus I lete hym
+sitte upon the <i>pyrie</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(E. 2217.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">From trees we may descend
+gradually, via <i>Thorne</i>, <i>Bush</i>, <i>Furze</i>,
+<i>Gorst</i> (Chapter I), <i>Ling</i>, etc., until we come
+finally to <i>Grace</i>, which in some cases represents grass,
+for we find William <i>atte</i> <i>grase</i> in 1327, while the
+name <i>Poorgrass</i>, in Mr. Hardy's <i>Far</i> <i>from</i>
+<i>the</i> <i>Madding</i> <i>Crowd</i>, seems to be certified by
+the famous French names <i>Malherbe</i> and <i>Malesherbes</i>.
+But <i>Savory</i> is the French personal name Savary.</font></p>
+<p>The following list of trees is given by Chaucer in the
+Knight's tale&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The names that the
+trees highte, &mdash;</font><br>
+As ook, firre, birch, aspe, alder, holm, popeler,<br>
+Wylugh, elm, plane, assh, box, chasteyn, lynde, laurer,<br>
+Mapul, thorn, beck, hasel, ew, whippeltre."
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(A. 2920.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">They are all represented in
+modern directories.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144737" id="Toc2144737"></a><a name="Toc80764"
+id="Toc80764">CHAPTER XIII <b>THE HAUNTS OF
+MAN</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>"One fels downs firs, another of the same<br>
+With crossed poles a little lodge doth frame:<br>
+Another mounds it with dry wall about,<br>
+And leaves a breach for passage in and out:<br>
+With turfs and furze some others yet more gross<br>
+Their homely sties in stead of walls inclose:<br>
+Some, like the swallow, mud and hay doe mixe<br>
+And that about their silly [p. 209] cotes they fixe<br>
+Some heals <i>[thatch]</i> their roofer with fearn, or reeds, or rushes,<br>
+And some with hides, with oase, with boughs, and bushes,"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(SYLVESTER</i>, <i>The</i> <i>Devine</i> <i>Weekes</i>,
+<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In almost every case where man
+has interfered with nature the resulting local name is naturally
+of Anglo-Saxon or, in some parts of England, of Scandinavian
+origin. The Roman and French elements in our topographical names
+are scanty in number, though the former are of frequent
+occurrence. The chief Latin contributions <i>are</i>
+-<i>Chester</i>, -<i>cester</i>, -<i>caster</i>, Lat.
+<i>castrum</i>, a fort, or plural <i>castra</i>, a camp;
+-<i>street</i>, Lat. <i>via</i> <i>strata</i>, a levelled way;
+-<i>minster</i>, Lat. <i>monasterium;</i> and -<i>church</i> or
+-<i>kirk</i>, Greco-Lat. <i>kuriakon</i>, belonging to the Lord.
+<i>Eccles</i>, Greco-Lat. <i>ecclesia</i>, probably goes back to
+Celtic Christianity. <i>Street</i> <i>was</i> the high-road,
+hence <i>Greenstreet</i>. <i>Minster</i> <i>is</i> curiously
+corrupted in <i>Buckmaster</i> for Buckminster and
+<i>Kittermaster</i> for Kidderminster, while in its simple form
+it appears as <i>Minister</i> (Chapter III).</font></p>
+<p>We have a few French place-names, e.g. <i>Beamish</i> (Chapter
+XIV), <i>Beaumont</i>, <i>Richmond</i>, Richemont, and
+<i>Malpas</i> (Cheshire), the evil pass, with which we may
+compare <i>Maltravers</i>. We have the apparent opposite in
+<i>Bompas</i>, <i>Bumpus</i>, Fr. <i>bon</i> <i>pas</i>, but this
+was a nickname. Of late there has been a tendency to introduce
+the French <i>ville</i>, e.g. Bournville, near Birmingham. That
+part of Margate which ought to be called Northdown is known as
+Cliftonville, and the inhabitants of the opposite end of the
+town, dissatisfied with such good names as Westbrook and Rancorn,
+hanker after Westonville. But these philological atrocities are
+fortunately too late to be perpetuated as surnames.</p>
+<p>I have divided the names in this chapter into those that are
+connected with</p>
+<ol>
+<li>Settlements and Enclosures,</li>
+<li>Highways and Byways,</li>
+<li>Watercourses,</li>
+<li>Buildings,</li>
+<li>Shop Signs.</li>
+</ol>
+<p>And here, as before, names which neither in their simple nor
+compound form present any difficulty are omitted.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80765" id="Toc80765">SETTLEMENTS AND
+ENCLOSURES</a></b></p>
+<p>The words which occur most commonly in the names of the modern
+towns which have sprung from early homesteads are <i>borough</i>
+or <i>bury</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> Originally the dative of
+<i>borough</i>.] <i>by</i>, <i>ham</i>, <i>stoke</i>,
+<i>stow</i>, <i>thorp</i>, <i>tun</i> or <i>ton</i>, <i>wick</i>,
+and <i>worth</i>. These names are all of native origin, except
+<i>by</i>, which indicates a Danish settlement, and <i>wick</i>,
+which is supposed to be a very early loan from Lat. <i>vicus</i>,
+cognate with Greek <i>oikos</i>, house. Nearly all of them are
+common, in their simple form, both as specific place-names and as
+surnames. <i>Borough</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>Burg</i>, castle,
+and related to <i>Barrow</i> (Chapter XII), has many variants,
+<i>Bury</i>, <i>Brough</i>, <i>Borrow</i>, <i>Berry</i>, whence
+<i>Berryman</i>, and <i>Burgh</i>, the last of which has become
+<i>Burke</i> in Ireland.</p>
+<p>In <i>Atterbury</i> the preposition and article have both
+remained, while in <i>Thornber</i> the suffix is almost
+unrecognizable. <i>By</i>, related to <i>byre</i> and to the
+preposition <i>by</i>, <i>is</i> especially common in Yorkshire
+and Lincolnshire. It is sometimes spelt <i>bee</i>, e.g.
+<i>Ashbee</i> for <i>Ashby</i>. The simple <i>Bye</i> is not
+uncommon. <i>Ham</i> is cognate with <i>home</i>. In compounds it
+is sometimes reduced to -<i>um</i>, e.g. <i>Barnum</i>,
+<i>Holtum</i>, <i>Warnum</i>. But in some such names the
+-<i>um</i> is the original form, representing an old dative
+plural (Chapter III). <i>Allum</i> represents the usual Midland
+pronunciation of <i>Hallam</i>. <i>Cullum</i>, generally for
+Culham, may also represent the missionary Saint Colomb. In
+<i>Newnham</i> the adjective is dative, as in Ger.
+<i>Neuenheim</i>, at the new home. In <i>Bonham</i>,
+<i>Frankham</i>, and <i>Pridham</i> the suffix -<i>ham</i> has
+been substituted for the French <i>homme</i> of <i>bonhomme</i>,
+<i>franc</i> <i>homme</i>, <i>prudhomme</i>, while
+<i>Jerningham</i> is a perversion of the personal name Jernegan
+or Gernegan, as <i>Garnham</i> is of Gernon, Old French for
+<i>Beard</i> (Chapter XXI). <i>Stead</i> is cognate with Ger.
+<i>Stadt</i>, place, town, and with <i>staith</i>, as in
+<i>Bickersteth</i>(Chapter III). <i>Armstead</i> means the
+dwelling of the hermit, <i>Bensted</i> the stead of Benna
+(Chapter VII) or Bennet.</p>
+<p><i>Stoke</i> is originally distinct from <i>Stock</i>, a
+stump, with which it has become fused in the compounds
+<i>Bostock</i>, <i>Brigstocke</i>. <i>Stow</i> appears in the
+compound <i>Bristol</i> (Chapter XI) and in <i>Plaistow</i>,
+play-ground (cf. <i>Playsted)</i>. <i>Thorp</i>, cognate with
+Ger. <i>Dorf</i>, village, is especially common in the eastern
+counties</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>"By twenty <i>thorps</i>, a little town, <br>
+And half a hundred bridges."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Tennyson, <i>The</i> <i>Brook</i>, <i>1</i>.
+<i>5</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It has also given <i>Thrupp</i>
+and probably <i>Thripp</i>, whence <i>Calthrop</i>,
+<i>Winthrop</i>, <i>Westrupp</i>, etc.</font></p>
+<p><i>Ton</i>, later <i>Town</i>, gave also the northern
+<i>Toon</i>, still used in Scotland with something of its
+original sense (Chapter XII). <i>Boston</i> is Botolf's town,
+<i>Gunston</i> Gunolf's town. So also <i>Tarleton</i>
+(Thurweald), <i>Monkton</i> (monk), <i>Preston</i> (priest).
+<i>Barton</i> meant originally a barley-field, and is still used
+in the west of England for a paddock. <i>Wick</i> appears also as
+<i>Wych</i>, <i>Weech</i>. Its compounds cannot be separated from
+those of <i>wick</i>, a creek (Chapter XII). <i>Bromage</i> is
+for Bromwich, <i>Greenidge</i> for Greenwich, <i>Prestage</i> for
+Prestwich; cf. the place-name Swanage (Dorset), earlier
+Swanewic.</p>
+<p><i>Worth</i> was perhaps originally applied to land by a river
+or to a holm (Chapter XII); cf. Ger. Donauwert, Nonnenwert, etc.
+<i>Harmsworth</i> <i>is</i> for Harmondsworth; cf.
+<i>Ebbsworth</i> (Ebba), <i>Shuttleworth</i> (Sceotweald),
+<i>Wadsworth</i> (Wada). Sometimes we find a lengthened form,
+e.g. <i>Allworthy</i>, from <i>ald</i>, old (cf.
+<i>Aldworth)</i>, <i>Langworthy</i>. <i>Rickworth</i>, further
+corrupted to <i>Record</i>, is the Anglo-Saxon name Ricweard.
+<i>Littleworth</i> may belong to this class, but may also be a
+nickname. This would make it equivalent to the imitative
+<i>Little</i>-<i>proud</i>, formerly Littleprow, from Old French
+and Mid. Eng. <i>prou</i>, worth, value.</p>
+<p>To this group may be added two more, which signify a mart,
+viz. <i>Cheap</i> or <i>Chipp</i> (cf. Chepstow, Chipping Barnet)
+and <i>Staple</i>, whence <i>Huxtable</i>, <i>Stapleton</i>, etc.
+<i>Liberty</i>, that part of a city which, though outside the
+walls, shares in the city privileges, and <i>Parish</i> also
+occur as surnames, but the latter is usually for Paris.</p>
+<p>Many other words connected with the delimitation of property
+occur commonly in surnames. <i>Croft</i> or <i>Craft</i>, a small
+field, is common in compounds such as <i>Beecroft</i> or
+<i>Bearcroft</i> (barley), <i>Haycraft</i> (see <i>hay</i>,
+below), <i>Oscroft(ox)</i>, <i>Rycroft</i>, <i>Meadowcroft</i>.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> I remember reading in some story of a socially
+ambitious lady who adopted this commonplace name instead of
+<i>Gubbins</i>. The latter name came over, as Gobin, with the
+Conqueror, and goes back to Old Ger. Godberaht, whence Old Fr.
+Godibert.<i>]</i> <i>Fold</i> occurs usually as <i>Foulds</i>,
+but we have compounds such as <i>Nettlefold</i>, <i>Penfold</i>
+or <i>Pinfold</i> (Chapter XIII). <i>Sty</i>, not originally
+limited to pigs, has given <i>Hardisty</i>, the sty of Heardwulf.
+<i>Frith</i>, a park or game preserve, is probably more often the
+origin of a surname than the other <i>frith</i> (Chapter XII). It
+is cognate with Ger. Friedhof, cemetery. <i>Chase</i> is still
+used of a park and <i>Game</i> once meant rabbit-warren.
+<i>Warren</i> is Fr. <i>garenne</i>. <i>Garth</i>, the
+Scandinavian doublet of <i>Yard</i>, and cognate with
+<i>Garden</i>, has given the compounds <i>Garside</i>,
+<i>Garfield</i>, <i>Hogarth</i> (from a place in Westmorland),
+and <i>Applegarth</i>, of which <i>Applegate</i> is a corruption.
+We have a compound of <i>yard</i> in <i>Wynyard</i>, Anglo-Sax.
+<i>win</i>, vine. We have also the name <i>Close</i> and its
+derivative <i>Clowser</i>. <i>Gate</i>, a barrier or opening,
+Anglo-Sax. <i>geat</i>, is distinct from the Scandinavian
+<i>gate</i>, a street (Chapter XIII), though of course confused
+with it in surnames. From the northern form we have <i>Yates</i>,
+<i>Yeats</i>, and <i>Yeatman</i>, and the compounds <i>Byatt</i>,
+by gate, <i>Hyatt</i>, high gate. <i>Agate</i> is for <i>atte</i>
+<i>gate</i>, and <i>Lidgate</i>, whence <i>Lidgett</i>, means a
+swing gate, shutting like a lid. <i>Fladgate</i> is for
+flood-gate. Here also belongs <i>Barr</i>. <i>Hatch</i>, the gate
+at the entrance to a chase, survives in Colney Hatch. The
+apparent dim. <i>Hatchett</i> is for <i>Hatchard</i> (Chapter
+VIII); cf. <i>Everett</i> for Everard (Chapter II). <i>Hay</i>,
+also <i>Haig</i>, <i>Haigh</i>, <i>Haw</i>, <i>Hey</i>, is
+cognate with <i>Hedge</i>. Like most monosyllabic local surnames,
+it is commonly found in the plural, <i>Hayes</i>, <i>Hawes</i>.
+The bird nickname <i>Hedgecock</i> exists also as <i>Haycock</i>.
+The curious-looking patronymics <i>Townson</i> and
+<i>Orchardson</i> are of course corrupt. The former is for
+<i>Tomlinson</i> and the latter perhaps from Achard (Chapter
+VIII).</p>
+<p>Several places and families in England are named <i>Hide</i>
+or <i>Hyde</i>, which meant a certain measure of land. The
+popular connection between this word and <i>hide</i>, a skin, as
+in the story of the first Jutish settlement, is a fable. It is
+connected with an Anglo-Saxon word meaning household, which
+appears also in <i>Huish</i>, <i>Anglo</i>-<i>Sax.
+hi</i>-<i>wisc</i>. <i>Dike</i>, or <i>Dyke</i>, and <i>Moat</i>,
+also Mott, both have, or had, a double meaning. We still use
+<i>dike</i>, which belongs to <i>dig</i> and <i>ditch</i>, both
+of a trench and a mound, and the latter was the earlier meaning
+of Fr. <i>motte</i>, now a clod, In Anglo-French we find
+<i>moat</i> used of a mound fortress in a marsh. Now it is
+applied to the surrounding water. From <i>dike</i> come the names
+<i>Dicker</i>, <i>Dickman</i>, <i>Grimsdick</i>, etc. Sometimes
+the name <i>Dykes</i> may imply residence near some historic
+earthwork, such as Offa's Dyke, just as <i>Wall</i>, for which
+<i>Waugh</i> was used in the north, may show connection with the
+Roman wall. With these may be mentioned the French name
+<i>Fosse</i>, whence the apparently pleonastic <i>Fosdyke</i> and
+the name of Verdant Green's friend, Mr. Four-in-hand
+<i>Fosbrooke</i>. <i>Delves</i> is from Mid. Eng. <i>dell</i>,
+ditch. <i>Jury</i> is for Jewry, the quarter allotted to the
+Jews, but <i>Jewsbury</i> is no doubt for Dewsbury; cf.
+<i>Jewhurst</i> for Dewhurst.</p>
+<p>Here may be mentioned a few local surnames which are hard to
+classify. We have the apparently anatomical <i>Back</i>,
+<i>Foot</i>, <i>Head</i>, and, in compounds, -<i>side</i>.
+<i>Back</i> seems to have been used of the region behind <i>a</i>
+building or dwelling, as it still is at Cambridge. Its plural has
+given <i>Bax</i>. But it was also a personal name connected with
+<i>Bacon</i> (Chapter XXIII).</p>
+<p>We should expect <i>Foot</i> to mean the base of a hill, but
+it always occurs in early rolls without a preposition. It may
+represent in some cases an old personal name of obscure origin,
+but it is also a nickname with compounds such as <i>Barfoot</i>,
+<i>Lightfoot</i>. The simple <i>Head</i>, found as Mid. Eng.
+<i>del</i> <i>heved</i>, is perhaps generally from a shop sign.
+Fr. T&ecirc;te, one origin of <i>Tait</i>, <i>Tate</i>, and Ger.
+Haupt, Kopf, also occur as surnames. As a local suffix
+-<i>head</i> appears to mean top-end and is generally shortened
+to -<i>ett</i>, e.g. <i>Birkett</i> (cf. Birkenhead),
+<i>[Footnote:</i> No doubt sometimes, like <i>Burchett</i>,
+<i>Burkett</i>, for the personal name Burchard, Anglo-Sax.
+Burgheard<i>]</i> <i>Brockett</i> (brook), <i>Bromet</i>,
+<i>Bromhead</i> (broom), <i>Hazlitt</i> (hazel). The same suffix
+appears to be present in <i>Fossett</i>, from <i>fosse</i>, and
+<i>Forcett</i> from <i>force</i>, a waterfall (Scand.).
+<i>Broadhead</i> is a nickname, like Fr. <i>Grosset&ecirc;te</i>
+and Ger. Breitkopf. The face-value of <i>Evershed</i> is boar's
+head. <i>Morshead</i> may be the nickname of mine host of the
+Saracen's Head or may mean the end of the moor. So the names
+<i>Aked</i> (oak), <i>Blackett</i>, <i>Woodhead</i> may be
+explained anatomically or geographically according to the choice
+of the bearer. <i>Perrett</i>, usually a dim. of Peter, may
+sometimes represent the rather effective old nickname
+"pear-head."</p>
+<p><i>Side</i> is local in the uncomfortable sounding
+<i>Akenside</i> (oak), <i>Fearenside</i> (fern), but
+<i>Heaviside</i> appears to be a nickname. <i>Handyside</i> may
+mean "gracious manner," from Mid. Eng. <i>side</i>, cognate with
+Ger. <i>Sitte</i>, custom. See <i>Hendy</i> (Chapter XXII). The
+simple <i>end</i> survives as <i>Ind</i> or <i>Nind</i> (Chapter
+III) and in <i>Overend</i> (Chapter XII), <i>Townsend</i>.
+<i>Edge</i> appears also in the older form <i>Egg</i>, but the
+frequency of place-names beginning with <i>Edge</i>, e.g.
+Edgeley, Edgington, Edgworth, etc., suggests that it was also a
+personal name.</p>
+<p>Lynch, a boundary, is cognate with golf-links. The following
+sounds modern, but refers to people sitting in a hollow among the
+sand-ridges&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"And are ye in the wont of drawing up wi' a' the gangrel bodies that ye find
+cowering in a sand-bunker upon the <i>links?"</i> </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Redgauntlet</i>, ch. xi.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Pitt</i> is found in the
+compound <i>Bulpitt</i>, no doubt the place where the town bull was
+kept. It is also the origin of the Kentish names <i>Pett</i> and <i>Pettman</i>
+(Chapter XVII). <i>Arch</i> refers generally to a bridge. Lastly, there
+are three words for a corner, viz. <i>Hearne, Herne, Hurne, Horn;
+Wyke</i>, the same word as <i>Wick</i>, a creek (Chapter XII); and <i>Wray</i>
+(Scand.). The franklin tell us that "yonge clerkes" desirous of
+knowledge&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>"Seken in every halke and every <i>herne</i> <br>
+Particular sciences for to lerne"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+<p>(F, 1119).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Wray</i> has become
+confused with <i>Ray</i> (Chapter III). Its compound <i>thack-wray</i>, the
+corner where the thatch was stored, has given <i>Thackeray.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80766" id="Toc80766">HIGHWAYS AND
+BYWAYS</a></b></p>
+<p>The word <i>road</i> was not used in its current sense during
+the surname period, but meant the art of riding, and specifically
+a raid or inroad. Therefore the name <i>Roades</i> is unconnected
+with it and represents merely a variant of <i>Royds</i> (Chapter
+XII). This name and its compounds belong essentially to the
+north, the prevailing spelling, <i>Rhodes</i>, being artificial.
+It has no connection with the island of Rhodes.</p>
+<p>The meaning of <i>Street</i> has changed considerably since
+the days when Icknield Street and Watling Street were great
+national roads. It is now used exclusively of town thoroughfares,
+and has become such a mere suffix that, while we speak of the
+<i>Oxford</i> <i><u>R&oacute;ad</u></i>, we try to suppress the
+second word in <i><u>Ox</u>'ford</i> <i>Street</i>. <i>To</i>
+<i>street</i> belong our place-names and surnames in
+<i>Strat</i>-, <i>Stret</i>-, etc., e.g. <i>Stratton</i>,
+<i>Stretton</i>, <i>Stredwick</i>. <i>Way</i> has a number of
+compounds with intrusive -a-, e.g. <i>Challaway</i>,
+<i>Dallaway</i> (dale), <i>Greenaway</i>, <i>Hathaway</i>
+(heath), <i>Westaway</i>. But <i>Hanway</i> <i>is</i> the name of
+a country (Chapter XI), and <i>Otway</i>, <i>Ottoway</i>,
+<i>is</i> Old Fr. Otouet, a dim. of Odo. <i>Shipway</i> <i>is</i>
+for sheep-way. In the north of England the streets in a town are
+often called <i>gates</i> (Scand.). It is impossible to
+distinguish the compounds of this <i>gate</i> from those of the
+native <i>gate</i>, a barrier (Chapter XIII), e.g. <i>Norgate</i>
+may mean North Street or North Gate.</p>
+<p><i>Alley</i> and <i>Court</i> both exist as surnames, but the
+former is for <i>a'lee</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Atlee</i> (Chapter
+XII), and the latter is from <i>court</i> in the sense of
+mansion, country house. The curious spelling <i>Caught</i> may be
+seen over a shop in Chiswick. <i>Rowe</i> (Chapter I) sometimes
+means row of houses, but in <i>Townroe</i> the second element is
+identical with <i>Wray</i> (Chapter XIII). <i>Cosway</i>,
+<i>Cossey</i>, <i>is</i> from causeway, Fr.
+<i>chauss&eacute;e;</i> and <i>Twitchers</i>, <i>Twitchell</i>
+represent dialect words used of a narrow passage and connected
+with the Mid. English verb <i>twiselen</i>, to fork, or divide;
+<i>Twiss</i> must be of similar origin, for we find Robert
+<i>del</i> <i>twysse</i> in 1367. Cf. <i>Birtwistle</i> and
+<i>Entwistle</i>. With the above may be classed the west-country
+<i>Shute</i>, a narrow street; <i>Vennell</i>, a north-country
+word for alley, Fr. <i>venelle</i>, dim. of Lat. <i>versa</i>,
+vein; <i>Wynd</i>, a court, also a north-country word, probably
+from the verb <i>wind</i>, to twist; and the cognate <i>Went</i>,
+a passage&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Thorugh a goter, by a
+prive <i>wente</i>.<i>"</i></font><br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;(Troilus and Criseyde, iii. 788.) </p></div>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b> &nbsp; </b></p>
+<p><a name="Toc80767" id="Toc80767">WATER</a></p>
+<p>Names derived from artificial watercourses are
+<i>Channell</i>, now replaced as a common noun by the learned
+form canal; <i>Condy</i> or <i>Cundy</i>, for the earlier
+<i>Cunditt</i>, conduit; <i>Gott</i>, cognate with <i>gut</i>,
+used in Yorkshire for the channel from a mill-dam, and in
+Lincolnshire for a water-drain on the coast; <i>Lade</i>,
+<i>Leete</i>, connected with the verb to <i>lead;</i> and
+sometimes <i>Shore</i> (Chapter XII), which was my grandfather's
+pronunciation of <i>sewer</i>. From <i>weir</i>, lit. a
+protection, precaution, cognate with beware and Ger.
+<i>wehren</i>, to protect, we have not only <i>Weir</i>, but also
+<i>Ware</i>, <i>Warr</i>, <i>Wear</i>, and the more pretentious
+<i>Delawarr</i>. The latter name passed from an Earl Delawarr to
+a region in North America, and thus to Fenimore Cooper's noble
+red men. But this group of names must sometimes be referred to
+the Domesday <i>wars</i>, an outlying potion of a manor.
+<i>Lock</i> <i>is</i> more often a land name, to be classed with
+<i>Hatch</i> (Chapter XIII), but was also used of a water-gate.
+<i>Key</i> was once the usual spelling of <i>quay</i>. The
+curious name <i>Keylock</i> <i>is</i> a perversion of
+<i>Kellogg</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>Kill</i>-<i>hog</i>. <i>Port</i>
+seldom belongs here, as the Mid. English is almost always
+<i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>Porte</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Gates</i>. From
+<i>well</i> we have a very large number of compounds, e.g.
+<i>Cauldwell</i> (cold), <i>Halliwell</i>, the variants of which,
+<i>Holliwell</i>, <i>Hollowell</i>, probably all represent Mid.
+Eng. <i>hali</i>, holy. Here belongs also <i>Winch</i>, from the
+device used for drawing water from deep wells.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80768" id="Toc80768">BUILDINGS</a></b></p>
+<p>The greater number of the words to be dealt with under this
+heading enter into the composition of specific place-names. A
+considerable number of surnames are derived from the names of
+religious buildings, usually from proximity rather than actual
+habitation. Such names are naturally of Greco-Latin origin, and
+were either introduced directly into Anglo-Saxon by the
+missionaries, or were adopted later in a French form after the
+Conquest. It has already been noted (Chapter I) that <i>Abbey</i>
+<i>is</i> not always what it seems; but in some cases it is
+local, from Fr, <i>abbaye</i>, of which the Proven&ccedil;al form
+<i>Abadie</i> was introduced by the Huguenots. We find much
+earlier <i>Abdy</i>, taken straight from the Greco-Lat.
+<i>abbatia</i>. The famous name <i>Chantrey</i> <i>is</i> for
+chantry, <i>Armitage</i> was once the regular pronunciation of
+<i>Hermitage</i>, and <i>Chappell</i> a common spelling of
+<i>Chapel</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Also if you finde not
+the word you seeke for presently after one sort of spelling,
+condemne me not forthwith, but consider how it is used to be
+spelled, whether with double or single letters, as
+<i>Chappell</i>, or <i>Chapell"</i> (Holyoak, <i>Latin</i>
+<i>Dict</i>., <i>1612)</i>.</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">We have also the Norman form
+<i>Capel</i>, but this may be a nickname from Mid. Eng.
+<i>capel</i>, nag&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Why nadstow (hast
+thou not) pit the <i>capul</i> in the lathe (barn)?" (A,
+4088.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A <i>Galilee</i> was a chapel
+or porch devoted to special purposes&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Those they pursued
+had taken refuge in the <i>galilee</i> of the church"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Fair</i> <i>Maid</i> <i>of</i> <i>Perth</i>, ch. ix.).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The tomb of the Venerable Bede
+is in the Galilee of Durham Cathedral. I had a schoolfellow with
+this uncommon name, now generally perverted to <i>Galley</i>. In
+a play now running (Feb. 1913) in London, there is a character
+named <i>Sanctuary</i>, a name found also in Crockford and the
+London Directory.</font></p>
+<p>I have only once come across the contracted form <i>Sentry</i>
+<i>[Footnote:</i> On the development in meaning of this word,
+first occurring in the phrase "to take <i>sentrie</i>,"
+<i>i.e</i>. refuge, see my <i>Romance</i> <i>of</i> <i>Words</i>,
+ch. vii.<i>]</i> <i>(Daily</i> <i>Telegraph</i>, Dec. 26, 1912),
+and then under circumstances which might make quotation
+actionable. <i>Purvis</i> is Mid. Eng. p<i>arvis</i>, a porch,
+Greco-Lat. <i>paradises</i>. It may be the same as <i>Provis</i>,
+the name selected by Mr. Magwitch on his return from the
+Antipodes <i>(Great</i> <i>Expectations</i>, ch. xl.), unless
+this is for <i>Provost</i>. <i>Porch</i> and <i>Portch</i> both
+occur as surnames, but <i>Porcher</i> is Fr. <i>porcher</i>, a
+swineherd, and <i>Portal</i> <i>is</i> a Huguenot name.
+<i>Churcher</i> and <i>Kirker</i>, <i>Churchman</i> and
+<i>Kirkman</i>, are usually local; cf. <i>Bridges</i> and
+<i>Bridgman</i>.</p>
+<p>The names <i>Temple</i> and <i>Templeman</i> were acquired
+from residence near one of the preceptories of the Knights
+Templars, and <i>Spittlehouse</i> (Chapter III) is sometimes to
+be accounted for in a similar way (Knights of the Hospital). We
+even find the surname <i>Tabernacle</i>. <i>Musters</i> <i>is</i>
+Old Fr. <i>moustiers</i> <i>(moutiers)</i>, common in French
+place-names, from Lat. <i>monasterium</i>. The word <i>bow</i>,
+still used for an arch in some old towns, has given the names
+<i>Bow</i> and <i>Bowes</i>. <i>A</i> medieval statute, recently
+revived to baffle the suffragettes, was originally directed
+against robbers and "pillers," <i>i.e</i>. plunderers, but the
+name <i>Piller</i> <i>is</i> also for pillar; cf. the French name
+<i>Colonise</i>. With these may be mentioned <i>Buttress</i> and
+<i>Carvell</i>, the latter from Old Fr. <i>carnet</i>
+<i>(cr&eacute;neau)</i>, a battlement.</p>
+<p>As general terms for larger dwellings we find <i>Hall</i>,
+<i>House</i>, also written <i>Hose</i>, and <i>Seal</i>, the
+last-named from the Teutonic original which has given Fr.
+<i>Lasalle</i>, whence our surname <i>Sale</i>. To the same class
+belong <i>Place</i>, <i>Plaice</i>, <i>as</i> in Cumnor
+Place.</p>
+<p>The possession of such surnames does not imply ancestral
+possession of Haddon Hall, Stafford House, etc., but merely that
+the founder of the family lived under the shadow of greatness. In
+compounds -<i>house</i> is generally treated as in "workus," e.g.
+<i>Bacchus</i> (Chapter VIII), <i>Bellows</i>, <i>Brewis</i>,
+<i>Duffus</i> (dove), <i>Kirkus</i>, <i>Loftus</i>,
+<i>Malthus</i>, <i>Windus</i> (wynd, Chapter XIII). In connection
+with <i>Woodhouse</i> it must be remembered that this name was
+given to the man who played the part of a "wild man of the woods"
+in processions and festivities. William Power, skinner, called
+"Wodehous," died in London in 1391. Of similar origin is
+<i>Greenman</i>. The tavern sign of the Green Man is sometimes
+explained as representing a forester in green, but it was
+probably at first equivalent to the German sign "Zum wilden
+Mann." <i>Cassell</i> <i>is</i> sometimes for <i>Castle</i>, but
+is more often a local German name of recent introduction. The
+northern <i>Peel</i>, a castle, as in the Isle of Man, was
+originally applied to a stockade, Old Fr. <i>pel</i>
+<i>(pieu)</i>, a stake, Lat. <i>Palos</i>. Hence also
+<i>Peall</i>, <i>Peile</i>. <i>Keep</i> comes from the central
+tower of the castle, where the baron and his family kept,
+<i>i.e</i>. lived. A moated <i>Grange</i> <i>is</i> a poetic
+figment, for the word comes from Fr, <i>grange</i>, a barn (to
+Lat. <i>granum);</i> hence <i>Granger</i>.</p>
+<p>With <i>Mill</i> and the older <i>Milne</i> (Chapter II) we
+may compare <i>Mullins</i>, Fr. Desmoulins. <i>Barnes</i>
+<i>is</i> sometimes, but not always, what it seems (Chapter XXI).
+With it we may put <i>Leathes</i>, from an obsolete Scandinavian
+word for barn (see quot. Chapter XIII), to which we owe also the
+names <i>Leatham</i> and <i>Latham</i>. Mr. Oldbuck's "ecstatic
+description" of the Roman camp with its praetorium was spoilt by
+Edie Ochiltree's disastrous interruption</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>
+"Praetorian here, praetorian there, I mind the <i>bigging</i> <i>o't</i>.<i>"</i>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>(Antiquary</i>, ch. iv.). </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80769" id="Toc80769">DWELLINGS</a></b></p>
+<p>The obsolete verb to <i>big</i>, <i>i.e</i>. build, whence
+<i>Biggar</i>, a builder, has given us <i>Biggins</i>,
+<i>Biggs</i> (Chapter III), and <i>Newbigging</i>, while from to
+<i>build</i> we have <i>Newbould</i> and <i>Newbolt</i>.
+<i>Cazenove</i>, Ital. <i>casa</i> <i>nuova</i>, means exactly
+the same. Probably related to <i>build</i> <i>is</i> the obsolete
+<i>Bottle</i>, a building, whence <i>Harbottle</i>. <i>A</i>
+humble dwelling was called a <i>Board</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Borde</font>, a
+little house, lodging, or cottage of timber
+(Cotgrave)&mdash;</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">whence <i>Boardman</i>,
+<i>Border</i>. Other names were <i>Booth</i>, <i>Lodge</i>, and
+<i>Folley</i>, Fr. f<i>euill&eacute;e</i>, a hut made of
+branches&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Feuill&eacute;e</i>, an arbor, or bower, framed of leav'd
+plants, or branches" (Cotgrave).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Scale</i>, possibly
+connected with <i>shealing</i>, is a Scandinavian word used in the north
+for a shepherd's hut, hence the surname <i>Scales. Bower</i>, which now
+suggests a leafy arbour, had no such sense in Mid. English.
+Chaucer says of the poor widow&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Ful sooty was hir
+<i>bour</i> and eek hire halle."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(B, 4022.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hence the names
+<i>Bowerman</i>, <i>Boorman</i>, <i>Burman</i>.</font></p>
+<p>But the commonest of names for a humble dwelling was
+<i>cot</i> or <i>cote</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Born and fed in
+rudenesse</font><br>
+As in a <i>cote</i> or in an oxe stalle</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(E, 397)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">the inhabitant of which was a
+<i>Colman</i>, <i>Cotter</i>, or, diminutively, <i>Cottrell</i>,
+<i>Cotterill</i>. Hence the frequent occurrence of the name
+<i>Coates</i>.</font></p>
+<p>There are also numerous compounds, e.g. <i>Alcott</i> (old),
+<i>Norcott</i>, <i>Kingscote</i>, and the many variants of
+<i>Caldecott</i>, <i>Calcott</i>, the cold dwelling, especially
+common as a village name in the vicinity of the Roman roads. It
+is supposed to have been applied, like Coldharbour, to deserted
+posts. The name <i>Cotton</i> <i>is</i> sometimes from the dative
+plural of the same word, though, when of French origin, it
+represents <i>Colon</i>, dim. of Cot, aphetic for Jacot.</p>
+<p>Names such as <i>Kitchin</i>, <i>Spence</i>, a north-country
+word for pantry (Chapter XX), and <i>Mews</i>, originally applied
+to the hawk-coops (see <i>Mewer</i>, Chapter XV), point to
+domestic employment. The simple <i>Mew</i>, common in Hampshire,
+is a bird nickname. <i>Scammell</i> preserves an older form of
+<i>shamble(s)</i>, originally the benches on which meat was
+exposed for sale. The name <i>Currie</i>, or <i>Curry</i>,
+<i>is</i> too common to be referred entirely to the Scot.
+<i>Corrie</i>, a mountain glen, or to Curry in Somerset, and I
+conjecture that it sometimes represents Old French and Mid. Eng.
+<i>curie</i>, a kitchen, which is the origin of Petty Cury in
+Cambridge and of the famous French name Curie. Nor can
+<i>Furness</i> be derived exclusively from the Furness district
+of Lancashire. It must sometimes correspond to the common French
+name Dufour, from <i>four</i>, oven. We also have the name
+<i>Ovens</i>. <i>Stables</i>, when not identical with
+<i>Staples</i> (Chapter XIII), belongs to the same class as
+<i>Mews</i>. <i>Chambers</i>, found in Scotland as
+<i>Chalmers</i>, is official, the medieval <i>de</i> <i>la</i>
+<i>Chambre</i> often referring to the Exchequer Chamber of the
+City of London. <i>Bellchambers</i> has probably no connection
+with this word. It appears to be an imitative spelling of
+Belencombre, a place near Dieppe, for the entry <i>de</i>
+<i>Belencumbre</i> <i>is</i> of frequent occurrence.</p>
+<p>Places of confinement are represented by <i>Gale</i>, gaol
+(Chapter III), <i>Penn</i>, whence <i>Inkpen</i> (Berkshire),
+<i>Pond</i>, <i>Pound</i>, and <i>Penfold</i> or <i>Pinfold</i>.
+But <i>Gales</i> is also for Anglo-Fr. <i>Galles</i>, Wales.
+<i>Butts</i> may come from the archery ground, while <i>Butt</i>
+<i>is</i> generally to be referred to the French name Bout
+(Chapter VII) or to <i>Budd</i> <i>(</i>Chapter VII).
+<i>Cordery</i>, for <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>corderie</i>, of the
+rope-walk, has been confused with the much more picturesque
+<i>Corderoy</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>coeur</i> <i>de</i>
+<i>roi</i>.</p>
+<p><i> &nbsp; </i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80770" id="Toc80770">SHOP SIGNS</a></b></p>
+<p>As is well known, medieval shops had signs instead of numbers,
+and traces of this custom are still to be seen in country towns.
+It is quite obvious that town surnames would readily spring into
+existence from such signs. The famous name <i>Rothschild</i>,
+always mispronounced in English, goes back to the "red shield"
+over Nathan Rothschild's shop in the Jewry of Frankfurt; and
+within the writer's memory two brothers named Grainge in the
+little town of Uxbridge were familiarly known as Bible Grainge
+and Gridiron Grainge. Many animal surnames are to be referred
+partly to this source, e.g. <i>Bull</i>, <i>Hart</i>,
+<i>Lamb</i>, <i>Lyon</i>, <i>Ram</i>, <i>Roebuck</i>,
+<i>Stagg;</i> <i>Cock</i>, <i>Falcon</i>, <i>Peacock</i>,
+<i>Raven</i>, <i>Swann</i>, etc., all still common as tavern
+signs. The popinjay, or parrot, is still occasionally found as
+<i>Pobgee</i>, <i>Popjoy</i>. These surnames all have, of course,
+an alternative explanation (ch. xxiii.). Here also usually belong
+<i>Angel</i> and <i>Virgin</i>.</p>
+<p>A considerable number of such names probably consist of those
+taken from figures used in heraldry or from objects which
+indicated the craft practised, or the special commodity in which
+the tradesman dealt. Such are <i>Arrow</i>, <i>Bell</i>,
+<i>Buckle</i>, <i>Crosskeys</i>, <i>Crowne</i>, <i>Gauntlett</i>,
+<i>Hatt</i>, <i>Horne</i>, <i>Image</i>, <i>Key</i>,
+<i>Lilley</i>, <i>Meatyard</i>, measuring wand&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Ye shall do no
+unrighteousness in judgment, in <i>meteyard</i>, in weight, or in
+measure" (Lev. xix. <i>35)&mdash;</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Mullett</font>,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> A five-pointed star, Old Fr. <i>molette</i>,
+rowel of a spur.<i>]</i> <i>Rose</i>, <i>Shears</i>, and perhaps
+<i>Blades</i>, <i>Shipp</i>, <i>Spurr</i>, <i>Starr</i>,
+<i>Sword</i>. Thomas Palle, called "Sheres," died in London,
+1376.</p>
+<p>But here again we must walk delicately. The Germanic name
+Hatto, borne by the wicked bishop who perished in the
+M&auml;useturm, gave the French name <i>Hatt</i> with the
+accusative form <i>Hatton</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> In Old French a
+certain number of names, mostly of Germanic origin, had an
+accusative in -<i>on</i>, e.g. Guy, Guyon, Hugues, Hugon. From
+Lat. <i>Pontius</i> came Poinz, Poinson, whence our
+<i>Poyntz</i>, less pleasingly <i>Punch</i>, and <i>Punshon</i>.
+In the Pipe Rolls these are also spelt Pin-, whence <i>Pinch</i>,
+<i>Pinchin</i>, and <i>Pinches</i>.] <i>Horn</i> is an old
+personal name, as in the medieval romance of King Horn,
+<i>Shipp</i> <i>is</i> a common provincialism for <i>sheep</i>,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Hence the connection between the ship and the
+"ha'porth of tar."] <i>Starr</i> has another explanation (see
+<i>Starling</i>) and <i>Bell</i> has several (chapter 1). I
+should guess that <i>Porteous</i> was the sign used by some
+medieval writer of mass-books and breviaries. Its oldest form is
+the Anglo-Fr. <i>Porte</i>-<i>hors</i>, corresponding to medieval
+Lat. <i>portiforium</i>, a breviary, lit. what one carries
+outside, a portable prayer-book&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"For on my
+<i>porthors</i> here I make an oath." (B, 1321.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But as the name is found
+without prefix in the Hundred Rolls, it may have been a nickname
+conferred on some <i>clericus</i> who was proud of so rare a
+possession.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144738" id="Toc2144738"></a><a name="Toc80771"
+id="Toc80771">CHAPTER XIV <b>NORMAN BLOOD</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Such, however, is the
+illusion of antiquity and wealth that decent and dignified men
+now existing boast their descent from these filthy
+thieves"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(EMERSON</i>, <i>English</i> <i>Traits</i>, ch. iv.).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Not every Norman or Old French
+name need be included in the group described by Emerson when
+talking down to an uneducated audience. In fact, it is probable
+that the majority of genuine French names belong to a later
+period; for, although the baron who accompanied the Conqueror
+would in many cases keep his old territorial designation, the
+minor ruffian would, as a rule, drop the name of the obscure
+hamlet from which he came and assume some surname more convenient
+in his new surroundings. Local names of Old French origin are
+usually taken from the provinces and larger towns which had a
+meaning for English ears. I have given examples of such in
+chapter xi. Of course it is easy to take a detailed map of
+Northern France and say, without offering any proof, that
+<i>"Avery</i> (Chapter VIII) is from Evreux, <i>Belcher</i>
+(Chapter XXI) from Bellecourt, <i>Custance</i> (Chapter X) from
+Coutances," and so on. But any serious student knows this to be
+idiotic nonsense. The fact that, except in the small minority
+composed of the senior branches of the noblest houses, the
+surname was not hereditary till centuries after the Conquest,
+justifies any bearer of a Norman name taken from a village or
+smaller locality in repudiating all connection with the "filthy
+thieves" and conjecturing descent from some decent artisan
+belonging to one of the later immigrations.</font></p>
+<p>That a considerable number of aristocratic families, and
+others, bear an easily recognizable French town or village name
+is of course well known, but it will usually be found that such
+names are derived from places which are as plentiful in France as
+our own Ashleys, Barton, Burton, Langleys, Newtons, Suttons,
+etc., are in England. In some cases a local French name has
+spread in an exceptional manner. Examples are <i>Baines</i>
+(Gains, 2 <i>[Footnote:</i> The figures in brackets indicate the
+number of times that the French local name occurs in the Postal
+Directory. The above is the usual explanation of <i>Baines</i>.
+found with <i>de</i> in the Hundred Rolls. But I think it was
+sometimes a nickname, <i>bones</i>, applied to a thin man. I find
+William <i>Banes</i> in Lancashire in 1252; cf. L<i>angbain</i>.]
+), <i>Gurney</i> (Gournai, 6), <i>Vernon</i> (3). But usually in
+such cases we find a large number of spots which may have given
+rise to the surname, e.g. <i>Beaumont</i> (46, without counting
+<i>Belmont)</i>, <i>Dampier</i> (Dampierre, <i>i.e</i>. St.
+Peter's, 28), <i>Daubeney</i>, <i>Dabney</i> (Aubign&eacute;, 4,
+Aubigny, 17), <i>Ferrers</i> (Ferri&eacute;res, 22),
+<i>Nevill</i> (Neuville, 58), <i>Nugent</i> (Nogent, 17),
+<i>Villiers</i> (58). This last name, representing Vulgar Lat.
+<i>villarium</i>, is the origin of Ger. -<i>weiler</i>, so common
+in German village names along the old Roman roads, e.g.
+Badenweiler, Froschweiler, etc.</p>
+<p>When we come to those surnames of this class which have
+remained somewhat more exclusive, we generally find that the
+place-name is also comparatively rare. Thus <i>Hawtrey</i> is
+from Hauterive (7), <i>Pinpoint</i> from Pierrepont (5),
+<i>Furneaux</i> from Fourneaux (5), <i>Vipont</i> and Vipan from
+Vieux-Pont (3), and there are three places called
+<i>Percy</i>.</p>
+<p>The following have two possible birthplaces
+<i>each&mdash;Bellew</i> or <i>Pellew</i> (Belleau),
+<i>Cantelo</i> (Canteloup <i>[Footnote:</i> But the doublet
+<i>Chanteloup</i> is common.<i>]</i> ), <i>Mauleverer</i>
+(Maul&eacute;vrier), <i>Mompesson</i> (Mont Pin&ccedil;on or
+Pinchon), <i>Montmorency</i>, <i>Mortimer</i> (Morte-mer). The
+following are unique&mdash;Carteret, Doll <i>[Footnote:</i> This
+may also be a metronymic, from Dorothy.<i>]</i> (Dol),
+<i>Fiennes</i>, <i>Furnival</i> (Fournival), <i>Greville</i>,
+<i>Harcourt</i>, <i>Melville</i> (Meleville), <i>Montresor</i>,
+<i>Mowbray</i> (Monbrai), <i>Sackville</i> (Sacquenville),
+<i>Venables</i>. These names are taken at random, but the same
+line of investigation can be followed up by any reader who thinks
+it worth while.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80772" id="Toc80772">CORRUPT FORMS</a></b></p>
+<p>Apart from aristocratic questions, it is interesting to notice
+the contamination which has occurred between English and French
+surnames of local origin. The very common French suffix
+-<i>ville</i> is regularly confounded with our -<i>field</i>.
+Thus <i>Summerfield</i> <i>is</i> the same name as
+<i>Somerville</i>, <i>Dangerfield</i> is for d'Angerville,
+<i>Belfield</i> for Belleville, <i>Blomfield</i> for Blonville,
+and <i>Stutfield</i> for Estouteville, while <i>Grenville</i>,
+<i>Granville</i>have certainly become confused with our
+<i>Grenfell</i>, green fell, and <i>Greenfield</i>. Camden notes
+that <i>Turberville</i> became <i>Troublefield</i>, and I have
+found the intermediate <i>Trubleville</i> in the twelfth century.
+The case of Tess <i>Durbeyfield</i> will occur to every reader.
+The suffix -<i>fort</i> has been confused with our -<i>ford</i>
+and -<i>forth</i>, so that <i>Rochford</i> is in some cases for
+Rochefort and <i>Beeforth</i> <i>for</i> Beaufort or Belfort.
+With the first syllable of <i>Beeforth</i> we may compare
+<i>Beevor</i> for Beauvoir, Belvoir, <i>Beecham</i> for
+Beauchamp, and <i>Beamish</i> for Beau<i>mais</i>.</p>
+<p>The name <i>Beamish</i> actually occurs as that of village in
+Durham, the earlier form of which points Old French origin, from
+<i>beau</i> <i>mes</i>, Lat. <i>bellum</i> <i>man</i>sum, a fair
+manse, <i>i.e</i>. dwelling. Otherwise it would be tempting to
+derive the surname <i>Beamish</i> from Ger, <i>b&ouml;hmisch</i>,
+earlier <i>behmisch</i>, Bohemian.</p>
+<p>A brief survey of French spot-names which have passed into
+English will show that they were acquired in exactly the same way
+as the corresponding English names. Norman ancestry, is, however,
+not always to be assumed in this case. Until the end of the
+fourteenth century a large proportion of our population was
+bi-lingual, and names accidentally recorded in Anglo-French may
+occasionally have stuck. Thus the name <i>Boyes</i> or
+<i>Boyce</i> may spring from a man of pure English descent who
+happened to be described as <i>del</i> <i>boil</i> instead of
+<i>atte</i> <i>wood</i>, just as <i>Capron</i> (Chapter XXI)
+means <i>Hood</i>. While English spot-names have as a rule shed
+both the preposition and the article (Chapter XII), French
+usually keeps one or both, though these were more often lost when
+the name passed into England. Thus our <i>Roach</i> <i>is</i> not
+a fish-name, but corresponds to Fr. <i>Laroche</i> or
+<i>Delaroche;</i> and the blind pirate <i>Pew</i>, if not a
+Welshman, ap Hugh, was of the race of <i>Dupuy</i>, from Old Fr.
+<i>Puy</i>, a hill, Lat. <i>podium</i>, a height, gallery, etc.,
+whence also our <i>Pew</i>, once a raised platform.</p>
+<p>In some cases the prefix has passed into English; e.g.
+<i>Diprose</i> <i>is</i> from <i>des</i> <i>pr&eacute;aux</i>, of
+the meadows, a name assumed by Boileau among others. There are,
+of course, plenty of places in France called <i>Les</i>
+<i>Pr&eacute;aux</i>, but in the case of such a name we need not
+go further than possession of, or residence by, a piece of
+grass-land&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>
+"Je sais un paysan qu'on appelait Gros-Pierre,<br>
+Qui, n'ayant pour tout bien qu'un seul quartier de terre,<br>
+Y fit tout alentour faire un foss&eacute; bourbeux,<br>
+Et de <i>monsieur de l'Isle</i> en prit le nom pompeux."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Moli&egrave;re <i>L'Ecole des Femmes</i>,
+<i>i</i>. <i>1</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The Old French singular <i>pr&eacute;al</i> <i>is</i> perhaps
+the origin of <i>Prall</i>, <i>Prawle</i>. Similarly
+<i>Preece</i>, <i>Prees</i>, usually for <i>Price</i>, may
+sometimes be for <i>des</i> <i>Pres</i>. With <i>Boyes</i>
+(Chapter XIV) we may compare <i>Tallis</i> from Fr.
+<i>taillis</i>, a copse <i>(tailler</i>, to cut). <i>Garrick</i>,
+a Huguenot name, is Fr, <i>gangue</i>, an old word for heath.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80773" id="Toc80773">TREE NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Trees have in all countries a strong influence on
+topographical names, and hence on surnames. <i>Frean</i>, though
+usually from the Scandinavian name Fraena, is sometimes for Fr.
+<i>fr&ecirc;ne</i>, ash, Lat. <i>fraxinus</i>, while <i>Cain</i>
+and <i>Kaines</i> <i>[Footnote:</i> There is one family of
+<i>Keynes</i> derived specifically from Chahaignes
+(Sarthe).<i>]</i> are Norm. <i>qu&ecirc;ne</i>
+<i>(ch&ecirc;ne)</i>, oak. The modern French for beech is
+<i>h&ecirc;tre</i>, Du. <i>heester</i>, but Lat. <i>fagus</i> has
+given a great many dialect forms which have supplied us with the
+surnames <i>Fay</i>, <i>Foy</i>, and the plural dim.
+<i>Failes</i>. Here also I should put the name <i>Defoe</i>,
+assumed by the writer whose father was satisfied with <i>Foe</i>.
+With Quatrefages, four beeches, we may compare such English names
+as <i>Fiveash</i>, <i>Twelvetrees</i>, and <i>Snooks</i>, for
+"seven oaks."</p>
+<p>In Latin the suffix -<i>etum</i> was used to designate a grove
+or plantation. This suffix, or its plural -<i>eta</i>, <i>is</i>
+very common in France, becoming successively -ei(e), -oi(e),
+-ai(e). The name <i>Dobree</i> <i>is</i> a Guernsey spelling of
+d'Aubray, Lat. <i>arboretum</i>, which was dissimilated (Chapter
+III) into <i>arboretum</i>. <i>Darblay</i>, the name of Fanny
+Burney's husband, is a variant. From <i>au(l)ne</i>, alder, we
+have aunai, whence our <i>Dawnay</i>. So also fr&ecirc;<i>nai</i>
+has given <i>Freeney</i>, <i>ch&ecirc;nai</i>, <i>Chaney</i>, and
+the Norm. <i>qu&ecirc;nai</i> is one origin of <i>Kenney</i>,
+while the older <i>chesnai</i> appears in <i>Chesney</i>.
+<i>Houssaie</i>, from <i>hoax</i>, holly, gives <i>Hussey;</i>
+<i>chastenai</i>, chestnut grove, exists in Nottingham as
+<i>Chastener;</i> <i>coudrai</i>, hazel copse, gives
+<i>Cowdrey</i> and <i>Cowdery;</i> <i>Verney</i> and
+<i>Varney</i> are from <i>vernai</i>, grove of alders, of Celtic
+origin, and <i>Viney</i> corresponds to the French name
+<i>Vinoy</i>, Lat. <i>vinetum</i>.</p>
+<p>We have also <i>Chinnery</i>, <i>Chenerey</i> from the
+extended <i>ch&ecirc;nerai</i>, and <i>Pomeroy</i> from
+<i>pommerai</i>. Here again the name offers no clue as to the
+exact place of origin. There are in the French Postal Directory
+eight places called &Eacute;pinay, from &eacute;<i>pine</i>,
+thorn, but these do not exhaust the number of "spinnies" in
+France. Also connected with tree-names are <i>Conyers</i>, Old
+Fr, <i>coigniers</i>, quince-trees, and <i>Pirie</i>,
+<i>Perry</i>, Anglo-Fr. <i>p&eacute;rie</i>, a collective from
+<i>peire</i> <i>(poire)</i>.</p>
+<p>Among Norman names for a homestead the favourite is
+<i>mesnil</i>, from Vulgar Lat. <i>mansionile</i>, which enters
+into a great number of local names. It has given our
+<i>Meynell</i>, and is also the first element of
+<i>Mainwaring</i>, <i>Mannering</i>, from
+<i>mesnil</i>-<i>Warin</i>. The simple <i>mes</i>, a southern
+form of which appears in Dumas, has given us <i>Mees</i> and
+<i>Meese</i>, which are thus etymological doublets of the word
+<i>manse</i>. With <i>Beamish</i> (Chapter XIV) we may compare
+<i>Bellasis</i>, from <i>bel</i>-<i>assis</i>, fairly situated.
+<i>Poyntz</i> <i>is</i> sometimes for <i>des</i> <i>ponts;</i>
+cf. <i>Pierpoint</i> for <i>Pierrepont</i>.</p>
+<p>Even Norman names which were undoubtedly borne by leaders
+among the Conqueror's companions are now rarely found among the
+noble, and many a descendant of these once mighty families
+cobbles the shoes of more recent invaders. Even so the
+descendants of the Spanish nobles who conquered California are
+glad to peddle vegetables at the doors of San Francisco magnates
+whose fathers dealt in old clothes in some German Judengasse.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144739" id="Toc2144739"></a><a name="Toc80774"
+id="Toc80774">CHAPTER XV <b>OF OCCUPATIVE
+NAMES</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>"When Adam delved and Eve span,<br>
+Who was then the gentleman?"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>Chant</i> <i>of</i> <i>Wat</i> <i>Tyler's</i>
+<i>followers</i>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The occupative name would,
+especially in villages, tend to become a very natural surname. It
+is not therefore surprising to find so large a number of this
+class among our commonest surnames, e.g. <i>Smith</i>,
+<i>Taylor</i>, <i>Wright</i>, <i>Walker</i>, <i>Turner</i>,
+<i>Clark</i>, <i>Cooper</i>, etc. And, as the same craft often
+persisted in a family for generations, it was probably this type
+of surname which first became hereditary. On the other hand, such
+names as <i>Cook</i>, <i>Gardiner</i>, <i>Carter</i>, etc., have
+no doubt in some cases prevailed over another surname lawfully
+acquired (Chapter I). It is impossible to fix an approximate date
+for the definite adoption of surnames of this class. It occurred
+earlier in towns than in the country, and by the middle of the
+fourteenth century we often find in the names of London citizens
+a contradiction between the surname and the trade-name; e.g.
+Walter <i>Ussher</i>, tanner, John <i>Botoner</i>, girdler, Roger
+<i>Carpenter</i>, pepperer, Richard <i>le</i> <i>Hunte</i>,
+chaundeler, occur <i>1336</i>-<i>52</i>.</font></p>
+<p>The number of surnames belonging to this group is immense, for
+every medieval trade and craft was highly specialized and its
+privileges were jealously guarded. The general public, which now,
+like Issachar, crouches between the trusts and the trades unions,
+was in the middle ages similarly victimized by the guilds of
+merchants and craftsmen.</p>
+<p>Then, as now, it grumblingly recognized that, "Plus &ccedil;a
+change, plus &ccedil;a reste la m&ecirc;me chose," and went on
+enduring. <i>[Footnote:</i> If a student of philology were
+allowed to touch on such high matters as legislation, I would
+moralize on the word <i>kiddle</i>, meaning an illegal kind of
+weir used for fish-poaching, whence perhaps the surname
+<i>Kiddell</i>. From investigations made with a view to
+discovering the origin of the word, I came to the conclusion that
+all the legislative powers in England spent three centuries in
+passing enactments against these devices, with the inevitable
+consequence that they became ever more numerous.<i>]</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80775" id="Toc80775">SOCIAL GRADES</a></b></p>
+<p>By dealing with a few essential points at the outset we shall
+clear the ground for considering the various groups of surnames
+connected with trade, craft, profession or office. To begin with,
+it is certain that such names as <i>Pope</i>, <i>Cayzer</i>,
+<i>King</i>, <i>Earl</i>, <i>Bishop</i> are nicknames, very often
+conferred on performers in religious plays or acquired in
+connection with popular festivals and processions&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Names also have been
+taken of civil honours, dignities and estate, as <i>King</i>,
+<i>Duke</i>, <i>Prince</i>, <i>Lord</i>, <i>Baron</i>,
+<i>Knight</i>, <i>Valvasor</i> or <i>Vavasor</i>, <i>Squire</i>,
+<i>Castellon</i>, partly for that their ancestours were such,
+served such, acted such parts; or were Kings of the Bean,
+Christmas</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Lords, etc." (Camden).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">We find corresponding names in
+other languages, and some of the French names, usually preceded
+by the definite article, have passed into English, e.g.
+<i>Lempriere</i>, a Huguenot name, and <i>Lev&ecirc;que</i>,
+whence our <i>Levick</i>, <i>Vick</i>, <i>Veck</i> (Chapter III).
+<i>Baron</i> generally appears as <i>Barron</i>, and <i>Duke</i>,
+used in Mid. English of any leader, is often degraded to
+<i>Duck</i>, whence the dim. <i>Duckett</i>. But all three of
+these names can also be referred to Marmaduke.</font></p>
+<p>It would be tempting to put <i>Palsgrave</i> in this class.
+Prince Rupert, the <i>Pfalzgraf</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Count Palatine,
+was known as the Palsgrave in his day, but I have not found the
+title recorded early enough.</p>
+<p>With <i>Lord</i> we must put the northern <i>Laird</i>, and,
+in my opinion, <i>Senior;</i> for, if we notice how much commoner
+<i>Young</i> <i>is</i> than <i>Old</i>, and Fr. <i>Lejeune</i>
+than <i>Levieux</i>, we must conclude that <i>junior</i>, a very
+rare surname, ought to be of much more frequent occurrence than
+<i>Senior</i>, <i>Synyer</i>, a fairly common name. There can be
+little doubt that <i>Senior</i> <i>is</i> usually a latinization
+of the medieval <i>le</i> <i>seigneur</i>, whence also
+<i>Saynor</i>. <i>Knight</i> <i>is</i> not always knightly, for
+Anglo-Sax. <i>cniht</i> means servant; cf. Ger. <i>Knecht</i>.
+The word got on in the world, with the consequence that the name
+is very popular, while its medieval compeers, knave, varlet,
+villain, have, even when adorned with the adj. good, dropped out
+of the surname list, <i>Bonvalet</i>, <i>Bonvarlet</i>,
+<i>Bonvillain</i> are still common surnames in France. From
+<i>Knight</i> we have the compound <i>Road</i>-<i>night</i>, a
+mounted servitor. Thus <i>Knight</i> <i>is</i> more often a true
+occupative name, and the same applies to <i>Dring</i> or
+<i>Dreng</i>, a Scandinavian name of similar meaning.</p>
+<p>Other names from the middle rungs of the social ladder are
+also to be taken literally, e.g. <i>Franklin</i>, a freeholder,
+Anglo-Fr. <i>frankelein</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"How called you your <i>franklin</i>, Prior Aylmer?"</p>
+<p>"Cedric," answered the Prior, "Cedric the Saxon"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Ivanhoe</i>, ch. i.)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Burgess, Freeman, Freeborn</i>.
+The latter is sometimes for <i>Freebairn</i> and exists
+already as the Anglo-Saxon personal name Freobeorn. <i>Denison</i>
+(Chapter II) is occasionally an accommodated form of <i>denizen</i>,
+Anglo-Fr. <i>deinzein</i>, a burgess enjoying the privileges belonging
+to those who lived "<i>deinz</i> (in) <i>la cit&eacute;</i>." In 1483 a certain Edward
+Jhonson&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Sued to be mayde
+<i>Denison</i> for fer of y<sup>e</sup> payment of y<sup>e</sup>
+subsedy." </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Letter</i> <i>to</i> <i>Sir</i> <i>William</i>
+<i>Stonor</i>, June <i>9</i>, 1483.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Bond</i> is from
+Anglo-Sax, <i>bonda</i>, which means simply agriculturist. The word is
+of Icelandic origin and related to <i>Boor</i>, another word which has
+deteriorated and is rare as a surname, though the cognate <i>Bauer</i>
+is common enough in Germany. <i>Holder</i> is translated by <i>Tennant</i>. For
+some other names applied to the humbler peasantry see Chapter
+XIII.</p>
+<p>To return to the social summit, we have <i>Kingson</i>, often
+confused with the local <i>Kingston</i>, and its Anglo-French
+equivalent <i>Fauntleroy</i>. <i>Faunt</i>, aphetic for Anglo-Fr.
+<i>enfaunt</i>, <i>is</i> common in Mid. English. When the mother
+of Moses had made the ark of bulrushes, or, as Wyclif calls it,
+the "junket of resshen," she&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Putte the litil
+f<i>aunt</i> with ynne"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Exodus</i> <i>ii</i>. 3)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The Old French accusative
+(Chapter I) was also used as a genitive, as in Bourg-le-roi,
+Bourg-la-rein, corresponding to our Kingsbury and Queensborough.
+We have a genitive also in <i>Flowerdew</i>, found in French as
+Flourdieu. Lower, in his <i>Patronymics</i> <i>Britannica</i>
+(1860), the first attempt at a dictionary of English surnames,
+conjectures <i>Fauntleroy</i> to be from an ancient French
+war-cry D&eacute;fendez le roi! for "in course of time, the
+meaning of the name being forgotten, the <i>de</i> would be
+dropped, and the remaining syllables would easily glide into
+<i>Fauntleroy</i>.<i>"</i> <i>[Footnote:</i> I have quoted this
+"etymology" because it is too funny to be lost; but a good deal
+of useful information can be found in Lower, especially with
+regard to the habitat of well-known names.<i>]</i></font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80776" id="Toc80776">ECCLESIASTICAL
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Names of ecclesiastics must usually be nicknames, because
+medieval churchmen were not entitled to have descendants. This
+appears clearly in such an entry as "<i>Bishop</i> the
+crossbowman," or "Johannes <i>Monacus</i> et uxor ejus Emma,"
+living in Kent in the twelfth century. But these names are so
+numerous that I have put them with the Canterbury Pilgrims (ch.
+xvii.). Three of them may be mentioned here in connection with a
+small group of occupative surnames of puzzling form. We have
+noticed (Chapter XII) that monosyllabic, and some other, surnames
+of local origin frequently take an -<i>s</i>, partly by analogy
+with names like <i>Wills</i>, <i>Watts</i>, <i>etc</i>. We rarely
+find this -<i>s</i> in the case of occupative names, but
+<i>Parsons</i>, <i>Vicars</i> or <i>Vickers</i>, and <i>Monks</i>
+are common, and in fact the first two are scarcely found without
+the -<i>s</i>. To these we may add <i>Reeves</i> (Chapter XVII),
+<i>Grieves</i> (Chapter XIX), and the well-known Nottingham name
+<i>Mellers</i> (Chapter XVII). The explanation seems to be that
+these names are true genitives, and that John <i>Parsons</i> was
+John the Parson's man, while John <i>Monks</i> was employed by
+the monastery. This is confirmed by such entries as "Walter
+<i>atte</i> <i>Parsons</i>,<i>"</i> <i>"</i>John <i>del</i>
+<i>Parsons</i>,<i>"</i> <i>"</i>Allen <i>atte</i>
+<i>Prestes</i>," "William <i>del</i> <i>Freres</i>,<i>"</i>
+<i>"</i>Thomas <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>Vicars</i>,<i>"</i> all
+from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.</p>
+<p>Another exceptional group is that of names formed by adding
+-<i>son</i> to the occupative names, the commonest being perhaps
+<i>Clarkson</i>, <i>Cookson</i>, <i>Smithson</i>, and
+<i>Wrightson</i>. To this class belongs <i>Grayson</i>, which
+Bardsley shows to be equivalent to the grieve's son.</p>
+<p>Our occupative names are both English and French,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> We have also a few Latinizations, e.g.
+<i>Faber</i> (wright), <i>Messer</i> (mower). This type of name
+is much commoner in Germany, e.g. Avenarius, oat man, Fabricius,
+smith, Textor, weaver, etc. Mercator, of map projection fame, was
+a Fleming named Kremer, <i>i.e</i>. dealer.<i>]</i> <a name="BBB"
+id="BBB"></a> the two languages being represented by those
+important tradesmen <i>Baker</i> and <i>Butcher</i>. The former
+is reinforced by <i>Bollinger</i>, Fr. <i>boulanger</i>,
+<i>Pester</i>, Old Fr. <i>pestour</i> (Lat. <i>piston)</i>, and
+<i>Furner&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Fournier</i>, a
+baker, or one that keeps, or governs a common oven"
+(Cotgrave).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The English and French names
+for the same trade also survive in <i>Cheeseman</i> and
+<i>Firminger</i>, Old Fr. <i>formagier</i>
+<i>(fromage)</i>.</font></p>
+<p>We have as endings -<i>er</i>, -<i>ier</i>, the latter often
+made into -<i>yer</i>, -<i>ger</i>, as in <i>Lockyer</i>,
+<i>Sawyer</i>, <i>Kidger</i> (Chapter XIX), <i>Woodger</i>,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> W<i>oodyer</i>, <i>Woodger</i>, <i>may</i> also
+be for wood-hewer. See <i>Stanier</i>] and -<i>or</i>,
+-<i>our</i>, as in <i>Taylor</i>, <i>Jenoure</i> (Chapter III).
+The latter ending, corresponding to Modern Fr. -<i>eur</i>,
+represents Lat. -<i>or</i>, -<i>orem</i>, but we tack it onto
+English words as in "sailor," or substitute it for -<i>er</i>,
+-<i>ier</i>, as in <i>Fermor</i>, for <i>Farmer</i>, Fr.
+<i>fermier</i>. In the Privy Purse Expenses of that careful
+monarch Henry VII. occurs the item&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"To bere drunken at a
+<i>fermors</i> house . . . 1s."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In the same way we replace the
+Fr. -<i>our</i>, -<i>eur</i> by -<i>er</i>, as in <i>Turner</i>,
+Fr. <i>tourneur</i>, <i>Ginner</i>, <i>Jenner</i> for
+<i>Jenoure</i>.</font></p>
+<p>The ending -<i>er</i>, -<i>ier</i> represents the Lat.
+-<i>arius</i>. It passed not only into French, but also into the
+Germanic languages, replacing the Teutonic agential suffix which
+consisted of a single vowel. We have a few traces of this oldest
+group of occupative names, e.g. <i>Webb</i>, Mid. Eng.
+<i>webbe</i>, Anglo-Sax. <i>webb</i>-<i>a</i>, and <i>Hunt</i>,
+Mid. Eng. <i>hunte</i>, Anglo-Sax.
+<i>hunt</i>-<i>a&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"With <i>hunte</i> and
+horne and houndes hym bisyde"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(A, <i>1678)</i> <font face="Bookman Old Style">&mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>which still hold the field easily against <i>Webber</i> and
+<i>Hunter</i>.</p>
+<p>So also, the German name <i>Beck</i> represents Old High Ger.
+<i>pecch</i>-<i>o</i>, baker. To these must be added <i>Kemp</i>,
+a champion, a very early loan-word connected with Lat.
+<i>campus</i>, field, and <i>Wright</i>, originally the worker,
+Anglo-Sax. <i>wyrht</i>-<i>a</i>. <i>Camp</i> <i>is</i> sometimes
+for <i>Kemp</i>, but is also from the Picard form of Fr,
+<i>champ</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Field</i>. Of similar formation to
+<i>Webb</i>, etc., is Clapp, from an Anglo-Sax. nickname, the
+clapper&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Osgod <i>Clapa</i>,
+King Edward Confessor's staller, was cast upon the pavement of
+the Church by a demon's hand for his insolent pride in presence
+of the relics (of St. Edmund, King and Martyr)."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">(W. H. Hutton, Bampton
+Lectures, 1903.)</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80777" id="Toc80777">NAMES IN
+-<i>STER</i></a></b></p>
+<p>The ending -<i>ster</i> was originally feminine, and applied
+to trades chiefly carried on by women, e.g. <i>Baxter</i>,
+<i>Bagster</i>, baker, <i>Brewster</i>, <i>Simister</i>,
+sempster, <i>Webster</i>, etc., but in process of time the
+distinction was lost, so that we find <i>Blaxter</i> and
+<i>Whitster</i> for <i>Blacker</i>, <i>Blakey</i>, and
+<i>Whiter</i>, both of which, curiously enough, have the same
+meaning&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Bleykester</i> or
+<i>whytster</i>, candidarius" <i>(Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)&mdash;</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">for this <i>black</i>
+represents Mid. Eng. <i>bla</i>-<i>c</i>, related to <i>bleak</i>
+and <i>bleach</i>, and meaning pale&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Blake</i>, wan of
+colour, <i>blesme</i> <i>(bl&ecirc;me)"</i>
+(Palsgrave).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Occupative names of French
+origin are apt to vary according to the period and dialect of
+their adoption. For <i>Butcher</i> we find also <i>Booker</i>,
+<i>Bowker</i>, and sometimes the later <i>Bosher</i>,
+<i>Busher</i>, with the same sound for the <i>ch</i> as in
+<i>Labouch&egrave;re</i>, the lady butcher. But <i>Booker</i> may
+also mean what it appears to mean, as Mid. Eng. <i>bokere</i>
+<i>is</i> used by Wyclif for the Latin <i>scriba</i>.</font></p>
+<p><i>Butcher</i>, originally a dealer in goat's flesh, Fr.
+<i>bouc</i>, has ousted <i>flesher</i>. German still has half a
+dozen surnames derived from names for this trade, e.g.
+<i>Fleischer</i>, <i>Fleischmann</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i>
+Hellenized as Sarkander. This was a favourite trick of German
+scholars at the Renaissance period. Well-known examples are
+Melancthon (Schwarzerd), Neander (Neumann).] <i>Metzger</i>,
+<i>Schlechter;</i> but our <i>flesher</i> has been absorbed by
+<i>Fletcher</i>, a maker of arrows, Fr. <i>fl&ecirc;che</i>.
+Fletcher Gate at Nottingham was formerly Flesher Gate. The undue
+extension of <i>Taylor</i> has already been mentioned (Chapter
+IV). Another example is <i>Barker</i>, which has swallowed up the
+Anglo-Fr. <i>berquier</i>, a shepherd, Fr. <i>berger</i>, with
+the result that the <i>Barkers</i> outnumber the <i>Tanners</i>
+by three to one</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>" 'What craftsman are you?' said our King,<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 'I pray you, tell me now.'<br>
+'I am a <i>barker</i>,' quoth the tanner;<br>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 'What craftsman art thou?' "</p>
+<p><i>(Edward</i> <i>IV. and</i> <i>the</i> <i>Tanner</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>Tamworth</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The name seems to have been applied also to the man who barked
+trees for the tanner.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80778" id="Toc80778">MISSING
+TRADESMEN</a></b></p>
+<p>With <i>Barker</i> it seems natural to mention <i>Mewer</i>,
+of which I find one representative in the London Directory. The
+medieval <i>le</i> <i>muur</i> had charge of the mews in which
+the hawks were kept while moulting (Fr. <i>muer</i>, Lat.
+<i>mutare)</i>. Hence the phrase "mewed up." The word seems to
+have been used for any kind of coop. Chaucer tells us of the
+Franklin&mdash;</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Ful
+many a fat partrich hadde he in muw" (A, 349).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">I suspect that some of the
+<i>Muirs</i> (Chapter XII) spring from this important office.
+Similarly <i>Clayer</i> has been absorbed by the local
+<i>Clare</i>, <i>Kayer</i>, the man who made keys, by
+<i>Care</i>, and <i>Blower</i>, whether of horn or bellows, has
+paid tribute to the local <i>Bloor</i>, <i>Blore</i>.</font></p>
+<p><i>Sewer</i>, an attendant at table, aphetic for Old Fr.
+<i>asseour</i>, a setter, is now a very rare name. As we know
+that <i>sewer</i>, a drain, became <i>shore</i>, it is probable
+that the surname <i>Shore</i> sometimes represents this official
+or servile title. And this same name <i>Shore</i>, though not
+particularly common, and susceptible of a simple local origin,
+labours under grave suspicion of having also enriched itself at
+the expense of the medieval <i>le</i> <i>suur</i>, the shoemaker,
+Lat. <i>sutor</i>-<i>em</i>, whence Fr. <i>Lesueur</i>. This
+would inevitably become <i>Sewer</i> and then <i>Shore</i>, as
+above. Perhaps, in the final reckoning, <i>Shaw</i> <i>is</i> not
+altogether guiltless, for I know of one family in which this has
+replaced earlier <i>Shore</i>.</p>
+<p>The medieval <i>le</i> <i>suur</i> brings us to another
+problem, viz. the poor show made by the craftsmen who clothed the
+upper and lower extremities of our ancestors. The name
+<i>Hatter</i>, once frequent enough, is almost extinct, and
+<i>Capper</i> is not very common. The name <i>Shoemaker</i> has
+met with the same fate, though the trade is represented by the
+Lat. <i>Sutor</i>, whence Scot. <i>Souter</i>. Here belong also
+<i>Cordner</i>, <i>Codner</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> Confused, of
+course, with the local <i>Codnor</i> (Derbyshire)<i>]</i> Old Fr.
+<i>cordouanier</i> <i>(cordonnier)</i>, a <i>cordwainer</i>, a
+worker in Cordovan leather, and <i>Corser</i>, <i>Cosser</i>,
+earlier <i>corviser</i>, corresponding to the French name
+<i>Courvoisier</i>, also derived from Cordova. Chaucer, in
+describing the equipment of Sir Thopas, mentions</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"His
+shoon of <i>cordewane"</i> <i>(B</i>, 1922).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The scarcity of <i>Groser</i>,
+grocer, is not surprising, for the word, aphetic for
+<i>engrosser</i>, originally meaning a wholesale dealer, one who
+sold <i>en</i> <i>gros</i>, <i>is</i> of comparatively late
+occurrence. His medieval representative was Spicer.</font></p>
+<p>On the other hand, many occupative titles which are now
+obsolete, or practically so, still survive strongly as surnames.
+Examples of these will be found in chapters xvii.&ndash;xx.</p>
+<p>Some occupative names are rather deceptive. <i>Kisser</i>,
+which is said still to exist, means a maker of <i>cuishes</i>,
+thigh-armour, Fr, <i>cuisses&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Helm, <i>cuish</i>,
+and breastplate streamed with gore."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Lord</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Isles</i>, <i>iv.
+33</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Corker</font> is for caulker,
+<i>i.e</i>. one who stopped the chinks of ships and casks,
+originally with lime (Lat. <i>calx)&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"</font>Sir, we have a
+chest beneath the hatches, <i>caulk'd</i> and bitumed ready"
+<i>(Pericles</i> <i>iii</i>. <i>1</i>).</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Cleaver</i> represents
+Old Fr, <i>clavier</i>, a mace-bearer, Lat. <i>clava</i>, a club, or a
+door-keeper, Lat. <i>clavis</i>, a key. Perhaps even <i>clavus</i>, a nail,
+must also be considered, for a Latin vocabulary of the fifteenth
+century tells us&mdash;</p>
+<p align="center">"<i>Claves, -vos</i>  vel  -<i>vas</i> qui fert sit <i>claviger</i>."</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Neither <i>Bowler</i> nor
+<i>Scorer</i> are connected with cricket. The former made wooden
+bowls, and the latter was sometimes a <i>scourer</i>, or scout,
+Mid. Eng. <i>scurrour</i>, a word of rather complicated origin,
+but perhaps more frequently a peaceful scullion, from Fr.
+<i>&eacute;curer</i>, to scour, Lat.
+<i>ex</i>-<i>curare&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Escureur</i>, a
+<i>scourer</i>, cleanser, feyer" (Cotgrave).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p align="center"><i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Feyer:</i> A sweeper, now
+perhaps represented by <i>Fayer</i>.]</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A <i>Leaper</i> did not always
+leap (Chapter XVII). The verb had also in Mid. English the sense
+of running away, so that the name may mean fugitive. In some
+cases it may represent a maker of <i>leaps</i>, <i>i.e</i>. fish
+baskets, or perhaps a man who hawked fish in such a
+basket.</font></p>
+<p>A <i>Slayer</i> made <i>slays</i>, part of a weaver's loom,
+and a <i>Bloomer</i> worked in a bloom-smithy, from Anglo-Sax.
+<i>blo</i>-<i>ma</i>, a mass of hammered iron. <i>Weightman</i>
+and <i>Warman</i> represent Mid. Eng, <i>wa&thorn;eman</i>,
+hunter; cf. the common German surname Weidemann, of cognate
+origin. <i>Reader</i> and <i>Booker</i> are not always literary.
+The former is for <i>Reeder</i>, a thatcher&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Redare</font> of
+howsys, calamator, arundinarius" (Prompt. Parv.)&mdash;</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and the latter is a Norman
+variant of <i>Butcher</i>, as already mentioned.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80779" id="Toc80779">
+SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>The spelling of occupative surnames often differs from that
+now associated with the trade itself. In <i>Naylor</i>,
+<i>Taylor</i>, and <i>Tyler</i> we have the archaic preference
+for <i>y</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> It may be noted here that John
+Tiler of Dartford, who killed a tax-gatherer for insulting his
+daughter, was not Wat Tiler, who was killed at Smithfield for
+insulting the King. The confusion between the two has led to much
+sympathy being wasted on a ruffian.<i>]</i> Our ancestors thought
+<i>sope</i> as good a spelling as <i>soap</i>, hence the name
+<i>Soper</i>. A <i>Plummer</i>, <i>i.e</i>. a man who worked in
+lead, Lat. <i>plumbum</i>, is now written, by etymological
+reaction, plumber, though the restored letter is not sounded. A
+man who dealt in <i>'arbs</i> originated the name <i>Arber</i>,
+which we should now replace by herbalist. We have a restored
+spelling in <i>clerk</i>, though educated people pronounce the
+word as it was once written</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Clarke</font>, or
+he that readeth distinctly, clericus." (Holyoak's Lat. Dict.,
+1612.)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In many cases we are unable to
+say exactly what is the ocpupation indicated. We may assume that
+a <i>Setter</i> and a <i>Tipper</i> did setting and tipping, and
+both are said to have been concerned in the arrow industry. If
+this is true, I should say that <i>Setter</i> might represent the
+Old Fr, <i>saieteur</i>, arrow-maker, from <i>saiete</i>, an
+arrow, Lat. <i>sagitta</i>. But in a medieval vocabulary we find
+"<i>setter</i> of mes, <i>dapifer</i>,<i>"</i> which would make
+it the same as <i>Sewe</i>r (Chapter XV). Similarly, when we
+consider the number of objects that can be tipped, we shall be
+shy of defining the activity of the Tipper too closely.
+<i>Trinder</i>, earlier <i>trenden</i>, is from Mid. Eng.
+<i>trender</i>, to roll (cf. <i>Roller)</i>. In the west country
+<i>trinder</i> now means specifically a
+wool-winder&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Lat hym <i>rollen</i>
+and <i>trenden</i> withynne hymself the lyght of his ynwarde
+sighte" <i>(Boece</i>, <i>1043)</i>.</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">There are also some names of
+this class to which we can with certainty attribute two or more
+origins. <i>Boulter</i> means a maker of bolts for crossbows,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> How many people who use the expression
+"<i>bolt</i> upright," associate it with "straight as a
+<i>dart"?]</i> but also a sifter, from the obsolete verb to
+<i>bolt&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"The fanned snow, that's <i>bolted</i><br>
+By the northern blasts twice o'er."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Winter's</i> <i>Tale</i>, <i>iv. 3</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Corner</font> means
+horn-blower, Fr, <i>cor</i>, horn, and is also a contraction of
+coroner, but its commonest origin is local, <i>in</i>
+<i>angulo</i>, in the corner. <i>Curren</i> and <i>Curryer</i>
+are generally connected with leather, but Henry VII. bestowed
+&pound;3 on the <i>Curren</i> that brought tidings of Perkin
+War-beck. <i>Garner</i> has five possible origins: (<i>i</i>) a
+contraction of <i>gardener</i>, <i>(ii)</i> from the French
+personal name <i>Garner</i>, Ger. <i>Werner</i>, <i>(iii)</i> Old
+Fr. <i>grenier</i>, grain-keeper, (<i>iv</i>) Old Fr,
+<i>garennier</i>, warren keeper, (<i>v</i>) local, from garner,
+Fr. <i>grenier</i>, Lat. <i>granarium</i>. In the next chapter
+will be found, as a specimen problem, an investigation of the
+name <i>Rutter</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80780" id="Toc80780">PHONETIC
+CHANGES</a></b></p>
+<p>Two phonetic phenomena should also be noticed. One is the
+regular insertion of <i>n</i> before the ending -<i>ger</i>, as
+in <i>Firminger</i> (Chapter XV), <i>Massinger</i> (Chapter XX),
+<i>Pottinger</i> (Chapter XVIII), and in <i>Arminger</i>,
+<i>Clavinger</i>, from the latinized <i>armiger</i>, esquire, and
+<i>claviger</i>, mace-bearer, etc. (Chapter XV). The other is the
+fact that many occupative names ending in -<i>rer</i> lose the
+-<i>er</i> by dissimilation (Chapter III). Examples are
+<i>Armour</i> for armourer, <i>Barter</i> for barterer,
+<i>Buckler</i> for bucklerer, but also for buckle-maker,
+<i>Callender</i> for calenderer, one who calendered, <i>i.e</i>.
+pressed, cloth</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"And my good friend
+the <i>Callender</i></font><br>
+Will lend his horse <i>to</i> go."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(John</i> <i>Gilpin</i>, <i>1</i>. <i>22)</i> &mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Coffer</font>, for cofferer, a
+treasurer, <i>Cover</i>, for coverer, <i>i.e</i>. tiler, Fr.
+<i>couvreur</i>, when it does not correspond to Fr.
+<i>cuvier</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>a</i> maker of <i>coves</i>, vats,
+<i>Ginger</i>, <i>Grammer</i>, for grammarer, <i>Paternoster</i>,
+maker of paternosters or rosaries, <i>Pepper</i>, <i>Sellar</i>,
+for cellarer (Chapter III), <i>Tabor</i>, for <i>Taberer</i>,
+player on the taber. Here also belongs <i>Treasure</i>, for
+treasurer. <i>Salter</i> <i>is</i> sometimes for <i>sautrier</i>,
+a player on the psaltery. We have the opposite process in
+poulterer for <i>Pointer</i> <i>(</i>Chapter II<i>)</i>, and
+caterer for <i>Cator</i> (Chapter III).</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80781" id="Toc80781">NAMES FROM
+WARES</a></b></p>
+<p>Such names as <i>Ginger</i>, <i>Pepper</i>, may however belong
+to the class of nicknames conferred on dealers in certain
+commodities; cf. <i>Pescod</i>, <i>Peskett</i>, from pease-cod.
+Of this we have several examples which can be confirmed by
+foreign parallels, e.g. <i>Garlick</i>, found in German as
+Knoblauch, <i>[Footnote:</i> The cognate Eng.
+<i>Clove</i>-<i>leek</i> occurs as a surname in the Ramsey
+Chartulary.<i>]</i> <i>Straw</i>, represented in German by the
+cognate name Stroh, and <i>Pease</i>, which is certified by Fr.
+Despois. We find <i>Witepease</i> in the twelfth century.</p>
+<p>Especially common are those names which deal with the two
+staple foods of the country, bread and beer. In German we find
+several compounds of <i>Brot</i>, bread, and one of the greatest
+of chess-players bore the amazing name <i>Zuckertort</i>,
+sugar-tart. In French we have such names as Painchaud,
+Painlev&ecirc;, Pain-tendre&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Eugene Aram was
+usher, in 1744, to the Rev. Mr. <i>Painblanc</i>, in
+Piccadilly"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(Bardsley).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Hence our <i>Cakebread</i> and
+<i>Whitbread</i> were probably names given to bakers.
+<i>Simnel</i> <i>is</i> explained in the same way, and Lambert
+Simnel is understood to have been a baker's lad, but the name
+could equally well be from Fr. <i>Simonel</i>, dim. of Simon.
+<i>Wastall</i> <i>is</i> found in the Hundred Rolls as
+<i>Wasted</i>, Old Fr. <i>gastel</i> <i>(g&acirc;teau)</i>. Here
+also belongs <i>Cracknell</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Craquelin</i>, a
+<i>cracknell;</i> made of the yolks of egges, water, and flower;
+and fashioned like a hollow trendle" (Cotgrave).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Goodbeer</i> is explained
+by Bardsley as a perversion of <i>Godber</i> (Chapter VII), which may be
+true, but the name is also to be taken literally. We have Ger.
+<i>Gutbier</i>, and the existence of <i>Sourale</i> in the Hundred Rolls and
+<i>Sowerbutts</i> at the present day justifies us in accepting both
+<i>Goodbeer</i> and <i>Goodale</i> at their face-value. But <i>Rice</i> is an
+imitative form of Welsh <i>Rhys</i>, <i>Reece</i>, and <i>Salt</i>, when not derived
+from Salt in Stafford, is from Old Fr. <i>sault</i>, a wood, Lat.
+<i>saltus</i>. [Footnote: This is common in place-names, and I should
+suggest, as a guess, that <i>Sacheverell</i> is from the village of
+Sault-Chevreuil-du-Tronchet (Manche).] It is doubtful whether the
+name <i>Cheese</i> is to be included here. Jan Kees, for John Cornelius,
+said to have been a nickname for a Hollander, may easily have
+reached the Eastern counties. Bardsley's earliest instance for
+the name is John <i>Chese</i>, who was living in Norfolk in 1273. But
+still I find <i>Furmage</i> as a medieval surname.</p>
+<p>We also have the dealer in meat represented by the classical
+example of <i>Hogsflesh</i>, with which we may compare
+<i>Mutton</i> and <i>Veal</i>, two names which may be seen fairly
+near each other in Hammersmith Road (but for these see also
+Chapter XXIII), and I have known a German named Kalbfleisch.
+Names of this kind would sometimes come into existence through
+the practice of crying wares; though if Mr. <i>Rottenherring</i>,
+who was a freeman of York in <i>1332</i>, obtained his in this
+way, he must have deliberately ignored an ancient piece of
+wisdom.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><a name="Toc2144740" id="Toc2144740"></a></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80782" id=
+"Toc80782">CHAPTER XVI <b>A SPECIMEN PROBLEM</b></a>:
+RUTTER</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>"Howe sayst thou, man? am not I a joly <i>rutter</i>?" </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Skelton, <i>Magnyfycence</i>, <i>1</i>.
+<i>762</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The fairly common name
+<i>Rutter</i> is a good example of the difficulty of explaining a
+surname derived from a trade or calling no longer practised. Even
+so careful an authority as Bardsley has gone hopelessly astray
+over this name. He says, "German <i>ritter</i>, a rider,
+<i>i.e</i>. a trooper," and quotes from Halliwell,
+"<i>rutter</i>, a rider, a trooper, from the German; a name given
+to mercenary soldiers engaged from Brabant, etc." Now this
+statement is altogether opposed to chronology. The name occurs as
+<i>le</i> <i>roter</i>, <i>rotour</i>, <i>ruter</i> in the
+Hundred Rolls of 1273, <i>i.e</i>. more than two centuries before
+any German name for trooper could possibly have become familiar
+in England. Any stray Mid. High Ger. <i>Riter</i> would have been
+assimilated to the cognate Eng. <i>Rider</i>. It is possible that
+some German <i>Reuters</i> have become English <i>Rutters</i> in
+comparatively modern times, but the German surname <i>Reuter</i>
+has nothing to do with a trooper. It represents Mid. High Ger.
+<i>riutaere</i>, a clearer of land, from the verb <i>riuten</i>
+<i>(reuten)</i>, corresponding to Low Ger. <i>roden</i>, and
+related to our <i>royd</i>, a clearing (Chapter XII). This word
+is apparently not connected with our <i>root</i>, though it means
+to root out, but ultimately belongs to a root <i>ru</i> which
+appears in Lat. <i>rutrum</i>, a spade, <i>rutabulum</i>, a rake,
+etc.</font></p>
+<p>There is another Ger. <i>Reuter</i>, a trooper, which has
+given the sixteenth-century Eng. <i>rutter</i>, but not as a
+surname. The word appears in German about 1500, <i>i.e</i>.
+rather late for the surname period, and comes from Du.
+<i>ruiter</i>, a mercenary trooper. The German for trooper is
+<i>Reiter</i>, really the same word as <i>Ritter</i>, a knight,
+the two forms having been differentiated in meaning; cf. Fr.
+<i>cavalier</i>, a trooper, and <i>chevalier</i>, a knight. In
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ger. <i>Reiter</i> was
+confused with, and supplanted by, this borrowed word
+<i>Reuter</i>, which was taken to mean rider, and we find the
+cavalry called <i>Reuterei</i> well into the eighteenth century.
+As a matter of fact the two words are quite unrelated, though the
+origin of Du. <i>ruiter</i> is disputed.</p>
+<p>The New English Dictionary gives, from the year 1506,
+<i>rutter</i> (var. <i>ruter</i>, <i>ruiter)</i>, a cavalry
+soldier, especially German, from Du. <i>ruiter</i>, whence Ger.
+<i>Reuter</i>, as above. It connects the Dutch word with medieval
+Lat. <i>rutarius</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>ruptarius</i>, which is also
+Kluge's view. <i>[Footnote:</i> Deutsches Etymologisches
+Wrterbuch.<i>]</i> But Franck <i>[Footnote:</i> Etymologisch
+Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal.<i>]</i> sees phonetic
+difficulties and prefers to regard <i>ruiter</i> as belonging
+rather to <i>ruiten</i>, to uproot. The application of the name
+up-rooter to a lawless mercenary is not unnatural.</p>
+<p>But whatever be the ultimate origin of this Dutch and German
+military word, it is sufficiently obvious that it cannot have
+given an English surname which is already common in the
+thirteenth century. There is a much earlier claimant in the
+field.</p>
+<p>The New English Dictionary has <i>roter</i> (1297), var.
+<i>rotour</i>, <i>rotor</i>, and <i>router</i> (1379), a lawless
+person, robber, ruffian, from Old Fr. <i>rotier</i>
+<i>(routier)</i>, and also the form <i>rutar</i>, used by
+Philemon Holland, who, in his translation of Camden's
+<i>Britannia</i> (1610), says "That age called foraine and
+willing souldiours <i>rutars</i>." The reference is to King
+John's mercenaries, <i>c</i>. 1215. Fr, <i>routier</i>, a
+mercenary, is usually derived from <i>route</i>, a band, Lat.
+<i>rupta</i>, a piece broken off, a <i>detachment</i>. References
+to the <i>grander</i> <i>routes</i>, the great mercenary bands
+which overran France in the fourteenth century, are common in
+French history. But the word was popularly, and naturally,
+connected with <i>route</i>, Lat. <i>(via)</i> <i>rupta</i>, a
+highway, so that Godefroy <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Dictionnaire</i>
+<i>de</i> <i>rancien</i> <i>Fran&ccedil;ais</i>.] separates
+<i>routier</i>, a vagabond, from <i>routier</i>, a bandit
+soldier. Cotgrave has&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Routier</i>, an
+old traveller, one that by much trotting up and down is grown
+acquainted with most waies; and hence, an old beaten souldier;
+one whom a long practise hath made experienced in, or absolute
+master of, his profession; and (in evill part) an old crafty fox,
+notable beguiler, ordinary deceiver, subtill knave; also, a
+purse</font><font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">taker, or a robber by the high way
+side."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is impossible to determine
+the relative shares of <i>route</i>, a band, and <i>route</i>, a
+highway, in this definition, but there has probably been natural
+confusion between two words, separate in meaning, though
+etymologically identical.</font></p>
+<p>Now our thirteenth-century <i>rotors</i> and <i>rulers</i> may
+represent Old Fr. <i>routier</i>, and have been names applied to
+a mercenary soldier or a vagabond. But this cannot be considered
+certain. If we consult du Cange, <i>[Footnote:</i>
+<i>Glossarium</i> <i>ad</i> <i>Scriptures</i> <i>medics</i>
+<i>et</i> <i>inflows</i> <i>Latinitatis</i>.] we find, s.v.
+<i>rumpere</i>, <i>"ruptarii</i>, pro <i>ruptuarii</i>, quidam
+praedones sub xi saeculum, ex rusticis. . . collecti ac
+conflati," which suggests connection with "<i>ruptuarius</i>,
+colonus qui agrum seu terram rumpit, proscindit, colic,"
+<i>i.e</i>. that the <i>ruptarii</i>, also called <i>rutarii</i>,
+<i>rutharii</i>, <i>rotharii</i>, <i>rotarii</i>, etc., were so
+named because they were revolting peasants, <i>i.e</i>. men
+connected with the <i>roture</i>, or breaking of the soil, from
+which we get <i>roturier</i>, a plebeian. That would still
+connect our <i>Rutters</i> with Lat. <i>rumpere</i>, but by a
+third road.</p>
+<p>Finally, Old French has one more word which seems to me quite
+as good a candidate as any of the others, viz. <i>roteur</i>, a
+player on the <i>rote</i>, <i>i.e</i>. the fiddle used by the
+medieval minstrels, Chaucer says of his Frere&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Wel koude he synge and playen on a <i>rote</i>.<i>"</i> </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 236.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The word is possibly of Celtic
+origin (Welsh <i>crwth)</i> and a doublet of the archaic
+<i>crowd</i>, or <i>crowth</i>, a fiddle. Both <i>rote</i> and
+<i>crowth</i> are used by Spenser. <i>Crowd</i> is perhaps not
+yet obsolete in dialect, and the fiddler in Hudibras is called
+<i>Crowdero</i>. Thus <i>Rutter</i> may be a doublet of
+<i>Crowther</i>. There may be other possible etymologies for
+<i>Rutter</i>, but those discussed will suffice to show that the
+origin of occupative names is not always easily
+guessed.</font></p>
+<p>Since the above was written I have found strong evidence for
+the "fiddler" derivation of the name. In 1266 it was decided by a
+Lancashire jury that Richard <i>le</i> <i>Harper</i> killed
+William <i>le</i> <i>Roter</i>, or <i>Ruter</i>, in self-defence.
+I think there can be little doubt that some, if not all, of our
+<i>Rutters</i> owe their names to the profession represented by
+this enraged musician. William <i>le</i> <i>Citolur</i> and
+William <i>le</i> <i>Piper</i> also appear from the same record
+(Patent Rolls) to have indulged in homicide in the course of the
+year.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144741" id="Toc2144741"></a><a name="Toc80783"
+id="Toc80783">CHAPTER XVII <b>THE CANTERBURY
+PILGRIMS</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay,<br>
+Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage,<br>
+To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,<br>
+At nyght were come into that hostelrye<br>
+Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye<br>
+Of sondry folk, by aventure y-falle<br>
+In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,<br>
+That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p><i>(Prologue</i>, <i>1</i>. 20.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This famous band of wayfarers
+includes representatives of all classes, save the highest and the
+lowest, just at the period when our surnames were becoming fixed.
+It seems natural to distinguish the following groups. The
+leisured class is represented by the <i>Knight</i> (Chapter XV)
+and his son the <i>Squire</i>, also found as <i>Swire</i> or
+<i>Swyer</i>, Old Fr. <i>escuyer</i> <i>(&eacute;cuyer)</i>, a
+shield-bearer (Lat. <i>Scutum)</i>, with their attendant
+<i>Yeoman</i>, a name that originally meant a small landowner and
+later a trusted attendant of the warlike kind&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"And in his hand he
+baar a myghty bow"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(A, 108.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">With these goes the
+<i>Franklin</i> (Chapter XV), who had been <i>Sherriff</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. shire-reeve. He is also described as a
+<i>Vavasour</i> <i>(p.</i> ii)&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Was nowher such a
+worthy <i>vavasour"</i> (A, 360.)</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p>From the Church and the professions we have the <i>Nunn</i>,
+her attendant priests, whence the names <i>Press</i>,
+<i>Prest</i>, the <i>Monk</i>, the <i>Frere</i>, or <i>Fryer</i>,
+"a wantowne and a merye," the <i>Clark</i> of Oxenforde, the
+<i>Sargent</i> of the lawe, the <i>Sumner</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+summoner or apparitor, the doctor of physic, <i>i.e</i>. the
+<i>Leech</i> or <i>Leach</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Make war breed peace;
+make peace stint war; make each<br>
+Prescribe to other, as each other's <i>leech</i>"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Timon</i> <i>of</i> <i>Athens</i>, <i>v. 4)</i>&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> The same word as the worm <i>leech</i>, from
+an Anglo<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">Saxon word for
+healer.<i>]</i></font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and the poor parson. <i>Le</i>
+<i>surgien</i> and <i>le</i> <i>fisicien</i> were once common
+surnames, but the former is almost swallowed up by
+<i>Sargent</i>, and the latter seems to have died out. The name
+<i>Leach</i> has been reinforced by the dialect <i>lache</i>, a
+bog, whence also the compounds <i>Blackleach</i>,
+<i>Depledge</i>. Loosely attached to the church is the
+<i>Pardoner</i>, with his wallet&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Bret</font><font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style"
+size="3">ful of pardon, comen from Rome al hoot."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 687.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">His name still survives as
+<i>Pardner</i>, and perhaps as <i>Partner</i>, though both are
+very rare.</font></p>
+<p>Commerce is represented by the <i>Marchant</i>, depicted as a
+character of weight and dignity, and the humbler trades and
+crafts by&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"An haberdasher, and a
+<i>Carpenter</i>,<br>
+A <i>Webbe</i>, a deyer <i>(Dyer)</i>, and a tapiser."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 361.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">To these may be added the Wife
+of Bath, whose comfortable means were drawn from the cloth trade,
+then our staple industry.</font></p>
+<p>From rural surroundings come the Miller and the Plowman, as
+kindly a man as the poor parson his brother, for&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"He wolde threshe, and therto dyke and delve,<br>
+For Cristes sake, for every poure wight,<br>
+Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght."</p>
+</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">(A, <i>536</i>.<i>)</i></div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>The <i>Miller</i> is the same as the <i>Meller</i> <i>or</i>
+<i>Mellor&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>
+"Upon the whiche brook
+ther stant a <i>melle;</i><br>
+And this is verray sooth, that I yow tell."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, <i>3923</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>[Footnote: <i>Melle</i> <i>is</i> a Kentish form, used by
+Chaucer for the rime; cf. <i>pet</i> for <i>pit</i> (Chapter
+XIII).<i>]</i></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The oldest form of the name is
+<i>Milner</i>, from Anglo-Sax. <i>myln</i>, Lat. <i>molina;</i>
+<i>cf. Kilner</i> from <i>kiln</i>, Lat. <i>culina</i>,
+kitchen.</font></p>
+<p>The official or servile class includes the manciple, or buyer
+for a fraternity of templars, otherwise called an
+<i>achatour</i>, whence <i>Cator</i>, <i>Chaytor</i>,
+<i>Chater</i> (Chapter III), <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Chater</i>,
+<i>Chaytor</i> <i>may</i> be also from <i>escheatour</i>,
+<i>an</i> official who has given us the word <i>cheat</i>.] the
+<i>Reeve</i>, an estate steward, so crafty that&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>"Ther nas <i>baillif</i> (Chapter IV), ne <i>herde</i> (Chapter III), nor
+oother <i>hyn</i>e (Chapter III),<br>
+That he ne knew his sleights and his covyne"</p>
+</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 28em">
+<p>(A, <i>603);</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and finally the <i>Cook</i>, or
+<i>Coke</i> (Chapter I)&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"To boylle the
+chicknes and the marybones."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(A, <i>380</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In a class by himself stands
+the grimmest figure of all, the <i>Shipman</i>, of whom we are
+told</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"If that he faught,
+and hadde the hyer hond,</font><br>
+By water he sente hem hoom to every lond."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(A, 399.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The same occupation has given
+the name <i>Marner</i>, for mariner, and <i>Seaman</i>, but the
+medieval forms of the rare name <i>Saylor</i> show that it is
+from Fr. <i>sailleur</i>, a dancer, an artist who also survives
+as <i>Hopper</i> and <i>Leaper&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"To
+one that <i>leped</i> <i>at</i> Chestre, <i>6s</i>.
+<i>8d</i>.<i>"</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify">(<i>Privy Purse</i> <i>Expenses</i> <i>of</i>
+<i>Henry</i> <i>VII</i>, <i>1495</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> He was usually more generous to the high
+arts, e.g. "To a Spaynarde that pleyed the fole, &pound;2," "To
+the young damoysell that daunceth, &pound;30." With which cf. "To
+Carter for writing of a boke, <i>7s</i>. <i>4d</i>.<i>"]</i></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The pilgrims were accompanied
+by the host of the Tabard Inn, whose occupation has given us the
+names <i>Inman</i> and <i>Hostler</i>, <i>Oastler</i>, Old Fr.
+<i>hostelier</i> <i>(h&ocirc;telier)</i>, now applied to the inn
+servant who looks after the 'osses. Another form is the
+modern-looking <i>Hustler</i>. Distinct from these is
+<i>Oster</i>, Fr. <i>oiseleur</i>, a bird-catcher; cf.
+<i>Fowler</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80784" id="Toc80784">ECCLESIASTICAL
+NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>If we deal here with ecclesiastical names, as being really
+nicknames (Chapter XV), that will leave the trader and craftsman,
+the peasant, and the official or servile class to be treated in
+separate chapters. Social, as distinguished from occupative,
+surnames have already been touched on, and the names, not very
+numerous, connected with warfare have also been mentioned in
+various connections.</p>
+<p>Among ecclesiastical names <i>Monk</i> has the largest number
+of variants. Its Anglo-French form is sometimes represented by
+<i>Munn</i> and <i>Moon</i>, while <i>Money</i> is the oldest Fr.
+<i>monie;</i> <i>cf. Vicary</i> from Old Fr. <i>vicarie</i>. But
+the French names <i>La</i> <i>Monnaie</i>, <i>de</i> <i>la</i>
+<i>Monnaie</i>, are local, from residence near the mint. The
+canon appears as <i>Cannon</i>, <i>Channen</i>, and
+<i>Shannon</i>, Fr. <i>chanoine&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"With this
+<i>chanoun</i> I dwelt have seven yere"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(G, 720);</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but <i>Dean</i> is also local
+sometimes (Chapter XII) and <i>Deacon</i> <i>is</i> an imitative
+form <i>of</i> <i>Dakin</i> or <i>Deakin</i>, from David (Chapter
+VI). <i>Charter</i> was used of a monk of the Charter-house, a
+popular corruption of Chartreuse</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">
+"With a company dyde I mete,</font><br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;As ermytes, monkes, and freres,<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Chanons, <i>chartores</i> . . .<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Cock <i>Lorelles</i> <i>Bote</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+<p><b> &nbsp; </b></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Charter</font> also comes from
+archaic Fr. <i>chartier</i> <i>(charretier)</i>, a carter, and
+perhaps sometimes from Old Fr. <i>chartrier</i>, "a jaylor; also,
+a prisoner" (Cotg.), which belongs to Lat. <i>carcer</i>, prison.
+<i>[Footnote:</i> The sense development of these two words is
+curious.<i>]</i></p>
+<p><i>Charters</i> may be from the French town Chartres, but is
+more likely a perversion of Charterhouse, as <i>Childers</i> is
+of the obsolete "childer-house," orphanage.</p>
+<p>Among lower orders of the church we have <i>Lister</i>, a
+reader, <i>[Footnote:</i> Found in Late Latin as <i>legista</i>,
+from Lat. <i>Legere</i>, to read.<i>]</i> <i>Bennet</i>, an
+exorcist, and <i>Collet</i>, aphetic for acolyte. But each of
+these is susceptible of another origin which is generally to be
+preferred. <i>Chaplin</i> is of course for chaplain, Fr.
+<i>chapelain</i>. The legate appears as <i>Leggatt</i>.
+<i>Crosier</i> or <i>Crozier</i> means cross-bearer. At the
+funeral of Anne of Cleves (1557) the mass was executed&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em"><p>"By thabbott in
+pontificalibus wthis <i>croysyer</i>, deacon and
+subdeacon."</p></div>
+<p><i>Canter, Caunter</i> is
+for chanter, and has an apparent dim. <i>Cantrell</i>, corresponding to
+the French name <i>Chantereau</i>. The practice, unknown in English, of
+forming dims. from occupative names is very common in French,
+e.g. from <i>Mercier</i> we have <i>Mercerot</i>, from <i>Berger</i>, i.e. Shepherd, a
+number of derivatives such as <i>Bergerat, Bergeret, Bergerot</i>, etc.
+<i>Sanger</i> and <i>Sangster</i> were not necessarily ecclesiastical <i>Singers.
+Converse</i> meant a lay-brother employed as a drudge in a monastery.
+<i>Sacristan</i>, the man in charge of the sacristy, from which we have
+<i>Secretan</i>, is contracted into <i>Saxton</i> and <i>Sexton</i>, a name now
+usually associated with grave-digging and bell-ringing, though
+the latter task once belonged to the <i>Knowler</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Carilloneur</font>, a chymer, or <i>knowler</i> of bells"
+(Cotgrave).</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This is of course connected
+with "knell," though the only <i>Kneller</i> who has become
+famous was a German named Kniller.</font></p>
+<p><i>Marillier</i>, probably a Huguenot name, is an Old French
+form of <i>marguillier</i>, a churchwarden, Lat.
+<i>matricularius</i>. The hermit survives as <i>Armatt</i>,
+<i>Armitt</i>, with which cf. the Huguenot <i>Lermitte</i>
+<i>(l'ermite)</i>, and the name of his dwelling is common
+(Chapter XIII); <i>Anker</i>, now anchorite, is also extant.
+Fals-Semblant says&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Somtyme I am
+religious,</font><br>
+Now lyk an <i>anker</i> in an hous."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>(Romaunt</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Rose</i>,
+<i>6348</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80785" id="Toc80785">PILGRIMS</a></b></p>
+<p>While a <i>Pilgrim</i> acquired his name by a journey to any
+shrine, a <i>Palmer</i> must originally have been to the Holy
+Land, and a <i>Romer</i> to Rome. But the frequent occurrence of
+<i>Palmer</i> suggests that it was often a nickname for a pious
+fraud. We have a doublet of <i>Pilgrim</i> in <i>Pegram</i>,
+though this may come from the name Peregrine, the etymology being
+the same, viz. Lat. <i>peregrines</i>, a foreigner.</p>
+<p><a name="Toc2144742" id="Toc2144742"></a></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80786" id="Toc80786">CHAPTER XVIII <b>TRADES AND
+CRAFTS</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"What d'ye lack, noble
+sir? &mdash;What d'ye lack, beauteous madam?"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Fortunes</i> <i>of</i> <i>Nigel</i>, ch. <i>i</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In the Middle Ages there was no
+great class of retail dealers distinct from the craftsmen who
+fashioned objects. The same man made and sold in almost every
+case. There were of course general dealers, such as the French
+<i>Marchant</i> or his English equivalent the <i>Chapman</i>
+(Chapter II), the Dutch form of which has given us the Norfolk
+name <i>Copeman</i>. The <i>Broker</i> <i>is</i> now generally
+absorbed by the local <i>Brooker</i>. There were also the
+itinerant merchants, of whom more anon; but in the great majority
+of cases the craftsman made and sold one article, and was, in
+fact, strictly forbidden to wander outside his special
+line.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80787" id="Toc80787">ARCHERY</a></b></p>
+<p>Fuller tells us that&mdash;</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+"England were but a fling,
+<div style="margin-left: -10em">
+Save for the crooked stick and the gray-goose-wing,"
+</div></div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and the importance of the bow
+and arrow is shown by the number of surnames connected with their
+manufacture. We find the <i>Bowyer</i>, <i>Bower</i> or
+<i>Bowmaker</i>, who trimmed and shaped the wand of yew,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> This is also one source of <i>Boyer</i>, but
+the very common French surname Boyer means ox-herd.<i>]</i> the
+<i>Fletcher</i> (Chapter XV), <i>Arrowsmith</i>, or
+<i>Flower</i>, who prepared the arrow&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"His bowe he bente and
+sette therinne a <i>flo"</i> (H, 264)&mdash;</font><br>
+<i><font face="Bookman Old Style">[Footnote:</font> The true
+English word for arrow, Anglo-Sax. fla.]</i></p></div>
+<p>and the <i>Tipper</i>, <i>Stringer</i>, and <i>Horner</i>, who
+attended to smaller details, though the <i>Tipper</i> and
+<i>Stringer</i> probably tipped and strung other things, and the
+<i>Horner</i>, though he made the horn nocks of the long-bow,
+also made horn cups and other objects.</p>
+<p>The extent to which specialization was carried is shown by the
+trade description of John Darks, <i>longbowstringemaker</i>, who
+died in 1600. The <i>Arblaster</i> may have either made or used
+the arblast or cross-bow, medieval Lat. <i>arcubalista</i>,
+bow-sling. His name has given the imitative <i>Alabaster</i>. We
+also find the shortened <i>Ballister</i> and <i>Balestier</i>,
+from which we have <i>Bannister</i> (Chapter III). Or, to take an
+example from comestibles, a <i>Flanner</i> limited his activity
+to the making of flat cakes called <i>flans</i> or <i>flawns</i>,
+from Old Fr. <i>flaon</i> <i>(flan)</i>, a word of Germanic
+origin, ultimately related to <i>flat</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"He that is hanged in
+May will eat no <i>flannes</i> in Midsummer."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(The</i> <i>Abbot</i>, ch. xxxiii.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Some names have become
+strangely restricted in meaning, e.g. <i>Mercer</i>, now almost
+limited to silk, was a name for a dealer in any kind of
+merchandise (Lat. <i>merx);</i> in Old French it meant
+pedlar&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>"Mercier</i>, a
+good pedler, or meane haberdasher of small wares"
+(Cotgrave).</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">On the other hand
+<i>Chandler</i>, properly a candle-maker, is now used in the
+compounds corn-chandler and ship's chandler. Of all the
+-<i>mongers</i> the only common survival is <i>Ironmonger</i> or
+<i>Iremonger</i>, with the variant <i>Isemonger</i>, from Mid.
+Eng. <i>isen</i>, iron. <i>Ironmonger</i> is also dealer in eggs,
+Mid. Eng. <i>eiren</i>.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80788" id="Toc80788">CLOTHIERS</a></b></p>
+<p>The wool trade occupied a very large number of workers and has
+given a good many surnames. The <i>Shearer</i> was distinct from
+the <i>Shearman</i> or <i>Sherman</i>, the former operating on
+the sheep and the latter on the nap of the cloth. For
+<i>Comber</i> we also have the older <i>Kempster</i>, and
+probably <i>Kimber</i>, from the Mid. Eng. <i>kemben</i>, to
+comb, which survives in "unkempt". The <i>Walker</i>,
+<i>Fuller</i>, and <i>Tucker</i>, all did very much the same work
+of "waulking," or trampling, the cloth. All three words are used
+in Wyclif's Bible in variant renderings of Mark ix. 3.
+<i>Fuller</i> is from Fr. <i>fouler</i>, to trample, and
+<i>Tucker</i> is of uncertain origin. <i>Fuller</i> is found in
+the south and south-east, <i>Tucker</i> in the west, and
+<i>Walker</i> in the north. A <i>Dyer</i> was also called
+<i>Dyster</i>, and the same trade is the origin of the
+Latin-looking <i>Dexter</i> (Chapter II). From Mid. Eng.
+<i>litster</i>, a dyer, a word of Scandinavian origin, comes
+<i>Lister</i>, as in Lister Gate, Nottingham. With these goes the
+<i>Wadman</i>, who dealt in, or grew, the dye-plant called woad;
+cf. <i>Flaxman</i>. A beater of flax was called
+<i>Swingler&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Fleyl,
+<i>swyngyl</i>, verga, tribulum" <i>(Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i>.</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A <i>Tozer</i> teased the cloth
+with a teasel. In Mid. English the verb is <i>taesen</i> or
+<i>tosen</i>, so that the names Teaser and Towser, sometimes
+given to bull-terriers, are doublets. <i>Secker</i> means
+sack-maker.</font></p>
+<p>We have already noticed the predominance of <i>Taylor</i>.
+This is the more remarkable when we consider that the name has as
+rivals the native <i>Seamer</i> and <i>Shapster</i> and the
+imported <i>Parmenter</i>, Old Fr. <i>parmentier</i>, a maker of
+<i>parements</i>, now used chiefly of facings on clothes. But
+another, and more usual, origin of <i>Parmenter</i>,
+<i>Parminter</i>, <i>Parmiter</i>, is <i>parchmenter</i>, a very
+important medieval trade. The word would correspond to a Lat.
+<i>pergamentarius</i>, which has given also the German surname
+<i>Berminter</i>. Several old German cities had a Permentergasse,
+<i>i.e</i>. parchment-makers' street. A <i>Pilcher</i> made
+pilches, <i>i.e</i>. fur cloaks, an early loan-word from Vulgar
+Lat. <i>pellicia</i> <i>(pellis</i>, skin). Chaucer's version
+of</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Till May is out,
+ne'er cast a clout"</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">is</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"After greet heet
+cometh colde;</font><br>
+&nbsp; No man caste his <i>pilche</i> away."</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Another name connected with
+clothes is <i>Chaucer</i>, Old Fr. <i>chaussier</i>, a hosier
+(Lat. <i>calceus</i>, boot), while Admiral <i>Hozier's</i> Ghost
+reminds us of the native word. The oldest meaning of hose seems
+to have been gaiters. It ascended in Tudor times to the dignity
+of breeches (cf. trunk-hose), the meaning it has in modern
+German. Now it has become a tradesman's euphemism for the
+improper word stocking, a fact which led a friend of the
+writer's, imperfectly acquainted with German, to ask a gifted
+lady of that nationality if she were a <i>Blauhose</i>. A
+<i>Chaloner</i> or <i>Chawner</i> dealt in shalloon, Mid. Eng.
+<i>chalons</i>, a material supposed to have been made at
+Ch&acirc;lons-sur-Marne&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"And in his owene chambre hem made a bed, <br>
+With sheetes and with <i>chalons</i> faire y-spred."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A. 4139.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">Ganter</font> or Gaunter is
+Fr. gantier, glove-maker.</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80789" id="Toc80789">METAL WORKERS</a></b></p>
+<p>Some metal-workers have already been mentioned in connection
+with <i>Smith</i> (Chapter IV), and elsewhere. The French
+F&egrave;vre, from Lat. <i>faber</i>, is found as <i>Feaver</i>.
+<i>Fearon</i> comes from Old Fr, <i>feron</i>, <i>ferron</i>,
+smith. <i>Face</i> <i>le</i> <i>ferrun</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Boniface
+(Chapter III) the smith, lived in Northampton in the twelfth
+century. This is an example of the French use of -<i>on</i> as an
+agential suffix. Another example is Old Fr. <i>charton</i>, or
+<i>charreton</i>, a waggoner, from the Norman form of which we
+have <i>Carton</i>. In <i>Scriven</i>, from Old Fr.
+<i>escrivain</i> <i>(&eacute;crivain)</i>, we have an isolated
+agential suffix. The English form is usually lengthened to
+<i>Scrivener</i>. In <i>Ferrier</i>, for farrier, the traditional
+spelling has prevailed over the pronunciation, but we have the
+latter in <i>Farrar</i>. <i>Ferrier</i> sometimes means ferryman,
+and <i>Farrar</i> has absorbed the common Mid. English nickname
+<i>Fayrhayr</i>. <i>Aguilar</i> means needle-maker, Fr.
+<i>aiguille</i>, but <i>Pinner</i> is more often official
+(Chapter XIX). <i>Culler</i>, Fr. <i>coutelier</i>, Old Fr.
+<i>coutel</i>, knife, and <i>Spooner</i> go together, but the
+fork is a modern fad. <i>Poynter</i> is another good example of
+the specialization of medieval crafts: the points were the metal
+tags by which the doublet and hose were connected. Hence, the
+play on words when Falstaff is recounting his adventure with the
+men in buckram&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Fal</font>. "Their
+points being broken&mdash;"</i></p>
+<p><i>Poins</i>. "Down fell their hose."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+<p>(I <i>Henry</i> <i>IV</i>., <i>ii</i>, 4.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Latimer, Latner</i>
+sometimes means a worker in <i>latten</i>, a mixed metal of which the
+etymological origin is unknown. The Pardoner<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">&mdash;</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">"Hadde a croys
+of <i>latoun</i> ful of stones" (A, 699).</font></p>
+<p>For the change from -<i>n</i> to -<i>m</i> we may compare
+<i>Lorimer</i> for <i>Loriner</i>, a bridle-maker, belonging
+ultimately to Lat. <i>lorum</i>, "the reyne of a brydle"
+(Cooper). But <i>Latimer</i> comes also from Latiner, a man
+skilled in Latin, hence an interpreter, Sir John Mandeville tells
+us that, on the way to Sinai-&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Men alleweys fynden
+<i>Latyneres</i> to go with hem in the contrees."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The immortal <i>Bowdler</i> is
+usually said to take his name from the art of puddling, or
+buddling, iron ore. But, as this process is comparatively modern,
+it is more likely that the name comes from the same verb in its
+older meaning of making impervious to water by means of clay.
+<i>Monier</i> and <i>Minter</i> are both connected with coining,
+the former through French and the latter from Anglo-Saxon, both
+going back to Lat. <i>moneta</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> On the
+curiously accidental history of this word see the <i>Romance</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>Words</i>, ch. <i>x</i>.<i>]</i> mint.
+<i>Conner</i>, <i>i.e</i>. coiner, is now generally swallowed up
+by the Irish <i>Connor</i>.</font></p>
+<p><i>Leadbitter</i> is for <i>Leadbeater</i>. The name
+<i>Hamper</i> is a contraction of <i>hanapier</i>, a maker of
+<i>hanaps</i>, <i>i.e</i>. goblets. Fr. <i>hanap</i> is from Old
+High Ger. <i>hnapf</i> <i>(Napf)</i>, and shows the inability of
+French to pronounce initial <i>hn</i>- without inserting a vowel:
+cf. <i>harangue</i> from Old High Ger. <i>hring</i>. There is
+also a Mid. Eng. <i>nap</i>, cup, representing the cognate
+Anglo-Sax. <i>hnaep</i>, so that the name <i>Napper</i> may
+sometimes be a doublet of <i>Hamper</i>, though it is more
+probably for <i>Napier</i> (Chapter I) or <i>Knapper</i> (Chapter
+XII). The common noun <i>hamper</i> is from <i>hanapier</i> in a
+sense something like plate-basket. With metal-workers we may also
+put <i>Furber</i> or <i>Frobisher</i>, <i>i.e</i>. furbisher, of
+armour, etc. <i>Poyser</i>, from <i>poise</i>, scales, is
+official. Two occupative names of Celtic origin are <i>Gow</i>, a
+smith, as in <i>The</i> <i>Fair</i> <i>Maid</i> <i>of</i>
+<i>Perth</i>, and <i>Caird</i>, a tinker&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"The fellow had been originally a tinker or <i>caird</i>.<i>"</i> </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Heart <i>of</i> <i>Midlothian</i>, ch. xlix.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A few more names, which fall
+into no particular category, may conclude the chapter.
+<i>Hillyer</i> or <i>Hellier</i> is an old name for a
+<i>Thacker</i>, or thatcher, of which we have the Dutch form in
+<i>Dekker</i>. It comes from Mid. Eng. <i>helen</i>, to cover up.
+In <i>Hillard</i>, <i>Hillyard</i> we sometimes have the same
+name (cf. the vulgar <i>scholard)</i>, but these are more often
+local (Chapter XIII). <i>Hellier</i> also meant tiler, for the
+famous Wat is described as <i>tiler</i>, <i>tegheler</i>, and
+<i>hellier</i>.</font></p>
+
+
+<p>An <i>Ashburner</i> prepared wood-ash for the <i>Bloomer</i>
+(Chapter XV), and perhaps also for the <i>Glaisher</i>, or
+glass-maker, and <i>Asher</i> <i>is</i> best explained in the
+same way, for we do not, I think, add -<i>er</i> to tree-names.
+Apparent exceptions can be easily accounted for, e.g.
+<i>Elmer</i> <i>is</i> Anglo-Sax. AElfmaer, and <i>Beecher</i>
+<i>is</i> Anglo-Fr. <i>bechur</i>, digger (Fr.
+<i>b&ecirc;che</i>, spade). Neither <i>Pitman</i> nor
+<i>Collier</i> had their modern meaning of coal-miner.
+<i>Pitman</i> <i>is</i> local, of the same class as
+<i>Bridgeman</i>, <i>Pullman</i>, etc., and <i>Collier</i> meant
+a charcoal-burner, as in the famous ballad of Rauf Colyear. Not
+much coal was dug in the Middle Ages. Even in 1610 Camden speaks
+with disapproval, in his <i>Britannia</i>, of the inhabitants of
+Sherwood Forest who, with plenty of wood around them, persist in
+digging up "stinking pit-cole."</p>
+<p><i>Croker</i> <i>is</i> for <i>Crocker</i>, a maker of crocks
+or pitchers. The Miller's guests only retired to bed&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Whan that dronken al
+was in the <i>crowke"</i> <i>(A</i>, <i>4158)</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The spelling has affected the
+pronunciation, as in <i>Sloper</i> and <i>Smoker</i> (Chapter
+III). <i>Tinker</i> <i>is</i> sometimes found as the
+frequentative <i>Tinkler</i>, a name traditionally due to his
+approach being heralded by the clatter of metal
+utensils&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"My bonny lass, I work on brass,<br>
+A <i>tinkler</i> is my station."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>(BURNS, <i>Jolly</i> <i>Beggars</i>, Air 6.)</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The maker of saddle-trees was called <i>Fewster</i>, from Old
+Fr. <i>fust</i> (<i>f&ucirc;t</i>), Lat. <i>fustis</i>. This has
+sometimes given <i>Foster</i>, but the latter is more often for
+<i>Forster</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Forester&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"An horn he bar, the bawdryk was of grene, <br>
+A <i>forster</i> was he soothly as I gesse,"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p><i>(A</i>, 116.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The saddler himself was often
+called by his French name <i>sellier</i>, whence <i>Sella'</i>,
+but both this and <i>Sellars</i> are also local, at the cellars
+(Chapter III). <i>Pargeter</i> means dauber, plasterer, from Old
+Fr. <i>parjeter</i>, to throw over. A <i>Straker</i> made the
+strakes, or tires, of wheels. A <i>Stanger</i> made stangs,
+<i>i.e</i>. poles, shafts, etc.</font></p>
+<p>The fine arts are represented by <i>Limmer</i>, for limner, a
+painter, an aphetic form of illumines, and <i>Tickner</i>
+<i>is</i> perhaps from Dutch <i>tekener</i>, draughtsman, cognate
+with Eng, token, while the art of self-defence has given us the
+name <i>Scrimgeoure</i>, with a number of corruptions, including
+the local-looking <i>Skrimshire</i>. It is related to scrimmage
+and skirmish, and ultimately to Ger. <i>schirmen</i>, to fence,
+lit. to protect. The name was applied to a professional
+swordplayer&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Qe nul teigne escole
+de <i>eskermerye</i> ne de bokeler deins la cit&eacute;."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p><i>(Liber</i> <i>Albus</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80790" id="Toc80790">SURNOMINAL
+SNOBBISHNESS</a></b></p>
+<p>A particularly idiotic form of snobbishness has sometimes led
+people to advance strange theories as to the origin of their
+names. Thus <i>Turner</i> has been explained as from <i>la</i>
+<i>tour</i> <i>noire</i>. Dr. Brewer, in his <i>Dictionary</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>Phrase</i> <i>and</i> <i>Fable</i>,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Thirteenth edition, revised and
+corrected.<i>]</i> apparently desirous of dissociating himself
+from malt liquor, observes that&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Very few ancient
+names are the names of trades. . . A few examples of a more
+scientific derivation will suffice for a hint:&mdash;</font></p>
+<p><i>Brewer</i>. This name, which exists in France as
+Bruhi&egrave;re and Brug&egrave;re, is not derived from the Saxon
+<i>briwan</i> <i>(to</i> brew), but the French
+<i>bruy&egrave;re</i> (heath), and is about tantamount to the
+German Plantagenet (broom plant). <i>Miller</i> is the old Norse
+<i>melia</i>, our <i>mill</i> and <i>maul</i>, and means a mauler
+or fighter.</p>
+<p><i>Ringer</i> is the Anglo<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Saxon <i>hring</i></font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><i><font face="Bookman Old Style"
+size="3">gar</font> (the mailed warrior).</i> Tanner, German
+<i>Thanger</i>, Old German <i>Dane</i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><i><font face="Bookman Old Style"
+size="3">gaud</font>, is the Dane</i><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Goth...</font></p>
+<p>This list might easily be extended."</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p>There is of course no reason why such a list should not be
+indefinitely extended, but the above excerpt is probably quite
+long enough to make the reader feel dizzy. The fact is that there
+is no getting away from a surname of this class, and the bearer
+must try to look on the brighter side of the tragedy.
+<i>Brewer</i> is occasionally an accommodated form of the French
+name Bruy&egrave;re or Labruy&egrave;re, but is usually derived
+from an occupation which is the high-road to the House of Lords.
+The ancestor of any modern <i>Barber</i> may, like Salvation
+Yeo's father, have "exercised the mystery of a barber-surgeon,"
+which is getting near the learned professions. A <i>Pottinger</i>
+(Chapter XV) looked after the soups, Fr. <i>potage</i>, but the
+name also represents <i>Pothecary</i> (apothecary), which had in
+early Scottish the aphetic forms <i>Poticar</i>,
+<i>potigar</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"'Pardon me,' said he,
+'I am but a poor <i>pottingar</i>. Nevertheless, I have been bred
+in Paris and learnt my humanities and my <i>cursus</i>
+<i>medendi</i>'"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(<i>Fair</i> <i>Maid</i> <i>of</i> <i>Perth</i>, ch.
+vii.).</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144743"
+id="Toc2144743"></a><a name="Toc80791" id="Toc80791">CHAPTER XIX
+<b>HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+"Jacque, il me faut troubler ton Somme;<br>
+Dans le village, un gros huissier<br>
+R&ocirc;de et court, suivi du messier.<br>
+C'est pour l'imp&ocirc;t, las! mon pauvre homme.<br>
+L&egrave;ve-toi, Jacque, l&egrave;ve-toi:<br>
+Voici venir I'huissier du roi."
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>B&Eacute;RANGER.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">General terms for what we now
+usually call a farmer are preserved in the surnames <i>Bond</i>
+(Chapter XV), whence the compound <i>Husband</i>, used both for
+the goodman of the house and in the modern sense, and
+<i>Tillman</i>. The labouring man was <i>Day</i>, from the same
+root as Ger. <i>Dienen</i>, to serve. It persists in "dairy" and
+perhaps in the puzzling name <i>Doubleday</i> <i>(?</i> doing two
+men's work). A similar meaning is contained in the names
+<i>Swain</i>, <i>Hind</i>, for earlier <i>Hine</i> (Chapter III),
+<i>Tasker</i>, <i>Mann</i>. But a <i>Wager</i> was a mercenary
+soldier. The mower has given us the names <i>Mather</i> (cf.
+after<i>math</i>), and <i>Mawer</i>, while <i>Fenner</i>
+<i>is</i> sometimes for Old Fr. <i>feneur</i>, haymaker (Lat.
+<i>foenum</i>, hay). For mower we also find the latinized
+<i>messor</i>, whence <i>Messer</i>. Whether the <i>Ridler</i>
+and the <i>Sivier</i> made, or used, riddles and sieves can
+hardly be decided. <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Riddle</i> is the usual
+word for sieve in the Midlands. Hence the phrase "riddled with
+holes, or wounds."<i>]</i></font></p>
+<p>With the <i>Wenman</i>, who drove the wain, we may mention the
+<i>Leader</i> or <i>Loader</i>. The verbs "lead" and "load" are
+etymologically the same, and in the Midlands people talk of
+"leading," <i>i.e</i>. carting, coal. But these names could also
+come from residence near an artificial watercourse (Chapter
+XIII). <i>Beecher</i> has already been explained, and
+<i>Shoveler</i> <i>is</i> formed in the same way from dialect
+<i>showl</i>, a <i>s</i>hovel&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>" 'I,' said the owl,<br>
+&nbsp; 'With my spade and <i>showl</i>.' "</p>
+</div>
+<p>To the variants of the <i>Miller</i> (Chapter XXIII) may be
+added <i>Mulliner</i>, from Old French. <i>Tedder</i> means a man
+who <i>teds</i>, <i>i.e</i>. spreads, hay, the origin of the word
+being Scandinavian</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"I <i>teede</i> hey, I
+tourne it afore it is made in cockes, <i>je</i> <i>fene</i>."
+(Palsgrave.) </p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But the greater number of
+surnames drawn from rural occupations are connected with the care
+of animals. We find names of this class in three forms,
+exemplified by <i>Coltman</i>, <i>Goater</i>, <i>Shepherd</i>,
+and it seems likely that the endings -<i>er</i> and -<i>erd</i>
+have sometimes been interchanged, e.g. that <i>Goater</i> may
+stand for goat-herd, <i>Calver</i> for calf-herd, and
+<i>Nutter</i> sometimes for northern <i>nowt</i>-<i>herd</i>,
+representing the dialect neat-herd. The compounds of herd include
+<i>Bullard</i>, <i>Calvert</i>, <i>Coltard</i>, <i>Coward</i>,
+for cow-herd, not of course to be confused with the common noun
+<i>coward</i> (Fr. <i>couard</i>, a derivative of Lat.
+<i>cauda</i>, tail), <i>Evart</i>, ewe-herd, but also a Norman
+spelling of Edward, <i>Geldard</i>, <i>Goddard</i>, sometimes for
+goat-herd, <i>Hoggart</i>, often confused with the local
+<i>Hogarth</i> (Chapter XIII), <i>Seward</i>, for sow-herd, or
+for the historic Siward, <i>Stobart</i>, dialect <i>stob</i>, a
+<i>bull</i>, <i>Stodart</i>, Mid. Eng. <i>stot</i>, meaning both
+a bullock and a nag. Chaucer tells us that&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"This reve sat upon a
+ful good <i>stot</i>" (A, 615 ).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Stoddart</i> <i>is</i> naturally confused with
+<i>Studdart</i>, stud-herd, stud being cognate with Ger.
+<i>Stute</i>, mare. We also have <i>Swinnert</i>, and lastly
+<i>Weatherhead</i>, sometimes a perversion of wether-herd, though
+usually a nickname, sheep's head. The man in charge of the tups,
+or rams, was called <i>Tupman</i> or <i>Tupper</i>, the latter
+standing sometimes for tup-herd, just as we have the imitative
+<i>Stutter</i> for <i>Stodart</i> or <i>Studdart</i>. We have
+also <i>Tripper</i> from <i>trip</i>, a dialect word for flock,
+probably related to troop. Another general term for a herdsman
+was <i>Looker</i>, whence <i>Luker</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80792" id="Toc80792">BUMBLEDOM</a></b></p>
+<p>I have headed this chapter "Hodge and his Friends," but as, a
+matter of strict truth he had none, except the "poure Persons,"
+the most radiant figure in Chaucer's pageant. But his enemies
+were innumerable. B&eacute;ranger's lines impress one less than
+the uncouth "Song of the Husbandman" (temp. Edward I.), in which
+we find the woes of poor Hodge incorporated in the persons of the
+<i>hayward</i>, the <i>bailif</i>, the <i>wodeward</i>,
+<i>the</i> <i>budel</i> and his <i>cachereles</i>
+(catchpoles)&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"For ever the furthe
+peni mot (must) to the kynge."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The bailiff has already been
+mentioned (Chapter IV). The <i>budel</i>, or beadle, has given us
+several surnames. We have the word in two forms, from Anglo-Sax.
+<i>bytel</i>, belonging to the verb to bid, whence the names
+<i>Biddle</i> and <i>Buddle</i>, and from Old Fr. <i>bedel</i>
+<i>(bedeau)</i>, whence <i>Beadle</i> and its variants. The
+animal is probably extinct under his original name, but modern
+democracy is doing its best to provide him with an army of
+successors. The "beadle" group of names has been confused with
+<i>Bithell</i>, Welsh Ap Ithel.</font></p>
+<p>Names in -<i>ward</i> are rather numerous, and, as they mostly
+come from the titles of rural officials and are often confused
+with compounds of -<i>herd</i>, they are all put together here.
+The simple <i>Ward</i>, cognate with Fr. <i>garde</i>, is one of
+our commonest surnames. Like its derivative <i>Warden</i> it had
+a very wide range of meanings. The antiquity of the office of
+church-warden is shown by the existence of the surname
+<i>Churchward</i>. Sometimes the surname comes from the abstract
+or local sense, <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>warde</i>. As the suffix
+-<i>weard</i> occurs very frequently in Anglo-Saxon personal
+names, it is not always possible to say whether a surname is
+essentially occupative or not, e.g. whether <i>Durward</i> is
+rather "door-ward" or for Anglo-Sax. Deorweard. <i>Howard</i>,
+which is phonetically Old Fr. Huard, is sometimes also for
+<i>Hayward</i> or <i>Haward</i> (Hereward), or for
+<i>Hayward</i>. It has no doubt interchanged with the local
+<i>Howarth</i>, <i>Haworth</i>.</p>
+<p>Owing to the loss of <i>w</i>- in the second part of a word
+(Chapter III), -<i>ward</i> and -<i>herd</i> often fall together,
+e.g. <i>Millard</i> for <i>Milward</i>, and <i>Woodard</i> found
+in Mid. English as both <i>wode</i>-<i>ward</i> and
+<i>wode</i>-<i>hird</i>. <i>Hayward</i> belongs to <i>hay</i>,
+hedge, enclosure (Chapter XIII), from which we also get
+<i>Hayman</i>. The same functionary has given the name
+<i>Haybittle</i>, a compound of beadle. <i>Burward</i> and
+<i>Burrard</i> may represent the once familiar office of
+bear-ward; cf. <i>Berman</i>. I had a schoolfellow called
+<i>Lateward</i>, apparently the man in charge of the <i>lade</i>
+or <i>leet</i> (Chapter XIII). <i>Medward</i> is for
+mead-ward.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>The name <i>Stewart</i> or <i>Stuart</i> became royal with
+Walter the Steward of Scotland, who married Marjorie Bruce in
+1315. It stands for sty-ward, where sty means pen, not
+necessarily limited to pigs. Like most official titles, it has
+had its ups and downs, with the result that its present meaning
+ranges from a high officer of the crown to the sympathetic
+concomitant of a rough crossing.</p>
+<p>The <i>Reeve</i>, Anglo-Sax. <i>ge</i>-<i>refa</i>, was in
+Chaucer a kind of land agent, but the name was also applied to
+local officials, as in port-reeve, shire-reeve. It is the same as
+<i>Grieve</i>, also originally official, but used in Scotland of
+a land steward&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"He has got a ploughman from Scotland who acts as
+<i>grieve</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p>(Scott, <i>Diary</i>, <i>1</i>814.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>This may be one source of the names <i>Graves</i> and
+<i>Greaves</i>. The name <i>Woodruff</i>, <i>Woodroffe</i> is too
+common to be referred to the plant woodruff, and the fact that
+the male and female of a species of sand-piper are called the
+<i>ruff</i> and <i>reeve</i> suggests that Woodruff may have some
+relation to wood-reeve. It is at any rate a curious coincidence
+that the German name for the plant is <i>Waldmeister</i>,
+wood-master. Another official surname especially connected with
+country life is <i>Pinder</i>, also found as <i>Pinner</i>,
+<i>Pender</i>, <i>Penner</i>, <i>Ponder</i> and <i>Poynder</i>,
+the man in charge of the pound or pinfold; cf. <i>Parker</i>, the
+custodian of a park, of which the <i>Palliser</i> or
+<i>Pallister</i> made the palings.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80793" id="Toc80793">ITINERANT
+MERCHANTS</a></b></p>
+<p>The itinerant dealer was usually called by a name suggesting
+the pack which he carried. Thus <i>Badger</i>, <i>Kidder</i>,
+<i>Kiddier</i>, <i>Pedder</i>, now pedlar, are from <i>bag</i>,
+<i>kid</i>, related to <i>kit</i>, and the obsolete p<i>ed</i>,
+basket; cf. <i>Leaper</i>, Chapter XV. The badger, who dealt
+especially in corn, was unpopular with the rural population, and
+it is possible that his name was given to the stealthy animal
+formerly called the <i>bawson</i> (Chapter I.), <i>brock</i> or
+<i>gray</i> (Chapter XXIII). That <i>Badger</i> is a nickname
+taken from the animal is chronologically improbable, as the word
+is first recorded in 1523 <i>(New</i> <i>English</i>
+<i>Dictionary)</i>.</p>
+
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">To the above names may be added
+<i>Cremer</i>, <i>Cramer</i>, a huckster with a stall in the
+market, but this surname is sometimes of modern introduction,
+from its German cognate <i>Kr&auml;mer</i>, now generally used
+for a grocer. <i>Packman</i>, <i>Pakeman</i>, and <i>Paxman</i>
+belong more probably to the font-name <i>Pack</i> (Chapter IX),
+which also appears in <i>Paxon</i>, either Pack's son, or for the
+local <i>Paxton</i>.</font></p>
+<p>The name <i>Hawker</i> does not belong to this group. Nowadays
+a hawker is a pedlar, and it has been assumed, without sufficient
+evidence, that the word is of the same origin as huckster. The
+Mid. Eng. <i>le</i> <i>haueker</i> or <i>haukere</i> (1273) is
+quite plainly connected with hawk, and the name may have been
+applied either to a <i>Falconer</i>, <i>Faulkner</i>, or to a
+dealer in hawks. As we know that itinerant vendors of hawks
+travelled from castle to castle, it is quite possible that our
+modern hawker is an extended use of the same name.</p>
+<p>Nor is the name <i>Coster</i> to be referred to costermonger,
+originally a dealer in costards, <i>i.e</i>. apples. It is
+sometimes for Mid. Eng. <i>costard</i> (cf. such names as
+<i>Cherry</i> and <i>Plumb)</i>, but may also represent Port.
+<i>da</i> <i>Costa</i> and Ger. <i>K&ouml;ster</i>, both of which
+are found in early lists of Protestant refugees.</p>
+<p><i>Jagger</i> was a north-country name for a man who worked
+draught-horses for hire. Mr. Hardy's novel <i>Under</i>
+<i>the</i> <i>Greenwood</i> <i>Tree</i> opens with "the
+<i>Tranter's</i> party." A carrier is still a "tranter" in
+Wessex. In Medieval Latin he was called <i>travetarius</i>, a
+word apparently connected with Lat. <i>transvehere</i>, to
+transport.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><a name="Toc2144744" id="Toc2144744"></a></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80794" id="Toc80794">CHAPTER XX <b>OFFICIAL AND
+DOMESTIC</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>"Big fleas have little fleas<br>
+Upon their backs to bite 'em<br>
+Little fleas have smaller fleas,<br>
+And so <i>ad infinitum</i>."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>Anon.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is a well-known fact that
+official nomenclature largely reflects the simple housekeeping of
+early times, and that many titles, now of great dignity, were
+originally associated with rather lowly duties. We have seen an
+example in <i>Stewart</i>. Another is <i>Chamberlain</i>. Hence
+surnames drawn from this class are susceptible of very varied
+interpretation. A <i>Chancellor</i> was originally a man in
+charge of a chancel, or grating, Lat. <i>cancelli</i>. In Mid.
+English it is usually glossed <i>scriba</i>, while it is now
+limited to very high judicial or political office. <i>Bailey</i>,
+as we have seen (Chapter IV), has also a wide range of meanings,
+the ground idea being that of care-taker. Cotgrave explains Old
+Fr. <i>mareschal</i> <i>mar&eacute;chal</i> as&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>A</i>
+<i>marshall</i> of a kingdoms, or of a camp (an honourable
+place); also, a blacksmith; also, a farrier,
+horse</font><font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">leech, or horse</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">smith; also, a harbinger,"</font></p>
+<p><i>[Footnote: i.e</i>. a quartermaster. See <i>Romance</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>Words</i>, ch. vii.<i>]</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">which gives a considerable
+choice of origins to any modern <i>Marshall</i> or
+<i>Maskell</i>.</font></p>
+<p>Another very vague term is sergeant, whence our
+<i>Sargent</i>. Its oldest meaning is servant, Lat.
+<i>serviens</i>, <i>servient</i>-. Cotgrave defines
+<i>sergent</i> as&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A <i>sergeant</i>,
+officer, catchpole, pursuyvant, apparitor; also (in Old Fr.) a
+footman, or souldier that serves on foot." I</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Probably catchpole was the
+commonest meaning&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Sargeauntes</i>,
+<i>katche</i> <i>pollys</i>, and somners" <i>(Cocke</i>
+<i>Lorelles</i> <i>Bote)</i>.</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The administration of justice
+occupied a horde of officials, from the <i>Justice</i> down to
+the <i>Catchpole</i>. The official title <i>Judge</i> <i>is</i>
+rarely found, and this surname is usually from the female name
+Judge, which, like Jug, was used for Judith, and later for
+Jane&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Jannette,
+<i>Judge</i>, Jennie; a woman's name" (Cotgrave).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The names <i>Judson</i> and
+<i>Juxon</i> sometimes belong to these. <i>Catchpole</i> has
+nothing to do with poles or polls. It is a Picard
+<i>cache</i>-<i>poule</i> <i>(chasse</i>-<i>poule)</i>,
+<i>col</i>lector of poultry in default of money. Another name for
+judge was <i>Dempster</i>, the pronouncer of doom, a title which
+still exists in the Isle of Man. We also find
+<i>Deemer</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p><i>"Demar</i>, judicator" <i>(Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Mayor</i> is a learned spelling of <i>Mair</i>, Fr.
+<i>maire</i>, Lat. <i>major</i>, but <i>Major</i>, which looks
+like its latinized form, is perhaps imitative for the Old French
+personal name <i>Mauger</i>. Bishop Mauger of Worcester
+pronounced the interdict in 1208, and the surname still
+exists.</p>
+<p><i>Gaylor</i>, <i>Galer</i>, <i>is</i> the Norman
+pronunciation of gaoler</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"And Palamon, this woful prisoner,<br>
+As was his wone, bi leve of his <i>gayler</i>,<br>
+Was risen" (A, 1064).</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80795" id="Toc80795">THE HOUSEHOLD</a></b></p>
+<p><i>Usher</i> is Fr. <i>huissier</i>, door-keeper, Fr.
+<i>huis</i>, door, Lat. <i>ostium</i>. I conjecture that
+<i>Lusher</i> <i>is</i> the French name <i>Lhuissier</i>, and
+that <i>Lush</i> <i>is</i> local, for Old Fr. <i>le</i>
+<i>huis;</i> cf. <i>Laporte</i>. <i>Wait</i>, corruptly
+<i>Weight</i>, now used only of a Christmas minstrel, was once a
+watchman. It is a dialect form of Old Fr. <i>gaite</i>, cognate
+with watch. The older sense survives in the expression "to lie in
+<i>wait</i>." <i>Gate</i> <i>is</i> the same name, when not local
+(Chapter XIII).</p>
+<p>The <i>Todhunter</i>, or fox-hunter (Chapter XXIII), was an
+official whose duty was to exterminate the animal now so
+carefully preserved. <i>Warner</i> is often for <i>Warrener</i>.
+The <i>Grosvenor</i> <i>(gros</i> <i>veneur)</i>, great hunter,
+was a royal servant. <i>Bannerman</i> <i>is</i> found latinized
+as <i>Penninger</i> (Chapter XV). <i>Herald</i> may be official
+or from Harold (Chapter VII), the derivation being in any case
+the same. <i>Toller</i> means a collector of tolls. Cocke Lorelle
+speaks of these officials as "false <i>Towlers</i>." Connected
+with administration is the name <i>Mainprice</i>, lit. taken by
+hand, used both for a surety and a man out on bail&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>"Maynprysyd</i>, or <i>memprysyd</i>, manucaptus, fideijussus" (Prompt. Parv.);</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and <i>Shurety</i> also
+exists.</font></p>
+<p>The individual bigwig had a very large retinue, the members of
+which appear to have held very strongly to the theory of one man,
+one job. The <i>Nurse</i>, or <i>Norris</i>, Fr. <i>nourrice</i>,
+was apparently debarred from rocking the cradle. This was the
+duty of the rocker&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+"To the <i>norice</i> and <i>rokker</i> of the same lord, <i>25s.
+8d</i>."
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<i>(Household</i> <i>Accounts</i> <i>of</i> <i>Elizabeth</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>York</i>, March, 1503),
+</div></div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">from whom Mr. <i>Roker</i>,
+chief turnkey at the Fleet in Mr. Pickwick's time, may have
+sprung The <i>Cook</i> was assisted by the <i>Baster</i> and
+<i>Hasler</i>, or turnspit, the latter from Old Fr.
+<i>hastille</i>, spit, dim. of Lat. <i>hasta</i>, spear. The
+<i>Chandler</i> was a servant as well as a
+manufacturer.</font></p>
+<p>A <i>Trotter</i> and a <i>Massinger</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+messenger, were perhaps much the same thing. <i>Wardroper</i>
+<i>is</i> of course wardrobe keeper, but Chaucer uses
+<i>wardrope</i> (B. 1762) in the sense which Fr.
+<i>garde</i>-<i>robe</i> now usually has. The <i>Lavender</i>,
+<i>Launder</i> or <i>Lander</i> saw to the washing.
+<i>Napier</i>, from Fr. <i>nappe</i>, cloth, meant the servant
+who looked after the napery. The martial sound with which this
+distinguished name strikes a modern ear is due to historical
+association, assisted, as I have somewhere read, by its riming
+with <i>rapier!</i> The water-supply was in charge of the
+<i>Ewer</i>.</p>
+<p>The provisioning of the great house was the work of the
+<i>Lardner</i>, Fr. <i>lard</i>, bacon, the <i>Panter</i>, or
+<i>Pantler</i>, who was, at least etymologically, responsible for
+bread, and the <i>Cator</i> (Chapter III) and <i>Spencer</i>
+(Chapter III), whose names, though of opposite meaning, buyer and
+spender, come to very much the same thing. <i>Spence</i>
+<i>is</i> still the north-country word for pantry, and is used by
+Tennyson in the sense of refectory&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Bluff Harry broke
+into the <i>Spence</i></font><br>
+And turn'd the cowls adrift."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 10em">
+<p><i>(The</i> <i>Talking</i> <i>Oak</i>, <i>1</i>.
+<i>47</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Purser</font>, now used in
+connection with ships only, was also a medieval form of bursar,
+and every castle and monastery had its almoner, now <i>Amner</i>.
+Here also belongs <i>Carver</i>. In Ivey Church (Bucks) is a
+tablet to Lady Mary Salter with a poetic tribute to her
+husband&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Full forty years a <i>carver</i> to two kings."</p>
+</div>
+<p>As the importance of the horse led to the social elevation of
+the marshal and constable (Chapter IV), so the <i>hengstman</i>,
+now henchman, became his master's right-hand man. The first
+element is Anglo-Sax. <i>hengest</i>, stallion, and its most
+usual surnominal forms are <i>Hensman</i> and <i>Hinxman</i>.
+Historians now regard Hengist and Horsa, stallion and mare, as
+nicknames assumed by Jutish braves on the war-path.
+<i>Sumpter</i>, Old Fr. <i>sommetier</i>, from <i>Somme</i>,
+burden, was used both of a packhorse and its driver, its
+interpretation in <i>King</i> <i>Lear</i> being a matter of
+dispute&mdash;</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+"Return with her?
+<br>
+Persuade me rather to be slave and <i>Sumpter</i><br>
+To this detested groom" &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;<i>(Lear, ii, 4)</i>.
+</div>
+<p>As a surname it probably means the driver, Medieval Lat.
+<i>sumetarius</i>.</p>
+<p>Among those who ministered to the great man's pleasures we
+must probably reckon <i>Spelman,  Speller,
+ Spillman, Spiller</i>, from Mid. Eng. <i>spel</i>, a
+speech, narrative, but proof of this is lacking</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>
+"Now holde your mouth, par charitee,<br>
+Bothe knyght and lady free,<br>
+And herkneth to my <i>spelle"</i> (B, 2081).</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The cognate <i>Spielmann</i>,
+lit. <i>Player</i>, was used in Medieval German of a wandering
+minstrel.</font></p>
+<p>The poet is now <i>Rymer</i> or <i>Rimmer</i>, while
+<i>Trover</i>, Fr. <i>trouv&egrave;re</i>, a poet, minstrel, lit.
+finder, has been confused with <i>Trower</i>, for <i>Thrower</i>,
+a name connected with weaving. Even the jester has come down to
+us as <i>Patch</i>, a name given regularly to this member of the
+household in allusion to his motley attire. Shylock applies it,
+to Launcelot&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"The <i>patch</i> <i>is</i> kind enough; but a huge
+feeder."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Merchant</i> <i>of</i> <i>Venice</i>, <i>ii</i>.
+<i>5</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>But the name has another origin (Chapter IX). <i>Buller</i>
+and <i>Cocker</i> are names taken from the fine old English
+sports of bull-baiting and cock-fighting.</p>
+<p>Two very humble members of the parasitic class have given the
+names <i>Bidder</i> and <i>Maunder</i>, both meaning beggar. The
+first comes from Mid. Eng. <i>bidden</i>, to ask. Piers Plowman
+speaks of "<i>bidderes</i> and beggers." <i>Maunder</i> <i>is</i>
+perhaps connected with Old Fr. <i>quemander&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Quemander</i>, or
+<i>caimander</i>, to beg; or goe a begging; to beg from doore to
+doore" (Cotgrave),</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but it may mean a maker of
+"maunds," <i>i.e</i>. baskets.</font></p>
+<p>A <i>Beadman</i> spent his time in praying for his benefactor.
+A medieval underling writing to his superior often signs himself
+"your servant and <i>bedesman</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><a name="Toc2144745" id="Toc2144745"></a></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80796" id="Toc80796">CHAPTER XXI <b>OF NICKNAMES
+IN GENERAL</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Here is Wyll Wyly the myl pecker, <br>
+And Patrick Pevysshe heerbeter,<br>
+With lusty Hary Hangeman,<br>
+Nexte house to Robyn Renawaye;<br>
+Also Hycke Crokenec the rope maker,<br>
+And Steven Mesyllmouthe muskyll taker."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Cocke</i> <i>Lorelles</i> <i>Bote</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> This humorous poem, inspired by Sebastian
+Brandt's <i>Narrenschiff</i>, known in England in Barclay's
+translation, was printed early in the reign of Henry VIII. It
+contains the fullest list we have of old trade<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">names.<i>]</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Every family name is
+etymologically a nickname, <i>i.e</i>. an eke-name, intended to
+give that auxiliary information which helps in identification.
+But writers on surnames have generally made a special class of
+those epithets which were originally conferred on the bearer in
+connection with some characteristic feature, physical or moral,
+or some adjunct, often of the most trifling description, with
+which his personality was associated. Of nicknames, as of other
+things, it may be said that there is nothing new under the sun.
+Ovidius Naso might have received his as a schoolboy, and
+<i>Moss</i> <i>cum</i> <i>nano</i>, whom we find in Suffolk in
+1184, lives on as "Nosey Moss" in Whitechapel. Some of our
+nicknames occur as personal names in Anglo-Saxon times (Chapter
+VII), but as surnames they are seldom to be traced back to that
+period, for the simple reason that such names were not
+hereditary. An Anglo-Saxon might be named <i>Wulf</i>, but his
+son would bear another name, while our modern <i>Wolfe</i> does
+not usually go farther back than some Ranulf <i>le</i>
+<i>wolf</i> <i>of</i> the thirteenth or fourteenth century. This
+is of course stating the case broadly, because the personal name
+Wolf also persisted and became in some cases a surname. In this
+and the following chapters I do not generally attempt to
+distinguish between such double origins.</font></p>
+<p>Nicknames are formed in very many ways, but the two largest
+classes are sobriquets taken from the names of animals, e.g.
+<i>Hogg</i>, or from adjectives, either alone or accompanied by a
+noun, e.g. <i>Dear</i>, <i>Goodfellow</i>. Each of these classes
+requires a chapter to itself, while here we may deal with the
+smaller groups.</p>
+<p>Some writers have attempted to explain all apparent nicknames
+as popular perversions of surnames belonging to the other three
+classes. As the reader will already have noticed, such
+perversions are extremely common, but it is a mistake to try to
+account for obvious nicknames in this way. Any of us who retain a
+vivid recollection of early days can call to mind nicknames
+<i>of</i> the most fantastic kind, and in some cases of the most
+apparently impossible formation, which stuck to their possessors
+all through school-life. A very simple test for the genuineness
+of a nickname is a comparison with other languages. Camden says
+that <i>Drinkwater</i> <i>is</i> a corruption of Derwentwater.
+The incorrectness of this guess is shown by the existence as
+surnames of Fr. <i>Boileau</i>, It. <i>Bevilacqua</i>, and Ger.
+<i>Trinkwasser</i>. It is in fact a perfectly natural nickname
+for a medieval eccentric, the more normal attitude being
+represented by Roger <i>Beyvin</i> <i>(boi</i>-<i>vin)</i>, who
+died in London in 1277.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80797" id="Toc80797">FOREIGN
+NICKNAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Corresponding to our <i>Goodday</i>, we find Ger.
+<i>Gutentag</i> and Fr. <i>Bonjour</i>. The latter has been
+explained as from a popular form of George, but the English and
+German names show that the explanation is. unnecessary. With
+<i>Dry</i> we may compare Fr. <i>Lesec</i> and Ger.
+<i>D&uuml;rr</i>, with <i>Garlick</i> Ger. <i>Knoblauch</i>
+(Chapter XV), and with <i>Shakespeare</i> <i>Ger.
+Sch&uuml;ttespeer</i>. <i>Luck</i> is both for Luke and Luick
+(Li&egrave;ge, Chapter XI), but Rosa <i>Bonheur</i> and the
+composer <i>Gluck</i> certify it also as a nickname.
+<i>Merryweather</i> is like Fr. <i>Bontemps</i>, and
+<i>Littleboy</i> appears in the Paris Directory as
+<i>Petitgas</i>, <i>gas</i> being the same as <i>gars</i>, the
+old nominative (Chapter I) of <i>gar&ccedil;on</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Gars</font>, a lad,
+boy, stripling, youth, yonker" (Cotgrave).</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Bardsley explains
+<i>Twentyman</i> as an imitative corruption of
+<i>twinter</i>-<i>man</i>, the man in charge of the twinters,
+two-year-old colts. This may be so, but there is a German
+confectioner in Hampstead called <i>Zwanziger</i>, and there are
+Parisians named <i>Vingtain</i>. <i>Lover</i> <i>is</i> confirmed
+by the French surnames <i>Amant</i> and <i>Lamoureux</i>, and
+<i>Wellbeloved</i> by <i>Bienaim&eacute;</i>. <i>Allways</i> may
+be the literal equivalent of the French name <i>Partout</i>. On
+the other hand, the name Praisegod <i>Barebones</i> has been
+wrongly fixed on an individual whose real name was Barbon or
+Barborne.</font></p>
+<p>It may seem strange that the nickname, conferred essentially
+on the individual, and often of a very offensive character,
+should have persisted and become hereditary. But schoolboys know
+that, in the case of an unpleasant nickname, the more you try to
+pull it off, the more it sticks the faster. <i>Malapert</i> and
+<i>Lehideux</i> are still well represented in the Paris
+Directory. Many objectionable nicknames have, however,
+disappeared, or have been so modified as to become
+inoffensive.</p>
+<p>Sometimes such disappearance has resulted from the
+depreciation in the meaning of a word, e.g. <i>le</i>
+<i>lewd</i>, the layman, the unlettered, was once as common as
+its opposite <i>le</i> <i>learned</i>, whence the name
+<i>Larned</i>. But many uncomplimentary names are no longer
+objected to because their owners do not know their earlier
+meanings. A famous hymn-writer of the eighteenth century bore all
+unconsciously a surname that would almost have made Rabelais
+blush. Drinkdregs, Drunkard, Sourale, Sparewater, Sweatinbed,
+etc. have gone, but we still have <i>Lusk&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Falourdin</i>, a
+<i>luske</i>, loot, lurden, a lubberlie sloven, heavie sot,
+lumpish hoydon" (Cotgrave) &mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and many other names which can
+hardly have gratified their original possessors.</font></p>
+<p>A very interesting group of surnames consists of those which
+indicate degrees of kinship or have to do with the relations
+existing between individuals. We find both <i>Master</i> and
+<i>Mann</i>, united in <i>Masterman</i>, meaning the man in the
+service of one locally known as the master. With this we may
+compare <i>Ladyman</i>, <i>Priestman</i>, etc. But <i>Mann</i>
+<i>is</i> often of local origin, from the Isle of Man. In some
+cases such names are usually found with the patronymic -<i>s</i>,
+e.g. <i>Masters</i>, <i>Fellows</i>, while in others this is
+regularly absent, e.g. <i>Guest</i>, <i>Friend</i>. The latter
+name is sometimes a corruption of Mid. Eng. <i>fremed</i>,
+stranger, cognate with Ger. <i>fremd</i>, <i>so</i> that opposite
+terms, which we find regularly contrasted in Mid. Eng.
+"<i>frend</i> and <i>fremed</i>,<i>"</i> have become absorbed in
+one surname.</p>
+<p>The frequent occurrence of <i>Fellows</i> <i>is</i> due to its
+being sometimes for the local <i>Fallows</i>. From Mid. Eng.
+<i>fere</i>, a companion, connected with <i>faren</i>, to travel,
+we get <i>Littlefair</i> and <i>Playfair</i>. In Wyclif's Bible
+we read that Jephthah's daughter&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Whanne sche hadde go
+with hir felowis and <i>pleiferis</i>, <i>s</i>che biwept hir
+maydynhed in the hillis" (Judges xi. 38).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">Springett</font> is for
+springald, and Arlett is Mid. Eng. harlot, fellow, rascal, a word
+which has changed its gender and meaning&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"He was a gentil <i>harlot</i> and a kynde, <br>
+A betre felawe sholde men noght fynde."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 647.)</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><b><a name="Toc80798" id="Toc80798">KINSHIP</a></b></p>
+<p>In surnames taken from words indicating family relationship we
+come across some survivals of terms no longer used, or occurring
+only in rustic dialect. The Mid. Eng. <i>eme</i>, uncle, cognate
+with Ger. <i>Oheim</i>, has given <i>Eames</i>. In Chaucer's
+<i>Troilus</i> <i>and</i> <i>Criseyde</i>, the heroine addresses
+Pandarus as "uncle dere" and "uncle mine," but also uses the
+older word&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">" 'In good feith,
+<i>em</i>,' quod she, 'that liketh me' "(ii. 162);</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and the word is used more than
+once by Scott&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Didna his <i>eme</i>
+die. . . wi' the name of the Bluidy Mackenzie?"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p><i>(Heart</i> <i>of</i> <i>Midlothian</i>, ch.
+<i>xii</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is also one of the sources
+of <i>Empson</i>, which thus corresponds to <i>Cousins</i> or
+<i>Cozens</i>. In <i>Neame</i> we have a prosthetic <i>n</i>- due
+to the frequent occurrence of <i>min</i> <i>eme</i> (cf. the
+Shakespearean <i>nuncle</i>, <i>Lear</i>, <i>i</i>. <i>4)</i>.
+The names derived from cousin have been reinforced by those from
+<i>Cuss</i>, <i>i.e</i>. Constant or Constance (Chapter X). Thus
+<i>Cussens</i> is from the Mid. English dim. <i>Cussin</i>.
+Anglo-Sax. <i>nefa</i>, whence Mid. Eng. <i>neve</i>,
+<i>neave</i>, <i>is</i> cognate with, but not derived from, Lat.
+<i>nepos</i>. <i>[Footnote:</i> In all books on surnames that I
+have come across this is referred to Old Fr. <i>le</i>
+<i>neve</i>. There is no such word in old French, which has nom.
+<i>ni&eacute;s</i>, <i>acc</i>. <i>neveu</i>.]</font></p>
+<p>This is now replaced as a common noun by the French word
+nephew, but it survives in the surname <i>Neave</i>. It also
+meant in Mid. English a prodigal or parasite, as did also Lat.
+<i>nepos&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i>Neve</i>, neverthryfte, or wastowre" <i>(Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>It is likely that <i>Nevison</i> and <i>Nevinson</i> are
+sometimes derivatives of this word.</p>
+<p><i>Child</i> was sometimes used in the special sense of youth
+of gentle blood, or young knight; cf. Childe Harold and Childe
+Rowland <i>(Lear</i>, iii. 4). But the more general meaning may
+be assumed in its compounds, of which the most interesting is
+<i>Leifchild</i>, dear-child, a fairly common name in
+Anglo-Saxon. The corresponding <i>Faunt</i>, whence
+<i>Fauntleroy</i> (Chapter XV), is now rare. Another word, now
+only used in dialect or by affectation, is "bairn," a frequent
+source of the very common surname <i>Barnes;</i> cf.
+<i>Fairbairn</i> and <i>Goodbairn</i>, often perverted to
+<i>Fairburn</i>, <i>Goodburn</i>, <i>Goodban</i>.
+<i>Barnfather</i> is about equivalent to Lat.
+<i>paterfamilias</i>, but <i>Pennefather</i> is an old nickname
+for a miser&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Caqueduc</i>, a
+niggard, micher, miser, scrape</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">good, pinch</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">penny, <i>penny</i></font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><i><font face="Bookman Old Style"
+size="3">father;</font></i> a covetous and greedy wretch"
+(Cotgrave).</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name <i>Bastard</i> was
+once considered no disgrace if the dishonour came from a noble
+source, and several great medieval warriors bore this sobriquet.
+With this we may compare <i>Leman</i> or <i>Lemon</i>, Mid. Eng.
+<i>leof</i>-<i>man</i>, dear man, beloved, and <i>Paramor</i>,
+Fr. <i>par</i> <i>amour</i>, an example of an adverbial phrase
+that has become a noun. This expression, used of lawful love in
+Old French, in the stock phrase "aimer une belle dame <i>par</i>
+<i>amour</i>,<i>"</i> had already an evil meaning by Chaucer's
+time&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"My fourthe housbonde was a revelour, <br>
+This is to seyn, he hadde a <i>paramour</i>"
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (D, 453).</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p>With these names we may put <i>Drewry</i> or <i>Drury</i>,
+sweetheart, from the Old French abstract <i>druerie</i>, of
+Germanic origin and cognate with <i>true</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"For certeynly no such beeste<br>
+To be loved is not worthy,<br>
+Or bere the name of <i>druerie</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>(Romaunt <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Rose</i>, 5062.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Suckling</i> is a
+nickname applied to a helpless person; cf. <i>Littlechild</i> and
+"milksop," which still exists, though rare, in the forms <i>Milsopp</i>
+and <i>Mellsop</i>. The heir survives as <i>Ayre</i> and <i>Eyre</i>.
+<i>Batchelor</i>, the
+origin of which is one of the etymological problems yet unsolved,
+had in Old French and Mid. English also the meaning of young
+warrior or squire. Chaucer's Squier is described
+as&mdash; </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A lovyere and a lusty
+<i>bacheler"</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (A, 80).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style">May</font>, maiden, whence
+Mildmay, is used by Chaucer for the Holy Virgin</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Now, lady bright, to whom alle woful cryen,<br>
+Thow glorie of wommanhede, thow faire <i>may</i>,<br>
+Thow haven of refut, brighte sterre of day"
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (B, 850).</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This is the same word as Mid.
+Eng. <i>mai</i>, relative, cognate with <i>maid</i> and Gaelic
+<i>Mac</i>- (Chapter VI). A form of it survives in the Nottingham
+name <i>Watmough</i> and perhaps in
+<i>Hickmott</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Mow</i>, housbandys sister or syster in law"
+<i>(Prompt</i>. Parv.).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">I imagine that William
+<i>Echemannesmai</i>, who owed the Treasury a mark in 1182, was
+one of the sponging fraternity.</font></p>
+<p><i>Virgoe</i>, a latinization of <i>Virgin</i>, is perhaps due
+to a shop-sign. <i>Rigmaiden</i>, explained by Lower as "a
+romping girl," is local, from a place in Westmorland. Richard
+<i>de</i> <i>Riggemayden</i> was living in Lancashire in 1307.
+With this group of names we may put <i>Gossip</i>, originally a
+god-parent, lit. related in God, from Mid. Eng. <i>sib</i>,
+kin.</p>
+<p>With names like <i>Farebrother</i>, <i>Goodfellow</i>, we may
+compare some of French origin such as <i>Bonser</i> (bon sire),
+<i>Bonamy</i>, and <i>Bellamy</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Thou <i>beel amy</i>, thou pardoner, he sayde,<br>
+Telle us som myrth, or japes, right anon."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(B, 318.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Beldam</i> (belle dame),
+originally a complimentary name for grandmother or grandam, has
+become uncomplimentary in meaning&mdash; </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>First Witch.</i> &nbsp; "Why, how now, Hecate! you look angerly."</p>
+<p><i>Hecate</i>. "Have I not reason, <i>beldams</i> as you are,
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+Saucy and overbold?" &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>(Macbeth</i>, <i>iii</i>. 5).
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">From the corresponding Old Fr.
+<i>bel</i>-<i>sire</i>, <i>beau</i>-<i>sire</i>, we have
+<i>Bewsher</i>, <i>Bowser</i>, and the Picard form
+<i>Belcher</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The great
+<i>belsire</i>, the grandsire, sire, and sonne,</font><br>
+Lie here interred under this grave stone."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Weever, <i>Ancient</i> <i>Funeral</i>
+<i>Monuments</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Relationship was often
+expressed by the use of French words, so that for son-in-law we
+find <i>Gender</i>, <i>Ginder</i>, corresponding to Fr. Legendre.
+<i>Fitch</i>, usually an animal nickname (Chapter XXIII), is
+occasionally for <i>le</i> <i>fiz</i>, the son, which also
+survives as <i>Fitz</i>. <i>Goodson</i>, from the personal name
+<i>Good</i> (Chapter I), is sometimes registered as <i>Fiz</i>
+<i>Deu</i>. Cf. Fr. <i>Lefilleul</i>, <i>i.e</i>. the
+godson.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80799" id="Toc80799">ABSTRACTS</a></b></p>
+<p>A possible derivative of the name <i>May</i> (Chapter XXI) is
+<i>Ivimey</i>. Holly and Ivy were the names of characters in
+Christmas games, and an old rime says</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Holy and his mery
+men, they dawnsyn and they syng,</font><br>
+<i>Ivy</i> and hur <i>maydins</i>, they wepen and they
+wryng."</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p>If <i>Ivimey</i> is from this source, the same origin must
+sometimes be allowed to <i>Holliman</i> (Chapter I). This
+conjecture <i>[Footnote:</i> Probably a myth. See my
+<i>Surnames</i>, p. 197.<i>]</i> has in its favour the fact that
+many of our surnames are undoubtedly derived from characters
+assumed in dramatic performances and popular festivities. To this
+class belong many surnames which have the form of abstract nouns,
+e.g. <i>Charity</i>, <i>Verity</i>, <i>Virtue</i>, <i>Vice</i>.
+Of similar origin are perhaps <i>Bliss</i>, <i>Chance</i>,
+<i>Luck</i>, and <i>Goodluck;</i> cf. <i>Bonaventure</i>.
+<i>Love</i>, <i>Luff</i>, occurs generally as a personal name,
+hence the dim. <i>Lufkins</i>, but it is sometimes a nickname.
+<i>Lovell</i>, <i>Lovett</i>, more often mean little wolf. Both
+<i>Louvet</i> and <i>Louveau</i> are common French surnames. The
+name <i>Lovell</i>, in the wolf sense, was often applied to a
+dog, as in the famous couplet</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+"The ratte, the catte, and <i>Lovell</i>, our dogge
+<br>Rule all England under the hogge,"
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">for which William Collingborne
+was executed in 1484. <i>Lowell</i> is a variant of
+<i>Lovell</i>.</font></p>
+<p>But many apparent abstract names are due to folk-etymology,
+e.g. <i>Marriage</i> is local, Old Fr. <i>marage</i>, marsh, and
+<i>Wedlock</i> is imitative for <i>Wedlake;</i> cf.
+<i>Mortlock</i> for Mortlake and perhaps <i>Diplock</i> for
+deep-lake. <i>Creed</i> is the Anglo-Saxon personal name Creda.
+<i>Revel</i>, a common French surname, is a personal name of
+obscure origin. <i>Want</i> is the Mid. Eng. <i>wont</i>, mole,
+whence <i>Wontner</i>, mole-catcher. It is difficult to see how
+such names as <i>Warr</i>, <i>Battle</i>, and <i>Conquest</i>
+came into existence. The former, found as <i>de</i> <i>la</i>
+<i>warre</i>, is no doubt sometimes local (Chapter XIII), and
+<i>Battle</i> is a dim. of Bat (Chapter VI). But <i>de</i>
+<i>la</i> <i>batayle</i> is also a common entry, and
+<i>Laguerre</i> and <i>Labataille</i> are common French
+surnames.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80800" id="Toc80800">COSTUME</a></b></p>
+<p>A nickname was often conferred in connection with some
+external object regularly associated with the individual. Names
+taken from shop-signs really belong to this class. Corresponding
+to our <i>Hood</i> <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Hood</i> may also be for
+Hud (Chapter I), but the garment is made into a personal name in
+Little Red Ridinghood, who is called in French <i>le</i>
+<i>petit</i> <i>Chaperon</i> <i>Rouge</i>.<i>]</i> we have Fr.
+<i>Capron</i> <i>(chaperon)</i>. <i>Burdon</i>, Fr.
+<i>bourdon</i>, meant a staff, especially a pilgrim's staff.
+Daunger is described as having&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"In
+his honde a gret <i>burdoun"</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify">(Romaunt <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Rose</i>,
+3401).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But the name <i>Burdon</i> is
+also local. <i>Bracegirdle</i>, <i>i.e</i>. breeks-girdle, must
+have been the nickname of one who wore a gorgeous belt. It is a
+curious fact that this name is chiefly found in the same region
+(Cheshire) as the somewhat similar <i>Broadbelt</i>. The Sussex
+name <i>Quaile</i> represents the Norman pronunciation of coif.
+More usually an adjective enters into such combinations. With the
+historic Curthose, Longsword, Strongbow we may compare
+<i>Shorthouse</i>, a perversion of shorthose, <i>Longstaff</i>,
+<i>Horlock</i> (hoar), <i>Silverlock</i>, <i>Whitlock</i>,
+<i>etc</i>. <i>Whitehouse</i> is usually of local origin, but has
+also absorbed the medieval names Whitehose and White-hawse, the
+latter from Mid. Eng. <i>hawse</i>, neck. <i>Woollard</i> may be
+the Anglo-Saxon personal name Wulfweard, but is more probably
+from <i>woolward</i>, <i>i.e</i>. without linen, a costume
+assumed as a sign of penitence</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i>Wolwarde</i>, without any lynnen nexte ones body, <i>sans chemyse</i>".
+<i>(Palsgrave.)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The three names <i>Medley</i>,
+<i>Medlicott</i>, and <i>Motley</i> go together, though all three
+of them may be local (the mid-lea, the middle-cot, and the
+moat-lea). <i>Medley</i> mixed, is the Anglo-French past
+participle of Old Fr. <i>mesler</i> <i>(m&ecirc;ler)</i>.
+<i>Motley</i> is of unknown origin, but it was not necessarily a
+fool's dress&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A marchant was ther
+with a forked berd,</font><br>
+In <i>mottelye</i>, and hye on horse he sat,<br>
+Upon his heed a Flaundryssh bevere hat"
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (A, 270).<br></p>
+
+</div>
+<p>So also the Serjeant of the Law was distinguished his, for the
+period, plain dress&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"He rood but hoomly in
+a <i>medlee</i> <i>cote"</i> (A, 328).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Gildersleeve</i> is now
+rare in England, though it still flourishes in the United States.
+[Footnote: We have several instances of this phenomenon. A
+familiar example is <i>Lippincott</i>, a surname of local origin
+(Devonshire). But Bardsley's inclusion of American statistics is
+often misleading. It is a well-known fact that the foreign names
+of immigrants are regularly assimilated to English forms in the
+United States. In some cases, such as Cook for <i>Koch</i>, Cope
+(Chapter XII) for <i>Kopf</i>, Stout (Chapter XXII) for
+<i>Stolz</i> or <i>Stultz</i>,
+the change is etymologically justified. But in other cases, such
+as Tallman for <i>Thalmann</i>, dale-man, Trout for <i>Traut</i>, faithful, the
+resemblance is accidental. Beam and Chestnut, common in the
+States but very rare in England, represent an imitative form of
+<i>B&ouml;hm</i> or <i>Behm</i>, Bohemian, and a translation of <i>Kestenbaum</i>,
+chestnut tree, both Jewish names. The Becks and Bowmans of New
+York outnumber those of London by about five to one, the first
+being for <i>Beck</i>, baker (Chapter XV), and the second for <i>Baumann</i>,
+equivalent to <i>Bauer</i>, farmer. Bardsley explains the common
+American name Arrison by the fact that there are Cockneys in
+America. It comes of course from Arend, a Dutch name related to
+Arnold.<br>
+<br>
+"A remarkable record in changes of surname was cited some
+years ago by an American correspondent of <i>Notes and Queries</i>.
+'The changes which befell a resident of New
+Orleans were that when he moved from an American quarter to a
+German neighbourhood his name of Flint became Feuerstein, which
+for convenience was shortened to Stein. Upon his removal to a
+French district he was re-christened Pierre. Hence upon his
+return to an English neighbourhood he was translated into Peters,
+and his first neighbours were surprised and puzzled to find Flint
+turned Peters.'"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Daily</i> <i>Chronicle</i>, April 4, 1913.)<i>]</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80801" id="Toc80801">PHYSICAL
+FEATURES</a></b></p>
+<p>Names like <i>Beard</i>, <i>Chinn</i>, <i>Tooth</i> were
+conferred because of some prominent feature. In Anglo-French we
+find <i>Gernon</i>, moustache, now corrupted to <i>Garnham</i>,
+and also <i>al</i> <i>gernon</i>, with the moustache, which has
+become <i>Algernon</i>. But we have already seen (Chapter XIII)
+that some names which appear to belong to this class are of local
+origin. So also <i>Tongue</i> is derived from one of several
+places named Tong or Tonge, though the ultimate origin is perhaps
+in some cases the same, a "tongue" of land. <i>Quartermain</i> is
+for <i>Quatre</i>-<i>mains</i>, perhaps bestowed on a very
+acquisitive person; Joscius <i>Quatre</i>-<i>buches</i>, four
+mouths, and Roger <i>Tunekes</i>, two necks, were alive in the
+twelfth century; and there is record of a Saracen champion named
+<i>Quinze</i>-<i>paumes</i>, though this is perhaps rather a
+measure of height. <i>Cheek</i> I conjecture to be for
+<i>Chick</i>. The odd-looking <i>Kidney</i> is apparently Irish.
+There is a rare name <i>Poindexter</i>, appearing in French as
+<i>Poingdestre</i>, <i>"</i>right fist." <i>[Footnote:</i>
+President <i>Poincar&eacute;'s</i> name appears to mean "square
+fist."<i>]</i> I have seen it explained as from the heraldic term
+<i>point</i> <i>dexter</i>, but it is rather to be taken
+literally. I find Johannes <i>cum</i> <i>pugno</i> in 1184, and
+we can imagine that such a name may have been conferred on a
+medieval bruiser. There is also the possibility, considering the
+brutality of many old nicknames, that the bearer of the name had
+been judicially deprived of his right hand, a very common
+punishment, especially for striking a feudal superior. Thus
+Renaut de Montauban, finding that his unknown opponent is
+Charlemagne, exclaims&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"J'ai forfait le
+<i>poing</i> <i>destre</i> dont je l'ai ades&eacute;
+(struck)."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">We have some nicknames
+describing gait, e.g. <i>Ambler</i> and
+<i>Shaylor&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"I <i>shayle</i>, as a
+man or horse dothe that gothe croked with his leggs, <i>je</i>
+<i>vas</i> <i>eschays"</i> (Palsgrave) &mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and perhaps sometimes
+<i>Trotter</i>. If George Eliot had been a student of surnames
+she would hardly have named a heroine Nancy <i>Lammiter</i>,
+<i>i.e</i>. cripple&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Though ye may think
+him a <i>lamiter</i>, yet, grippie for grippie, <br>he'll make the
+bluid spin frae under your nails" <i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+(Black Dwarf</i>, ch.
+xvii.).</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Pettigrew</i> and <i>Pettifer</i> are of French origin,
+<i>pied</i> <i>de</i> <i>grue</i> (crane) and <i>pied</i>
+<i>de</i> <i>fer</i>. The former is the origin of the word
+pedigree, from a sign used in drawing genealogical trees. The
+Buckinghamshire name <i>Puddifoot</i> or <i>Puddephatt</i>
+<i>(Podefat</i>, 1273) and the aristocratic <i>Pauncefote</i> are
+unsolved. The former may be a corruption of <i>Pettifer</i>,
+which occurs commonly, along with the intermediate
+<i>Puddifer</i>, in the same county. But the <i>English</i>
+<i>Dialect</i> <i>Dictionary</i> gives as an obsolete Northants
+word the adjective p<i>uddy</i>, stumpy, pudgy, applied
+especially to hands, fingers, etc., and Pudito (puddy toe) occurs
+as a surname in the <i>Hundred</i> <i>Rolls</i>. As for
+<i>Pauncefote</i>, I believe it simply means what it appears to,
+viz. "belly-foot," a curious formation, though not without
+parallels, among obsolete rustic nicknames. If these two
+conjectures are correct, both Puddifoot and Pauncefote may be
+almost literal equivalents of the Greek OEdipus, <i>i.e</i>.
+"swell-foot."</p>
+<p>In other languages as well as English we find money nicknames.
+It is easy to understand how some of these come into existence,
+e.g. that Pierce. Pennilesse was the opposite of Thomas
+Thousandpound, whose name occurs <i>c</i>. 1300. With the latter
+we may compare Fr. <i>Centlivre</i>, the name of an English lady
+dramatist of the eighteenth century. <i>Moneypenny</i> is found
+in 1273 as <i>Manipeni</i>, and a Londoner named <i>Manypeny</i>
+died in 1348. The <i>Money</i>- is partly north country, partly
+imitative.</p>
+<p><i>Money</i> itself is usually occupative or local (Chapter
+XVII), and <i>Shilling</i> is the Anglo-Saxon name Scilling. The
+oldest and commonest of such nicknames is the simple
+<i>Penny</i>, with which we may compare the German surname
+<i>Pfennig</i> and its compounds <i>Barpfennig</i>,
+<i>Weisspfennig</i>, etc. The early adoption of this coin-name as
+a personal name is due to the fact that the word was taken in the
+sense of money in general. We still speak of a rich man as "worth
+a pretty penny." <i>Hallmark</i> is folk-etymology for the
+medieval <i>Half</i>-<i>mark</i>. Such medieval names as
+<i>Four</i>-<i>pence</i>, <i>Twenty</i>-<i>mark</i>, <i>etc</i>.,
+probably now obsolete, are paralleled by Fr. <i>Quatresous</i>
+and <i>Sixdenier</i>, still to be found in the Paris Directory.
+It would be easy to form conjectures as to the various ways in
+which such names may have come into existence. To the same class
+must belong <i>Besant</i>, the name of a coin from Byzantium, its
+foreign origin giving it a dignity which is absent from the
+native <i>Farthing</i> and <i>Halfpenny</i>, though the latter,
+in one instance, was improved beyond recognition into
+<i>MacAlpine</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80802" id="Toc80802">IMPRECATIONS</a></b></p>
+<p>There is also a small group of surnames derived from oaths or
+exclamations which by habitual use became associated with certain
+individuals. We know that monarchs had a special tendency to
+indulge in a favourite expletive. To Roger de Collerye we owe
+some information as to the imprecations preferred by four French
+kings&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p>"Quand la <i>Pasque-Dieu</i> (Louis XI.) d&eacute;c&eacute;da,<br>
+Le <i>Bon Jour Dieu</i> (Charles VIII.) luy succ&eacute;da,<br>
+Au <i>Bon Jour Dieu</i> deffunct et mort<br>
+Succ&eacute;da le <i>Dyable m'emport</i> (Louis XII).<br>
+Luy d&eacute;c&eacute;d&eacute;, nous voyons comme<br>
+Nous duist (governs) la <i>Foy de Gentilhomme</i> (Francis I.)."</p>
+
+</div>
+<p>So important was this branch of linguistics once considered
+that Palsgrave, the French tutor of Princess Mary Tudor, includes
+in his <i>Esclarcissement</i> <i>de</i> <i>la</i> <i>Langue</i>
+<i>Francoyse</i> a section on "The Maners of Cursyng." Among the
+examples are "Le grant diable luy rompe le col et les deux
+jambes," "Le diable l'emporte, corps et ame, tripes et boyaux,"
+which were unfortunately too long for surname purposes, but an
+abridged form of "Le feu Saint Anthoyne l'arde" <i>[Footnote:</i>
+Saint Anthony's fire, <i>i.e</i>. erysipelas, burn him!<i>]</i>
+has given the French name <i>Feulard</i>. Such names, usually
+containing the name of God, e.g. Godmefetch, Helpusgod, have
+mostly disappeared in this country; but <i>Dieuleveut</i> and
+<i>Dieumegard</i> are still found in Paris, and
+<i>Gottbeh&uuml;t</i>, God forbid, and <i>Gotthelf</i>, God help,
+occur in German. <i>Godbehere</i> still exists, and there is not
+the slightest reason why it should not be of the origin which its
+form indicates. In <i>Gracedieu</i>, thanks to God, the second
+element is an Old French dative. <i>Pardoe</i>, <i>Purdue</i>,
+whence <i>Purdey</i>, is for p<i>ar</i>
+<i>Dieu</i>-<i>&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p> "I have a wyf <i>pardee</i>, as wel as thow" &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (A, 3158).</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">There is a well-known
+professional footballer named <i>Mordue</i> ('sdeath), and a
+French composer named <i>Boieldieu</i> (God's bowels). The French
+nickname for an Englishman, <i>goddam</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+"Those syllables intense,<br>
+<div style="margin-left: -6em">
+Nucleus of England's native eloquence"
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+(Byron, <i>The Island</i>, iii. 5)&mdash;
+</div></div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">goes back to the fifteenth
+century, in which invective references to the <i>godons</i> are
+numerous. <i>[Footnote:</i> "Les Anglais en v&eacute;rit&eacute;
+ajoutent par-ci, par-l&agrave; quelques autres mots en
+conversant; mais il est bien ais&eacute; de voir que
+<i>goddam</i> est le fond de la langue" (Beaumarchais,
+<i>Mariage</i> <i>de</i> <i>Figaro</i>, <i>iii</i>.
+5).<i>]</i></font></p>
+<p>Such nicknames are still in common use in some parts of
+France&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 2em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Les Berrichons se
+d&eacute;signent souvent par le juron qui leur est familier.
+Ainsi ils diront: '<i>Diable</i> me <i>br&ucirc;le</i> est bien
+malade. <i>Nom</i> <i>d'un</i> <i>rat</i> est &agrave; la foire.
+La femme &agrave; <i>Diable</i> <i>m&rsquo;estrangouille</i> est
+morte. Le gar&ccedil;on <i>&agrave;</i> <i>Bon</i> <i>You</i>
+(Dieu) se marie avec la fille <i>&agrave;</i> <i>Dieu</i>
+<i>me</i> <i>confonde</i>.<i>'"</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p>(Nyrop, Grammaire <i>historique</i> <i>de</i> <i>la</i>
+<i>langue</i> <i>fran&ccedil;aise</i>, iv. 209).</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80803" id="Toc80803">PHRASE-NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting group of nicknames is that of
+which we may take <i>Shakespeare</i> as the type. Incidentally we
+should be thankful that our greatest poet bore a name so much
+more picturesque than <i>Corneille</i>, crow, or <i>Racine</i>,
+root. It is agreed among all competent scholars that in compounds
+of this formation the verb was originally an imperative. This is
+shown by the form; cf. <i>ne'er</i>-<i>do</i>-<i>well</i>, Fr.
+<i>vaurien</i>, Ger. <i>Taugenichts</i>, good-for-naught. Thus
+<i>Hasluck</i> cannot belong to this class, but must be an
+imitative form of the personal name Aslac, which we find in
+Aslockton.</p>
+<p>As Bardsley well says, it is impossible to retail all the
+nonsense that has been written about the name
+<i>Shakespeare</i>&mdash;"never a name in English nomenclature so
+simple or so certain in its origin; it is exactly what it
+looks&mdash; <i>shake</i>-<i>spear</i>." The equivalent
+<i>Sch&uuml;ttespeer</i> is found in German, and we have also in
+English <i>Shakeshaft</i>, <i>Waghorn</i>, <i>Wagstaff</i>,
+<i>Breakspear</i>, <i>Winspear</i>. "<i>Winship</i> the mariner"
+was a freeman of York in the fourteenth century. Cf.
+<i>Benbow</i> (bend-bow), <i>Hurlbatt</i>, and the less athletic
+<i>Lovejoy</i>, <i>Makepeace</i>. <i>Gathergood</i> and its
+opposite <i>Scattergood</i> are of similar origin, <i>good</i>
+having here the sense of goods. <i>Dogood</i> is sometimes for
+<i>Toogood</i>, and the latter may be, like <i>Thoroughgood</i>,
+an imitative form of <i>Thurgod</i> (Chapter VII); but both names
+may also be taken literally, for we find Ger. <i>Thunichtgut</i>,
+do no good, and Fr. <i>Trodoux</i> <i>(trop</i> <i>doux)</i>.</p>
+<p>As a pendant to <i>Dolittle</i> we find a medieval
+<i>Hack</i>-<i>little</i>, no doubt a lazy wood-cutter, while
+virtue is represented by a twelfth-century
+<i>Tire</i>-<i>little</i>. <i>Sherwin</i> represents the medieval
+<i>Schere</i>-<i>wynd</i>, applied to a swift runner; cf. Ger.
+<i>Schneidewind</i>, cut wind, and Fr. <i>Tranchevent</i>. A
+nurseryman at Highgate has the appropriate name <i>Cutbush</i>,
+the French equivalent of which, <i>Taillebois</i>, has given us
+<i>Tallboys;</i> and a famous herbalist was named
+<i>Culpepper</i>. In <i>Gathercole</i> the second element may
+mean cabbage or charcoal. In one case, <i>Horniblow</i> for
+horn-blow, the verb comes after its object.</p>
+<p>Names of this formation are very common in Mid. English as in
+Old French, and often bear witness to a violent or brutal nature.
+Thus <i>Scorch</i>-<i>beef</i>, which is found in the Hundred
+Rolls, has no connection with careless cookery; it is Old Fr.
+<i>escorche</i> <i>(&eacute;corche)</i> -<i>buef</i>, flay ox, a
+name given to some medieval "Skin-the-goat." <i>Catchpole</i>
+(Chapter XX) is formed in the same way, and in French we find,
+applied to law officials, the surnames <i>Baillehart</i>, give
+halter, <i>[Footnote:</i> <i>Bailler</i>, the usual Old French
+for to give, is still used colloquially and in dialect.<i>]</i>
+and <i>Baillehache</i>, give axe, the latter still appropriately
+borne, as <i>Bailhache</i>, by an English judge.</p>
+<p>It has sometimes been assumed that most names of this class
+are due to folk-etymology. The frequency of their occurrence in
+Mid. English and in continental languages makes it certain that
+the contrary is the case and that many surnames of obscure origin
+are perversions of this very large and popular class. I have seen
+it stated somewhere that <i>Shakespeare</i> is <i>a</i>
+corruption of an Old French name <i>Sacquesp&eacute;e</i>,
+<i>[Footnote:</i> Of common occurrence in Mid. English
+records.<i>]</i> the theorist being apparently unable to see that
+this latter, meaning <i>draw</i>-<i>sword</i>, is merely an
+additional argument, if such were needed, for the literal
+interpretation of the English name. <i>[Footnote:</i> In one
+day's reading I came across the following Mid. English names:
+<i>Baillebien</i> (give good), <i>Baysedame</i> (kiss lady),
+<i>Esveillechien</i> (wake dog), <i>Lievelance</i> (raise lance),
+<i>Metlefrein</i> (put the bridle), <i>Tracepurcel</i> (track
+hog), <i>Turnecotel</i> (turn coat), together with the native
+<i>Cachehare</i> and <i>Hoppeschort</i>.]</p>
+<p><i>Tredgold</i> seems to have been conferred on some medieval
+stoic, for we find also <i>Spurnegold</i>. Without pinning our
+faith to any particular anecdote, we need have no hesitation in
+accepting <i>Turnbull</i> as a sobriquet conferred for some feat
+of strength and daring on a stalwart Borderer. We find the
+corresponding <i>Tornebeuf</i> in Old French, and <i>Turnbuck</i>
+also occurs. <i>Trumbull</i> and <i>Trumble</i> are variants due
+to metathesis followed by assimilation (Chapter III), while
+<i>Tremble</i> is a very degenerate form. In <i>Knatchbull</i> we
+have the obsolete verb <i>knatch</i>, which in Mid. English meant
+to strike on the head, fell. <i>Crawcour</i> is Fr.
+<i>Cr&egrave;vecoeur</i>, breakheart, which has also become a
+local name in France. With <i>Shacklock</i>, shake-lock, and
+<i>Sherlock</i>, <i>Shurlock</i>, shear-lock, we may compare
+Robin Hood's comrade <i>Scathelock</i>, though the precise
+interpretation of all three names is difficult. <i>Rackstraw</i>,
+rake-straw, corresponds to Fr. <i>Grattepaille</i>.
+<i>Golightly</i> means much the same as <i>Lightfoot</i> (Chapter
+XIII), nor need we hesitate to regard the John <i>Gotobed</i> who
+lived in Cambridgeshire in 1273 as a notorious sluggard compared
+with whom his neighbour Serl <i>Gotokirke</i> was a shining
+example. <i>[Footnote:</i> The name is still found in the same
+county. Undergraduates contemporary with the author occasionally
+slaked their thirst at a riverside inn kept by Bathsheba
+Gotobed.]</p>
+<p><i>Telfer</i> is Fr. <i>Taillefer</i>, the iron cleaver, and
+Henry II.'s yacht captain was Alan <i>Trenchemer</i>, the sea
+cleaver. He had a contemporary named <i>Ventados</i>, wind
+abaft.</p>
+<p><i>Slocomb</i> has assumed a local aspect, but may very well
+correspond to Fr. <i>Tardif</i> or Ger. <i>M&uuml;hsam</i>,
+applied to some Weary Willie of the Middle Ages. <i>Doubtfire</i>
+is a misspelling of <i>Dout</i>-<i>fire</i>, from the dialect
+<i>dout</i>, to extinguish (do out), formed like <i>don</i> and
+<i>doff</i>. <i>Fullalove</i>, which does not belong to the same
+formation, is also found as <i>Plein</i>
+<i>d'amour&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Of Sir Lybeux and
+<i>Pleyndamour"</i> (B, 2090)&mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and corresponds to Ger.
+<i>Liebevoll</i>. <i>Waddilove</i> actually occurs in the Hundred
+Rolls as <i>Wade</i>-<i>in</i>-<i>love</i>, presumably a nickname
+conferred on some medieval Don Juan.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80804" id="Toc80804">MISCELLANEOUS</a></b></p>
+<p>There is one curious little group of nicknames which seem to
+correspond to such Latin names as Piso, from <i>pisum</i>, a pea,
+and Cicero, from <i>cicer</i>&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Cicer</i>, a small
+pulse, lesse than pease" (Cooper).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Such are <i>Barleycorn</i> and
+<i>Peppercorn</i>, the former found in French as
+<i>Graindorge</i>. The rather romantic names <i>Avenel</i> and
+<i>Peverel</i> seem to be of similar formation, from Lat.
+<i>avena</i>, oats, and <i>piper</i>, pepper. In fact
+<i>Peverel</i> is found in <i>Domesday</i> as Piperellus, and
+<i>Pepperell</i> still exists. With these may be mentioned
+<i>Carbonel</i>, corresponding to the French surname
+<i>Charbonneau</i>, a little coal.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><i> &nbsp; </i></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144746" id="Toc2144746"></a><a name="LastCursor"
+id="LastCursor"></a><a name="Toc80805" id="Toc80805"></a>CHAPTER
+XXII <b>ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES</b></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The man replied that
+he did not know the object of the building; and to make it quite
+manifest that he really did not know, he put an adjective before
+the word 'object,' and another&mdash;that is, the
+same&mdash;before the word 'building.' With that he passed on his
+way, and Lord Jocelyn was left marvelling at the slender
+resources of our language, which makes one adjective do duty for
+so many qualifications."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>(BESANT, <i>All</i> <i>Sorts</i> <i>and</i> <i>Conditions</i>
+<i>of</i> <i>Men</i>, ch. xxxviii.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The rejection by the British
+workman of all adjectives but one is due to the same imaginative
+poverty which makes the adjective "nice" supreme in refined
+circles, and which limits the schoolgirl to "ripping" and her
+more self-conscious brother to the tempered "decent." But dozens
+of useful adjectives, now either obsolete or banished to rustic
+dialect, are found among our surnames. The tendency to accompany
+every noun by an adjective seems to belong to some deep-rooted
+human instinct. To this is partly due the Protean character of
+this part of speech, for the word, like the coin, becomes dulled
+and worn in circulation and needs periodically to be withdrawn
+and replaced. An epithet which is complimentary in one generation
+is ironical in the next and eventually offensive. <i>Moody</i>,
+with its northern form <i>Mudie</i>, which now means morose, was
+once valiant (Chapter I); and pert, surviving in the name
+<i>Peart</i>, meant active, brisk, etc.&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Awake the <i>pert</i>
+and nimble spirit of mirth."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p><i>(Midsummer</i> <i>Night's</i> <i>Dream</i>, <i>i</i>.
+<i>1</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80806" id="Toc80806">ARCHAIC
+MEANINGS</a></b></p>
+<p>To interpret an adjectival nickname we must go to its meaning
+in Chaucer and his contemporaries. <i>Silly</i>, <i>Seeley</i>,
+<i>Seely</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"This <i>sely</i>,
+innocent Custance" (B, 682)&mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">still means innocent when we
+speak of the "silly sheep," and happy in the phrase "silly
+Suffolk." It is cognate with Ger. <i>selig</i>, blessed, often
+used in speaking of the dead. We have compounds in
+<i>Sillilant</i>, simple child (Chapter X), and <i>Selibarn</i>.
+<i>Seely</i> was also used for Cecil or Cecilia. <i>Sadd</i> was
+once sedate and steadfast</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"But thogh this mayde tendre were of age, <br>
+Yet in the brest of hire virginitee<br>
+Ther was enclosed rype and <i>sad</i> corage"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(E, 218);</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and as late as 1660 we find a
+book in defence of Charles I. described as&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A <i>sad</i> and
+impartial inquiry whether the King or Parliament began the
+war."</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Stout</i>, valiant, now
+used euphemistically for fat, is cognate with Ger. <i>stolz</i>, proud,
+and possibly with Lat. <i>stultus</i>, foolish. The three ideas are not
+incompatible, for fools are notoriously proud of their folly and
+are said to be less subject to fear than the angels. <i>Sturdy,
+Sturdee</i>, once meant rebellious, pig-headed&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i>Sturdy</i>, unbuxum, <i>rebellis, contumax, inobediens." (Prompt. Parv.)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Cotgrave offers a much wider
+choice for the French original&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Estourdi</i>
+<i>(&eacute;tourdi)</i>, dulled, amazed, astonished,
+dizzie</font><font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">headed, or whose head seemes very
+much troubled; (hence) also, heedlesse, inconsiderate, unadvised,
+witlesse, uncircumspect, rash, retchlesse, or carelesse; and
+sottish, blockish, lumpish, lusk</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">like, without life, metall, spirit"</font></p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Sly</i> and its variant <i>Sleigh</i> have degenerated in
+the same way as crafty and cunning, both of which once meant
+skilled. Chaucer calls the wings of Daedalus "his playes
+<i>slye</i>," <i>i.e</i>. his ingenious contrivances.
+<i>Quick</i> meant alert, lively, as in "the <i>quick</i> and the
+dead." <i>Slight</i>, cognate with Ger. <i>schlecht</i>, bad,
+once meant plain or simple.</p>
+<p>Many adjectives which are quite obsolete in literary English
+survive as surnames. Mid. Eng. <i>Lyle</i> has been supplanted by
+its derivative <i>Little</i>, the opposite pair surviving as
+<i>Mutch</i> and <i>Mickle</i>. The poor parson did not
+fail&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"In siknesse nor in meschief to visite<br>
+The ferreste in his parisshe, <i>muche</i> and
+<i>lyte</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 493.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">We have for <i>Lyte</i> also
+the imitative <i>Light;</i> cf. <i>Lightwood</i>. With
+<i>Little</i> <i>may</i> be mentioned <i>Murch</i>, an obsolete
+word for dwarf&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>"Murch</i>, lytyl man,
+<i>nanus</i>.<i>"</i> </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 8em">
+<p>(Prompt. <i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Lenain</font> is a fairly
+common name in France. <i>Snell</i>, swift or valiant, had become
+a personal name in Anglo-Saxon, but we find <i>le</i> <i>snel</i>
+in the Middle Ages. <i>Freake</i>, <i>Frick</i>, also meant
+valiant or warrior&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Ther was no
+<i>freke</i> that ther wolde flye"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Chevy</i> <i>Chase);</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but the <i>Promptorium</i>
+<i>Parvulorum</i> makes it equivalent to <i>Craske</i> (Chapter
+XXII)&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Fryke</i>, or
+<i>craske</i>, in grete helth, <i>crassus</i>.<i>"</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is cognate with Ger.
+<i>frech</i>, which now means impudent. <i>Nott</i> has already
+been mentioned (Chapter II). Of the Yeoman we are
+told&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A <i>not</i> hed
+hadde he, with a broun visage."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(A, 109.)</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Stark</i>, cognate with starch, now usually means stiff, rather
+than strong&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"I feele my lymes <i>stark</i> and suffisaunt <br>
+To do al that a man bilongeth to."</p>
+</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em"><p>(E, 1458.) </p></div>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80807" id="Toc80807">
+DISGUISED SPELLINGS</a></b></p>
+<p>But <i>Stark</i> is also for an earlier Sterk (cf. Clark and
+Clerk), which represents Mid. Eng. <i>stirk</i>, a heifer. In the
+cow with the <i>crumpled</i> horn we have a derivative of Mid.
+Eng. <i>crum</i>, crooked, whence the names <i>Crum</i> and
+<i>Crump</i>. Ludwig's German Dict. (1715) explains krumm as
+"<i>crump</i>, crooked, wry." The name <i>Crook</i> generally has
+the same meaning, the Ger. Krummbein corresponding to our
+<i>Cruikshank</i> or <i>Crookshanks</i>. It is possible that
+<i>Glegg</i> and <i>Gleig</i> are Mid. Eng. <i>gleg</i>, skilful,
+of Scand. origin.</p>
+<p>There are some adjectival surnames which are not immediately
+recognizable. <i>Bolt</i>, when not local (Chapter XIII) is for
+bold, <i>Leaf</i> is imitative for <i>lief</i>, <i>i.e</i>. dear.
+<i>Dear</i> itself is of course hopelessly mixed up with
+<i>Deer</i>... The timorous-looking <i>Fear</i> is Fr. <i>le</i>
+<i>fier</i>, the proud or fierce. <i>Skey</i> is an old form of
+shy; <i>Bligh</i> is for <i>Blyth</i>; <i>Hendy</i> and
+<i>Henty</i> are related to handy, and had in Mid. English the
+sense of helpful, courteous&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p> "Oure hoost tho spak, 'A, sire, ye sholde be <i>hende</i> <br>
+And curteys, as a man of youre estat.'"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(D, 1286.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">For <i>Savage</i> we find also
+the archaic spelling <i>Salvage</i> (Lat. <i>silvaticus)</i>.
+<i>Curtis</i> is Norman Fr. <i>curteis</i> <i>(courtois)</i>. The
+adjective garish, now only poetical, but once commonly applied to
+gaudiness in dress, has given <i>Gerrish</i>. Quaint, which has
+so many meanings intermediate between its etymological sense of
+known or familiar (Lat. <i>cognitus)</i> and its present sense of
+unusual or unfamiliar, survives as <i>Quint</i>. But <i>Coy</i>
+is usually local, from Quy (Cambridgeshire).</font></p>
+<p><i>Orpwood</i> is a corruption of Mid. Eng. <i>orped</i>,
+bold, warlike. <i>Craske</i> is an East Anglian word for fat, and
+<i>Crouse</i> is used in the north for sprightly, confident. To
+these we may add <i>Ketch</i>, <i>Kedge</i>, <i>Gedge</i>, from
+an East Anglian adjective meaning lively&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i>"Kygge</i>, or joly, <i>jocundus</i>" &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+(Prompt. Parv.)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+<p>and <i>Spragg</i>,
+etymologically akin to <i>Spry</i>. <i>Bragg</i> was once used
+for bold or brave, without any uncomplimentary suggestion. The
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes (c.
+1310) from a lyric poem&mdash; </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p> "That maketh us so <i>brag</i> and bolde <br>
+And biddeth us ben blythe."</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Crease</i> is a
+West-country word for squeamish, but the East Anglian name
+<i>Creasey, Cressy</i>, is usually for the local <i>Kersey</i> (Suffolk). The
+only solution of <i>Pratt</i> is that it is Anglo-Sax. <i>praett</i>, cunning,
+adopted early as a personal name, while <i>Storr</i>, of Scandinavian
+origin, means big, strong. It is cognate with <i>Steer</i>, a bull.
+<i>Devey</i> and <i>Dombey</i> seem to be diminutive forms of deaf and dumb,
+still used in dialect in reference to persons thus afflicted. We
+find in French and German surnames corresponding to these very
+natural nicknames. Cf. <i>Crombie</i> from <i>Crum</i> (Chapter XXII). </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80808" id="Toc80808">FRENCH
+ADJECTIVES</a></b></p>
+<p>A large proportion of our adjectival nicknames are of French
+origin. <i>Le</i> <i>bel</i> appears not only as <i>Bell</i> but
+also, through Picard, as <i>Beal</i>. Other examples are
+<i>Boon</i>, <i>Bone</i>, <i>Bunn</i> (bon), <i>Grant</i>
+(grand), <i>Bass</i> (bas) and its derivative <i>Bassett</i>,
+<i>Dasent</i> (d&eacute;cent), <i>Follett</i> and
+<i>Folliott</i>, dim. of <i>fol</i> (fou), mad, which also
+appears in the compound <i>Foljambe</i>, <i>Fulljames</i>.</p>
+<p><i>Mordaunt</i> means biting. <i>Power</i> is generally
+Anglo-Fr. <i>le</i> <i>poure</i> (le pauvre) and <i>Grace</i> is
+for <i>le</i> <i>gras</i>, the fat. <i>Jolige</i> represents the
+Old French form of <i>joli&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"This Absolon, that <i>jolif</i> was and gay,<br>
+Gooth with a sencer (censer) on the haliday."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(A, 3339.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>"<i>Prynne</i>, now <i>Pring</i>, is Anglo-Fr. <i>le prin</i>, the first, from the Old French adjective which
+survives in <i>prin</i>temps. Cf. our name <i>Prime</i> and the French name
+<i>Premier</i>. The Old French adjective <i>Gent</i>, now replaced by <i>gentil</i>,
+generally means slender in Mid. English&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Fair
+was this yonge wyf, and therwithal</font><br>As any wezele hir body <i>gent</i> and
+smal."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p align="justify">(A, 3233)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Petty</i> and <i>Pettit</i> are
+variant forms of Fr. <i>petit</i>, small. In <i>Prowse</i> and <i>Prout</i> we have
+the nominative and objective (Chapter I) of an Old French
+adjective now represented by <i>preux</i> and <i>prude</i>, generally thought
+to be related in some way to Lat. <i>pro</i> in <i>prosum</i>, and perhaps also
+the source of our <i>Proud.</i></p>
+<p><i>Gross</i> is of course Fr. <i>le</i> <i>gros</i>, but
+<i>Grote</i> represents Du. <i>groot</i>, great, probably
+unconnected with the French word. The Devonshire name
+<i>Coffin</i>, which is found in that county in the twelfth
+century, is the same as <i>Caffyn</i>, perhaps representing Fr.
+<i>Chauvin</i>, bald, the name of the theologian whom we know
+better in the latinized form <i>Calvin</i>. Here belongs probably
+<i>Shovel</i>, Fr. <i>Chauvel</i>. We also have the simple
+<i>Chaffe</i>, Old Fr. <i>chauf</i> <i>(chauve)</i>, bald.
+<i>Gaylard</i>, sometimes made into the imitative <i>Gaylord</i>,
+is Fr. <i>gaillard</i>, brisk, lively</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i>Gaillard</i> he was as goldfynch in the shawe."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 18em">
+<p>(A, 4367.)</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80809" id="Toc80809">COLOUR NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>Especially common are colour nicknames, generally due to the
+complexion, but sometimes to the garb. As we have already seen
+(Chapter XV), <i>Black</i> and its variant <i>Blake</i> sometimes
+mean pale. <i>Blagg</i> is the same word; cf. <i>Jagg</i> for
+<i>Jack</i>. <i>White</i> has no doubt been reinforced by
+<i>wight</i>, valiant</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Oh for one hour of
+Wallace <i>wight</i> <br>
+Or well-skilled Bruce to rule the fight." </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 20em">
+<p>(Marmion, vi. 20.)</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>As an epithet applied to the hair we often find <i>Hoar;</i>
+cf. <i>Horlock</i>. <i>Redd</i> is rare, the usual forms being
+the northern <i>Reid</i>, <i>Reed</i>, <i>Read;</i> but we also
+have <i>Rudd</i> from Anglo-Sax. <i>rud</i>, whence ruddy and the
+name <i>Ruddock</i>, really a bird nickname, the redbreast. To
+these must be added <i>Rudge</i>, Fr. <i>rouge</i>, <i>Rouse</i>,
+<i>Rush</i> and <i>Russ</i>, Fr, <i>roux</i>, and <i>Russell</i>
+or <i>Rowsell</i>, Old Fr. <i>roussel</i> <i>(Rousseau)</i>. The
+commonest nickname for a fair-haired person was <i>Blunt</i>,
+<i>Blount</i>, Fr. <i>blond</i>, with its dim. <i>Blundell</i>,
+but the true English name is <i>Fairfax</i>, from Anglo-Sax.
+<i>feax</i>, hair. The <i>New</i> <i>English</i>
+<i>Dictionary</i> quotes from the fifteenth century</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="justify"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Then
+they lowsyd hur <i>feyre</i> <i>faxe</i>,</font><br>
+That was yelowe as the waxe."</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The adjective dun was once a
+regular name, like Dobbin or Dapple, for a cart-horse; hence the
+name of the old rural sport "Dun in the mire"&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"If thou art
+<i>dun</i> we'll draw thee from the mire." <i>(Romeo</i>
+<i>and</i> <i>Juliet</i>, <i>i</i>. 4.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">It is possible that the name
+Dunn is sometimes due to this specific application of the word.
+The colour blue appears as <i>Blew</i>&ndash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"At last he rose, and
+twitch'd his mantle <i>blew</i>:</font><br>
+To<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">morrow to fresh woods and pastures
+new"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Lycidas</i>, 1. 192)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and earlier still as
+<i>Blow&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Blak, <i>blo</i>, grenysh, swartysh, reed." </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 6em">
+<p align="justify"><i>(House</i> <i>of</i> <i>Fame</i>, iii.
+557.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Other colour names of French
+origin are <i>Morel</i>, swarthy, like a Moor, also found as
+<i>Murrell</i> <i>[Footnote:</i> This, like <i>Merrill</i>, is
+sometimes from Muriel.<i>];</i> and <i>Burnell</i>,
+<i>Burnett</i>, dims. of <i>brun</i>, brown. Chaucer speaks
+of&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Daun <i>Burnet</i>
+the asse" (B, 4502);</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>[Footnote:</i> Lat. dominus; the masculine form of
+<i>dame</i> in Old French.<i>]</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Daun <i>Russel</i> the fox" (B, 4524.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">But both <i>Burnell</i> and
+<i>Burnett</i> may also be local from places ending in
+-<i>hill</i> and -<i>head</i> (), and <i>Burnett</i> is sometimes
+for <i>Burnard</i>. The same applies to <i>Burrell</i>, usually
+taken to be from Mid. Eng. <i>borel</i>, a rough material, Old
+Fr. <i>burel</i> <i>(bureau)</i>, also used metaphorically in the
+sense of plain, uneducated</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"And moore we seen of
+Cristes secree thynges<br>
+Than <i>burel</i> folk, al though they weren kynges."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(D, 1871.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name can equally well be
+the local Burhill or Burwell.</font></p>
+<p><i>Murray</i> is too common to be referred entirely to the
+Scottish name and is sometimes for <i>murrey</i>, dark red (Fr.
+<i>m&ucirc;re</i>, mulberry). It may also represent merry, in its
+variant form murie, which is Mid. English, and not, as might
+appear, Amurrican&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"His murie men comanded he<br>
+To make hym bothe game and glee."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(B, 2029.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Pook</i>, of uncertain
+origin, is supposed to have been a dark russet colour. <i>Bayard</i>, a
+derivative of bay, was the name of several famous war-horses. Cf.
+<i>Blank</i> and <i>Blanchard</i>. The name <i>Soar</i> is from the Old French
+adjective <i>sor</i>, bright yellow. It is of Germanic origin and
+cognate with <i>sere.</i></p>
+<p>The dim. <i>Sorrel</i> <i>may</i> be a colour name, but it was
+applied in venery to a buck in the third year, of course in
+reference to colour; and some of our names, e.g. <i>Brocket</i>
+and <i>Prickett</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> Both words are connected
+with the spiky young horns, Fr. <i>broche</i>, spit, being
+applied in venery to the pointed horns of the second
+year.<i>]</i> both applied to a two-year-old stag, must sometimes
+be referred to this important department of medieval language.
+Holofernes uses some of these terms in his idiotic verses</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"The preyful princess
+pierc'd and prick'd a pretty pleasing <i>priket;</i><br>
+Some say a <i>sore;</i> but not a <i>sore</i>, till now made
+<i>sore</i> with shooting.<br>
+The dogs did yell; put <i>l</i> to <i>sore</i>, then
+<i>sorel</i> jumps from thicket."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p><i>(Love's</i> <i>Labour's</i> <i>Lost</i>, iv. 2.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">A few adjective nicknames of
+Celtic origin are so common in England that they may be included
+here. Such are the Welsh <i>Gough</i>, <i>Goff</i>, <i>Gooch</i>,
+<i>Gutch</i>, red, <i>Gwynn</i> and <i>Wynne</i>, white,
+<i>Lloyd</i>, grey, <i>Sayce</i>, Saxon, foreigner,
+<i>Vaughan</i>, small, and the Gaelic <i>Bain</i>, <i>Bean</i>,
+white, <i>Boyd</i>, <i>Bowie</i>, yellow-haired, <i>Dow</i>,
+<i>Duff</i>, black, <i>Finn</i>, fair, <i>Glass</i>, grey,
+<i>Roy</i>, <i>Roe</i>, red. From Cornish come <i>Coad</i>, old,
+and <i>Couch</i>, <i>[Footnote:</i> Cognate with Welsh
+<i>Gough</i>.<i>]</i> red, while <i>Bean</i> is the Cornish for
+small, and <i>Tyacke</i> means a farmer. It is likely that both
+<i>Begg</i> and <i>Moore</i> owe something to the Gaelic
+adjectives for little and big, as in the well-known names of
+Callum Beg, Edward Waverley's gillie, and McCallum More. The
+Gaelic <i>Begg</i> is cognate with the Welsh <i>Vaughan</i>. Two
+other famous Highland nicknames which <i>are</i> very familiar in
+England are <i>Cameron</i>, crooked nose, and <i>Campbell</i>,
+wry mouth. With these may be mentioned the Irish <i>Kennedy</i>,
+ugly head, the name of the father of Brian Boru.</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc2144747" id="Toc2144747"></a><a name="Toc80810"
+id="Toc80810">CHAPTER XXIII <b>BIRDS, BEASTS, AND
+FISHES</b></a></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"As I think I have
+already said, one of Umslopogaas'</font><br>
+Zulu names was The Woodpecker."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(HAGGARD, <i>Allan</i> <i>Quatermain</i>, ch. vii.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The great majority of nicknames
+coming under the headings typified by <i>Bird</i> and
+<i>Fowell</i>, <i>Best</i>, and <i>Fish</i> or <i>Fisk</i>
+(Scand.) are easily identified. But here, as everywhere in the
+subject, pitfalls abound. The name <i>Best</i> itself is an
+example of a now misleading spelling retained for obvious
+reasons-&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"First, on the wal was
+peynted a forest,</font><br>
+In which ther dwelleth neither man nor <i>best</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(A, 1976.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">We do not find exotic animals,
+nor even the beasts of heraldry, at all frequently.
+<i>Leppard</i>, leopard, is in some cases for the Ger.
+<i>Liebhart;</i> and <i>Griffin</i>, when not Welsh, should no
+doubt be included among inn-signs. <i>Oliphant</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+elephant&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"For maystow
+surmounten thise <i>olifauntes</i> in gretnesse or weighte of
+body" (Boece, 782)&mdash;</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">may be a genuine nickname, but
+Roland's ivory horn was also called by this name, and the surname
+may go back to some legendary connection of the same kind.
+<i>Bear</i> is not uncommon, captive bears being familiar to a
+period in which the title bear-ward is frequently met
+with.</font></p>
+
+<p>It is possible that <i>Drake</i> may sometimes represent
+Anglo-Sax. <i>draca</i>, dragon, rather than the bird, but the
+latter is unmistakable in <i>Sheldrick</i>, for sheldrake. As a
+rule, animal nicknames were taken rather from the domestic
+species with which the peasantry were familiar and whose habits
+would readily suggest comparisons, generally disparaging, with
+those of their neighbours.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80811" id="Toc80811">BIRDS</a></b></p>
+<p>Bird names are especially common, and it does not need much
+imagination to see how readily and naturally a man might be
+nicknamed <i>Hawke</i> for his fierceness, <i>Crowe</i> from a
+gloomy aspect, or <i>Nightingale</i> for the gift of sweet song.
+Many of these surnames go back to words which are now either
+obsolete or found only in dialect. The peacock was once the
+<i>Poe</i>, an early loan from Lat. p<i>avo</i>, or, more fully,
+<i>Pocock</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A sheaf of
+<i>pocok</i> arwes, bright and kene,</font><br>
+Under his belt he bar ful thriftily."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(A, 104.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The name <i>Pay</i> is another
+form of the same word. <i>Coe</i>, whence <i>Hedgecoe</i>, is an
+old name for the jackdaw&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Cadow, or <i>coo</i>,
+or chogh (chough), <i>monedula"</i> <i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)&mdash;</i> </p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but may also stand for cow, as
+we find, in defiance of gender and sex, such entries as Robert
+<i>le</i> <i>cow</i>, William <i>le</i> <i>vache</i>. Those birds
+which have now assumed a font-name, such as Jack daw, Mag pie, of
+course occur without it as surnames, e.g. <i>Daw</i> and
+<i>Pye&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The thief the chough,
+and eek the jangelyng <i>pye"</i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  <i>(Parliament</i> <i>of</i>
+<i>Fowls</i>, 305).</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The latter has a dim.
+<i>Pyatt</i>.</font></p>
+<p><i>Rainbird</i> is a local name for the green woodpecker, but
+as an East-Anglian name it is most likely an imitative form of
+Fr. <i>Rimbaud</i> or <i>Raimbaud</i>, identical with Anglo-Sax.
+Regenbeald. <i>Knott</i> is the name of a bird which frequents
+the sea-shore and, mindful of Cnut's wisdom, retreats nimbly
+before the advancing surf&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The <i>knot</i> that
+called was Canutus' bird of old."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Drayton, <i>Polyolbion</i>, xxv. 368.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">This historical connection is
+most probably due to folk-etymology. <i>Titmus</i> is of course
+for tit-mouse. Dialect names for the woodpecker survive in
+<i>Speight</i>, <i>Speke</i>, and <i>Spick</i>, <i>Pick</i>
+(Chapter III). The same bird was also called
+<i>woodwall</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"In many places were
+nyghtyngales,</font><br>
+Alpes, fynches, and <i>wodewales"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Romaunt <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>Rose</i>, 567)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">hence, in some cases, the name
+<i>Woodall</i>. The <i>Alpe</i>, or bullfinch, mentioned in the
+above lines, also survives as a surname. <i>Dunnock</i> and
+<i>Pinnock</i> are dialect names for the sparrow. It was called
+in Anglo-Norman <i>muisson</i>, whence <i>Musson</i>.
+<i>Starling</i> is a dim. of Mid. Eng. <i>stare</i>, which has
+itself given the surname <i>Starr</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"The <i>stare</i>, that the counseyl can be-wrye."
+<i>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (Parliament of Fowls</i>,
+<i>348</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Heron</font> is the French form
+of the bird-name which was in English <i>Herne&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"</font>I come from
+haunts of coot and <i>hern</i>.<i>"</i>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  (Tennyson, <i>The</i>
+<i>Brook</i>, 1. 1.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The Old French dim.
+<i>heronceau</i> also passed into English&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"I wol nat tellen of
+hir strange sewes (courses),</font><br>
+Ne of hir swannes, ne of hire <i>heronsewes</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(F, 67.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">As a surname it has been
+assimilated to the local, and partly identical, <i>Hearnshaw</i>
+(Chapter XII). Some commentators go to this word to explain
+Hamlet's use of <i>handsaw</i>-</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"I am but mad north-north-west<b>:</b> when the wind is southerly,<br>
+I know a hawk from a <i>handsaw"</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  <i>(Hamlet</i>,
+<i>ii</i>. 2).</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+</div>
+<p>When the author's father was a boy in Suffolk eighty years
+ago, the local name for the bird was pronounced exactly like
+<i>answer</i>. <i>Grew</i> is Fr. <i>grue</i>, crane, Lat.
+<i>grus</i>, <i>gru</i>-. <i>Butter</i>, Fr. <i>butor</i>, "a
+bittor" (Cotgrave), is a dialect name for the bittern, called a
+"butter-bump" by Tennyson's Northern Farmer (1. 31).
+<i>Culver</i> is Anglo-Sax. <i>culfre</i>, a pigeon&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Columba</i>, a
+<i>culver</i>, a dove"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Cooper)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">hence the local
+<i>Culverhouse</i>. <i>Dove</i> often becomes <i>Duff</i>.
+<i>Gaunt</i> is sometimes a dialect form of gannet, used in
+Lincolnshire of the crested grebe. <i>Popjoy</i> may have been
+applied to the successful archer who became king of the popinjay
+for the year. The derivation of the word, Old Fr. <i>papegai</i>,
+whence Mid. Eng. <i>papejay</i>&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"The briddes synge, it is no nay,<br>
+The sparhawk and the <i>papejay</i>,<br>
+That joye it was to heere"</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(B, 1956)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">is obscure, though various
+forms of it are found in most of the European languages. In
+English it was applied not only to the parrot, but also to the
+green woodpecker. The London Directory form is
+<i>Pobgee</i>.</font></p>
+<p>With bird nicknames may be mentioned <i>Callow</i>, unfledged,
+cognate with Lat. <i>calvus</i>, bald. Its opposite also survives
+as <i>Fleck</i> and <i>Flick</i>-<i>&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Flygge, <i>as</i> byrdis, maturus, <i>volabilis</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Prompt. <i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Margaret Paston, writing (1460)
+of the revived hopes of Henry VI., says&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Now he and alle his
+olde felawship put owt their fynnes, and arn ryght <i>flygge</i>
+and mery."</font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80812" id="Toc80812">HAWK NAMES</a></b></p>
+<p>We have naturally a set of names taken from the various
+species of falcons. To this class belongs <i>Haggard</i>,
+probably related to Anglo-Sax. <i>haga</i>, hedge, and used of a
+hawk which had acquired incurable habits of wildness by preying
+for itself. But <i>Haggard</i> is also a personal name (Chapter
+VIII). <i>Spark</i>, earlier <i>Sparhawk</i>, is the
+sparrow-hawk. It is found already in Anglo-Saxon as a personal
+name, and the full <i>Sparrowhawk</i> also exists. <i>Tassell</i>
+is a corruption of <i>tiercel</i>, a name given to the male
+peregrine, so termed, according to the legendary lore of
+venery&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Because he is, commonly, a third part lesse than the female."
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  (Cotgrave,
+) </p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Juliet calls Romeo her "tassell
+gentle" (ii. 2). <i>Muskett</i> was a name given to the male
+sparrow-hawk.</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Musket</i>, a
+lytell hauke, <i>mouchet</i>.<i>"</i>
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  (Palsgrave.)</font></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Mushet</i> is the same name. It comes from Ital.
+<i>moschetto</i>, a little fly. For its later
+application to a firearm cf. <i>falconet</i>. Other names of the hawk
+class are <i>Buzzard</i> and <i>Puttock</i>, i.e. kite-&mdash; </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Milan</i>, a kite,
+<i>puttock</i>, glead"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Cotgrave);</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and to the same bird we owe the
+name <i>Gleed</i>, from a Scandinavian name for the
+bird</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"And the <i>glede</i>,
+and the kite, and the vulture after his kind."
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  (Deut. xiv.
+13.) </p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">To this class also belongs
+<i>Ramage&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Ramage</i>, of, or
+belonging to, branches; also, <i>ramage</i>, hagard, wild,
+homely, rude"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 28em">
+<p>(Cotgrave)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and sometimes <i>Lennard</i>,
+an imitative form of "lanner," the name of an inferior
+hawk&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Falcunculus, a
+<i>leonard</i>.<i>"</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>(Holyoak, Lat. Dict., 1612.)</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Povey</i> is a dialect name for the owl, a bird otherwise
+absent from the surname list.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80813" id="Toc80813">BEASTS</a></b></p>
+<p>Among beast nicknames we find special attention given, as in
+modern vituperation, to the swine, although we do not find this
+true English word, unless it be occasionally disguised as
+<i>Swain</i>. <i>Hogg</i> does not belong exclusively to this
+class, as it is used in dialect both of a young sheep and a
+yearling colt. Anglo-Sax. <i>sugu</i>, sow, survives in
+<i>Sugg</i>. <i>Purcell</i> is Old Fr. <i>pourcel</i>
+<i>(pourceau)</i>, dim. of Lat. <i>porcus</i>, and I take
+<i>Pockett</i> to be a disguised form of the obsolete
+<i>porket&mdash;</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Porculus</font>, a
+pygg: a shoote: <i>a</i> <i>porkes</i>.<i>"</i></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Cooper.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The word <i>shoote</i> in the
+above gloss is now the dialect <i>shot</i>, a young pig, which
+may have given the surname <i>Shott</i>. But <i>Scutt</i> is from
+a Mid. English adjective meaning short&mdash;</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Scute</i>, or
+shorte, <i>curtus</i>, <i>brevis</i>"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Prompt. <i>Parv</i>.<i>)&mdash;</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and is also an old name for the
+hare. Two other names for the pig are the northern <i>Galt</i>
+and the Lincolnshire <i>Grice&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"Marcassin, a young wild boare; a shoot or <i>grice</i>.<i>"</i>
+(Cotgrave.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Grice</i> also represents <i>le gris</i>, the grey; cf. <i>Grace</i>
+for <i>le gras</i> (Chapter XXII). <i>Bacon</i>
+looks like a nickname, but is invariably found without the
+article. As it is common in French, it would appear to be an Old
+French accusative to <i>Back</i>, going back to Germanic <i>Bacco</i> (Chapter
+XIII). <i>Hinks</i> is Mid. Eng. <i>hengst</i>, a stallion, and is thus
+identical with <i>Hengist</i> (Chapter XX). <i>Stott</i> means both a bullock
+and a nag (Chapter XIX).</p>
+<p>Everyone remembers Wamba's sage disquisition on the names of
+animals in the first chapter of <i>Ivanhoe</i>. Like much of
+Scott's archaeology it is somewhat anachronistic, for the live
+animals were also called veals and muttons for centuries after
+Wamba's death</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Mouton</font>, a
+mutton, a weather"; "veau, a calfe, or veale."
+(Cotgrave.)</i></p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Calf</i> has become very
+rare as a surname, though <i>Kalb</i> is still common in Germany.
+Bardsley regards <i>Duncalf</i> and <i>Metcalf</i>
+as perverted from <i>dun-croft</i>
+and <i>meadow-croft</i>. It seems possible that they may be for
+<i>down-calf</i> and <i>mead-calf</i>, from the locality of the pasture, but
+this is a pure guess on my part. It is curious that <i>beef</i> does not
+appear to have survived, though <i>Leboeuf</i> is common in French, and
+bullocks are still called "beeves" in Scotland. <i>Tegg</i> is still
+used by butchers for a two-year-old sheep. Palsgrave gives it
+another meaning&mdash; </p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Tegg</i>, or
+pricket (Chapter XXII), <i>saillant</i>.<i>"</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Roe</font> is also found in the
+older forms <i>Rae</i> and <i>Ray</i>, of course confused with
+<i>Wray</i> (Chapter XIII), as <i>Roe</i> itself is with
+<i>Rowe</i> (Chapter I). <i>Doe</i> often becomes <i>Dowe</i>.
+<i>Hind</i> is usually occupative (Chapter III), but Fr.
+<i>Labiche</i> suggests that it must sometimes be a
+nickname&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i>Biche</i>, a <i>hind</i>; the female of a stagge."
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (Cotgrave.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Pollard</i> was applied
+to a beast or stag that had lost its horns&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"He has no horns, sir, has he?<br>
+"No, sir, he's a <i>pollard</i>.<i>"</i></p></div>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Beaumont and Fletcher, <i>Philaster</i>, <i>v.
+4</i>.<i>)</i></p>
+
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">Leverett</font> is certified by
+the French surname <i>Levrault</i>. Derivation from <i>Lever</i>,
+Anglo-Sax. <i>Leofhere</i>, whence <i>Levers</i>,
+<i>Leverson</i>, or <i>Leveson</i>, is much less probable, as
+these Anglo-Saxon names rarely form dims. (Chapter VII).
+<i>Luttrel</i> is in French <i>Loutrel</i>, perhaps a dim. of
+<i>loutre</i>, otter, Lat. <i>lutra</i>. From the medieval
+<i>lutrer</i> or <i>lutrarius</i>, otter hunter, we get
+<i>Lutterer</i>, no doubt confused with the musical
+<i>Luter</i>.</p>
+<p>While <i>Catt</i> is fairly common in the eastern counties,
+Robertus le <i>chien</i> and Willelmus <i>le</i> <i>curre</i>,
+who were living about the end of the twelfth century, are now
+completely disguised as <i>Ken</i> and <i>Kerr</i>. Modern French
+has both <i>Lechien</i> and the Norman <i>Lequien</i>.
+<i>[Footnote: Lekain</i>, the name of a famous French actor, has
+the same origin.<i>]</i> We owe a few other surnames to the
+friend of man. <i>Kennett</i>, from a Norman dim. of
+<i>chien</i>, meant greyhound&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Kenette</i>,
+hounde, <i>leporarius</i>.<i>"
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (Prompt</i>.
+<i>Parv</i>.<i>)</i></font></p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">The origin of the name
+<i>Talbot</i> is unknown, and it is uncertain whether the hound
+or the family should have precedence; but Chaucer seems to use it
+as the proper name of a hound</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"Ran Colle our dogge,
+and <i>Talbot</i>, and Gerland,</font><br>
+And Malkyn, with a dystaf in hir hand."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(B, 4573.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>The great Earl of Shrewsbury is
+affectionately called "Talbot, our good dogge" in political rimes
+of the fifteenth century. </p>
+<p>In early dictionaries may be found long lists of the fanciful
+names, such as Bright, Lightfoot, Ranger, Ringwood, Swift,
+Tempest, given to hounds. This practice seems to throw some light
+on such surnames as <i>Tempest</i>, with which we may compare the
+German names <i>Storm</i> and <i>Sturm</i>. In the Pipe Rolls the
+name <i>le</i> <i>esturmi</i>, the stormy, occurs several times.
+To the same class belongs <i>Thunder</i>, found in the Pipe Rolls
+as <i>Tonitruus</i>, and not therefore necessarily a perversion
+of <i>Tunder</i>, <i>i.e</i>. <i>Sherman</i> (Chapter
+XVIII)&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"<i>Tondeur de draps</i>, a shearman, or clothworker."
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; (Cotgrave.)</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>Garland</i>, used by Chaucer as a dog's name, was earlier
+<i>graland</i>, and, as <i>le garlaund</i> is also found, it may be referred
+to Old Fr. <i>grailler</i>, to trumpet. It no doubt has other origins.</p>
+<p>We should expect <i>Fox</i> to be strongly represented, and we
+find the compounds <i>Colfox</i> and <i>Stelfox</i>. The first
+means black fox&mdash;</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"A <i>colfox</i> ful
+of sly iniquitee"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(B, 4405)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">and I conjecture that the first
+part of <i>Stelfox</i> is connected with stealing, as in the
+medieval name <i>Stele</i>-<i>cat&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"The two constables
+made a thorough search and found John <i>Stelfox</i> hiding
+behind some bushes. Some of the jewellery was found upon
+him"</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 16em">
+<p><i>(Daily</i> <i>Chronicle</i>, June 3, 1913).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">In the north a fox is called
+<i>Tod</i>, whence <i>Todhunter</i>. This <i>Tod</i> is probably
+a personal name, like the French <i>Renard</i> and the Scottish
+<i>Lawrie</i> or <i>Lowrie</i>, applied to the same animal. Allan
+Ramsay calls him "slee Tod Lowrie." From the badger we have
+<i>Brock</i> and sometimes <i>Gray&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Blaireau</font>, a
+badger, <i>gray</i>, boason, <i>brock</i> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  (Cotgrave)&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style">but <i>Badger</i> itself is
+occupative (Chapter XIX). The polecat survives as <i>Fitch</i>,
+<i>Fitchett</i>, and <i>Fitchew&mdash;</i></font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">"<i>Fissau</i>, a
+<i>filch</i>, or fulmart."</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 14em">
+<p>(Cotgrave.)</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80814" id="Toc80814">FISHES</a></b></p>
+<p>On fish-names Bardsley remarks, "We may quote the famous
+chapter on 'Snakes in Iceland': 'There are no snakes in Iceland,'
+and say there are no fish-names in England." This is almost true.
+The absence of marked traits of character in the, usually
+invisible, fish would militate against the adoption of such
+names. We should not expect to find the shark to be represented,
+for the word is of too late occurrence. But <i>Whale</i> is
+fairly common. <i>Whale</i> the mariner received two pounds from
+Henry VII's privy purse in 1498. The story of Jonah, or very
+generous proportions, may have originated the name
+<i>Whalebelly</i>, "borne by a respectable family in south-east
+England" (Bardsley).</p>
+<p>But there would obviously be no great temptation to go fishing
+for nicknames when the beasts of the farmyard and the forest, the
+birds of the marshes and the air, offered on every side easily
+understood comparisons. At the same time Bardsley's statement
+goes a little too far. He explains <i>Gudgeon</i> as a corruption
+of Goodison. But this, true though it may be in some cases, will
+not explain the very common French surname <i>Goujon</i>. The
+phrase "greedy gudgeon" suggests that in this case a certain
+amount of character had been noticed in the fish. <i>Sturgeon</i>
+also seems to be a genuine fish-name. We find Fr.
+<i>Lesturgeon</i> and Ger. <i>Stoer</i>, both meaning the same.
+We have also <i>Smelt</i> and the synonymous <i>Spurling</i>. In
+French and German we find other surnames which undoubtedly belong
+to this class, but they are not numerous and probably at first
+occurred only in regions where fishing or fish-curing were
+important industries.</p>
+<p>A few examples will show that apparent fish-names are usually
+not genuine. <i>Chubb</i> is for Job (Chapter III), <i>Eeles</i>
+is one of the numerous derivatives of Elias (Chapter IX),
+<i>Hake</i> is, like <i>Hack</i>, from the Scandinavian Hacun,
+<i>Haddock</i> is sometimes a perversion of the local Haydock,
+<i>Lamprey</i> comes via Old French from Old High Ger.
+Landprecht, which has usually given <i>Lambert</i>.</p>
+<p><i>Pike</i> <i>is</i> local (Chapter XII), <i>Pilchard</i> is
+for <i>Pilcher</i> (Chapter XVIII), <i>Roach</i> is Fr.
+<i>Laroche</i>, <i>Salmon</i> is for Salomon, and <i>Turbot</i>
+is the Anglo-Sax. Thurbeorht, which has also given <i>Tarbut</i>,
+as Thurgod has given <i>Targett</i>. But in few of the above
+examples is the possibility of fish origin absolutely
+excluded.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><a name="Toc80815" id="Toc80815">SPECIAL
+FEATURES</a></b></p>
+<p>We have also many surnames due to physical resemblances not
+extending beyond one feature. <i>Birdseye</i> may be sometimes of
+local origin, from <i>ey</i>, island (Chapter XII), but as a
+genuine nickname it is as natural as the sobriquet of Hawkeye
+which Natty Bumppo received from the Hurons. German has the much
+less pleasing <i>Gansauge</i>, goose-eye; and Alan <i>Oil</i>
+<i>de</i> <i>larrun</i>, thief's eye, was fined for very
+reprehensible conduct in 1183. To explain <i>Crowfoot</i> as an
+imitative variant of Crawford is absurd when we find a dozen
+German surnames of the same class and formation and as many in
+Old or Modern French beginning with <i>pied</i> <i>de</i>. Cf.
+<i>Pettigrew</i> (Chapter XXI) and <i>Sheepshanks</i>. We find in
+the Paris Directory not only <i>Piedeleu</i> (Old Fr. <i>leu</i>,
+wolf) and <i>Piedoie</i> <i>(oie</i>, goose), but even the full
+<i>Pied</i>-<i>de</i>-<i>Li&egrave;vre</i>, Professeur &agrave;
+la Facult&eacute; de droit. The name <i>Bulleid</i> was spelt in
+the sixteenth century <i>bul</i>-<i>hed</i>, <i>i.e</i>.
+bull-head, a literal rendering of Front de Boeuf.
+<i>Weatherhead</i> (Chapter XIX) is perhaps usually a
+nickname</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p>"For that old <i>weather-headed</i> fool, I know how to laugh at him."</p>
+<div style="margin-left: 12em">
+<p>(Congreve, <i>Love</i> <i>for</i> <i>Love</i>, ii. 7.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><i>Coxhead</i> is another
+obvious nickname. A careful analysis of some of the most
+important medieval name-lists would furnish hundreds of further
+examples, some too outspoken to have survived into our degenerate
+age, and others which are now so corrupted that their original
+vigour is quite lost. </p>
+<p>Puns and jokes upon proper names are, <i>pace</i> Gregory the
+Great and Shakespeare, usually very inept and stupid; but the
+following lines by James Smith, which may be new to some of my
+readers, are really clever&mdash;</p>
+Men once were surnamed from their shape or estate
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+(You all may from History worm it);
+<br>There was Lewis the Bulky, and Henry the Great,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+John Lackland, and Peter the Hermit.
+<br>
+But now, when the door-plates of Misters and Dames
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Are read, each so constantly varies
+<br>From the owner's trade, figure, and calling, Surnames
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Seem given by the rule of contraries.
+
+<p>Mr. <i>Box</i>, though provoked, never doubles his fist,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. Burns, in his grate, has no fuel; <br>
+<i>Mr. Playfair</i> won't catch me at hazard or whist,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Coward</i> was wing'd in a duel.
+<br>Mr. <i>Wise</i> is a dunce, Mr. <i>King</i> is a whig,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. Coffin's uncommonly sprightly,
+<br>
+And huge Mr. <i>Little</i> broke down in a gig,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+While driving fat Mrs. <i>Golightly</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. <i>Drinkwater's</i> apt to indulge in a dram,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mrs. <i>Angel</i>&rsquo;s an absolute fury,
+<br>
+And meek Mr. <i>Lyon</i> let fierce Mr. <i>Lamb</i>
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Tweak his nose in the lobby of Drury.
+<br>
+At Bath, where the feeble go more than the stout,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+(A conduct well worthy of Nero),
+<br>
+Over poor Mr. <i>Lightfoot</i>, confined with the gout,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Heaviside</i> danced a Bolero.</p>
+
+<p>Miss J<i>oy</i>, wretched maid, when she chose Mr.
+<i>Love</i>,<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Found nothing but sorrow await her;
+<br>
+She now holds in wedlock, as true as a dove,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+That fondest of mates, Mr. <i>Hayter</i>.
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Oldcastle</i> dwells in a modern-built hut,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Miss <i>Sage</i> is of madcaps the archest;
+<br>
+Of all the queer bachelors Cupid e'er cut,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Old Mr. Younghusband's the starchest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mr. Child</i>, in a passion, knock'd down Mr.
+<i>Rock</i>,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Stone</i> like an aspen-leaf shivers;
+<br>
+Miss <i>Poole</i> used to dance, but she stands like a
+stock
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Ever since she became Mrs. <i>Rivers;</i>
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Swift</i> hobbles onward, no mortal knows how,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+He moves as though cords had entwin'd him;
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Metcalfe</i> ran off, upon meeting a cow,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+With pale Mr. <i>Turnbull</i> behind him.
+<p>Mr. <i>Barker's</i> as mute as a fish in the sea,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Miles</i> never moves on a journey;
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Gotobed</i> sits up till half-after three,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Makepeace</i> was bred an attorney.
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Gardiner</i> can't tell a flower from a root,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Wilde</i> with timidity draws back,
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Ryder</i> performs all his journeys on foot,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Foote</i> all his journeys on horseback.</p>
+<p>
+Mr. <i>Penny</i>, whose father was rolling in wealth,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Kick'd down all his fortune his dad won;
+<br>
+Large Mr. <i>Le</i> <i>Fever's</i> the picture of health,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+Mr. <i>Goodenough</i> is but a bad one.
+<br>
+Mr. <i>Cruickshank</i> stept into three thousand a year,
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+By showing his leg to an heiress: &mdash;
+<br>
+Now I hope you'll acknowledge I've made it quite clear
+<br> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+That surnames ever go by contraries.</p>
+<p><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p>&nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp;  &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">***********************************************</p>
+<p>&nbsp;  </p>
+<p>&nbsp;  &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">Printed <i>by</i> <i>Hazell</i>, <i>Watson</i>
+<i>&amp;</i> <i>Viney</i>, <i>Ld</i>., <i>London</i> <i>and</i>
+<i>Aylesbury</i>, <i>England</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp;  &nbsp; </p><p align="center">***********************************************</p>
+<p>&nbsp;  </p>
+<p>&nbsp;  &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80816" id="Toc80816">Advertising material from
+the end of the book</a></font></b></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">By
+Ernest Weekley, M.A.</font></p>
+<p align="center"><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Professor</font> of French and Head of the Modern Language
+Department</i></p>
+<p align="center">at <i>University</i> <i>College</i>,
+<i>Nottingham</i>.</p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">AN
+ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">Crown 4to.
+Pounds 2 2s. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">This is
+somewhat of a new departure in etymological dictionaries. It
+embraces a much larger vocabulary than has been handled by
+previous etymologists and pays special attention to the
+colloquialisms and neologisms which, to the curious mind, are
+often of more interest than the established literary language.
+The origin and cognates of each word are given as concisely as
+possible, but "etymology" has been taken in its widest sense as a
+science dealing not only with the phonetic elements of which
+words are composed, but also with the adventures which they have
+met with during their life in the language and the strange paths
+that many of them have followed in reaching a current sense or
+use often widely remote from the original. So far as possible,
+the date or epoch of the first appearance of each word is noted,
+and the book will be found to contain much curious information
+for which earlier etymological dictionaries would be ransacked in
+vain.</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">THE
+ROMANCE OF WORDS</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Large
+Crown 8vo. Fourth Impression. 6s. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">Observer&mdash;"A book of extraordinary
+interest; every one interested in words should immediately obtain
+a copy, and those who do not yet realise how enthralling a
+subject word<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">history is, could not do better than
+sample its flavour in Mr. Weekley's admirable book."</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">SURNAMES</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Large
+Crown 8vo. Second Edition. 6s. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">The Times&mdash;"Mr. Weekley has so artfully
+sprinkled his pages with odd and impossible names that we simply
+cannot help reading him."</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style"> &nbsp; </font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">Works
+by Henry Cecil Wyld</font></p>
+<p align="center"><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Merton Professor of the English Language in the University of
+Oxford.</font></i></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">SHORT
+HISTORY OF ENGLISH</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Second
+Edition. Crown 8vo. 9s.. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">This is a scholar's book, written for those who
+wish to make a scientific study of the subject upon the lines of
+modern philological method. It should be of use to students of
+English in the Universities, and to teachers elsewhere who desire
+to know the results of recent research.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4">THE
+HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE MOTHER TONGUE</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">An
+Introduction to Philological Method. Fourth Impression. 10s. 6d.
+net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">The object of this book is to give not a
+history of our language but some indications of the point of view
+from which the history of a language should be studied, and of
+the principal points of method in such a study, and to prepare
+the way for the beginner to the study of at least some of the
+great writers.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">THE GROWTH OF
+ENGLISH</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">An
+Elementary Account of the Present Form of our Language and its
+Development. Fifth Impression. 5s. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">This book is intended for students in Secondary
+Schools and Training Colleges. The ground covered is
+approximately that required by the Board of Education in their
+Regulations for the Training of Teachers.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">THE TEACHING OF
+READING IN TRAINING COLLEGES</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">2s. 6d.
+net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">This book is intended as a practical guide for
+those who have to teach Primary Teachers in Training how to read
+their own language. It contains a collection of extracts in prose
+and verse, suitable for reading aloud, transcribed into a simple
+phonetic notation.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">THE PLACE OF THE
+MOTHER TONGUE INNATIONAL EDUCATION</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Demy
+8vo. 1s. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">THE STUDENT'S
+ENGLISH LITERATURE</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">A
+History of English Literature and of the chief English Writers
+founded upon the Manual of Thomas B. Shaw.</font></p>
+<p align="center">By A. Hamilton Thomson, B.A., of St. John's
+College, Cambridge, and University Extension Lecturer in English
+Literature. With Notes, etc. Fifth Impression. 9s.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">SMALLER HISTORY
+OF ENGLISH LITERATURE</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Giving
+a Sketch of the Lives of our chief English Writers.</font></p>
+<p align="center">By James Rowley. 15th Impression. Small Crown
+8vo. 4s.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">SHAKSPERE'S
+PREDECESSORS IN THE ENGLISH DRAMA</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">By J.
+A. Symonds. New Edition. 10s. 6d. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">SHAKSPERE AND
+HIS PREDECESSORS IN THE ENGLISH DRAMA</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">By F.
+S. Boas, M.A., sometime Professor of English Literature, Queen's
+College, Belfast. 7s. 6d. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center">An invaluable book for all students. Every play
+and character is carefully analysed, and the whole subject is
+treated in a thoroughly original and attractive way.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">THE ENGLISH
+NOVEL FROM ITS ORIGIN TO SIR WALTER SCOTT</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">By Sir
+Walter Raleigh, M.A., Professor of English Literature in the
+University of Oxford. 4s. 6d. net.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">OUTLINES OF
+ENGLISH LITERATURE</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">By
+William Renton. With Illustrative Diagrams. 4s. 6d.
+net.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">INTRODUCTION TO
+POETRY</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Poetic
+Expression, Poetic Truth, the Progress of Poetry.</font></p>
+<p align="center">By Laurie Magnus, M.A. Second Edition. 2s. 6d.
+net.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="5">MURRAY'S ENGLISH LITERATURE SERIES</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">BY E.
+W. EDMUNDS, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.)</font></p>
+<p align="center">BISHOP'S<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">STORTFORD COLLEGE</font></p>
+<p align="center">Press Opinions on the Series.</p>
+<p align="center">Athenaeum. - "For inculcating an intelligent
+and lasting acquaintance with its subject the present series is
+likely, in our opinion, to prove the best of its kind."</p>
+<p align="center">Educational Times&mdash;"The collection is
+excellent, and it will usefully extend the range of English
+reading in schools."</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">THE STORY OF
+ENGLISH LITERATURE</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">Three
+Volumes, 5s. each.</font></p>
+<p align="center">Vol. I. THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD, 1558
+<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">625.</font></p>
+<p align="center">Vol. II. SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES,
+1625 <font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font> <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">1780.</font></p>
+<p align="center">Vol. III. NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1780 <font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font> <font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">1880.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style">READINGS IN
+ENGLISH LITERATURE</font></p>
+<p align="center"><i><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">The</font> Three Grades are designed to cover the whole
+period of School life. No Class needs to use more than one Book
+at a time.</i></p>
+<p align="center"><i> &nbsp; </i></p>
+<p align="center">I. THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD, 1558<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">1625.</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="center">Junior course. 2s.</p>
+<p align="center">Intermediate course. 2s.</p>
+<p align="center">Senior course. 2s. 6d.</p>
+</div>
+<p align="center">II. SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES,
+1625<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">1780.</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="center">Junior course. 2s.</p>
+<p align="center">Intermediate course. 2s.</p>
+<p align="center">Senior course. 2s. 6d.</p>
+</div>
+<p align="center">III. NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1780<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">1880.</font></p>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em">
+<p align="center">Junior course. 2s.</p>
+<p align="center">Intermediate course. 2s.</p>
+<p align="center">Senior course. 2s. 6d.</p>
+</div>
+<p align="center">Junior Course &mdash; For Higher Elementary
+Schools, Preparatory Schools (Higher Forms), Lower Forms in
+Secondary Schools, and Evening Schools.</p>
+<p align="center">Intermediate Course&mdash;For Middle Forms of
+Secondary Schools, Pupil Teachers, and Higher Evening
+Schools.</p>
+<p align="center">Senior Course &mdash; For the Higher Forms of
+Secondary Schools, Teachers in Training, University Extension
+Students, and University Undergraduates.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="5">Popular
+Editions of Mr. Murray's Standard Works</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">CAPTAIN
+JAMES COOK, R.N., F.R.S.,</font></p>
+<p align="center">The Circumnavigator. By Arthur Kitson. With
+Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">JOHN MURRAY: A Publisher and his Friends.</p>
+<p align="center">Memoir and Correspondence of the second John
+Murray, with an Account of the Origin and Progress of the House,
+1768-1843.</p>
+<p align="center">By Samuel Smiles, LLD. Edited by Thomas
+Mackay.</p>
+<p align="center">With Portraits. In One Volume.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF LIEUTENANT<font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">GENERAL SIR HARRY SMITH, 1787</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">1819.</font></p>
+<p align="center">Edited by G. C. Moore Smith. With Maps and
+Portrait.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">BIRD LIFE AND BIRD LORE.</p>
+<p align="center">By R. Bosworth Smith.</p>
+<p align="center">With Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">A COTSWOLD VILLAGE;</p>
+<p align="center">or, Country Life and Pursuits in
+Gloucestershire.</p>
+<p align="center">By J. Arthur Gibbs. With Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">THE VOYAGE OF THE "FOX" IN THE ARCTIC SEAS</p>
+<p align="center">In Search Of Franklin And His Companions.</p>
+<p align="center">By the late Admiral Sir F. Leopold McClintock,
+R.N.</p>
+<p align="center">With Portraits and other Illustrations and
+Maps.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">THE STORY of the BATTLE of WATERLOO.</p>
+<p align="center">By the Rev. G. R. Gleig. With Map and
+Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">LIFE OF ROBERT, FIRST LORD CLIVE.</p>
+<p align="center">By the Rev. G. R. Gleig. Illustrated.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">THE WILD SPORTS and NATURAL HISTORY OF THE
+HIGHLANDS.</p>
+<p align="center">By Charles St. John. With Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="5">Mr.
+Murray's Standard Works</font></p>
+<p align="center"><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="3">ROUND
+the HORN BEFORE the MAST.</font></p>
+<p align="center">An Account of a Voyage from San Francisco round
+Cape Horn to Liverpool in a Fourmasted "Windjammer," experiences
+of the life of an Ordinary Seaman.</p>
+<p align="center">By Basil Lubbock With Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">LETTERS FROM HIGH LATITUDES.</p>
+<p align="center">Being some Account of a Voyage in 1856, in the
+Sohooner Yacht Foam, to Iceland, Jan Meyen, and Spitzbergen. By
+the late Marquess Of Dufferin. With Portrait and
+Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">FIELD PATHS and GREEN LANES in SURREY AND
+SUSSEX.</p>
+<p align="center">By Louis J. Jennings. Illustrated.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">THE LION HUNTER OF SOUTH AFRICA.</p>
+<p align="center">Five Years' Adventure in the Far Interior of
+South Africa. With Notices of the Native Tribes and Savages. By
+R. Gordon Cumming. With 16 Woodcuts.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">DOG BREAKING.</p>
+<p align="center">The most Expeditious, Certain, and Easy Method.
+With Odds and Ends for those who love the Dog and Gun.</p>
+<p align="center">By General W. N. Hutchinson. With numerous
+Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">THE ROB ROY ON THE JORDAN.</p>
+<p align="center">A Canoe Cruise in Palestine, Egypt, and the
+Waters of Damascus.</p>
+<p align="center">By John Macgregor, M.A., Captain of the Royal
+Canoe Club. With Maps and Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">A HISTORY OF THE SIEGE OF GIBRALTAR,
+1779<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">1783.</font></p>
+<p align="center">With a Description and Account of that Garrison
+from the Earliest Times.</p>
+<p align="center">By John Drinkwater, Captain in the
+Seventy<font face="Bookman Old Style">-</font><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style" size="3">second Regiment of Royal Manchester
+Volunteers. With Plans.</font></p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">The Life Of John Nicholson, Soldier and
+Administrator.</p>
+<p align="center">By Captain Lionel J. Trotter. With Portrait and
+3 Maps.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.</p>
+<p align="center">By Sir William Smith. With Maps and
+Illustrations.</p>
+<p align="center"> &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center">A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.</p>
+<p align="center">From the Earliest Times to the Present Day.</p>
+<p align="center">By William Boyd Carpenter, Bishop of Ripon,
+Hon. D.C.L., Oxon.</p>
+<p align="center">With 26 Illustrations.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p align="center"><b><font face=
+"Bookman Old Style">****************</font></b></p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p>&nbsp; &nbsp; </p>
+<p><b><font face="Bookman Old Style" size="4"><a name="Toc80817"
+id="Toc80817">Transcriber&rsquo;s notes:</a></font></b></p>
+<ul>
+<li><font face="Bookman Old Style">Although I worked from
+material in good condition, scanning and preparing subject matter
+of this type is much harder work than preparing a novel or the
+like, so obviously I should never have bothered with preparing
+this book if I had not though it to be worthwhile. In fact I
+consider it to be very rewarding, informative, and entertaining.
+I hope you also find it rewarding, and I present it in much the
+same mood that I assume it was written in: not that it is fully
+correct or definitive, but that both the material and the lines
+of thought that the book comprises, are useful, thoughtful, and
+enjoyable, taken for what they are worth. The book certainly is
+based on a formidable level of erudition, however cheerful the
+author&rsquo;s style may be.</font></li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li>For the most part I have tried to remain true to the source,
+but this is not an attempt to reproduce the volume I scanned; my
+objective was to render its content available. Accordingly, I did
+not hesitate to correct minor, obvious errors, or to adopt my
+preferences for spacing and the like. Also, the means that I employed
+in preparing this material did not lend themselves satisfactorily to
+preservation of the original pagination or of numbering and cross
+reference of pages. However, as the product is machine readable,
+search is easier than working from an index, and I tried to
+support the use of such facilities. Anyone who feels strongly
+that an index remains necessary, is welcome to add an index to
+the version that I have presented here, without crediting me for
+the body of the work.</li>
+<li>I have however, substituted cross-reference between sections
+or chapters for the (now meaningless) cross-references between
+pages. Also, like many books of that day, the original had many
+page headings such as "MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES" or "HILL AND DALE",
+without incorporating them in the table of contents or the text,
+or even making it clear just where those page headings fitted
+into the text. I have changed such page headings to sub-headings
+within the text, where they are more useful, given that they no
+longer are necessary for the original purpose of aiding the
+process of flipping through the pages of a paper book.</li>
+<li>I have relocated footnotes from the feet of the pages to just
+after the text that they qualified. Apart from thereby rendering
+the text less dependent of changes of format, this arguably
+renders the footnotes more useful and less disruptive to the
+reader. Footnotes are marked as such, so as to avoid
+confusion.</li>
+<li>I have of course tried to produce as clean a product as
+possible, but I apologetically assure you that some errors remain
+in the text. You accordingly must treat the content with
+appropriate caution.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" noshade>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 24374-h.txt or 24374-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br>
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/3/7/24374">http://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/3/7/24374</a></p>
+<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.</p>
+
+<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
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+</pre>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/24374.txt b/24374.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5b15c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/24374.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,9257 @@
+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Romance of Names, by Ernest Weekley
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Romance of Names
+
+
+Author: Ernest Weekley
+
+
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2008  [eBook #24374]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Jon Richfield
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+Advertising material that appeared at the start of the book
+
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+
+THE ROMANCE OF WORDS
+
+"A book of extraordinary interest; those who do not yet realise how
+enthralling a subject word-history is could not do better than sample
+its flavour in Mr. Weekley's admirable book."
+
+--Spectator.          Third Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+
+SURNAMES
+
+"A study of the origin and significance of surnames, full of
+fascination for the general reader."
+
+--Truth.                 Second Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+
+AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH
+
+"It is a very great pleasure to get a dictionary from Mr. Weekley.
+One knows from experience that Mr. Weekley would contrive to avoid
+unnecessary dullness, even if he were compiling a railway guide, but
+that he would also get the trains right."
+
+--Mr. J. C. SQUIRE in The Observer.  Crown 4to.  L 2 2s.  net.
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+Third Edition, Revised
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+by
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY, M.A.
+
+Professor of French and Head of the Modern Language Department
+at University College, Nottingham;
+Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+London
+John Murray, Albemarle Street, W.
+1922
+
+First Edition      January 1914
+Second Edition     March 1914
+Third Edition      May 1922
+
+All Rights Reserved
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+   THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+   PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION                           1
+
+   PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION                          2
+
+   PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION                           3
+
+   CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL                      7
+
+      PERSONAL NAMES                                      8
+
+      NICKNAMES                                           9
+
+      MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES                               10
+
+      ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS                                11
+
+      NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE                     13
+
+   CHAPTER II. A MEDIEVAL ROLL                           15
+
+      LONDON JURYMEN                                     16
+
+      MIDDLESEX JURYMEN                                  23
+
+      STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS                          25
+
+   CHAPTER III. SPELLING AND SOUND                       29
+
+      VARIANT SPELLINGS                                  30
+
+      DIALECTIC VARIANTS                                 32
+
+      APHESIS                                            33
+
+      EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION                         35
+
+      METATHESIS                                         36
+
+      BABY PHONETICS                                     37
+
+   CHAPTER IV. BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON                40
+
+      OCCUPATIVE NAMES                                   40
+
+      THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES                          42
+
+   CHAPTER V. THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES            44
+
+      THE HUGUENOTS                                      44
+
+      PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES                       46
+
+      JEWISH NAMES                                       48
+
+   CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY                       49
+
+      MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES                                49
+
+      THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES                           50
+
+      FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES                             52
+
+      DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES                          53
+
+      THE SUFFIX -COCK                                   55
+
+      CELTIC NAMES                                       56
+
+   CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA                       57
+
+      FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES                     57
+
+      ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES                              59
+
+      ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS                              61
+
+      MONOSYLLABIC NAMES                                 62
+
+      "HIDEOUS NAMES"                                    63
+
+   CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES                     65
+
+      THE ROUND TABLE                                    66
+
+      THE CHANSONS DE GESTE                              68
+
+      ANTIQUE NAMES                                      69
+
+   CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR                70
+
+      OLD TESTAMENT NAMES                                70
+
+      NEW TESTAMENT NAMES                                72
+
+      FEAST-DAYS                                         73
+
+      MONTH NAMES                                        74
+
+   CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS                                76
+
+      FEMALE FONT-NAMES                                  76
+
+      DOUBTFUL CASES                                     78
+
+   CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES                            79
+
+      CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES                             80
+
+      COUNTIES AND TOWNS                                 81
+
+      NAMES PRECEDED BY DE                               81
+
+   CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES                               84
+
+      ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES                            85
+
+      HILL AND DALE                                      87
+
+      HILLS                                              87
+
+      WOODLAND AND PLAIN                                 89
+
+      FOREST CLEARINGS                                   91
+
+      MARSHES                                            92
+
+      WATER AND WATERSIDE                                93
+
+      RIVERS                                             93
+
+      ISLANDS                                            95
+
+      TREE NAMES                                         96
+
+   CHAPTER XIII. THE HAUNTS OF MAN                       98
+
+      SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES                         99
+
+      HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS                               103
+
+      WATER                                             105
+
+      BUILDINGS                                         105
+
+      DWELLINGS                                         107
+
+      SHOP SIGNS                                        109
+
+   CHAPTER XIV. NORMAN BLOOD                            110
+
+      CORRUPT FORMS                                     112
+
+      TREE NAMES                                        113
+
+   CHAPTER XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES                      115
+
+      SOCIAL GRADES                                     116
+
+      ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES                              118
+
+      NAMES IN -STER                                    119
+
+      MISSING TRADESMEN                                 120
+
+      SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES                           122
+
+      PHONETIC CHANGES                                  123
+
+      NAMES FROM WARES                                  124
+
+   CHAPTER XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER              126
+
+   CHAPTER XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS                129
+
+      ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES                              131
+
+      PILGRIMS                                          132
+
+   CHAPTER XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS                     133
+
+      ARCHERY                                           133
+
+      CLOTHIERS                                         134
+
+      METAL WORKERS                                     136
+
+      SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS                           138
+
+   CHAPTER XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS                   140
+
+      BUMBLEDOM                                         141
+
+      ITINERANT MERCHANTS                               143
+
+   CHAPTER XX. OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC                    145
+
+      THE HOUSEHOLD                                     146
+
+   CHAPTER XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL                 149
+
+      FOREIGN NICKNAMES                                 150
+
+      KINSHIP                                           152
+
+      ABSTRACTS                                         154
+
+      COSTUME                                           155
+
+      PHYSICAL FEATURES                                 157
+
+      IMPRECATIONS                                      159
+
+      PHRASE-NAMES                                      160
+
+      MISCELLANEOUS                                     162
+
+   CHAPTER XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES                   163
+
+      ARCHAIC MEANINGS                                  163
+
+      DISGUISED SPELLINGS                               165
+
+      FRENCH ADJECTIVES                                 166
+
+      COLOUR NAMES                                      167
+
+   CHAPTER XXIII. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES             170
+
+      BIRDS                                             171
+
+      HAWK NAMES                                        173
+
+      BEASTS                                            174
+
+      FISHES                                            176
+
+      SPECIAL FEATURES                                  177
+
+   Advertising material from the end of the book        180
+
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF NAMES
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
+
+In preparing this revised edition I have been able to make use of much
+information conveyed to me by readers interested in the subject.  The
+general arrangement of the book remains unchanged, but a certain
+number of statements have been modified, corrected, or suppressed.
+The study of our surnames has been mostly left to the amateur
+philologist, and many origins given by my predecessors as ascertained
+facts turn out, on investigation, to be unsupported by a shred of
+evidence.  I cannot hope that this little book in its new form is free
+from error, but I feel that it has benefited by the years I have spent
+in research since its original publication.  I would ask reader to
+accept it, not as a comprehensive treatise containing full information
+on any name that happens to occur in it, but as a general survey of
+the subject, and an attempt to indicate and exemplify the various ways
+in which our surnames have come into existence.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM.  April 1922.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
+
+The early demand for a new edition of this little book is a gratifying
+proof of a widespread interest in its subject, rather than a testimony
+to the value of my small contribution to that subject.  Of the
+imperfections of this contribution no one can be more conscious than
+myself, but I trust that the most palpable blemishes have been removed
+in this revised edition.  The student of etymology seldom passes a day
+without coming across some piece of evidence which throws new light on
+a difficult problem (see Chapter XVI), or invalidates what had before
+seemed a reasonable conjecture.  I have to thank many correspondents
+for sending me information of value and for indicating points in which
+conciseness has led to misunderstanding.  Some of my correspondents
+need, however, to be reminded that etymology and genealogy are
+separate sciences; so that, while offering every apology to that Mr.
+Robinson whose name is a corruption of Montmorency, I still adhere to
+my belief that the other Robinsons derive from Robert.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+NOTTINGHAM    March 1914.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
+
+The interpretation of personal names has always had an attraction for
+the learned and others, but the first attempts to classify and explain
+our English surnames date, so far as my knowledge goes, from 1605.  In
+that year Verstegan published his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,
+which contains chapters on both font-names and surnames, and about the
+same time appeared Camden's Remains Concerning Britain, in which the
+same subjects are treated much more fully.  Both of these learned
+antiquaries make excellent reading, and much curious information may
+be gleaned from their pages, especially those of Camden, whose
+position as Clarencieux King-at-Arms gave him exceptional
+opportunities for genealogical research.  From the philological point
+of view they are of course untrustworthy, though less so than most
+modern writers on the same subject.
+
+About the middle of the nineteenth century, the period of Archbishop
+Trench and Canon Taylor, began a kind of boom in works of this kind,
+and books on surnames are now numerous.  But of all these industrious
+compilers one only, Bardsley, can be taken seriously.  His Dictionary
+of English Surnames, published (Oxford Press, 1901) from his notes
+some years after his death, is invaluable to students.  It represents
+the results of twenty years' conscientious research among early rolls
+and registers, the explanations given being usually supported by
+medieval instances.  But it cannot be used uncritically, for the
+author does not appear to have been either a linguist or a
+philologist, and, although he usually refrains from etymological
+conjecture, he occasionally ventures with disastrous results.  Thus,
+to take a few instances, he identifies Prust with Priest, but the
+medieval le prust is quite obviously the Norman form of Old Fr. le
+Proust, the provost.  He attempts to connect pullen with the archaic
+Eng. pullen, poultry; but his early examples, le pulein, polayn, etc.,
+are of course Fr. Poulain, i.e. Colt.  Under Fallows, explained as
+"fallow lands," he quotes three examples of de la faleyse, i.e. Fr.
+Falaise, corresponding to our Cliff, Cleeve, etc; Pochin, explained as
+the diminutive of some personal name, is the Norman form of the famous
+name Poussin, i.e. Chick.  Or, coming to native instances, le wenchel,
+a medieval prototype of Winkle, is explained as for "periwinkle,"
+whereas it is a common Middle-English word, existing now in the
+shortened form wench, and means Child.  The obsolete Swordslipper, now
+only Slipper, which he interprets as a maker of "sword-slips," or
+sheaths, was really a sword-sharpener, from Mid. Eng. slipen, cognate
+with Old Du. slijpen, to polish, sharpen, and Ger. schleifen.
+Sometimes a very simple problem is left unexplained, e.g. in the case
+of the name Tyas, where the medieval instances of le tyeis are to a
+student of Old French clearly le tieis or tiois, i.e. the German,
+cognate with Ger. deutsch and Ital. tedesco.
+
+These examples are quoted, not in depreciation of conscientious
+student to whose work my own compilation is greatly indebted, but
+merely to show that the etymological study of surnames has scarcely
+been touched at present, except by writers to whom philology is an
+unknown science.  I have inserted, as a specimen problem (ch.  xvi.),
+a little disquisition on the name Rutter, a cursory perusal of which
+will convince most readers that it is not much use making shots in
+this subject.
+
+My aim has been to steer a clear course between a too learned and a
+too superficial treatment, and rather to show how surnames are formed
+than to adduce innumerable examples which the reader should be able to
+solve for himself.  I have made no attempt to collect curious names,
+but have taken those which occur in the London Directory (1908) or
+have caught my eye in the newspaper or the streets.  To go into proofs
+would have swelled the book beyond all reasonable proportions, but the
+reader may assume that, in the case of any derivation not expressly
+stated as a conjecture, the connecting links exist.  In the various
+classes of names, I have intentionally omitted all that is obvious,
+except in the rather frequent case of the obvious being wrong.  The
+index, which I have tried to make complete, is intended to replace to
+some extent those cross-references which are useful to students but
+irritating to the general reader.  Hundreds of names are susceptible
+of two, three, or more explanations, and I do not profess to be
+exhaustive.
+
+The subject-matter is divided into a number of rather short chapters,
+dealing with the various classes and subdivisions into which surnames
+fall; but the natural association which exists between names has often
+prevailed over rigid classification.  The quotations by which obsolete
+words are illustrated are taken as far as possible from Chaucer, whose
+writings date from the very period when our surnames were gradually
+becoming hereditary.  I have also quoted extensively from the
+Promptorium Parvulorum, our earliest English-Latin Dictionary (1440).
+
+In ch. vii, on Anglo-Saxon names, I have obtained some help from a
+paper by the late Professor Skeat (Transactions of the Philological
+Society, 1907-10, pp. 57-85) and from the materials contained in
+Searle's valuable Onomasticon Anglo-Saxonicum (Cambridge, 1897).
+Among several works which I have consulted on French and German family
+names, the most useful have been Heintze's Deutsche Familiennamen, 3rd
+ed.  (Halle a.  S., 1908) and Kremers' Beitraege zur Erforschung der
+franzoesischen Familiennamen (Bonn, 1910).  The comparative method
+which I have adopted, especially in explaining nicknames (ch.  xxi),
+will be found, I think, to clear up a good many dark points.  Of books
+on names published in this country, only Bardsley's Dictionary has
+been of any considerable assistance, though I have gleaned some scraps
+of information here and there from other compilations.  My real
+sources have been the lists of medieval names found in Domesday Book,
+the Pipe Rolls, the Hundred Rolls, and in the numerous historical
+records published by the Government and by various antiquarian
+societies.
+
+ERNEST WEEKLEY.
+
+Nottingham, September 1913
+
+
+
+The following dictionaries are quoted without further reference:
+
+Promptorium Parvulorum (1440), ed.  Mayhew (E.E.T.S.; 1908).
+
+PALSGRAVE, L'Esclarcissement de la langue francoyse (1530), ed.  Genin
+(Paris, 1852).
+
+COOPER, Thesaurus Lingua Romanae et Britannicae (London; 1573).
+
+COTGRAVE A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues
+
+(London, 1611).
+
+The Middle English quotations, except where otherwise stated, are from
+Chaucer, the references being to the Globe edition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. OF SURNAMES IN GENERAL
+
+"The French and we termed them Surnames, not because they are the
+names of the Sire, or the father, but because they are super-added to
+Christian names."
+
+(CAMDEN, Remains concerning Britain.)
+
+The study of the origin of family names is at the same time quite
+simple and very difficult.  Its simplicity consists in the fact that
+surnames can only come into existence in certain well-understood ways.
+Its difficulty is due to the extraordinary perversions which names
+undergo in common speech, to the orthographic uncertainty of our
+ancestors, to the frequent coalescence of two or more names of quite
+different Origin, and to the multitudinous forms which one single name
+can assume, such forms being due to local pronunciation, accidents of
+spelling, date of adoption, and many minor causes.  It must always
+remembered that the majority of our surnames from the various dialects
+of Middle English, i.e. of a language very different from our own in
+spelling and sound, full of words that are now obsolete, and of others
+which have completely changed their form and meaning.
+
+If we take any medieval roll of names, we see almost at a glance that
+four such individuals as--
+
+John filius Simon
+
+William de la Moor
+
+Richard le Spicer
+
+Robert le Long
+
+exhaust the possibilities of English name-making--i.e. that every
+surname must be (i) personal, from a sire or ancestor, (ii) local,
+from place of residence, [Footnote: This is by far the largest class,
+counting by names, not individuals, and many names for which I give
+another explanation have also a local origin.  Thus, when I say that
+Ely is Old Fr. Elie, i.e. Elias, I assume that the reader will know
+without being told that it has an alternative explanation from Ely in
+Cambridgeshire.]  (iii) occupative, from trade or office, (iv) a
+nickname, from bodily attributes, character, etc.
+
+This can easily be illustrated from any list of names taken at random.
+The Rugby team chosen to represent the East Midlands against Kent
+(January 22, 1913) consisted of the following fifteen names: Hancock;
+Mobbs, Poulton, Hudson, Cook; Watson, Earl; Bull, Muddiman, Collins,
+Tebbitt, Lacey, Hall, Osborne, Manton.  Some of these are simple, but
+others require a little knowledge for their explanation.
+
+
+
+PERSONAL NAMES
+
+There are seven personal names, and the first of these, Hancock, is
+rather a problem.  This is usually explained as from Flemish Hanke,
+Johnny, while the origin of the suffix -cock has never been very
+clearly accounted for (see The suffix -cock, Chapter VI).  With
+Hancock we may compare Hankin.  But, while the Flemish derivation is
+possible for these two names, it will not explain Hanson, which
+sometimes becomes Hansom (Epithesis And Assimilation, Chapter III).
+According to Camden, there is evidence that Han was also used as a
+rimed form of Ran, short for Ranolf and Randolf (cf. Hob from Robert,
+Hick from Richard), very popular names in the north during the surname
+period.  In Hankin and Hancock this Han would naturally coalesce with
+the Flemish Hanke.  This would also explain the names Hand for Rand,
+and Hands, Hance for Rands, Rance.  Mobbs is the same as Mabbs (cf.
+Moggy for Maggy), and Mabbs is the genitive of Mab, i.e. Mabel, for
+Amabel.  We have the diminutive in Mappin and the patronymic in
+Mapleson.  [Footnote: Maple and Mapple, generally tree names (Chapter
+XII), are in some cases for Mabel.  Maplethorpe is from Mablethorpe
+(Line.), thorp of Madalbert (Maethelbeorht).]  Hudson is the son of
+Hud, a very common medieval name, which seems to represent Anglo-Saxon
+Hudda (Chapter VII), the vigorous survival of which into the surname
+period is a mystery.  Watson is the son of Wat, i.e. Walter, from the
+Old N.E. Fr. Vautier (Gautier), regularly pronounced and written Water
+at one time--
+
+". . . My name is Walter Whitmore.
+How now!  Why start'st thou?  What!  doth death affright?
+
+Suffolk.          Thy name affrights me, in whose sound is death.
+A cunning man did calculate my birth,
+And told me that by water I should die."
+
+(2 Henry VI, iv.1)
+
+Hence the name Waters, which has not usually any connection with
+water; while Waterman, though sometimes occupative, is also formed
+from Walter, like Hickman from Hick (Chapter VI).  Collins is from
+Colin, a French diminutive of Col, i.e. Nicol or Nicolas.
+
+Tebbitt is a diminutive of Theobald, a favourite medieval name which
+had the shortened forms Teb, Tib, Tub, whence a number of derivatives.
+But names in Teb- and Tib- may also come from Isabel  (Chapter X).
+Osborne is the Anglo-Saxon name Osbeorn.
+
+Of course, each of these personal names has a meaning, e.g. Amabel,
+ultimately Latin, means lovable, and Walter, a Germanic name, means
+"rule army" (Modern Ger. walten and Heer), but the discussion of such
+meanings lies outside our subject.  It is, in fact, sometimes
+difficult to distinguish between the personal name and the nickname.
+Thus Pagan, whence Payn, with its diminutives Pannell, Pennell, etc.,
+Gold, Good, German, whence Jermyn, Jarman, and many other apparent
+nicknames, occur as personal names in the earliest records.  Their
+etymological origin is in any case the same as if they were nicknames.
+
+To return to our football team, Poulton, Lacey, Hall, and Manton are
+local.  There are several villages in Cheshire and Lancashire named
+Poulton, i.e. the town or homestead (Chapter XIII) by the pool.  Lacey
+occurs in Domesday Book as de Laci, from some small spot in Normandy,
+probably the hamlet of Lassy (Calvados).  Hall is due to residence
+near the great house of the neighbourhood.  If Hall's ancestor's name
+had chanced to be put down in Anglo-French as de la sale, he might now
+be known as Sale, or even as Saul.  Manton is the name of places in
+Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, so that this player, at any rate,
+has an ancestral qualification for the East Midlands.
+
+The only true occupative name in the list is Cook, for Earl is a
+nickname.  Cook was perhaps the last occupative title to hold its own
+against the inherited name.  Justice Shallow, welcoming Sir John
+Falstaff, says--
+
+"Some pigeons, Davy; a couple of short-legged hens, a joint of mutton,
+and any pretty little tiny kickshaws.  Tell William Cook" (2 Henry IV, v.
+i.).
+
+And students of the Ingoldsby Legends will remember that
+
+"Ellen Bean ruled his cuisine.--He called her Nelly Cook."
+
+(Nell Cook, 1.  32.)
+
+There are probably a goodly number of housewives of the present day
+who would be at a loss if suddenly asked for "cook's" name in full.
+It may be noted that Lequeux means exactly the same, and is of
+identical origin, archaic Fr. le queux, Lat. coquus, while Kew is
+sometimes for Anglo-Fr. le keu, where keu is the accusative of queux
+(Alternative Origins, Chapter I).
+
+
+
+NICKNAMES
+
+The nicknames are Earl, Bull, and Muddiman.  Nicknames such as Earl
+may have been acquired in various ways (Chapter XV).  Bull and
+Muddiman are singularly appropriate for Rugby scrummagers, though the
+first may be from an inn or shop sign, rather than from physique or
+character.  It is equivalent to Thoreau, Old Fr. toreau (taureau).
+Muddiman is for Moodyman, where moody has its older meaning of
+valiant; cf. its German cognate mutig.  The weather on the day in
+question gave a certain fitness both to the original meaning and the
+later form.
+
+The above names are, with the exception of Hancock, Hudson, and
+Muddiman, easy to solve; but it must not be concluded that every list
+is as simple, or that the obvious is always right.  The first page of
+Bards Dictionary of Surnames might well serve as a danger-signal to
+cocksure writers on this subject.  The names Abbey and Abbott would
+naturally seem to go back to an ancestor who lived in or near an and
+to another who had been nicknamed the abbot.
+
+But Abbey is more often from the Anglo-French entry le abbe, the
+abbot, and Abbott may be a diminutive of Ab, standing for Abel, or
+Abraham, the first of which was a common medieval font-name.  Francis
+Holyoak describes himself on the title-page of his Latin Dictionary
+(1612) as Franciscus de Sacra Quercu, but his name also represents the
+holly oak, or holm oak (Tree Names, Chapter XII).  On the other hand,
+Holliman always occurs in early rolls as hali or holi man, i.e. holy
+man.
+
+
+
+MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES
+
+It may be stated here, once for all, that etymologies of names which
+are based on medieval latinizations, family mottoes, etc., are always
+to be regarded with suspicion, as they involve the reversing of
+chronology, or the explanation of a name by a pun which has been made
+from it.  We find Lilburne latinized as de insula tontis, as though it
+were the impossible hybrid de l'isle burn, and Beautoy sometimes as de
+bella fide, whereas foy is the Old French for beech, from Lat. fagus.
+Napier of Merchiston had the motto n'a pier, "has no equal," and
+described himself on title-pages as the Nonpareil, but his ancestor
+was a servant who looked after the napery.  With Holyoak's rendering
+of his own name we may compare Parkinson's "latinization" of his name
+in his famous book on gardening(1629), which bears the title Paradisi
+in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, i.e. the Earthly Paradise of "Park in
+Sun."
+
+Many noble names have an anecdotic "explanation."  I learnt at school
+that Percy came from "pierce-eye," in allusion to a treacherous
+exploit at Alnwick.  The Lesleys claim descent from a hero who
+overthrew a Hungarian champion
+
+"Between the less lee and the Mair
+ He slew the knight and left him there."
+
+(Quentin Durward, ch. xxxvii.)
+
+Similarly, the great name of Courtenay, Courtney, of French local
+origin, is derived in an Old French epic from court nez, short nose,
+an epithet conferred on the famous Guillaume d'Orange, who, when the
+sword of a Saracen giant removed this important feature, exclaimed
+undauntedly--
+
+"Mais que mon nes ai un poi acorcie,
+Bien sai mes nons en sera alongie."
+
+(Li Coronemenz Loois, 1.  1159.)
+
+[Footnote: "Though I have my nose a little shortened, I know well that
+my name will be thereby lengthened."]
+
+I read lately in some newspaper that the original Lockhart took the
+"heart" of the Bruce to the Holy Land in a "locked" casket.
+Practically every famous Scottish name has a yarn connected with it,
+the gem perhaps being that which accounts for Guthrie.  A Scottish
+king, it is said, landed weary and hungry as the sole survivor of a
+shipwreck.  He approached a woman who was gutting fish, and asked her
+to prepare one for him.  The kindly fishwife at once replied, "I'll
+gut three." Whereupon the king, dropping into rime with a readiness
+worthy of Mr. Wegg, said--
+
+"Then gut three, Your name shall be," [Footnote added by scanner, who
+has not read much of Dickens: Silas Wegg was a ready-witted character
+in "Our Mutual Friend."]
+
+and conferred a suitable estate on his benefactress.
+
+After all, truth is stranger than fiction.  There is quite enough
+legitimate cause for wonderment in the fact that Tyas is letter for
+letter the same name as Douch, or that Strangeways, from a district in
+Manchester which, lying between the Irwell and the Irk, formerly
+subject to floods, is etymologically strong-wash.  The Joannes Acutus
+whose tomb stands in Florence is the great free-lance captain Sir John
+Hawkwood, "omitting the h in Latin as frivolous, and the k and w as
+unusual" (Verstegan, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, ch. ix),
+which makes him almost as unrecognizable as that Peter Gower, the
+supposed founder of freemasonry, who turned out to be Pythagoras.
+
+
+
+ALTERNATIVE ORIGINS
+
+Many names are susceptible of two, three, or more explanations.  This
+is especially true of some of our commonest monosyllabic surnames.
+Bell may be from Anglo-Fr. le bel (beau), or from a shop sign, or from
+residence near the church or town bell.  It may even have been applied
+to the man who pulled the bell.  Finally, the ancestor may have been a
+lady called Isabel, a supposition which does not necessarily imply
+illegitimacy (Chapter X).  Ball is sometimes the shortened form of the
+once favourite Baldwin.  It is also from a shop sign, and perhaps most
+frequently of all is for bald.  The latter word is properly balled,
+i.e., marked with a ball, or white streak, a word of Celtic origin;
+cf. "piebald," i.e., balled like a (mag)pie, and the "bald-faced
+stag." [Footnote: Halliwell notes that the nickname Ball is the name
+of a horse in Chaucer and in Tusser, of a sheep in the Promptorium
+Parvulorum, and of a dog in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VIII.
+In each case the name alludes to a white mark, or what horsy people
+call a star.  A cow thus marked is called in Scotland a boasand cow,
+and from the same word comes the obsolete bawson, badger.]  From the
+same word we get the augmentative Ballard, used, according to Wyclif,
+by the little boys who unwisely called to an irritable prophet--
+
+"Stey up ballard" (2 Kings ii.  23).
+
+The name may also be personal, Anglo-Sax. Beal-heard.  Rowe may be
+local, from residence in a row (cf. Fr. Delarue), or it may be an
+accidental spelling of the nickname Roe, which also survives in the
+Mid. English form Ray (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).
+
+But Row was also the shortened form of Rowland, or Roland.  Cobb is an
+Anglo-Saxon name, as in the local Cobham, but it is also from the
+first syllable of Cobbold (for either Cuthbeald or Godbeald) and the
+second of Jacob.  From Jacob come the diminutives Cobbin and Coppin.
+
+Or, to take some less common names, House not only represents the
+medieval de la house, but also stands for Howes, which, in its turn,
+may be the plural of how, a hill (Chapter XII), or the genitive of
+How, one of the numerous medieval forms of Hugh (Chapter VI).  Hind
+may be for Hine, a farm servant (Chapter III), or for Mid. Eng. hende,
+courteous (cf. for the vowel change Ind, Chapter XIII), and is perhaps
+sometimes also an animal nickname (Beasts, Chapter XXIII).  Rouse is
+generally Fr. roux, i.e. the red, but it may also be the nominative
+form of Rou, i.e. of Rolf, or Rollo, the sea-king who conquered
+Normandy.  [Footnote: Old French had a declension in two cases.  The
+nominative, which has now almost disappeared, was usually
+distinguished by -s.  This survives in a few words, e.g. fils, and
+proper names such as Charles, Jules, etc]  Was Holman the holy man,
+the man who lived near a holm, i.e. holly (Chapter XII), on a holm, or
+river island (Chapter XII), or in a hole, or hollow?  All these
+origins have equal claims.
+
+As a rule, when an apparent nickname is also susceptible of another
+solution, baptismal, local, or occupative, the alternative explanation
+is to be preferred, as the popular tendency has always been towards
+twisting names into significant words.  Thus, to take an example of
+each class, Diamond is sometimes for an old name Daymond (Daegmund),
+Portwine is a corruption of Poitevin, the man from Poitou (Chapter
+XI), and Tipler, which now suggests alcoholic excess, was, as late as
+the seventeenth century, the regular name for an alehouse keeper.
+
+In a very large number of cases there is a considerable choice for the
+modern bearer of a name.  Any Boon or Bone who wishes to assert that
+
+                                 Of Hereford's high blood he came,
+                                 A race renown'd for knightly fame
+                                         (Lord of the Isles, vi.  15),
+
+can claim descent from de Bohun.  While, if he holds that kind hearts
+are more than coronets, he has an alternative descent from some
+medieval le bon.  This adjective, used as a personal name, gave also
+Bunn and Bunce; for the spelling of the latter name cf. Dance for
+Dans, and Pearce for Piers, the nominative of Pierre (Alternative
+Origins, Chapter I), which also survives in Pears and Pearson.  Swain
+may go back to the father of Canute, or to some hoary-headed swain
+who, possibly, tended the swine.  Not all the Seymours are St. Maurs.
+Some of them were once Seamers, i.e. tailors.  Gosling is rather
+trivial, but it represents the romantic Jocelyn, in Normandy Gosselin,
+a diminutive of the once very popular personal name Josse.  Goss is
+usually for goose, but any Goss, or Gossett, unwilling to trace his
+family back to John Goose, "my lord of Yorkes fole," [Footnote: Privy
+Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York (1502).] may likewise choose the
+French Josse or Gosse.  Goss may also be a dialect pronunciation of
+gorse, the older form of which has given the name Gorst.  Coward,
+though humble, cow-herd, is no more timid than Craven, the name of a
+district in the West Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+NAMES DESIRABLE OR UNDESIRABLE
+
+Mr. Chucks, when in good society, "seldom bowed, Sir, to anything
+under three syllables" (Peter Simple, ch. xvii.).  But the length of a
+name is not necessarily an index of a noble meaning.  As will be seen
+(pp.  74, 5), a great number of our monosyllabic names belong to, the
+oldest stratum of all.  The boatswain's own name, from Norman-Fr.
+chouque, a tree-stump, is identical with the rather aristocratic Zouch
+or Such, from the usual French form souche.  Stubbs, which has the
+same meaning, may be compared with Curson, Curzon, Fr. courson, a
+stump, a derivative of court, short.  [Footnote: Curson is also a
+dialect variant of Christian.]  Pomeroy has a lordly ring, but is the
+Old French for Applegarth or Appleyard (Tree Names, Chapter XIV), and
+Camoys means flat-nosed, Fr. Camus--
+
+"This wenche thikke and wel y-growen was,
+ With kamuse nose, and eyen greye as glas."
+
+(A, 3973.)
+
+Kingsley, speaking of the name assumed by John Briggs, says--
+
+"Vavasour was a very pretty name, and one of those which is [sic]
+supposed by novelists and young ladies to be aristocratic; why so is a
+puzzle; as its plain meaning is a tenant farmer and nothing more or
+less" (Two Years Ago, ch. xi.).
+
+The word is said to represent a Vulgar Lat. vassus vassorum, vassal of
+vassals.
+
+On the other hand, many a homely name has a complimentary meaning.
+Mr. Wegg did not like the name Boffin, but its oldest form is bon-fin,
+good and fine.  In 1273 Mr. Bumble's name was spelt bon-bel, good and
+beautiful.  With these we may group Bunker, of which the oldest form
+is bon-quer (bon coeur), and Boffey, which corresponds to the common
+French name Bonnefoy, good faith; while the much more assertive
+Beaufoy means simply fine beech (Chapter I).
+
+With Bunker we may compare Goodhart and Cordeaux, the oldest form of
+the latter being the French name Courdoux.  Momerie and Mummery are
+identical with Mowbray, from Monbrai in Normandy.  Molyneux impresses
+more than Mullins, of which it is merely the dim., Fr. moulins, mills.
+The Yorkshire name Tankard is identical with Tancred.  Stiggins goes
+back to the illustrious Anglo-Saxon name Stigand, as Wiggins does to
+wigand, a champion.  Cadman represents Caedmon, the name of the
+poet-monk of Whitby.  Segar is an imitative form of the Anglo-Sax.
+Saegaer, of which the normal modern representative is Sayers.  Giblett
+is not a name one would covet, but it stands in the same relationship
+to Gilbert as Hamlet does to Hamo.
+
+A small difference in spelling makes a great difference in the look of
+a name.  The aristocratic Coke is an archaic spelling of Cook, the
+still more lordly Herries sometimes disguises Harris, while the modern
+Brassey is the same as de Bracy in Ivanhoe.  The rather grisly
+Nightgall is a variant of Nightingale.  The accidental retention of
+particles and articles is also effective, e.g. Delmar, Delamere,
+Delapole, impress more than Mears and Pool, and Larpent (Fr.
+I'arpent), Lemaitre, and Lestrange more than Acres, Masters, and
+Strange.  There are few names of less heroic sound than Spark and
+Codlin, yet the former is sometimes a contraction of the picturesque
+Sparrow-hawk, used as a personal name by the Anglo-Saxons, while the
+latter can be traced back via the earlier forms Quodling (still
+found), Querdling, Querdelyoun to Coeur de Lion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. A MEDIEVAL ROLL
+
+"Quelque diversite d'herbes qu'il y alt, tout s'enveloppe sous le nom
+de salade; de mesme, sous la consideration des noms, je m'en voys
+faire icy une galimafree de divers articles."  (Montaigne, Essais, i.
+46.)
+
+Just as, in studying a new language, the linguist finds it most
+helpful to take a simple text and hammer out in detail every word and
+grammatical form it contains, so the student of name-lore cannot do
+better than tackle a medieval roll and try to connect every name in it
+with those of the present day.  I give here two lists of names from
+the Hundred Rolls of 1273.  The first contains the names of London and
+Middlesex jurymen, most of them, especially the Londoners, men of
+substance and position.  The second is a list of cottagers resident in
+the village of Steeple Claydon in Bucks.  Even a cursory perusal of
+these lists should Suffice to dispel all recollection of the nightmare
+"philology" which has been so much employed to obscure what is
+perfectly simple and obvious; while a very slight knowledge of Latin
+and French is all that is required to connect these names of men who
+were dead and buried before the Battle of Crecy with those to be found
+in any modern directory.  The brief indications supplied under each
+name will be found in a fuller form in the various chapters of the
+book to which references are given.
+
+For simplicity I have given the modern English form of each Christian
+name and expanded the abbreviations used by the official compilers.
+It will be noticed that English, Latin, and Anglo-French are used
+indifferently, that le is usually, though not always, put before the
+trade-name or nickname, that de is put before place-names and at
+before spots which have no proper name.  The names in the right-hand
+column are only specimens of the, often very numerous, modern
+equivalents.
+
+
+
+LONDON JURYMEN
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+William Dibel.
+
+Dibble (Theobald).
+
+Initial t- and d- alternate (Dialectic Variants, Chapter III)
+according to locality.  In Tennyson, for Denison, son of Denis, we
+have the opposite change.  The forms assumed by Theobald are very
+numerous (Chapter I).  Besides Dibble we have the shorter Dibb.  Other
+variants are Dyball, Dipple, Tipple, Tidball, Tudball, and a number of
+names in Teb-, Tib-, Tub-.  The reason for the great popularity of the
+name is obscure.
+
+
+Baldwin le Bocher.
+
+Butcher.
+
+On the various forms of this name, see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Robert Hauteyn.
+
+Hawtin
+
+The Yorkshire name Auty is probably unconnected.  It seems rather to
+be an altered form of a Scandinavian personal name cognate with Odo.
+
+
+Henry le Wimpler.
+
+The name has apparently disappeared with the garment.  But it is never
+safe to assert that a surname is quite extinct.
+
+
+Stephen le Peron
+
+Fearon
+
+From Old Fr. feron, ferron, smith.  In a few cases French has -on as
+an agential suffix (Chapter XVIII).
+
+
+William de Paris.
+
+Paris, Parris, Parish.
+
+The commoner modern form Parish is seldom to be derived from our word
+parish.  This rarely occurs, while the entry de Paris is, on the other
+hand, very common.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Roger le Wyn.
+
+Wynne.
+
+Anglo-Saxon wine, friend.  Also a Celtic nickname, Identical with
+Gwynne (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Matthew de Pomfrait
+
+Pomfret
+
+The usual pronunciation of Pontefract, broken bridge, one of the few
+English place-names of purely Latin origin (Chapter XIII).  The Old
+French form would be Pont-frait.
+
+
+Richard le Paumer.
+
+Palmer.
+
+A man who had made pilgrimage to the Holy Land (Chapter XVII).  The
+modern spelling is restored, but the _l_ remains mute.  It is just
+possible that this name sometimes means tennis-player, as tennis, Fr.
+le jeu de paume, once played with the palm of the hand, is of great
+antiquity.
+
+
+Walter Poletar.
+
+Pointer.
+
+A dealer in poults, i.e. fowls.  For the lengthened form poulterer,
+cf. fruiterer for fruiter, and see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Reginald Aurifaber.
+
+Goldsmith.
+
+The French form orfevre may have given the name Offer.
+
+
+Henry Deubeneye.
+
+Daubeney, Dabney.
+
+Fr. d'Aubigny.  One of the many cases in which the French preposition
+has been incorporated in the name.  Cf. Danvers, for d'Anvers,
+Antwerp, and see Chapter XI.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Richard Knotte
+
+Knott
+
+From Scandinavian Cnut, Canute.  This name is also local, from knot, a
+hillock, and has of course become confused (Variant Spellings, Chapter
+III) with the nickname Nott, with cropped hair (Chapter XXII)--
+
+"Thou nott-pated fool."
+
+ (1 Henry IV, ii.  4.)
+
+
+Walter le Wyte.
+
+White
+
+The large number of Whites is partly to be accounted for by their
+having absorbed the name Wight (Chapter XXII) from Mid. Eng. wiht,
+valiant.
+
+
+Adam le Sutel.
+
+Suttle.
+
+Both Eng. subtle and Fr. subtil are restored spellings, which do not
+appear in nomenclature (Chapter III).
+
+
+Fulk de Sancto Edmundo.
+
+Tedman.
+
+The older form would be Tednam.  Bury St. Edmund's is sometimes
+referred to as Tednambury.  For the mutilation of the word saint in
+place-names, see Chapter III.
+
+
+William le Boteler.
+
+Butler.
+
+More probably a bottle-maker than what we understand by a butler, the
+origin being of course the same.
+
+
+Gilbert Lupus
+
+Wolf.
+
+Wolf, and the Scandinavian Ulf, are both common as personal names
+before the Conquest, but a good many Modern bearers of the name are
+German Jews (Chapter IV).  Old Fr. lou (loup) is one source of Low.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Stephen Juvenis.
+
+Young
+
+Senex is rarely found.  The natural tendency was to distinguish the
+younger man from his father.  Senior is generally to be explained
+differently (Chapter XV).
+
+
+William Braciator.
+
+Brewer.
+
+The French form brasseur also survives as Bracher and Brasher, the
+latter being also confused with Brazier, the worker in brass.
+
+
+John de Cruce.
+
+Cross, Crouch.
+
+A man who lived near some outdoor cross.  The form crouch survives in
+"Crutched Friars." Hence also the name Croucher.
+
+
+Matthew le Candeler.
+
+Candler, Chandler.
+
+Initial c- for ch- shows Norman or Picard origin (Chapter III).
+
+
+Henry Bernard.
+
+Barnard, Barnett.
+
+The change from _er_ to _ar_ is regular; cf. Clark, and see Chapter
+III.  The endings -ard, -ald, are generally changed to -ett; cf.
+Everett for Everard, Barrett for Berald, Garrett for Gerard, Garrard,
+whence the imitative Garrison for Garretson.
+
+
+William de Bosco.
+
+Bush, Busk, Buss.
+
+"For there is neither bush nor hay (Chapter XIII)
+In May that it nyl shrouded bene."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 54.)
+
+The name might also be translated as Wood.  The corresponding name of
+French origin is Boyce or Boyes, Fr. bois (Chapter XIV).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Henry de Sancta Ositha.
+
+Toosey.
+
+Cf. Fulk de Sancto Edmundo (supra), and cf. Tooley St.
+for St. Olave St. (Chapter III).
+
+
+Walter ate Stede.
+
+Stead.
+
+In this case the preposition has not coalesced, as in Adeane, at the
+dean, i.e. hollow, Agate, at gate, etc. (Chapter XII).
+
+
+William le Fevere.
+
+Wright, Smith.
+
+The French name survives as Feaver and Fevyer.  Cf. also the Lat.
+Faber, which is not always a modern German importation
+
+(Chapter XII).
+
+
+Thomas de Cumbe.
+
+Combe, Coombes.
+
+A West-country name for a hollow in a hillside (Chapter XII).
+
+
+John State.
+
+State, Stacey.
+
+Generally for Eustace, but sometimes perhaps for Anastasia, as we find
+Stacey used as a female name (Chapter III).
+
+
+Richard le Teynturier.
+
+Dyer, Dexter.
+
+Dexter represents Mid. Eng. dighester, with the feminine agential
+suffix (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Henry le Waleys.
+
+Wallis, Walsh, Welch.
+
+Literally the foreigner, but especially applied by the English to the
+Western Celts.  Quelch represents the: Welsh pronunciation.  With
+Wallis cf. Cornwallis, Mid. Eng. le cornwaleis (Chapter X).
+
+
+John le Bret.
+
+Brett, Britton.
+
+An inhabitant of Brittany, perhaps resident in that Breton colony in
+London called Little Britain.  Bret The Old French nominative of
+Breton (Chapter VIII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Thomas le Clerc.
+
+Clark.
+
+One of our commonest names.  We now spell the common noun clerk by
+etymological reaction, but educated people pronounce the word as it
+was generally written up to the eighteenth century (Chapter III).
+
+
+Stephen le Hatter
+
+Hatter
+
+The great rarity of this name is a curious problem (Chapter XV).  The
+name Capper exists, though it is not very common.
+
+
+Thomas le Batur.
+
+Thresher.
+
+But, being a Londoner, he was more probably a gold-beater, or perhaps
+a beater of cloth.  The name Beater also survives.
+
+
+Alexander de Leycestre
+
+Leicester, Lester.
+
+For the simpler spelling, once usual and still adopted by those who
+chalk the names on the mail-vans at St. Pancras, cf. such names as
+Worster, Wooster, Gloster, etc. (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Robert le Noreys.
+
+Norris, Nurse.
+
+Old Fr. noreis, the Northerner (Chapter XI), or norice (nourrice), the
+nurse, foster-mother (Chapter XX).
+
+
+Reginald le Blond
+
+Blount, Blunt.
+
+Fr. blond, fair.  We have also the dim. Blundell.  The corresponding
+English name is Fairfax, from Mid. Eng. fax, hair (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Randolf ate Mor.
+
+Moor.
+
+With the preposition retained (Chapter XII) it has
+given the Latin-looking Amor.
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Matthew le Pevrier.
+
+Pepper.
+
+For the reduction of pepperer to Pepper cf. Armour for armourer, and
+see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Godfrey le Furmager.
+
+Cheeseman, Firminger.
+
+From Old Fr. formage (fromage).  The intrusion of the n in Firminger
+is regular; cf. Massinger, messenger, from Fr. messager, and see
+Chapter III.
+
+
+Robert Campeneys.
+
+Champness, Champneys.
+
+Old Fr. champeneis (champenois), of Champagne (Chapter XI).
+
+
+John del Pek.
+
+Peck, Peaks, Pike, Pick.
+
+A name taken from a hill-top, but sometimes referring to the unrelated
+Derbyshire Peak.
+
+
+Richard Dygun.
+
+Dickens.
+
+A diminutive of Dig, for Dick (Chapter VI).
+
+
+Peter le Hoder.
+
+Hodder.
+
+A maker of hods or a maker of hoods?  The latter is more likely.
+
+
+Alan Allutarius.
+
+Whittier.
+
+Lat. alutarius, a "white-tawer", Similarly, Mid. Eng. stan-heawere,
+stone-hewer, is contracted to Stanier, now almost swallowed up by
+Stainer.  The simple tawer is also one origin of the name Tower.
+
+
+Peter le Rus.
+
+Russ, Rush, Rouse.
+
+Fr. roux, of red complexion.  Cf. the dim. Russell, Fr. Rousseau
+(Chapter XXII).
+
+
+
+MIDDLESEX JURYMEN
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Roger de la Hale.
+
+Hall, Hale, Hales.
+
+One of our commonest local surnames.  But it has two interpretations,
+from hall and from heal (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Walter de la Hedge.
+
+Hedge, Hedges.
+
+Other names of similar meaning are Hay, Hayes, Haig, Haigh, Hawes
+(Chapter XIII)
+
+
+John Rex
+
+King.
+
+One of our commonest nicknames, the survival of which is easily
+understood (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Stephen de la Novels Meyson.
+
+Newhouse.
+
+Cf. also Newbigging, from Mid. Eng. biggen, to 'build (Chapter XIII).
+
+
+Randolf Pokoc.
+
+Pocock, Peacock.
+
+The simple Poe, Lat. pavo, has the same meaning (Chapter XXIII).
+
+
+William de Fonte.
+
+Spring, Wells, Fountain, Attewell.
+
+This is the most usual origin of the name Spring (Chapter IX).
+
+
+Robert del Parer
+
+Perrier
+
+Old Fr. perier (poirier), pear-tree.  Another origin of Perrier is,
+through French, from Lat. petrarius, a stone-hewer.
+
+
+Adam de la Denne.
+
+Denne, Dean, Done.
+
+A Mid. English name for valley (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Robertus filius Gillelmi.
+
+Wilson.
+
+For other possible names to be derived from a father named William,
+see Chapter VI.
+
+
+William filius Radolfi.
+
+Rawson.
+
+A very common medieval name, Anglo-Sax. Raedwulf, the origin of our
+Ralph, Relf, Rolfe, Roff, and of Fr. Raoul.  Some of its derivatives,
+e.g. Rolls, have got mixed with those of Roland.  To be distinguished
+from Randolf or Randall, of which the shorter form is Ran or Rand,
+whence Rankin, Rands, Rance, etc.
+
+
+
+STEEPLE CLAYDON COTTAGERS
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Andrew Colle
+
+Collins, Colley
+
+For Nicolas (Chapter V).
+
+
+William Neuman
+
+Newman, Newcomb.
+
+A man recently settled in the village (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Adam ate Dene
+
+Dean, Denne, Adeane.
+
+The separate at survives in A'Court and A'Beckett, at the beck head;
+cf. Allan a' Dale (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Ralph Mydevynter.
+
+Midwinter.
+
+An old name for Christmas (Chapter IX).
+
+
+William ate Hull.
+
+Athill, Hill, Hull.
+
+The form hul for hil occurs in Mid. English (Chapter XII).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Gilbert Sutor.
+
+Sutor, Soutar.
+
+On the poor representation of the shoemaker see Chapter XV.
+
+
+Walter Maraud.
+
+It is easy to understand the disappearance of this name--
+
+"A rogue, beggar, vagabond; a varlet, rascall, scoundrell, base knave"
+(Cotgrave); but it may be represented by Marratt, Marrott, unless
+these are from Mary (Chapter X).
+
+
+Nicholas le P.ker.
+
+This may be expanded into Parker, a park-keeper, Packer, a
+wool-packer, or the medieval Porker, a swine-herd, now lost in Parker.
+
+
+John Stegand
+
+Stigand, Stiggins.
+
+Anglo-Saxon names survived chiefly among the peasantry (Chapter I).
+
+
+Roger Mercator.
+
+Marchant, Chapman.
+
+The restored modern spelling merchant has affected the pronunciation
+of the common noun (Chapter III).  The more usual term Chapman is
+cognate with cheap, chaffer, Chipping, Copenhagen, Ger. kaufen, to
+buy, etc.
+
+
+Adam Hoppe.
+
+Hobbs, Hobson, Hopkins.
+
+An example of the interchange of b and P (Chapter III).  Hob is
+usually regarded as one of the rimed forms from Robert (Chapter VI).
+
+
+Roger Crom.
+
+Crum, Crump.
+
+Lit.  crooked, cognate with Ger. krumm.  The final -p of Crump is
+excrescent (Chapter III).
+
+
+Stephen Cornevaleis
+
+Cornwallis, Cornish.
+
+A name which would begin in Devonshire (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Walter de Ibernia
+
+Ireland
+
+A much more common name than Scotland, which has been squeezed out by
+Scott (Chapter XI).
+
+
+Matilda filia Matildae
+
+Mawson (for Maud-son), Till, Tilley, Tillett, Tillotson, etc.
+
+One of the favourite girl-names during the surname period (Chapter X).
+
+
+Ralph Vouler.
+
+Fowler
+
+A West-country pronunciation; cf. Vowle for Fowell, Vokes for Foakes
+(Chapter VI), Venn for Fenn, etc.
+
+
+John filius Thomae.
+
+Thompson, Tompkins, Tomlin, etc.
+
+One of the largest surname families.  It includes Toulmin, a
+metathesis of Tomlin.  In Townson and Tonson it coalesces with Tony,
+Anthony.
+
+
+Henry Bolle.
+
+Bull.
+
+In this case evidently a nickname (Chapter I).
+
+
+Roger Gyle.
+
+Gill.
+
+For names in Gil- see Chapter VI.  The form in the roll may, however,
+represent an uncomplimentary nickname, "guile."
+
+
+Walter Molendarius.
+
+Miller, Mellen, Milner.
+
+In Milne, Milner, we have the oldest form, representing Vulgar Lat.
+molina, mill cf. Kilner, from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen.  Millard
+(Chapter XIX) is perhaps sometimes the same name with excrescent -d.
+
+
+Thomas Berker.
+
+Barker.
+
+A man who stripped bark, also a tanner.  But as a surname reinforced
+by the Norman form of Fr. berger, a shepherd (Chapter XV).
+
+
+Hundred Rolls
+
+Modern Form
+
+
+Matthew Hedde.
+
+Head.
+
+Sometimes local, at the head, but here a nickname; cf. Tate, Tail,
+sometimes from Fr. tete (Chapter XIII).
+
+
+Richard Joyet.
+
+Jowett, Jewett.
+
+A diminutive either of Joy or of Julian, Juliana.  But it is possible
+that Joy itself is not the abstract noun, but a shortened form of
+Julian.
+
+
+Adam Kyg.
+
+Ketch, Beach
+
+An obsolete adjective meaning lively (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+Simon filius Johannis Nigelli.
+
+Johnson, Jones, Jennings, etc.
+
+The derivatives of John are numerous and not to be distinguished from
+those of Joan, Jane (Chapter X).
+
+
+The above lists illustrate all the simpler ways in which surnames
+could be formed.  At the time of compilation they were not hereditary.
+Thus the last man on the list is Simon Johnson, but his father was
+John Neilson, or Nelson (Chapter X), and his son would be ---- Simpson,
+Sims, etc.  This would go on until, at a period varying with the
+locality, the wealth and importance of the individual, one name in the
+line would become accidentally petrified and persist to the present
+day.  The chain could, of course, be broken at any time by the
+assumption of a name from one of the other three classes (Chapter I).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. SPELLING AND SOUND
+
+"Do you spell it with a V or a W?" inquired the judge.
+
+"That depends upon the taste and fancy of the speller, my lord,"
+replied Sam.  "I never had occasion to spell it more than once or
+twice in my life, but I spells it with a V."
+
+(Pickwick, ch. xxxiv.)
+
+Many people are particular about the spelling of their names.  I am
+myself, although, as a student of philology, I ought to know better.
+The greatest of Englishmen was so careless in the matter as to sign
+himself Shakspe, a fact usually emphasized by Baconian when speaking
+of the illiterate clown of Stratford-on-Avon.  Equally illiterate must
+have been the learned Dr. Crown, who, in the various books he
+published in the latter half of the seventeenth century, spelt his
+name, indifferently Cron, Croon, Croun, Crone, Croone, Croune.  The
+modern spelling of any particular name Is a pure accident.  Before the
+Elementary Education Act of 1870 a considerable proportion of English
+people did not spell their names at all.  They trusted to the parson
+and the clerk, who did their best with unfamiliar names.  Even now old
+people in rural districts may find half a dozen orthographic variants
+of their own names among the sparse documentary records of their
+lives.  Dugdale the antiquary is said to have found more than 130
+variants of Mainwaring among the parchments of that family.  Bardsley
+quotes, under the name Blenkinsop--
+
+"On April 2 3, 1470, Elizabeth Blynkkynesoppye, of Blynkkynsoppe,
+widow of Thomas Blynkyensope, of Blynkkensope, received a general
+pardon"--
+
+four variants in one sentence.  In the List of Foreign Protestants and
+Aliens in England (1618) we have Andrian Medlor and Ellin Medler his
+wife, Johan Cosen and Abraham Cozen, brethren.  The death of Sarah
+Inward, daughter of Richard Inwood, was registered in 1685.
+
+
+
+VARIANT SPELLINGS
+
+Medieval spelling was roughly phonetic, i.e. it attempted to reproduce
+the sound of the period and region, and even men of learning, as late
+as the eighteenth century, were very uncertain in matters of
+orthography.  The spelling of the language is now practically
+normalized, although in conformity with no sort of principle; but the
+family name, as a private possession, has kept its freedom.  Thus, if
+we wish to speak poetically of a meadow, I suppose we should call it a
+lea, but the same word is represented by the family names Lea, Lee,
+Ley, Leigh, Legh, Legge, Lay, Lye, perhaps the largest group of local
+surnames we possess.
+
+In matters of spelling we observe various tendencies.  One is the
+retention of an archaic form, which does not necessarily affect
+pronunciation.  Late Mid. English was fond of y for i, of double
+consonants, and of final -e.  All these appear in the names Thynne
+(thin) and Wyllie (wily).  Therefore we should not deride the man who
+writes himself Smythe.  But in some cases the pronunciation suffers,
+e.g. the name Fry represents Mid. Eng. fri, one of the forms of the
+adjective that is now written free.  Burt represents Anglo-Sax.
+beorht, the normal result of which is Bright.  We now write subtle and
+perfect, artificial words, in the second of which the pronunciation
+has been changed in accordance with the restored spelling; but the
+older forms survive in the names Suttle and Parfitt--
+
+"He was a verray parfit, gentil knyght."
+
+(A, 72.)
+
+The usual English pronunciation of names like Mackenzie, Menzies,
+Dalziel, is due to the substitution by the printer of a z for an
+obsolete letter that represented a soft palatal sound more like y.
+[Footnote: This substitution has led one writer on surnames, who
+apparently confuses bells with beans, to derive the rare surname
+Billiter, whence Billiter's Lane in the City, from "Belzetter, i.e.,
+the Bell-setter." The Mid. Eng. "bellezeter, campanarius" (Prompt.
+Parv.), was a bell-founder, from a verb related to geysir, ingot, and
+Ger. giessen, to pour.  Robert le bellegeter was a freeman of York in
+1279.]
+
+We have an archaic plural ending in Knollys (Knowles), the plural of
+knoll, and in Sandys, and an archaic spelling in Sclater for Slater or
+Slatter, for both slat and slate come from Old Fr. esclat (eclat), a
+splinter.  With Knollys and Sandys we may put Pepys, for the existence
+of the dims.  Pipkin, Peppitt, and Peppiatt points to the medieval
+name Pipun, corresponding to the royal Pepin.  Streatfeild preserves
+variant spellings of street and field.  In Gardiner we have the Old
+Northern French word which now, as a common noun, gardener, is
+assimilated to garden, the normal French form of which appears in
+Jardine.
+
+Such orthographic variants as i and y, Simons, Symons, Ph and f,
+Jephcott, Jeffcott, s and c, Pearce, Pearce, Rees, Reece, Sellars
+(cellars), ks and x, Dickson, Dixon, are a matter of taste or
+accident.  Initial letters which became mute often disappeared in
+spelling, e.g. Wray, a corner (Chapter XIII), has become hopelessly
+confused with Ray, a roe, Knott, from Cnut, i.e. Canute, or from
+dialect knot, a hillock, with Noll, crop-haired.  Knowlson is the son
+of Nowell (Chapter IX) or of Noll, i.e. Oliver.
+
+Therefore, when Mr. X. asserts that his name has always been
+spelt in such and such a way, he is talking nonsense.  If his
+great-grandfather's will is accessible, he will probably find two or
+three variants in that alone.  The great Duke of Wellington, as a
+younger man, signed himself Arthur Wesley--
+
+"He was colonel of Dad's regiment, the Thirty-third foot, after Dad
+left the army, and then he changed his name from Wesley to Wellesley,
+or else the other way about"
+
+(KIPLING, Marklake Witches);
+
+and I know two families the members of which disagree as to the
+orthography of their names.  We have a curious affectation in such
+spellings as ffrench, ffoulkes, etc., where the ff is merely the
+method of indicating the capital letter in early documents.
+
+The telescoping of long names is a familiar phenomenon.  Well-known
+examples are Cholmondeley, Chumley, Marjoribanks, Marchbanks,
+Mainwaring, Mannering.  Less familiar are Auchinleck, Affleck,
+Boutevilain, Butlin, Postlethwaite, Posnett, Sudeley, Sully,
+Wolstenholme, Woosnam.  Ensor is from the local Edensor, Cavendish was
+regularly Candish for the Elizabethans, while Cavenham in Suffolk has
+given the surname Canham.  Daventry has become Daintree, Dentry, and
+probably the imitative Dainty, while Stepson is for Stevenson.  It is
+this tendency which makes the connection between surnames and village
+names so difficult to establish in many cases, for the artificial name
+as it occurs in the gazetteer often gives little clue to the local
+pronunciation.  It is easy to recognize Bickenhall or Bickenhill in
+Bicknell and Puttenham in Putnam, but the identity of Wyndham with
+Wymondham is only clear when we know the local Pronunciation of the
+latter name.  Milton and Melton are often telescoped forms of
+Middleton.
+
+
+
+DIALECTIC VARIANTS
+
+Dialectic variants must also be taken into account.  Briggs and Rigg
+represent the Northern forms of Bridges and Ridge, and Philbrick is a
+disguised Fellbrigg.  In Egg we have rather the survival of the Mid.
+English spelling of Edge.  Braid, Lang, Strang, are Northern variants
+of Broad, Long, Strong.  Auld is for Old while Tamson is for Thompson
+and Dabbs for Dobbs (Robert).  We have the same change of vowel in
+Raper, for Roper.  Venner generally means hunter, Fr. veneur, but
+sometimes represents the West-country form of Fenner, the fen-dweller;
+cf. Vidler for fiddler, and Vanner for Fanner, the winnower.
+
+We all the difficulty we have in catching a new and unfamiliar name,
+and the subterfuges we employ to find out what it really is.  In such
+cases we do not get the help from association and analogy which serves
+us in dealing with language in general, but find ourselves in the
+position of a foreigner or child hearing unfamiliar word for the first
+time.  We realize how many imperceptible shades there are between a
+short i and a short e, or between a fully voiced g and a voiceless k,
+examples suggested to me by my having lately understood a Mr. Riggs to
+be a Mr. Rex.
+
+We find occurring in surnames examples of those consonantal changes
+which do not violate the great Phonetic law that such changes can only
+occur regularly within the same group, i.e. that a labial cannot
+alternate with a palatal, or a dental with either.  It is thus that we
+find b alternating with p, Hobbs and Hopps (Robert), Bollinger and
+Pullinger, Fr. boulanger; g with k, Cutlack and Goodlake (Anglo-Sax.
+Guthlac), Diggs and Dix (Richard), Gipps and Kipps (Gilbert), Catlin
+and Galling (Catherine); j with ch, Jubb or Jupp and Chubb (Job); d
+with t, Proud and Prout (Chapter XXII), Dyson and Tyson (Dionisia),
+and also with th, Carrodus and Carruthers (a hamlet in Dumfries).  The
+alternation of c and ch or g and j in names of French origin is
+dialectic, the c and g representing the Norman-Picard pronunciation,
+e.g. Campion for Champion, Gosling for Joslin.  In some cases we have
+shown a definite preference for one form, e.g. Chancellor and
+Chappell, but Carpenter and Camp.  In English names c is northern, ch
+southern, e.g. Carlton, Charlton, Kirk, Church.
+
+There are also a few very common vowel changes.  The sound er usually
+became ar, as in Barclay (Berkeley), Clark, Darby, Garrard (Gerard),
+Jarrold (Gerald), Harbord (Herbert), Jarvis (Gervase), Marchant,
+Sargent, etc., while Larned, our great-grandfathers' pronunciation of
+"learned," corresponds to Fr. Littri.  Thus Parkins is the same name
+as Perkins.  (Peter), and these also give Parks and Perks, the former
+of which is usually not connected with Park.  To Peter, or rather to
+Fr. Pierre, belong also Parr, Parry and Perry, though Parry is
+generally Welsh (Chapter VI).  The dims.  Parrott, Perrott, etc., were
+sometimes nicknames, the etymology being the same, for our word parrot
+is from Fr. pierrot.  To the freedom with which this sound is spelt,
+e.g. in Herd, Heard, Hird, Hurd, we also owe Purkiss for Perkins; cf.
+appurtenance for appartenance.
+
+The letter l seems also to exercise a demoralizing influence on the
+adjacent vowel.  Juliana became Gillian, and from this, or from the
+masculine form Julian, we get Jalland, Jolland, and the shortened
+Gell, Gill (Chapter VI), and Jull.  Gallon, which Bardsley groups with
+these, is more often a French name, from the Old German Walo, or a
+corruption of the still commoner French name Galland, likewise of
+Germanic origin.
+
+We find also such irregular vowel changes as Flinders for Flanders,
+and conversely Packard for Picard.  Pottinger (see below) sometimes
+becomes Pettinger as Portugal gives Pettingall.  The general tendency
+is towards that thinning of the vowel that we get in mister for master
+and Miss Miggs's mim for ma'am.  Littimer for Lattimer is an example
+of this.  But in Royle for the local Ryle we find the same broadening
+which has given boil, a swelling, for earlier bile.
+
+
+
+APHESIS
+
+Among phonetic changes which occur with more or less regularity are
+those called aphesis, epenthesis, epithesis, assimilation,
+dissimilation, and metathesis, convenient terms which are less learned
+than they appear.  Aphesis is the loss of the unaccented first
+syllable, as in 'baccy and 'later.  It occurs almost regularly in
+words of French origin, e.g. squire and esquire, Prentice and
+apprentice.  When such double forms exist, the surname invariably
+assumes the popular form, e.g. Prentice, Squire.  Other examples are
+Bonner, i.e. debonair, Jenner, Jenoure, for Mid. Eng. engenour,
+engineer, Cator, Chaytor, Old Fr. acatour (acheteur), a buyer--
+
+"A gentil maunciple was they of a temple,
+ Of which achatours mighte take exemple" (A. 567),
+
+Spencer, dispenser, a spender, Stacey for Eustace, Vick and Veck for
+Levick, i.e. l'eveque, the bishop, Pottinger for the obsolete potigar,
+an apothecary, etc.
+
+The institution now known as the "orspittle" was called by our
+unlettered forefathers the "spital," hence the names Spittle and
+Spittlehouse.  A well-known amateur goal-keeper has the appropriate
+name Fender, for defender.
+
+Many names beginning with n are due to aphesis, e.g. Nash for atten
+ash, Nalder, Nelms, Nock, atten oak, Nokes, Nye, atten ey, at the
+island, Nangle, atten angle, Nind or Nend, atten ind or end.  With
+these we may compare Twells, at wells, and the numerous cases in which
+the first part of a personal name is dropped, e.g. Tolley,
+Bartholomew, Munn, Edmund, Pott, Philpot, dim. of Philip (see p.87),
+and the less common Facey, from Boniface, and Loney, from Apollonia,
+the latter of which has also given Applin.
+
+When a name compounded with Saint begins with a vowel, we get such
+forms as Tedman, St. Edmund, Tobin, St. Aubyn, Toosey, St. Osith,
+Toomey, St. Omer, Tooley, St. Olave; cf. Tooley St. for St. Olave St.
+and tawdry from St. Audrey.  When the saint's name begins with a
+consonant, we get, instead of aphesis, a telescoped pronunciation,
+e.g. Selinger, St. Leger, Seymour, St. Maur, Sinclair, St. Clair,
+Semark, St. Mark, Semple, St. Paul, Simper, St. Pierre, Sidney,
+probably for St. Denis, with which we may compare the educated
+pronunciation of St. John.  These names are all of local origin, from
+chapelries in Normandy or England.
+
+Epenthesis is the insertion of a sound which facilitates
+pronunciation, such as that of b in Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera.
+The intrusive sound may be a vowel or a consonant, as in the names
+Henery, Hendry, perversions of Henry.  [Footnote: On the usual fate of
+this name in English, see below.]
+
+To Hendry we owe the northern Henderson, which has often coalesced
+with Anderson, from Andrew.  These are contracted into Henson and
+Anson, the latter also from Ann and Agnes (Chapter IX).  Intrusion
+of a vowel is seen in Greenaway, Hathaway, heath way, Treadaway,
+trade (i.e. trodden) way, etc., also in Horniman, Alabone, Alban,
+Minister, minster, etc.  But epenthesis of a consonant is more common,
+especially b or p after m, and d after n.  Examples are Gamble for
+the Anglo-Saxon name Gamel, Hamblin for Hamlin, a double diminutive
+of Hamo, Simpson, Thompson, etc., and Grindrod, green royd (see p. III).
+There is also the special case of n before g in such names as Firminger
+(Chapter XV), Massinger (Chapter XX), Pottinger (Chapter XVIII), etc.
+
+
+
+EPITHESIS AND ASSIMILATION
+
+Epithesis, or the addition of a final consonant, is common in
+uneducated speech, e.g. scholard, gownd, garding, etc.  I say
+"uneducated," but many such forms have been adapted by the language,
+e.g. sound, Fr. son, and we have the name Kitching for kitchen.  The
+usual additions are -d, -t, or -g after n, e.g. Simmonds, Simon,
+Hammond, Hammant, Fr. Hamon, Hind, a farm labourer, of which the older
+form is Hine (Chapter XVII), Collings for Collins, Jennings, Fr.
+Jeannin, dim. of Jean, Aveling from the female name Avelina or Evelyn.
+Neill is for Neil, Nigel.  We have epithetic -b in Plumb, the man who
+lived by the plum-tree and epithetic -p in Crump (Chapter II).
+
+Assimilation is the tendency of a sound to imitate its neighbour.
+Thus the d of Hud (Chapter I) sometimes becomes t in contact with the
+sharp s, hence Hutson; Tomkins tends to become Tonkin, whence Tonks,
+if the m and k are not separated by the epenthetic p, Tompkins.  In
+Hopps and Hopkins we have the b of Hob assimilated to the sharp s and
+k, while in Hobbs we pronounce a final -z.  It is perhaps under the
+influence of the initial labial that Milson, son of Miles or Michael,
+sometimes becomes Milsom, and Branson, son of Brand, appears as
+Bransom.
+
+The same group of names is affected by dissimilation, i.e. the
+instinct to avoid the recurrence of the same sound.  Thus Ranson, son
+of Ranolf or Randolf, becomes Ransom [Footnote: So also Fr, rancon
+gives Eng. ransom.  The French surname Rancon is probably aphetic for
+Laurancon.]  by dissimilation of one n, and Hanson, son of Han
+(Chapter I), becomes Hansom.  In Sansom we have Samson assimilated to
+Samson and then dissimilated.  Dissimilation especially affects the
+sounds l, n, r.  Bullivant is found earlier as bon enfaunt
+(Goodchild), just as a braggart Burgundian was called by Tudor
+dramatists a burgullian.  Bellinger is for Barringer, an Old French
+name of Teutonic origin.  [Footnote: "When was Bobadil here, your
+captain?  that rogue, that foist, that fencing burgullian" (Jonson,
+Every Man in his Humour, iv. 2).]  Those people called Salisbury who
+do not hail from Salesbury in Lancashire must have had an ancestor de
+Sares-bury, for such was the earlier name of Salisbury (Sarum).  A
+number of occupative names have lost the last syllable by
+dissimilation, e.g. Pepper for pepperer, Armour for armourer.  For
+further examples see Chapter XV.
+
+It may be noted here that, apart from dissimilation, the sounds l, n,
+r, have a general tendency to become confused, e.g. Phillimore is for
+Finamour (Dearlove), which also appears as Finnemore and Fenimore, the
+latter also to be explained from fen and moor.  Catlin is from
+Catherine.  Balestier, a cross-bow man, gives Bannister, and Hamnet
+and Hamlet both occur as the name of one of Shakespeare's sons.
+Janico or Jenico, Fr. Janicot may be the origin of Jellicoe.
+
+We also get the change of r to l in Hal, for Harry, whence Hallett,
+Hawkins (Halkins), and the Cornish Hockin, Mal or Mol for Mary, whence
+Malleson, Mollison, etc., and Pell for Peregrine.  This confusion is
+common in infantile speech, e.g. I have heard a small child express
+great satisfaction at the presence on the table of "blackbelly dam."
+
+
+
+METATHESIS
+
+Metathesis, or the transposition of sound, chiefly affects l and r,
+especially the latter.  Our word cress is from Mid. Eng. kers, which
+appears in Karslake, Toulmin is for Tomlin, a double dim., -el-in, of
+Tom, Grundy is for Gundry, from Anglo-Sax. Gundred, and Joe Gargery
+descended from a Gregory.  Burnell is for Brunel, dim. of Fr. brun,
+brown, and Thrupp is for Thorp, a village (Chapter XIII).  Strickland
+was formerly Stirkland, Cripps is the same as Crisp, from Mid. Eng.
+crisp, curly.  Prentis Jankin had--
+
+"Crispe here, shynynge as gold so fyn"
+
+(D. 304);
+
+and of Fame we are told that
+
+"Her heer was oundie (wavy) and crips."
+
+(House of Fame, iii.  296.)
+
+Both names may also be short for Crispin, the etymology being the same
+in any case.  Apps is sometimes for asp, the tree now called by the
+adjectival name aspen (cf. linden).  We find Thomas atte apse in the
+reign of Edward III.
+
+The letters l, n, r also tend to disappear from no other cause than
+rapid or careless pronunciation.
+
+Hence we get Home for Holme (Chapter XII), Ferris for Ferrers, a
+French local name, Batt for Bartholomew, Gatty for Gertrude, Dallison
+for d'Alencon.  The loss of _r_ after a vowel is also exemplified by
+Foster for Forster, Pannell and Pennell for Parnell (sometimes), Gath
+for Garth (Chapter XIII), and Mash for Marsh.  To the loss of n before
+s we owe such names as Pattison, Paterson, etc., son of Paton, the
+dim. of Patrick, and Robison for Robinson, and also a whole group of
+names like Jenks and Jinks for Jenkins (John), Wilkes for Wilkins,
+Gilkes, Danks, Perks, Hawkes, Jukes for Judkins (Chapter VI), etc.
+Here I should also include Biggs, which is not always connected with
+Bigg, for we seldom find adjectival nicknames with -s.  It seems to
+represent Biggins, from obsolete biggin, a building (Chapter XIII).
+
+The French nasal n often disappeared before r.  Thus denree, lit.  a
+pennyworth, appears in Anglo-French as darree.  Similarly Henry became
+Harry, except in Scotland, and the English Kings of that name were
+always called Harry by their subjects.  It is to this pronunciation
+that we owe the popularity of Harris and Harrison, and the frequency
+of Welsh Parry, ap, Harry, as compared with Penry.  A compromise
+between Henry and Harry is seen in Hanrott, from the French dim.
+Henriot.
+
+The initial h-, which we regard with such veneration, is treated quite
+arbitrarily in surnames.  We find a well-known medieval poet called
+indifferently Occleve and Hoccleve.  Harnett is the same as Arnett,
+for Arnold, Ewens and Heavens are both from Ewan, and Heaven is an
+imitative form of Evan.  In Hoskins, from the medieval Osekin, a dim.
+of some Anglo-Saxon name such as Oswald (Chapter VII), the aspirate
+has definitely prevailed.  The Devonshire name Hexter is for Exeter,
+Arbuckle is a corruption of Harbottle, in Northumberland.  The Old
+French name Ancel appears as both Ansell and Hansell, and Earnshaw
+exists side by side with Hearnshaw (Chapter XII).
+
+The loss of h is especially common when it is the initial letter of a
+suffix, e.g. Barnum for Barnham, Haslam, (hazel), Blenkinsop for
+Blenkin's hope (see hope, Chapter XII), Newall for Newhall, Windle for
+Wind Hill, Tickell for Tick Hill, in Yorkshire, etc.  But Barnum and
+Haslam may also represent the Anglo-Saxon dative plural of the words
+barn and hazel.  A man who minded sheep was once called a Shepard, or
+Sheppard, as he still is, though we spell it shepherd.  The letter w
+disappears in the same way; thus Greenish is for Greenwich, Horridge
+for Horwich, Aspinall for Aspinwall, Millard for Millward, the
+mill-keeper, Boxall for Boxwell, Caudle for Cauldwell (cold); and the
+Anglo-Saxon names in -win are often confused with those in -ing, e.g.
+Gooding, Goodwin; Golding, Goldwin; Gunning, Gunwin, etc.  In this way
+Harding has prevailed over the once equally common Hardwin.
+
+
+
+BABY PHONETICS
+
+Finally, we have to consider what may be called baby phonetics, the
+sound-changes which seem rather to transgress general phonetic laws.
+Young children habitually confuse dentals and palatals, thus a child
+may be heard to say that he has "dot a told." This tendency is,
+however, not confined to children.  My own name, which is a very
+uncommon one, is a stumbling-block to most people, and when I give it
+in a shop the scribe has generally got as far as Wheat- before he can
+be stopped.
+
+We find both Estill and Askell for the medieval Asketil, and Thurtle
+alternating with Thurkle, originally Thurketil (Chapter VII).
+Bertenshave is found for Birkenshaw, birch wood, Bartley, sometimes
+from Bartholomew, is more often for Berkeley, and both Lord Bacon and
+Horace Walpole wrote Twitnam for Twickenham.  Jeffcock, dim. of
+Geoffrey, becomes Jeffcott, while Glascock is for the local Glascott.
+Here the palatal takes the place of the dental, as in Brangwin for
+Anglo-Sax. Brandwine.  Middleman is a dialect form of Michaelmas
+(Chapter IX).  We have the same change in tiddlebat for stickleback, a
+word which exemplifies another point in baby phonetics, viz. the loss
+of initial s-, as in the classic instance tummy.  To this loss of
+s- we owe Pick for Spick (Chapter XXIII), Pink for Spink, a dialect
+word for the chaffinch, and, I think, Tout for Stout.  The name Stacey
+is found as Tacey in old Notts registers.  On the other hand, an
+inorganic s- is sometimes prefixed, as in Sturgess for the older
+Turgis.  For the loss of s- we may compare Shakespeare's parmaceti (1
+Henry IV. i.  3), and for its addition the adjective spruce, from
+Pruce, i.e. Prussia.
+
+We also find the infantile confusion between th and f e.g. in Selfe,
+which appears to represent a personal name Seleth, probably from
+Anglo-Sax, saelth, bliss.  Perhaps also in Fripp for Thripp, a variant
+of Thrupp, for Thorp.  Bickerstaffe is the name of a place in
+Lancashire, of which the older form appears in Bickersteth, and the
+local name Throgmorton is spelt by Camden Frogmorton, just as Pepys
+invariably writes Queenhive for Queenhythe.
+
+Such are some of the commoner phenomena to be noticed in connection
+with the spelling and sound of our names.  The student must always
+bear in mind that our surnames date from a period when nearly the
+whole population was uneducated.  Their modern forms depend on all
+sorts of circumstances, such as local dialect, time of adoption,
+successive fashions in pronunciation and the taste and fancy of the
+speller.  They form part of our language, that is, of a living and
+ever-changing organism.  Some of us are old enough to remember the
+confusion between initial v and w which prompted the judge's question
+to Mr. Weller.  The vulgar i for a, as in "tike the kike," has been
+evolved within comparatively recent times, as well as the loss of
+final -g, "shootin and huntin," in sporting circles.  In the word
+warmint--
+
+"What were you brought up to be?"
+
+"A warmint, dear boy"
+
+(Great Expectations, ch. xl.),
+
+we have three phonetic phenomena, all of which have influenced the
+form and sound of modern surnames, e.g. in Winter, sometimes for
+Vinter, i.e. vintner, Clark for Clerk, and Bryant for Bryan; and
+similar changes have been in progress all through the history of our
+language.
+
+In conclusion it may be remarked that the personal and accidental
+element, which has so much to do with the development of surnames,
+releases this branch of philology to some extent from the iron rule of
+the phonetician.  Of this the preceding pages give examples.  The
+name, not being subject as other words are to a normalizing influence,
+is easily affected by the traditional or accidental spelling.
+Otherwise Fry would be pronounced Free.  The o is short in Robin and
+long in Probyn, and yet the names are the same (Chapter VI).  Sloper
+and Smoker mean a maker of slops and smocks respectively, and Smale is
+an archaic spelling of Small, the modern vowel being in each case
+lengthened by the retention of an archaic spelling.  The late
+Professor Skeat rejects Bardsley's identification of Waring with Old
+Fr. Garin or Warin, because the original vowel and the suffix are both
+different.  But Mainwaring, which is undoubtedly from mesnil-Warin
+(Chapter XIV), shows Bardsley to be right.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON
+
+"Talbots and Stanleys, St. Maurs and such-like folk, have led armies
+and made laws time out of mind; but those noble families would be
+somewhat astonished-if the accounts ever came to be fairly taken-to
+find how small their work for England has been by the side of that of
+the Browns."  (Tom Brown's Schooldays, ch. i.)
+
+Brown, Jones, and Robinson have usurped in popular speech positions
+properly belonging to Smith, Jones and Williams.  But the high
+position of Jones and Williams is due to the Welsh, who, replacing a
+string of Aps by a simple genitive at a comparatively recent date,
+have given undue prominence to a few very common names; cf. Davies,
+Evans, etc.  If we consider only purely English names, the triumvirate
+would be Smith, Taylor, and Brown.  Thus, of our three commonest
+names, the first two are occupative and the third is a nickname.
+French has no regular equivalent, though Dupont and Durand are
+sometimes used in this way--
+
+"Si Chateaubriand avait eu nom Durand ou Dupont, qui sait si son Genie
+du Christianisme n'eut point passe pour une capucinade?"
+
+(F. Brunetiere.)
+
+The Germans speak of Mueller, Meyer and Schulze, all rural names, and
+it is perhaps characteristic that two of them are official.  Meyer is
+an early loan from Lat. major, and appears to have originally meant
+something like overseer.  Later on it acquired the meaning of farmer,
+in its proper sense of one who farms, i.e. manages on a profit-sharing
+system, the property of another.  It is etymologically the same as our
+Mayor, Mair, etc.  Schulze, a village magistrate, is cognate with Ger.
+Schuld, debt, and our verb shall.
+
+
+
+OCCUPATIVE NAMES
+
+Taking the different classes of surnames separately, the six commonest
+occupative names are Smith, Taylor, Clark, Wright, Walker, Turner.  If
+we exclude Clark, as being more often a nickname for the man who could
+read and write, the sixth will be Cooper, sometimes spelt Cowper.
+
+The commanding position of Smith is due to the fact that it was
+applied to all workers in every kind of metal.  The modern Smiths no
+doubt include descendants of medieval blacksmiths, whitesmiths,
+bladesmiths, locksmiths, and many others, but the compounds are not
+common as surnames.  We find, however, Shoosmith, Shearsmith, and
+Nasmyth, the last being more probably for earlier Knysmith, i.e.
+knife-smith, than for nail-smith, which was supplanted by Naylor.
+Grossmith I guess to be an accommodated form of the Ger. Grobschmied,
+blacksmith, lit.  rough smith, and Goldsmith is very often a Jewish
+name for Ger. Goldschmid.
+
+Wright, obsolete perhaps as a trade name, has given many compounds,
+including Arkwright, a maker of bins, or arks as they were once
+called, Tellwright, a tile maker, and many others which need no
+interpretation.  The high position of Taylor is curious, for there
+were other names for the trade, such as Seamen, Shapster, Parmenter
+(Chapter XVIII), and neither Tailleur nor Letailleur are particularly
+common in French.  The explanation is that this name has absorbed the
+medieval Teler and Teller, weaver, ultimately belonging to Lat. tela,
+a web;--cf. the very common Fr. Tellier and Letellier.  In some cases
+also the Mid. Eng. teygheler, Tyler, has been swallowed up.  Walker,
+i.e. trampler, meant a cloth fuller, but another origin has helped to
+swell the numbers of the clan--
+
+"Walkers are such as are otherwise called foresters.  They are
+foresters assigned by the King, who are walkers within a certain space
+of ground assigned to their care" (Cowel's Interpreter).
+
+Cooper, a derivative of Lat. cupa or cuppa, a vessel, is cognate with
+the famous French name Cuvier, which has given our Cover, though this
+may also be for coverer, i.e. tiler (Chapter XV).
+
+Of occupative names which have also an official meaning, the three
+commonest are Ward, Bailey, and Marshall.  Ward, originally abstract,
+is the same word as Fr. garde.  Bailey, Old Fr. bailif (bailli),
+ranges from a Scottish magistrate to a man in possession.  It is
+related to bail and to bailey, a ward in a fortress, as in Old Bailey.
+Bayliss may come from the Old French nominative bailis (Chapter I), or
+may be formed like Parsons, etc. (Chapter XV).  Marshall (Chapter XX)
+may stand for a great commander or a shoeing-smith, still called
+farrier-marshal in the army.  The first syllable is cognate with mare
+and the second means servant.  Constable, Lat. comes stabuli,
+stableman, has a similar history.
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF NAMES
+
+The commonest local names naturally include none taken from particular
+places.  The three commonest are Hall, Wood and Green, from residence
+by the great house, the wood, and the village green.  Cf. the French
+names Lasalle, Dubois, Dupre.  Hall is sometimes for Hale (Chapter
+II), and its Old French translation is one source of Sale.  Next to
+these come Hill, Moore, and Shaw (Chapter XII); but Lee would probably
+come among the first if all its variants were taken into account
+(Chapter III).
+
+Of baptismal names used unaltered as surnames the six commonest are
+Thomas, Lewis, Martin, James, Morris, Morgan.  Here again the Welsh
+element is strong, and four of these names, ending in -s, belong also
+to the next group, i.e. the class of surnames formed from the genitive
+of baptismal names.  The frequent occurrence of Lewis is partly due to
+its being adopted as a kind of translation of the Welsh Llewellyn, but
+the name is often a disguised Jewish Levi, and has nearly absorbed the
+local Lewes.  Next to the above come Allen, Bennett, Mitchell, all of
+French introduction.  Mitchell may have been reinforced by Mickle, the
+northern for Bigg.  It is curious that these particularly common
+names, Martin, Allen, Bennett (Benedict), Mitchell (Michael), have
+formed comparatively few derivatives and are generally found in their
+unaltered form.  Three of them are from famous saints' names, while
+Allen, a Breton name which came in with the Conquest, has probably
+absorbed to some extent the Anglo-Saxon name Alwin (Chapter VII).
+Martin is in some cases an animal nickname, the marten.  Among the
+genitives Jones, Williams, and Davi(e)s lead easily, followed by
+Evans, Roberts, and Hughes, all Welsh in the main.  Among the twelve
+commonest names of this class those that are not preponderantly Welsh
+are Roberts, Edwards, Harris, Phillips, and Rogers.  Another Welsh
+patronymic, Price (Chapter VI), is among the fifty commonest English
+names.
+
+The classification of names in -son raises the difficult question as
+to whether Jack represents Fr. Jacques, or whether it comes from
+Jankin, Jenkin, dim. of John.  [Footnote: See E. B. Nicholson, The
+Pedigree of Jack.]
+
+Taking Johnson and Jackson as separate names, we get the order
+Johnson, Robinson, Wilson, Thompson, Jackson, Harrison.  The variants
+of Thompson might put it a place or two higher.  Names in -kins
+(Distribution of names, Chapter IV), though very numerous in some
+regions, are not so common as those in the above classes.  It would be
+hard to say which English font-name has given the largest number of
+family names.  In Chapter V. will be found some idea of the
+bewildering and multitudinous forms they assume.  It has been
+calculated, I need hardly say by a German professor, that the possible
+number of derivatives from one given name is 6, 000, but fortunately
+most of the seeds are abortive.
+
+Of nicknames Brown, Clark, and White are by far the commonest.  Then
+comes King, followed by the two adjectival nicknames Sharp and Young.
+
+The growth of towns and facility of communication are now bringing
+about such a general movement that most regions would accept Brown,
+Jones and Robinson as fairly typical names.  But this was not always
+so.  Brown is still much commoner in the north than in the south, and
+at one time the northern Johnson and Robinson contrasted with the
+southern Jones and Roberts, the latter being of comparatively modern
+origin in Wales (Chapter IV).  Even now, if we take the farmer class,
+our nomenclature is largely regional, and the directories even of our
+great manufacturing towns represent to a great extent the medieval
+population of the rural district around them.  [Footnote: See Guppy,
+Homes of Family Names.] The names Daft and Turney, well known in
+Nottingham, appear in the county in the Hundred Rolls.  Cheetham, the
+name of a place now absorbed in Manchester, is as a surname ten times
+more numerous there than in London, and the same is true of many
+characteristic north-country names, such as the Barraclough,
+Murgatroyd, and Sugden of Charlotte Bronte's Shirley.  The
+transference of Murgatroyd (Chapter XII) to Cornwall, in Gilbert and
+Sullivan's Ruddigore, must have been part of the intentional
+topsy-turvydom in which those two bright spirits delighted.
+
+Diminutives in -kin, from the Old Dutch suffix -ken, are still found
+in greatest number on the east coast that faces Holland, or in Wales,
+where they were introduced by the Flemish weavers who settled in
+Pembrokeshire in the reign of Henry I.  It is in the border counties,
+Cheshire, Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, that we find the old
+Welsh names such as Gough, Lloyd, Onion (Enion), Vaughan (Chapter
+XXII).  The local Gape, an opening in the cliffs, is pretty well
+confined to Norfolk, and Puddifoot belongs to Bucks and the adjacent
+counties as it did in 1273.  The hall changes hands as one conquering
+race succeeds another--
+
+"Where is Bohun?  Where is de Vere?  The lawyer, the farmer, the silk
+mercer, lies perdu under the coronet, and winks to the antiquary to
+say nothing" (Emerson, English Traits),
+
+but the hut keeps its ancient inhabitants.  The descendant of the
+Anglo-Saxon serf who cringed to Front de Boeuf now makes way
+respectfully for Isaac of York's motor, perhaps on the very spot where
+his own fierce ancestor first exchanged the sword for the ploughshare
+long before Alfred's day.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. THE ABSORPTION OF FOREIGN NAMES
+
+"I was born in the year 1632, in the city of York, of a good family,
+though not of that country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who
+settled first at Hull.  He got a good estate by merchandize, and
+leaving off his trade, lived afterwards at York, from whence he
+married my mother, whose relations were named Robinson, a very good
+family in that country, and from whom I was called Robinson
+Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in English, we are
+now called--nay, we call ourselves and write our name--Crusoe" (Robinson
+Crusoe, ch. i.).
+
+Any student of our family nomenclature must be struck by the fact that
+the number of foreign names now recognizable in England is out of all
+proportion to the immense number which must have been introduced at
+various periods of our history.  Even the expert, who is often able to
+detect the foreign name in its apparently English garb, cannot rectify
+this disproportion for us.  The number of names of which the present
+form can be traced back to a foreign origin is inconsiderable when
+compared with the much larger number assimilated and absorbed by the
+Anglo-Saxon.
+
+
+
+THE HUGUENOTS
+
+The great mass of those names of French or Flemish origin which do not
+date back to the Conquest or to medieval times are due to the
+immigration of Protestant refugees in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries.  It is true that many names for which Huguenot ancestry is
+claimed were known in England long before the Reformation.  Thus,
+Bulteel is the name of a refugee family which came from Tournay about
+the year 1600, but the same name is found in the Hundred Rolls Of
+1273.  The Grubbe family, according to Burke, came from Germany about
+1450, after the Hussite persecution; but we find the name in England
+two centuries earlier, "without the assistance of a foreign
+persecution to make it respectable" (Bardsley, Dictionary of English
+Surnames).  The Minet family is known to be of Huguenot origin, but
+the same name also figures in the medieval Rolls.  The fact is that
+there was all through the Middle Ages a steady immigration of
+foreigners, whether artisans, tradesmen, or adventurers, some of whose
+names naturally reappear among the Huguenots.  On several occasions
+large bodies of Continental workmen, skilled in special trades, were
+brought into the country by the wise policy of the Government.  Like
+the Huguenots later on, they were protected by the State and
+persecuted by the populace, who resented their habits of industry and
+sobriety.
+
+During the whole period of the religious troubles in France and
+Flanders, starting from the middle of the sixteenth century, refugees
+were reaching this country in a steady stream; but after the
+Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) they arrived in thousands,
+and the task of providing for them and helping on their absorption
+into the population became a serious problem.  Among the better class
+of these immigrants was to be found the flower of French intellect and
+enterprise, and one has only to look through an Army or Navy list, or
+to notice the names which are prominent in the Church, at the Bar, and
+in the higher walks of industry and commerce, to realize the madness
+of Louis XIV. and the wisdom of the English Government.
+
+Here are a few taken at random from Smiles's History of the
+Huguenots--Bosanquet, Casaubon, Chenevix Trench, Champion de Crespigny,
+Dalbiac, Delane, Dollond, Durand, Fonblanque, Gambier, Garrick,
+Layard, Lefanu, Lefroy, Ligonier, Luard, Martineau, Palairet, Perowne,
+Plimsoll, Riou, Romilly--all respectable and many distinguished, even
+cricket being represented.  These more educated foreigners usually
+kept their names, sometimes with slight modifications which do not
+make them unrecognizable.  Thus, Bouverie, literally "ox-farm," is
+generally found in its unaltered form, though the London Directory has
+also examples of the perverted Buffery.  But the majority of the
+immigrants were of the artisan class and illiterate.  This explains
+the extraordinary disappearance, in the course of two centuries, of
+the thousands of French names which were introduced between 1550 and
+1700.
+
+We have many official lists of these foreigners, and in these lists we
+catch the foreign name in the very act of transforming itself into
+English.  This happens sometimes by translation, e.g. Poulain became
+Colt, Poisson was reincarnated as Fish, and a refugee bearing the
+somewhat uncommon name Petitoeil transformed himself into Little-eye,
+which became in a few generations Lidley.  But comparatively few
+surnames were susceptible of such simple treatment, and in the great
+majority of cases the name underwent a more or less arbitrary
+perversion which gave it a more English physiognomy.  Especially
+interesting from this point of view is the list of--"Straungers
+residing and dwellinge within the city of London and the liberties
+thereof," drawn up in 1618.  The names were probably taken down by the
+officials of the different wards, who, differing themselves in
+intelligence and orthography, produced very curious results.
+
+As a rule the Christian name is translated, while the surname is
+either assimilated to some English form or perverted according to the
+taste and fancy of the individual constable.  Thus, John Garret, a
+Dutchman, is probably Jan Gerard, and James Flower, a milliner, born
+in Rouen, is certainly Jaques Fleur, or Lafleur.  John de Cane and
+Peter le Cane are Jean Duquesne and Pierre Lequesne (Norman quene,
+oak), though the former may also have come from Caen.  John Buck, from
+Rouen, is Jean Bouc, and Abraham Bushell, from Rochelle, was probably
+a Roussel or Boissel.  James King and John Hill, both Dutchmen, are
+obvious translations of common Dutch names, while Henry Powell, a
+German, is Heinrich Paul.  Mary Peacock, from Dunkirk, and John
+Bonner, a Frenchman, I take to be Marie Picot and Jean Bonheur, while
+Nicholas Bellow is surely Nicolas Belleau.  Michael Leman, born in
+Brussels, may be French Leman or Lemoine, or perhaps German Lehmann.
+
+To each alien's name is appended that of the monarch whose subject he
+calls himself, but a republic is outside the experience of one
+constable, who leaves an interrogative blank after Cristofer Switcher,
+born at Swerick (Zuerich) in Switcherland.  The surname so ingeniously
+created appears to have left no pedagogic descendants.  In some cases
+the harassed Bumble has lost patience, and substituted a plain English
+name for foreign absurdity.  To the brain which christened Oliver
+Twist we owe Henry Price, a subject of the King of Poland, Lewis
+Jackson, a "Portingall," and Alexander Faith, a steward to the Venice
+Ambassador, born in the dukedom of Florence.
+
+
+
+PERVERSIONS OF FOREIGN NAMES
+
+In the returns made outside the bounds of the city proper the aliens
+have added their own signatures, or in some cases made their marks.
+Jacob Alburtt signs himself as Jacob Elbers, and Croft Castell as
+Kraft Kassels.  Harman James is the official translation of Hermann
+Jacobs, Mary Miller of Marija Moliner, and John Young of Jan le Jeune.
+Gyllyam Spease, for Wilbert Spirs, seems to be due to a Welsh
+constable, and Chrystyan Wyhelhames, for Cristian Welselm, looks like
+a conscientious attempt at Williams.  One registrar, with a phonetic
+system of his own, has transformed the Dutch Moll into the more
+familiar Maule, and has enriched his list with Jannacay Yacopes for
+Jantje Jacobs.  Lowe Luddow, who signs himself Louij Ledou, seems to
+be Louis Ledoux.  An alien who writes himself Jann Eisankraott (Ger.
+Eisenkraut?  ) cannot reasonably complain plain at being transformed
+into John Isacrocke, but the substitution of John Johnson for Jansen
+Vandrusen suggests that this individual's case was taken at the end of
+a long day's work.
+
+These examples, taken at random, show how the French and Flemish names
+of the humbler refugees lost their foreign appearance.  In many cases
+the transformation was etymologically justified.  Thus, some of our
+Druitts and Drewetts may be descended from Martin Druett, the first
+name on the list.  But this is probably the common French name Drouet
+or Drouot, assimilated to the English Druitt, which we find in 1273.
+And both are diminutives of Drogo, which occurs in Domesday Book, and
+is, through Old French, the origin of our Drew.  But in many cases the
+name has been so deformed that one can only guess at the continental
+original.  I should conjecture, for instance, that the curious name
+Shoppee is a corruption of Chappuis, the Old French for a carpenter,
+and that
+
+Jacob Shophousey, registered as a German cutler, came from
+Schaffhausen.  In this particular region of English nomenclature a
+little guessing is almost excusable.  The law of probabilities makes
+it mathematically certain that the horde of immigrants included
+representatives of all the very common French family names, and it
+would be strange if Chappuis were absent.
+
+This process of transformation is still going on in a small way,
+especially in our provincial manufacturing towns, in which most large
+commercial undertakings have slipped from the nerveless grasp of the
+Anglo-Saxon into the more capable and prehensile fingers of the
+foreigner--
+
+"Hilda then learnt that Mrs.  Gailey had married a French modeller
+named Canonges. . .  and that in course of time the modeller had
+informally changed the name to Cannon, because no one in the five
+towns could pronounce the true name rightly."
+
+(Arnold Bennett, Hilda Lessways, i.  5.)
+
+This occurs most frequently in the case of Jewish names of German
+origin.  Thus, Loewe becomes Lowe or Lyons, Meyer is transformed into
+Myers, Goldschmid into Goldsmith, Kohn into Cowan, Levy into Lee or
+Lewis, Salamon into Salmon, Hirsch or Hertz into Hart, and so on.
+Sometimes a bolder flight is attempted--
+
+"Leopold Norfolk Gordon had a house in Park Lane, and ever so many
+people's money to keep it up with.  As may be guessed from his name,
+he was a Jew."
+
+(Morley Roberts, Lady Penelope, ch. ii.)
+
+
+
+JEWISH NAMES
+
+The Jewish names of German origin which are now so common in England
+mostly date from the beginning of the nineteenth century, when laws
+were passed in Austria, Prussia and Bavaria to compel all Jewish
+families to adopt a fixed surname.  Many of them chose personal names,
+e.g. Jakobs, Levy, Moses, for this purpose, while others named
+themselves from their place of residence, e.g. Cassel, Speyer
+(Spires), Hamburg, often with the addition of the syllable -er, e.g.
+Darmesteter, Homburger.  Some families preferred descriptive names
+such as Selig (Chapter XXII), Sonnenschein, Goldmann, or invented
+poetic and gorgeous place-names such as Rosenberg, Blumenthal,
+Goldberg, Lilienfeld.  The oriental fancy also showed itself in such
+names as Edelstein, jewel, Glueckstein, luck stone, Rubinstein, ruby,
+Goldenkranz, golden wreath, etc. [Footnote: Our Touchstone would seem
+also to be a nickname.  The obituary of a Mr. Touchstone appeared in
+the Manchester Guardian, December 12, 1912.] It is owing to the
+existence of the last two groups that our fashionable intelligence is
+now often so suggestive of a wine-list.  Among animal names adopted
+the favourites were Adler, eagle, Hirsch, hart, Loewe, lion, and Wolf,
+each of which is used with symbolic significance in the Old Testament.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. TOM, DICK AND HARRY
+
+"Watte vocat, cui Thomme venit, neque Symme retardat,
+  Betteque, Gibbe simul, Hykke venire jubent;
+Colle furit, quem Geffe juvat nocumenta parantes,
+  Cum quibus ad dampnum Wille coire vovet.
+Grigge rapit, dum Dawe strepit, comes est quibus Hobbe,
+  Lorkyn et in medio non minor esse putat:
+Hudde ferit, quem Judde terit, dum Tebbe minatur,
+  Jakke domosque viros vellit et ense necat."
+
+(GOWER, On Wat Tyler's Rebellion.)
+
+Gower's lines on the peasant rebels give us some idea of the names
+which were most popular in the fourteenth century, and which have
+consequently impressed themselves most strongly on our modern
+surnames.  It will be noticed that one member of the modern
+triumvirate, Harry, or Hal, is absent.  [Footnote: The three names
+were not definitely established till the nineteenth century.  Before
+that period they had rivals.  French says Pierre et Paul, and German
+Heinz and Kunz, i.e. Heinrich and Conrad.] The great popularity of
+this name probably dates from a rather later period and is connected
+with the exploits of Henry V. Moreover, all the names, with the
+possible exception of Hud, are of French introduction and occur rarely
+before the Conquest.  The old Anglo-Saxon names did survive,
+especially in the remoter parts of the country, and have given us many
+surnames (see ch. vii.), but even in the Middle Ages people had a
+preference for anything that came over with the Conqueror.  French
+names are nearly all of German origin, the Celtic names and the Latin
+names which encroached on them having been swept away by the Frankish
+invasion, a parallel to the wholesale adoption of Norman names in
+England.  Thus our name Harvey, no longer usual as a font-name, is Fr.
+Herod, which represents the heroic German name Herewig, to the second
+syllable of which belongs such an apparently insignificant name as
+Wigg.
+
+
+
+MEDIEVAL FONT-NAMES
+
+The disappearance of Latin names is not to be regretted, for the Latin
+nomenclature was of the most unimaginative description, while the Old
+German names are more like those of Greece; e.g. Ger. Ludwig, which
+has passed into most of the European languages (Louis, Lewis,
+Ludovico, etc), is from Old High Ger. hlut-wig, renowned in fight,
+equivalent to the Greek Clytomachus, with one-half of which it is
+etymologically cognate.
+
+Some of the names in Gower's list, e.g. Watte (Chapter I), Thomme,
+Symme, Geffe (Chapter VI), Wille, Jakke, are easily recognized.  Bette
+is for Bat, Bartholomew, a name, which has given Batty, Batten, Bates,
+Bartle (cf. Bartlemas), Bartlett, Badcock, Batcock.  But this group of
+names belongs also to the Bert- or -bent, which is so common in
+Teutonic names, such as Bertrand, Bertram, Herbert, Hubert, many of
+which reached us in an Old French form.  For the loss of the _r_, cf.
+Matty from Martha.  Gibe is for Gilbert.  Hick is rimed on Dick:
+(Chapter VI).  Colle is for Nicolas.  Grig is for Gregory, whence
+Gregson and Scottish Grier.  Dawe, for David, alternated with Day and
+Dow, which appear as first element in many surnames, though Day has
+another origin (Chapter XIX) and Dowson sometimes belongs to the
+female name Douce, sweet.  Hobbe is a rimed form from Robert.  Lorkyn,
+or Larkin, is for Lawrence, for which we also find Law, Lay, and Low,
+whence Lawson, Lakin, Lowson, Locock, etc.  For Hudde see Chapters I,
+VII.  Judde, from the very popular Jordan, has given Judson, Judkins,
+and the contracted Jukes.  Jordan (Fr. Jourdain, Ital. Giordano) seems
+to have been adopted as a personal name in honour of John the Baptist.
+Tebbe is for Theobald (Chapter I).
+
+
+
+THE COMMONEST FONT-NAMES
+
+Many people, in addressing a small boy with whom they are
+unacquainted, are in the habit of using Tommy as a name to which any
+small boy should naturally answer.  In some parts of Polynesia the
+natives speak of a white Mary or a black Mary, i.e. woman, just as the
+Walloons round Mons speak of Marie bon bec, a shrew, Marie grognon, a
+Mrs.  Gummidge, Marie quatre langues, a chatterbox, and several other
+Maries still less politely described.  We have the modern silly Johnny
+for the older silly Billy, while Jack Pudding is in German Hans Wurst,
+John Sausage.  Only the very commonest names are used in this way,
+and, if we had no further evidence, the rustic Dicky bird, Robin
+redbreast, Hob goblin, Tom tit, Will o' the Wisp, Jack o' lantern,
+etc., would tell us which have been in the past the most popular
+English font-names.  During the Middle Ages there was a kind of race
+among half a dozen favourite names, the prevailing order being John,
+William, Thomas, Richard, Robert, with perhaps Hugh as sixth.
+
+Now, for each of these there is a reason.  John, a favourite name in
+so many languages (Jean, Johann, Giovanni, Juan, Ian, Ivan, etc.), as
+the name of the Baptist and of the favoured disciple, defied even the
+unpopularity of our one King of that name.  The special circumstances
+attending the birth and naming of the Baptist probably supplied the
+chief factor in its triumph.
+
+For some time after the Conquest William led easily.  We usually
+adopted the W- form from the north-east of France, but Guillaume has
+also supplied a large number of surnames in Gil-, which have got
+inextricably mixed up with those derived from Gilbert, Gillian
+(Juliana), and Giles.  Gilman represents the French dim. Guillemin,
+the local-looking Gilliam is simply Guillaume, and Wilmot corresponds
+to Fr. Guillemot.
+
+The doubting disciple held a very insignificant place until the shrine
+of St. Thomas of Canterbury became one of the holy places of
+Christendom.  To Thomas belong Macey, Massie, and Masson, dims.  of
+French aphetic forms, but the first two are also from Old French forms
+of Matthew, and Masson is sometimes an alternative form of Mason.
+
+Robert and Richard were both popular Norman names.  The first was
+greatly helped by Robin Hood and the second by the Lion-Heart.
+
+The name Hugh was borne by several saints, the most famous of whom in
+England was the child-martyr, St. Hugh of Lincoln, said to have been
+murdered by the Jews C. 1250.  It had a dim. Huggin and also the forms
+Hew and How, whence Hewett, Hewlett, Howitt, Howlett, etc., while from
+the French dim. Huchon we get Hutchin and its derivatives, and also
+Houchin.  Hugh also appears in the rather small class of names
+represented by Littlejohn, Meiklejohn, etc. [Footnote: This formation
+seems to be much commoner in French.  In the "Bottin" I find
+Grandblaise, Grandcollot (Nicolas), Grandgeorge, Grandgerard,
+Grandguillaume, Grandguillot, Grandjacques, Grand-jean, Grandperrin
+(Pierre), Grandpierre, Grandremy, Grandvincent, and Petitcolin,
+Petitdemange (Dominique), Petitdidier (Desiderius), Petit-Durand,
+Petit-Etienne (Stephen), Petit-Gerard, Petit-Huguenin, Petitjean,
+Petitperrin, Petit-Richard.]  We find Goodhew, Goodhue.  Cf.
+Gaukroger, i.e. awkward Roger, and Goodwillie.  But the more usual
+origin of Goodhew, Goodhue is from Middle Eng. heave, servant, hind.
+Cf. Goodhind.
+
+Most of the other names in Gower's list have been prolific.  We might
+add to them Roger, whence Hodge and Dodge, Humfrey, which did not lend
+itself to many variations, and Peter, from the French form of which we
+have many derivatives (Chapter III), including perhaps the Huguenot
+Perowne, Fr. Perron, but this can also be local, du Perron, the
+etymology, Lat. Petra, rock, remaining the same.
+
+The absence of the great names Alfred [Footnote: The name Alured is
+due to misreading of the older Alvred, v being written u in old MSS.
+Allfrey is from the Old French form of the name.]  and Edward is not
+surprising, as they belonged to the conquered race.  Though Edward was
+revived as the name of a long line of Kings, its contribution to
+surnames has been small, most names in Ed-, Ead-, e.g. Ede, Eden,
+Edison, Edkins, Eady, etc., belonging rather to the once popular
+female name Eda or to Edith, though in some cases they are from Edward
+or other Anglo-Saxon names having the same initial syllable.  James is
+a rare name in medieval rolls, being represented by Jacob, and no
+doubt partly by Jack (Chapter IV).  It is--
+
+"Wrested from Jacob, the same as Jago [Footnote: Jago is found, with
+other Spanish names, in Cornwall; cf. Bastian or Baste, for
+Sebastian.]  in Spanish, Jaques in French; which some Frenchified
+English, to their disgrace, have too much affected" (Camden).
+
+It appears in Gimson, Jemmett, and the odd-looking Gem, while its
+French form is somewhat disguised in Jeakes and Jex.
+
+
+
+FASHIONS IN FONT-NAMES
+
+The force of royal example is seen in the popularity under the Angevin
+kings of Henry, or Harry, Geoffrey and Fulk, the three favourite names
+in that family.  For Harry see Chapter III.  Geoffrey, from Ger.
+Gottfried, Godfrey, has given us a large number of names in Geff-,
+Jeff-, and Giff-, Jiff-, and probably also Jebb, Gepp and Jepson,
+while to Fulk we owe Fewkes, Foakes, Fowkes, Vokes, etc., and perhaps
+in some cases Fox.  But it is impossible to catalogue all the popular
+medieval font-names.  Many others will be found scattered through this
+book as occasion or association suggests them.
+
+Three names whose poor representation is surprising are Arthur,
+Charles and George, the two great Kings of medieval romance and the
+patron saint of Merrie England.  All three are fairly common in their
+unaltered form, and we find also Arter for Arthur.  But they have
+given few derivatives, though Atkins, generally from Ad-, i.e. Adam,
+may sometimes be from Arthur (cf. Bat for Bart, Matty for Martha,
+etc.).  Arthur is a rare medieval font-name, a fact no doubt due to
+the sad fate of King John's nephew.  Its modern popularity dates from
+the Duke of Wellington, while Charles and George were raised from
+obscurity by the Stuarts and the Brunswicks.  To these might be added
+the German name Frederick, the spread of which was due to the fame of
+Frederick the Great.  It gave, however, in French the dissimilated
+Ferry, one source of our surnames Ferry, Ferris, though the former is
+generally local.  [Footnote: "For Frideric, the English have commonly
+used Frery and Fery, which hath been now a long time a Christian name
+in the ancient family of Tilney, and lucky to their house, as they
+report." (Camden.)]
+
+If, on the other hand, we take from Gower's list a name which is
+to-day comparatively rare, e.g. Gilbert, we find it represented by a
+whole string of surnames, e.g. Gilbart, Gibbs, Gibson, Gibbon,
+Gibbins, Gipps, Gipson, to mention only the most familiar.  From the
+French dim. Gibelot we get the rather rare Giblett; cf. Hewlett for
+Hew-el-et, Hamlet for Ham-el-et (Hamo), etc.
+
+
+
+DERIVATIVES OF FONT-NAMES
+
+In forming patronymics from personal names, it is not always the first
+syllable that is selected.  In Toll, Tolley, Tollett, from
+Bartholomew, the second has survived, while Philpot, dim. of Philip,
+has given Potts.  From Alexander we get Sanders and Saunders.  But,
+taking, for simplicity, two instances in which the first syllable has
+survived, we shall find plenty of instruction in those two pretty men
+Robert and Richard.  We have seen (Chapter VI) that Roger gave Hodge
+and Dodge, which, in the derivatives Hodson and Dodson, have coalesced
+with names derived from Odo and the Anglo-Sax. Dodda (Chapter VII).
+Similarly Robert gave Rob, Hob and Dob, and Richard gave Rick, Hick
+and Dick.  [Footnote: I believe, however, that Hob is in some cases
+from Hubert, whence Hubbard, Hibbert, Hobart, etc.] Hob, whence Hobbs,
+was sharpened into Hop, whence Hopps.  The diminutive Hopkin, passing
+into Wales, gave Popkin, just as ap-Robin became Probyn, ap-Hugh Pugh,
+ap-Owen Bowen, etc.  In the north Dobbs became Dabbs (p. A. Hob also
+developed another rimed form Nob cf. to "hob-nob" with anyone),
+whence Nobbs and Nabbs, the latter, of course, being sometimes rimed
+on Abbs, from Abel or Abraham.  Bob is the latest variant and has not
+formed many surnames.  Richard has a larger family than Robert, for,
+besides Rick, Hick and Dick, we have Rich and Hitch, Higg and Digg.
+The reader will be able to continue this genealogical tree for
+himself.
+
+The full or the shortened name can become a surname, either without
+change, or with the addition of the genitive -s or the word -son, the
+former more usual in the south, the latter in the north.  To take a
+simple case, we find as surnames William, Will, Williams, Wills,
+Williamson, Wilson.  [Footnote: This suffix has squeezed out all the
+others, though Alice Johnson is theoretically absurd.  In Mid. English
+we find daughter, father, mother, brother and other terms of
+relationship used in this way, e.g. in 1379, Agnes Dyconwyfdowson, the
+wife of Dow's son Dick.  Dawbarn, child of David, is still found.  See
+also Chapter XXI]
+
+From the short form we get diminutives by means of the English
+suffixes -ie or -y (these especially in the north), -kin (Chapter IV),
+and the French suffixes -et, -ot (often becoming -at in English), -in,
+-on (often becoming -en in English).  Thus Willy, Wilkie, Willett.  I
+give a few examples of surnames formed from each class
+
+Ritchie (Richard), Oddy (Odo, whence also Oates), Lambie (Lambert),
+Jelley (Julian); [Footnote: Lamb is also, of course, a nickname cf.
+Agnew, Fr. agneau]
+
+Dawkins, Dawkes (David), Hawkins, Hawkes (Hal), Gilkins (Geoffrey),
+Perkins, Perks (Peter), Rankin (Randolf);
+
+Gillett (Gil, Chapter VI), Collett (Nicholas), Bartlett (Bartholomew),
+Ricketts (Richard), Marriott, Marryat (Mary), Elliott (Elias, see
+Chapter IX), Wyatt (Guy), Perrott (Peter);
+
+Collins (Nicholas), Jennings (John, see Chapter X), Copping (Jacob,
+see Chapter I), Rawlin (Raoul, the French form of Radolf, whence Roll,
+Ralph, Relf), Paton (Patrick), Sisson (Sirs, i.e. Cecilia), Gibbons
+(Gilbert), Beaton (Beatrice).
+
+In addition to the suffixes and diminutives already mentioned, we have
+the two rather puzzling endings -man and -cock.  Man occurs as an
+ending in several Germanic names which are older than the Conquest,
+e.g. Ashman, Harman, Coleman; and the simple Mann is also an
+Anglo-Saxon personal name.  It is sometimes to be taken literally,
+e.g. in Goodman, i.e. master of the house (Matt.  xx. ii), Longman,
+Youngman, etc.  In Hickman, Homan (How, Hugh), etc., it may mean
+servant of, as in Ladyman, Priestman, or may be merely an augmentative
+suffix.  In Coltman, Runciman, it is occupative, the man in charge of
+the colts, rouncies or nags.  Chaucer's Shipman--
+
+"Rood upon a rouncy as he kouthe" (A. 390).
+
+In Bridgeman, Pullman, it means the man who lived near, or had some
+office in connection with, the bridge or pool.  But it is often due to
+the imitative instinct.  Dedman is for the local Debenham, and Lakeman
+for Lakenham, while Wyman represents the old name Wymond, and Bowman
+and Beeman are sometimes for the local Beaumont (cf. the pronunciation
+of Belvoir).  But the existence in German of the name Bienemann shows
+that Beeman may have meant bee-keeper.  Sloman may be a nickname, but
+also means the man in the slough (Chapter XII), and Godliman is an old
+familiar spelling of Godalming.  We of course get doubtful cases, e.g.
+Sandeman may be, as explained by Bardsley, the servant of Alexander
+(Chapter VI), but it may equally well represent Mid. Eng. sandeman, a
+messenger, and Lawman, Layman, are rather to be regarded as
+derivatives of Lawrence (Chapter VI) than what they appear to be.
+
+
+
+THE SUFFIX -COCK
+
+Many explanations have been given of the suffix -cock, but I cannot
+say that any of them have convinced me.  Both Cock and the patronymic
+Cocking are found as early personal names.  The suffix was added to
+the shortened form of font-names, e.g. Alcock (Allen), Hitchcock
+(Richard), was apparently felt as a mere diminutive, and took an -s
+like the diminutives in -kin, e.g. Willcocks, Simcox.  In Hedgecock,
+'Woodcock, etc., it is of course a nickname.  The modern Cox is one of
+our very common names, and the spelling Cock, Cocks, Cox, can be found
+representing three generations in the churchyard of Invergowrie, near
+Dundee.
+
+The two names Bawcock and Meacock had once a special significance.
+Pistol, urged to the breach by Fluellen, replies
+
+"Good bawcock, bate thy rage!  use lenity, sweet chuck"
+
+(Henry V., iii, 2);
+
+and Petruchio, pretending that his first interview with Katherine has
+been most satisfactory, says--
+
+"'Tis a world to see
+How tame, when men and women are alone,
+A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew."
+
+(Taming of the Shrew, ii.1.)
+
+These have been explained as Fr. beau coq, which is possible, and meek
+cock, which is absurd.  As both words are found as surnames before
+Shakespeare's time, it is probable that they are diminutives which
+were felt as suited to receive a special connotation, just as a man
+who treats his thirst generously is vulgarly called a Lushington.
+Bawcock can easily be connected with Baldwin, while Meacock, Maycock,
+belong to the personal name May or Mee, shortened from the Old Fr.
+Mahieu (Chapter IX).
+
+Although we are not dealing with Celtic names, a few words as to the
+Scottish, Irish, and Welsh surnames which we find in our directories
+may be useful.  Those of Celtic origin are almost invariably
+patronymics.  The Scottish and Irish Mac, son, used like the Anglo-Fr.
+Fitz-, ultimately means kin, and is related to the -mough of Watmough
+(Chapter XXI) and to the word maid.  In MacNab, son of the abbot, and
+MacPherson, son of the parson, we have curious hybrids.  In Manx
+names, such as Quilliam (Mac William), Killip (Mac Philip), Clucas
+(Mac Lucas), we have aphetic forms of Mac.  The Irish 0', grandson,
+descendant, has etymologically the same meaning as Mac, and is related
+to the first part of Ger. Oheim, uncle, of Anglo-Sax. eam (see Eames,
+Chapter XXI), and of Lat. avus, grandfather.  Oe or oye is still used
+for grandchild in Scottish--
+
+"There was my daughter's wean, little Eppie Daidle, my oe, ye ken"
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. iv.).
+
+The names of the Lowlands of Scotland are pretty much the same as
+those of northern England, with the addition of a very large French
+element, due to the close historical connection between the two
+countries.  Examples of French names, often much corrupted, are
+Bethune (Pas de Calais), often corrupted into Beaton, the name of one
+of the Queen's Maries, Boswell (Bosville, Seine Inf.), Bruce (Brieux,
+Orne), Comyn, Cumming (Comines, Nord), Grant (le grand), Rennie
+(Rene), etc.
+
+
+
+CELTIC NAMES
+
+Welsh Ap or Ab, reduced from an older Map, ultimately cognate with
+Mac, gives us such names as Probyn, Powell (Howell, Hoel), Price
+(Rhys), Pritchard, Prosser (Rosser), Prothero (Roderick), Bedward,
+Beddoes (Eddowe), Blood (Lud, Lloyd), Bethell (Ithel), Benyon (Enion),
+whence also Binyon and the local-looking Baynham.  Onion and Onions
+are imitative forms of Enion.  Applejohn and Upjohn are corruptions of
+Ap-john.  The name Floyd, sometimes Flood, is due to the English
+inability to grapple with the Welsh Ll--
+
+"I am a gentylman and come of Brutes [Brutus'] blood,
+ My name is ap Ryce, ap Davy, ap Flood."
+
+(Andrew Boorde, Book of the Introduction of Knowledge, ii 7.)
+
+While Welsh names are almost entirely patronymic, Cornish names are
+very largely local.  They are distinguished by the following prefixes
+and others of less common occurrence: Caer-, fort, Lan-, church, Pen-,
+hill, Pol-, pool, Ros-, heath, Tre-, settlement, e.g. Carthew, Lanyon,
+Penruddock, Polwarth, Rosevear, Trethewy.  Sometimes these elements
+are found combined, e.g. in Penrose.
+
+A certain number of Celtic nicknames and occupative names which are
+frequently found in England will be mentioned elsewhere (pp.  173,
+216).  In Gilchrist, Christ's servant, Gildea, servant of God,
+Gillies, servant of Jesus, Gillespie, bishop's servant, Gilmour,
+Mary's servant, Gilroy, red servant, we have the Highland "gillie."
+Such names were originally preceded by Mac-, e.g. Gilroy is the same
+as MacIlroy; cf. MacLean, for Mac-gil-Ian, son of the servant of John.
+To the same class of formation belong Scottish names in Mal-, e.g.
+Malcolm, and Irish names in Mul-, e.g. Mulholland, in which the first
+element means tonsured servant, shaveling, and the second is the name
+of a saint.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. GODERIC AND GODIVA
+
+"England had now once more (A.D. 1100) a King born on her own soil, a
+Queen of the blood of the hero Eadmund, a King and Queen whose
+children would trace to AElfred by two descents.  Norman insolence
+mocked at the English King and his English Lady under the English
+names of Godric and Godgifu." [Footnote: "Godricum eum, et comparem
+Godgivam appellantes" (William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum).]
+
+(FREEMAN, Norman Conquest, v. 170.)
+
+In dealing with surnames we begin after the Conquest, for the simple
+reason that there were no surnames before.  Occasionally an important
+person has come down in history with a nickname, e.g. Edmund
+Iron-side, Harold Harefoot, Edward the Confessor; but this is
+exceptional, and the Anglo-Saxon, as a rule, was satisfied with one
+name.  It is probable that very many of the names in use before the
+Conquest, whether of English or Scandinavian origin, were chosen
+because of their etymological meaning, e.g. that the name Beornheard
+(Bernard, Barnard, Barnett) was given to a boy in the hope that he
+would grow up a warrior strong, just as his sister might be called
+AEthelgifu, noble gift.  The formation of these old names is both
+interesting and, like all Germanic nomenclature, poetic.
+
+
+
+FORMATION OF ANGLO-SAXON NAMES
+
+As a rule the name consists of two elements, and the number of those
+elements which appear with great frequency is rather limited.  Some
+themes occur only in the first half of the name, e.g. Aethel-, whence
+Aethelstan, later Alston; AElf-, whence AElfgar, now Elgar and Agar
+(AEthel- and AElf- soon got confused, so that Allvey, Elvey may
+represent both AEthelwig and AElfwig, or perhaps in some cases
+Ealdwig); Cuth-, whence Cuthbeald, now Cobbold [Footnote: This is also
+the origin of Cupples, and probably of Keble and Nibbles.  It shares
+Cobbett and Cubitt with Cuthbeorht.]; Cyne-, whence Cynebeald now
+Kimball and Kemble, both of which are also local, Folc-, whence
+Folcheard and Folchere, now Folkard and Fulcher; Gund-, whence
+Gundred, now Gundry and Grundy (Metathesis, Chapter III); Os-, whence
+Osbert, Osborn,
+
+Other themes only occur as the second half of the name.  Such are
+-gifu, in Godgifu, i.e. Godiva, whence Goodeve; -lac in Guthlac, now
+Goodlake and Goodluck (Chapter XXI); -laf in Deorlaf, now Dearlove;
+-wacer in Eoforwacer, now Earwaker.
+
+Other themes, and perhaps the greater number, may occur indifferently
+first and second, e.g. beald, god, here, sige, weald, win, wulf or
+ulf.  Thus we have complete reversals in Beald-wine, whence Baldwin,
+and Wine-beald, whence Winbolt, Here-weald, whence Herald, Harold,
+Harrod, and Weald-here, whence Walter (Chapter I).  With these we may
+compare Gold-man and Man-gold, the latter of which has given Mangles.
+So also we have Sige-heard, whence Siggers, and Wulf-sige, now Wolsey,
+Wulf-noth, now the imitative Wallnutt, and Beorht-wulf, later Bardolph
+and Bardell.  The famous name Havelock was borne by the hero of a
+medieval epic, "Havelock the Dane," but Dunstan is usually for the
+local Dunston.  On the other hand, Winston is a personal name,
+Wine-stan, whence Winstanley.
+
+These examples show that the pre-Norman names are by no means
+unrepresented in the twentieth century, but, in this matter, one must
+proceed with caution.  To take as examples the two names that head
+this chapter, there is no doubt that Goderic and Godiva are now
+represented by Goodrich and Goodeve, but these may also belong to the
+small group mentioned in Chapter VI, and stand for good Richard and
+good Eve.  Also Goodrich comes in some cases from Goodrich, formerly
+Gotheridge, in Hereford, which has also given Gutteridge.
+
+Moreover, it must not be forgotten that our medieval nomenclature is
+preponderantly French, as the early rolls show beyond dispute, so
+that, even where a modern name appears susceptible of an Anglo-Saxon
+explanation, it is often safer to refer it to the Old French cognate;
+for the Germanic names introduced into France by the Frankish
+conquerors, and the Scandinavian names which passed into Normandy,
+contained very much the same elements as our own native names, but
+underwent a different phonetic development.  Thus I would rather
+explain Bawden, Bowden, Boulders, Boden, and the dims.  Body and
+Bodkin, as Old French variants from the Old Ger. Baldawin than as
+coming directly from Anglo-Saxon.  Boyden undoubtedly goes back to Old
+Fr. Baudouin.
+
+Practically all the names given in Gower's lines (Chapter V), and many
+others to which I have ascribed a continental origin, are found
+occasionally in England before the Conquest, but the weight of
+evidence shows that they were either adopted in England as French
+names or were corrupted in form by the Norman scribes and officials.
+To take other examples, our Tibbald, Tibbles, Tibbs suggest the Fr.
+Thibaut rather than the natural development of Anglo-Sax. Thiudbeald,
+i.e. Theobald; and Ralph, Relf, Roff, etc., show the regular Old
+French development of Raedwulf, Radolf.  Tibaut Wauter, i.e. Theobald
+Walter, who lived in Lancashire in 1242, had both his names in an old
+French form.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON NICKNAMES
+
+As a matter of fact, the various ways of forming nicknames or
+descriptive names, are all used in the pre-Conquest personal names.
+We find Orme, i.e. serpent or dragon (cf. Great Orme's Head), Wulf,
+i.e. Wolf, Hwita, i.e. White, and its derivative Hwiting, now Whiting,
+Saemann, i.e. Seaman, Bonda, i.e. Bond, Leofcild, dear child, now Leif
+child, etc.  But, except the case of Orme, so common as the first
+element of place-names, I doubt the survival of these as purely
+personal names into the surname period and regard White, Seaman, Bond,
+Leif child rather as new epithets of Mid. English formation.  Whiting
+is of course Anglo-Saxon, -ing being the regular patronymic suffix.
+Cf. Browning, Benning, Dering, Dunning, Gunning, Hemming, Kipping,
+Manning, and many others which occur in place-names.  But not all
+names in -ing are Anglo-Saxon, e.g. Baring is German; cf. Behring, of
+the Straits; and Jobling is Fr. Jobelin, a double dim. of Job.
+
+I will now give a few examples of undoubted survival of these
+Anglo-Saxon compounds, showing how the suffixes have been corrupted
+and simplified.  Among the commonest of these suffixes are -beald,
+-beorht, -cytel (Chapter VII.), -god, -heard, -here, -man, -mund,
+-raed, -ric, -weald, -weard, -wine, [Footnote: Bold, bright, kettle,
+god, strong, army, man, protection, counsel, powerful, ruling, guard,
+friend.] which survive in Rumball and Rumbold (Rumbeald), Allbright
+[Footnote: AIbert is of modern German introduction.] and Allbutt
+(Ealdbeorht, i.e. Albert), Arkle (Earncytel), Allgood and Elgood
+(AElfgod), Everett (Eoforheard, i.e. Everard), Gunter (Gundhere),
+Harman (Hereman), Redmond (Raedmund), [Footnote: Pure Anglo-Saxon,
+like the names of so many opponents of English tyranny.  Parnell is of
+course not Irish (Chapter X).] Aldred, Eldred (AEthelraed or
+Ealdraed), Aldridge, Alderick, Eldridge (AEthelric or Ealdric),
+Thorold (Thurweald), and, through Fr. Turold, Turrell, Terrell, and
+Tyrrell, Harward and Harvard (Hereweard), Lewin (Leofwine).
+
+In popular use some of these endings got confused, e.g. Rumbold
+probably sometimes represents Rumweald, while Kennard no doubt stands
+for Coenweard as well as for Coenheard.  Man and round were often
+interchanged (Chapter VI), so that from Eastmund come both Esmond and
+Eastman.  Gorman represents Gormund, and Almond (Chapter XI) is so
+common in the Middle Ages that it must sometimes be from AEthelmund.
+
+Sometimes the modern forms are imitative.  Thus Allchin is for
+Ealhwine (Alcuin), and Goodyear, Goodier and Goodair may represent
+Godhere.  [Footnote: This may, however, be taken literally.  There is
+a German name Gutjahr and a Norfolk name Feaveryear.] Good-beer,
+Godbehere, Gotobed are classed by Bardsley under Godbeorht, whence
+Godber.  But in these three names the face value of the words may well
+be accepted (pp.  156, 203, 206).  Wisgar or Wisgeard has given the
+imitative Whisker and Vizard, and, through French, the Scottish
+Wishart, which is thus the same as the famous Norman Guiscard.
+Garment and Rayment are for Garmund and Regenmund, i.e. Raymond.
+
+
+
+ANGLO-SAXON SURVIVALS
+
+Other names which can be traced directly to the group of Anglo-Saxon
+names dealt with above are Elphick (AElfheah), which in Norman French
+gave Alphege, Elmer (AElfmaer), Allnutt (AElfnoth), Alwin, Elwin,
+Elvin (AElfwine), Aylmer (AEthelmaer), Aylward (AEthelweard), Kenrick
+(Coenric), Collard (Ceolheard), Colvin (Ceolwine), Darwin (Deorwine),
+Edridge (Eadric), Aldwin, Auden (Ealdwine), Baldry (Bealdred or
+Bealdric), Falstaff (Fastwulf), Filmer (Filumaer), Frewin eowine),
+Garrard, Garrett, Jarrold (Gaerheard, Gaerweald), but probably these
+are through French, Garbett (Garbeald, with which cf. the Italian
+Garibaldi), Gatliffe (Geatleof), Goddard (Godheard), Goodliffe
+(Godleof), Gunnell (Gunhild), Gunner (Gunhere), [Footnote: It is
+unlikely that this name is connected with gun, a word of too late
+appearance.  It may be seen over a shop in Brentford, perhaps kept by
+a descendant of the thane of the adjacent Gunnersbury.] Haines
+(Hagene), Haldane (Haelfdene), Hastings (Haesten, the Danish chief who
+gave his name to Hastings, formerly Haestinga-ceaster), Herbert
+(Herebeorht), Herrick Hereric), Hildyard (Hildegeard), Hubert,
+Hubbard, Hobart, Hibbert (Hygebeorht), Ingram (Ingelram), Lambert
+(Landbeorht), Livesey (Leofsige), Lemon (Leofman), Leveridge
+(Leofric), Loveridge (Luferic), Maynard (Maegenheard), Manfrey
+(Maegenfrith),  Rayner (Regenhere), Raymond (Regenmund), Reynolds
+(Regenweald), Seabright (Sigebeorht or Saebeorht), Sayers (Saegaer),
+[Footnote: The simple Sayer is also for "assayer," either of metals or
+of meat and drink--"essayeur, an essayer; one that tasts, or takes an
+essay; and particularly, an officer in the mint, who touches every
+kind of new Coyne before it be delivered out" (Cotgrave).  Robert le
+sayer, goldsmith, was a London citizen c. 1300.]  Sewell (Saeweald or
+Sigeweald), Seward (Sigeweard), Turbot (Thurbeorht), Thoroughgood
+(Thurgod), Walthew (Waltheof), Warman (Waermund), Wyberd (Wigbeorht),
+Wyman (Wigmund), Willard (Wilheard), Winfrey (Winefrith), Ulyett and
+Woollett (Wulfgeat), Wolmer (Wulfmaer), Woodridge (Wulfric).
+
+In several of these, e.g. Fulcher, Hibbert, Lambert, Reynolds, the
+probability is that the name came through French.  Where an
+alternative explanation is possible, the direct Anglo-Saxon origin is
+generally the less probable.  Thus, although Coning occurs as an
+Anglo-Saxon name, Collings is generally a variant of Collins (cf.
+Jennings for Jennins), and though Hammond is etymologically Haganmund,
+it is better to connect it with the very popular French name Hamon.
+Simmonds might come from Sigemund, but is more likely from Simon with
+excrescent -d (Epithesis, Chapter III).
+
+In many cases the Anglo-Saxon name was a simplex instead of a
+compound.  The simple Cytel survives as Chettle, Kettle.  [Footnote:
+Connected with the kettle or cauldron of Norse mythology.  The
+renowned Captain Kettle, described by his creator as a Welshman, must
+have descended from some hardy Norse pirate.  Many names in this
+chapter are Scandinavian.]  Beorn is one of the origins of Barnes.
+Brand also appears as Braund, Grim is common in place-names, and from
+Grima we have Grimes.  Cola gives Cole, the name of a monarch of
+ancient legend, but this name is more usually from Nicolas (Chapter
+VI).  Gonna is now Gunn, Serl has given the very common Searle, and
+Wicga is Wigg.  From Hacun we have Hack and the dim. Hackett.
+
+To these might be added many examples of pure adjectives, such as
+Freo, Free, Froda, (prudent), Froude, Gods, Good, Leof (dear), Leif,
+Leaf, Read (red), Read, Reid, Reed, Rica, Rich, Rudda (ruddy), Rudd
+and Rodd, Snel (swift, valiant), Snell, Swet, Sweet, etc., or epithets
+such as Boda (messenger), Bode, Cempa (warrior), Kemp, Cyta, Kite,
+Dreng (warrior), Dring, Eorl, Earl, Godcild, Goodchild, Nunna, Nunn,
+Oter, Otter, Puttoc (kite), Puttock, Saemann, Seaman, Spearhafoc,
+Sparhawk, Spark (Chapter I), Tryggr (true), Triggs, Unwine (unfriend),
+Unwin, etc.  But many of these had died out as personal names and, in
+medieval use, were nicknames pure and simple.
+
+
+
+MONOSYLLABIC NAMES
+
+Finally, there is a very large group of Anglo-Saxon dissyllabic names,
+usually ending in -a, which appear to be pet forms of the longer
+names, though it is not always possible to establish the connection.
+Many of them have double forms with a long and short vowel
+respectively.  It is to this class that we must refer the large number
+of our monosyllabic surnames, which would otherwise defy
+interpretation.  Anglo-Sax. Dodds gave Dodd, while Dodson's partner
+Fogg had an ancestor Focga.  Other examples are Bacga, Bagg, Benna,
+Benn, Bota, Boot and dim. Booty, Botts, Bolt, whence Bolting, Bubba,
+Bubb, Budda, Budd, Bynna, Binns, Cada, Cade, Cobbs, Cobb, Coda, Coad,
+Codda, Codd, Cuffs, Cuff, Deda, Deedes, Duda, Dowd, Duna, Down, Donna,
+Dunn, Dutta, Dull, Eada, Eade, Edes, etc., Ebba, Ebbs; Eppa, Epps,
+Hudda, Hud, whence Hudson, Inga, Inge, Sibba, Sibbs, Sicga, Siggs,
+Tata, Tate and Tait, Tidda, Tidd, Tigga, Tigg, Toca, Tooke, Tucca,
+Tuck, Wada, Wade, Wadda, Waddy, etc.  Similarly French took from
+German a number of surnames formed from shortened names in -o, with an
+accusative in -on, e.g. Old Ger. Bodo has given Fr. Bout and Bouton,
+whence perhaps our Butt and Button.
+
+But the names exemplified above are very thinly represented in early
+records, and, though their existence in surnames derived from
+place-names (Dodsley, Bagshaw, Bensted, Bedworth, Cobham, Ebbsworth,
+etc.) would vouch for them even if they were not recorded, their
+comparative insignificance is attested by the fact that they form very
+few derivatives.
+
+Compare, for instance, the multitudinous surnames which go back to
+monosyllables of the later type of name, such as John and Hugh, with
+the complete sterility of the names above.  Therefore, when an
+alternative derivation for a surname is possible, it is usually ten to
+one that this alternative is right.  Dodson is a simplified Dodgson,
+from Roger (Chapter VI); Benson belongs to Benedict, sometimes to
+Benjamin; Cobbett is a disguised Cuthbert or Cobbold (cf. Garrett,
+Chapter II); Down is usually local, at the down or dune; Dunn is
+medieval le dun, a colour nickname; names in Ead-, Ed-, are usually
+from the medieval female name Eda (Chapter VI); Sibbs generally
+belongs to Sibilla or Sebastian; Tait must sometimes be for Fr. Tete,
+with which cf. Eng. Head; Tidd is an old pet form of Theodore; and
+Wade is more frequently atte wade, i.e. ford.  Even Ebbs and Epps are
+more likely to be shortened forms of Isabella, usually reduced to Ib,
+or Ibbot (Chapter X), or of the once popular Euphemia.
+
+To sum up, we may say that the Anglo-Saxon element in our surnames is
+much larger than one would imagine from Bardsley's Dictionary, and
+that it accounts, not only for names which have a distinctly
+Anglo-Saxon suffix or a disguised form of one, but also for a very
+large number of monosyllabic names which survive in isolation and
+without kindred.  In this chapter I have only given sets of
+characteristic examples, to which many more might be added.  It would
+be comparatively easy, with some imagination and a conscientious
+neglect of evidence, to connect the greater number of our surnames
+with the Anglo-Saxons.
+
+Thus Honeyball might very well represent the Anglo-Sax. Hunbeald, but,
+in the absence of links, it is better to regard it as a popular
+perversion of Hannibal (Chapter VIII).  In dealing with this subject,
+the via media is the safe one, and one cannot pass in one stride from
+Hengist and Horsa to the Reformation period.
+
+
+
+"HIDEOUS NAMES"
+
+Matthew Arnold, in his essay on the Function of Criticism at the
+Present Time, is moved by the case of Poor Wragg, who was "in
+custody," to the following wail--
+
+"What a touch of grossness in our race, what an original shortcoming
+in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural
+growth amongst us of such hideous names-Higginbottom, Stiggins, Bugg!"
+
+But this is the poet's point of view.  Though there may have been "no
+Wragg by the Ilissus," it is not a bad name, for, in its original form
+Ragg, it is the first element of the heroic Ragnar, and probably
+unrelated to Raggett, which is the medieval le ragged.  Bugg, which
+one family exchanged for Norfolk Howard, is the Anglo-Saxon Bucgo, a
+name no doubt borne by many a valiant warrior.  Stiggins, as we have
+seen (Chapter XIII), goes back to a name great in history, and
+Higginbottom (Chapter XII) is purely geographical.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. PALADINS AND HEROES
+
+"Morz est Rollanz, Deus en ad l'anme es ciels.
+ Li Emperere en Rencesvals parvient...
+ Carles escriet: 'U estes vus, bels nies?
+ U l'Arcevesques e li quens Oliviers?
+ U est Gerins e sis cumpainz Geriers?
+ Otes u est e Ii quens Berengiers?
+ Ives e Ivories que j'aveie tant chiers?
+ Qu'est devenuz li Guascuinz Engeliers,
+ Sansun li dux e Anseis li fiers?
+ U est Gerarz de Russillun li vielz,
+ Li duze per que j'aveie laissiet?'"
+
+(Chanson de Roland, 1.  2397.)
+
+[Footnote: "Dead is Roland, God has his soul in heaven.  The Emperor
+arrives at Roncevaux... Charles cries: 'Where are you, fair nephew?
+Where the archbishop (Turpin) and Count Oliver?  Where is Gerin and
+his comrade Gerier?  Where is Odo and count Berenger?  Ivo and Ivory
+whom I held so dear?  What has become of the Gascon Engelier?  Samson
+the duke and Anseis the proud?  Where is Gerard of Roussillon the old,
+the twelve peers whom I had left?' "]
+
+It is natural that many favourite names should be taken from those of
+heroes of romance whose exploits were sung all over Europe by
+wandering minstrels.  Such names, including those taken from the Round
+Table legends, usually came to us through French, though a few names
+of the British heroes are Welsh, e.g. Cradock from Caradoc
+(Caractacus) and Maddox from Madoc.
+
+
+
+THE ROUND TABLE
+
+But the Round Table stories were versified much later than the true
+Old French Chansons de Geste, which had a basis in the national
+history, and not many of Arthur's knights are immortalized as
+surnames.  We have Tristram, Lancelot, whence Lance, Percival, Gawain
+in Gavin, and Kay.  But the last named is, like Key, more usually from
+the word we now spell "quay," though Key and Keys can also be
+shop-signs, as of course Crosskeys is.  Linnell is sometimes for
+Lionel, as Neil, [Footnote: But the Scottish Neil is a Gaelic name
+often exchanged for the unrelated Nigel.]  Neal for Nigel.  The ladies
+have fared better.  Vivian, which is sometimes from the masculine
+Vivien, is found in Dorset as Vye, and Isolt and Guinevere, which long
+survived as font-names in Cornwall, have given several names.  From
+Isolt come Isard, Isitt, Izzard, Izod, and many other forms, while
+Guinever appears as Genever, Jennifer, Gaynor, Gilliver, Gulliver,
+[Footnote: There is also an Old Fr. Gulafre which will account for
+some of the Gullivers.]  and perhaps also as Juniper.  It is probably
+also the source of Genn and Ginn, though these may come also from
+Eugenia or from Jane.  The later prose versions of the Arthurian
+stories, such as those of Malory, are full of musical and picturesque
+names like those used by Mr. Maurice Hewlett, but this artificial
+nomenclature has left no traces in our surnames.
+
+Of the paladins the most popular was Roland or Rowland, who survives
+as Rowe, Rowlinson, Rolls, Rollit, etc., sometimes coalescing with the
+derivations of Raoul, another epic hero.  Gerin or Geri gave Jeary,
+and Oates is the nominative (Chapter VIII) of Odo, an important Norman
+name.  Berenger appears as Barringer and Bellinger (Chapter III).  The
+simple Oliver is fairly common, but it also became the Cornish Olver.
+But perhaps the largest surname family connected with the paladins is
+derived from the Breton Ives or Ivon [Footnote: A number of Old French
+names had an accusative in -on or -ain.  Thus we find Otes, Oton,
+Ives, Ivain, and feminines such as Ide, Idain, all of which survive as
+English surnames.] whose name appears in that of two English towns.
+It is the same as Welsh Evan, and the Yvain of the Arthurian legends,
+and has given us Ives, Ivison, Ivatts, etc.  The modern surname Ivory
+is usually an imitative form of Every or Avery (p, 82).  Gerard has a
+variety of forms in Ger- and Gar-, Jerand Jar- (see p.32).  The others
+do not seem to have survived, except the redoubtable Archbishop
+Turpin, whose fame is probably less than that of his namesake Dick.
+
+Besides the paladins, there are many heroes of Old French epic whose
+names were popular during the two centuries that followed the
+Conquest.  Ogier le Danois, who also fought at Roncevaux, has given us
+Odgers; Fierabras occasionally crops up as Fairbrass, Firebrace;
+Aimeri de Narbonne, from Almaric, [Footnote: A metathesis of Amalric,
+which is found in Anglo-Saxon.]  whence Ital. Amerigo, is in English
+Amery, Emery, Imray, etc.; Renaud de Montauban is represented by
+Reynolds (Chapter VII) and Reynell.
+
+The famous Doon de Mayence may have been an ancestor of Lorna, and the
+equally famous Garin, or Warin, de Monglane has given us Gearing,
+Gearing, Waring, sometimes Warren, and the diminutives Garnett and
+Warnett.  Milo, of Greek origin, became Miles, with dim. Millett, but
+the chief origin of the surname Miles is a contracted form of the
+common font-name Michael.  Amis and Amiles were the David and Jonathan
+of Old French epic and the former survives as Ames, Amies, and Amos,
+the last an imitative form.
+
+We have also Berner from Bernier, Bartram from Bertran, Farrant from
+Fernand, Terry and Terriss from Thierry, the French form of Ger.
+Dietrich (Theodoric), which, through Dutch, has given also Derrick.
+Garner, from Ger. Werner, is our Garner and Warner, though these have
+other origins (pp.  154, 185).  Dru, from Drogo, has given Drew, with
+dim. Druitt (Chapter V), and Druce, though the latter may also come
+from the town of Dreux.  Walrond and Waldron are for Waleran, usually
+Galeran, and King Pippin had a retainer named Morant.  Saint Leger, or
+Leodigarius, appears as Ledger, Ledgard, etc., and sometimes in the
+shortened Legg.  Among the heroines we have Orbell from Orable, while
+Blancheflour may have suggested Lillywhite; but the part played by
+women in the Chansons de Geste was insignificant.
+
+
+
+THE CHANSONS DE GESTE
+
+As this element in our nomenclature has hitherto received no
+attention, it may be well to add a few more examples of names which
+occur very frequently in the Chansons de Geste and which have
+undoubted representatives in modern English.  Allard was one of the
+Four Sons of Aymon.  The name is etymologically identical with Aylward
+(Chapter VII), but in the above form has reached us through French.
+Acard or Achard is represented by Haggard, Haggett, and Hatchard,
+Hatchett, though Haggard probably has another origin (Chapter XXIII).
+Harness is imitative for Harnais, Herneis.  Clarabutt is for
+Clarembaut; cf. Archbutt for Archembaut, the Old French form of
+Archibald, Archbold.  Durrant is Durand, still a very common French
+surname.  Ely is Old Fr. Elie, i.e. Elias (Chapter IX), which had the
+dim. Elyot.  [Footnote: For other names belonging to this group see
+Chapter IX.]  We also find Old Fr. Helye, whence our Healey.
+Enguerrand is telescoped to Ingram, though this may also come from the
+English form Ingelram.  Fawkes is the Old Fr. Fauques, nominative
+(Chapter VIII) of Faucon, i.e. falcon.  Galpin is contracted from
+Galopin, a famous epic thief, but it may also come from the common
+noun galopin--
+
+"Galloppins, under cookes, or scullions in monasteries."
+
+(Cotgrave.)
+
+In either case it means a "runner." Henfrey is from Heinfrei or
+Hainfroi, identical with Anglo-Sax. Haganfrith, and Manser from
+Manesier.  Neame (Chapter XXI) may sometimes represent Naime, the
+Nestor of Old French epic and the sage counsellor of Charlemagne.
+Richer, from Old Fr. Richier, has generally been absorbed by the
+cognate Richard.  Aubrey and Avery are from Alberic, cognate with
+Anglo-Sax. AElfric.  An unheroic name like Siggins may be connected
+with several heroes called Seguin.
+
+
+
+ANTIQUE NAMES
+
+Nor are the heroes of antiquity altogether absent.  Along with Old
+French national and Arthurian epics there were a number of romances
+based on the legends of Alexander, Caesar, and the tale of Troy.
+Alexander, or Saunder, was the favourite among this class of names,
+especially in Scotland.  Cayzer was generally a nickname (Chapter
+XIII), its later form Cesar being due to Italian influence, [Footnote:
+Julius Cesar, physician to Queen Elizabeth, was a Venetian
+(Bardsley).] and the same applies to Hannibal, [Footnote: But the
+frequent occurrence of this name and its corruptions in Cornwall
+suggests that it may really have been introduced by Carthaginian
+sailors.] when it is not an imitative form of the female name Annabel,
+also corrupted into Honeyball.  Both Dionisius and Dionisia were once
+common, and have survived as Dennis, Dennett, Denny, and from the
+shortened Dye we get Dyson.  But this Dionisius was the patron saint
+of France.  Apparent names of heathen gods and goddesses are almost
+always due to folk-etymology, e.g. Bacchus is for back-house or
+bake-house, and the ancestors of Mr. Wegg's friend Venus came from
+Venice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. THE BIBLE AND THE CALENDAR
+
+" 'O Now you see, brother Toby,' he would say, looking up, 'that
+Christian names are not such indifferent things;--had Luther here been
+called by any other name but Martin, he would have been damn'd to all
+eternity' "
+
+ (Tristram Shandy, ch. xxxv).
+
+
+
+OLD TESTAMENT NAMES
+
+The use of biblical names as font-names does not date from the
+Puritans, nor are surnames derived from Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
+necessarily Jewish.  The Old Testament names which were most popular
+among the medieval peasants from whom we nearly all spring were
+naturally those connected with the most picturesque episodes of sacred
+history.  Taking as an example the father of all men, we find derived
+from the name Adam the following: Adams, Adamson, Adcock, Addis,
+Addison, Adds, Addy, Ade, Ades, Adey, Adis, Ady, Addey, Aday, Adee,
+Addyman, Adkin, Adkins, Adkinson, Adnett, [Footnote: Adenet (little
+Adam) le Roi was an Old French epic hero.] Adnitt, Adnet, Adnot,
+Atkin, Atkins, Atkinson, and the northern Aitken, etc.  This list,
+compiled from Bardsley's Dictionary of Surnames, is certainly not
+exhaustive.  Probably Taddy is rimed on Addy as Taggy is on Aggy
+(Agnes).  To put together all the derivatives of John or Thomas would
+be a task almost beyond the wit of man.  Names in Abb-, App-, may come
+from either Abraham or Abel, and from Abbs we also have Nabbs.  Cain
+was of course unpopular.  Cain, Cane, Kain, when not Manx, is from the
+town of Caen or from Norman quene, an oak.
+
+Moses appears in the French form Moyes (Moise) as early as 1273, and
+still earlier as Moss.  Of the patriarchs the favourites were perhaps
+Jacob and Joseph, the name Jessop from the latter having been
+influenced by Ital. Giuseppe.  Benjamin has sometimes given Benson and
+Bennett, but these are generally for Benedict (Chapter IV).  The
+Judges are poorly represented, except Samson, a name which has
+obviously coalesced with the derivatives of Samuel.  David had, of
+course, an immense vogue, especially in Wales (for some of its
+derivatives see Chapter VI), and Solomon was also popular, the modern
+Salmon not always being a Jewish name.
+
+But almost the favourite Old Testament name was Elijah, Elias, which,
+usually through its Old French form Elie, whence Ely, is the parent of
+Ellis, Elliot, and many other names in El-, some of which, however,
+have to be shared with Ellen and Alice (Chapter X).  Job was also
+popular, and is easily recognized in Jobson, Jobling, etc., but less
+easily in Chubb (Chapter III) and Jupp.  The intermediate form was the
+obsolete Joppe.  Among the prophetic writers Daniel was an easy
+winner, Dann, Dance (Chapter I), Dannatt, Dancock, etc.  Balaam is an
+imitative spelling of the local Baylham.
+
+In considering these Old Testament names it must be remembered that
+the people did not possess the Bible in the vernacular.  The teaching
+of the parish priests made them familiar with selected episodes, from
+which they naturally took the names which appeared to contain the
+greatest element of holiness or of warlike renown.  It is probable
+that the mystery plays were not without influence; for the personal
+name was not always a fixed quantity, and many of the names mentioned
+in the preceding paragraph may have been acquired rather on the
+medieval stage than at the font.
+
+This would apply with still more force to names taken from the legends
+of saints and martyrs on which the miracle plays were based.  We even
+find the names Saint, Martyr and Postill, the regular aphetic form of
+apostle (Chapter III), just as we find King and Pope.  Camden,
+speaking of the freedom with which English names are formed, quotes a
+Dutchman, who--
+
+"When he heard of English men called God and Devil, said, that the
+English borrowed names from all things whatsoever, good or bad."
+
+The medieval name Godde may of course be for Good, Anglo-Sax. Goda,
+but Ledieu is common enough in France.  The name seems to be obsolete,
+unless it is disguised as Goad.  The occurrence in medieval rolls of
+Diabolus and le Diable shows that Deville need not always be for de
+Eyville.  There was probably much competition for this important part,
+and the name would not be always felt as uncomplimentary.  Among
+German surnames we find not only Teufel, but also the compounds
+Manteufel and Teufelskind.
+
+
+
+NEW TESTAMENT NAMES
+
+Coming to the New Testament, we find the four Evangelists strongly
+represented, especially the first and last.  Matthew appears not only
+in an easily recognizable form, e.g. in Matheson, but also as Mayhew
+and Mayo, Old Fr. Mahieu.  From the latter form we have the shortened
+May and Mee, whence Mayes, Makins, Meakin, Meeson, [Footnote: One
+family of Meeson claims descent from Malvoisin.]  and sometimes Mason.
+Mark is one of the sources of March (p, 90), as Luke is of Luck,
+whence Lucock, Luckett, etc, though we more often find the learned
+form Lucas.
+
+Of John there is no need to speak.  Of the apostles the great
+favourites, Simon, or Peter, John, and Bartholomew have already been
+mentioned.  Almost equally popular was Philip, whence Philp, Phipps,
+Phelps, and the dim. Philpot, whence the aphetic Pott, Potts.  Andrew
+flourished naturally in Scotland, its commonest derivative being
+Anderson, while Dendy is for the rimed form Dandy.  Paul has of course
+had a great influence and is responsible for Pawson or Porson,
+Pawling, Polson, Pollett, and most names in Pol-. [Footnote: This does
+not of course apply to Cornish names in Pol- (Chapter VI)]  It is
+also, in the form Powell, assimilated to the Welsh Ap Howel.  Paul is
+regularly spelt Poule by Chaucer, and St. Paul's Cathedral is often
+called Powles in Tudor documents.  Paul's companions are poorly
+represented, for Barnby is local, while names in Sil- and Sel- come
+from shortened form of Cecil, Cecilia, and Silvester.  Another great
+name from the Acts of the Apostles is that of the protomartyr Stephen,
+among the numerous derivatives of which we must include Stennett and
+Stimpson.
+
+Many non-biblical saints whose names occur very frequently have
+already been mentioned, e.g. Antony, Bernard, Gregory, Martin,
+Lawrence, Nicholas, etc To these may be added Augustine, or Austin,
+Christopher, or Kit, with the dim. Christie and the patronymic Kitson,
+Clement, whence a large family of names in Clem-, Gervase or Jarvis,
+Jerome, sometimes represented by Jerram, and Theodore or Tidd (cf.
+Tibb fron Theobald), who becomes in Welsh Tudor.  Vincent has  given
+Vince, Vincey and Vincett, and Baseley, Blazey are from Basil and
+Blaine.  The Anglo-Saxon saints are poorly represented, though
+probably most of them survive in a disguised form, e.g. Price is
+sometimes for Brice, Cuthbert has sometimes given Cubitt and Cobbett,
+and also Cutts.  Bottle sometimes represents Botolf, Neate may be for
+Neot, and Chad (Ceadda) survives as Chatt and in many local names.
+The Cornish Tangye is from the Breton St. Tanneguy.  The Archangel
+Michael has given one of our commonest names, Mitchell (Chapter IV).
+This is through French, but we have also the contracted Miall--
+
+"At Michael's term had many a trial,
+Worse than the dragon and St. Michael."
+
+(Hudibras, III. ii. 51.)
+
+[Footnote: Cf. Vialls from Vitalis, also a saint's name.]
+
+This name exists in several other forms, e.g. Mihell, Myhill, Mighill,
+and most frequently of all as Miles (Chapter VIII).  The reader will
+remember the famous salient of Saint-Mihiel, on the Meuse, held by the
+Germans for so long a period of the war.  From Gabriel we have Gabb,
+Gabbett, etc.  The common rustic pronunciation Gable has given Cable
+(Chapter III).
+
+Among female saints we find Agnes, pronounced Annis, the derivatives
+of which have become confused with those of Anne, or Nan, Catherine,
+whence Call, Catlin, etc., Cecilia, Cicely, whence Sisley, and of
+course Mary and Margaret.  For these see Chapter X.  St. Bride, or
+Bridget, survives in Kirkbride.
+
+
+
+FEAST-DAYS
+
+A very interesting group of surnames are derived from font-names taken
+from the great feasts of the Church, date of birth or baptism, etc.
+[Footnote: Names of this class were no doubt also sometimes given to
+foundlings.]  These are more often French or Greco-Latin than English,
+a fact to be explained by priestly influence.  Thus Christmas is much
+less common than Noel or Nowell, but we also find Midwinter (Chapter
+II) and Yule.  Easter has a local origin (from a place in Essex) and
+also represents Mid. Eng. estre, a word of very vague meaning for part
+of a building, originally the exterior, from Lat. extra.  It survives
+in Fr. les etres d'une maison.  Hester, to which Bardsley gives the
+same origin, I should rather connect with Old Fr. hestre (hetre), a
+beech.  However that may be, the Easter festival is represented in our
+surnames by Pascall, Cornish Pascoe, and Pask, Pash, Pace, Pack.
+
+Patch, formerly a nickname for a jester (Chapter XX), from his motley
+clothes, is also sometimes a variant of Pash.  And the dim. Patchett
+has become confused with Padgett, from Padge, a rimed form of Madge.
+Pentecost is recorded as a personal name in Anglo-Saxon times.
+Michaelmas is now Middleman (Chapter III), and Tiffany is an old name
+for Epiphany.  It comes from Greco-Latin theophania (while Epiphany
+represents epiphania), which gave the French female name Tiphaine,
+whence our Tiffin.  Lammas (loaf mass) is also found as a personal
+name, but there is a place called Lammas in Norfolk.  We have
+compounds of day in Halliday or Holiday, Hay-day, for high day,
+Loveday, a day appointed for reconciliations, and Hockaday, for a
+child born during Hocktide, which begins on the 15th day after Easter.
+It was also called Hobday, though it is hard to say why; hence the
+name Hobday, unless this is to be taken as the day, or servant
+(Chapter XIX), in the service of Hob; cf. Hobman.
+
+The days of the week are puzzling, the only one at all common being
+Munday, though most of the others are found in earlier nomenclature.
+We should rather expect special attention to be given to Sunday and
+Friday, and, in fact, Sonntag and Freytag are by far the most usual in
+German, while Dimanche and its perversions are common in France, and
+Vendredi also occurs.  This makes me suspect some other origin,
+probably local, for Munday, the more so as Fr. Dimanche, Demange,
+etc., is often for the personal name Dominicus, the etymology
+remaining the same as that of the day-name, the Lord's day.  Parts of
+the day seem to survive in Noon, Eve, and Morrow, but Noon is local,
+Fr. Noyon (cf. Moon, earlier Mohun, from Moyon), Eve is the mother of
+mankind, and Morrow is for moor-wro, the second element being Mid.
+Eng. wra, comer, whence Wray.
+
+
+
+MONTH NAMES
+
+We find the same difficulty with the names of the months.  Several of
+these are represented in French, but our March has four other origins,
+from March in Cambridgeshire, from march, a boundary, from marsh, or
+from Mark; while May means in Mid. English a maiden (Chapter XXI), and
+is also a dim. of Matthew (Chapter IX).  The names of the seasons also
+present difficulty.  Spring usually corresponds to Fr. La Fontaine
+(Chapter II), but we find also Lent, the old name for the season, and
+French has Printemps. [Footnote: The cognate Ger. Lenz is fairly
+common, hence the frequency of Lent in America.]  Summer and Winter
+[Footnote: Winter was one of Hereward's most faithful comrades.]  are
+found very early as nicknames, as are also Frost and Snow; but why
+always Summers or Somers with s and Winter without? [Footnote: Two
+other common nicknames were Flint and Steel.]  The latter has no doubt
+in many cases absorbed Vinter, vintner (Chapter III) but this will not
+account for the complete absence of genitive forms.  And what has
+become of the other season?  We should not expect to find the learned
+word "autumn," but neither Fall nor Harvest, the true English
+equivalents, are at all common as surnames.
+
+I regard this group, viz. days, months, seasons, as one of the least
+clearly accounted for in our nomenclature, and cannot help thinking
+that the more copious examples which we find in French and German are
+largely distorted forms due to the imitative instinct, or are
+susceptible of other explanations.  This is certainly true in some
+cases, e.g. Fr. Mars is the regular French development of Medardus, a
+saint to whom a well-known Parisian church is dedicated; and the
+relationship of Janvier to Janus may be via the Late Lat. januarius,
+for janitor, a doorkeeper.
+
+[Footnote: Medardus was the saint who, according to Ingoldsby, lived
+largely on oysters obtained by the Red Sea shore.  At his church in
+Paris were performed the 'miracles' of the Quietists in the
+seventeenth century.  When the scenes that took place became a
+scandal, the government intervened, with the result that a wag adorned
+the church door with the following:
+
+"De par le Roi, defense a Dieu
+De faire miracle en ce lieu."]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. METRONYMICS
+
+"During the whole evening Mr. Jellyby sat in a corner with his head
+against the wall, as if he were subject to low spirits."
+
+(Bleak House, ch. iv.)
+
+Bardsley first drew attention to the very large number of surnames
+derived from an ancestress.  His views have been subjected to much
+ignorant criticism by writers who, taking upon themselves the task of
+defending medieval virtue, have been unwilling to accept this terrible
+picture of the moral condition of England, etc.  This anxiety is
+misplaced.  There are many reasons, besides illegitimacy, for the
+adoption of the mother's name.  In medieval times the children of a
+widow, especially posthumous children, would often assume the mother's
+name.  Widdowson itself is sufficiently common.  In the case of second
+marriages the two families might sometimes be distinguished by their
+mothers' names.  Orphans would be adopted by female relatives, and a
+medieval Mrs.  Joe Gargery would probably have impressed her own name
+rather than that of her husband on a medieval Pip.  In a village which
+counted two Johns or Williams, and few villages did not, the children
+of one might assume, or rather would be given by the public voice, the
+mother's name.  Finally, metronymics can be collected in hundreds by
+anyone who cares to work through a few early registers.
+
+
+
+FEMALE FONT-NAMES
+
+Thus, in the Lancashire Inquests 205-1307 occur plenty of people
+described as the sons of Alice, Beatrice, Christiana, Eda, Eva,
+Mariot, Matilda, Quenilda, [Footnote: An Anglo-Saxon name, Cynehild,
+whence Quennell.]  Sibilla, Ysolt.  Even if illegitimacy were the only
+reason, that would not concern the philologist.
+
+Female names undergo the same course of treatment as male names.  Mary
+gave the diminutives Marion and Mariot, whence Marriott.  It was
+popularly shortened into Mal (cf. Hal for Harry), which had the
+diminutive Mally.  From these we have Mawson and Malleson, the former
+also belonging to Maud.  Mal and Mally became Mol and Molly, hence
+Mollison.  The rimed forms Pol, Polly are later, and names in
+Pol- usually belong to Paul (Chapter IX).  The name Morris has three
+other origins (the font-name Maurice, the nickname Moorish, and the local
+marsh), but both Morris and Morrison are sometimes to be referred to
+Mary.  Similarly Margaret, popularly Mar-get, became Mag, Meg, Mog,
+whence Meggitt, Moxon, etc.  The rarity of Maggot is easily
+understood, but Poll Maggot was one of Jack Sheppard's accomplices and
+Shakespeare uses maggot-pie for magpie (Macbeth, iii, 4).  Meg was
+rimed into Peg, whence Peggs, Mog into Pog, whence Pogson, and Madge
+into Padge, whence Padgett, when this is not for Patchett (Chapter
+IX), or for the Fr. Paget, usually explained as Smallpage.  The royal
+name Matilda appears in the contracted Maud, Mould, Moule, Mott,
+Mahood (Old Fr. Maheut).  Its middle syllable Till gave Tilly, Tillson
+and the dim. Tillet, Tillot, whence Tillotson.  From Beatrice we have
+Bee, Beaton and Betts, and the northern Beattie, which are not
+connected with the great name Elizabeth.  This is in medieval rolls
+represented by its cognate Isabel, of which the shortened form was
+Bell (Chapter I), or Ib, the latter giving Ibbot, Ibbotson, and the
+rimed forms Tib-, Nib-, Bib-, Lib-.  Here also belong Ebbs and Epps
+rather than to the Anglo-Sax. Ebba (Chapter VII).
+
+Many names which would now sound somewhat ambitious were common among
+the medieval peasantry and are still found in the outlying parts of
+England, especially Devon and Cornwall.  Among the characters in Mr.
+Eden Phillpotts's Widecombe Fair are two sisters named Sibley and
+Petronell.  From Sibilla, now Sibyl, come most names in Sib-, though
+this was used also as a dim. of Sebastian (see also Chapter VII),
+while Petronilla, has given Parnell, Purnell.  As a female name it
+suffered the eclipse to which certain names are accidentally subject,
+and became equivalent to wench.  References to a "prattling Parnel"
+are common in old writers, and the same fate overtook it in French--
+
+"Taisez-vous, peronnelle" (Tartufe, i.  1).
+
+Mention has already been made of the survival of Guinevere (Chapter
+VIII).  From Cassandra we have Cash, Cass, Case, and Casson, from
+Idonia, Ide, Iddins, Iddison; these were no doubt confused with the
+derivatives of Ida.  William filius Idae is in the Fine Rolls of
+John's reign, and John Idonyesone occurs there, temp. Edward I.  Pim,
+as a female font-name, may be from Euphemia, and Siddons appears to
+belong to Sidonia, while the pretty name Avice appears as Avis and
+Haweis.  From Lettice, Lat. laetitia, joy, we have Letts, Lettson,
+while the corresponding Joyce, Lat. jocosa, merry, has become confused
+with Fr. Josse (Chapter I).  Anstey, Antis, is from Anastasia,
+Precious from Preciosa, and Royce from Rohesia.
+
+
+
+DOUBTFUL CASES
+
+It is often difficult to separate patronymics from metronymics.  We
+have already seen (Chapter VI) that names in Ed- may be from Eda or
+from Edward, while names in Gil- must be shared between Julian,
+Juliana, Guillaume, Gilbert, and Giles.  There are many other cases
+like Julian and Juliana, e.g. Custance is for Constance, but Cust may
+also represent the masculine Constant, while among the derivatives of
+Philip we must not forget the warlike Philippa.  Or, to take pairs
+which are unrelated, Kitson may be from Christopher or from Catherine,
+and Mattison from Matthew or from Martha, which became Matty and
+Patty, the derivatives of the latter coalescing with those of Patrick
+(Chapter VI).  It is obvious that the derivatives of Alice would be
+confused with those of Allen, while names in El- may represent Elias
+or Eleanor.  Also names in Al- and El- are sometimes themselves
+confused, e.g. the Anglo-Saxon AElfgod appears both as Allgood and
+Elgood.  More Nelsons are derived from Neil, i.e. Nigel, than from
+Nell, the rimed dim. of Ellen.  Emmett is a dim. of Emma, but Empson
+may be a shortened Emerson from Emery (Chapter VIII).  The rather
+commonplace Tibbles stands for both Theobald and Isabella, and the
+same is true of all names in Tib- and some in Teb-.  Lastly, the
+coalescence of John, the commonest English font-name, with Joan, the
+earlier form of Jane, was inevitable, while the French forms Jean and
+Jeanne would be undistinguishable in their derivatives.  These names
+between them have given an immense number of surnames, the masculine
+or feminine interpretation of which must be left to the reader's
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. LOCAL SURNAMES
+
+"Now as men have always first given names unto places, so hath it
+afterwards grown usuall that men have taken their names from places"
+
+(VERSTEGAN, Restitution of Decayed Intelligence).
+
+There is an idea cherished by some people that the possession of a
+surname which is that of a village or other locality points to
+ancestral ownership of that region.  This is a delusion.  In the case
+of quite small features of the landscape, e.g. Bridge, Hill, the name
+was given from place of residence.  But in the case of counties, towns
+and villages, the name was usually acquired when the locality was
+left.  Thus John Tiler leaving Acton, perhaps for Acton's good, would
+be known in his new surroundings as John Acton.  A moment's reflection
+will show that this must be so.  Scott is an English name, the
+aristocratic Scotts beyond the border representing a Norman family
+Escot, originally of Scottish origin.  English, early spelt Inglis, is
+a Scottish name.  The names Cornish and Cornwallis first became common
+in Devonshire, as Devenish did outside that county.  French and
+Francis, Old Fr. le franceis, are English names, just as  Langlois
+(l'Anglais) is common in France.  For the same reason Cutler is a rare
+name in Sheffield, where all are cutlers.  By exception the name
+Curnow, which is Cornish for a Cornishman, is fairly common in its
+native county, but it was perhaps applied especially to those
+inhabitants who could only speak the old Cornish language.
+
+
+
+CLASSES OF LOCAL NAMES
+
+The local name may range in origin from a country to a plant (France,
+Darbishire, Lankester, Ashby, Street, House, Pound, Plumptre, Daisy),
+and, mathematically stated, the size of the locality will vary in
+direct proportion to the distance from which the immigrant has come.
+Terentius Afer was named from a continent.  I cannot find a parallel
+in England, but names such as the nouns France, Ireland, Pettingell
+(Portugal), or the adjectives Dench, Mid. Eng. dense, Danish, Norman,
+Welsh, (Walsh, Wallis, etc.), Allman (Allemand), often perverted to
+Almond, were considered a sufficient mark of identification for men
+who came from foreign parts.  But the untravelled inhabitant, if
+distinguished by a local name, would often receive it from some very
+minute feature of the landscape, e.g. Solomon Daisy may have been
+descended from a Robert Dayeseye, who lived in Hunts in 1273.  It is
+not very easy to see how such very trifling surnames as this last came
+into existence, but its exiguity is surpassed in the case of a
+prominent French airman who bears the appropriately buoyant name of
+Brindejonc, perhaps from some ancestor who habitually chewed a straw.
+
+An immense number of our countrymen are simply named from the points
+of the compass, slightly disguised in Norris, Anglo-Fr. le noreis,
+[Footnote: The corresponding le surreis is now represented by
+Surridge.] Sotheran, the southron, and Sterling, for Easterling, a
+name given to the Hanse merchants.  Westray was formerly le westreis.
+A German was to our ancestors, as he still is to sailors, a Dutchman,
+whence our name Douch, Ger. deutsch, Old High Ger. tiutisc, which,
+through Old French tieis, has given Tyas.  [Footnote: Tyars, or Tyers,
+which Bardsley puts with this, seems to be rather Fr. Thiers, Lat.
+tertius.]
+
+But not every local name is to be taken at its face value.  Holland is
+usually from one of the Lancashire Hollands, and England may be for
+Mid. Eng. ing-land, the land of Ing (cf. Ingulf, Ingold, etc.), a
+personal name which is the first element in many place-names, or from
+ing, a meadow by a stream.  Holyland is not Palestine, but the
+holly-land.  Hampshire is often for Hallamshire, a district in
+Yorkshire.  Dane is a variant of Mid. Eng. dene, a valley, the
+inhabitant of Denmark having given us Dench (Chapter XI) and Dennis
+(le daneis).  Visitors to Margate will remember the valley called the
+Dane, which stretches from the harbour to St. Peters.  Saxon is not
+racial, but a perversion of sexton (Chapter XVII).  Mr. Birdofredum
+Sawin, commenting on the methods employed in carrying out the great
+mission of the Anglo-Saxon race, remarks that--
+
+"Saxons would be handy
+To du the buryin' down here upon the Rio Grandy"
+
+(Lowell, Biglow Papers).
+
+The name Cockayne was perhaps first given derisively to a sybarite--
+
+"Paris est pour le riche un pays de Cocagne" (Boileau),
+
+but it may be an imitative form of Coken in Durham.
+
+Names such as Morris, i.e. Moorish, or Sarson, i.e. Saracen (but also
+for Sara-son), are rather nicknames, due to complexion or to an
+ancestor who was mine host of the Saracen's Head.  Moor is sometimes
+of similar origin.  Russ, like Rush, is one of the many forms of Fr.
+roux, red-complexioned (Chapter II).  Pole is for Pool, the native of
+Poland being called Polack--
+
+"He smote the sledded Polack on the ice" (Hamlet, I. i).
+
+But the name Pollock is local (Renfrewshire).
+
+
+
+COUNTIES AND TOWNS
+
+As a rule it will be found that, while most of our counties have given
+family names, sometimes corrupted, e.g. Lankshear, Willsher, Cant,
+Chant, for Kent, with which we may compare Anguish for Angus, the
+larger towns are rather poorly represented, the movement having always
+been from country to town, and the smaller spot serving for more exact
+description.  An exception is Bristow (Bristol), Mid. Eng. brig-stow,
+the place on the bridge, the great commercial city of the west from
+which so many medieval seamen hailed; but the name is sometimes from
+Burstow (Surrey), and there were possibly smaller places called by so
+natural a name, just as the name Bradford, i.e. broad ford, may come
+from a great many other places than the Yorkshire wool town.  Rossiter
+is generally for Rochester, but also for Wroxeter (Salop); Coggeshall
+is well disguised as Coxall, Barnstaple as Bastable, Maidstone as
+Mayston, Stockport as Stopford.  On the other hand, there is not a
+village of any antiquity but has, or once had, a representative among
+surnames.
+
+
+
+NAMES PRECEDED BY DE
+
+The provinces and towns of France and Flanders have given us many
+common surnames.  From names of provinces we have Burgoyne and Burgin,
+Champain and Champneys (Chapter II), Gascoyne and Gaskin, Mayne,
+Mansell, Old Fr. Mancel (manceau), an inhabitant of Maine or of its
+capital Le Mans, Brett and Britton, Fr. le Bret and le Breton,
+Pickard, Power, sometimes from Old Fr. Pohier, a Picard, Peto,
+formerly Peitow, from Poitou, Poidevin and Puddifin, for
+
+Poitevin, Loring, Old Fr. le Lohereng, the man from Lorraine,
+assimilated to Fleming, Hammy, an old name for Hainault, Brabazon, le
+Brabancon, and Brebner, formerly le Brabaner, Angwin, for Angevin,
+Flinders, a perversion of Flanders, Barry, which is sometimes for
+Berri, and others which can be identified by everybody.
+
+Among towns we have Allenson, Alencon, Amyas, Amiens, Ainger, Angers,
+Aris, Arras, Bevis, Beauvais, Bullen, Boulogne, Bloss, Blois, Bursell,
+Brussels, Callis and Challis, Calais, Challen, from one of the French
+towns called Chalon or Chalons, Chaworth, Cahors, Druce, Dreux, Gaunt,
+Gand (Ghent), Luck, Luick (Liege), Loving, Louvain, Malins, Malines
+(Mechlin), Raynes, Rennes and Rheims, Roan, Rouen, Sessions, Soissons,
+Stamp, Old Fr. Estampes (ttampes), Turney, Tournay, etc.  The name de
+Verdun is common enough in old records for us to connect with it both
+the fascinating Dolly and the illustrious Harry. [Footnote added by
+scanner: Some modern readers might not realise that Weekley was
+referring to Harry Vardon, a famous golfer of the late nineteenth and
+early twentieth century.  Dolly Varden was a character in Dickens'
+"Barnaby Rudge", a pretty girl in flowered hats and skirts.  Her name
+was borrowed for various clothing styles, breeds of flowers, shows,
+theatres and even angling fishes among other things.  There seem to
+have been several references to "the fascinating Dolly Varden", though
+the expression does not occur in the book.]  To the above may be
+added, among German towns, Cullen, Cologne, and Lubbock, Luebeck, and,
+from Italy, Janes, Genes (Genoa), Janaway or Janways, i.e. Genoese,
+and Lombard or Lombard.  Familiar names of foreign towns were often
+anglicized.  Thus we find Hamburg called Hamborough, Bruges Bridges,
+and Tours Towers.
+
+To the town of Angers we sometimes owe, besides Ainger, the forbidding
+names Anger and Danger.  In many local names of foreign origin the
+preposition de has been incorporated, e.g. Dalmain, d'Allemagne,
+sometimes corrupted into Dallman and Dollman, though these are also
+for Doleman, from the East Anglian dole, a boundary, Dallison, d'Alenc
+on, Danvers, d'Anvers, Antwerp, Devereux, d'Evreux, Daubeney,  Dabney,
+d'Aubigny, Disney, d'Isigny, etc.  Doyle is a later form of Doyley, or
+Dolley, for d'Ouilli, and Darcy and Durfey were once d'Arcy and
+d'Urfe.  Dew is sometimes for de Eu.  Sir John de Grey, justice of
+Chester, had in 1246 two Alice in Wonderland clerks named Henry de Eu
+and William de Ho.  A familiar example, which has been much disputed,
+is the Cambridgeshire name Death, which some of its possessors prefer
+to write D'Aeth or De Ath.  Bardsley rejects this, without, I think,
+sufficient reason.  It is true that it occurs as de Dethe in the
+Hundred Rolls, but this is not a serious argument, for we find also de
+Daubeney (Chapter XI), the original de having already been absorbed at
+the time the Rolls were compiled.  This retention of the de is also
+common in names derived from spots which have not become recognized
+place-names; see Chapter XIV.
+
+But to derive a name of obviously native origin from a place in France
+is a snobbish, if harmless, delusion.  There are quite enough moor
+leys in England without explaining Morley by Morlaix.  To connect the
+Mid. English nickname Longfellow with Longueville, or the patronymic
+Hansom (Chapter III) with Anceaumville, betrays the same belief in
+phonetic epilepsy that inspires the derivation of Barber from the
+chapelry of Sainte-Barbe.  The fact that there are at least three
+places, in England called Carrington has not prevented one writer from
+seeking the origin of that name in the appropriate locality of
+Charenton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. SPOT NAMES
+
+"In ford, in ham, in ley and tun
+The most of English surnames run"
+
+(VERSTEGAN).
+
+Verstegan's couplet, even if it be not strictly true, makes a very
+good text for a discourse on our local names.  The ham, or home, and
+the ton, or town, originally an enclosure (cf. Ger. Zaun, hedge),
+were, at any rate in a great part of England, the regular nucleus of
+the village, which in some cases has become the great town and in
+others has decayed away and disappeared from the map.  In an age when
+wool was our great export, flock keeping was naturally a most
+important calling, and the ley, or meadow land, would be quickly taken
+up and associated with human activity.  When bridges were scarce,
+fords were important, and it is easy to see how the inn, the smithy,
+the cartwright's booth, etc., would naturally plant themselves at such
+a spot and form the commencement of a hamlet.
+
+
+
+ELEMENTS OF PLACE-NAMES
+
+Each of these four words exists by itself as a specific place-name and
+also as a surname.  In fact Lee and Ford are among our commonest local
+surnames.  In the same way the local origin of such names as Clay and
+Chalk may be specific as well as general.  But I do not propose to
+deal here with the vast subject of our English village names, but only
+with the essential elements of which they are composed, elements which
+were often used for surnominal purposes long before the spot itself
+had developed into a village.  [Footnote: A good general account of
+our village names will be found in the Appendix to Isaac Taylor's
+Names and their Histories.  It is reprinted as chapter xi of the same
+author's Words and Places (Everyman Library).  See also Johnston's
+Place-names of England and Wales, a glossary of selected names with a
+comprehensive introduction.  There are many modern books on the
+village names of various counties, e.g. Bedfordshire, Berkshire,
+Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk (Skeat),
+Oxfordshire (Alexander), Lancashire (Wyld and Hirst), West Riding of
+Yorkshire (Moorman), Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire
+(Duignan), Nottinghamshire (Mutschmann), Gloucestershire (Baddeley),
+Herefordshire (Bannister), Wiltshire (Elsblom), S.W. Yorkshire
+(Goodall), Sussex (Roberts), Lancashire (Sephton), Derbyshire
+(Walker), Northumberland and Durham (Mawer).]  Thus the name Oakley
+must generally have been borne by a man who lived on meadow land which
+was surrounded or dotted with oak-trees.  But I should be shy of
+explaining a given village called Oakley in the same way, because the
+student of place-names might be able to show from early records that
+the place was originally an ey, or island, and that the first syllable
+is the disguised name of a medieval churl.  These four simple etymons
+themselves may also become perverted.  Thus -ham is sometimes confused
+with -holm (Chapter XII), -ley, as I have just suggested, may in some
+cases contain -ey, -ton occasionally interchanges with -don and
+-stone, and -lord with the French -fort (Chapter XIV).
+
+In this chapter will be found a summary of the various words applied
+by our ancestors to the natural features of the land they lived on.
+To avoid too lengthy a catalogue, I have classified them under the
+three headings--
+
+(1) Hill and Dale,
+
+(2) Plain and Woodland,
+
+(3) Water and Waterside,
+
+reserving for the next chapter the names due to man's interference
+with the scenery, e.g. roads, buildings, enclosures, etc.
+
+They are mostly Anglo-Saxon or Scandinavian, the Celtic name remaining
+as the appellation of the individual hill, stream, etc. (Helvellyn,
+Avon, etc.).  The simple word has in almost all cases given a fairly
+common surname, but compounds are of course numerous, the first
+element being descriptive of the second, e.g. Bradley, broad lea,
+Radley and Ridley, red lea, Brockley, brook lea or badger lea (Chapter
+XXIII), Beverley, beaver lea, Cleverley, clover lea, Hawley, hedge
+lea, Rawnsley, raven's lea, and so ad infinitum.  In the oldest
+records spot names are generally preceded by the preposition at,
+whence such names as Attewell, Atwood, but other prepositions occur,
+as in Bythesea, Underwood and the hybrid Suttees, on Tees.  Cf. such
+French names as Doutrepont, from beyond the bridge.
+
+One curious phenomenon, of which I can offer no explanation, is that
+while many spot names occur indifferently with or without -s, e.g.
+Bridge, Bridges; Brook, Brooks; Platt, Plaits, in others we find a
+regular preference either for the singular or plural form.  [Footnote:
+In some cases no doubt a plural, in others a kind of genitive due to
+the influence of personal names, such as Wills, Perkins, etc.]
+Compare the following couples:
+
+Field    Meadows
+
+Lake     Rivers
+
+Pool     Mears (metes)
+
+Spying   Wells
+
+House    Coates (P, 133)
+
+Marsh    Myers   (mires)
+
+[Footnote: Myers is very often a Jewish name, from the very common
+Ger. Meyer, for which see Chapter IV.]
+
+to which many more might be added.  So we find regularly Nokes but
+Nash (Chapter III), Beech but Willows.  The general tendency is
+certainly towards the -s forms in the case of monosyllables, e.g.
+Banks, Foulds, Hayes, Stubbs, Thwaites, etc., but we naturally find
+the singular in compounds, e.g. Windebank (winding), Nettlefold,
+Roundhay, etc.
+
+There is also a further problem offered by names in -er.  We know that
+a Waller was a mason or wall-builder, but was a Bridger really a
+Pontifex, [Footnote: An example of a Latinized name.  Cf. Sutor,
+Faber, and the barbarous Sartorius, for sartor, a tailor.  Pontifex
+may also be the latinized form of Pope or Bishop.  It is not known why
+this title, bridge-builder, was given to high-priests.]  did he merely
+live near the bridge, or was he the same as a Bridgman, and what was
+the latter?  Did Sam Weller's ancestor sink wells, possess a well, or
+live near someone else's well?  Probably all explanations may be
+correct, for the suffix may have differed in meaning according to
+locality, but I fancy that in most cases proximity alone is implied.
+The same applies to many cases of names in -man, such as Hillman,
+Dickman (dyke), Parkman.
+
+Many of the words in the following paragraphs are obsolete or survive
+only in local usage.  Some of them also vary considerably in meaning,
+according to the region in which they are found.  I have included many
+which, in their simple form, seem too obvious to need explanation,
+because the compounds are not always equally clear.
+
+
+
+HILL AND DALE
+
+We have a fair number of Celtic words connected with natural scenery,
+but they do not as a rule form compounds, and as surnames are usually
+found in their simple form.  Such are Cairn, a stony hill, Crag,
+Craig, and the related Carrick and Creagh, Glen or Glynn, and Lynn, a
+cascade.  Two words, however, of Celtic origin, don, or down, a hill,
+and combe, a hollow in the hills, were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and
+enter into many compounds.  Thus we find Kingdon, whence the imitative
+Kingdom, Brandon, from the name Brand (Chapter VII), Ashdown, etc.
+The simple Donne or Dunne is sometimes the Anglo-Saxon name Dunna,
+whence Dunning, or a colour nickname, while Down and Downing may
+represent the Anglo-Sax. Duna and Duning (Chapter VII).  From Combe,
+used especially in the west of England, we have Compton, and such
+compounds as Acomb, at combe, Addiscombe, Battiscombe, etc.  But
+Newcomb is for Newcome (Chapter II).  See also Slocomb (Chapter XXI).
+
+
+
+HILLS
+
+The simple Hill and Dale are among our common surnames.  Hill also
+appears as Hull and is easily disguised in compounds, e.g. Brummel for
+broom-hill, Tootell and Tuttle for Toothill, a name found in many
+localities and meaning a hill on which a watch was kept.  It is
+connected with the verb to tout, originally to look out
+
+"David dwellide in the tote hil" (Wyc, 2 Sam. v. 9).
+
+We have Dale and its cognate Dell in Swindell (swine), Tindall (Tyne),
+Twaddell, Tweddell (Tweed), etc.--
+
+"Mr. H. T. Twaddle announced the change of his name to Tweeddale in
+the Times, January 4, 1890" (Bardsley).
+
+Other names for a hill are Fell (Scand.), found in the lake country,
+whence Grenfell; and Hough or How (Scand.), as in the north country
+names Greenhow, Birchenough.
+
+This is often reduced to -o, as in Clitheroe, Shafto, and is easily
+confused with scough, a wood (Scand.), as in Briscoe (birch), Ayscough
+(ash).
+
+In the north hills were also called Law and Low, with such compounds
+as Bradlaugh, Whitelaw, and Harlow.  To these must be added Barrow,
+often confused with the related borough (Chapter XIII).  Both belong
+to the Anglo-Sax. beorgan, to protect, cover.  The name Leatherbarrow
+means the hill, perhaps the burial mound, of Leather, Anglo-Sax.
+Hlothere, cognate with Lothair and Luther.
+
+A hill-top was Cope or Copp.  Chaucer uses it of the tip of the
+Miller's nose
+
+"Upon the cope right of his nose he hade
+A werte, and thereon stood a toft of herys."
+
+(A. 554.)
+
+Another name for a hill-top appears in Peak, Pike, Peck, or Pick, but
+the many compounds in Pick-, e.g. Pickbourne, Pickford, Pickwick,
+etc., suggest a personal name Pick of which we have the dim. in
+Pickett (cf. Fr. Picot) and the softened Piggot.  Peak may be in some
+cases from the Derbyshire Peak, which has, however, no connection with
+the common noun peak.  A mere hillock or knoll has given the names
+Knapp, Knollys or Knowles, Knock, and Knott.  But Knapp may also be
+for Mid. Eng. nape, cognate with knave and with Low Ger. Knappe,
+squire--
+
+"Wer wagt es, Rittersmann oder Knapp'.
+Zu tauchen in diesen Schlund?"
+
+(Schiller, Der Taucher, 1.  I.)
+
+Redknap, the name of a Richmond boat-builder, is probably a nickname,
+like Redhead.  A Knapper may have lived on a "knap," or may have been
+one of the Suffolk flint-knappers, who still prepare gun-flints for
+weapons to be retailed to the heathen.
+
+Knock and Knocker are both Kentish names, and there is a reef off
+Margate known as the Kentish Knock.  We have the plural Knox (cf. Bax,
+Settlements and Enclosures, Chapter XIII).  Knott is sometimes for
+Cnut, or Canute, which generally becomes Nutt.  Both have got mixed
+with the nickname Nott.
+
+A green knoll was also called Toft (Scand.), whence Langtoft, and the
+name was used later for a homestead.  From Cliff we have Clift,
+[Footnote: This may also be from Mid. Eng, clift, a cleft.] with
+excrescent -t, and the cognates Cleeve and Clive.  Compounds of
+Cliff are Radcliffe (red), Sutcliffe (south), Wyclif (white).  The
+c- sometimes disappears in compounds, e.g. Cunliffe, earlier Cunde-clive,
+and Topliff; but Ayliffe is for AElfgifu or AEthelgifu and Goodliffe
+from Godleof (cf. Ger. Gottlieb).  The older form of Stone appears in
+Staines, Stanhope, Stanton, etc.  Wheatstone is either for "white
+stone" or for the local Whetstone (Middlesex).  In Balderstone,
+Johnston, Edmondstone, Livingstone, the suffix is -ton, though the
+frequence of Johnston points to corruption from Johnson, just as in
+Nottingham we have the converse case of Beeson from the local Beeston.
+In Hailstone the first element may be Mid. Eng, half, holy.  Another
+Mid. English name for a stone appears in Hone, now used only of a
+whetstone.
+
+A hollow or valley in the hillside was called in the north Clough,
+also spelt Clow, Cleugh (Clim o' the Cleugh), and Clew.  The compound
+Fairclough is found corrupted into Faircloth.  Another obscure
+northern name for a glen was Hope, whence Allsop, Blenkinsop, the
+first element in each being perhaps the name of the first settler, and
+Burnup, Hartopp, (hart), Harrap (hare), Heslop (hazel).
+
+Gill (Scand.), a ravine, has given Fothergill, Pickersgill, and
+Gaskell, from Gaisgill (Westmorland).  These, like most of our names
+connected with mountain scenery, are naturally found almost
+exclusively in the north.  Other surnames which belong more or less to
+the hill country are Hole, found also as Holl, Hoole, and Hoyle, but
+perhaps meaning merely a depression in the land, Ridge, and its
+northern form Rigg, with their compounds Doddridge, Langridge,
+Brownrigg, Hazelrigg, etc.  Ridge, Rigg, also appear as Rudge, Rugg.
+From Mid. Eng. raike, a path, a sheep-track (Scand.), we get Raikes
+and perhaps Greatorex, found earlier as Greatrakes, the name of a
+famous faith-healer of the seventeenth century.
+
+
+
+WOODLAND AND PLAIN
+
+The compounds of Wood itself are very numerous, e.g. Braidwood,
+Harwood, Norwood, Sherrard and Sherratt (Sherwood).  But, in
+considering the frequency of the simple Wood, it must be remembered
+that we find people described as le wode, i.e. mad (cf. Ger. Wut,
+frenzy), and that mad and madman are found as medieval names
+
+"Thou told'st me they were stolen unto this wood;
+ And here am I, and wode within this wood,
+ Because I cannot meet my Hermia."
+
+(Midsummer Night's Dream, ii. 1.)
+
+As a suffix -wood is sometimes a corruption of -ward, e.g. Haywood is
+occasionally for Hayward, and Allwood, Elwood are for Aylward,
+Anglo-Sax. AEthelweard.  Another name for a wood was Holt, cognate
+with Ger. Holz--
+
+"But right so as thise holtes and thise hayis,
+ That han in winter dede ben and dreye,
+ Revesten hem in grene whan that May is."
+
+(Troilus and Criseyde, iii.  351.)
+
+Hurst or Hirst means a wooded hill (cf. Ger. Horst), and Shaw was once
+almost as common a word as wood itself--
+
+"Wher rydestow under this grene-wode shawe?"
+
+(D, 1386.)
+
+Hurst belongs especially to the south and west, though Hirst is very
+common in Yorkshire; Shaw is found in the north and Holt in the east
+and south.  We have compounds of Shaw in Bradshaw, Crashaw (crow),
+Hearnshaw (heron), Earnshaw (Mid.  Eng, earn, eagle), Renshaw (raven)
+[Footnote: It is obvious that this may also be for raven's haw
+(Chapter XIII).  Raven was a common personal name and is the first
+element in Ramsbottom (Chapter XII), Ramsden.], etc., of Hurst in
+Buckhurst (beech), Brockhurst (badger), and of Holt in Oakshott.
+
+We have earlier forms of Grove in Greaves--
+
+"And with his stremes dryeth in the greves
+ The silver dropes, hangynge on the leves"
+
+(A. 1495)--
+
+and Graves, the latter being thus no more funereal than Tombs, from
+Thomas (cf. Timbs from Timothy).  But Greaves and Graves may also be
+variants of the official Grieves (Chapter XIX), or may come from Mid.
+Eng. graefe, a trench, quarry.  Compounds are Hargreave (hare),
+Redgrave, Stangrave, the two latter probably referring to an
+excavation.  From Mid. Eng, strope, a small wood, appear to come
+Strode and Stroud, compound Bulstrode, while Struthers is the cognate
+strother, marsh, still in dialect use.  Weald and wold, the cognates
+of Ger. Wald, were applied rather to wild country in general than to
+land covered with trees.  They are probably connected with wild.
+
+Similarly the Late Lat. foresta, whence our forest, means only what is
+outside, Lat, foris, the town jurisdiction.  From the Mid. Eng. waeld
+we have the names Weld and Weale, the latter with the not uncommon
+loss of final -d.  Scroggs (Scand.) and Scrubbs suggest their meaning
+of brushwood.  Scroggins, from its form, is a patronymic, and probably
+represents Scoggins with intrusive _r_.  This is perhaps from Scogin,
+a name borne by a poet who was contemporary with Chaucer and by a
+court-fool of the fifteenth century--
+
+"The same Sir John, the very same.  I saw him break Skogan's head at
+the court gate, when he was a crack, not thus high." (2 Henry IV.,
+iii.  2.)
+
+With Scrubb of cloudy ammonia fame we may compare Wormwood Scrubbs.
+Shrubb is the same word, and Shropshire is for Anglo-Sax. scrob-scire.
+
+
+
+FOREST CLEARINGS
+
+The two northern names for a clearing in the wood were Royd and
+Thwaite (Scand.).  The former is cognate with the second part of
+Baireut and Wernigerode, and with the Ruetli, the small plateau on
+which the Swiss patriots took their famous oath.  It was so called--
+
+"Weil dort die Waldung ausgerodet ward."
+
+(SCHILLER, Wilhelm Tell.)
+
+Among its compounds are Ackroyd (oak), Grindrod (green), Murgatroyd
+(Margaret), Learoyd (lea), Ormerod, etc.  We also find the name Rodd,
+which may belong here or to Rudd (Chapter VII), and both these names
+may also be for Rood, equivalent to Cross or Crouch (Chapter II), as
+in Holyrood.  Ridding is also related to Royd.  Hacking may be a dim.
+of Hack (Chapter VII), but we find also de le hacking, which suggests
+a forest clearing.
+
+Thwaite,  from Anglo-Sax. [thorn]witan, to cut, is found chiefly in
+Cumberland and the adjacent region in such compounds as Braithwaite
+(broad), Hebbelthwaite, Postlethwaite, Satterthwaite.  The second of
+these is sometimes corrupted into Ablewhite as Cowperthwaite is into
+Copperwheat, for "this suffix has ever been too big a mouthful in the
+south" (Bardsley).  A glade or valley in the wood was called a Dean,
+Dene, Denne, cognate with den.  The compounds are numerous, e.g.
+Borden (boar), Dibden (deep), Sugden (Mid.  Eng. suge, sow), Hazeldean
+or Heseltine.  From the fact that swine were pastured in these glades
+the names Denman and Denyer have been explained as equivalent to
+swineherd.  As a suffix -den is often confused with -don (Chapter
+XII).  At the foot of Horsenden Hill, near Harrow, two boards announce
+Horsendon Farm and Horsenden Golf-links.  An opening in the wood was
+also called Slade--
+
+"And when he came to Barnesdale,
+ Great heavinesse there hee hadd;
+ He found two of his fellowes
+ Were slain both in a Slade."
+
+(Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne.)
+
+The maps still show Pond Slade in Richmond Park, The compound Hertslet
+may be for hart-Slade.
+
+Acre, a field, cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. ager, occurs
+in Goodacre, Hardacre, Linacre, Whittaker, etc., and Field itself
+gives numerous compounds, including Butterfield (bittern, Chapter
+XXIII), Schofield (school), Streatfeild (street), Whitfield.
+
+Pasture-land is represented above all by Lea, for which see Chapter
+III.  It is cognate with Hohenlohe and Waterloo, while Mead and Medd
+are cognate with Zermatt (at the mead).  Brinsmead thus means the same
+as Brinsley.
+
+
+
+MARSHES
+
+Marshy land has given the names Carr or Kerr (Scand.) and Marsh,
+originally an adjective, merisc, from mer, mere.  The doublet Marris
+has usually become Morris.  The compounds Tidmarsh and Titchmarsh
+contain the Anglo-Saxon names Tidda and Ticca.  Moor also originally
+had the meaning morass (e.g. in Sedgemoor), as Ger. Moor still has, so
+that Fenimore is pleonastic.  The northern form is Muir, as in
+Muirhead.  Moss was similarly used in the north; cf. moss-trooper and
+Solway Moss, but the surname Moss is generally for Moses (Chapter IX).
+From slough we get the names Slow, Slowley, and Sloman (also perhaps a
+nickname), with which we may compare Moorman and Mossman.  This seems
+to be also the most usual meaning of Slack or Slagg, also used of a
+gap in the hills
+
+"The first horse that he rode upon,
+For he was raven black,
+He bore him far, and very far,
+But failed in a slack."
+
+(Ballad of Lady Maisry.)
+
+Tye means common land.  Platt is a piece, or plot, of level country--
+
+"Oft on a plat of rising ground
+ I hear the far-off curfew sound"
+
+(Penseroso, 1.  73);
+
+and shape is expressed by Gore, a triangular piece of land (cf.
+Kensington Gore), of which the older form Gare, Geare, also survives.
+In Lowndes we have laund or lound--
+
+"And to the laund he rideth hym ful right,
+ For thider was the hart wont have his flight
+
+(A. 1691)--
+
+a piece of heath land, the origin of the modern word lawn.  In Lund
+and Lunn it has become confused with the Old Norse lundr, a sacred
+grove.
+
+Laund itself is of French origin--
+
+"Lande, a land, or laund; a wild, untilled, shrubbie, or bushie
+plaine"
+
+(Cotgrave).
+
+Its relation to land is uncertain, and it is not possible to
+distinguish them in such compounds as Acland (Chapter XII), Buckland,
+Cleveland, etc.  The name Lander or Launder is unconnected with these
+(see p.186).  Flack is Mid. Eng. flagge, turf.  Snape is a dialect
+word for boggy ground, and Wong means a meadow.
+
+A rather uncouth-looking set of names, which occur chiefly on the
+border of Cheshire and Lancashire, are compounded from bottom or
+botham, a wide shallow valley suited for agriculture.  Hotspur,
+dissatisfied with his fellow-conspirators' map-drawing, expresses his
+intention of damming the Trent so that
+
+"It shall not wind with such a deep indent
+ To rob me of so rich a bottom here."
+
+(1 Henry IV, iii.  1.)
+
+Familiar compounds are Higginbottom, Rowbotham, Sidebottom.  The first
+element of Shufflebotham is, in the Lancashire Assize Rolls
+(1176-1285), spelt Schyppewalle- and Schyppewelle-, where schyppe is
+for sheep, still so pronounced in dialect.  Tarbottom, earlier
+Tarbutton, is corrupted from Tarbolton (Ayrshire).
+
+
+
+WATER AND WATERSIDE
+
+RIVERS
+
+Very few surnames are taken, in any language, from the names of
+rivers.  This is quite natural, for just as the man who lived on a
+hill became known as Hill, Peake, etc., and not as Skiddaw or Wrekin,
+so the man who lived by the waterside would be known as Bywater,
+Rivers, etc.  No Londoner talks of going on the Thames, and the
+country-dweller also usually refers to his local stream as the river
+or the water, and not by its geographical name.  Another reason for
+the absence of such surnames is probably to be found in the fact that
+our river (and mountain) names are almost exclusively Celtic, and had
+no connotation for the English population.  We have many apparent
+river names, but most of them are susceptible of another explanation.
+Dee may be for Day as Deakin is for Dakin, i.e. David, Derwent looks
+like Darwin (Chapter VII) or the local Darwen with excrescent -t
+(Chapter III), Humber is Humbert, a French name corresponding to the
+Anglo-Sax, Hunbeorht, Medway may be merely "mid-way," and Trent is a
+place in Somerset.  This view as to river surnames is supported by the
+fact that we do not appear to have a single mountain surname, the
+apparent exception, Snowdon, being for Snowden (see den, Dean, Dene,
+Denne).  [Footnote: But see my Surnames, Chapter XVI.]
+
+Among names for streams we have Beck, [Footnote: The simple Beck is
+generally a German name of modern introduction (see pecch).]  cognate
+with Ger. Bach; Bourne, [Footnote: Distinct from bourne, a boundary,
+Fr. borne.] or Burn, cognate with Ger. Brunnen; Brook, related to
+break; Crick, a creek; Fleet, a creek, cognate with Flood; and Syke, a
+trench or rill.  In Beckett and Brockett the suffix is head (Chapter
+XIII).  Troutbeck, Birkbeck explain themselves.  In Colbeck we have
+cold, and Holbrook contains hollow, but in some names -brook has been
+substituted for -borough, -burgh.  We find Brook latinized as Torrens.
+Aborn is for atte bourne, and there are probably many places called
+Blackburn and Otterburn.
+
+Firth, an estuary, cognate with fjord, often becomes Frith, but this
+surname usually comes from frith, a park or game preserve (Chapter
+XIII).
+
+Another word for a creek, wick or wick (Scand.), cannot be
+distinguished from wick, a settlement.  Pond, a doublet of Pound
+(Chapter XIII), means a piece of water enclosed by a dam, while
+natural sheets of water are Lake, or Lack, not limited originally to a
+large expanse, Mere, whence Mears and such compounds as Cranmer
+(crane), Bulmer (bull), etc., and Pool, also spelt Pull and Pole.  We
+have compounds of the latter in Poulton (Chapter I), Claypole, and
+Glasspool.
+
+In Kent a small pond is called Sole, whence Nethersole.  The bank of a
+river or lake was called Over, cognate with Ger. Ufer, whence Overend,
+Overall (see below), Overbury, Overland.  The surname Shore, for atte
+shore, may refer to the sea-shore, but the word sewer was once
+regularly so pronounced and the name was applied to large drains in
+the fen country (cf. Gott, Water, Chapter XIII).  Beach is a word of
+late appearance and doubtful origin, and as a surname is usually
+identical with Beech.
+
+Spits of land by the waterside were called Hook  (cf. Hook of Holland
+and Sandy Hook) and Hoe or Hoo, as in Plymouth Hoe, or the Hundred of
+Hoo, between the Thames and the Medway.  From Hook comes Hooker, where
+it does not mean a maker of hooks, while Homan and Hooman sometimes
+belong to the second.  Alluvial land by a stream was called halgh,
+haugh, whence sometimes Hawes.  Its dative case gives Hale and Heal.
+These often become -hall, -all, in place-names.  Compounds are
+Greenhalgh, Greenall and Featherstonehaugh, perhaps our longest
+surname.
+
+Ing, a low-lying meadow, Mid. Eng. eng, survives in Greening, Fenning,
+Wilding, and probably sometimes in England (Chapter XI).  But Inge and
+Ings, the latter the name of one of the Cato Street conspirators, also
+represent an Anglo-Saxon personal name.  Cf. Ingall and Ingle, from
+Ingwulf, or Ingold, whence Ingoldsby.
+
+
+
+ISLANDS
+
+Ey, an island, [Footnote: Isle of Sheppey, Mersea Island, etc, are
+pleonasms.]survives as the last element of many names, and is not
+always to be distinguished from hey (hay, Settlements, Chapter III)
+and ley.  Bill Nye's ancestor lived atten ey (Chapter III).  Dowdney
+or Dudeney has been explained from the Anglo-Saxon name Duda, but it
+more probably represents the very common French name Dieudonne,
+corresponding to Lat. Deodatus.  In the north a river island was
+commonly called Holm (Scand.), also pronounced Home, Hulme, and Hume,
+in compounds easily confused with -ham, e.g. Durham was once
+Dun-holmr, hill island.  The very common Holmes is probably in most
+cases a tree-name (Chapter XII).  In Chisholm the first element may
+mean pebble; cf. Chesil Beach.  The names Bent, whence Broadbent, and
+Crook probably also belong sometimes to the river, but may have arisen
+from a turn in a road or valley.  But Bent was also applied to a tract
+covered with bents, or rushes, and Crook is generally a nickname
+(Chapter XXII).  Lastly, the crossing of the unbridged stream has
+given us Ford or Forth whence Stratford, Strafford (street), Stanford,
+Stamford, Staniforth (stone), etc.  The alternative name was Wade,
+whence the compound Grimwade.  The cognate wath (Scand.) has been
+confused with with (Scand.), a wood, whence the name Wythe and the
+compound Askwith or Asquith.  Both -wath and -with have been often
+replaced by -worth and -wood.
+
+
+
+TREE NAMES
+
+In conclusion a few words must be said about tree names, so common in
+their simple form and in topographical compounds.  Here, as in the
+case of most of the etymons already mentioned in this chapter, the
+origin of the surname may be specific as well as general, i.e. the
+name Ash may come from Ash in Kent rather than from any particular
+tree, the etymology remaining the same.  Many of our surnames have
+preserved the older forms of tree names, e.g. the lime was once the
+line, hence Lines, Lynes, and earlier still the Lind, as in the
+compounds Lyndhurst, Lindley, etc.  The older form of Oak appears in
+Acland, Acton, and variants in Ogden and Braddock, broad oak.  We have
+ash in Aston, Ascham.  The holly was once the hollin, whence Hollins,
+Hollis, Hollings; cf. Hollings-head, Holinshed.  But hollin became
+colloquially holm, whence generally Holmes.  Homewood is for
+holm-wood.  The holm oak, ilex, is so called from its holly-like
+leaves.  For Birch we also find Birk, a northern form.  Beech often
+appears in compounds as Buck-; cf. buckwheat, so called because the
+grains are of the shape of beech-mast.  In Poppleton, Popplewell we
+have the dialect popple, a poplar.  Yeo sometimes represents yew,
+spelt yowe by Palsgrave.  [Footnote: The yeo of yeoman, which is
+conjectured to have meant district, cognate with Ger. Gau in Breisgau,
+Rheingau, etc., is not found by itself.]
+
+In Sallows we have a provincial name for the willow, cognate with Fr,
+saule and Lat. salix.  Rowntree is the rowan, or mountain ash, and
+Bawtry or Bawtree is a northern name for the elder.  The older forms
+of Alder and Elder, in both of which the _d_ is intrusive (Chapter
+III), appear in Allerton and Ellershaw.  Maple is sometimes Mapple and
+sycamore is corrupted into Sicklemore.
+
+Tree-names are common in all languages.  Beerbohm Tree is pleonastic,
+from Ger. Bierbaum, for Birnbaum, pear-tree.  A few years ago a
+prominent Belgian statesman bore the name Vandenpereboom, rather
+terrifying till decomposed into "van den pereboom." Its Mid. English
+equivalent appears in Pirie, originally a collection of pear-trees,
+but used by Chaucer for the single tree
+
+"And thus I lete hym sitte upon the pyrie."
+
+(E. 2217.)
+
+From trees we may descend gradually, via Thorne, Bush, Furze, Gorst
+(Chapter I), Ling, etc., until we come finally to Grace, which in some
+cases represents grass, for we find William atte grase in 1327, while
+the name Poorgrass, in Mr. Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd, seems
+to be certified by the famous French names Malherbe and Malesherbes.
+But Savory is the French personal name Savary.
+
+The following list of trees is given by Chaucer in the Knight's tale--
+
+"The names that the trees highte,--
+ As ook, firre, birch, aspe, alder, holm, popeler,
+ Wylugh, elm, plane, assh, box, chasteyn, lynde, laurer,
+ Mapul, thorn, beck, hasel, ew, whippeltre."  (A. 2920.)
+
+They are all represented in modern directories.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. THE HAUNTS OF MAN
+
+"One fels downs firs, another of the same
+ With crossed poles a little lodge doth frame:
+ Another mounds it with dry wall about,
+ And leaves a breach for passage in and out:
+ With turfs and furze some others yet more gross
+ Their homely sties in stead of walls inclose:
+ Some, like the swallow, mud and hay doe mixe
+ And that about their silly [p.  209] cotes they fixe
+ Some heals [thatch] their roofer with fearn, or reeds, or rushes,
+ And some with hides, with oase, with boughs, and bushes,"
+
+(SYLVESTER, The Devine Weekes, )
+
+In almost every case where man has interfered with nature the
+resulting local name is naturally of Anglo-Saxon or, in some parts of
+England, of Scandinavian origin.  The Roman and French elements in our
+topographical names are scanty in number, though the former are of
+frequent occurrence.  The chief Latin contributions are -Chester,
+-cester, -caster, Lat. castrum, a fort, or plural castra, a camp;
+-street, Lat. via strata, a levelled way; -minster, Lat. monasterium;
+and -church or -kirk, Greco-Lat. kuriakon, belonging to the Lord.
+Eccles, Greco-Lat. ecclesia, probably goes back to Celtic
+Christianity.  Street was the high-road, hence Greenstreet.  Minster
+is curiously corrupted in Buckmaster for Buckminster and Kittermaster
+for Kidderminster, while in its simple form it appears as Minister
+(Chapter III).
+
+We have a few French place-names, e.g. Beamish (Chapter XIV),
+Beaumont, Richmond, Richemont, and Malpas (Cheshire), the evil pass,
+with which we may compare Maltravers.  We have the apparent opposite
+in Bompas, Bumpus, Fr. bon pas, but this was a nickname.  Of late
+there has been a tendency to introduce the French ville, e.g.
+Bournville, near Birmingham.  That part of Margate which ought to be
+called Northdown is known as Cliftonville, and the inhabitants of the
+opposite end of the town, dissatisfied with such good names as
+Westbrook and Rancorn, hanker after Westonville.  But these
+philological atrocities are fortunately too late to be perpetuated as
+surnames.
+
+I have divided the names in this chapter into those that are connected
+with
+
+(1)  Settlements and Enclosures,
+
+(2)  Highways and Byways,
+
+(3)  Watercourses,
+
+(4)  Buildings,
+
+(5)  Shop Signs.
+
+And here, as before, names which neither in their simple nor compound
+form present any difficulty are omitted.
+
+
+
+SETTLEMENTS AND ENCLOSURES
+
+The words which occur most commonly in the names of the modern towns
+which have sprung from early homesteads are borough or bury,
+[Footnote: Originally the dative of borough.]  by, ham, stoke, stow,
+thorp, tun or ton, wick, and worth.  These names are all of native
+origin, except by, which indicates a Danish settlement, and wick,
+which is supposed to be a very early loan from Lat. vicus, cognate
+with Greek oikos, house.  Nearly all of them are common, in their
+simple form, both as specific place-names and as surnames.  Borough,
+cognate with Ger. Burg, castle, and related to Barrow (Chapter XII),
+has many variants, Bury, Brough, Borrow, Berry, whence Berryman, and
+Burgh, the last of which has become Burke in Ireland.
+
+In Atterbury the preposition and article have both remained, while in
+Thornber the suffix is almost unrecognizable.  By, related to byre and
+to the preposition by, is especially common in Yorkshire and
+Lincolnshire.  It is sometimes spelt bee, e.g. Ashbee for Ashby.  The
+simple Bye is not uncommon.  Ham is cognate with home.  In compounds
+it is sometimes reduced to -um, e.g. Barnum, Holtum, Warnum.  But in
+some such names the -um is the original form, representing an old
+dative plural (Chapter III).  Allum represents the usual Midland
+pronunciation of Hallam.  Cullum, generally for Culham, may also
+represent the missionary Saint Colomb.  In Newnham the adjective is
+dative, as in Ger. Neuenheim, at the new home.  In Bonham, Frankham,
+and Pridham the suffix -ham has been substituted for the French homme
+of bonhomme, franc homme, prudhomme, while Jerningham is a perversion
+of the personal name Jernegan or Gernegan, as Garnham is of Gernon,
+Old French for Beard (Chapter XXI).  Stead is cognate with Ger. Stadt,
+place, town, and with staith, as in Bickersteth(Chapter III).
+Armstead means the dwelling of the hermit, Bensted the stead of Benna
+(Chapter VII) or Bennet.
+
+Stoke is originally distinct from Stock, a stump, with which it has
+become fused in the compounds Bostock, Brigstocke.  Stow appears in
+the compound Bristol (Chapter XI) and in Plaistow, play-ground (cf.
+Playsted).  Thorp, cognate with Ger. Dorf, village, is especially
+common in the eastern counties
+
+"By twenty thorps, a little town,
+ And half a hundred bridges."
+
+(Tennyson, The Brook, 1.  5.)
+
+It has also given Thrupp and probably Thripp, whence Calthrop,
+Winthrop, Westrupp, etc.
+
+Ton, later Town, gave also the northern Toon, still used in Scotland
+with something of its original sense (Chapter XII).  Boston is
+Botolf's town, Gunston Gunolf's town.  So also Tarleton (Thurweald),
+Monkton (monk), Preston (priest).  Barton meant originally a
+barley-field, and is still used in the west of England for a paddock.
+Wick appears also as Wych, Weech.  Its compounds cannot be separated
+from those of wick, a creek (Chapter XII).  Bromage is for Bromwich,
+Greenidge for Greenwich, Prestage for Prestwich; cf. the place-name
+Swanage (Dorset), earlier Swanewic.
+
+Worth was perhaps originally applied to land by a river or to a holm
+(Chapter XII); cf. Ger. Donauwert, Nonnenwert, etc.  Harmsworth is for
+Harmondsworth; cf. Ebbsworth (Ebba), Shuttleworth (Sceotweald),
+Wadsworth (Wada).  Sometimes we find a lengthened form, e.g.
+Allworthy, from ald, old (cf. Aldworth), Langworthy.  Rickworth,
+further corrupted to Record, is the Anglo-Saxon name Ricweard.
+Littleworth may belong to this class, but may also be a nickname.
+This would make it equivalent to the imitative Little-proud, formerly
+Littleprow, from Old French and Mid. Eng. prou, worth, value.
+
+To this group may be added two more, which signify a mart, viz. Cheap
+or Chipp (cf. Chepstow, Chipping Barnet) and Staple, whence Huxtable,
+Stapleton, etc.  Liberty, that part of a city which, though outside
+the walls, shares in the city privileges, and Parish also occur as
+surnames, but the latter is usually for Paris.
+
+Many other words connected with the delimitation of property occur
+commonly in surnames.  Croft or Craft, a small field, is common in
+compounds such as Beecroft or Bearcroft (barley), Haycraft (see hay,
+below),  Oscroft(ox), Rycroft, Meadowcroft. [Footnote: I remember
+reading in some story of a socially ambitious lady who adopted this
+commonplace name instead of Gubbins.  The latter name came over, as
+Gobin, with the Conqueror, and goes back to Old Ger. Godberaht, whence
+Old Fr. Godibert.] Fold occurs usually as Foulds, but we have
+compounds such as Nettlefold, Penfold or Pinfold (Chapter XIII).  Sty,
+not originally limited to pigs, has given Hardisty, the sty of
+Heardwulf.  Frith, a park or game preserve, is probably more often the
+origin of a surname than the other frith (Chapter XII).  It is cognate
+with Ger. Friedhof, cemetery.  Chase is still used of a park and Game
+once meant rabbit-warren.  Warren is Fr. garenne.  Garth, the
+Scandinavian doublet of Yard, and cognate with Garden, has given the
+compounds Garside, Garfield, Hogarth (from a place in Westmorland),
+and Applegarth, of which Applegate is a corruption.  We have a
+compound of yard in Wynyard, Anglo-Sax. win, vine.  We have also the
+name Close and its derivative Clowser.  Gate, a barrier or opening,
+Anglo-Sax. geat, is distinct from the Scandinavian gate, a street
+(Chapter XIII), though of course confused with it in surnames.  From
+the northern form we have Yates, Yeats, and Yeatman, and the compounds
+Byatt, by gate, Hyatt, high gate.  Agate is for atte gate, and
+Lidgate, whence Lidgett, means a swing gate, shutting like a lid.
+Fladgate is for flood-gate.  Here also belongs Barr.  Hatch, the gate
+at the entrance to a chase, survives in Colney Hatch.  The apparent
+dim. Hatchett is for Hatchard (Chapter VIII); cf. Everett for Everard
+(Chapter II).  Hay, also Haig, Haigh, Haw, Hey, is cognate with Hedge.
+Like most monosyllabic local surnames, it is commonly found in the
+plural, Hayes, Hawes.  The bird nickname Hedgecock exists also as
+Haycock.  The curious-looking patronymics Townson and Orchardson are
+of course corrupt.  The former is for Tomlinson and the latter perhaps
+from Achard (Chapter VIII).
+
+Several places and families in England are named Hide or Hyde, which
+meant a certain measure of land.  The popular connection between this
+word and hide, a skin, as in the story of the first Jutish settlement,
+is a fable.  It is connected with an Anglo-Saxon word meaning
+household, which appears also in Huish, Anglo-Sax. hi-wisc.  Dike, or
+Dyke, and Moat, also Mott, both have, or had, a double meaning.  We
+still use dike, which belongs to dig and ditch, both of a trench and a
+mound, and the latter was the earlier meaning of Fr. motte, now a
+clod, In Anglo-French we find moat used of a mound fortress in a
+marsh.  Now it is applied to the surrounding water.  From dike come
+the names Dicker, Dickman, Grimsdick, etc.  Sometimes the name Dykes
+may imply residence near some historic earthwork, such as Offa's Dyke,
+just as Wall, for which Waugh was used in the north, may show
+connection with the Roman wall.  With these may be mentioned the
+French name Fosse, whence the apparently pleonastic Fosdyke and the
+name of Verdant Green's friend, Mr. Four-in-hand Fosbrooke.  Delves is
+from Mid. Eng. dell, ditch.  Jury is for Jewry, the quarter allotted
+to the Jews, but Jewsbury is no doubt for Dewsbury; cf. Jewhurst for
+Dewhurst.
+
+Here may be mentioned a few local surnames which are hard to classify.
+We have the apparently anatomical Back, Foot, Head, and, in compounds,
+-side.  Back seems to have been used of the region behind a building
+or dwelling, as it still is at Cambridge.  Its plural has given Bax.
+But it was also a personal name connected with Bacon (Chapter XXIII).
+
+We should expect Foot to mean the base of a hill, but it always occurs
+in early rolls without a preposition.  It may represent in some cases
+an old personal name of obscure origin, but it is also a nickname with
+compounds such as Barfoot, Lightfoot.  The simple Head, found as Mid.
+Eng. del heved, is perhaps generally from a shop sign.  Fr. Tete, one
+origin of Tait, Tate, and Ger. Haupt, Kopf, also occur as surnames.
+As a local suffix -head appears to mean top-end and is generally
+shortened to -ett, e.g. Birkett (cf. Birkenhead), [Footnote: No doubt
+sometimes, like Burchett, Burkett, for the personal name Burchard,
+Anglo-Sax. Burgheard]  Brockett (brook), Bromet, Bromhead (broom),
+Hazlitt (hazel).  The same suffix appears to be present in Fossett,
+from fosse, and Forcett from force, a waterfall (Scand.).  Broadhead
+is a nickname, like Fr. Grossetete and Ger. Breitkopf.  The face-value
+of Evershed is boar's head.  Morshead may be the nickname of mine host
+of the Saracen's Head or may mean the end of the moor.  So the names
+Aked (oak), Blackett, Woodhead may be explained anatomically or
+geographically according to the choice of the bearer.  Perrett,
+usually a dim. of Peter, may sometimes represent the rather effective
+old nickname "pear-head."
+
+Side is local in the uncomfortable sounding Akenside (oak), Fearenside
+(fern), but Heaviside appears to be a nickname.  Handyside may mean
+"gracious manner," from Mid. Eng. side, cognate with Ger. Sitte,
+custom.  See Hendy (Chapter XXII).  The simple end survives as Ind or
+Nind (Chapter III) and in Overend (Chapter XII), Townsend.  Edge
+appears also in the older form Egg, but the frequency of place-names
+beginning with Edge, e.g. Edgeley, Edgington, Edgworth, etc., suggests
+that it was also a personal name.
+
+Lynch, a boundary, is cognate with golf-links.  The following sounds
+modern, but refers to people sitting in a hollow among the
+sand-ridges--
+
+"And are ye in the wont of drawing up wi' a' the gangrel bodies that
+ye find cowering in a sand-bunker upon the links?"
+
+(Redgauntlet, ch. xi.)
+
+Pitt is found in the compound Bulpitt, no doubt the place where the
+town bull was kept.  It is also the origin of the Kentish names Pett
+and Pettman (Chapter XVII).  Arch refers generally to a bridge.
+Lastly, there are three words for a corner, viz. Hearne, Herne, Hurne,
+Horn; Wyke, the same word as Wick, a creek (Chapter XII); and Wray
+(Scand.).  The franklin tell us that "yonge clerkes" desirous of
+knowledge--
+
+"Seken in every halke and every herne
+ Particular sciences for to lerne"
+
+(F, 1119).
+
+Wray has become confused with Ray (Chapter III).  Its compound
+thack-wray, the corner where the thatch was stored, has given
+Thackeray.
+
+
+
+HIGHWAYS AND BYWAYS
+
+The word road was not used in its current sense during the surname
+period, but meant the art of riding, and specifically a raid or
+inroad.  Therefore the name Roades is unconnected with it and
+represents merely a variant of Royds (Chapter XII).  This name and its
+compounds belong essentially to the north, the prevailing spelling,
+Rhodes, being artificial.  It has no connection with the island of
+Rhodes.
+
+The meaning of Street has changed considerably since the days when
+Icknield Street and Watling Street were great national roads.  It is
+now used exclusively of town thoroughfares, and has become such a mere
+suffix that, while we speak of the Oxford Road, we try to suppress the
+second word in Ox'ford Street.  To street belong our place-names and
+surnames in Strat-, Stret-, etc., e.g. Stratton, Stretton, Stredwick.
+Way has a number of compounds with intrusive _a_, e.g. Challaway,
+Dallaway (dale), Greenaway, Hathaway (heath), Westaway.  But Hanway is
+the name of a country (Chapter XI), and Otway, Ottoway, is Old Fr.
+Otouet, a dim. of Odo.  Shipway is for sheep-way.  In the north of
+England the streets in a town are often called gates (Scand.).  It is
+impossible to distinguish the compounds of this gate from those of the
+native gate, a barrier (Chapter XIII), e.g. Norgate may mean North
+Street or North Gate.
+
+Alley and Court both exist as surnames, but the former is for a'lee,
+i.e. Atlee (Chapter XII), and the latter is from court in the sense of
+mansion, country house.  The curious spelling Caught may be seen over
+a shop in Chiswick.  Rowe (Chapter I) sometimes means row of houses,
+but in Townroe the second element is identical with Wray (Chapter
+XIII).  Cosway, Cossey, is from causeway, Fr. chaussee; and Twitchers,
+Twitchell represent dialect words used of a narrow passage and
+connected with the Mid. English verb twiselen, to fork, or divide;
+Twiss must be of similar origin, for we find Robert del twysse in
+1367.  Cf. Birtwistle and Entwistle.  With the above may be classed
+the west-country Shute, a narrow street; Vennell, a north-country word
+for alley, Fr. venelle, dim. of Lat. versa, vein; Wynd, a court, also
+a north-country word, probably from the verb wind, to twist; and the
+cognate Went, a passage--
+
+"Thorugh a goter, by a prive wente."
+
+(Troilus and Criseyde, iii.  788.)
+
+
+
+WATER
+
+Names derived from artificial watercourses are Channell, now replaced
+as a common noun by the learned form canal; Condy or Cundy, for the
+earlier Cunditt, conduit; Gott, cognate with gut, used in Yorkshire
+for the channel from a mill-dam, and in Lincolnshire for a water-drain
+on the coast; Lade, Leete, connected with the verb to lead; and
+sometimes Shore (Chapter XII), which was my grandfather's
+pronunciation of sewer.  From weir, lit.  a protection, precaution,
+cognate with beware and Ger. wehren, to protect, we have not only
+Weir, but also Ware, Warr, Wear, and the more pretentious Delawarr.
+The latter name passed from an Earl Delawarr to a region in North
+America, and thus to Fenimore Cooper's noble red men.  But this group
+of names must sometimes be referred to the Domesday wars, an outlying
+potion of a manor.  Lock is more often a land name, to be classed with
+Hatch (Chapter XIII), but was also used of a water-gate.  Key was once
+the usual spelling of quay.  The curious name Keylock is a perversion
+of Kellogg, Mid. Eng. Kill-hog.  Port seldom belongs here, as the Mid.
+English is almost always de la Porte, i.e. Gates.  From well we have a
+very large number of compounds, e.g. Cauldwell (cold), Halliwell, the
+variants of which, Holliwell, Hollowell, probably all represent Mid.
+Eng. hali, holy.  Here belongs also Winch, from the device used for
+drawing water from deep wells.
+
+
+
+BUILDINGS
+
+The greater number of the words to be dealt with under this heading
+enter into the composition of specific place-names.  A considerable
+number of surnames are derived from the names of religious buildings,
+usually from proximity rather than actual habitation.  Such names are
+naturally of Greco-Latin origin, and were either introduced directly
+into Anglo-Saxon by the missionaries, or were adopted later in a
+French form after the Conquest.  It has already been noted (Chapter I)
+that Abbey is not always what it seems; but in some cases it is local,
+from Fr, abbaye, of which the Provencal form Abadie was introduced by
+the Huguenots.  We find much earlier Abdy, taken straight from the
+Greco-Lat. abbatia.  The famous name Chantrey is for chantry, Armitage
+was once the regular pronunciation of Hermitage, and Chappell a common
+spelling of Chapel--
+
+"Also if you finde not the word you seeke for presently after one sort
+of spelling, condemne me not forthwith, but consider how it is used to
+be spelled, whether with double or single letters, as Chappell, or
+Chapell" (Holyoak, Latin Dict., 1612).
+
+We have also the Norman form Capel, but this may be a nickname from
+Mid. Eng. capel, nag--
+
+"Why nadstow (hast thou not) pit the capul in the lathe (barn)?" (A,
+4088.)
+
+A Galilee was a chapel or porch devoted to special purposes--
+
+"Those they pursued had taken refuge in the galilee of the church"
+
+(Fair Maid of Perth, ch. ix.).
+
+The tomb of the Venerable Bede is in the Galilee of Durham Cathedral.
+I had a schoolfellow with this uncommon name, now generally perverted
+to Galley.  In a play now running (Feb.  1913) in London, there is a
+character named Sanctuary, a name found also in Crockford and the
+London Directory.
+
+I have only once come across the contracted form Sentry [Footnote: On
+the development in meaning of this word, first occurring in the phrase
+"to take sentrie," i.e. refuge, see my Romance of Words, ch. vii.]
+(Daily Telegraph, Dec.  26, 1912), and then under circumstances which
+might make quotation actionable.  Purvis is Mid. Eng. parvis, a porch,
+Greco-Lat. paradises.  It may be the same as Provis, the name selected
+by Mr. Magwitch on his return from the Antipodes (Great Expectations,
+ch. xl.), unless this is for Provost.  Porch and Portch both occur as
+surnames, but Porcher is Fr. porcher, a swineherd, and Portal is a
+Huguenot name.  Churcher and Kirker, Churchman and Kirkman, are
+usually local; cf. Bridges and Bridgman.
+
+The names Temple and Templeman were acquired from residence near one
+of the preceptories of the Knights Templars, and Spittlehouse (Chapter
+III) is sometimes to be accounted for in a similar way (Knights of the
+Hospital).  We even find the surname Tabernacle.  Musters is Old Fr.
+moustiers (moutiers), common in French place-names, from Lat.
+monasterium.  The word bow, still used for an arch in some old towns,
+has given the names Bow and Bowes.  A medieval statute, recently
+revived to baffle the suffragettes, was originally directed against
+robbers and "pillers," i.e. plunderers, but the name Piller is also
+for pillar; cf. the French name Colonise.  With these may be mentioned
+Buttress and Carvell, the latter from Old Fr. carnet (creneau), a
+battlement.
+
+As general terms for larger dwellings we find Hall, House, also
+written Hose, and Seal, the last-named from the Teutonic original
+which has given Fr. Lasalle, whence our surname Sale.  To the same
+class belong Place, Plaice, as in Cumnor Place.
+
+The possession of such surnames does not imply ancestral possession of
+Haddon Hall, Stafford House, etc., but merely that the founder of the
+family lived under the shadow of greatness.  In compounds -house is
+generally treated as in "workus," e.g. Bacchus (Chapter VIII),
+Bellows, Brewis, Duffus (dove), Kirkus, Loftus, Malthus, Windus (wynd,
+Chapter XIII).  In connection with Woodhouse it must be remembered
+that this name was given to the man who played the part of a "wild man
+of the woods" in processions and festivities.  William Power, skinner,
+called "Wodehous," died in London in 1391.  Of similar origin is
+Greenman.  The tavern sign of the Green Man is sometimes explained as
+representing a forester in green, but it was probably at first
+equivalent to the German sign "Zum wilden Mann." Cassell is sometimes
+for Castle, but is more often a local German name of recent
+introduction.  The northern Peel, a castle, as in the Isle of Man, was
+originally applied to a stockade, Old Fr. pel (pieu), a stake, Lat.
+Palos.  Hence also Peall, Peile.  Keep comes from the central tower of
+the castle, where the baron and his family kept, i.e. lived.  A moated
+Grange is a poetic figment, for the word comes from Fr, grange, a barn
+(to Lat. granum); hence Granger.
+
+With Mill and the older Milne (Chapter II) we may compare Mullins, Fr.
+Desmoulins.  Barnes is sometimes, but not always, what it seems
+(Chapter XXI).  With it we may put Leathes, from an obsolete
+Scandinavian word for barn (see quot. Chapter XIII), to which we owe
+also the names Leatham and Latham.  Mr. Oldbuck's "ecstatic
+description" of the Roman camp with its praetorium was spoilt by Edie
+Ochiltree's disastrous interruption
+
+"Praetorian here, praetorian there, I mind the bigging o't."
+(Antiquary, ch. iv.).
+
+
+
+DWELLINGS
+
+The obsolete verb to big, i.e. build, whence Biggar, a builder, has
+given us Biggins, Biggs (Chapter III), and Newbigging, while from to
+build we have Newbould and Newbolt.  Cazenove, Ital. casa nuova, means
+exactly the same.  Probably related to build is the obsolete Bottle, a
+building, whence Harbottle.  A humble dwelling was called a Board--
+
+Borde, a little house, lodging, or cottage of timber (Cotgrave)--
+
+whence Boardman, Border.  Other names were Booth, Lodge, and Folley,
+Fr. feuillee, a hut made of branches--
+
+"Feuillee, an arbor, or bower, framed of leav'd plants, or branches"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+Scale, possibly connected with shealing, is a Scandinavian word used
+in the north for a shepherd's hut, hence the surname Scales.  Bower,
+which now suggests a leafy arbour, had no such sense in Mid. English.
+Chaucer says of the poor widow--
+
+"Ful sooty was hir bour and eek hire halle."
+
+(B, 4022.)
+
+Hence the names Bowerman, Boorman, Burman.
+
+But the commonest of names for a humble dwelling was cot or cote
+
+Born and fed in rudenesse
+
+As in a cote or in an oxe stalle
+
+(E, 397)
+
+the inhabitant of which was a Colman, Cotter, or, diminutively,
+Cottrell, Cotterill.  Hence the frequent occurrence of the name
+Coates.
+
+There are also numerous compounds, e.g. Alcott (old), Norcott,
+Kingscote, and the many variants of Caldecott, Calcott, the cold
+dwelling, especially common as a village name in the vicinity of the
+Roman roads.  It is supposed to have been applied, like Coldharbour,
+to deserted posts.  The name Cotton is sometimes from the dative
+plural of the same word, though, when of French origin, it represents
+Colon, dim. of Cot, aphetic for Jacot.
+
+Names such as Kitchin, Spence, a north-country word for pantry
+(Chapter XX), and Mews, originally applied to the hawk-coops (see
+Mewer, Chapter XV), point to domestic employment.  The simple Mew,
+common in Hampshire, is a bird nickname.  Scammell preserves an older
+form of shamble(s), originally the benches on which meat was exposed
+for sale.  The name Currie, or Curry, is too common to be referred
+entirely to the Scot.  Corrie, a mountain glen, or to Curry in
+Somerset, and I conjecture that it sometimes represents Old French and
+Mid. Eng. curie, a kitchen, which is the origin of Petty Cury in
+Cambridge and of the famous French name Curie.  Nor can Furness be
+derived exclusively from the Furness district of Lancashire.  It must
+sometimes correspond to the common French name Dufour, from four,
+oven.  We also have the name Ovens.  Stables, when not identical with
+Staples (Chapter XIII), belongs to the same class as Mews.  Chambers,
+found in Scotland as Chalmers, is official, the medieval de la Chambre
+often referring to the Exchequer Chamber of the City of London.
+Bellchambers has probably no connection with this word.  It appears to
+be an imitative spelling of Belencombre, a place near Dieppe, for the
+entry de Belencumbre is of frequent occurrence.
+
+Places of confinement are represented by Gale, gaol (Chapter III),
+Penn, whence Inkpen (Berkshire), Pond, Pound, and Penfold or Pinfold.
+But Gales is also for Anglo-Fr. Galles, Wales.  Butts may come from
+the archery ground, while Butt is generally to be referred to the
+French name Bout (Chapter VII) or to Budd (Chapter VII).  Cordery, for
+de la corderie, of the rope-walk, has been confused with the much more
+picturesque Corderoy, i.e. coeur de roi.
+
+
+
+SHOP SIGNS
+
+As is well known, medieval shops had signs instead of numbers, and
+traces of this custom are still to be seen in country towns.  It is
+quite obvious that town surnames would readily spring into existence
+from such signs.  The famous name Rothschild, always mispronounced in
+English, goes back to the "red shield" over Nathan Rothschild's shop
+in the Jewry of Frankfurt; and within the writer's memory two brothers
+named Grainge in the little town of Uxbridge were familiarly known as
+Bible Grainge and Gridiron Grainge.  Many animal surnames are to be
+referred partly to this source, e.g. Bull, Hart, Lamb, Lyon, Ram,
+Roebuck, Stagg; Cock, Falcon, Peacock, Raven, Swann, etc., all still
+common as tavern signs.  The popinjay, or parrot, is still
+occasionally found as Pobgee, Popjoy.  These surnames all have, of
+course, an alternative explanation (ch.  xxiii.).  Here also usually
+belong Angel and Virgin.
+
+A considerable number of such names probably consist of those taken
+from figures used in heraldry or from objects which indicated the
+craft practised, or the special commodity in which the tradesman
+dealt.  Such are Arrow, Bell, Buckle, Crosskeys, Crowne, Gauntlett,
+Hatt, Horne, Image, Key, Lilley, Meatyard, measuring wand--
+
+"Ye shall do no unrighteousness in judgment, in meteyard, in weight,
+or in measure" (Lev. xix. 35)--
+
+Mullett, [Footnote: A five-pointed star, Old Fr. molette, rowel of a
+spur.]  Rose, Shears, and perhaps Blades, Shipp, Spurr, Starr, Sword.
+Thomas Palle, called "Sheres," died in London, 1376.
+
+But here again we must walk delicately.  The Germanic name Hatto,
+borne by the wicked bishop who perished in the Maeuseturm, gave the
+French name Hatt with the accusative form Hatton, [Footnote: In Old
+French a certain number of names, mostly of Germanic origin, had an
+accusative in -on, e.g. Guy, Guyon, Hugues, Hugon.  From Lat. Pontius
+came Poinz, Poinson, whence our Poyntz, less pleasingly Punch, and
+Punshon.  In the Pipe Rolls these are also spelt Pin-, whence Pinch,
+Pinchin, and Pinches.] Horn is an old personal name, as in the
+medieval romance of King Horn, Shipp is a common provincialism for
+sheep, [Footnote: Hence the connection between the ship and the
+"ha'porth of tar."]  Starr has another explanation (see Starling) and
+Bell has several (chapter 1).  I should guess that Porteous was the
+sign used by some medieval writer of mass-books and breviaries.  Its
+oldest form is the Anglo-Fr. Porte-hors, corresponding to medieval
+Lat. portiforium, a breviary, lit.  what one carries outside, a
+portable prayer-book--
+
+"For on my porthors here I make an oath." (B, 1321.)
+
+But as the name is found without prefix in the Hundred Rolls, it may
+have been a nickname conferred on some clericus who was proud of so
+rare a possession.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. NORMAN BLOOD
+
+"Such, however, is the illusion of antiquity and wealth that decent
+and dignified men now existing boast their descent from these filthy
+thieves"
+
+(EMERSON, English Traits, ch. iv.).
+
+Not every Norman or Old French name need be included in the group
+described by Emerson when talking down to an uneducated audience.  In
+fact, it is probable that the majority of genuine French names belong
+to a later period; for, although the baron who accompanied the
+Conqueror would in many cases keep his old territorial designation,
+the minor ruffian would, as a rule, drop the name of the obscure
+hamlet from which he came and assume some surname more convenient in
+his new surroundings.  Local names of Old French origin are usually
+taken from the provinces and larger towns which had a meaning for
+English ears.  I have given examples of such in chapter xi.  Of course
+it is easy to take a detailed map of Northern France and say, without
+offering any proof, that "Avery (Chapter VIII) is from Evreux, Belcher
+(Chapter XXI) from Bellecourt, Custance (Chapter X) from Coutances,"
+and so on.  But any serious student knows this to be idiotic nonsense.
+The fact that, except in the small minority composed of the senior
+branches of the noblest houses, the surname was not hereditary till
+centuries after the Conquest, justifies any bearer of a Norman name
+taken from a village or smaller locality in repudiating all connection
+with the "filthy thieves" and conjecturing descent from some decent
+artisan belonging to one of the later immigrations.
+
+That a considerable number of aristocratic families, and others, bear
+an easily recognizable French town or village name is of course well
+known, but it will usually be found that such names are derived from
+places which are as plentiful in France as our own Ashleys, Barton,
+Burton, Langleys, Newtons, Suttons, etc., are in England.  In some
+cases a local French name has spread in an exceptional manner.
+Examples are Baines (Gains, 2 [Footnote: The figures in brackets
+indicate the number of times that the French local name occurs in the
+Postal Directory.  The above is the usual explanation of Baines.
+found with de in the Hundred Rolls.  But I think it was sometimes a
+nickname, bones, applied to a thin man.  I find William Banes in
+Lancashire in 1252; cf. Langbain.] ), Gurney (Gournai, 6), Vernon (3).
+But usually in such cases we find a large number of spots which may
+have given rise to the surname, e.g. Beaumont (46, without counting
+Belmont), Dampier (Dampierre, i.e. St. Peter's, 28), Daubeney, Dabney
+(Aubigne, 4, Aubigny, 17), Ferrers (Ferrieres, 22), Nevill (Neuville,
+58), Nugent (Nogent, 17), Villiers (58).  This last name, representing
+Vulgar Lat. villarium, is the origin of Ger. -weiler, so common in
+German village names along the old Roman roads, e.g. Badenweiler,
+Froschweiler, etc.
+
+When we come to those surnames of this class which have remained
+somewhat more exclusive, we generally find that the place-name is also
+comparatively rare.  Thus Hawtrey is from Hauterive (7), Pinpoint from
+Pierrepont (5), Furneaux from Fourneaux (5), Vipont and Vipan from
+Vieux-Pont (3), and there are three places called Percy.
+
+The following have two possible birthplaces each-Bellew or Pellew
+(Belleau), Cantelo (Canteloup [Footnote: But the doublet Chanteloup is
+common.]), Mauleverer (Maulevrier), Mompesson (Mont Pincon or
+Pinchon), Montmorency, Mortimer (Morte-mer).  The following are
+unique--Carteret, Doll [Footnote: This may also be a metronymic, from
+Dorothy.]  (Dol), Fiennes, Furnival (Fournival), Greville, Harcourt,
+Melville (Meleville), Montresor, Mowbray (Monbrai), Sackville
+(Sacquenville), Venables.  These names are taken at random, but the
+same line of investigation can be followed up by any reader who thinks
+it worth while.
+
+
+
+CORRUPT FORMS
+
+Apart from aristocratic questions, it is interesting to notice the
+contamination which has occurred between English and French surnames
+of local origin.  The very common French suffix -ville is regularly
+confounded with our -field.  Thus Summerfield is the same name as
+Somerville, Dangerfield is for d'Angerville, Belfield for Belleville,
+Blomfield for Blonville, and Stutfield for Estouteville, while
+Grenville, Granvillehave certainly become confused with our Grenfell,
+green fell, and Greenfield.  Camden notes that Turberville became
+Troublefield, and I have found the intermediate Trubleville in the
+twelfth century.  The case of Tess Durbeyfield will occur to every
+reader.  The suffix -fort has been confused with our -ford and -forth,
+so that Rochford is in some cases for Rochefort and Beeforth for
+Beaufort or Belfort.  With the first syllable of Beeforth we may
+compare Beevor for Beauvoir, Belvoir, Beecham  for Beauchamp, and
+Beamish for Beaumais.
+
+The name Beamish actually occurs as that of village in Durham, the
+earlier form of which points Old French origin, from beau mes, Lat.
+bellum mansum, a fair manse, i.e. dwelling.  Otherwise it would be
+tempting to derive the surname Beamish from Ger, boehmisch, earlier
+behmisch, Bohemian.
+
+A brief survey of French spot-names which have passed into English
+will show that they were acquired in exactly the same way as the
+corresponding English names.  Norman ancestry, is, however, not always
+to be assumed in this case.  Until the end of the fourteenth century a
+large proportion of our population was bi-lingual, and names
+accidentally recorded in Anglo-French may occasionally have stuck.
+Thus the name Boyes or Boyce may spring from a man of pure English
+descent who happened to be described as del boil instead of atte wood,
+just as Capron (Chapter XXI) means Hood.  While English spot-names
+have as a rule shed both the preposition and the article (Chapter
+XII), French usually keeps one or both, though these were more often
+lost when the name passed into England.  Thus our Roach is not a
+fish-name, but corresponds to Fr. Laroche or Delaroche; and the blind
+pirate Pew, if not a Welshman, ap Hugh, was of the race of Dupuy, from
+Old Fr. Puy, a hill, Lat. podium, a height, gallery, etc., whence also
+our Pew, once a raised platform.
+
+In some cases the prefix has passed into English; e.g. Diprose is from
+des preaux, of the meadows, a name assumed by Boileau among others.
+There are, of course, plenty of places in France called Les Preaux,
+but in the case of such a name we need not go further than possession
+of, or residence by, a piece of grass-land--
+
+"Je sais un paysan qu'on appelait Gros-Pierre,
+ Qui, n'ayant pour tout bien qu'un seul quartier de terre,
+ Y fit tout alentour faire un fosse bourbeux,
+ Et de monsieur de l'Isle en prit le nom pompeux."
+
+(Moliere L'Ecole des Femmes, i. 1.)
+
+The Old French singular preal is perhaps the origin of Prall, Prawle.
+Similarly Preece, Prees, usually for Price, may sometimes be for des
+Pres.  With Boyes (Chapter XIV) we may compare Tallis from Fr.
+taillis, a copse (tailler, to cut).  Garrick, a Huguenot name, is Fr,
+gangue, an old word for heath.
+
+
+
+TREE NAMES
+
+Trees have in all countries a strong influence on topographical names,
+and hence on surnames.  Frean, though usually from the Scandinavian
+name Fraena, is sometimes for Fr. frene, ash, Lat. fraxinus, while
+Cain and Kaines [Footnote: There is one family of Keynes derived
+specifically from Chahaignes (Sarthe).]  are Norm.  quene (chene),
+oak.  The modern French for beech is hetre, Du. heester, but Lat.
+fagus has given a great many dialect forms which have supplied us with
+the surnames Fay, Foy, and the plural dim. Failes.  Here also I should
+put the name Defoe, assumed by the writer whose father was satisfied
+with Foe.  With Quatrefages, four beeches, we may compare such English
+names as Fiveash, Twelvetrees, and Snooks, for "seven oaks."
+
+In Latin the suffix -etum was used to designate a grove or plantation.
+This suffix, or its plural -eta, is very common in France, becoming
+successively -ei(e), -oi(e), -ai(e).  The name Dobree is a Guernsey
+spelling of d'Aubray, Lat. arboretum, which was dissimilated (Chapter
+III) into arboretum.  Darblay, the name of Fanny Burney's husband, is
+a variant.  From au(l)ne, alder, we have aunai, whence our Dawnay.  So
+also frenai has given Freeney, chenai, Chaney, and the Norm.  quenai
+is one origin of Kenney, while the older chesnai appears in Chesney.
+Houssaie, from hoax, holly, gives Hussey; chastenai, chestnut grove,
+exists in Nottingham as Chastener; coudrai, hazel copse, gives Cowdrey
+and Cowdery; Verney and Varney are from vernai, grove of alders, of
+Celtic origin, and Viney corresponds to the French name Vinoy, Lat.
+vinetum.
+
+We have also Chinnery, Chenerey from the extended chenerai, and
+Pomeroy from pommerai.  Here again the name offers no clue as to the
+exact place of origin.  There are in the French Postal Directory eight
+places called Epinay, from epine, thorn, but these do not exhaust the
+number of "spinnies" in France.  Also connected with tree-names are
+Conyers, Old Fr, coigniers, quince-trees, and Pirie, Perry, Anglo-Fr.
+perie, a collective from peire (poire).
+
+Among Norman names for a homestead the favourite is mesnil, from
+Vulgar Lat. mansionile, which enters into a great number of local
+names.  It has given our Meynell, and is also the first element of
+Mainwaring, Mannering, from mesnil-Warin.  The simple mes, a southern
+form of which appears in Dumas, has given us Mees and Meese, which are
+thus etymological doublets of the word manse.  With Beamish (Chapter
+XIV) we may compare Bellasis, from bel-assis, fairly situated.  Poyntz
+is sometimes for des ponts; cf. Pierpoint for Pierrepont.
+
+Even Norman names which were undoubtedly borne by leaders among the
+Conqueror's companions are now rarely found among the noble, and many
+a descendant of these once mighty families cobbles the shoes of more
+recent invaders.  Even so the descendants of the Spanish nobles who
+conquered California are glad to peddle vegetables at the doors of San
+Francisco magnates whose fathers dealt in old clothes in some German
+Judengasse.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV. OF OCCUPATIVE NAMES
+
+"When Adam delved and Eve span,
+ Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+Chant of Wat Tyler's followers.
+
+The occupative name would, especially in villages, tend to become a
+very natural surname.  It is not therefore surprising to find so large
+a number of this class among our commonest surnames, e.g. Smith,
+Taylor, Wright, Walker, Turner, Clark, Cooper, etc.  And, as the same
+craft often persisted in a family for generations, it was probably
+this type of surname which first became hereditary.  On the other
+hand, such names as Cook, Gardiner, Carter, etc., have no doubt in
+some cases prevailed over another surname lawfully acquired (Chapter
+I).  It is impossible to fix an approximate date for the definite
+adoption of surnames of this class.  It occurred earlier in towns than
+in the country, and by the middle of the fourteenth century we often
+find in the names of London citizens a contradiction between the
+surname and the trade-name; e.g. Walter Ussher, tanner, John Botoner,
+girdler, Roger Carpenter, pepperer, Richard le Hunte, chaundeler,
+occur 1336-52.
+
+The number of surnames belonging to this group is immense, for every
+medieval trade and craft was highly specialized and its privileges
+were jealously guarded.  The general public, which now, like Issachar,
+crouches between the trusts and the trades unions, was in the middle
+ages similarly victimized by the guilds of merchants and craftsmen.
+
+Then, as now, it grumblingly recognized that, "Plus ca change, plus ca
+reste la meme chose," and went on enduring.  [Footnote: If a student
+of philology were allowed to touch on such high matters as
+legislation, I would moralize on the word kiddle, meaning an illegal
+kind of weir used for fish-poaching, whence perhaps the surname
+Kiddell.  From investigations made with a view to discovering the
+origin of the word, I came to the conclusion that all the legislative
+powers in England spent three centuries in passing enactments against
+these devices, with the inevitable consequence that they became ever
+more numerous.]
+
+
+
+SOCIAL GRADES
+
+By dealing with a few essential points at the outset we shall clear
+the ground for considering the various groups of surnames connected
+with trade, craft, profession or office.  To begin with, it is certain
+that such names as Pope, Cayzer, King, Earl, Bishop are nicknames,
+very often conferred on performers in religious plays or acquired in
+connection with popular festivals and processions--
+
+"Names also have been taken of civil honours, dignities and estate, as
+King, Duke, Prince, Lord, Baron, Knight, Valvasor or Vavasor, Squire,
+Castellon, partly for that their ancestours were such, served such,
+acted such parts; or were Kings of the Bean, Christmas-Lords, etc."
+(Camden).
+
+We find corresponding names in other languages, and some of the French
+names, usually preceded by the definite article, have passed into
+English, e.g. Lempriere, a Huguenot name, and Leveque, whence our
+Levick, Vick, Veck (Chapter III).  Baron generally appears as Barron,
+and Duke, used in Mid. English of any leader, is often degraded to
+Duck, whence the dim. Duckett.  But all three of these names can also
+be referred to Marmaduke.
+
+It would be tempting to put Palsgrave in this class.  Prince Rupert,
+the Pfalzgraf, i.e. Count Palatine, was known as the Palsgrave in his
+day, but I have not found the title recorded early enough.
+
+With Lord we must put the northern Laird, and, in my opinion, Senior;
+for, if we notice how much commoner Young is than Old, and Fr. Lejeune
+than Levieux, we must conclude that junior, a very rare surname, ought
+to be of much more frequent occurrence than Senior, Synyer, a fairly
+common name.  There can be little doubt that Senior is usually a
+latinization of the medieval le seigneur, whence also Saynor.  Knight
+is not always knightly, for Anglo-Sax. cniht means servant; cf. Ger.
+Knecht.  The word got on in the world, with the consequence that the
+name is very popular, while its medieval compeers, knave, varlet,
+villain, have, even when adorned with the adj.  good, dropped out of
+the surname list, Bonvalet, Bonvarlet, Bonvillain are still common
+surnames in France.  From Knight we have the compound Road-night, a
+mounted servitor.  Thus Knight is more often a true occupative name,
+and the same applies to Dring or Dreng, a Scandinavian name of similar
+meaning.
+
+Other names from the middle rungs of the social ladder are also to be
+taken literally, e.g. Franklin, a freeholder, Anglo-Fr. frankelein--
+
+"How called you your franklin, Prior Aylmer?"
+
+"Cedric," answered the Prior, "Cedric the Saxon"
+
+(Ivanhoe, ch. i.)--
+
+Burgess, Freeman, Freeborn.  The latter is sometimes for Freebairn and
+exists already as the Anglo-Saxon personal name Freobeorn.  Denison
+(Chapter II) is occasionally an accommodated form of denizen,
+Anglo-Fr. deinzein, a burgess enjoying the privileges belonging to
+those who lived "deinz (in) la cite." In 1483 a certain Edward
+Jhonson--
+
+"Sued to be mayde Denison for fer of ye payment of ye subsedy."
+
+(Letter to Sir William Stonor, June 9, 1483.)
+
+Bond is from Anglo-Sax, bonda, which means simply agriculturist.  The
+word is of Icelandic origin and related to Boor, another word which
+has deteriorated and is rare as a surname, though the cognate Bauer is
+common enough in Germany.  Holder is translated by Tennant.  For some
+other names applied to the humbler peasantry see Chapter XIII.
+
+To return to the social summit, we have Kingson, often confused with
+the local Kingston, and its Anglo-French equivalent Fauntleroy.
+Faunt, aphetic for Anglo-Fr. enfaunt, is common in Mid. English.  When
+the mother of Moses had made the ark of bulrushes, or, as Wyclif calls
+it, the "junket of resshen," she--
+
+"Putte the litil faunt with ynne"
+
+(Exodus ii. 3)
+
+The Old French accusative (Chapter I) was also used as a genitive, as
+in Bourg-le-roi, Bourg-la-rein, corresponding to our Kingsbury and
+Queensborough.  We have a genitive also in Flowerdew, found in French
+as Flourdieu.  Lower, in his Patronymics Britannica (1860), the first
+attempt at a dictionary of English surnames, conjectures Fauntleroy to
+be from an ancient French war-cry Defendez le roi!  for "in course of
+time, the meaning of the name being forgotten, the de would be
+dropped, and the remaining syllables would easily glide into
+Fauntleroy." [Footnote: I have quoted this "etymology" because it is
+too funny to be lost; but a good deal of useful information can be
+found in Lower, especially with regard to the habitat of well-known
+names.]
+
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES
+
+Names of ecclesiastics must usually be nicknames, because medieval
+churchmen were not entitled to have descendants.  This appears clearly
+in such an entry as "Bishop the crossbowman," or "Johannes Monacus et
+uxor ejus Emma," living in Kent in the twelfth century.  But these
+names are so numerous that I have put them with the Canterbury
+Pilgrims (ch.  xvii.).  Three of them may be mentioned here in
+connection with a small group of occupative surnames of puzzling form.
+We have noticed (Chapter XII) that monosyllabic, and some other,
+surnames of local origin frequently take an -s, partly by analogy with
+names like Wills, Watts, etc.  We rarely find this -s in the case of
+occupative names, but Parsons, Vicars or Vickers, and Monks are
+common, and in fact the first two are scarcely found without the -s.
+To these we may add Reeves (Chapter XVII), Grieves (Chapter XIX), and
+the well-known Nottingham name Mellers (Chapter XVII).  The
+explanation seems to be that these names are true genitives, and that
+John Parsons was John the Parson's man, while John Monks was employed
+by the monastery.  This is confirmed by such entries as "Walter atte
+Parsons," "John del Parsons," "Allen atte Prestes," "William del
+Freres," "Thomas de la Vicars," all from the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries.
+
+Another exceptional group is that of names formed by adding -son to
+the occupative names, the commonest being perhaps Clarkson, Cookson,
+Smithson, and Wrightson.  To this class belongs Grayson, which
+Bardsley shows to be equivalent to the grieve's son.
+
+Our occupative names are both English and French, [Footnote: We have
+also a few Latinizations, e.g. Faber (wright), Messer (mower).  This
+type of name is much commoner in Germany, e.g. Avenarius, oat man,
+Fabricius, smith, Textor, weaver, etc.  Mercator, of map projection
+fame, was a Fleming named Kremer, i.e. dealer.]  the two languages
+being represented by those important tradesmen Baker and Butcher.  The
+former is reinforced by Bollinger, Fr. boulanger, Pester, Old Fr.
+pestour (Lat. piston), and Furner--
+
+"Fournier, a baker, or one that keeps, or governs a common oven"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+The English and French names for the same trade also survive in
+Cheeseman and Firminger, Old Fr. formagier (fromage).
+
+We have as endings -er, -ier, the latter often made into -yer, -ger,
+as in Lockyer, Sawyer, Kidger (Chapter XIX), Woodger, [Footnote:
+Woodyer, Woodger, may also be for wood-hewer.  See Stanier] and -or,
+-our, as in Taylor, Jenoure (Chapter III).  The latter ending,
+corresponding to Modern Fr. -eur, represents Lat. -or, -orem, but we
+tack it onto English words as in "sailor," or substitute it for -er,
+-ier, as in Fermor, for Farmer, Fr. fermier.  In the Privy Purse
+Expenses of that careful monarch Henry VII. occurs the item--
+
+"To bere drunken at a fermors house . . .  1s."
+
+In the same way we replace the Fr. -our, -eur by -er, as in Turner,
+Fr. tourneur, Ginner, Jenner for Jenoure.
+
+The ending -er, -ier represents the Lat. -arius.  It passed not only
+into French, but also into the Germanic languages, replacing the
+Teutonic agential suffix which consisted of a single vowel.  We have a
+few traces of this oldest group of occupative names, e.g. Webb, Mid.
+Eng. webbe, Anglo-Sax. webb-a, and Hunt, Mid. Eng. hunte, Anglo-Sax.
+hunt-a--
+
+"With hunte and horne and houndes hym bisyde"
+
+(A, 1678)--
+
+which still hold the field easily against Webber and Hunter.
+
+So also, the German name Beck represents Old High Ger. pecch-o, baker.
+To these must be added Kemp, a champion, a very early loan-word
+connected with Lat. campus, field, and Wright, originally the worker,
+Anglo-Sax. wyrht-a.  Camp is sometimes for Kemp, but is also from the
+Picard form of Fr, champ, i.e. Field.  Of similar formation to Webb,
+etc., is Clapp, from an Anglo-Sax. nickname, the clapper--
+
+"Osgod Clapa, King Edward Confessor's staller, was cast upon the
+pavement of the Church by a demon's hand for his insolent pride in
+presence of the relics (of St. Edmund, King and Martyr)."
+
+(W. H. Hutton, Bampton Lectures, 1903.)
+
+
+
+NAMES IN -STER
+
+The ending -ster was originally feminine, and applied to trades
+chiefly carried on by women, e.g. Baxter, Bagster, baker, Brewster,
+Simister, sempster, Webster, etc., but in process of time the
+distinction was lost, so that we find Blaxter and Whitster for
+Blacker, Blakey, and Whiter, both of which, curiously enough, have the
+same meaning--
+
+"Bleykester or whytster, candidarius" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+for this black represents Mid. Eng. bla-c, related to bleak and
+bleach, and meaning pale--
+
+"Blake, wan of colour, blesme (bleme)" (Palsgrave).
+
+Occupative names of French origin are apt to vary according to the
+period and dialect of their adoption.  For Butcher we find also
+Booker, Bowker, and sometimes the later Bosher, Busher, with the same
+sound for the ch as in Labouchere, the lady butcher.  But Booker may
+also mean what it appears to mean, as Mid. Eng. bokere is used by
+Wyclif for the Latin scriba.
+
+Butcher, originally a dealer in goat's flesh, Fr. bouc, has ousted
+flesher.  German still has half a dozen surnames derived from names
+for this trade, e.g. Fleischer, Fleischmann, [Footnote: Hellenized as
+Sarkander.  This was a favourite trick of German scholars at the
+Renaissance period.  Well-known examples are Melancthon (Schwarzerd),
+Neander (Neumann).]  Metzger, Schlechter; but our flesher has been
+absorbed by Fletcher, a maker of arrows, Fr. fleche.  Fletcher Gate at
+Nottingham was formerly Flesher Gate.  The undue extension of Taylor
+has already been mentioned (Chapter IV).  Another example is Barker,
+which has swallowed up the Anglo-Fr. berquier, a shepherd, Fr. berger,
+with the result that the Barkers outnumber the Tanners by three to one
+
+"'What craftsman are you?' said our King,
+'I pray you, tell me now.'
+'I am a barker,' quoth the tanner;
+'What craftsman art thou?'"
+
+(Edward IV. and the Tanner of Tamworth.)
+
+The name seems to have been applied also to the man who barked trees
+for the tanner.
+
+
+
+MISSING TRADESMEN
+
+With Barker it seems natural to mention Mewer, of which I find one
+representative in the London Directory.  The medieval le muur had
+charge of the mews in which the hawks were kept while moulting (Fr.
+muer, Lat. mutare).  Hence the phrase "mewed up." The word seems to
+have been used for any kind of coop.  Chaucer tells us of the
+Franklin--
+
+"Ful many a fat partrich hadde he in muw" (A, 349).
+
+I suspect that some of the Muirs (Chapter XII) spring from this
+important office.  Similarly Clayer has been absorbed by the local
+Clare, Kayer, the man who made keys, by Care, and Blower, whether of
+horn or bellows, has paid tribute to the local Bloor, Blore.
+
+Sewer, an attendant at table, aphetic for Old Fr. asseour, a setter,
+is now a very rare name.  As we know that sewer, a drain, became
+shore, it is probable that the surname Shore sometimes represents this
+official or servile title.  And this same name Shore, though not
+particularly common, and susceptible of a simple local origin, labours
+under grave suspicion of having also enriched itself at the expense of
+the medieval le suur, the shoemaker, Lat. sutor-em, whence Fr.
+Lesueur.  This would inevitably become Sewer and then Shore, as above.
+Perhaps, in the final reckoning, Shaw is not altogether guiltless, for
+I know of one family in which this has replaced earlier Shore.
+
+The medieval le suur brings us to another problem, viz. the poor show
+made by the craftsmen who clothed the upper and lower extremities of
+our ancestors.  The name Hatter, once frequent enough, is almost
+extinct, and Capper is not very common.  The name Shoemaker has met
+with the same fate, though the trade is represented by the Lat. Sutor,
+whence Scot.  Souter.  Here belong also Cordner, Codner, [Footnote:
+Confused, of course, with the local Codnor (Derbyshire)]  Old Fr.
+cordouanier (cordonnier), a cordwainer, a worker in Cordovan leather,
+and Corser, Cosser, earlier corviser, corresponding to the French name
+Courvoisier, also derived from Cordova.  Chaucer, in describing the
+equipment of Sir Thopas, mentions
+
+"His shoon of cordewane" (B, 1922).
+
+The scarcity of Groser, grocer, is not surprising, for the word,
+aphetic for engrosser, originally meaning a wholesale dealer, one who
+sold en gros, is of comparatively late occurrence.  His medieval
+representative was Spicer.
+
+On the other hand, many occupative titles which are now obsolete, or
+practically so, still survive strongly as surnames.  Examples of these
+will be found in chapters xvii.-xx.
+
+Some occupative names are rather deceptive.  Kisser, which is said
+still to exist, means a maker of cuishes, thigh-armour, Fr, cuisses--
+
+"Helm, cuish, and breastplate streamed with gore."
+
+(Lord of the Isles, iv. 33.)
+
+Corker is for caulker, i.e. one who stopped the chinks of ships and
+casks, originally with lime (Lat. calx)--
+
+"Sir, we have a chest beneath the hatches, caulk'd and bitumed ready"
+(Pericles iii.  1).
+
+Cleaver represents Old Fr, clavier, a mace-bearer, Lat. clava, a club,
+or a door-keeper, Lat. clavis, a key.  Perhaps even clavus, a nail,
+must also be considered, for a Latin vocabulary of the fifteenth
+century tells us--
+
+"Claves, -vos vet -vas qui fert sit claviger."
+
+Neither Bowler nor Scorer are connected with cricket.  The former made
+wooden bowls, and the latter was sometimes a scourer, or scout, Mid.
+Eng. scurrour, a word of rather complicated origin, but perhaps more
+frequently a peaceful scullion, from Fr. ecurer, to scour, Lat.
+ex-curare--
+
+"Escureur, a scourer, cleanser, feyer" (Cotgrave).
+
+[Footnote: Feyer: A sweeper, now perhaps represented by Fayer.]
+
+A Leaper did not always leap (Chapter XVII).  The verb had also in
+Mid. English the sense of running away, so that the name may mean
+fugitive.  In some cases it may represent a maker of leaps, i.e. fish
+baskets, or perhaps a man who hawked fish in such a basket.
+
+A Slayer made slays, part of a weaver's loom, and a Bloomer worked in
+a bloom-smithy, from Anglo-Sax. blo-ma, a mass of hammered iron.
+Weightman and Warman represent Mid. Eng, wa[thorn]eman, hunter; cf. the
+common German surname Weidemann, of cognate origin.  Reader and Booker
+are not always literary.  The former is for Reeder, a thatcher--
+
+"Redare of howsys, calamator, arundinarius" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and the latter is a Norman variant of Butcher, as already mentioned.
+
+
+
+SPELLING OF TRADE-NAMES
+
+The spelling of occupative surnames often differs from that now
+associated with the trade itself.  In Naylor, Taylor, and Tyler we
+have the archaic preference for y.  [Footnote: It may be noted here
+that John Tiler of Dartford, who killed a tax-gatherer for insulting
+his daughter, was not Wat Tiler, who was killed at Smithfield for
+insulting the King.  The confusion between the two has led to much
+sympathy being wasted on a ruffian.]  Our ancestors thought sope as
+good a spelling as soap, hence the name Soper.  A Plummer, i.e. a man
+who worked in lead, Lat. plumbum, is now written, by etymological
+reaction, plumber, though the restored letter is not sounded.  A man
+who dealt in 'arbs originated the name Arber, which we should now
+replace by herbalist.  We have a restored spelling in clerk, though
+educated people pronounce the word as it was once written
+
+"Clarke, or he that readeth distinctly, clericus." (Holyoak's Lat.
+Dict., 1612.)
+
+In many cases we are unable to say exactly what is the ocpupation
+indicated.  We may assume that a Setter and a Tipper did setting and
+tipping, and both are said to have been concerned in the arrow
+industry.  If this is true, I should say that Setter might represent
+the Old Fr, saieteur, arrow-maker, from saiete, an arrow, Lat.
+sagitta.  But in a medieval vocabulary we find "setter of mes,
+dapifer," which would make it the same as Sewer (Chapter XV).
+Similarly, when we consider the number of objects that can be tipped,
+we shall be shy of defining the activity of the Tipper too closely.
+Trinder, earlier trenden, is from Mid. Eng. trender, to roll (cf.
+Roller).  In the west country trinder now means specifically a
+wool-winder--
+
+"Lat hym rollen and trenden withynne hymself the lyght of his ynwarde
+sighte" (Boece, 1043).
+
+There are also some names of this class to which we can with certainty
+attribute two or more origins.  Boulter means a maker of bolts for
+crossbows, [Footnote: How many people who use the expression "bolt
+upright," associate it with "straight as a dart"?]  but also a sifter,
+from the obsolete verb to bolt--
+
+"The fanned snow, that's bolted
+ By the northern blasts twice o'er."
+
+(Winter's Tale, iv. 3.)
+
+Corner means horn-blower, Fr, cor, horn, and is also a contraction of
+coroner, but its commonest origin is local, in angulo, in the corner.
+Curren and Curryer are generally connected with leather, but Henry
+VII. bestowed L3 on the Curren that brought tidings of Perkin
+War-beck.  Garner has five possible origins: (i) a contraction of
+gardener, (ii) from the French personal name Garner, Ger. Werner,
+(iii) Old Fr. grenier, grain-keeper, (iv) Old Fr, garennier, warren
+keeper, (v) local, from garner, Fr. grenier, Lat. granarium.  In the
+next chapter will be found, as a specimen problem, an investigation of
+the name Rutter.
+
+
+
+PHONETIC CHANGES
+
+Two phonetic phenomena should also be noticed.  One is the regular
+insertion of n before the ending -ger, as in Firminger (Chapter XV),
+Massinger (Chapter XX), Pottinger (Chapter XVIII), and in Arminger,
+Clavinger, from the latinized armiger, esquire, and claviger,
+mace-bearer, etc.  (Chapter XV).  The other is the fact that many
+occupative names ending in -rer lose the -er by dissimilation (Chapter
+III).  Examples are Armour for armourer, Barter for barterer, Buckler
+for bucklerer, but also for buckle-maker, Callender for calenderer,
+one who calendered, i.e. pressed, cloth
+
+"And my good friend the Callender
+ Will lend his horse to go."
+
+(John Gilpin, 1.  22)--
+
+Coffer, for cofferer, a treasurer, Cover, for coverer, i.e. tiler, Fr.
+couvreur, when it does not correspond to Fr. cuvier, i.e. a maker of
+coves, vats, Ginger, Grammer, for grammarer, Paternoster, maker of
+paternosters or rosaries, Pepper, Sellar, for cellarer (Chapter III),
+Tabor, for Taberer, player on the taber.  Here also belongs Treasure,
+for treasurer.  Salter is sometimes for sautrier, a player on the
+psaltery.  We have the opposite process in poulterer for Pointer
+(Chapter II), and caterer for Cator (Chapter III).
+
+
+
+NAMES FROM WARES
+
+Such names as Ginger, Pepper, may however belong to the class of
+nicknames conferred on dealers in certain commodities; cf. Pescod,
+Peskett, from pease-cod.  Of this we have several examples which can
+be confirmed by foreign parallels, e.g. Garlick, found in German as
+Knoblauch, [Footnote: The cognate Eng. Clove-leek occurs as a surname
+in the Ramsey Chartulary.]  Straw, represented in German by the
+cognate name Stroh, and Pease, which is certified by Fr. Despois.  We
+find Witepease in the twelfth century.
+
+Especially common are those names which deal with the two staple foods
+of the country, bread and beer.  In German we find several compounds
+of Brot, bread, and one of the greatest of chess-players bore the
+amazing name Zuckertort, sugar-tart.  In French we have such names as
+Painchaud, Painleve, Pain-tendre--
+
+"Eugene Aram was usher, in 1744, to the Rev. Mr. Painblanc, in
+Piccadilly"
+
+ (Bardsley).
+
+Hence our Cakebread and Whitbread were probably names given to bakers.
+Simnel is explained in the same way, and Lambert Simnel is understood
+to have been a baker's lad, but the name could equally well be from
+Fr. Simonel, dim. of Simon.  Wastall is found in the Hundred Rolls as
+Wasted, Old Fr. gastel (gateau).  Here also belongs Cracknell--
+
+"Craquelin, a cracknell; made of the yolks of egges, water, and
+flower; and fashioned like a hollow trendle" (Cotgrave).
+
+Goodbeer is explained by Bardsley as a perversion of Godber (Chapter
+VII), which may be true, but the name is also to be taken literally.
+We have Ger. Gutbier, and the existence of Sourale in the Hundred
+Rolls and Sowerbutts at the present day justifies us in accepting both
+Goodbeer and Goodale at their face-value.  But Rice is an imitative
+form of Welsh Rhys, Reece, and Salt, when not derived from Salt in
+Stafford, is from Old Fr. sault, a wood, Lat. saltus.  [Footnote: This
+is common in place-names, and I should suggest, as a guess, that
+Sacheverell is from the village of Sault-Chevreuil-du-Tronchet
+(Manche).]  It is doubtful whether the name Cheese is to be included
+here.  Jan Kees, for John Cornelius, said to have been a nickname for
+a Hollander, may easily have reached the Eastern counties.  Bardsley's
+earliest instance for the name is John Chese, who was living in
+Norfolk in 1273.  But still I find Furmage as a medieval surname.
+
+We also have the dealer in meat represented by the classical example
+of Hogsflesh, with which we may compare Mutton and Veal, two names
+which may be seen fairly near each other in Hammersmith Road (but for
+these see also Chapter XXIII), and I have known a German named
+Kalbfleisch.  Names of this kind would sometimes come into existence
+through the practice of crying wares; though if Mr. Rottenherring, who
+was a freeman of York in 1332, obtained his in this way, he must have
+deliberately ignored an ancient piece of wisdom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI. A SPECIMEN PROBLEM: RUTTER
+
+"Howe sayst thou, man?  am not I a joly rutter?"
+
+(Skelton, Magnyfycence, 1.  762.)
+
+The fairly common name Rutter is a good example of the difficulty of
+explaining a surname derived from a trade or calling no longer
+practised.  Even so careful an authority as Bardsley has gone
+hopelessly astray over this name.  He says, "German ritter, a rider,
+i.e. a trooper," and quotes from Halliwell, "rutter, a rider, a
+trooper, from the German; a name given to mercenary soldiers engaged
+from Brabant, etc."  Now this statement is altogether opposed to
+chronology.  The name occurs as le roter, rotour, ruter in the Hundred
+Rolls of 1273, i.e. more than two centuries before any German name for
+trooper could possibly have become familiar in England.  Any stray
+Mid. High Ger. Riter would have been assimilated to the cognate Eng.
+Rider.  It is possible that some German Reuters have become English
+Rutters in comparatively modern times, but the German surname Reuter
+has nothing to do with a trooper.  It represents Mid. High Ger.
+riutaere, a clearer of land, from the verb riuten (reuten),
+corresponding to Low Ger. roden, and related to our royd, a clearing
+(Chapter XII).  This word is apparently not connected with our root,
+though it means to root out, but ultimately belongs to a root ru which
+appears in Lat. rutrum, a spade, rutabulum, a rake, etc.
+
+There is another Ger. Reuter, a trooper, which has given the
+sixteenth-century Eng. rutter, but not as a surname.  The word appears
+in German about 1500, i.e. rather late for the surname period, and
+comes from Du. ruiter, a mercenary trooper.  The German for trooper is
+Reiter, really the same word as Ritter, a knight, the two forms having
+been differentiated in meaning; cf. Fr. cavalier, a trooper, and
+chevalier, a knight.  In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ger.
+Reiter was confused with, and supplanted by, this borrowed word
+Reuter, which was taken to mean rider, and we find the cavalry called
+Reuterei well into the eighteenth century.  As a matter of fact the
+two words are quite unrelated, though the origin of Du. ruiter is
+disputed.
+
+The New English Dictionary gives, from the year 1506, rutter (var.
+ruter, ruiter), a cavalry soldier, especially German, from Du. ruiter,
+whence Ger. Reuter, as above.  It connects the Dutch word with
+medieval Lat. rutarius, i.e. ruptarius, which is also Kluge's view.
+[Footnote: Deutsches Etymologisches Wrterbuch.]  But Franck [Footnote:
+Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal.]  sees phonetic
+difficulties and prefers to regard ruiter as belonging rather to
+ruiten, to uproot.  The application of the name up-rooter to a lawless
+mercenary is not unnatural.
+
+But whatever be the ultimate origin of this Dutch and German military
+word, it is sufficiently obvious that it cannot have given an English
+surname which is already common in the thirteenth century.  There is a
+much earlier claimant in the field.
+
+The New English Dictionary has roter (1297), var. rotour, rotor, and
+router (1379), a lawless person, robber, ruffian, from Old Fr. rotier
+(routier), and also the form rutar, used by Philemon Holland, who, in
+his translation of Camden's Britannia (1610), says "That age called
+foraine and willing souldiours rutars."  The reference is to King
+John's mercenaries, c. 1215.  Fr, routier, a mercenary, is usually
+derived from route, a band, Lat. rupta, a piece broken off, a
+detachment.  References to the grander routes, the great mercenary
+bands which overran France in the fourteenth century, are common in
+French history.  But the word was popularly, and naturally, connected
+with route, Lat. (via) rupta, a highway, so that Godefroy [Footnote:
+Dictionnaire de rancien Francais.]  separates routier, a vagabond,
+from routier, a bandit soldier.  Cotgrave has--
+
+"Routier, an old traveller, one that by much trotting up and down is
+grown acquainted with most waies; and hence, an old beaten souldier;
+one whom a long practise hath made experienced in, or absolute master
+of, his profession; and (in evill part) an old crafty fox, notable
+beguiler, ordinary deceiver, subtill knave; also, a purse-taker, or a
+robber by the high way side."
+
+It is impossible to determine the relative shares of route, a band,
+and route, a highway, in this definition, but there has probably been
+natural confusion between two words, separate in meaning, though
+etymologically identical.
+
+Now our thirteenth-century rotors and rulers may represent Old Fr.
+routier, and have been names applied to a mercenary soldier or a
+vagabond.  But this cannot be considered certain.  If we consult du
+Cange, [Footnote: Glossarium ad Scriptures medics et inflows
+Latinitatis.]  we find, s.v. rumpere, "ruptarii, pro ruptuarii, quidam
+praedones sub xi saeculum, ex rusticis. . .  collecti ac conflati,"
+which suggests connection with "ruptuarius, colonus qui agrum seu
+terram rumpit, proscindit, colic," i.e. that the ruptarii, also called
+rutarii, rutharii, rotharii, rotarii, etc., were so named because they
+were revolting peasants, i.e. men connected with the roture, or
+breaking of the soil, from which we get roturier, a plebeian.  That
+would still connect our Rutters with Lat. rumpere, but by a third
+road.
+
+Finally, Old French has one more word which seems to me quite as good
+a candidate as any of the others, viz. roteur, a player on the rote,
+i.e. the fiddle used by the medieval minstrels, Chaucer says of his
+Frere--
+
+"Wel koude he synge and playen on a rote."
+
+(A, 236.)
+
+The word is possibly of Celtic origin (Welsh crwth) and a doublet of
+the archaic crowd, or crowth, a fiddle.  Both rote and crowth are used
+by Spenser.  Crowd is perhaps not yet obsolete in dialect, and the
+fiddler in Hudibras is called Crowdero.  Thus Rutter may be a doublet
+of Crowther.  There may be other possible etymologies for Rutter, but
+those discussed will suffice to show that the origin of occupative
+names is not always easily guessed.
+
+Since the above was written I have found strong evidence for the
+"fiddler" derivation of the name.  In 1266 it was decided by a
+Lancashire jury that Richard le Harper killed William le Roter, or
+Ruter, in self-defence.  I think there can be little doubt that some,
+if not all, of our Rutters owe their names to the profession
+represented by this enraged musician.  William le Citolur and William
+le Piper also appear from the same record (Patent Rolls) to have
+indulged in homicide in the course of the year.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE CANTERBURY PILGRIMS
+
+"In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay,
+ Redy to wenden on my pilgrymage,
+ To Caunterbury with ful devout corage,
+ At nyght were come into that hostelrye
+ Wel nyne and twenty in a compaignye
+ Of sondry folk, by aventure y-falle
+ In felaweshipe, and pilgrimes were they alle,
+ That toward Caunterbury wolden ryde."
+
+(Prologue, 1.  20.)
+
+This famous band of wayfarers includes representatives of all classes,
+save the highest and the lowest, just at the period when our surnames
+were becoming fixed.  It seems natural to distinguish the following
+groups.  The leisured class is represented by the Knight (Chapter XV)
+and his son the Squire, also found as Swire or Swyer, Old Fr. escuyer
+(ecuyer), a shield-bearer (Lat. Scutum), with their attendant Yeoman,
+a name that originally meant a small landowner and later a trusted
+attendant of the warlike kind--
+
+"And in his hand he baar a myghty bow"
+
+(A, 108.)
+
+With these goes the Franklin (Chapter XV), who had been Sherriff, i.e.
+shire-reeve.  He is also described as a Vavasour (p. ii)--
+
+"Was nowher such a worthy vavasour" (A, 360.)
+
+From the Church and the professions we have the Nunn, her attendant
+priests, whence the names Press, Prest, the Monk, the Frere, or Fryer,
+"a wantowne and a merye," the Clark of Oxenforde, the Sargent of the
+lawe, the Sumner, i.e. summoner or apparitor, the doctor of physic,
+i.e. the Leech or Leach--
+
+"Make war breed peace; make peace stint war; make each
+ Prescribe to other, as each other's leech"
+
+(Timon of Athens, v. 4)--
+
+[Footnote: The same word as the worm leech, from an Anglo-Saxon word
+for healer.]
+
+and the poor parson.  Le surgien and le fisicien were once common
+surnames, but the former is almost swallowed up by Sargent, and the
+latter seems to have died out.  The name Leach has been reinforced by
+the dialect lache, a bog, whence also the compounds Blackleach,
+Depledge.  Loosely attached to the church is the Pardoner, with his
+wallet--
+
+"Bret-ful of pardon, comen from Rome al hoot."
+
+(A, 687.)
+
+His name still survives as Pardner, and perhaps as Partner, though
+both are very rare.
+
+Commerce is represented by the Marchant, depicted as a character of
+weight and dignity, and the humbler trades and crafts by--
+
+"An haberdasher, and a Carpenter,
+ A Webbe, a deyer (Dyer), and a tapiser."
+
+(A, 361.)
+
+To these may be added the Wife of Bath, whose comfortable means were
+drawn from the cloth trade, then our staple industry.
+
+From rural surroundings come the Miller and the Plowman, as kindly a
+man as the poor parson his brother, for--
+
+"He wolde threshe, and therto dyke and delve,
+ For Cristes sake, for every poure wight,
+ Withouten hire, if it lay in his myght."
+
+(A, 536.)
+
+The Miller is the same as the Meller or Mellor--
+
+"Upon the whiche brook ther stant a melle;
+ And this is verray sooth, that I yow tell."
+
+(A, 3923.)
+
+[Footnote: Melle is a Kentish form, used by Chaucer for the rime; cf.
+pet for pit (Chapter XIII).]
+
+The oldest form of the name is Milner, from Anglo-Sax. myln, Lat.
+molina; cf. Kilner from kiln, Lat. culina, kitchen.
+
+The official or servile class includes the manciple, or buyer for a
+fraternity of templars, otherwise called an achatour, whence Cator,
+Chaytor, Chater (Chapter III), [Footnote: Chater, Chaytor may be also
+from escheatour, an official who has given us the word cheat.]  the
+Reeve, an estate steward, so crafty that--
+
+"Ther nas baillif (Chapter IV), ne herde (Chapter III), nor oother
+ hyne (Chapter III),
+ That he ne knew his sleights and his covyne"
+
+(A, 603);
+
+and finally the Cook, or Coke (Chapter I)--
+
+"To boylle the chicknes and the marybones."
+
+(A, 380.)
+
+In a class by himself stands the grimmest figure of all, the Shipman,
+of whom we are told
+
+"If that he faught, and hadde the hyer hond,
+ By water he sente hem hoom to every lond."
+
+(A, 399.)
+
+The same occupation has given the name Marner, for mariner, and
+Seaman, but the medieval forms of the rare name Saylor show that it is
+from Fr. sailleur, a dancer, an artist who also survives as Hopper and
+Leaper--
+
+"To one that leped at Chestre, 6s.  8d."
+
+(Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VII,  1495.)
+
+[Footnote: He was usually more generous to the high arts, e.g. "To a
+Spaynarde that pleyed the fole, L2," "To the young damoysell that
+daunceth, L30." With which cf. "To Carter for writing of a boke, 7s.
+4d."]
+
+The pilgrims were accompanied by the host of the Tabard Inn, whose
+occupation has given us the names Inman and Hostler, Oastler, Old Fr.
+hostelier (hotelier), now applied to the inn servant who looks after
+the 'osses.  Another form is the modern-looking Hustler.  Distinct
+from these is Oster, Fr. oiseleur, a bird-catcher; cf. Fowler.
+
+
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL NAMES
+
+If we deal here with ecclesiastical names, as being really nicknames
+(Chapter XV), that will leave the trader and craftsman, the peasant,
+and the official or servile class to be treated in separate chapters.
+Social, as distinguished from occupative, surnames have already been
+touched on, and the names, not very numerous, connected with warfare
+have also been mentioned in various connections.
+
+Among ecclesiastical names Monk has the largest number of variants.
+Its Anglo-French form is sometimes represented by Munn and Moon, while
+Money is the oldest Fr. monie; cf. Vicary from Old Fr. vicarie.  But
+the French names La Monnaie, de la Monnaie, are local, from residence
+near the mint.  The canon appears as Cannon, Channen, and Shannon, Fr.
+chanoine--
+
+"With this chanoun I dwelt have seven yere"
+
+(G, 720);
+
+but Dean is also local sometimes (Chapter XII) and Deacon is an
+imitative form of Dakin or Deakin, from David (Chapter VI).  Charter
+was used of a monk of the Charter-house, a popular corruption of
+Chartreuse
+
+"With a company dyde I mete,
+ As ermytes, monkes, and freres,
+ Chanons, chartores . . ."
+
+(Cock Lorelles Bote.)
+
+Charter also comes from archaic Fr. chartier (charretier), a carter,
+and perhaps sometimes from Old Fr. chartrier, "a jaylor; also, a
+prisoner" (Cotg.), which belongs to Lat. carcer, prison.  [Footnote:
+The sense development of these two words is curious.]
+
+Charters may be from the French town Chartres, but is more likely a
+perversion of Charterhouse, as Childers is of the obsolete
+"childer-house," orphanage.
+
+Among lower orders of the church we have Lister, a reader, [Footnote:
+Found in Late Latin as legista, from Lat. Legere, to read.]  Bennet,
+an exorcist, and Collet, aphetic for acolyte.  But each of these is
+susceptible of another origin which is generally to be preferred.
+Chaplin is of course for chaplain, Fr. chapelain.  The legate appears
+as Leggatt.  Crosier or Crozier means cross-bearer.  At the funeral of
+Anne of Cleves (1557) the mass was executed--
+
+"By thabbott in pontificalibus wthis croysyer, deacon and subdeacon."
+
+Canter, Caunter is for chanter, and has an apparent dim. Cantrell,
+corresponding to the French name Chantereau.  The practice, unknown in
+English, of forming dims.  from occupative names is very common in
+French, e.g. from Mercier we have Mercerot, from Berger, i.e.
+Shepherd, a number of derivatives such as Bergerat, Bergeret,
+Bergerot, etc.  Sanger and Sangster were not necessarily
+ecclesiastical Singers.  Converse meant a lay-brother employed as a
+drudge in a monastery.  Sacristan, the man in charge of the sacristy,
+from which we have Secretan, is contracted into Saxton and Sexton, a
+name now usually associated with grave-digging and bell-ringing,
+though the latter task once belonged to the Knowler--
+
+"Carilloneur, a chymer, or knowler of bells" (Cotgrave).
+
+This is of course connected with "knell," though the only Kneller who
+has become famous was a German named Kniller.
+
+Marillier, probably a Huguenot name, is an Old French form of
+marguillier, a churchwarden, Lat. matricularius.  The hermit survives
+as Armatt, Armitt, with which cf. the Huguenot Lermitte (l'ermite),
+and the name of his dwelling is common (Chapter XIII); Anker, now
+anchorite, is also extant.  Fals-Semblant says--
+
+"Somtyme I am religious,
+ Now lyk an anker in an hous."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 6348.)
+
+
+
+PILGRIMS
+
+While a Pilgrim acquired his name by a journey to any shrine, a Palmer
+must originally have been to the Holy Land, and a Romer to Rome.  But
+the frequent occurrence of Palmer suggests that it was often a
+nickname for a pious fraud.  We have a doublet of Pilgrim in Pegram,
+though this may come from the name Peregrine, the etymology being the
+same, viz. Lat. peregrines, a foreigner.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. TRADES AND CRAFTS
+
+"What d'ye lack, noble sir?--What d'ye lack, beauteous madam?"
+
+(Fortunes of Nigel, ch. i.)
+
+In the Middle Ages there was no great class of retail dealers distinct
+from the craftsmen who fashioned objects.  The same man made and sold
+in almost every case.  There were of course general dealers, such as
+the French Marchant or his English equivalent the Chapman (Chapter
+II), the Dutch form of which has given us the Norfolk name Copeman.
+The Broker is now generally absorbed by the local Brooker.  There were
+also the itinerant merchants, of whom more anon; but in the great
+majority of cases the craftsman made and sold one article, and was, in
+fact, strictly forbidden to wander outside his special line.
+
+
+
+ARCHERY
+
+Fuller tells us that--
+
+"England were but a fling,
+ Save for the crooked stick and the gray-goose-wing,"
+
+and the importance of the bow and arrow is shown by the number of
+surnames connected with their manufacture.  We find the Bowyer, Bower
+or Bowmaker, who trimmed and shaped the wand of yew, [Footnote: This
+is also one source of Boyer, but the very common French surname Boyer
+means ox-herd.]  the Fletcher (Chapter XV), Arrowsmith, or Flower, who
+prepared the arrow--
+
+"His bowe he bente and sette therinne a flo" (H, 264)--
+
+[Footnote: The true English word for arrow, Anglo-Sax. fla.]
+
+and the Tipper, Stringer, and Horner, who attended to smaller details,
+though the Tipper and Stringer probably tipped and strung other
+things, and the Horner, though he made the horn nocks of the long-bow,
+also made horn cups and other objects.
+
+The extent to which specialization was carried is shown by the trade
+description of John Darks, longbowstringemaker, who died in 1600.  The
+Arblaster may have either made or used the arblast or cross-bow,
+medieval Lat. arcubalista, bow-sling.  His name has given the
+imitative Alabaster.  We also find the shortened Ballister and
+Balestier, from which we have Bannister (Chapter III).  Or, to take an
+example from comestibles, a Flanner limited his activity to the making
+of flat cakes called flans or flawns, from Old Fr. flaon (flan), a
+word of Germanic origin, ultimately related to flat
+
+"He that is hanged in May will eat no flannes in Midsummer."
+
+(The Abbot, ch. xxxiii.)
+
+Some names have become strangely restricted in meaning, e.g. Mercer,
+now almost limited to silk, was a name for a dealer in any kind of
+merchandise (Lat. merx); in Old French it meant pedlar--
+
+"Mercier, a good pedler, or meane haberdasher of small wares"
+(Cotgrave).
+
+On the other hand Chandler, properly a candle-maker, is now used in
+the compounds corn-chandler and ship's chandler.  Of all the -mongers
+the only common survival is Ironmonger or Iremonger, with the variant
+Isemonger, from Mid. Eng. isen, iron.  Ironmonger is also dealer in
+eggs, Mid. Eng. eiren.
+
+
+
+CLOTHIERS
+
+The wool trade occupied a very large number of workers and has given a
+good many surnames.  The Shearer was distinct from the Shearman or
+Sherman, the former operating on the sheep and the latter on the nap
+of the cloth.  For Comber we also have the older Kempster, and
+probably Kimber, from the Mid. Eng. kemben, to comb, which survives in
+"unkempt".  The Walker, Fuller, and Tucker, all did very much the same
+work of "waulking," or trampling, the cloth.  All three words are used
+in Wyclif's Bible in variant renderings of Mark ix. 3.  Fuller is from
+Fr. fouler, to trample, and Tucker is of uncertain origin.  Fuller is
+found in the south and south-east, Tucker in the west, and Walker in
+the north.  A Dyer was also called Dyster, and the same trade is the
+origin of the Latin-looking Dexter (Chapter II).  From Mid. Eng.
+litster, a dyer, a word of Scandinavian origin, comes Lister, as in
+Lister Gate, Nottingham.  With these goes the Wadman, who dealt in, or
+grew, the dye-plant called woad; cf. Flaxman.  A beater of flax was
+called Swingler--
+
+"Fleyl, swyngyl, verga, tribulum"  (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+A Tozer teased the cloth with a teasel.  In Mid. English the verb is
+taesen or tosen, so that the names Teaser and Towser, sometimes given
+to bull-terriers, are doublets.  Secker means sack-maker.
+
+We have already noticed the predominance of Taylor.  This is the more
+remarkable when we consider that the name has as rivals the native
+Seamer and Shapster and the imported Parmenter, Old Fr. parmentier, a
+maker of parements, now used chiefly of facings on clothes.  But
+another, and more usual, origin of Parmenter, Parminter, Parmiter, is
+parchmenter, a very important medieval trade.  The word would
+correspond to a Lat. pergamentarius, which has given also the German
+surname Berminter.  Several old German cities had a Permentergasse,
+i.e. parchment-makers' street.  A Pilcher made pilches, i.e. fur
+cloaks, an early loan-word from Vulgar Lat. pellicia (pellis, skin).
+Chaucer's version of
+
+"Till May is out, ne'er cast a clout"
+
+is
+
+"After greet heet cometh colde;
+ No man caste his pilche away."
+
+Another name connected with clothes is Chaucer, Old Fr. chaussier, a
+hosier (Lat. calceus, boot), while Admiral Hozier's Ghost reminds us
+of the native word.  The oldest meaning of hose seems to have been
+gaiters.  It ascended in Tudor times to the dignity of breeches (cf.
+trunk-hose), the meaning it has in modern German.  Now it has become a
+tradesman's euphemism for the improper word stocking, a fact which led
+a friend of the writer's, imperfectly acquainted with German, to ask a
+gifted lady of that nationality if she were a Blauhose.  A Chaloner or
+Chawner dealt in shalloon, Mid. Eng. chalons, a material supposed to
+have been made at Chalons-sur-Marne--
+
+"And in his owene chambre hem made a bed,
+ With sheetes and with chalons faire y-spred."
+
+(A. 4139.)
+
+Ganter or Gaunter is Fr. gantier, glove-maker.
+
+
+
+METAL WORKERS
+
+Some metal-workers have already been mentioned in connection with
+Smith (Chapter IV), and elsewhere.  The French Fevre, from Lat. faber,
+is found as Feaver.  Fearon comes from Old Fr, feron, ferron, smith.
+Face le ferrun, i.e. Boniface (Chapter III) the smith, lived in
+Northampton in the twelfth century.  This is an example of the French
+use of -on as an agential suffix.  Another example is Old Fr. charton,
+or charreton, a waggoner, from the Norman form of which we have
+Carton.  In Scriven, from Old Fr. escrivain (ecrivain), we have an
+isolated agential suffix.  The English form is usually lengthened to
+Scrivener.  In Ferrier, for farrier, the traditional spelling has
+prevailed over the pronunciation, but we have the latter in Farrar.
+Ferrier sometimes means ferryman, and Farrar has absorbed the common
+Mid. English nickname Fayrhayr.  Aguilar means needle-maker, Fr.
+aiguille, but Pinner is more often official (Chapter XIX).  Culler,
+Fr. coutelier, Old Fr. coutel, knife, and Spooner go together, but the
+fork is a modern fad.  Poynter is another good example of the
+specialization of medieval crafts: the points were the metal tags by
+which the doublet and hose were connected.  Hence, the play on words
+when Falstaff is recounting his adventure with the men in buckram--
+
+Fal.  "Their points being broken--"
+
+Poins.  "Down fell their hose."
+
+(I Henry IV., ii, 4.)
+
+Latimer, Latner sometimes means a worker in latten, a mixed metal of
+which the etymological origin is unknown.  The Pardoner--
+
+"Hadde a croys of latoun ful of stones" (A, 699).
+
+For the change from -n to -m we may compare Lorimer for Loriner, a
+bridle-maker, belonging ultimately to Lat. lorum, "the reyne of a
+brydle" (Cooper).  But Latimer comes also from Latiner, a man skilled
+in Latin, hence an interpreter, Sir John Mandeville tells us that, on
+the way to Sinai--
+
+"Men alleweys fynden Latyneres to go with hem in the contrees."
+
+The immortal Bowdler is usually said to take his name from the art of
+puddling, or buddling, iron ore.  But, as this process is
+comparatively modern, it is more likely that the name comes from the
+same verb in its older meaning of making impervious to water by means
+of clay.  Monier and Minter are both connected with coining, the
+former through French and the latter from Anglo-Saxon, both going back
+to Lat. moneta, [Footnote: On the curiously accidental history of this
+word see the Romance of Words, ch. x.]  mint.  Conner, i.e. coiner, is
+now generally swallowed up by the Irish Connor.
+
+Leadbitter is for Leadbeater.  The name Hamper is a contraction of
+hanapier, a maker of hanaps, i.e. goblets.  Fr. hanap is from Old High
+Ger. hnapf (Napf), and shows the inability of French to pronounce
+initial hn- without inserting a vowel: cf. harangue from Old High Ger.
+hring.  There is also a Mid. Eng. nap, cup, representing the cognate
+Anglo-Sax. hnaep, so that the name Napper may sometimes be a doublet
+of Hamper, though it is more probably for Napier (Chapter I) or
+Knapper (Chapter XII).  The common noun hamper is from hanapier in a
+sense something like plate-basket.  With metal-workers we may also put
+Furber or Frobisher, i.e. furbisher, of armour, etc.  Poyser, from
+poise, scales, is official.  Two occupative names of Celtic origin are
+Gow, a smith, as in The Fair Maid of Perth, and Caird, a tinker--
+
+"The fellow had been originally a tinker or caird."
+
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. xlix.)
+
+A few more names, which fall into no particular category, may conclude
+the chapter.  Hillyer or Hellier is an old name for a Thacker, or
+thatcher, of which we have the Dutch form in Dekker.  It comes from
+Mid. Eng. helen, to cover up.  In Hillard, Hillyard we sometimes have
+the same name (cf. the vulgar scholard), but these are more often
+local (Chapter XIII).  Hellier also meant tiler, for the famous Wat is
+described as tiler, tegheler, and hellier.
+
+An Ashburner prepared wood-ash for the Bloomer (Chapter XV), and
+perhaps also for the Glaisher, or glass-maker, and Asher is best
+explained in the same way, for we do not, I think, add -er to
+tree-names.  Apparent exceptions can be easily accounted for, e.g.
+Elmer is Anglo-Sax. AElfmaer, and Beecher is Anglo-Fr. bechur, digger
+(Fr. beche, spade).  Neither Pitman nor Collier had their modern
+meaning of coal-miner.  Pitman is local, of the same class as
+Bridgeman, Pullman, etc., and Collier meant a charcoal-burner, as in
+the famous ballad of Rauf Colyear.  Not much coal was dug in the
+Middle Ages.  Even in 1610 Camden speaks with disapproval, in his
+Britannia, of the inhabitants of Sherwood Forest who, with plenty of
+wood around them, persist in digging up "stinking pit-cole."
+
+Croker is for Crocker, a maker of crocks or pitchers.  The Miller's
+guests only retired to bed--
+
+"Whan that dronken al was in the crowke" (A, 4158)
+
+The spelling has affected the pronunciation, as in Sloper and Smoker
+(Chapter III).  Tinker is sometimes found as the frequentative
+Tinkler, a name traditionally due to his approach being heralded by
+the clatter of metal utensils--
+
+"My bonny lass, I work on brass,
+ A tinkler is my station."
+
+(BURNS, Jolly Beggars, Air 6.)
+
+The maker of saddle-trees was called Fewster, from Old Fr. fust (fut),
+Lat. fustis.  This has sometimes given Foster, but the latter is more
+often for Forster, i.e. Forester--
+
+"An horn he bar, the bawdryk was of grene,
+ A forster was he soothly as I gesse,"
+
+(A, 116.)
+
+The saddler himself was often called by his French name sellier,
+whence Sella', but both this and Sellars are also local, at the
+cellars (Chapter III).  Pargeter means dauber, plasterer, from Old Fr.
+parjeter, to throw over.  A Straker made the strakes, or tires, of
+wheels.  A Stanger made stangs, i.e. poles, shafts, etc.
+
+The fine arts are represented by Limmer, for limner, a painter, an
+aphetic form of illumines, and Tickner is perhaps from Dutch tekener,
+draughtsman, cognate with Eng, token, while the art of self-defence
+has given us the name Scrimgeoure, with a number of corruptions,
+including the local-looking Skrimshire.  It is related to scrimmage
+and skirmish, and ultimately to Ger. schirmen, to fence, lit.  to
+protect.  The name was applied to a professional swordplayer--
+
+"Qe nul teigne escole de eskermerye ne de bokeler deins la citee."
+
+(Liber Albus.)
+
+
+
+SURNOMINAL SNOBBISHNESS
+
+A particularly idiotic form of snobbishness has sometimes led people
+to advance strange theories as to the origin of their names.  Thus
+Turner has been explained as from la tour noire.  Dr. Brewer, in his
+Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, [Footnote: Thirteenth edition, revised
+and corrected.]  apparently desirous of dissociating himself from malt
+liquor, observes that--
+
+"Very few ancient names are the names of trades. . .  A few examples
+of a more scientific derivation will suffice for a hint:--
+
+Brewer.  This name, which exists in France as Bruhiere and Brugere, is
+not derived from the Saxon briwan (to brew), but the French bruyere
+(heath), and is about tantamount to the German Plantagenet (broom
+plant).  Miller is the old Norse melia, our mill and maul, and means a
+mauler or fighter.
+
+Ringer is the Anglo-Saxon hring-gar (the mailed warrior).  Tanner,
+German Thanger, Old German Dane-gaud, is the Dane-Goth...
+
+This list might easily be extended."
+
+There is of course no reason why such a list should not be
+indefinitely extended, but the above excerpt is probably quite long
+enough to make the reader feel dizzy.  The fact is that there is no
+getting away from a surname of this class, and the bearer must try to
+look on the brighter side of the tragedy.  Brewer is occasionally an
+accommodated form of the French name Bruyere or Labruyere, but is
+usually derived from an occupation which is the high-road to the House
+of Lords.  The ancestor of any modern Barber may, like Salvation Yeo's
+father, have "exercised the mystery of a barber-surgeon," which is
+getting near the learned professions.  A Pottinger (Chapter XV) looked
+after the soups, Fr. potage, but the name also represents Pothecary
+(apothecary), which had in early Scottish the aphetic forms Poticar,
+potigar--
+
+"'Pardon me,' said he, 'I am but a poor pottingar.  Nevertheless, I
+have been bred in Paris and learnt my humanities and my cursus
+medendi'"
+
+(Fair Maid of Perth, ch. vii.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX. HODGE AND HIS FRIENDS
+
+"Jacque, il me faut troubler ton Somme;
+ Dans le village, un gros huissier
+ Rode et court, suivi du messier.
+ C'est pour l'impot, las!  mon pauvre homme.
+ Leve-toi, Jacque, leve-toi:
+ Voici venir I'huissier du roi."
+
+BERANGER.
+
+General terms for what we now usually call a farmer are preserved in
+the surnames Bond (Chapter XV), whence the compound Husband, used both
+for the goodman of the house and in the modern sense, and Tillman.
+The labouring man was Day, from the same root as Ger. Dienen, to
+serve.  It persists in "dairy" and perhaps in the puzzling name
+Doubleday (?  doing two men's work).  A similar meaning is contained
+in the names Swain, Hind, for earlier Hine (Chapter III), Tasker,
+Mann.  But a Wager was a mercenary soldier.  The mower has given us
+the names Mather (cf. aftermath), and Mawer, while Fenner is sometimes
+for Old Fr. feneur, haymaker (Lat. foenum, hay).  For mower we also
+find the latinized messor, whence Messer.  Whether the Ridler and the
+Sivier made, or used, riddles and sieves can hardly be decided.
+[Footnote: Riddle is the usual word for sieve in the Midlands.  Hence
+the phrase "riddled with holes, or wounds."]
+
+With the Wenman, who drove the wain, we may mention the Leader or
+Loader.  The verbs "lead" and "load" are etymologically the same, and
+in the Midlands people talk of "leading," i.e. carting, coal.  But
+these names could also come from residence near an artificial
+watercourse (Chapter XIII).  Beecher has already been explained, and
+Shoveler is formed in the same way from dialect showl, a shovel--
+
+" 'I,' said the owl,
+
+  'With my spade and showl.' "
+
+To the variants of the Miller (Chapter XXIII) may be added Mulliner,
+from Old French.  Tedder means a man who teds, i.e. spreads, hay, the
+origin of the word being Scandinavian
+
+"I teede hey, I tourne it afore it is made in cockes, je fene."
+(Palsgrave.)
+
+But the greater number of surnames drawn from rural occupations are
+connected with the care of animals.  We find names of this class in
+three forms, exemplified by Coltman, Goater, Shepherd, and it seems
+likely that the endings -er and -erd have sometimes been interchanged,
+e.g. that Goater may stand for goat-herd, Calver for calf-herd, and
+Nutter sometimes for northern nowt-herd, representing the dialect
+neat-herd.  The compounds of herd include Bullard, Calvert, Coltard,
+Coward, for cow-herd, not of course to be confused with the common
+noun coward (Fr. couard, a derivative of Lat. cauda, tail), Evart,
+ewe-herd, but also a Norman spelling of Edward, Geldard, Goddard,
+sometimes for goat-herd, Hoggart, often confused with the local
+Hogarth (Chapter XIII), Seward, for sow-herd, or for the historic
+Siward, Stobart, dialect stob, a bull, Stodart, Mid. Eng. stot,
+meaning both a bullock and a nag.  Chaucer tells us that--
+
+"This reve sat upon a ful good stot" (A, 615 ).
+
+Stoddart is naturally confused with Studdart, stud-herd, stud being
+cognate with Ger. Stute, mare.  We also have Swinnert, and lastly
+Weatherhead, sometimes a perversion of wether-herd, though usually a
+nickname, sheep's head.  The man in charge of the tups, or rams, was
+called Tupman or Tupper, the latter standing sometimes for tup-herd,
+just as we have the imitative Stutter for Stodart or Studdart.  We
+have also Tripper from trip, a dialect word for flock, probably
+related to troop.  Another general term for a herdsman was Looker,
+whence Luker.
+
+
+
+BUMBLEDOM
+
+I have headed this chapter "Hodge and his Friends," but as, a matter
+of strict truth he had none, except the "poure Persons," the most
+radiant figure in Chaucer's pageant.  But his enemies were
+innumerable.  Beranger's lines impress one less than the uncouth "Song
+of the Husbandman" (temp.  Edward I.), in which we find the woes of
+poor Hodge incorporated in the persons of the hayward, the bailif, the
+wodeward, the budel and his cachereles (catchpoles)--
+
+"For ever the furthe peni mot (must) to the kynge."
+
+The bailiff has already been mentioned (Chapter IV).  The budel, or
+beadle, has given us several surnames.  We have the word in two forms,
+from Anglo-Sax. bytel, belonging to the verb to bid, whence the names
+Biddle and Buddle, and from Old Fr. bedel (bedeau), whence Beadle and
+its variants.  The animal is probably extinct under his original name,
+but modern democracy is doing its best to provide him with an army of
+successors.  The "beadle" group of names has been confused with
+Bithell, Welsh Ap Ithel.
+
+Names in -ward are rather numerous, and, as they mostly come from the
+titles of rural officials and are often confused with compounds of
+-herd, they are all put together here.  The simple Ward, cognate with
+Fr. garde, is one of our commonest surnames.  Like its derivative
+Warden it had a very wide range of meanings.  The antiquity of the
+office of church-warden is shown by the existence of the surname
+Churchward.  Sometimes the surname comes from the abstract or local
+sense, de la warde.  As the suffix -weard occurs very frequently in
+Anglo-Saxon personal names, it is not always possible to say whether a
+surname is essentially occupative or not, e.g. whether Durward is
+rather "door-ward" or for Anglo-Sax. Deorweard.  Howard, which is
+phonetically Old Fr. Huard, is sometimes also for Hayward or Haward
+(Hereward), or for Hayward.  It has no doubt interchanged with the
+local Howarth, Haworth.
+
+Owing to the loss of w- in the second part of a word (Chapter III),
+-ward and -herd often fall together, e.g. Millard for Milward, and
+Woodard found in Mid. English as both wode-ward and wode-hird.
+Hayward belongs to hay, hedge, enclosure (Chapter XIII), from which we
+also get Hayman.  The same functionary has given the name Haybittle, a
+compound of beadle.  Burward and Burrard may represent the once
+familiar office of bear-ward; cf. Berman.  I had a schoolfellow called
+Lateward, apparently the man in charge of the lade or leet (Chapter
+XIII).  Medward is for mead-ward.
+
+The name Stewart or Stuart became royal with Walter the Steward of
+Scotland, who married Marjorie Bruce in 1315.  It stands for sty-ward,
+where sty means pen, not necessarily limited to pigs.  Like most
+official titles, it has had its ups and downs, with the result that
+its present meaning ranges from a high officer of the crown to the
+sympathetic concomitant of a rough crossing.
+
+The Reeve, Anglo-Sax. ge-refa, was in Chaucer a kind of land agent,
+but the name was also applied to local officials, as in port-reeve,
+shire-reeve.  It is the same as Grieve, also originally official, but
+used in Scotland of a land steward--
+
+"He has got a ploughman from Scotland who acts as grieve."
+
+(Scott, Diary, 1814.)
+
+This may be one source of the names Graves and Greaves.  The name
+Woodruff, Woodroffe is too common to be referred to the plant
+woodruff, and the fact that the male and female of a species of
+sand-piper are called the ruff and reeve suggests that Woodruff may
+have some relation to wood-reeve.  It is at any rate a curious
+coincidence that the German name for the plant is Waldmeister,
+wood-master.  Another official surname especially connected with
+country life is Pinder, also found as Pinner, Pender, Penner, Ponder
+and Poynder, the man in charge of the pound or pinfold; cf. Parker,
+the custodian of a park, of which the Palliser or Pallister made the
+palings.
+
+
+
+ITINERANT MERCHANTS
+
+The itinerant dealer was usually called by a name suggesting the pack
+which he carried.  Thus Badger, Kidder, Kiddier, Pedder, now pedlar,
+are from bag, kid, related to kit, and the obsolete ped, basket; cf.
+Leaper, Chapter XV.  The badger, who dealt especially in corn, was
+unpopular with the rural population, and it is possible that his name
+was given to the stealthy animal formerly called the bawson (Chapter
+I.), brock or gray (Chapter XXIII).  That Badger is a nickname taken
+from the animal is chronologically improbable, as the word is first
+recorded in 1523 (New English Dictionary).
+
+To the above names may be added Cremer, Cramer, a huckster with a
+stall in the market, but this surname is sometimes of modern
+introduction, from its German cognate Kraemer, now generally used for a
+grocer.  Packman, Pakeman, and Paxman belong more probably to the
+font-name Pack (Chapter IX), which also appears in Paxon, either
+Pack's son, or for the local Paxton.
+
+The name Hawker does not belong to this group.  Nowadays a hawker is a
+pedlar, and it has been assumed, without sufficient evidence, that the
+word is of the same origin as huckster.  The Mid. Eng. le haueker or
+haukere (1273) is quite plainly connected with hawk, and the name may
+have been applied either to a Falconer, Faulkner, or to a dealer in
+hawks.  As we know that itinerant vendors of hawks travelled from
+castle to castle, it is quite possible that our modern hawker is an
+extended use of the same name.
+
+Nor is the name Coster to be referred to costermonger, originally a
+dealer in costards, i.e. apples.  It is sometimes for Mid. Eng.
+costard (cf. such names as Cherry and Plumb), but may also represent
+Port.  da Costa and Ger. Koester, both of which are found in early
+lists of Protestant refugees.
+
+Jagger was a north-country name for a man who worked draught-horses
+for hire.  Mr. Hardy's novel Under the Greenwood Tree opens with "the
+Tranter's party." A carrier is still a "tranter" in Wessex.  In
+Medieval Latin he was called travetarius, a word apparently connected
+with Lat. transvehere, to transport.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX. OFFICIAL AND DOMESTIC
+
+"Big fleas have little fleas
+ Upon their backs to bite 'em
+ Little fleas have smaller fleas,
+ And so ad infinitum."
+
+Anon.
+
+It is a well-known fact that official nomenclature largely reflects
+the simple housekeeping of early times, and that many titles, now of
+great dignity, were originally associated with rather lowly duties.
+We have seen an example in Stewart.  Another is Chamberlain.  Hence
+surnames drawn from this class are susceptible of very varied
+interpretation.  A Chancellor was originally a man in charge of a
+chancel, or grating, Lat. cancelli.  In Mid. English it is usually
+glossed scriba, while it is now limited to very high judicial or
+political office.  Bailey, as we have seen (Chapter IV), has also a
+wide range of meanings, the ground idea being that of care-taker.
+Cotgrave explains Old Fr. mareschal marechal as--
+
+"A marshall of a kingdoms, or of a camp (an honourable place); also, a
+blacksmith; also, a farrier, horse-leech, or horse-smith; also, a
+harbinger,"
+
+[Footnote: i.e. a quartermaster.  See Romance of Words, ch. vii.]
+
+which gives a considerable choice of origins to any modern Marshall or
+Maskell.
+
+Another very vague term is sergeant, whence our Sargent.  Its oldest
+meaning is servant, Lat. serviens, servient--.  Cotgrave defines
+sergent as--
+
+"A sergeant, officer, catchpole, pursuyvant, apparitor; also (in Old
+Fr.) a footman, or souldier that serves on foot." I
+
+Probably catchpole was the commonest meaning--
+
+"Sargeauntes, katche pollys, and somners" (Cocke Lorelles Bote).
+
+The administration of justice occupied a horde of officials, from the
+Justice down to the Catchpole.  The official title Judge is rarely
+found, and this surname is usually from the female name Judge, which,
+like Jug, was used for Judith, and later for Jane--
+
+"Jannette, Judge, Jennie; a woman's name" (Cotgrave).
+
+The names Judson and Juxon sometimes belong to these.  Catchpole has
+nothing to do with poles or polls.  It is a Picard cache-poule
+(chasse-poule), collector of poultry in default of money.  Another
+name for judge was Dempster, the pronouncer of doom, a title which
+still exists in the Isle of Man.  We also find Deemer--
+
+"Demar, judicator" (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+Mayor is a learned spelling of Mair, Fr. maire, Lat. major, but Major,
+which looks like its latinized form, is perhaps imitative for the Old
+French personal name Mauger.  Bishop Mauger of Worcester pronounced
+the interdict in 1208, and the surname still exists.
+
+Gaylor, Galer, is the Norman pronunciation of gaoler--
+
+"And Palamon, this woful prisoner,
+ As was his wone, bi leve of his gayler,
+ Was risen"  (A, 1064).
+
+
+
+THE HOUSEHOLD
+
+Usher is Fr. huissier, door-keeper, Fr. huis, door, Lat. ostium.  I
+conjecture that Lusher is the French name Lhuissier, and that Lush is
+local, for Old Fr. le huis; cf. Laporte.  Wait, corruptly Weight, now
+used only of a Christmas minstrel, was once a watchman.  It is a
+dialect form of Old Fr. gaite, cognate with watch.  The older sense
+survives in the expression "to lie in wait."  Gate is the same name,
+when not local (Chapter XIII).
+
+The Todhunter, or fox-hunter (Chapter XXIII), was an official whose
+duty was to exterminate the animal now so carefully preserved.  Warner
+is often for Warrener.  The Grosvenor (gros veneur), great hunter, was
+a royal servant.  Bannerman is found latinized as Penninger (Chapter
+XV).  Herald may be official or from Harold (Chapter VII), the
+derivation being in any case the same.  Toller means a collector of
+tolls.  Cocke Lorelle speaks of these officials as "false Towlers."
+Connected with administration is the name Mainprice, lit.  taken by
+hand, used both for a surety and a man out on bail--
+
+"Maynprysyd, or memprysyd, manucaptus, fideijussus" (Prompt.  Parv.);
+
+and Shurety also exists.
+
+The individual bigwig had a very large retinue, the members of which
+appear to have held very strongly to the theory of one man, one job.
+The Nurse, or Norris, Fr. nourrice, was apparently debarred from
+rocking the cradle.  This was the duty of the rocker--
+
+"To the norice and rokker of the same lord, 25s.  8d."
+
+(Household Accounts of Elizabeth of York, March, 1503),
+
+from whom Mr. Roker, chief turnkey at the Fleet in Mr. Pickwick's
+time, may have sprung The Cook was assisted by the Baster and Hasler,
+or turnspit, the latter from Old Fr. hastille, spit, dim. of Lat.
+hasta, spear.  The Chandler was a servant as well as a manufacturer.
+
+A Trotter and a Massinger, i.e. messenger, were perhaps much the same
+thing.  Wardroper is of course wardrobe keeper, but Chaucer uses
+wardrope (B. 1762) in the sense which Fr. garde-robe now usually has.
+The Lavender, Launder or Lander saw to the washing.  Napier, from Fr.
+nappe, cloth, meant the servant who looked after the napery.  The
+martial sound with which this distinguished name strikes a modern ear
+is due to historical association, assisted, as I have somewhere read,
+by its riming with rapier!  The water-supply was in charge of the
+Ewer.
+
+The provisioning of the great house was the work of the Lardner, Fr.
+lard, bacon, the Panter, or Pantler, who was, at least etymologically,
+responsible for bread, and the Cator (Chapter III) and Spencer
+(Chapter III), whose names, though of opposite meaning, buyer and
+spender, come to very much the same thing.  Spence is still the
+north-country word for pantry, and is used by Tennyson in the sense of
+refectory--
+
+"Bluff Harry broke into the Spence
+ And turn'd the cowls adrift."
+
+(The Talking Oak, 1.  47.)
+
+Purser, now used in connection with ships only, was also a medieval
+form of bursar, and every castle and monastery had its almoner, now
+Amner.  Here also belongs Carver.  In Ivey Church (Bucks) is a tablet
+to Lady Mary Salter with a poetic tribute to her husband--
+
+"Full forty years a carver to two kings."
+
+As the importance of the horse led to the social elevation of the
+marshal and constable (Chapter IV), so the hengstman, now henchman,
+became his master's right-hand man.  The first element is Anglo-Sax.
+hengest, stallion, and its most usual surnominal forms are Hensman and
+Hinxman.  Historians now regard Hengist and Horsa, stallion and mare,
+as nicknames assumed by Jutish braves on the war-path.  Sumpter, Old
+Fr. sommetier, from Somme, burden, was used both of a packhorse and
+its driver, its interpretation in King Lear being a matter of dispute--
+
+"Return with her?
+ Persuade me rather to be slave and Sumpter
+ To this detested groom" (Lear, ii, 4).
+
+As a surname it probably means the driver, Medieval Lat. sumetarius.
+
+Among those who ministered to the great man's pleasures we must
+probably reckon Spelman, Speller, Spillman, Spiller, from Mid. Eng.
+spel, a speech, narrative, but proof of this is lacking
+
+"Now holde your mouth, par charitee,
+ Bothe knyght and lady free,
+ And herkneth to my spelle" (B, 2081).
+
+The cognate Spielmann, lit.  Player, was used in Medieval German of a
+wandering minstrel.
+
+The poet is now Rymer or Rimmer, while Trover, Fr. trouvere, a poet,
+minstrel, lit.  finder, has been confused with Trower, for Thrower, a
+name connected with weaving.  Even the jester has come down to us as
+Patch, a name given regularly to this member of the household in
+allusion to his motley attire.  Shylock applies it, to Launcelot--
+
+"The patch is kind enough; but a huge feeder."
+
+(Merchant of Venice, ii.  5.)
+
+But the name has another origin (Chapter IX).  Buller and Cocker are
+names taken from the fine old English sports of bull-baiting and
+cock-fighting.
+
+Two very humble members of the parasitic class have given the names
+Bidder and Maunder, both meaning beggar.  The first comes from Mid.
+Eng. bidden, to ask.  Piers Plowman speaks of "bidderes and beggers."
+Maunder is perhaps connected with Old Fr. quemander--
+
+"Quemander, or caimander, to beg; or goe a begging; to beg from doore
+to doore" (Cotgrave),
+
+but it may mean a maker of "maunds," i.e. baskets.
+
+A Beadman spent his time in praying for his benefactor.  A medieval
+underling writing to his superior often signs himself "your servant
+and bedesman."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI. OF NICKNAMES IN GENERAL
+
+"Here is Wyll Wyly the myl pecker,
+ And Patrick Pevysshe heerbeter,
+ With lusty Hary Hangeman,
+ Nexte house to Robyn Renawaye;
+ Also Hycke Crokenec the rope maker,
+ And Steven Mesyllmouthe muskyll taker."
+
+(Cocke Lorelles Bote.)
+
+[Footnote: This humorous poem, inspired by Sebastian Brandt's
+Narrenschiff, known in England in Barclay's translation, was printed
+early in the reign of Henry VIII.  It contains the fullest list we
+have of old trade-names.]
+
+Every family name is etymologically a nickname, i.e. an eke-name,
+intended to give that auxiliary information which helps in
+identification.  But writers on surnames have generally made a special
+class of those epithets which were originally conferred on the bearer
+in connection with some characteristic feature, physical or moral, or
+some adjunct, often of the most trifling description, with which his
+personality was associated.  Of nicknames, as of other things, it may
+be said that there is nothing new under the sun.  Ovidius Naso might
+have received his as a schoolboy, and Moss cum nano, whom we find in
+Suffolk in 1184, lives on as "Nosey Moss" in Whitechapel.  Some of our
+nicknames occur as personal names in Anglo-Saxon times (Chapter VII),
+but as surnames they are seldom to be traced back to that period, for
+the simple reason that such names were not hereditary.  An Anglo-Saxon
+might be named Wulf, but his son would bear another name, while our
+modern Wolfe does not usually go farther back than some Ranulf le wolf
+of the thirteenth or fourteenth century.  This is of course stating
+the case broadly, because the personal name Wolf also persisted and
+became in some cases a surname.  In this and the following chapters I
+do not generally attempt to distinguish between such double origins.
+
+Nicknames are formed in very many ways, but the two largest classes
+are sobriquets taken from the names of animals, e.g. Hogg, or from
+adjectives, either alone or accompanied by a noun, e.g. Dear,
+Goodfellow.  Each of these classes requires a chapter to itself, while
+here we may deal with the smaller groups.
+
+Some writers have attempted to explain all apparent nicknames as
+popular perversions of surnames belonging to the other three classes.
+As the reader will already have noticed, such perversions are
+extremely common, but it is a mistake to try to account for obvious
+nicknames in this way.  Any of us who retain a vivid recollection of
+early days can call to mind nicknames of the most fantastic kind, and
+in some cases of the most apparently impossible formation, which stuck
+to their possessors all through school-life.  A very simple test for
+the genuineness of a nickname is a comparison with other languages.
+Camden says that Drinkwater is a corruption of Derwentwater.  The
+incorrectness of this guess is shown by the existence as surnames of
+Fr. Boileau, It.  Bevilacqua, and Ger. Trinkwasser.  It is in fact a
+perfectly natural nickname for a medieval eccentric, the more normal
+attitude being represented by Roger Beyvin (boi-vin), who died in
+London in 1277.
+
+
+
+FOREIGN NICKNAMES
+
+Corresponding to our Goodday, we find Ger. Gutentag and Fr. Bonjour.
+The latter has been explained as from a popular form of George, but
+the English and German names show that the explanation is.
+unnecessary.  With Dry we may compare Fr. Lesec and Ger. Duerr, with
+Garlick Ger. Knoblauch (Chapter XV), and with Shakespeare Ger.
+Schuettespeer.  Luck is both for Luke and Luick (Liege, Chapter XI),
+but Rosa Bonheur and the composer Gluck certify it also as a nickname.
+Merryweather is like Fr. Bontemps, and Littleboy appears in the Paris
+Directory as Petitgas, gas being the same as gars, the old nominative
+(Chapter I) of garcon--
+
+"Gars, a lad, boy, stripling, youth, yonker" (Cotgrave).
+
+Bardsley explains Twentyman as an imitative corruption of twinter-man,
+the man in charge of the twinters, two-year-old colts.  This may be
+so, but there is a German confectioner in Hampstead called Zwanziger,
+and there are Parisians named Vingtain.  Lover is confirmed by the
+French surnames Amant and Lamoureux, and Wellbeloved by Bienaime.
+Allways may be the literal equivalent of the French name Partout.  On
+the other hand, the name Praisegod Barebones has been wrongly fixed on
+an individual whose real name was Barbon or Barborne.
+
+It may seem strange that the nickname, conferred essentially on the
+individual, and often of a very offensive character, should have
+persisted and become hereditary.  But schoolboys know that, in the
+case of an unpleasant nickname, the more you try to pull it off, the
+more it sticks the faster.  Malapert and Lehideux are still well
+represented in the Paris Directory.  Many objectionable nicknames
+have, however, disappeared, or have been so modified as to become
+inoffensive.
+
+Sometimes such disappearance has resulted from the depreciation in the
+meaning of a word, e.g. le lewd, the layman, the unlettered, was once
+as common as its opposite le learned, whence the name Larned.  But
+many uncomplimentary names are no longer objected to because their
+owners do not know their earlier meanings.  A famous hymn-writer of
+the eighteenth century bore all unconsciously a surname that would
+almost have made Rabelais blush.  Drinkdregs, Drunkard, Sourale,
+Sparewater, Sweatinbed, etc. have gone, but we still have Lusk--
+
+"Falourdin, a luske, loot, lurden, a lubberlie sloven, heavie sot,
+lumpish hoydon" (Cotgrave)--
+
+and many other names which can hardly have gratified their original
+possessors.
+
+A very interesting group of surnames consists of those which indicate
+degrees of kinship or have to do with the relations existing between
+individuals.  We find both Master and Mann, united in Masterman,
+meaning the man in the service of one locally known as the master.
+With this we may compare Ladyman, Priestman, etc. But Mann is often of
+local origin, from the Isle of Man.  In some cases such names are
+usually found with the patronymic -s, e.g. Masters, Fellows, while in
+others this is regularly absent, e.g. Guest, Friend.  The latter name
+is sometimes a corruption of Mid. Eng. fremed, stranger, cognate with
+Ger. fremd, so that opposite terms, which we find regularly contrasted
+in Mid. Eng. "frend and fremed," have become absorbed in one surname.
+
+The frequent occurrence of Fellows is due to its being sometimes for
+the local Fallows.  From Mid. Eng. fere, a companion, connected with
+faren, to travel, we get Littlefair and Playfair.  In Wyclif's Bible
+we read that Jephthah's daughter--
+
+"Whanne sche hadde go with hir felowis and pleiferis, sche biwept hir
+maydynhed in the hillis" (Judges xi.  38).
+
+Springett is for springald, and Arlett is Mid. Eng. harlot, fellow,
+rascal, a word which has changed its gender and meaning--
+
+"He was a gentil harlot and a kynde,
+ A betre felawe sholde men noght fynde."
+
+(A, 647.)
+
+
+
+KINSHIP
+
+In surnames taken from words indicating family relationship we come
+across some survivals of terms no longer used, or occurring only in
+rustic dialect.  The Mid. Eng. eme, uncle, cognate with Ger. Oheim,
+has given Eames.  In Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde, the heroine
+addresses Pandarus as "uncle dere" and "uncle mine," but also uses the
+older word--
+
+"'In good feith, em,' quod she, 'that liketh me'" (ii.  162);
+
+and the word is used more than once by Scott--
+
+"Didna his eme die. . .  wi' the name of the Bluidy Mackenzie?"
+
+(Heart of Midlothian, ch. xii.)
+
+It is also one of the sources of Empson, which thus corresponds to
+Cousins or Cozens.  In Neame we have a prosthetic n- due to the
+frequent occurrence of min eme (cf. the Shakespearean nuncle, Lear, i.
+4).  The names derived from cousin have been reinforced by those from
+Cuss, i.e. Constant or Constance (Chapter X).  Thus Cussens is from
+the Mid. English dim. Cussin.  Anglo-Sax. nefa, whence Mid. Eng. neve,
+neave, is cognate with, but not derived from, Lat. nepos.  [Footnote:
+In all books on surnames that I have come across this is referred to
+Old Fr. le neve.  There is no such word in old French, which has nom.
+nies, acc.  neveu.]
+
+This is now replaced as a common noun by the French word nephew, but
+it survives in the surname Neave.  It also meant in Mid. English a
+prodigal or parasite, as did also Lat. nepos--
+
+"Neve, neverthryfte, or wastowre"  (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+It is likely that Nevison and Nevinson are sometimes derivatives of
+this word.
+
+Child was sometimes used in the special sense of youth of gentle
+blood, or young knight; cf. Childe Harold and Childe Rowland (Lear,
+iii.  4).  But the more general meaning may be assumed in its
+compounds, of which the most interesting is Leifchild, dear-child, a
+fairly common name in Anglo-Saxon.  The corresponding Faunt, whence
+Fauntleroy (Chapter XV), is now rare.  Another word, now only used in
+dialect or by affectation, is "bairn," a frequent source of the very
+common surname Barnes; cf. Fairbairn and Goodbairn, often perverted to
+Fairburn, Goodburn, Goodban.  Barnfather is about equivalent to Lat.
+paterfamilias, but Pennefather is an old nickname for a miser--
+
+"Caqueduc, a niggard, micher, miser, scrape-good, pinch-penny,
+penny-father; a covetous and greedy wretch" (Cotgrave).
+
+The name Bastard was once considered no disgrace if the dishonour came
+from a noble source, and several great medieval warriors bore this
+sobriquet.  With this we may compare Leman or Lemon, Mid. Eng.
+leof-man, dear man, beloved, and Paramor, Fr. par amour, an example of
+an adverbial phrase that has become a noun.  This expression, used of
+lawful love in Old French, in the stock phrase "aimer une belle dame
+par amour," had already an evil meaning by Chaucer's time--
+
+"My fourthe housbonde was a revelour,
+ This is to seyn, he hadde a paramour" (D, 453).
+
+With these names we may put Drewry or Drury, sweetheart, from the Old
+French abstract druerie, of Germanic origin and cognate with true--
+
+"For certeynly no such beeste
+ To be loved is not worthy,
+ Or bere the name of druerie."
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 5062.)
+
+Suckling is a nickname applied to a helpless person; cf. Littlechild
+and "milksop," which still exists, though rare, in the forms Milsopp
+and Mellsop.  The heir survives as Ayre and Eyre.  Batchelor, the
+origin of which is one of the etymological problems yet unsolved, had
+in Old French and Mid. English also the meaning of young warrior or
+squire.  Chaucer's Squier is described as--
+
+"A lovyere and a lusty bacheler" (A, 80).
+
+May, maiden, whence Mildmay, is used by Chaucer for the Holy Virgin
+
+"Now, lady bright, to whom alle woful cryen,
+ Thow glorie of wommanhede, thow faire may,
+ Thow haven of refut, brighte sterre of day" (B, 850).
+
+This is the same word as Mid. Eng. mai, relative, cognate with maid
+and Gaelic Mac- (Chapter VI).  A form of it survives in the Nottingham
+name Watmough and perhaps in Hickmott--
+
+"Mow, housbandys sister or syster in law" (Prompt.  Parv.).
+
+I imagine that William Echemannesmai, who owed the Treasury a mark in
+1182, was one of the sponging fraternity.
+
+Virgoe, a latinization of Virgin, is perhaps due to a shop-sign.
+Rigmaiden, explained by Lower as "a romping girl," is local, from a
+place in Westmorland.  Richard de Riggemayden was living in Lancashire
+in 1307.  With this group of names we may put Gossip, originally a
+god-parent, lit.  related in God, from Mid. Eng. sib, kin.
+
+With names like Farebrother, Goodfellow, we may compare some of French
+origin such as Bonser (bon sire), Bonamy, and Bellamy
+
+"Thou beel amy, thou pardoner, he sayde,
+ Telle us som myrth, or japes, right anon."
+
+(B, 318.)
+
+Beldam (belle dame), originally a complimentary name for grandmother
+or grandam, has become uncomplimentary in meaning--
+
+First Witch.  "Why, how now, Hecate!  you look angerly."
+
+Hecate.  "Have I not reason, beldams as you are,
+Saucy and overbold?" (Macbeth, iii.  5).
+
+From the corresponding Old Fr. bel-sire, beau-sire, we have Bewsher,
+Bowser, and the Picard form Belcher
+
+"The great belsire, the grandsire, sire, and sonne,
+ Lie here interred under this grave stone."
+
+(Weever, Ancient Funeral Monuments.)
+
+Relationship was often expressed by the use of French words, so that
+for son-in-law we find Gender, Ginder, corresponding to Fr. Legendre.
+Fitch, usually an animal nickname (Chapter XXIII), is occasionally for
+le fiz, the son, which also survives as Fitz.  Goodson, from the
+personal name Good (Chapter I), is sometimes registered as Fiz Deu.
+Cf. Fr. Lefilleul, i.e. the godson.
+
+
+
+ABSTRACTS
+
+A possible derivative of the name May (Chapter XXI) is Ivimey.  Holly
+and Ivy were the names of characters in Christmas games, and an old
+rime says
+
+"Holy and his mery men, they dawnsyn and they syng,
+ Ivy and hur maydins, they wepen and they wryng."
+
+If Ivimey is from this source, the same origin must sometimes be
+allowed to Holliman (Chapter I).  This conjecture [Footnote: Probably
+a myth.  See my Surnames, p. 197.]  has in its favour the fact that
+many of our surnames are undoubtedly derived from characters assumed
+in dramatic performances and popular festivities.  To this class
+belong many surnames which have the form of abstract nouns, e.g.
+Charity, Verity, Virtue, Vice.  Of similar origin are perhaps Bliss,
+Chance, Luck, and Goodluck; cf. Bonaventure.  Love, Luff, occurs
+generally as a personal name, hence the dim. Lufkins, but it is
+sometimes a nickname.  Lovell, Lovett, more often mean little wolf.
+Both Louvet and Louveau are common French surnames.  The name Lovell,
+in the wolf sense, was often applied to a dog, as in the famous
+couplet
+
+"The ratte, the catte, and Lovell, our dogge
+ Rule all England under the hogge,"
+
+for which William Collingborne was executed in 1484.  Lowell is a
+variant of Lovell.
+
+But many apparent abstract names are due to folk-etymology, e.g.
+Marriage is local, Old Fr. marage, marsh, and Wedlock is imitative for
+Wedlake; cf. Mortlock for Mortlake and perhaps Diplock for deep-lake.
+Creed is the Anglo-Saxon personal name Creda.  Revel, a common French
+surname, is a personal name of obscure origin.  Want is the Mid. Eng.
+wont, mole, whence Wontner, mole-catcher.  It is difficult to see how
+such names as Warr, Battle, and Conquest came into existence.  The
+former, found as de la warre, is no doubt sometimes local (Chapter
+XIII), and Battle is a dim. of Bat (Chapter VI).  But de la batayle is
+also a common entry, and Laguerre and Labataille are common French
+surnames.
+
+
+
+COSTUME
+
+A nickname was often conferred in connection with some external object
+regularly associated with the individual.  Names taken from shop-signs
+really belong to this class.  Corresponding to our Hood  [Footnote:
+Hood may also be for Hud (Chapter I), but the garment is made into a
+personal name in Little Red Ridinghood, who is called in French le
+petit Chaperon Rouge.]  we have Fr. Capron (chaperon).  Burdon, Fr.
+bourdon, meant a staff, especially a pilgrim's staff.  Daunger is
+described as having--
+
+"In his honde a gret burdoun"
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 3401).
+
+But the name Burdon is also local.  Bracegirdle, i.e. breeks-girdle,
+must have been the nickname of one who wore a gorgeous belt.  It is a
+curious fact that this name is chiefly found in the same region
+(Cheshire) as the somewhat similar Broadbelt.  The Sussex name Quaile
+represents the Norman pronunciation of coif.  More usually an
+adjective enters into such combinations.  With the historic Curthose,
+Longsword, Strongbow we may compare Shorthouse, a perversion of
+shorthose, Longstaff, Horlock (hoar), Silverlock, Whitlock, etc.
+Whitehouse is usually of local origin, but has also absorbed the
+medieval names Whitehose and White-hawse, the latter from Mid. Eng.
+hawse, neck.  Woollard may be the Anglo-Saxon personal name Wulfweard,
+but is more probably from woolward, i.e. without linen, a costume
+assumed as a sign of penitence
+
+"Wolwarde, without any lynnen nexte ones body, sans chemyse."
+(Palsgrave.)
+
+The three names Medley, Medlicott, and Motley go together, though all
+three of them may be local (the mid-lea, the middle-cot, and the
+moat-lea).  Medley mixed, is the Anglo-French past participle of Old
+Fr. mesler (meler).  Motley is of unknown origin, but it was not
+necessarily a fool's dress--
+
+"A marchant was ther with a forked berd,
+ In mottelye, and hye on horse he sat,
+ Upon his heed a Flaundryssh bevere hat" (A, 270).
+
+So also the Serjeant of the Law was distinguished his, for the period,
+plain dress--
+
+"He rood but hoomly in a medlee cote" (A, 328).
+
+Gildersleeve is now rare in England, though it still flourishes in the
+United States.  [Footnote: We have several instances of this
+phenomenon.  A familiar example is Lippincott, a surname of local
+origin (Devonshire).  But Bardsley's inclusion of American statistics
+is often misleading.  It is a well-known fact that the foreign names
+of immigrants are regularly assimilated to English forms in the United
+States.  In some cases, such as Cook for Koch, Cope (Chapter XII) for
+Kopf, Stout (Chapter XXII) for Stolz or Stultz, the change is
+etymologically justified.  But in other cases, such as Tallman for
+Thalmann, dale-man, Trout for Traut, faithful, the resemblance is
+accidental.  Beam and Chestnut, common in the States but very rare in
+England, represent an imitative form of Boehm or Behm, Bohemian, and a
+translation of Kestenbaum, chestnut tree, both Jewish names.  The
+Becks and Bowmans of New York outnumber those of London by about five
+to one, the first being for Beck, baker (Chapter XV), and the second
+for Baumann, equivalent to Bauer, farmer.  Bardsley explains the
+common American name Arrison by the fact that there are Cockneys in
+America.  It comes of course from Arend, a Dutch name related to
+Arnold.
+
+"A remarkable record in changes of surname was cited some years ago by
+an American correspondent of Notes and Queries.  'The changes which
+befell a resident of New Orleans were that when he moved from an
+American quarter to a German neighbourhood his name of Flint became
+Feuerstein, which for convenience was shortened to Stein.  Upon his
+removal to a French district he was re-christened Pierre.  Hence upon
+his return to an English neighbourhood he was translated into Peters,
+and his first neighbours were surprised and puzzled to find Flint
+turned Peters.'"
+
+(Daily Chronicle, April 4, 1913.)]
+
+
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES
+
+Names like Beard, Chinn, Tooth were conferred because of some
+prominent feature.  In Anglo-French we find Gernon, moustache, now
+corrupted to Garnham, and also al gernon, with the moustache, which
+has become Algernon.  But we have already seen (Chapter XIII) that
+some names which appear to belong to this class are of local origin.
+So also Tongue is derived from one of several places named Tong or
+Tonge, though the ultimate origin is perhaps in some cases the same, a
+"tongue" of land.  Quartermain is for Quatre-mains, perhaps bestowed
+on a very acquisitive person; Joscius Quatre-buches, four mouths, and
+Roger Tunekes, two necks, were alive in the twelfth century; and there
+is record of a Saracen champion named Quinze-paumes, though this is
+perhaps rather a measure of height.  Cheek I conjecture to be for
+Chick.  The odd-looking Kidney is apparently Irish.  There is a rare
+name Poindexter, appearing in French as Poingdestre, "right fist."
+[Footnote: President Poincare's name appears to mean "square fist."]
+I have seen it explained as from the heraldic term point dexter, but
+it is rather to be taken literally.  I find Johannes cum pugno in
+1184, and we can imagine that such a name may have been conferred on a
+medieval bruiser.  There is also the possibility, considering the
+brutality of many old nicknames, that the bearer of the name had been
+judicially deprived of his right hand, a very common punishment,
+especially for striking a feudal superior.  Thus Renaut de Montauban,
+finding that his unknown opponent is Charlemagne, exclaims--
+
+"J'ai forfait le poing destre dont je l'ai adese (struck)."
+
+We have some nicknames describing gait, e.g. Ambler and Shaylor--
+
+"I shayle, as a man or horse dothe that gothe croked with his leggs,
+je vas eschays" (Palsgrave)--
+
+and perhaps sometimes Trotter.  If George Eliot had been a student of
+surnames she would hardly have named a heroine Nancy Lammiter, i.e.
+cripple--
+
+"Though ye may think him a lamiter, yet, grippie for grippie, he'll
+make the bluid spin frae under your nails" (Black Dwarf, ch. xvii.).
+
+Pettigrew and Pettifer are of French origin, pied de grue (crane) and
+pied de fer.  The former is the origin of the word pedigree, from a
+sign used in drawing genealogical trees.  The Buckinghamshire name
+Puddifoot or Puddephatt (Podefat, 1273) and the aristocratic
+Pauncefote are unsolved.  The former may be a corruption of Pettifer,
+which occurs commonly, along with the intermediate Puddifer, in the
+same county.  But the English Dialect Dictionary gives as an obsolete
+Northants word the adjective puddy, stumpy, pudgy, applied especially
+to hands, fingers, etc., and Pudito (puddy toe) occurs as a surname in
+the Hundred Rolls.  As for Pauncefote, I believe it simply means what
+it appears to, viz. "belly-foot," a curious formation, though not
+without parallels, among obsolete rustic nicknames.  If these two
+conjectures are correct, both Puddifoot and Pauncefote may be almost
+literal equivalents of the Greek OEdipus, i.e. "swell-foot."
+
+In other languages as well as English we find money nicknames.  It is
+easy to understand how some of these come into existence, e.g. that
+Pierce.  Pennilesse was the opposite of Thomas Thousandpound, whose
+name occurs c. 1300.  With the latter we may compare Fr. Centlivre,
+the name of an English lady dramatist of the eighteenth century.
+Moneypenny is found in 1273 as Manipeni, and a Londoner named Manypeny
+died in 1348.  The Money- is partly north country, partly imitative.
+
+Money itself is usually occupative or local (Chapter XVII), and
+Shilling is the Anglo-Saxon name Scilling.  The oldest and commonest
+of such nicknames is the simple Penny, with which we may compare the
+German surname Pfennig and its compounds Barpfennig, Weisspfennig,
+etc.  The early adoption of this coin-name as a personal name is due
+to the fact that the word was taken in the sense of money in general.
+We still speak of a rich man as "worth a pretty penny." Hallmark is
+folk-etymology for the medieval Half-mark.  Such medieval names as
+Four-pence, Twenty-mark, etc., probably now obsolete, are paralleled
+by Fr. Quatresous and Sixdenier, still to be found in the Paris
+Directory.  It would be easy to form conjectures as to the various
+ways in which such names may have come into existence.  To the same
+class must belong Besant, the name of a coin from Byzantium, its
+foreign origin giving it a dignity which is absent from the native
+Farthing and Halfpenny, though the latter, in one instance, was
+improved beyond recognition into MacAlpine.
+
+
+
+IMPRECATIONS
+
+There is also a small group of surnames derived from oaths or
+exclamations which by habitual use became associated with certain
+individuals.  We know that monarchs had a special tendency to indulge
+in a favourite expletive.  To Roger de Collerye we owe some
+information as to the imprecations preferred by four French kings--
+
+"Quand la Pasque-Dieu (Louis XI.) deceda,
+ Le Bon Jour Dieu (Charles VIII.) luy succeda,
+ Au Bon Jour Dieu deffunct et mort
+ Succeda le Dyable m'emport (Louis XII).
+ Luy decede, nous voyons comme
+ Nous duist (governs) la Foy de Gentilhomme (Francis I.)."
+
+So important was this branch of linguistics once considered that
+Palsgrave, the French tutor of Princess Mary Tudor, includes in his
+Esclarcissement de la Langue Francoyse a section on "The Maners of
+Cursyng." Among the examples are "Le grant diable luy rompe le col et
+les deux jambes," "Le diable l'emporte, corps et ame, tripes et
+boyaux," which were unfortunately too long for surname purposes, but
+an abridged form of "Le feu Saint Anthoyne l'arde" [Footnote: Saint
+Anthony's fire, i.e. erysipelas, burn him!] has given the French name
+Feulard.  Such names, usually containing the name of God, e.g.
+Godmefetch, Helpusgod, have mostly disappeared in this country; but
+Dieuleveut and Dieumegard are still found in Paris, and Gottbehuet, God
+forbid, and Gotthelf, God help, occur in German.  Godbehere still
+exists, and there is not the slightest reason why it should not be of
+the origin which its form indicates.  In Gracedieu, thanks to God, the
+second element is an Old French dative.  Pardoe, Purdue, whence
+Purdey, is for par Dieu--
+
+"I have a wyf pardee, as wel as thow" (A, 3158).
+
+There is a well-known professional footballer named Mordue ('sdeath),
+and a French composer named Boieldieu (God's bowels).  The French
+nickname for an Englishman, goddam--
+
+"Those syllables intense,
+ Nucleus of England's native eloquence"
+
+(Byron, The Island, iii. 5)--
+
+goes back to the fifteenth century, in which invective references to
+the godons are numerous.  [Footnote: "Les Anglais en verite ajoutent
+par-ci, par-la quelques autres mots en conversant; mais il est bien
+aise de voir que goddam est le fond de la langue" (Beaumarchais,
+Mariage de Figaro, iii.  5).]
+
+Such nicknames are still in common use in some parts of France--
+
+"Les Berrichons se designent souvent par le juron qui leur est
+familier.  Ainsi ils diront: 'Diable me brule est bien malade.  Nom
+d'un rat est a la foire.  La femme a Diable m'estrangouille est morte.
+Le garcon a Bon You (Dieu) se marie avec la fille a Dieu me confonde.'"
+
+(Nyrop, Grammaire historique de la langue francaise, iv. 209).
+
+
+
+PHRASE-NAMES
+
+Perhaps the most interesting group of nicknames is that of which we
+may take Shakespeare as the type.  Incidentally we should be thankful
+that our greatest poet bore a name so much more picturesque than
+Corneille, crow, or Racine, root.  It is agreed among all competent
+scholars that in compounds of this formation the verb was originally
+an imperative.  This is shown by the form; cf. ne'er-do-well, Fr.
+vaurien, Ger. Taugenichts, good-for-naught.  Thus Hasluck cannot
+belong to this class, but must be an imitative form of the personal
+name Aslac, which we find in Aslockton.
+
+As Bardsley well says, it is impossible to retail all the nonsense
+that has been written about the name Shakespeare--"never a name in
+English nomenclature so simple or so certain in its origin; it is
+exactly what it looks--shake-spear."  The equivalent Schuettespeer is
+found in German, and we have also in English Shakeshaft, Waghorn,
+Wagstaff, Breakspear, Winspear.  "Winship the mariner" was a freeman
+of York in the fourteenth century.  Cf. Benbow (bend-bow), Hurlbatt,
+and the less athletic Lovejoy, Makepeace.  Gathergood and its opposite
+Scattergood are of similar origin, good having here the sense of
+goods.  Dogood is sometimes for Toogood, and the latter may be, like
+Thoroughgood, an imitative form of Thurgod (Chapter VII); but both
+names may also be taken literally, for we find Ger. Thunichtgut, do no
+good, and Fr. Trodoux (trop doux).
+
+As a pendant to Dolittle we find a medieval Hack-little, no doubt a
+lazy wood-cutter, while virtue is represented by a twelfth-century
+Tire-little.  Sherwin represents the medieval Schere-wynd, applied to
+a swift runner; cf. Ger. Schneidewind, cut wind, and Fr. Tranchevent.
+A nurseryman at Highgate has the appropriate name Cutbush, the French
+equivalent of which, Taillebois, has given us Tallboys; and a famous
+herbalist was named Culpepper.  In Gathercole the second element may
+mean cabbage or charcoal.  In one case, Horniblow for horn-blow, the
+verb comes after its object.
+
+Names of this formation are very common in Mid. English as in Old
+French, and often bear witness to a violent or brutal nature.  Thus
+Scorch-beef, which is found in the Hundred Rolls, has no connection
+with careless cookery; it is Old Fr. escorche (ecorche) -buef, flay
+ox, a name given to some medieval "Skin-the-goat."  Catchpole (Chapter
+XX) is formed in the same way, and in French we find, applied to law
+officials, the surnames Baillehart, give halter, [Footnote: Bailler,
+the usual Old French for to give, is still used colloquially and in
+dialect.]  and Baillehache, give axe, the latter still appropriately
+borne, as Bailhache, by an English judge.
+
+It has sometimes been assumed that most names of this class are due to
+folk-etymology.  The frequency of their occurrence in Mid. English and
+in continental languages makes it certain that the contrary is the
+case and that many surnames of obscure origin are perversions of this
+very large and popular class.  I have seen it stated somewhere that
+Shakespeare is a corruption of an Old French name Sacquespee,
+[Footnote: Of common occurrence in Mid. English records.]  the
+theorist being apparently unable to see that this latter, meaning
+draw-sword, is merely an additional argument, if such were needed, for
+the literal interpretation of the English name.  [Footnote: In one
+day's reading I came across the following Mid. English names:
+Baillebien (give good), Baysedame (kiss lady), Esveillechien (wake
+dog), Lievelance (raise lance), Metlefrein (put the bridle),
+Tracepurcel (track hog), Turnecotel (turn coat), together with the
+native Cachehare and Hoppeschort.]
+
+Tredgold seems to have been conferred on some medieval stoic, for we
+find also Spurnegold.  Without pinning our faith to any particular
+anecdote, we need have no hesitation in accepting Turnbull as a
+sobriquet conferred for some feat of strength and daring on a stalwart
+Borderer.  We find the corresponding Tornebeuf in Old French, and
+Turnbuck also occurs.  Trumbull and Trumble are variants due to
+metathesis followed by assimilation (Chapter III), while Tremble is a
+very degenerate form.  In Knatchbull we have the obsolete verb knatch,
+which in Mid. English meant to strike on the head, fell.  Crawcour is
+Fr. Crevecoeur, breakheart, which has also become a local name in
+France.  With Shacklock, shake-lock, and Sherlock, Shurlock,
+shear-lock, we may compare Robin Hood's comrade Scathelock, though the
+precise interpretation of all three names is difficult.  Rackstraw,
+rake-straw, corresponds to Fr. Grattepaille.  Golightly means much the
+same as Lightfoot (Chapter XIII), nor need we hesitate to regard the
+John Gotobed  who lived in Cambridgeshire in 1273 as a notorious
+sluggard compared with whom his neighbour Serl Gotokirke was a shining
+example.  [Footnote: The name is still found in the same county.
+Undergraduates contemporary with the author occasionally slaked their
+thirst at a riverside inn kept by Bathsheba Gotobed.]
+
+Telfer is Fr. Taillefer, the iron cleaver, and Henry II.'s yacht
+captain was Alan Trenchemer, the sea cleaver.  He had a contemporary
+named Ventados, wind abaft.
+
+Slocomb has assumed a local aspect, but may very well correspond to
+Fr. Tardif or Ger. Muehsam, applied to some Weary Willie of the Middle
+Ages.  Doubtfire is a misspelling of Dout-fire, from the dialect dout,
+to extinguish (do out), formed like don and doff.  Fullalove, which
+does not belong to the same formation, is also found as Plein d'amour--
+
+"Of Sir Lybeux and Pleyndamour" (B, 2090)--
+
+and corresponds to Ger. Liebevoll.  Waddilove actually occurs in the
+Hundred Rolls as Wade-in-love, presumably a nickname conferred on some
+medieval Don Juan.
+
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS
+
+There is one curious little group of nicknames which seem to
+correspond to such Latin names as Piso, from pisum, a pea, and Cicero,
+from cicer--
+
+"Cicer, a small pulse, lesse than pease" (Cooper).
+
+Such are Barleycorn and Peppercorn, the former found in French as
+Graindorge.  The rather romantic names Avenel and Peverel seem to be
+of similar formation, from Lat. avena, oats, and piper, pepper.  In
+fact Peverel is found in Domesday as Piperellus, and Pepperell still
+exists.  With these may be mentioned Carbonel, corresponding to the
+French surname Charbonneau, a little coal.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII. ADJECTIVAL NICKNAMES
+
+"The man replied that he did not know the object of the building; and
+to make it quite manifest that he really did not know, he put an
+adjective before the word 'object,' and another--that is, the
+same--before the word 'building.' With that he passed on his way, and
+Lord Jocelyn was left marvelling at the slender resources of our
+language, which makes one adjective do duty for so many
+qualifications."
+
+(BESANT, All Sorts and Conditions of Men, ch. xxxviii.)
+
+The rejection by the British workman of all adjectives but one is due
+to the same imaginative poverty which makes the adjective "nice"
+supreme in refined circles, and which limits the schoolgirl to
+"ripping" and her more self-conscious brother to the tempered
+"decent." But dozens of useful adjectives, now either obsolete or
+banished to rustic dialect, are found among our surnames.  The
+tendency to accompany every noun by an adjective seems to belong to
+some deep-rooted human instinct.  To this is partly due the Protean
+character of this part of speech, for the word, like the coin, becomes
+dulled and worn in circulation and needs periodically to be withdrawn
+and replaced.  An epithet which is complimentary in one generation is
+ironical in the next and eventually offensive.  Moody, with its
+northern form Mudie, which now means morose, was once valiant (Chapter
+I); and pert, surviving in the name Peart, meant active, brisk, etc.--
+
+"Awake the pert and nimble spirit of mirth."
+
+(Midsummer Night's Dream, i. 1.)
+
+
+
+ARCHAIC MEANINGS
+
+To interpret an adjectival nickname we must go to its meaning in
+Chaucer and his contemporaries.  Silly, Seeley, Seely
+
+"This sely, innocent Custance" (B, 682)--
+
+still means innocent when we speak of the "silly sheep," and happy in
+the phrase "silly Suffolk." It is cognate with Ger. selig, blessed,
+often used in speaking of the dead.  We have compounds in Sillilant,
+simple child (Chapter X), and Selibarn.  Seely was also used for Cecil
+or Cecilia.  Sadd was once sedate and steadfast
+
+"But thogh this mayde tendre were of age,
+ Yet in the brest of hire virginitee
+ Ther was enclosed rype and sad corage"
+
+(E, 218);
+
+and as late as 1660 we find a book in defence of Charles I. described
+as--
+
+"A sad and impartial inquiry whether the King or Parliament began the
+war."
+
+Stout, valiant, now used euphemistically for fat, is cognate with Ger.
+stolz, proud, and possibly with Lat. stultus, foolish.  The three
+ideas are not incompatible, for fools are notoriously proud of their
+folly and are said to be less subject to fear than the angels.
+Sturdy, Sturdee, once meant rebellious, pig-headed--
+
+"Sturdy, unbuxum, rebellis, contumax, inobediens."  (Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Cotgrave offers a much wider choice for the French original--
+
+"Estourdi (etourdi), dulled, amazed, astonished, dizzie-headed, or
+whose head seemes very much troubled; (hence) also, heedlesse,
+inconsiderate, unadvised, witlesse, uncircumspect, rash, retchlesse,
+or carelesse; and sottish, blockish, lumpish, lusk-like, without life,
+metall, spirit"
+
+Sly and its variant Sleigh have degenerated in the same way as crafty
+and cunning, both of which once meant skilled.  Chaucer calls the
+wings of Daedalus "his playes slye," i.e. his ingenious contrivances.
+Quick meant alert, lively, as in "the quick and the dead." Slight,
+cognate with Ger. schlecht, bad, once meant plain or simple.
+
+Many adjectives which are quite obsolete in literary English survive
+as surnames.  Mid. Eng. Lyle has been supplanted by its derivative
+Little, the opposite pair surviving as Mutch and Mickle.  The poor
+parson did not fail--
+
+"In siknesse nor in meschief to visite
+ The ferreste in his parisshe, muche and lyte."
+
+(A, 493.)
+
+We have for Lyte also the imitative Light; cf. Lightwood.  With Little
+may be mentioned Murch, an obsolete word for dwarf--
+
+"Murch, lytyl man, nanus."
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Lenain is a fairly common name in France.  Snell, swift or valiant,
+had become a personal name in Anglo-Saxon, but we find le snel in the
+Middle Ages.  Freake, Frick, also meant valiant or warrior--
+
+"Ther was no freke that ther wolde flye"
+
+(Chevy Chase);
+
+but the Promptorium Parvulorum makes it equivalent to Craske (Chapter
+XXII)--
+
+"Fryke, or craske, in grete helth, crassus."
+
+It is cognate with Ger. frech, which now means impudent.  Nott has
+already been mentioned (Chapter II).  Of the Yeoman we are told--
+
+"A not hed hadde he, with a broun visage."
+
+(A, 109.)
+
+Stark, cognate with starch, now usually means stiff, rather than
+strong--
+
+"I feele my lymes stark and suffisaunt
+ To do al that a man bilongeth to."
+
+(E, 1458.)
+
+
+
+DISGUISED SPELLINGS
+
+But Stark is also for an earlier Sterk (cf. Clark and Clerk), which
+represents Mid. Eng. stirk, a heifer.  In the cow with the crumpled
+horn we have a derivative of Mid. Eng. crum, crooked, whence the names
+Crum and Crump.  Ludwig's German Dict. (1715) explains krumm as
+"crump, crooked, wry." The name Crook generally has the same meaning,
+the Ger. Krummbein corresponding to our Cruikshank or Crookshanks.  It
+is possible that Glegg and Gleig are Mid. Eng. gleg, skilful, of
+Scand. origin.
+
+There are some adjectival surnames which are not immediately
+recognizable.  Bolt, when not local (Chapter XIII) is for bold, Leaf
+is imitative for lief, i.e. dear.  Dear itself is of course hopelessly
+mixed up with Deer...  The timorous-looking Fear is Fr. le fier, the
+proud or fierce.  Skey is an old form of shy; Bligh is for Blyth;
+Hendy and Henty are related to handy, and had in Mid. English the
+sense of helpful, courteous--
+
+"Oure hoost tho spak, 'A, sire, ye sholde be hende
+ And curteys, as a man of youre estat.'"
+
+(D, 1286.)
+
+For Savage we find also the archaic spelling Salvage (Lat.
+silvaticus).  Curtis is Norman Fr. curteis (courtois).  The adjective
+garish, now only poetical, but once commonly applied to gaudiness in
+dress, has given Gerrish.  Quaint, which has so many meanings
+intermediate between its etymological sense of known or familiar (Lat.
+cognitus) and its present sense of unusual or unfamiliar, survives as
+Quint.  But Coy is usually local, from Quy (Cambridgeshire).
+
+Orpwood is a corruption of Mid. Eng. orped, bold, warlike.  Craske is
+an East Anglian word for fat, and Crouse is used in the north for
+sprightly, confident.  To these we may add Ketch, Kedge, Gedge, from
+an East Anglian adjective meaning lively--
+
+"Kygge, or joly, jocundus" (Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and Spragg, etymologically akin to Spry.  Bragg was once used for bold
+or brave, without any uncomplimentary suggestion.  The New English
+Dictionary quotes (c. 1310) from a lyric poem--
+
+"That maketh us so brag and bolde
+ And biddeth us ben blythe."
+
+Crease is a West-country word for squeamish, but the East Anglian name
+Creasey, Cressy, is usually for the local Kersey (Suffolk).  The only
+solution of Pratt is that it is Anglo-Sax. praett, cunning, adopted
+early as a personal name, while Storr, of Scandinavian origin, means
+big, strong.  It is cognate with Steer, a bull.  Devey and Dombey seem
+to be diminutive forms of deaf and dumb, still used in dialect in
+reference to persons thus afflicted.  We find in French and German
+surnames corresponding to these very natural nicknames.  Cf. Crombie
+from Crum (Chapter XXII).
+
+
+
+FRENCH ADJECTIVES
+
+A large proportion of our adjectival nicknames are of French origin.
+Le bel appears not only as Bell but also, through Picard, as Beal.
+Other examples are Boon, Bone, Bunn (bon), Grant (grand), Bass (bas)
+and its derivative Bassett, Dasent (decent), Follett and Folliott,
+dim. of fol (fou), mad, which also appears in the compound Foljambe,
+Fulljames.
+
+Mordaunt means biting.  Power is generally Anglo-Fr. le poure (le
+pauvre) and Grace is for le gras, the fat.  Jolige represents the Old
+French form of joli--
+
+"This Absolon, that jolif was and gay,
+ Gooth with a sencer (censer) on the haliday."
+
+(A, 3339.)
+
+Prynne, now Pring, is Anglo-Fr. le prin, the first, from the Old
+French adjective which survives in printemps.  Cf. our name Prime and
+the French name Premier.  The Old French adjective Gent, now replaced
+by gentil, generally means slender in Mid. English--
+
+"Fair was this yonge wyf, and therwithal
+ As any wezele hir body gent and smal."
+
+(A, 3233)
+
+Petty and Pettit are variant forms of Fr. petit, small.  In Prowse and
+Prout we have the nominative and objective (Chapter I) of an Old
+French adjective now represented by preux and prude, generally thought
+to be related in some way to Lat. pro in prosum, and perhaps also the
+source of our Proud.
+
+Gross is of course Fr. le gros, but Grote represents Du. groot, great,
+probably unconnected with the French word.  The Devonshire name
+Coffin, which is found in that county in the twelfth century, is the
+same as Caffyn, perhaps representing Fr. Chauvin, bald, the name of
+the theologian whom we know better in the latinized form Calvin.  Here
+belongs probably Shovel, Fr. Chauvel.  We also have the simple Chaffe,
+Old Fr. chauf (chauve), bald.  Gaylard, sometimes made into the
+imitative Gaylord, is Fr. gaillard, brisk, lively
+
+"Gaillard he was as goldfynch in the shawe."
+
+(A, 4367.)
+
+
+
+COLOUR NAMES
+
+Especially common are colour nicknames, generally due to the
+complexion, but sometimes to the garb.  As we have already seen
+(Chapter XV), Black and its variant Blake sometimes mean pale.  Blagg
+is the same word; cf. Jagg for Jack.  White has no doubt been
+reinforced by wight, valiant
+
+"Oh for one hour of Wallace wight
+ Or well-skilled Bruce to rule the fight."
+
+(Marmion, vi.  20.)
+
+As an epithet applied to the hair we often find Hoar; cf. Horlock.
+Redd is rare, the usual forms being the northern Reid, Reed, Read; but
+we also have Rudd from Anglo-Sax. rud, whence ruddy and the name
+Ruddock, really a bird nickname, the redbreast.  To these must be
+added Rudge, Fr. rouge, Rouse, Rush and Russ, Fr, roux, and Russell or
+Rowsell, Old Fr. roussel (Rousseau).  The commonest nickname for a
+fair-haired person was Blunt, Blount, Fr. blond, with its dim.
+Blundell, but the true English name is Fairfax, from Anglo-Sax. feax,
+hair.  The New English Dictionary quotes from the fifteenth century
+
+"Then they lowsyd hur feyre faxe,
+ That was yelowe as the waxe."
+
+The adjective dun was once a regular name, like Dobbin or Dapple, for
+a cart-horse; hence the name of the old rural sport "Dun in the mire"--
+
+"If thou art dun we'll draw thee from the mire." (Romeo and Juliet, i.
+4.)
+
+It is possible that the name Dunn is sometimes due to this specific
+application of the word.  The colour blue appears as Blew--
+
+"At last he rose, and twitch'd his mantle blew:
+ To-morrow to fresh woods and pastures new"
+
+(Lycidas, 1.  192)--
+
+and earlier still as Blow--
+
+"Blak, blo, grenysh, swartysh, reed."
+
+(House of Fame, iii.  557.)
+
+Other colour names of French origin are Morel, swarthy, like a Moor,
+also found as Murrell [Footnote: This, like Merrill, is sometimes from
+Muriel.]; and Burnell, Burnett, dims.  of brun, brown.  Chaucer speaks
+of--
+
+"Daun Burnet the asse" (B, 4502);
+
+[Footnote: Lat. dominus; the masculine form of dame in Old French.]
+
+"Daun Russel the fox" (B, 4524.)
+
+But both Burnell and Burnett may also be local from places ending in
+-hill and -head (), and Burnett is sometimes for Burnard.  The same
+applies to Burrell, usually taken to be from Mid. Eng. borel, a rough
+material, Old Fr. burel (bureau), also used metaphorically in the
+sense of plain, uneducated
+
+"And moore we seen of Cristes secree thynges
+ Than burel folk, al though they weren kynges."
+
+(D, 1871.)
+
+The name can equally well be the local Burhill or Burwell.
+
+Murray is too common to be referred entirely to the Scottish name and
+is sometimes for murrey, dark red (Fr. mure, mulberry).  It may also
+represent merry, in its variant form murie, which is Mid. English, and
+not, as might appear, Amurrican--
+
+"His murie men comanded he
+ To make hym bothe game and glee."
+
+(B, 2029.)
+
+Pook, of uncertain origin, is supposed to have been a dark russet
+colour.  Bayard, a derivative of bay, was the name of several famous
+war-horses.  Cf. Blank and Blanchard.  The name Soar is from the Old
+French adjective sor, bright yellow.  It is of Germanic origin and
+cognate with sere.
+
+The dim. Sorrel may be a colour name, but it was applied in venery to
+a buck in the third year, of course in reference to colour; and some
+of our names, e.g. Brocket and Prickett, [Footnote: Both words are
+connected with the spiky young horns, Fr. broche, spit, being applied
+in venery to the pointed horns of the second year.]  both applied to a
+two-year-old stag, must sometimes be referred to this important
+department of medieval language.  Holofernes uses some of these terms
+in his idiotic verses
+
+"The preyful princess pierc'd and prick'd a pretty pleasing priket;
+ Some say a sore; but not a sore, till now made sore with shooting.
+ The dogs did yell; put l to sore, then sorel jumps from thicket."
+
+(Love's Labour's Lost, iv. 2.)
+
+A few adjective nicknames of Celtic origin are so common in England
+that they may be included here.  Such are the Welsh Gough, Goff,
+Gooch, Gutch, red, Gwynn and Wynne, white, Lloyd, grey, Sayce, Saxon,
+foreigner, Vaughan, small, and the Gaelic Bain, Bean, white, Boyd,
+Bowie, yellow-haired, Dow, Duff, black, Finn, fair, Glass, grey, Roy,
+Roe, red.  From Cornish come Coad, old, and Couch, [Footnote: Cognate
+with Welsh Gough.]  red, while Bean is the Cornish for small, and
+Tyacke means a farmer.  It is likely that both Begg and Moore owe
+something to the Gaelic adjectives for little and big, as in the
+well-known names of Callum Beg, Edward Waverley's gillie, and McCallum
+More.  The Gaelic Begg is cognate with the Welsh Vaughan.  Two other
+famous Highland nicknames which are very familiar in England are
+Cameron, crooked nose, and Campbell, wry mouth.  With these may be
+mentioned the Irish Kennedy, ugly head, the name of the father of
+Brian Boru.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND FISHES
+
+"As I think I have already said, one of Umslopogaas'
+ Zulu names was The Woodpecker."
+
+(HAGGARD, Allan Quatermain, ch. vii.)
+
+The great majority of nicknames coming under the headings typified by
+Bird and Fowell, Best, and Fish or Fisk (Scand.) are easily
+identified.  But here, as everywhere in the subject, pitfalls abound.
+The name Best itself is an example of a now misleading spelling
+retained for obvious reasons--
+
+"First, on the wal was peynted a forest,
+ In which ther dwelleth neither man nor best."
+
+(A, 1976.)
+
+We do not find exotic animals, nor even the beasts of heraldry, at all
+frequently.  Leppard, leopard, is in some cases for the Ger. Liebhart;
+and Griffin, when not Welsh, should no doubt be included among
+inn-signs.  Oliphant, i.e. elephant--
+
+"For maystow surmounten thise olifauntes in gretnesse or weighte of
+body" (Boece, 782)--
+
+may be a genuine nickname, but Roland's ivory horn was also called by
+this name, and the surname may go back to some legendary connection of
+the same kind.  Bear is not uncommon, captive bears being familiar to
+a period in which the title bear-ward is frequently met with.
+
+It is possible that Drake may sometimes represent Anglo-Sax. draca,
+dragon, rather than the bird, but the latter is unmistakable in
+Sheldrick, for sheldrake.  As a rule, animal nicknames were taken
+rather from the domestic species with which the peasantry were
+familiar and whose habits would readily suggest comparisons, generally
+disparaging, with those of their neighbours.
+
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+Bird names are especially common, and it does not need much
+imagination to see how readily and naturally a man might be nicknamed
+Hawke for his fierceness, Crowe from a gloomy aspect, or Nightingale
+for the gift of sweet song.  Many of these surnames go back to words
+which are now either obsolete or found only in dialect.  The peacock
+was once the Poe, an early loan from Lat. pavo, or, more fully, Pocock
+
+"A sheaf of pocok arwes, bright and kene,
+ Under his belt he bar ful thriftily."
+
+(A, 104.)
+
+The name Pay is another form of the same word.  Coe, whence Hedgecoe,
+is an old name for the jackdaw--
+
+"Cadow, or coo, or chogh (chough), monedula" (Prompt. Parv.)--
+
+but may also stand for cow, as we find, in defiance of gender and sex,
+such entries as Robert le cow, William le vache.  Those birds which
+have now assumed a font-name, such as Jack daw, Mag pie, of course
+occur without it as surnames, e.g. Daw and Pye--
+
+"The thief the chough, and eek the jangelyng pye" (Parliament of
+Fowls, 305).
+
+The latter has a dim. Pyatt.
+
+Rainbird is a local name for the green woodpecker, but as an
+East-Anglian name it is most likely an imitative form of Fr. Rimbaud
+or Raimbaud, identical with Anglo-Sax. Regenbeald.  Knott is the name
+of a bird which frequents the sea-shore and, mindful of Cnut's wisdom,
+retreats nimbly before the advancing surf--
+
+"The knot that called was Canutus' bird of old."
+
+(Drayton, Polyolbion, xxv. 368.)
+
+This historical connection is most probably due to folk-etymology.
+Titmus is of course for tit-mouse.  Dialect names for the woodpecker
+survive in Speight, Speke, and Spick, Pick (Chapter III).  The same
+bird was also called woodwall--
+
+"In many places were nyghtyngales,
+ Alpes, fynches, and wodewales"
+
+(Romaunt of the Rose, 567)--
+
+hence, in some cases, the name Woodall.  The Alpe, or bullfinch,
+mentioned in the above lines, also survives as a surname.  Dunnock and
+Pinnock are dialect names for the sparrow.  It was called in
+Anglo-Norman muisson, whence Musson.  Starling is a dim. of Mid. Eng.
+stare, which has itself given the surname Starr
+
+"The stare, that the counseyl can be-wrye." (Parliament of Fowls,
+348.)
+
+Heron is the French form of the bird-name which was in English Herne--
+
+"I come from haunts of coot and hern." (Tennyson, The Brook, 1.  1.)
+
+The Old French dim. heronceau also passed into English--
+
+"I wol nat tellen of hir strange sewes (courses),
+ Ne of hir swannes, ne of hire heronsewes."
+
+(F, 67.)
+
+As a surname it has been assimilated to the local, and partly
+identical, Hearnshaw (Chapter XII).  Some commentators go to this word
+to explain Hamlet's use of handsaw--
+
+"I am but mad north-north-west: when the wind is southerly,
+ I know a hawk from a handsaw" (Hamlet, ii.  2).
+
+When the author's father was a boy in Suffolk eighty years ago, the
+local name for the bird was pronounced exactly like answer.  Grew is
+Fr. grue, crane, Lat. grus, gru-.  Butter, Fr. butor, "a bittor"
+(Cotgrave), is a dialect name for the bittern, called a "butter-bump"
+by Tennyson's Northern Farmer (1.  31).  Culver is Anglo-Sax. culfre,
+a pigeon--
+
+"Columba, a culver, a dove"
+
+(Cooper)--
+
+hence the local Culverhouse.  Dove often becomes Duff.  Gaunt is
+sometimes a dialect form of gannet, used in Lincolnshire of the
+crested grebe.  Popjoy may have been applied to the successful archer
+who became king of the popinjay for the year.  The derivation of the
+word, Old Fr. papegai, whence Mid. Eng. papejay--
+
+"The briddes synge, it is no nay,
+ The sparhawk and the papejay,
+That joye it was to heere"
+
+(B, 1956)--
+
+is obscure, though various forms of it are found in most of the
+European languages.  In English it was applied not only to the parrot,
+but also to the green woodpecker.  The London Directory form is
+Pobgee.
+
+With bird nicknames may be mentioned Callow, unfledged, cognate with
+Lat. calvus, bald.  Its opposite also survives as Fleck and Flick--
+
+"Flygge, as byrdis, maturus, volabilis."
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+Margaret Paston, writing (1460) of the revived hopes of Henry VI.,
+says--
+
+"Now he and alle his olde felawship put owt their fynnes, and arn
+ryght flygge and mery."
+
+
+
+HAWK NAMES
+
+We have naturally a set of names taken from the various species of
+falcons.  To this class belongs Haggard, probably related to
+Anglo-Sax. haga, hedge, and used of a hawk which had acquired
+incurable habits of wildness by preying for itself.  But Haggard is
+also a personal name (Chapter VIII).  Spark, earlier Sparhawk, is the
+sparrow-hawk.  It is found already in Anglo-Saxon as a personal name,
+and the full Sparrowhawk also exists.  Tassell is a corruption of
+tiercel, a name given to the male peregrine, so termed, according to
+the legendary lore of venery--
+
+"Because he is, commonly, a third part lesse than the female."
+(Cotgrave, )
+
+Juliet calls Romeo her "tassell gentle" (ii.  2).  Muskett was a name
+given to the male sparrow-hawk.
+
+"Musket, a lytell hauke, mouchet."  (Palsgrave.)
+
+Mushet is the same name.  It comes from Ital. moschetto, a little fly.
+For its later application to a firearm cf. falconet.  Other names of
+the hawk class are Buzzard and Puttock, i.e. kite--
+
+"Milan, a kite, puttock, glead"
+
+(Cotgrave);
+
+and to the same bird we owe the name Gleed, from a Scandinavian name
+for the bird
+
+"And the glede, and the kite, and the vulture after his kind." (Deut.
+xiv. 13.)
+
+To this class also belongs Ramage--
+
+"Ramage, of, or belonging to, branches; also, ramage, hagard, wild,
+homely, rude"
+
+(Cotgrave)--
+
+and sometimes Lennard, an imitative form of "lanner," the name of an
+inferior hawk--
+
+"Falcunculus, a leonard."
+
+(Holyoak, Lat. Dict., 1612.)
+
+Povey is a dialect name for the owl, a bird otherwise absent from the
+surname list.
+
+
+
+BEASTS
+
+Among beast nicknames we find special attention given, as in modern
+vituperation, to the swine, although we do not find this true English
+word, unless it be occasionally disguised as Swain.  Hogg does not
+belong exclusively to this class, as it is used in dialect both of a
+young sheep and a yearling colt.  Anglo-Sax. sugu, sow, survives in
+Sugg.  Purcell is Old Fr. pourcel (pourceau), dim. of Lat. porcus, and
+I take Pockett to be a disguised form of the obsolete porket--
+
+"Porculus, a pygg: a shoote: a porkes."
+
+(Cooper.)
+
+The word shoote in the above gloss is now the dialect shot, a young
+pig, which may have given the surname Shott.  But Scutt is from a Mid.
+English adjective meaning short--
+
+"Scute, or shorte, curtus, brevis"
+
+(Prompt.  Parv.)--
+
+and is also an old name for the hare.  Two other names for the pig are
+the northern Galt and the Lincolnshire Grice--
+
+"Marcassin, a young wild boare; a shoot or grice." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Grice also represents le gris, the grey; cf. Grace for le gras
+(Chapter XXII).  Bacon looks like a nickname, but is invariably found
+without the article.  As it is common in French, it would appear to be
+an Old French accusative to Back, going back to Germanic Bacco
+(Chapter XIII).  Hinks is Mid. Eng. hengst, a stallion, and is thus
+identical with Hengist (Chapter XX).  Stott means both a bullock and a
+nag (Chapter XIX).
+
+Everyone remembers Wamba's sage disquisition on the names of animals
+in the first chapter of Ivanhoe.  Like much of Scott's archaeology it
+is somewhat anachronistic, for the live animals were also called veals
+and muttons for centuries after Wamba's death
+
+"Mouton, a mutton, a weather"; "veau, a calfe, or veale." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Calf has become very rare as a surname, though Kalb is still common in
+Germany.  Bardsley regards Duncalf and Metcalf as perverted from
+dun-croft and meadow-croft.  It seems possible that they may be for
+down-calf and mead-calf, from the locality of the pasture, but this is
+a pure guess on my part.  It is curious that beef does not appear to
+have survived, though Leboeuf is common in French, and bullocks are
+still called "beeves" in Scotland.  Tegg is still used by butchers for
+a two-year-old sheep.  Palsgrave gives it another meaning--
+
+"Tegg, or pricket (Chapter XXII), saillant."
+
+Roe is also found in the older forms Rae and Ray, of course confused
+with Wray (Chapter XIII), as Roe itself is with Rowe (Chapter I).  Doe
+often becomes Dowe.  Hind is usually occupative (Chapter III), but Fr.
+Labiche suggests that it must sometimes be a nickname--
+
+"Biche, a hind; the female of a stagge." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Pollard was applied to a beast or stag that had lost its horns--
+
+"He has no horns, sir, has he?
+
+"No, sir, he's a pollard."
+
+(Beaumont and Fletcher, Philaster, v. 4.)
+
+Leverett is certified by the French surname Levrault.  Derivation from
+Lever, Anglo-Sax. Leofhere, whence Levers, Leverson, or Leveson, is
+much less probable, as these Anglo-Saxon names rarely form dims.
+(Chapter VII).  Luttrel is in French Loutrel, perhaps a dim. of
+loutre, otter, Lat. lutra.  From the medieval lutrer or lutrarius,
+otter hunter, we get Lutterer, no doubt confused with the musical
+Luter.
+
+While Catt is fairly common in the eastern counties, Robertus le chien
+and Willelmus le curre, who were living about the end of the twelfth
+century, are now completely disguised as Ken and Kerr.  Modern French
+has both Lechien and the Norman Lequien.  [Footnote: Lekain, the name
+of a famous French actor, has the same origin.]  We owe a few other
+surnames to the friend of man.  Kennett, from a Norman dim. of chien,
+meant greyhound--
+
+"Kenette, hounde, leporarius." (Prompt.  Parv.)
+
+The origin of the name Talbot is unknown, and it is uncertain whether
+the hound or the family should have precedence; but Chaucer seems to
+use it as the proper name of a hound
+
+"Ran Colle our dogge, and Talbot, and Gerland,
+ And Malkyn, with a dystaf in hir hand."
+
+(B, 4573.)
+
+The great Earl of Shrewsbury is affectionately called "Talbot, our
+good dogge" in political rimes of the fifteenth century.
+
+In early dictionaries may be found long lists of the fanciful names,
+such as Bright, Lightfoot, Ranger, Ringwood, Swift, Tempest, given to
+hounds.  This practice seems to throw some light on such surnames as
+Tempest, with which we may compare the German names Storm and Sturm.
+In the Pipe Rolls the name le esturmi, the stormy, occurs several
+times.  To the same class belongs Thunder, found in the Pipe Rolls as
+Tonitruus, and not therefore necessarily a perversion of Tunder, i.e.
+Sherman (Chapter XVIII)--
+
+"Tondeur de draps, a shearman, or clothworker." (Cotgrave.)
+
+Garland, used by Chaucer as a dog's name, was earlier graland, and, as
+le garlaund is also found, it may be referred to Old Fr. grailler, to
+trumpet.  It no doubt has other origins.
+
+We should expect Fox to be strongly represented, and we find the
+compounds Colfox and Stelfox.  The first means black fox--
+
+"A colfox ful of sly iniquitee"
+
+(B, 4405)--
+
+and I conjecture that the first part of Stelfox is connected with
+stealing, as in the medieval name Stele-cat--
+
+"The two constables made a thorough search and found John Stelfox
+hiding behind some bushes.  Some of the jewellery was found upon him"
+
+(Daily Chronicle, June 3, 1913).
+
+In the north a fox is called Tod, whence Todhunter.  This Tod is
+probably a personal name, like the French Renard and the Scottish
+Lawrie or Lowrie, applied to the same animal.  Allan Ramsay calls him
+"slee Tod Lowrie." From the badger we have Brock and sometimes Gray--
+
+Blaireau, a badger, gray, boason, brock (Cotgrave)--
+
+but Badger itself is occupative (Chapter XIX).  The polecat survives
+as Fitch, Fitchett, and Fitchew--
+
+"Fissau, a filch, or fulmart."
+
+(Cotgrave.)
+
+
+
+FISHES
+
+On fish-names Bardsley remarks, "We may quote the famous chapter on
+'Snakes in Iceland': 'There are no snakes in Iceland,' and say there
+are no fish-names in England." This is almost true.  The absence of
+marked traits of character in the, usually invisible, fish would
+militate against the adoption of such names.  We should not expect to
+find the shark to be represented, for the word is of too late
+occurrence.  But Whale is fairly common.  Whale the mariner received
+two pounds from Henry VII's privy purse in 1498.  The story of Jonah,
+or very generous proportions, may have originated the name Whalebelly,
+"borne by a respectable family in south-east England"  (Bardsley).
+
+But there would obviously be no great temptation to go fishing for
+nicknames when the beasts of the farmyard and the forest, the birds of
+the marshes and the air, offered on every side easily understood
+comparisons.  At the same time Bardsley's statement goes a little too
+far.  He explains Gudgeon as a corruption of Goodison.  But this, true
+though it may be in some cases, will not explain the very common
+French surname Goujon.  The phrase "greedy gudgeon" suggests that in
+this case a certain amount of character had been noticed in the fish.
+Sturgeon also seems to be a genuine fish-name.  We find Fr. Lesturgeon
+and Ger. Stoer, both meaning the same.  We have also Smelt and the
+synonymous Spurling.  In French and German we find other surnames
+which undoubtedly belong to this class, but they are not numerous and
+probably at first occurred only in regions where fishing or
+fish-curing were important industries.
+
+A few examples will show that apparent fish-names are usually not
+genuine.  Chubb is for Job (Chapter III), Eeles is one of the numerous
+derivatives of Elias (Chapter IX), Hake is, like Hack, from the
+Scandinavian Hacun, Haddock is sometimes a perversion of the local
+Haydock, Lamprey comes via Old French from Old High Ger. Landprecht,
+which has usually given Lambert.
+
+Pike is local (Chapter XII), Pilchard is for Pilcher (Chapter XVIII),
+Roach is Fr. Laroche, Salmon is for Salomon, and Turbot is the
+Anglo-Sax. Thurbeorht, which has also given Tarbut, as Thurgod has
+given Targett.  But in few of the above examples is the possibility of
+fish origin absolutely excluded.
+
+
+
+SPECIAL FEATURES
+
+We have also many surnames due to physical resemblances not extending
+beyond one feature.  Birdseye may be sometimes of local origin, from
+ey, island (Chapter XII), but as a genuine nickname it is as natural
+as the sobriquet of Hawkeye which Natty Bumppo received from the
+Hurons.  German has the much less pleasing Gansauge, goose-eye; and
+Alan Oil de larrun, thief's eye, was fined for very reprehensible
+conduct in 1183.  To explain Crowfoot as an imitative variant of
+Crawford is absurd when we find a dozen German surnames of the same
+class and formation and as many in Old or Modern French beginning with
+pied de.  Cf. Pettigrew (Chapter XXI) and Sheepshanks.  We find in the
+Paris Directory not only Piedeleu (Old Fr. leu, wolf) and Piedoie
+(oie, goose), but even the full Pied-de-Lievre, Professeur a la
+Faculte de droit.  The name Bulleid was spelt in the sixteenth century
+bul-hed, i.e. bull-head, a literal rendering of Front de Boeuf.
+Weatherhead (Chapter XIX) is perhaps usually a nickname
+
+"For that old weather-headed fool, I know how to laugh at him."
+
+(Congreve, Love for Love, ii.  7.)
+
+Coxhead is another obvious nickname.  A careful analysis of some of
+the most important medieval name-lists would furnish hundreds of
+further examples, some too outspoken to have survived into our
+degenerate age, and others which are now so corrupted that their
+original vigour is quite lost.
+
+Puns and jokes upon proper names are, pace Gregory the Great and
+Shakespeare, usually very inept and stupid; but the following lines by
+James Smith, which may be new to some of my readers, are really
+clever--
+
+Men once were surnamed from their shape or estate
+   (You all may from History worm it);
+There was Lewis the Bulky, and Henry the Great,
+   John Lackland, and Peter the Hermit.
+But now, when the door-plates of Misters and Dames
+   Are read, each so constantly varies
+From the owner's trade, figure, and calling, Surnames
+   Seem given by the rule of contraries.
+
+Mr. Box, though provoked, never doubles his fist,
+   Mr. Burns, in his grate, has no fuel;
+Mr. Playfair won't catch me at hazard or whist,
+   Mr. Coward was wing'd in a duel.
+Mr. Wise is a dunce, Mr. King is a whig,
+   Mr. Coffin's uncommonly sprightly,
+And huge Mr. Little broke down in a gig,
+   While driving fat Mrs. Golightly.
+
+Mrs.  Drinkwater's apt to indulge in a dram,
+   Mrs.  Angel's an absolute fury,
+And meek Mr. Lyon let fierce Mr. Lamb
+   Tweak his nose in the lobby of Drury.
+At Bath, where the feeble go more than the stout,
+   (A conduct well worthy of Nero),
+Over poor Mr. Lightfoot, confined with the gout,
+   Mr. Heaviside danced a Bolero.
+
+Miss Joy, wretched maid, when she chose Mr. Love,
+   Found nothing but sorrow await her;
+She now holds in wedlock, as true as a dove,
+   That fondest of mates, Mr. Hayter.
+Mr. Oldcastle dwells in a modern-built hut,
+   Miss Sage is of madcaps the archest;
+Of all the queer bachelors Cupid e'er cut,
+   Old Mr. Younghusband's the starchest.
+
+Mr. Child, in a passion, knock'd down Mr. Rock,
+   Mr. Stone like an aspen-leaf shivers;
+Miss Poole used to dance, but she stands like a stock
+   Ever since she became Mrs.  Rivers;
+Mr. Swift hobbles onward, no mortal knows how,
+   He moves as though cords had entwin'd him;
+Mr. Metcalfe ran off, upon meeting a cow,
+   With pale Mr. Turnbull behind him.
+
+Mr. Barker's as mute as a fish in the sea,
+   Mr. Miles never moves on a journey;
+Mr. Gotobed sits up till half-after three,
+   Mr. Makepeace was bred an attorney.
+Mr. Gardiner can't tell a flower from a root,
+   Mr. Wilde with timidity draws back,
+Mr. Ryder performs all his journeys on foot,
+   Mr. Foote all his journeys on horseback.
+
+Mr. Penny, whose father was rolling in wealth,
+   Kick'd down all his fortune his dad won;
+Large Mr. Le Fever's the picture of health,
+   Mr. Goodenough is but a bad one.
+Mr. Cruickshank stept into three thousand a year,
+   By showing his leg to an heiress:--
+Now I hope you'll acknowledge I've made it quite clear
+   That surnames ever go by contraries.
+
+
+
+
+Printed by Hazell, Watson & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+Advertising material from the end of the book
+
+
+By Ernest Weekley, M.A.
+
+Professor of French and Head of the Modern Language Department
+
+at University College, Nottingham.
+
+AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF MODERN ENGLISH
+
+Crown 4to.  Pounds 2 2s.  net.
+
+This is somewhat of a new departure in etymological dictionaries.  It
+embraces a much larger vocabulary than has been handled by previous
+etymologists and pays special attention to the colloquialisms and
+neologisms which, to the curious mind, are often of more interest than
+the established literary language.  The origin and cognates of each
+word are given as concisely as possible, but "etymology" has been
+taken in its widest sense as a science dealing not only with the
+phonetic elements of which words are composed, but also with the
+adventures which they have met with during their life in the language
+and the strange paths that many of them have followed in reaching a
+current sense or use often widely remote from the original.  So far as
+possible, the date or epoch of the first appearance of each word is
+noted, and the book will be found to contain much curious information
+for which earlier etymological dictionaries would be ransacked in
+vain.
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF WORDS
+
+Large Crown 8vo.  Fourth Impression.  6s.  net.
+
+Observer--"A book of extraordinary interest; every one interested in
+words should immediately obtain a copy, and those who do not yet
+realise how enthralling a subject word-history is, could not do better
+than sample its flavour in Mr. Weekley's admirable book."
+
+SURNAMES
+
+Large Crown 8vo.  Second Edition.  6s.  net.
+
+The Times--"Mr. Weekley has so artfully sprinkled his pages with odd
+and impossible names that we simply cannot help reading him."
+
+
+
+Works by Henry Cecil Wyld
+
+Merton Professor of the English Language in the University of Oxford.
+
+SHORT HISTORY OF ENGLISH
+
+Second Edition.  Crown 8vo.  9s..  net.
+
+This is a scholar's book, written for those who wish to make a
+scientific study of the subject upon the lines of modern philological
+method.  It should be of use to students of English in the
+Universities, and to teachers elsewhere who desire to know the results
+of recent research.
+
+
+THE HISTORICAL STUDY OF THE MOTHER TONGUE
+
+An Introduction to Philological Method.  Fourth Impression.  10s.  6d.
+net.
+
+The object of this book is to give not a history of our language but
+some indications of the point of view from which the history of a
+language should be studied, and of the principal points of method in
+such a study, and to prepare the way for the beginner to the study of
+at least some of the great writers.
+
+
+THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH
+
+An Elementary Account of the Present Form of our Language and its
+Development.  Fifth Impression.  5s.  net.
+
+This book is intended for students in Secondary Schools and Training
+Colleges.  The ground covered is approximately that required by the
+Board of Education in their Regulations for the Training of Teachers.
+
+
+THE TEACHING OF READING IN TRAINING COLLEGES
+
+2s.  6d.  net.
+
+This book is intended as a practical guide for those who have to teach
+Primary Teachers in Training how to read their own language.  It
+contains a collection of extracts in prose and verse, suitable for
+reading aloud, transcribed into a simple phonetic notation.
+
+
+THE PLACE OF THE MOTHER TONGUE INNATIONAL EDUCATION
+
+Demy 8vo.  1s.  net.
+
+
+THE STUDENT'S ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+A History of English Literature and of the chief English Writers
+founded upon the Manual of Thomas B. Shaw.
+
+By A. Hamilton Thomson, B.A., of St. John's College, Cambridge, and
+University Extension Lecturer in English Literature.  With Notes, etc.
+Fifth Impression.  9s.
+
+
+SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+Giving a Sketch of the Lives of our chief English Writers.
+
+By James Rowley.  15th Impression.  Small Crown 8vo.  4s.
+
+
+SHAKSPERE'S PREDECESSORS IN THE ENGLISH DRAMA
+
+By J. A. Symonds.  New Edition.  10s.  6d.  net.
+
+
+SHAKSPERE AND HIS PREDECESSORS IN THE ENGLISH DRAMA
+
+By F. S. Boas, M.A., sometime Professor of English Literature, Queen's
+College, Belfast.  7s.  6d.  net.
+
+An invaluable book for all students.  Every play and character is
+carefully analysed, and the whole subject is treated in a thoroughly
+original and attractive way.
+
+
+THE ENGLISH NOVEL FROM ITS ORIGIN TO SIR WALTER SCOTT
+
+By Sir Walter Raleigh, M.A., Professor of English Literature in the
+University of Oxford.  4s.  6d.  net.
+
+
+OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+By William Renton.  With Illustrative Diagrams.  4s.  6d.  net.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION TO POETRY
+
+Poetic Expression, Poetic Truth, the Progress of Poetry.
+
+By Laurie Magnus, M.A. Second Edition.  2s.  6d.  net.
+
+
+MURRAY'S ENGLISH LITERATURE SERIES
+
+BY E. W. EDMUNDS, M.A., B.Sc.  (Lond.)
+
+BISHOP'S-STORTFORD COLLEGE
+
+Press Opinions on the Series.
+
+Athenaeum.--"For inculcating an intelligent and lasting acquaintance
+with its subject the present series is likely, in our opinion, to
+prove the best of its kind."
+
+Educational Times--"The collection is excellent, and it will usefully
+extend the range of English reading in schools."
+
+
+THE STORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+Three Volumes, 5s.  each.
+
+Vol.  I. THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD, 1558-625.
+
+Vol.  II. SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES, 1625-1780.
+
+Vol.  III. NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1780-1880.
+
+
+READINGS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+The Three Grades are designed to cover the whole period of School
+life.  No Class needs to use more than one Book at a time.
+
+I. THE ELIZABETHAN PERIOD, 1558-1625.
+
+Junior course.  2s.
+
+Intermediate course.  2s.
+
+Senior course.  2s.  6d.
+
+II. SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES, 1625-1780.
+
+Junior course.  2s.
+
+Intermediate course.  2s.
+
+Senior course.  2s.  6d.
+
+III. NINETEENTH CENTURY, 1780-1880.
+
+Junior course.  2s.
+
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+
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+(Higher Forms), Lower Forms in Secondary Schools, and Evening Schools.
+
+Intermediate Course--For Middle Forms of Secondary Schools, Pupil
+Teachers, and Higher Evening Schools.
+
+Senior Course--For the Higher Forms of Secondary Schools, Teachers in
+Training, University Extension Students, and University
+Undergraduates.
+
+
+
+Popular Editions of Mr. Murray's Standard Works
+
+CAPTAIN JAMES COOK, R.N., F.R.S.,
+
+The Circumnavigator.  By Arthur Kitson.  With Illustrations.
+
+
+JOHN MURRAY: A Publisher and his Friends.
+
+Memoir and Correspondence of the second John Murray, with an Account
+of the Origin and Progress of the House, 1768-1843.
+
+By Samuel Smiles, LLD. Edited by Thomas Mackay.
+
+With Portraits.  In One Volume.
+
+
+THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SIR HARRY SMITH, 1787-1819.
+
+Edited by G. C. Moore Smith.  With Maps and Portrait.
+
+
+BIRD LIFE AND BIRD LORE.
+
+By R. Bosworth Smith.
+
+With Illustrations.
+
+
+A COTSWOLD VILLAGE;
+
+or, Country Life and Pursuits in Gloucestershire.
+
+By J. Arthur Gibbs.  With Illustrations.
+
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE "FOX" IN THE ARCTIC SEAS
+
+In Search Of Franklin And His Companions.
+
+By the late Admiral Sir F. Leopold McClintock, R.N.
+
+With Portraits and other Illustrations and Maps.
+
+
+THE STORY of the BATTLE of WATERLOO.
+
+By the Rev. G. R. Gleig.  With Map and Illustrations.
+
+
+LIFE OF ROBERT, FIRST LORD CLIVE.
+
+By the Rev. G. R. Gleig.  Illustrated.
+
+
+THE WILD SPORTS and NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HIGHLANDS.
+
+By Charles St. John.  With Illustrations.
+
+
+
+Mr. Murray's Standard Works
+
+ROUND the HORN BEFORE the MAST.
+
+An Account of a Voyage from San Francisco round Cape Horn to Liverpool
+in a Fourmasted "Windjammer," experiences of the life of an Ordinary
+Seaman.
+
+By Basil Lubbock With Illustrations.
+
+
+LETTERS FROM HIGH LATITUDES.
+
+Being some Account of a Voyage in 1856, in the Sohooner Yacht Foam, to
+Iceland, Jan Meyen, and Spitzbergen.  By the late Marquess Of
+Dufferin.  With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+
+FIELD PATHS and GREEN LANES in SURREY AND SUSSEX.
+
+By Louis J. Jennings.  Illustrated.
+
+
+THE LION HUNTER OF SOUTH AFRICA.
+
+Five Years' Adventure in the Far Interior of South Africa.  With
+Notices of the Native Tribes and Savages.  By R. Gordon Cumming.  With
+16 Woodcuts.
+
+
+DOG BREAKING.
+
+The most Expeditious, Certain, and Easy Method.  With Odds and Ends
+for those who love the Dog and Gun.
+
+By General W. N. Hutchinson.  With numerous Illustrations.
+
+
+THE ROB ROY ON THE JORDAN.
+
+A Canoe Cruise in Palestine, Egypt, and the Waters of Damascus.
+
+By John Macgregor, M.A., Captain of the Royal Canoe Club.  With Maps
+and Illustrations.
+
+
+A HISTORY OF THE SIEGE OF GIBRALTAR, 1779-1783.
+
+With a Description and Account of that Garrison from the Earliest
+Times.
+
+By John Drinkwater, Captain in the Seventy-second Regiment of Royal
+Manchester Volunteers.  With Plans.
+
+
+The Life Of John Nicholson, Soldier and Administrator.
+
+By Captain Lionel J. Trotter.  With Portrait and 3 Maps.
+
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.
+
+By Sir William Smith.  With Maps and Illustrations.
+
+
+A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.
+
+From the Earliest Times to the Present Day.
+
+By William Boyd Carpenter, Bishop of Ripon, Hon.  D.C.L., Oxon.
+
+With 26 Illustrations.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+* Although I worked from material in good condition, scanning and
+preparing subject matter of this type is much harder work than
+preparing a novel or the like, so obviously I should never have
+bothered with preparing this book if I had not though it to be
+worthwhile.  In fact I consider it to be very rewarding, informative,
+and entertaining.  I hope you also find it rewarding, and I present it
+in much the same mood that I assume it was written in: not that it is
+fully correct or definitive, but that both the material and the lines
+of thought that the book comprises, are useful, thoughtful, and
+enjoyable, taken for what they are worth.  The book certainly is based
+on a formidable level of erudition, however cheerful the author's
+style may be.
+
+* For the most part I have tried to remain true to the source, but
+this is not an attempt to reproduce the volume I scanned; my objective
+was to render its content available.  Accordingly, I did not hesitate
+to correct minor, obvious errors, or to adopt my preferences for
+spacing and the like.  Also, the means that I employed in preparing
+this material did not lend themselves satisfactorily to preservation
+of the original pagination or of numbering and cross reference of pages.
+However, as the product is machine readable, search is easier than
+working from an index, and I tried to support the use of such
+facilities.  Anyone who feels strongly that an index remains necessary,
+is welcome to add an index to the version that I have presented here,
+without crediting me for the body of the work.
+
+* I have however, substituted cross-reference between sections or
+chapters for  the (now meaningless) cross-references between pages.
+Also, like many books of that day, the original had many page headings
+such as "MYTHICAL ETYMOLOGIES" or "HILL AND DALE", without
+incorporating them in the table of contents or the text, or even
+making it clear just where those page headings fitted into the text.
+I have changed such page headings to sub-headings within the text,
+where they are more useful, given that they no longer are necessary
+for the original purpose of aiding the process of flipping through the
+pages of a paper book.
+
+* I have relocated footnotes from the feet of the pages to just after
+the text that they qualified.  Apart from thereby rendering the text
+less dependent of changes of format, this arguably renders the
+footnotes more useful and less disruptive to the reader.  Footnotes
+are marked as such, so as to avoid confusion.
+
+* I have of course tried to produce as clean a product as possible,
+but I apologetically assure you that some errors remain in the text.
+You accordingly must treat the content with appropriate caution.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ROMANCE OF NAMES***
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