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+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe by A.E. Nordenski&ouml;ld.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
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+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
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+	margin-top: 1em;
+	margin-bottom: 1em;
+       }
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; } /* page numbers */
+    .tb       {margin-top: 1.2em; } /* thought break */
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and
+Europe, Volume I and Volume II, by A.E. Nordenskieold
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and Europe, Volume I and Volume II
+
+Author: A.E. Nordenskieold
+
+Release Date: January 20, 2008 [EBook #24365]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOYAGE OF THE VEGA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Eric Hutton and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Million Book Project)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagei" id="v1pagei"></a>[pg i]</span>
+<br>
+<h1>
+THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA
+<br>
+ROUND
+<br>
+ASIA AND EUROPE.
+<br>
+VOL. I.</h1>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pageii" id="v1pageii"></a>[pg ii]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v1p002.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p002.png" alt="OSCAR, II" ></a>
+OSCAR, II</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pageiii" id="v1pageiii"></a>[pg iii]</span>
+<h1>THE
+
+<br>VOYAGE OF THE VEGA
+
+<br>ROUND
+
+<br>ASIA AND EUROPE
+</h1>
+
+<p class="center">WITH A HISTORICAL REVIEW<br>
+OF PREVIOUS JOURNEYS ALONG THE NORTH COAST OF THE<br>
+OLD WORLD</p>
+
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>A.E. NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD</h2>
+
+<p class="center">TRANSLATED BY ALEXANDER LESLIE</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>WITH FIVE STEEL PORTRAITS, NUMEROUS MAPS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">London<br>
+MACMILLON AND CO.<br>
+1881</p>
+
+<hr>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pageix" id="v1pageix"></a>[pg ix]</span>
+<p class="center">IN TWO VOLUMES&mdash;VOL. I TO HIS MAJESTY</p>
+
+<p class="center">KING OSCAR II.</p>
+
+<p class="center">THE HIGH PROTECTOR OF THE VEGA EXPEDITION</p>
+
+<p class="center">THIS SKETCH OF THE VOYAGE</p>
+
+<p class="center">HE SO MAGNANIMOUSLY AND GENEROUSLY PROMOTED</p>
+
+<p class="center">IS WITH THE DEEPEST GRATITUDE</p>
+
+<p class="center">MOST HUMBLY</p>
+
+<p class="center">DEDICATED</p>
+
+<p class="center">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center">A.E. NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagex" id="v1pagex"></a>[pg x]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a><h2>AUTHOR'S PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>In the work now published I have, along with the sketch of
+the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> round Asia and Europe, of the natural
+conditions of the north coast of Siberia, of the animal and
+vegetable life prevailing there, and of the peoples with whom
+we came in contact in the course of our journey, endeavoured
+to give a review, as complete as space permitted, of previous
+exploratory voyages to the Asiatic Polar Sea. It would have
+been very ungrateful on my part if I had not referred at
+some length to our predecessors, who with indescribable
+struggles and difficulties&mdash;and generally with the sacrifice of
+health and life&mdash;paved the way along which we advanced,
+made possible the victory we achieved. In this way besides
+the work itself has gained a much-needed variety, for nearly
+all the narratives of the older North-East voyages contain in
+abundance what a sketch of our adventures has not to offer;
+for many readers perhaps expect to find in a book such as
+this accounts of dangers and misfortunes of a thousand sorts
+by land and sea. May the contrast which thus becomes
+apparent between the difficulties our predecessors had to
+contend with and those which the <i>Vega</i> met with during
+her voyage incite to new exploratory expeditions to the sea,
+which now, for the first time, has been ploughed by the keel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexi" id="v1pagexi"></a>[pg xi]</span>
+of a sea-going vessel, and conduce to dissipate a prejudice
+which for centuries has kept the most extensive cultivable
+territory on the globe shut out from the great Oceans of
+the World.</p>
+
+<p>The work is furnished with numerous maps and illustrations,
+and is provided with accurate references to sources of geographical
+information. For this I am indebted both to the liberal
+conception which my publisher, Herr FRANS BEIJER, formed
+of the way in which the work should be executed, and the
+assistance I have received while it was passing through the
+press from Herr E.W. Dahlgren, amanuensis at the Royal
+Library, for which it is a pleasant duty publicly to offer
+them my hearty thanks.</p>
+
+<p>A.E. NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD.</p>
+
+<p>STOCKHOLM, <i>8th October</i>, 1881.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexii" id="v1pagexii"></a>[pg xii]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE"></a><h2>TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Having been honoured by a request from Baron Nordenski&ouml;ld
+that I would undertake the translation of the work in which
+he gives an account of the voyage by which the North-East
+Passage was at last achieved, and Asia and Europe circumnavigated
+for the first time, I have done my best to reproduce
+in English the sense of the Swedish original as faithfully as
+possible, and at the same time to preserve the style of the
+author as far as the varying idioms of the two languages
+permit.</p>
+
+<p>I have to thank two ladies for the help they kindly gave
+me in reading proofs, and my friend Herr GUSTAF LINDSTR&Ouml;M,
+for valuable assistance rendered in various ways.</p>
+
+<p>Where not otherwise indicated, temperature is stated in
+degrees of the Centigrade or Celsius thermometer. Longitude
+is invariably reckoned from the meridian of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>Where distance is stated in miles without qualification, the
+miles are Swedish (one of which is equal to 6.64 English
+miles), except at <a href="#v1page372">page 372</a>, Vol. I., where the geographical
+square miles are German, each equal to sixteen English
+geographical square miles.</p>
+
+<p>ALEX. LESLIE.</p>
+
+<p>CHERRYVALE, ABERDEEN,
+<i>24th November</i>, 1881.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexiii" id="v1pagexiii"></a>[pg xiii]</span></p>
+
+
+<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2>
+
+Typographical errors corrected, and alternative spellings noticed during the preparation of this text
+has been placed <a href="#tnotes">at the end.</a>
+
+<a name="CONTENTS_OF_VOL_I"></a><h2>CONTENTS OF VOL. I.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#INTRO">INTRODUCTION</a></p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></p>
+
+<p>Departure&mdash;Tromsoe&mdash;Members of the Exhibition&mdash;Stay at Maosoe&mdash;Limit of
+Trees&mdash;Climate&mdash;Scurvy and Antiscorbutics&mdash;The first doubling of North
+Cape&mdash;Othere's account of his Travels&mdash;Ideas concerning the Geography of
+Scandinavia current during the first half of the sixteenth century&mdash;The
+oldest Maps of the North&mdash;Herbertstein's account of Istoma's voyage&mdash;Gustaf
+Vasa and the North-East Passage&mdash;Willoughby and Chancellor's
+voyages</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></p>
+
+<p>Departure from Maosoe&mdash;Gooseland&mdash;State of the Ice&mdash;The Vessels of the
+Expedition assemble at Chabarova&mdash;The Samoyed town there&mdash;The Church&mdash;Russians
+and Samoyeds&mdash;Visit to Chabarova in 1875&mdash;Purchase of Samoyed
+Idols&mdash;Dress and dwellings of the Samoyeds&mdash;Comparison of the Polar
+Races&mdash;Sacrificial Places and Samoyed Grave on Waygats Island visited&mdash;Former
+accounts of the Samoyeds&mdash;Their place in Ethnography.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></p>
+
+<p>From the Animal World of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;The Fulmar Petrel&mdash;The Rotge or
+Little Auk&mdash;Br&uuml;nnich's Guillemot&mdash;The Black Guillemot&mdash;The Arctic Puffin&mdash;The
+Gulls&mdash;Richardson's Skua&mdash;The Tern&mdash;Ducks and Geese&mdash;The Swan&mdash;Waders&mdash;The
+Snow Bunting&mdash;The Ptarmigan&mdash;The Snowy Owl&mdash;The
+Reindeer&mdash;The Polar Bear&mdash;The Arctic Fox&mdash;The Lemming&mdash;Insects&mdash;The
+Walrus&mdash;The Seal&mdash;Whales.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></p>
+
+<p>The Origin of the names Yugor Schar and Kara Sea&mdash;Rules for Sailing through
+Yugor Schar&mdash;The &quot;Highest Mountain&quot; on Earth&mdash;Anchorages&mdash;Entering
+the Kara Sea&mdash;Its Surroundings&mdash;The Inland-ice of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;True
+Icebergs rare in certain parts of the Polar Sea&mdash;The Natural Conditions of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexiv" id="v1pagexiv"></a>[pg xiv]</span>
+the Kara Sea&mdash;Animals, Plants, Bog-ore&mdash;Passage across the Kara Sea&mdash;The
+Influence of the Ice on the Sea-bottom&mdash;Fresh-water Diatoms on Sea-ice&mdash;Arrival
+at Port Dickson&mdash;Animal Life there&mdash;Settlers and Settlements at the
+Mouth of the Yenisej&mdash;The Flora at Port Dickson&mdash;Evertebrates&mdash;Excursion
+to White Island&mdash;Yalmal&mdash;Previous Visits&mdash;Nummelin's Wintering on the
+Briochov Islands.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></p>
+
+<p>The history of the North-east Passage from 1556 to 1878&mdash;Burrough, 1556&mdash;Pet
+and Jackman, 1580&mdash;The first voyage of the Dutch, 1594&mdash;Oliver Brunel&mdash;The
+second voyage, 1595&mdash;The third voyage, 1596&mdash;Hudson, 1608&mdash;Gourdon,
+1611&mdash;Bosman, 1625&mdash;De la Martini&egrave;re, 1653&mdash;Vlamingh, 1664&mdash;Snobberger,
+1675&mdash;Roule reaches a land north of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;Wood and Flawes,
+1676&mdash;Discussion in England concerning the state of the ice in the Polar Sea&mdash;Views
+of the condition of the Polar Sea still divided&mdash;Payer and
+Weyprecht, 1872-74.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></p>
+
+<p>The North-east Voyages of the Russians and Norwegians&mdash;Rodivan Ivanov,
+1690&mdash;The Great Northern Expedition 1734-37&mdash;The supposed Richness in
+metals of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;Iuschkov, 1757&mdash;Savva Loschkin, 1760&mdash;Rossmuislov,
+1768&mdash;Lasarev, 1819&mdash;L&uuml;tke, 1821-24&mdash;Ivanov, 1822-28&mdash;Pachtussov,
+1832-35&mdash;Von Baer, 1837&mdash;Zivolka and Moissejev, 1838-39&mdash;Von
+Krusenstern, 1860-62&mdash;The Origin and History of the Polar Sea
+Hunting&mdash;Carlsen, 1868&mdash;Ed. Johannesen, 1869-70&mdash;Ulve, Mack, and
+Quale, 1870&mdash;Mack, 1871&mdash;Discovery of the Relics of Barent's wintering&mdash;Tobiesen's
+wintering 1872-73&mdash;The Swedish Expeditions 1875 and 1876&mdash;Wiggins,
+1876&mdash;Later voyages to and from the Yenisej.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></p>
+
+<p>Departure from Port Dickson&mdash;Landing on a rocky island east of the Yenisej&mdash;Self-dead
+animals&mdash;Discovery of crystals on the surface of the drift-ice&mdash;Cosmic
+dust&mdash;Stay in Actinia Bay&mdash;Johannesen's discovery of the island
+Ensamheten&mdash;Arrival at Cape Chelyuskin&mdash;The natural state of the land and
+sea there&mdash;Attempt to penetrate right eastwards to the New Siberian Islands&mdash;The
+effect of the mist&mdash;Abundant dredging-yield&mdash;Preobraschenie Island&mdash;Separation
+from the <i>Lena</i> at the mouth of the river Lena.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></p>
+
+<p>The voyage of the <i>Fraser</i> and the <i>Express</i> up the Yenisej and their return to
+Norway&mdash;Contract for the piloting of the <i>Lena</i> up the Lena river&mdash;The
+voyage of the <i>Lena</i> through the delta and up the river to Yakutsk&mdash;The
+natural state of Siberia in general&mdash;The river territories&mdash;The fitness of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexv" id="v1pagexv"></a>[pg xv]</span>
+land for cultivation and the necessity for improved communications&mdash;The
+great rivers, the future commercial highways of Siberia&mdash;Voyage up the
+Yenisej in 1875&mdash;Sibiriakoff's Island&mdash;The <i>tundra</i>&mdash;The primeval Siberian
+forest&mdash;The inhabitants of Western Siberia: the Russians, the Exiles, the
+&quot;Asiatics&quot;&mdash;Ways of travelling on the Yenisej, dog-boats, floating trading
+stores propelled by steam&mdash;New prospects for Siberia.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></p>
+
+<p>The new Siberian Islands&mdash;The Mammoth&mdash;Discovery of Mammoth and
+Rhinoceros mummies&mdash;Fossil Rhinoceros horns&mdash;Stolbovoj Island&mdash;Liachoff
+Island&mdash;First discovery of this island&mdash;Passage through the sound between
+this island and the mainland&mdash;Animal life there&mdash;Formation of ice in water
+above the freezing point&mdash;The Bear Islands&mdash;The quantity and dimensions
+of the ice begin to increase&mdash;Different kinds of sea-ice&mdash;Renewed attempt to
+leave the open channel along the coast&mdash;Lighthouse Island&mdash;Voyage along
+the coast to Cape Schelagskoj&mdash;Advance delayed by ice, shoals, and fog&mdash;First
+meeting with the Chukches&mdash;Landing and visits to Chukch villages&mdash;Discovery
+of abandoned encampments&mdash;Trade with the natives rendered
+difficult by the want of means of exchange&mdash;Stay at Irkaipij&mdash;Onkilon
+graves&mdash;Information regarding the Onkilon race&mdash;Renewed contact with the
+Chukches&mdash;Kolyutschin Bay&mdash;American statements regarding the state of
+the ice north of Behring's Straits&mdash;The <i>Vega</i> beset.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></p>
+
+<p>Wintering becomes necessary&mdash;The position of the <i>Vega</i>&mdash;The ice round the
+vessel&mdash;American ship in the neighbourhood of the <i>Vega</i> when frozen in&mdash;The
+nature of the neighbouring country&mdash;The <i>Vega</i> is prepared for wintering&mdash;Provision-dep&ocirc;t
+and observatories established on land&mdash;The winter dress&mdash;Temperature
+on board&mdash;Health and dietary&mdash;Cold, wind, and snow&mdash;The
+Chukches on board&mdash;Menka's visit&mdash;Letters sent home&mdash;Nordquist and
+Hovgaard's excursion to Menka's encampment&mdash;Another visit of Menka&mdash;The
+fate of the letters&mdash;Nordquist's journey to Pidlin&mdash;<i>Find</i> of a Chukch
+grave&mdash;Hunting&mdash;Scientific work&mdash;Life on board&mdash;Christmas Eve.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexvi" id="v1pagexvi"></a>[pg xvi]</span></p>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexvii" id="v1pagexvii"></a>[pg xvii]</span>
+
+
+<a name="PORTRAITS"></a><h2>PORTRAITS.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Engraved on Steel by G.J. Stodart of London.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#v1pageii">King Oscar II</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page3f">Oscar Dickson</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page8">Alexander Sibiriakoff</a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="LITHOGRAPHED_MAPS"></a><h2>LITHOGRAPHED MAPS.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map51">1. Map of North Europe, from Nicholas Donis's edition of Ptolemy's
+<i>Cosmographia</i>, Ulm, 1482</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map52">2. Map of the North, from Jakob Ziegler's <i>Schondia</i>, Strassburg, 1532</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map53">3. Map of North Europe from <i>Olai Magni Historia de gentium septentrionalium variis conditionibus</i>, Basil, 1567</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map318">4. Map of Port Dickson, by G. Bove. Map of Cape Bolvan on Vaygats
+Island, by the author. The <i>Lena's</i> cruise in Malygin Sound, by
+A. Hovgaard. Map of Cape Chelyuskin, by G. Bove</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map247">5. Map showing Barents' Third Voyage, from <i>J.L. Pontani Rerum et urbis
+Amstelodamensium historia</i>, Amst., 1611</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map239">6. Russian Map of the North Polar Sea from the beginning of the 17th
+century, published in Holland in 1612 by Isaac Massa</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map333">7. Sketch-Map of Taimur Sound; Map of Actinia Bay, both by G. Bove</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1map372">8. Map of the River System of Siberia</a></p>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexviii" id="v1pagexviii"></a>[pg xviii]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexix" id="v1pagexix"></a>[pg xix]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="LIST_OF_WOOD-CUTS_IN_VOL_I"></a><h2>LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL I.</h2>
+
+<p><i>The wood-cuts, when not otherwise stated below, were engraved at Herr Wilhelm
+Meyer's Xylographic Institute in Stockholm</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page1">1. The <i>Vega</i> under sail, drawn by Captain J. Hagg</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page6">2. The <i>Vega</i>&mdash;Longitudinal section, drawn by Lieut. C.A.M. Hjulhammar</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page6">3.  &quot;      &quot;        Plan of arrangement under deck, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page6">4.  &quot;      &quot;        Plan of upper deck, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page7">5. The <i>Lena</i>&mdash;Longitudinal section, drawn by Marine-engineer J. Pihlgren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page7">6.  &quot;      &quot;        Plan of arrangement under deck, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page7">7.  &quot;      &quot;        Plan of upper deck, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page33">8. Flag of the Swedish Yacht Club, drawn by V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page36">9. Tromsoe, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page40">10. Old World Polar dress, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page41">11. New World Polar Dress, drawn by Docent A. Kornrup, Copenhagen</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page42">12. Limit of Trees in Norway, drawn by R. Haglund, engraved by J. Engberg</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page43">13. Limit of Trees in Siberia, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page44">14. The Cloudberry (<i>Rubus Cham&aelig;morus</i>, L.), drawn by Mrs. Professor A. Anderssen</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page50">15. Norse Ship of the Tenth Century, drawn by Harald Sch&ouml;yen, Christiania</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page59">16. Sebastian Cabot, engraved by Miss Ida Falander</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page59">17. Sir Hugh Willoughby, engraved by J. D. Cooper, London</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page65">18. Vardoe in 1594</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page66">19. Vardoe in our days, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexx" id="v1pagexx"></a>[pg xx]</span>
+<a href="#v1page70">20. Coast Landscape from Matotschkin Schar, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page76">21. Church of Chabarova, drawn by V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page81">22. Samoyed Woman's Hood, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page82">23. Samoyed Sleigh, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page83">24. Lapp Akja, drawn by ditto; engraved by J. Engberg</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page84">25. Samoyed Sleigh and Idols</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page85">26. Samoyed Idols, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page86">27. Samoyed Hair Ornaments, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page89">28. Samoyed Woman's Dress, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page90">29. Samoyed Bolt with Knife, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page91">30. Sacrificial Eminence on Vaygat's Island, drawn by R. Haglund;
+engraved by J. Engberg</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page94">31. Idols from the Sacrificial Cairn, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page96">32. Sacrificial Cavity on Vaygat's Island, drawn by V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page98">33. Samoyed Grave on Vaygat's Island, drawn by R. Haglund; engraved
+by O. Dahlb&auml;ck</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page99">34. Samoyed Archers</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page102">35. Samoyeds from Schleissing's <i>Neu-entdektes Sieweria</i></a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page105">36. Breeding-place for Little Auks, drawn by H. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page110">37. The Little Auk, or Rotge (<i>Mergulus Alle</i>, L.), drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page111">38. The Loom, or Br&uuml;nnich's Guillemot (<i>Uria Br&uuml;nnichii</i>, Sabine), drawn
+by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page113">39. The Arctic Puffin (<i>Mormon Arcticus</i>, L.), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page113">40. The Black Guillemot (<i>Uria Grylle</i>, L.), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page115">41. Breeding-place for Glaucous Gulls, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page117">42. The Kittiwake (<i>Larus tridactylus</i>, L.), and the Ivory Gull (<i>Larus
+eburneus</i>, L.), drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page119">43. Rare Northern Gulls&mdash;Sabine's Gull (<i>Larus Sabinii</i>, Sabine)&mdash;Ross's
+Gull (<i>Larus Rossii</i>, Richards), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page121">44. The Common Skua (<i>Lestris parasitica</i>, L.)&mdash;Buffon's Skua (<i>Lestris
+Buffonii</i>, Boie)&mdash;the Pomarine Skua (<i>Lestris pomarina</i>, Tem.)
+drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page124">45. Heads of the Eider, King Buck, Barnacle Goose, and White-fronted Goose, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexxi" id="v1pagexxi"></a>[pg xxi]</span>
+<a href="#v1page127">46. Bewick's Swan (<i>Cygnus Bewickii</i>, Yarr.), drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page127">47. Breastbone of <i>Cygnus Bewickii</i>, showing the peculiar position of the
+windpipe, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page130">48. Ptarmigan Fell, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page131">49. The Snowy Owl (<i>Strix nyctea</i>, L.), drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page136">50. Reindeer Pasture, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page139">51. Polar Bears, drawn by G. M&uuml;tzel, engraved by K. Jahrmargt, both of Berlin</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page1">52. Ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page149">53. Walruses, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page155">54. Walrus Tusks, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page156">55. Hunting Implements, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page159">56. Walrus Hunting, after Olaus Magnus</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page160">57. Walruses (female with young)</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page161">58. Japanese Drawing of the Walrus</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page163">59. Young of the Greenland Seal, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page166">60. The Bearded Seal (<i>Phoca barbata</i>, Fabr.), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page166">61. The Rough Seal (<i>Phoca hispida</i>, Erxl.), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page167">62. The White Whale (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>, Pallas), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page176">63. Section of Inland-Ice</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page177">64. View from the Inland-ice of Greenland, drawn by H. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page178">65. Greenland Ice-fjord, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page179">66. Slowly advancing Glacier, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page179">67. Glacier with Stationary Front, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page184">68. Umbellula from the Kara Sea, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page186">69. <i>Elpidia Glacialis</i> (Th&eacute;el.), from the Kara Sea, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page186">70. Manganiferous Iron-ore Formations from the Kara Sea, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page188">71. Section from the South Coast of Matotschkin Sound, drawn by the geologist, E. Erdman</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page192">72. Map of the Mouth of the Yenisej (zincograph)</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page194">73. Ruins of a Simovie at Krestovskoj, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page197">74. <i>Sieversia Glacialis</i>, R. Br., from Port Dickson, drawn by Mrs. Prof. Anderssen</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexxii" id="v1pagexxii"></a>[pg xxii]</span>
+<a href="#v1page199">75. Evertebrates from Port Dickson, <i>Yoldia artica</i>, Gray, and <i>Diastylis</i>
+<i>Rathkei</i>, Kr., drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page206">76. Place of Sacrifice on Yalmal, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page210">77. &quot;Jordgammor&quot; on the Briochov Islands, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page220">78. Russian &quot;Lodja&quot;</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page231">79. Dutch Skipper</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page233">80. Capture of a Polar Bear</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page237">81. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page238">82. Kilduin, in Russian Lapland, in 1594</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page242">83. Map of Fietum Nassovicum or Yugor Schar</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page245">84. Unsuccessful Fight with a Polar Bear</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page248">85. Barents' and Rijp's Vessels</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page250">86. Barents' House, outside</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page251">87. Ditto inside</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page254">88. Jacob van Heemskerk</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page259">89. De la Martini&egrave;re's Map</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page273">90. Ammonite with Gold Lustre (<i>Ammonites alternans</i>, v. Buch) drawn by
+M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page275">91. View from Matotschkin Schar, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page278">92. Friedrich Benjamin von L&uuml;tke, drawn and engraved by Miss Ida
+Falander</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page284">93. August Karlovitz Zivolka, drawn and engraved by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page285">94. Paul von Krusenstern, Junior, drawn and engraved by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page286">95. Michael Konstantinovitsch Sidoroff, drawn and engraved by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page292">96. Norwegian Hunting Sloop, drawn by Captain J. Hagg</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page294">97. Elling Carlson, engraved by J. D. Cooper, of London</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page295">98. Edward Hohn Johannesen, engraved by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page303">99. Sivert Kristian Tobiesen, engraved by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page304">100. Tobiesen's Winter House on Bear Island, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page313">101. Joseph Wiggins, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page314">102. David Ivanovitsch Schwanenberg, drawn and engraved by Miss Ida
+Falander</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page316">103. Gustaf Adolf Nummelin, drawn and engraved by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexxiii" id="v1pagexxiii"></a>[pg xxiii]</span>
+<a href="#v1page317">104. The Sloop <i>Utrennaja Saria</i>, drawn by Captain J. Hagg</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page321">105. The <i>Vega</i>, and <i>Lena</i> anchored to an Ice-floe, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page325">106. Hairstar from the Taimur Coast (<i>Antedon Eschrictii</i>, J. M&uuml;ller) drawn
+by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page327">107. Form of the Crystals found on the ice off the Taimur Coast</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page329">108. Section of the upper part of the Snow on a Drift-ice Field in 80&deg; N.L.</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page332">109. Grass from Actinia Bay (<i>Pleuropogon Sabini</i>, R.Br.), drawn by Mrs. Professor Andersson</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page337">110. The <i>Vega</i> and <i>Lena</i> saluting Cape Chelyuskin, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page339">111. View at Cape Chelyuskin during the stay of the Expedition, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page341">112. <i>Draba Alpina</i>, L., from Cape Chelyuskin, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page343">113. The Beetle living farthest to the North (<i>Micralymma Dicksoni</i>, Mackl.) drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page345">114. Ophiuroid from the Sea north of Cape Chelyuskin (<i>Ophiacantha bidentata</i> Retz.), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page349">115. Sea Spider (<i>pycnogonid</i>) from the Sea east of Cape Chelyuskin, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page353">116. Preobraschenie Island, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page358">117. The steamer <i>Fraser</i>, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page365">118. The Steamer <i>Lena</i>, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page366">119. Hans Christian Johannesen, engraved by J.D. Cooper, London</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page370">120. Yakutsk in the Seventeenth Century</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page371">121. Yakutsk in our days, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page377">122. River View from the Yenisej, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page379">123. Sub-fossil Marine Crustacea from the <i>tundra</i>, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page385">124. Siberian River Boat, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page388">125. Ostyak Tent, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page390">126. Towing with Dogs on the Yenisej, drawn by Professor R.D. Holm</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page392">127. Fishing-boats on the Ob, drawn R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page393">128. Graves in the Primeval Forest of Siberia, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page396">129. Chukch Village on a Siberian River, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page401">130. Mammoth Skeleton in the Imperial Museum of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexxiv" id="v1pagexxiv"></a>[pg xxiv]</span>
+<a href="#v1page403">131. Restored Form of the Mammoth</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page407">132. Siberian Rhinoceros Horn, drawn by M. Westergren and V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page414">133. Stolbovoj Island, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page416">134. <i>Idothea Entomon</i>, Lin., drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page417">135. <i>Idothea Sabinei</i>, Kr&ouml;yer, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page419">136. Ljachoff's Island, drawn by E. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page427">137. Beaker Sponges from the Sea off the mouth of the Kolyma, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page428">138. Lighthouse Island, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page430">139. Chukch Boats, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page432">140. A Chukch in Seal-gut Great-coat, drawn and engraved by Miss Ida Falander</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page434">141. Chukch Tent, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page437">142. Section of a Chukch Grave, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page442">143. Irkaipij, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page443">144. Ruins of an Onkilon House, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page444">145. Implements found in the Ruins of an Onkilon House, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page452">146. Alga from Irkaipij (<i>Laminaria Solidungula</i>, J.G. Ag.), drawn by M.
+Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page453">147. Cormorant from Irkaipij (<i>Graculus bierustatus</i>, Pallas), drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page455">148. Pieces of Ice from the Coast of the Chukch Peninsula, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page464">149. Toross from the neighbourhood of the <i>Vega's</i> Winter Quarters, drawn
+by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page472">150. The <i>Vega</i> in Winter Quarters, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page475">151. The Winter Dress of the <i>Vega</i> men, drawn by Jungstedt</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page481">152. Cod from Pitlekaj (<i>Gadus navaga</i>, Kolreuter), drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page486">153. Kautljkau, a Chukch Girl from Irgunnuk, drawn and engraved by Miss
+Ida Falander</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page492">154. Chukches Angling, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page493">155. Ice-Sieve, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page494">156. Smelt from the Chukch Peninsula (<i>Osmerus eperlanus</i>, Lin.), drawn
+by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page495">157. Wassili Menka, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling, engraved by Miss Ida Falander</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page498">158. Chukch Dog-Sleigh, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1pagexxv" id="v1pagexxv"></a>[pg xxv]</span>
+<a href="#v1page506">159. Chukch Bone-carvings, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page507">160. Hares from Chukch Land, drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page511">161. The Observatory at Pitlekaj, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page515">162. An Evening in the Gun-room of the <i>Vega</i> during the Wintering,
+drawn by ditto, engraved by R. Lindgren</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page518">163. Refraction Halo, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page519">164. Reflection Halo, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page520">165. Section of the Beach Strata at Pitlekaj</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v1page521">166. Christmas Eve on the <i>Vega</i>, drawn by V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+<br>
+<p><a name="v1errata">ERRATA</a> [ Transcriber's note:  these have been applied to the text ]</p>
+
+<p>Page 44, under Wood-cut <i>for</i> &quot;chammmorus&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;cham&aelig;morus.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 58, lines 21, 24, end 28 <i>for</i> &quot;pearls&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;beads.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 140, line 13 from top, <i>for</i>&quot;swallow&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;roll away.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 184, last line, <i>for</i> &quot;one-third&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;one-and-a-half times.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 377, note, <i>for</i> &quot;It is the general rule&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;For the northern hemisphere it is a
+general rule.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 476, line 12 from top, <i>for</i> &quot;leggins&quot; <i>read</i>
+&quot;leggings.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 481, under wood-cut, <i>for</i> &quot;half the natural size&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;one-third of the natural size.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Page 494, under wood-cut, <i>for</i> &quot;half the natural size&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;one-third of the natural size.&quot;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page1" id="v1page1"></a>[pg 1]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p019.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p019.png" alt="" ></a>
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<p><a name="INTRO">INTRODUCTION.</a></p>
+<br>
+
+<p>The voyage, which it is my purpose to sketch in this book,
+owed its origin to two preceding expeditions from Sweden to the
+western part of the Siberian Polar Sea, in the course of which
+I reached the mouth of the Yenisej, the first time in 1875 in
+a walrus-hunting sloop, the <i>Procven</i>, and the second time in
+1876 in a steamer, the <i>Ymer</i>.</p>
+
+<p>After my return from the latter voyage, I came to the conclusion,
+that, on the ground of the experience thereby gained, and
+of the knowledge which, under the light of that experience, it
+was possible to obtain from old, especially from Russian, explorations
+of the north coast of Asia, I was warranted in asserting
+that the open navigable water, which two years in succession
+had carried me across the Kara Sea, formerly of so bad repute,
+to the mouth of the Yenisej, extended in all probability as far
+as Behring's Straits, and that a circumnavigation of the old
+world was thus within the bounds of possibility.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page2" id="v1page2"></a>[pg 2]</span>
+It was natural that I should endeavour to take advantage
+of the opportunity for making new and important discoveries
+which thus presented itself. An opportunity had arisen for
+solving a geographical problem&mdash;the forcing a north-east passage
+to China and Japan&mdash;which for more than three hundred years
+had been a subject of competition between the world's foremost
+commercial states and most daring navigators, and which,
+if we view it in the light of a circumnavigation of the old world,
+had, for thousands of years back, been an object of desire for
+geographers. I determined, therefore, at first to make use, for
+this purpose, of the funds which Mr. A. SIBIRIAKOFF, after my
+return from the expedition of 1876, placed at my disposal for
+the continuation of researches in the Siberian Polar Sea. For
+a voyage of the extent now contemplated, this sum, however,
+was quite insufficient. On this account I turned to His Majesty
+the King of Sweden and Norway, with the inquiry whether any
+assistance in making preparations for the projected expedition
+might be reckoned upon from the public funds. King OSCAR,
+who, already as Crown Prince, had given a large contribution
+to the Torell expedition of 1861, immediately received my proposal
+with special warmth, and promised within a short time
+to invite the Swedish members of the Yenisej expeditions and
+others interested in our voyages of exploration in the north, to
+meet him for the purpose of consultation, asking me at the
+same time to be prepared against the meeting with a complete
+exposition of the reasons on which I grounded my views&mdash;differing
+so widely from the ideas commonly entertained&mdash;of
+the state of the ice in the sea off the north coast of Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>This assembly took place at the palace in Stockholm, on
+the 26th January, 1877, which may be considered the birthday
+of the <i>Vega</i> Expedition, and was ushered in by a dinner, to
+which a large number of persons were invited, among whom were
+the members of the Swedish royal house that happened to be
+then in Stockholm; Prince JOHN OF GL&Uuml;CKSBURG; Dr. OSCAR</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page3f" id="v1page3f"></a>[pg 3f]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p021.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p021.png" alt="Oscar Dickson" ></a>
+Oscar Dickson</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page3" id="v1page3"></a>[pg 3]</span>
+<p>DICKSON, the Gothenburg merchant; Baron F.W. VON OTTER,
+Councillor of State and Minister of Marine, well known for his
+voyages in the Arctic waters in 1868 and 1871; Docent F.K.
+KJELLMAN, Dr. A. STUTXBERG, the former a member of the expedition
+which wintered at Mussel Bay in 1872-73, and of that which
+reached the Yenisej in 1875, the latter, of the Yenisej Expeditions
+of 1875 and 1876; and Docents HJALMAR TH&Eacute;EL and A.N.
+LUNDSTR&Ouml;M, both members of the Yenisej Expedition of 1875.</p>
+
+<p>After dinner the programme of the contemplated voyage was
+laid before the meeting, almost in the form in which it afterwards
+appeared in print in several languages. There then arose
+a lively discussion, in the course of which reasons were advanced
+for, and against the practicability of the plan. In particular the
+question concerning the state of the ice and the marine currents
+at Cape Chelyuskin gave occasion to an exhaustive discussion.
+It ended by His Majesty first of all declaring himself convinced
+of the practicability of the plan of the voyage, and prepared
+not only as king, but also as a private individual, to give substantial
+support to the enterprise. Dr. Oscar Dickson shared
+His Majesty's views, and promised to contribute to the not inconsiderable
+expenditure, which the new voyage of exploration
+would render necessary. This is the sixth expedition to the
+high north, the expenses of which have been defrayed to
+a greater or less extent by Dr. O. Dickson.<A HREF="#v1fn1" NAME="v1rn1">[1]</A> He became
+the banker of the <i>Vega</i> Expedition, inasmuch as to a considerable
+extent he advanced the necessary funds, but after
+our return the expenses were equally divided between His
+Majesty the King of Sweden and Norway, Dr. Dickson, and
+Mr. Sibiriakoff.</p>
+
+<p>I very soon had the satisfaction of appointing, as superintendents
+of the botanical and zoological work of the expedition
+in this new Polar voyage, my old and tried friends from previous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page4" id="v1page4"></a>[pg 4]</span>
+expeditions, Docents Dr. Kjellman and Dr. Stuxberg, observers
+so well known in Arctic literature. At a later period, another
+member of the expedition that wintered on Spitzbergen in
+1872-73, Lieutenant (now Captain in the Swedish Navy) L.
+PALANDER, offered to accompany the new expedition as commander
+of the vessel&mdash;an offer which I gladly accepted, well
+knowing, as I did from previous voyages, Captain Palander's
+distinguished ability both as a seaman and an Arctic explorer.
+Further there joined the expedition Lieutenant GIACOMO BOVE,
+of the Italian Navy; Lieutenant A. HOVGAARD, of the Danish
+Navy; Medical candidate E. ALMQUIST, as medical officer;
+Lieutenant O. NORDQUIST, of the Russian Guards; Lieutenant
+E. BRUSEWITZ, of the Swedish Navy; together with twenty-one
+men&mdash;petty officers and crew, according to a list which will be
+found further on.</p>
+
+<p>An expedition of such extent as that now projected, intended
+possibly to last two years, with a vessel of its own, a numerous
+well-paid <i>personnel</i>, and a considerable scientific staff, must of
+course be very costly. In order somewhat to diminish the
+expenses, I gave in, on the 25th August, 1877, a memorial to
+the Swedish Government with the prayer that the steamer <i>Vega</i>,
+which in the meantime had been purchased for the expedition,
+should be thoroughly overhauled and made completely seaworthy
+at the naval dockyard at Karlskrona; and that, as had
+been done in the case of the Arctic Expeditions of 1868 and
+1872-73, certain grants of public money should be given to the
+officers and men of the Royal Swedish Navy, who might take
+part as volunteers in the projected expedition. With reference
+to this petition the Swedish Government was pleased, in terms
+of a letter of the Minister of Marine, dated the 31st December,
+1877, both to grant sea-pay, &amp;c., to the officer and eighteen men
+of the Royal Navy, who might take part in the expedition in
+question, and at the same time to resolve on making a proposal
+to the Diet in which additional grants were to be asked for it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page5" id="v1page5"></a>[pg 5]</span>
+The proposal to the Diet of 1878 was agreed to with that
+liberality which has always distinguished the representatives
+of the Swedish people when grants for scientific purposes have
+been asked for; which was also the case with a private motion
+made in the same Diet by the President, C.F. WAERN, member
+of the Academy of Sciences, whereby it was proposed to
+confer some further privileges on the undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible here to give at length the decision of the
+Diet, and the correspondence which was exchanged with the
+authorities with reference to it. But I am under an obligation
+of gratitude to refer to the exceedingly pleasant reception I
+met with everywhere, in the course of these negotiations,
+from officials of all ranks, and to give a brief account of
+the privileges which the expedition finally came to enjoy,
+mainly owing to the letter of the Government to the Marine
+Department, dated the 14th June, 1878.</p>
+
+<p>Two officers and seventeen men of the Royal Swedish
+Navy having obtained permission to take part in the expedition
+as volunteers, I was authorised to receive on account
+of the expedition from the treasury of the Navy, at Karlskrona&mdash;with
+the obligation of returning that portion of the
+funds which might not be required, and on giving approved
+security&mdash;full sea pay for two years for the officers, petty
+officers, and men taking part in the expedition; pay for the
+medical officer, at the rate of 3,500 Swedish crowns a year,
+for the same time; and subsistence money for the men belonging
+to the Navy, at the rate of one and a half Swedish crowns
+per man per day. The sum, by which the cost of provisions
+exceeded the amount calculated at this rate, was defrayed by
+the expedition, which likewise gave a considerable addition
+to the pay of the sailors belonging to the Navy. I further
+obtained permission to receive, on account of the expedition,
+from the Navy stores at Karlskrona, provisions, medicines,
+coal, oil, and other necessary equipment, under obligation to
+pay for any excess of value over 10,000 Swedish crowns (about
+550<i>l</i>.); and finally the vessel of the expedition was permitted
+to be equipped and made completely seaworthy at the naval
+dockyard at Karlskrona, on condition, however, that the excess
+of expenditure on repairs over 25,000 crowns (about 1,375<i>l</i>.)
+should be defrayed by the expedition.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page6" id="v1page6"></a>[pg 6]</span>
+
+<h3><i>THE VEGA</i>.</h3>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p025a.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p025a.png" alt="Longitudinal section." ></a>
+Longitudinal section.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p025b.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p025b.png" alt="Plan of arrangement under deck." ></a>
+Plan of arrangement under deck.</div>
+
+1. Powder magazine.<br>
+2. Instrument room.<br>
+3. Sofa in gunroom.<br>
+4. Cabin for Lieut. Brusewitz<br>
+5. Cabin fur Lieuts. Bove and Hovgaard.<br>
+6. Pantry during winter.<br>
+7. Corridor.<br>
+8. Cabin for Dr. Stuxberg and Lieut. Nordquist.<br>
+9. Gunroom.<br>
+10. Table in gunroom.<br>
+11. Cabin for Dr. Almquist.<br>
+12. Cabin for Dr. Kjellman.<br>
+13. Stove.<br>
+14. Cabin for Capt. Palander.<br>
+15. Cabin for Prof. Nordenski&ouml;ld.<br>
+16. Corridor (descent to gunroom).<br>
+17. Coal bankers.<br>
+18. Boiler.<br>
+19. Storeroom 'tween decks.<br>
+20. Pilot's cabin.<br>
+21. Cabin for Lieut. Bove built in Japan.<br>
+22. Cabin for two petty officers.<br>
+23. Petty officers' mess.<br>
+24. Cabin for carpenter's effects ) built<br>
+25. Cabin for collections.        ) in Japan<br>
+26. Cabin for library.<br>
+27. Gunroom pantry.<br>
+28. Hatch to provision room.<br>
+29. Hatch to the cable-tier.<br>
+30. Hatch to room set apart for  scientific purposes.<br>
+31. Galley.<br>
+32. Bunks for the crew&mdash;double rows.<br>
+33. Cable-tier and provision store.<br>
+34. Hatch to store-room.<br>
+35. Hatch to room for daily giving out of provisions.<br>
+36. Hatch to rope-room.<br>
+37. Sail-room.<br>
+38. Storeroom for water and coal.<br>
+39. Engine-room.<br>
+40. Cellar.<br>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p025c.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p025c.png" alt="Plan of upper deck." ></a>
+Plan of upper deck.</div>
+
+<i>a</i>. Thermometer case.<br>
+<i>b</i>. The rudder.<br>
+<i>c</i>. Binnacle with compass.<br>
+<i>d</i>.  ) Skylights to the gunroom.<br>
+<i>e</i>.  )<br>
+<i>f</i>. Mizenmast.<br>
+<i>g</i>. Descent to the gunroom  ) companion common<br>
+<i>h</i>. Descent to the engine   )     to both.<br>
+<i>i</i>. Bridge.<br>
+<i>k</i>. Funnel.<br>
+<i>l</i>. Boats lying on gallows.<br>
+<i>m</i>. Mainmast.<br>
+<i>n</i>. Booms (for reserve masts, yards, &amp;c.).<br>
+<i>o</i>. Main hatch.<br>
+<i>p</i>. Steam launch.<br>
+<i>q</i>. Fore hatch.<br>
+<i>r</i>. Hencoops.<br>
+<i>s</i>. Water closet.<br>
+<i>t</i>. Foremast.<br>
+<i>u</i>. Smoke-cowl.<br>
+<i>v</i>. Descent to lower deck (companion).<br>
+<i>x</i>. Windlass.<br>
+<i>y</i>. Capstan on the forecastle.<br>
+<i>z</i>. Catheads.<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page7" id="v1page7"></a>[pg 7]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><i>THE VEGA</i>.</h3>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p026a.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p026a.png" alt="Longitudinal section." ></a>
+Longitudinal section.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p026b.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p026b.png" alt="Plan of arrangement under deck." ></a>
+Plan of arrangement under deck.</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p026c.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p026c.png" alt="Plan of upper deck." ></a>
+Plan of upper deck.</div>
+
+A.    Engine-room.<br>
+B. B. Hold.<br>
+C.    Cable.<br>
+D.    Water ballast tank.<br>
+E.    Forecastle.<br>
+F. F. Coal bunkers.<br>
+G.    Fireman's cabin.<br>
+H.    Engineer's cabin.<br>
+K.    Provision-room.<br>
+L.    Captain's cabin.<br>
+M.    Mate's cabin.<br>
+N.    Kitchen.<br>
+O.    Pantry.<br>
+P.    Saloon.<br>
+Q. Q. Presses.<br>
+R.    Engine-room companion.<br>
+S.    Bridge.<br>
+T.    Hatch to hold.<br>
+U.    Descent to provision-room.<br>
+V.    Winch.<br>
+X.    Descent to engine-room.<br>
+Y.    Descent to forecastle and engineer's cabin.<br>
+Z.    Descent to captain's cabin, saloon, &amp;c.<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page8" id="v1page8"></a>[pg 8]</span>
+
+<p>On the other hand my request that the <i>Vega</i>, the steamer
+purchased for the voyage, might be permitted to carry the
+man-of-war flag, was refused by the Minister of Marine in
+a letter of the 2nd February 1878. The <i>Vega</i> was therefore
+inscribed in the following month of March in the Swedish
+Yacht Club. It was thus under its flag, <i>the Swedish man-of-war
+flag with a crowned O in the middle</i>, that the first
+circumnavigation of Asia and Europe was carried into effect.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i>, as will be seen from the description quoted farther
+on, is a pretty large vessel, which during the first part of
+the voyage was to be heavily laden with provisions and coal.
+It would therefore be a work of some difficulty to get it afloat,
+if, in sailing forward along the coast in new, unsurveyed waters,
+it should run upon a bank of clay or sand. I therefore gladly
+availed myself of Mr. Sibiriakoff's offer to provide for the
+greater safety of the expedition, by placing at my disposal
+funds for building another steamer of a smaller size, the <i>Lena</i>,
+which should have the river Lena as its main destination, but,
+during the first part of the expedition, should act as tender to
+the <i>Vega</i>, being sent before to examine the state of the ice
+and the navigable waters, when such service might be useful.
+I had the <i>Lena</i> built at Motala, of Swedish Bessemer steel,
+mainly after a drawing of Engineer R. Runeberg of Finland.
+The steamer answered the purpose for which it was intended
+particularly well.</p>
+
+<p>An unexpected opportunity of providing the steamers with
+coal during the course of the voyage besides arose by my
+receiving a commission, while preparations were making for</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v1p028.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p028.png" alt="Alexander Sibiriakoff" ></a>
+Alexander Sibiriakoff</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page9" id="v1page9"></a>[pg 9]</span>
+<p>the expedition of the <i>Vega</i>, to fit out, also on Mr. Sibiriakoff's
+account, two other vessels, the steamer <i>Fraser</i>, and the sailing
+vessel <i>Express</i>, in order to bring to Europe from the mouth
+of the Yenisej a cargo of grain, and to carry thither a quantity
+of European goods. This was so much the more advantageous,
+as, according to the plan of the expedition, the <i>Vega</i> and the
+<i>Lena</i> were first to separate from the <i>Fraser</i> and the <i>Express</i> at
+the mouth of the Yenisej. The first-named vessels had thus
+an opportunity of taking on board at that place as much coal
+as there was room for.</p>
+
+<p>I intend further on to give an account of the voyages of the
+other three vessels, each of which deserves a place in the
+history of navigation. To avoid details I shall only mention
+here that, at the beginning of the voyage which is to be
+described here, the following four vessels were at my disposal:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Vega</i>, commanded by Lieutenant L. Palander, of the
+Swedish Navy; circumnavigated Asia and Europe.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Lena</i>, commanded by the walrus-hunting captain,
+Christian Johannesen; the first vessel that reached the river
+Lena from the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Fraser</i>, commanded by the merchant captain, Emil
+Nilsson.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Express</i>, commanded by the merchant captain,
+Gundersen; the first which brought cargoes of grain from the
+Yenisej to Europe.<A HREF="#v1fn2" NAME="v1rn2">[2]</A></p>
+
+<p>When the <i>Vega</i> was bought for the expedition it was described
+by the sellers as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;The steamer <i>Vega</i> was built at Bremerhaven in 1872-73,
+of the best oak, for the share-company 'Ishafvet,' and under
+special inspection. It has twelve years' first class 3/3 I.I. Veritas,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page10" id="v1page10"></a>[pg 10]</span>
+measures 357 register tons gross, or 299 net. It was built and
+used for whale-fishing in the North Polar Sea, and strengthened
+in every way necessary and commonly used for that purpose.
+Besides the usual timbering of oak, the vessel has an ice-skin
+of greenheart, wherever the ice may be expected to come at
+the vessel. The ice-skin extends from the neighbourhood of
+the under chain bolts to within from 1.2 to 1.5 metres of the
+keel The dimensions are:&mdash;</p>
+<pre>
+Length of keel ... ... ... 37.6 metres.<br>
+Do. over deck  ... ... ... 43.4 metres.<br>
+Beam extreme   ... ... ...  8.4 metres.<br>
+Depth of hold  ... ... ...  4.6 metres.<br>
+</pre>
+<p>&quot;The engine, of sixty horse-power, is on Wolff's plan, with
+excellent surface condensers. It requires about ten cubic feet
+of coal per hour. The vessel is fully rigged as a barque, and
+has pitch pine masts, iron wire rigging, and patent reefing
+topsails. It sails and manoeuvres uncommonly well, and under
+sail alone attains a speed of nine to ten knots. During the
+trial trip the steamer made seven and a half knots, but six
+to seven knots per hour may be considered the speed under
+steam. Further, there are on the vessel a powerful steam-winch,
+a reserve rudder, and a reserve propeller. The vessel
+is besides provided in the whole of the under hold with iron
+tanks, so built that they lie close to the vessel's bottom and
+sides, the tanks thus being capable of offering a powerful
+resistance in case of ice pressure. They are also serviceable
+for holding provisions, water, and coal.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn3" NAME="v1rn3">[3]</A></p>
+
+<p class="tb">We had no reason to take exception to this description,<A HREF="#v1fn4" NAME="v1rn4">[4]</A>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page11" id="v1page11"></a>[pg 11]</span>
+but, in any case, it was necessary for an Arctic campaign, such
+as that now in question, to make a further inspection of the
+vessel, to assure ourselves that all its parts were in complete
+order, to make the alterations in rig, &amp;c., which the altered
+requirements would render necessary, and finally to arrange
+the vessel, so that it might house a scientific staff, which,
+together with the officers, numbered nine persons. This work
+was done at the Karlskrona naval dockyard, under the direction
+of Captain Palander. At the same time attention was given
+to the scientific equipment, principally in Stockholm, where a
+large number of instruments for physical, astronomical, and
+geological researches was obtained from the Royal Academy
+of Sciences.</p>
+
+<p>The dietary during the expedition was fixed upon, partly
+on the ground of our experience from the wintering of 1872-73,
+partly under the guidance of a special opinion given with
+reference to the subject by the distinguished physician who
+took part in that expedition, Dr. A. Envall. Preserved provisions,<A HREF="#v1fn5" NAME="v1rn5">[5]</A>
+butter, flour, &amp;c., were purchased, part at Karlskrona,
+part in Stockholm and Copenhagen; a portion of pemmican
+was prepared in Stockholm by Z. Wikstr&ouml;m; another portion
+was purchased in England; fresh ripe potatoes<A HREF="#v1fn6" NAME="v1rn6">[6]</A> were procured
+from the Mediterranean, a large quantity of cranberry juice
+from Finland; preserved cloudberries and clothes of reindeer
+skins, &amp;c., from Norway, through our agent Ebeltoft, and so on
+&mdash;in a word, nothing was neglected to make the vessel as well
+equipped as possible for the attainment of the great object
+in view.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page12" id="v1page12"></a>[pg 12]</span>
+What this was may be seen from the following</p>
+
+<p>PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION,</p>
+
+<p>PRESENTED TO HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF SWEDEN AND
+NORWAY, <i>July</i> 1877.</p>
+
+<p>The exploring expeditions, which, during the recent decades,
+have gone out from Sweden towards the north, have long ago
+acquired a truly national importance, through the lively interest
+that has been taken in them everywhere, beyond, as well as
+within, the fatherland; through the considerable sums of money
+that have been spent on them by the State, and above all by
+private persons; through the practical school they have formed
+for more than thirty Swedish naturalists; through the important
+scientific and geographical results they have yielded; and through
+the material for scientific research, which by them has been
+collected for the Swedish Riks-Museum, and which has made it,
+in respect of Arctic natural objects, the richest in the world.
+To this there come to be added discoveries and investigations
+which already are, or promise in the future to become, of
+practical importance; for example, the meteorological and hydrographical
+work of the expeditions; their comprehensive inquiries
+regarding the Seal and Whale Fisheries in the Polar Seas; the
+pointing out of the previously unsuspected richness in fish, of
+the coasts of Spitzbergen; the discoveries, on Bear Island and
+Spitzbergen, of considerable strata of coal and phosphatic
+minerals which are likely to be of great economic importance
+to neighbouring countries; and, above all, the success of the two
+last expeditions in reaching the mouths of the large Siberian
+rivers, navigable to the confines of China&mdash;the Obi and Yenisej
+&mdash;whereby a problem in navigation, many centuries old, has at
+last been solved.</p>
+
+<p>But the very results that have been obtained incite to a
+continuation, especially as the two last expeditions have opened
+a new field of inquiry, exceedingly promising in a scientific, and
+I venture also to say in a practical, point of view, namely, the
+part of the Polar Sea lying east of the mouth of the Yenisej.
+Still, even in our days, in the era of steam and the telegraph, there
+meets us here a territory to be explored, which is new to science,
+and hitherto untouched. Indeed, the whole of the immense
+expanse of ocean which stretches over 90 degrees of longitude
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page13" id="v1page13"></a>[pg 13]</span>
+from the mouth of the Yenisej past Cape Chelyuskin&mdash;the
+Promontorium Tabin of the old geographers&mdash;has, if we except
+voyages in large or small boats along the coast, never yet been
+ploughed by the keel of any vessel, and never seen the funnel
+of a steamer.</p>
+
+<p>It was this state of things which led me to attempt to procure
+funds for an expedition, equipped as completely as possible,
+both in a scientific and a nautical respect, with a view to
+investigate the geography, hydrography, and natural history
+of the North Polar Sea beyond the mouth of the Yenisej, if
+possible as far as Behring's Straits. It may be affirmed without
+any danger of exaggeration, that since Cook's famous voyages
+in the Pacific Ocean, no more promising field of research has
+lain before any exploring expedition, if only the state of the
+ice permit a suitable steamer to force a passage in that sea. In
+order to form a judgment on this point, it may perhaps be
+necessary to cast a brief glance backwards over the attempts
+which have been made to penetrate in the direction which the
+projected expedition is intended to take.</p>
+
+<p>The Swedish port from which the expedition is to start will
+probably be Gothenburg. The time of departure is fixed for
+the beginning of July, 1878. The course will be shaped at first
+along the west coast of Norway, past North Cape and the
+entrance to the White Sea, to Matotschkin Sound in Novaya
+Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of a communication by sea between the rest
+of Europe and these regions, by Sir Hugh Willoughby and
+Richard Chancelor in 1553, was the fruit of the first exploring
+expedition sent out from England by sea. Their voyage also
+forms the first attempt to discover a north-east passage to
+China. The object aimed at was not indeed accomplished; but
+on the other hand, there was opened by the voyage in question
+the sea communication between England and the White Sea;
+the voyage thus forming a turning-point not only in the
+navigation of England and Russia, but also in the commerce
+of the world. It also demanded its sacrifice, Sir Hugh
+Willoughby himself, with all the men in the vessels under
+his command, having perished while wintering on the Kola
+peninsula. In our days thousands of vessels sail safely along
+this route.</p>
+
+<p>With the knowledge we now possess of the state of the ice
+in the Murman Sea&mdash;so the sea between Kola and Novaya
+Zemlya is called on the old maps&mdash;it is possible to sail during
+the latter part of summer from the White Sea to Matotschkin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page14" id="v1page14"></a>[pg 14]</span>
+without needing to fear the least hindrance from ice. For
+several decades back, however, in consequence of want of
+knowledge of the proper season and the proper course, the
+case has been quite different&mdash;as is sufficiently evident from
+the account of the difficulties and dangers which the renowned
+Russian navigator, Count L&uuml;tke, met with during his repeated
+voyages four summers in succession (1821-1824) along the west
+coast of Novaya Zemlya. A skilful walrus-hunter can now, with a
+common walrus-hunting vessel, in a single summer, sail further
+in this sea than formerly could an expedition, fitted out with
+all the resources of a naval yard, in four times as long time.</p>
+
+<p>There are four ways of passing from the Murman Sea to
+the Kara Sea, viz:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a</i>. Yugor Sound&mdash;the Fretum Nassovicum of the old Dutchmen&mdash;between
+Vaygats Island and the mainland.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>. The Kara Port, between Vaygats Island and Novaya
+Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>. Matotschkin Sound, which between 73&deg; and 74&deg; N. Lat.
+divides Novaya Zemlya into two parts, and, finally,</p>
+
+<p><i>d</i>. The course north of the double island. The course past
+the northernmost point of Novaya Zemlya is not commonly
+clear of ice till the beginning of the month of September,
+and perhaps ought, therefore, not to be chosen for an expedition
+having for its object to penetrate far to the eastward in this
+sea. Yugor Sound and the Kara Port are early free of fast
+ice, but instead, are long rendered difficult to navigate by considerable
+masses of drift ice, which are carried backwards and
+forwards in the bays on both sides of the sound by the currents
+which here alternate with the ebb and flow of the tide.
+Besides, at least in Yugor Sound, there are no good harbours,
+in consequence of which the drifting masses of ice may greatly
+inconvenience the vessels, which by these routes attempt to
+enter the Kara Sea. Matotschkin Sound, again, forms a
+channel nearly 100 kilometres long, deep and clear, with the
+exception of a couple of shoals, the position of which is known,
+which indeed is not usually free from fast ice until the latter
+half of July, but, on the other hand, in consequence of the
+configuration of the coast, is less subject to be obstructed by
+drift ice than the southern straits. There are good harbours
+at the eastern mouth of the sound. In 1875 and 1876 both
+the sound and the sea lying off it were completely open in
+the end of August, but the ice was much earlier broken up
+also on the eastern side, so that a vessel could without
+danger make its way among the scattered pieces of drift ice.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page15" id="v1page15"></a>[pg 15]</span>
+The part of Novaya Zemlya which is first visited by the
+walrus-hunters in spring is usually just the west coast off
+Matotschkin.</p>
+
+<p>In case unusual weather does not prevail in the regions
+in question during the course of early and mid-summer, 1878&mdash;
+for instance, very steady southerly winds, which would early
+drive the drift ice away from the coast of the mainland&mdash;I
+consider, on the grounds which I have stated above, that it
+will be safest for the expedition to choose the course by
+Matotschkin Sound.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot, however, reckon on having, so early as the beginning
+of August, open water <i>direct</i> to Port Dickson at the
+mouth of the Yenisej, but must be prepared to make a considerable
+detour towards the south in order to avoid the masses
+of drift ice, which are to be met with in the Kara Sea up to the
+beginning of September. The few days' delay which may be
+caused by the state of the ice here, will afford, besides, to the
+expedition an opportunity for valuable work in examining the
+natural history and hydrography of the channel, about 200
+fathoms deep, which runs along the east coast of Novaya
+Zemlya. The Kara Sea is, in the other parts of it, not deep, but
+evenly shallow (ten to thirty fathoms), yet without being fouled
+by shoals or rocks. The most abundant animal life is found in
+the before-mentioned deep channel along the east coast, and it
+was from it that our two foregoing expeditions brought home
+several animal types, very peculiar and interesting in a systematic
+point of view. Near the coast the alg&aelig;, too, are rich
+and luxuriant. The coming expedition ought, therefore, to
+endeavour to reach Matotschkin Sound so early that at
+least seven days' scientific work may be done in those
+regions.</p>
+
+<p>The voyage from the Kara Sea to Port Dickson is not attended,
+according to recent experience, with any difficulty.
+Yet we cannot reckon on arriving at Port Dickson sooner than
+from the 10th to the 15th August. In 1875 I reached this
+harbour with a sailing-vessel on the 15th August, after having
+been much delayed by calms in the Kara Sea. With a steamer
+it would have been possible to have reached the harbour, that
+year, in the beginning of the month. In 1876 the state of the
+ice was less favourable, in consequence of a cold summer and a
+prevalence of north-east winds, but even then I arrived at
+the mouth of the Yenisej on the 15th August.</p>
+
+<p>It is my intention to lie to at Port Dickson, at least for some
+hours, in order to deposit letters on one of the neighbouring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page16" id="v1page16"></a>[pg 16]</span>
+islands in case, as is probable, I have no opportunity of meeting
+there some vessel sent out from Yeniseisk, by which accounts
+of the expedition may be sent home.</p>
+
+<p>Actual observations regarding the hydrography of the coast
+between the mouth of the Yenisej and Cape Chelyuskin are
+for the present nearly wholly wanting, seeing that, as I have
+already stated, no large vessel has ever sailed from this neighbourhood.
+Even about the boat voyages of the Russians along
+the coast we know exceedingly little, and from their unsuccessful
+attempts to force a passage here we may by no means draw any
+unfavourable conclusion as to the navigability of the sea during
+certain seasons of the year. If, with a knowledge of the resources
+for the equipment of naval expeditions which Siberia now
+possesses, we seek to form an idea of the equipment of the
+Russian expeditions<A HREF="#v1fn7" NAME="v1rn7">[7]</A> sent out with extraordinary perseverance
+during the years 1734-1743 by different routes to the north
+coast of Siberia, the correctness of this assertion ought to be
+easily perceived. There is good reason to expect that a well-equipped
+steamer will be able to penetrate far beyond the point
+where they were compelled to return with their small but
+numerously manned craft, too fragile to encounter ice, and unsuitable
+for the open sea, being generally held together with
+willows.</p>
+
+<p>There are, besides these, only three sea voyages, or perhaps
+more correctly coast journeys, known in this part of the Kara
+Sea, all under the leadership of the mates Minin and Sterlegoff.
+The first attempt was made in 1738 in a &quot;double sloop,&quot; 70 feet
+long, 17 broad, and 7-1/2 deep, built at Tobolsk and transported
+thence to the Yenisej by Lieutenant Owzyn. With this vessel
+Minin penetrated off the Yenisej to 72&deg;53' N.L. Hence a jolly
+boat was sent farther towards the north, but it too was compelled,
+by want of provisions, to return before the point named
+by me, Port Dickson, was reached. The following year a new
+attempt was made, without a greater distance being traversed
+than the summer before. Finally in the year 1740 the Russians
+succeeded in reaching, with the double sloop already mentioned,
+75&deg; 15' N. L., after having survived great dangers from a heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page17" id="v1page17"></a>[pg 17]</span>
+sea at the river mouth. On the 2nd September, just as the
+most advantageous season for navigation in these waters had
+begun, they returned, principally on account of the lateness of
+the season.</p>
+
+<p>There are, besides, two statements founded on actual observations
+regarding the state of the ice on this coast. For Middendorff,
+the Academician, during his famous journey of exploration
+in North Siberia, reached from land the sea coast at Tajmur Bay
+(75&deg; 40' N.L.), and <i>found the sea on the 25th August</i>, 1843, <i>free
+of ice as far as the eye could reach from the chain of heights along
+the coast</i>.<A HREF="#v1fn8" NAME="v1rn8">[8]</A> Middendorff, besides, states that the Yakoot Fomin,
+the only person who had passed a winter at Tajmur Bay, declared
+that the ice loosens in the sea lying off it in the first half of
+August, and that it is driven away from the beach by southerly
+winds, yet not further than that the edge of the ice can be
+seen from the heights along the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The land between the Tajmur and Cape Chelyuskin was
+mapped by means of <i>sledge</i> journeys along the coast by mate
+Chelyuskin in the year 1742. It is now completely established
+that the northernmost promontory of Asia was discovered by
+him in the month of May in the year already mentioned,
+and at that time the sea in its neighbourhood was of course
+covered with ice. We have no observation as to the state of
+the ice during summer or autumn in the sea lying immediately
+to the west of Cape Chelyuskin; but, as the question
+relates to the possibility of navigating this sea, this is the
+place to draw attention to the fact that Prontschischev, on
+the 1st September, 1736, in an open sea, with coasting craft
+<i>from the east</i>, very nearly reached the north point of Asia,
+which is supposed to be situated in 77&deg; 34' N. Lat. and 105&deg;
+E. Long., and that the Norwegian walrus-hunters during
+late autumn have repeatedly sailed far to the eastward from
+the north point of Novaya Zemlya (77&deg; N. Lat., and 68&deg; E.
+Long.), <i>without meeting with any ice</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been already stated, it is evident that for the
+present we do not possess any complete knowledge, founded on
+actual observations, of the hydrography of the stretch of coast
+between the Yenisej and Cape Chelyuskin. I, however, consider
+that during September, and possibly the latter half of August,
+we ought to be able to reckon with complete certainty on having
+here ice-free water, or at least a broad, open channel along the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page18" id="v1page18"></a>[pg 18]</span>
+coast, from the enormous masses of warm water, which the rivers
+Obi, Irtisch, and Yenisej, running up through the steppes of High
+Asia, here pour into the ocean, after having received water from
+a river territory, everywhere strongly heated during the month
+of August, and more extensive than that of all the rivers put
+together, which fall into the Mediterranean and the Black
+Seas.</p>
+
+<p>Between Port Dickson and White Island, there runs therefore
+a strong fresh-water current, at first in a northerly direction.
+The influence which the rotation of the earth exercises, in these
+high latitudes, on streams which run approximately in the
+direction of the meridian, is, however, very considerable, and
+gives to those coming from the south an easterly bend. In
+consequence of this, the river water of the Ohi and Yenisej
+must be confined as in a proper river channel, at first along
+the coast of the Tajmur country, until the current is allowed
+beyond Cape Chelyuskin to flow unhindered towards the
+north-east or east. Near the mouths of the large rivers I
+have, during calm weather in this current, in about 74&deg;
+N.L., observed the temperature rising off the Yenisej to
++9.4&deg; C. (17th August, 1875), and off the Obi to +8&deg;C.
+(10th August of the same year). As is usually the case, this
+current coming from the south produces both a cold undercurrent,
+which in stormy weather readily mixes with the surface
+water and cools it, and on the surface a northerly cold ice-bestrewn
+counter-current, which, in consequence of the earth's
+rotation, takes a bend to the west, and which evidently runs
+from the opening between Cape Chelyuskin and the northern
+extremity of Novaya Zemlya, towards the east side of this
+island, and perhaps may be the cause why the large masses of
+drift ice are pressed during summer against the east coast of
+Novaya Zemlya. According to my own experience and the
+uniform testimony of the walrus-hunters, <i>this ice melts away
+almost completely during autumn</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In order to judge of the distance at which the current coming
+from the Obi and the Yenisej can drive away the drift ice, we
+ought to remember that even a very weak current exerts an
+influence on the position of the ice, and that, for instance, the
+current from the Plata River, whose volume of water, however,
+is not perhaps so great as that of the Obi and Yenisej, is still
+clearly perceptible at a distance of 1,500 kilometres from the
+river mouth, that is to say, about three times as far as from
+Port Dickson to Cape Chelyuskin. The only bay which can be
+compared to the Kara Sea in respect of the area, which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page19" id="v1page19"></a>[pg 19]</span>
+intersected by the rivers running into it, is the Gulf of Mexico.<A HREF="#v1fn9" NAME="v1rn9">[9]</A>
+The river currents from this bay appear to contribute greatly
+to the Gulf Stream.</p>
+
+<p>The winds which, during the autumn months, often blow in
+these regions from the north-east, perhaps also, in some degree,
+contribute to keep a broad channel, along the coast in question,
+nearly ice-free.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge we possess regarding the navigable water
+to the east of Cape Chelyuskin towards the Lena, is mainly
+founded on the observations of the expeditions which were sent
+out by the Russian Government, before the middle of last
+century, to survey the northern part of Asia. In order to form
+a correct judgment of the results obtained, we must, while
+fully recognising the great courage, the extraordinary perseverance,
+and the power of bearing sufferings and overcoming
+difficulties of all kinds, which have always distinguished the
+Russian Polar explorers, always keep in mind that the voyages
+were carried out with small sailing-vessels of a build, which,
+according to modern requirements, is quite unsuitable for vessels
+intended for the open sea, and altogether too weak to stand
+collision with ice. They wanted, besides, not only the powerful
+auxiliary of our time, steam, but also a proper sail rig, fitted
+for actual manoeuvring, and were for the most part manned
+with crews from the banks of the Siberian rivers, who never
+before had seen the water of the ocean, experienced a high
+sea, or tried sailing among sea ice. When the requisite
+attention is given to these circumstances, it appears to me
+that the voyages referred to below show positively that even
+here we ought to be able during autumn to reckon upon a
+navigable sea.</p>
+
+<p>The expeditions along the coast, east of Cape Chelyuskin,
+started from the town Yakoutsk, on the bank of the Lena, in
+62&deg; N. L., upwards of 900 miles from the mouth of the river.
+Here also were built the vessels which were used for these
+voyages.</p>
+
+<p>The first started in 1735, under the command of Marine-Lieutenant
+Prontschischev. After having sailed down the river,
+and passed, on the 14th August, the eastern mouth-arm of the
+Lena, he sailed round the large delta of the river. On the 7th
+September he had not got farther than to the mouth of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page20" id="v1page20"></a>[pg 20]</span>
+Olonek. Three weeks had thus been spent in sailing a distance
+which an ordinary steamer ought now to be able to traverse in
+one day. Ice was seen, but not encountered. On the other
+hand, the voyage was delayed by contrary winds, probably blowing
+on land, whereby Prontschischev's vessel, if it had incautiously
+ventured out, would probably have been cast on
+the beach. The late season of the year induced Prontschischev
+to lay up his vessel for the winter here, at some summer yourts
+built by fur-hunters in 72&deg; 54' N.L. The winter passed
+happily, and the following year (1736) Prontschischev again
+broke up, as soon as the state of the ice in Olonek Bay permitted,
+which, however, was not until the 15th August. The
+course was shaped along the coast toward the north-west. Here
+drift ice was met with, but he nevertheless made rapid progress,
+so that on the 1st September he reached 77&deg; 29' N.L.,
+as we now know, in the neighbourhood of Cape Chelyuskin.
+Compact masses of ice compelled him to turn here, and the
+Russians sailed back to the mouth of the Olonek, which was
+reached on the 15th September. The distinguished commander
+of the vessel had died shortly before of scurvy, and,
+some days after, his young wife, who had accompanied him on
+his difficult voyage, also died. As these attacks of scurvy did
+not happen during winter, but immediately after the close of
+summer, they form very remarkable contributions to a judgment
+of the way in which the Arctic expeditions of that period were
+fitted out.</p>
+
+<p>A new expedition, under Marine-Lieutenant Chariton Laptev,
+sailed along the same coast in 1739. The Lena was left on the
+1st August, and Cape Thaddeus (76&deg; 47' N.L.) reached on the
+2nd September, the navigation having been obstructed by drift
+ice only off Chatanga Bay. Cape Thaddeus is situated only
+fifty or sixty English miles from Cape Chelyuskin. They turned
+here, partly on account of the masses of drift ice which barred
+the way, partly on account of the late season of the year, and
+wintered at the head of Chatanga Bay, which was reached on the
+8th September. Next year Laptev attempted to return along
+the coast to the Lena, but his vessel was nipped by drift ice
+off the mouth of the Olonek. After many difficulties and
+dangers, all the men succeeded in reaching safely the winter
+quarters of the former year. Both from this point and from
+the Yenisej, Laptev himself and his second in command, Chelyuskin,
+and the surveyor, Tschekin, the following year made a
+number of sledge journeys, in order to survey the peninsula which
+projects farthest to the north-west from the mainland of Asia.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page21" id="v1page21"></a>[pg 21]</span>
+With this ended the voyages west of the Lena. The northernmost
+point of Asia, which was reached from land in 1742 by
+Chelyuskin, one of the most energetic members of most of the
+expeditions which we have enumerated, could not be reached
+by sea, and still less had any one succeeded in forcing his way
+with a vessel from the Lena to the Yenisej. Prontschischev had,
+however, turned on the 1st September, 1736, only some few
+minutes, and Laptev on the 2nd September, 1739, only about 50'
+from the point named, after voyages in vessels, which clearly
+were altogether unsuitable for the purpose in view. Among
+the difficulties and obstacles which were met with during
+these voyages, not only ice, but also unfavourable and stormy
+winds played a prominent part. From fear of not being able to
+reach any winter station visited by natives, the explorers often
+turned at that season of the year when the Polar Sea is most
+open. With proper allowance for these circumstances, we may
+safely affirm that no serious obstacles to sailing round Cape
+Chelyuskin would probably have been met with in the years
+named, by any steamer properly fitted out for sailing among ice.</p>
+
+<p>From the sea between the Lena and Behring's Straits there
+are much more numerous and complete observations than from
+that further west. The hope of obtaining tribute and commercial
+profit from the wild races living along the coast tempted the
+adventurous Russian hunters, even before the middle of the 17th
+century, to undertake a number of voyages along the coast. On
+a map which is annexed to the previously quoted work of M&uuml;ller,
+founded mainly on researches in the Siberian archives, there
+is to be found a sea route pricked out with the inscription, &quot;<i>Route
+anciennement fort fr&eacute;quent&eacute;e. Voyage fait par mer en</i> 1648 <i>par
+trois vaisseaux russes, dont un est parvenu jusqu'&agrave; la Kamschatka</i>.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn10" NAME="v1rn10">[10]</A></p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the details of most of these voyages have been
+completely forgotten; and, that we have obtained some scanty
+accounts of one or other of them, has nearly always depended
+on some remarkable catastrophe, on lawsuits or other circumstances
+which led to the interference of the authorities. This
+is even the case with the most famous of these voyages, that
+of the Cossack, Deschnev, of which several accounts have been
+preserved, only through a dispute which arose between him and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page22" id="v1page22"></a>[pg 22]</span>
+one of his companions, concerning the right of discovery to a
+walrus bank on the east coast of Kamschatka. This voyage,
+however, was a veritable exploring expedition undertaken with
+the approval of the Government, partly for the discovery of some
+large islands in the Polar Sea, about which a number of reports
+were current among the hunters and natives, partly for extending
+the territory yielding tribute to the Russians, over the yet
+unknown regions in the north-east.</p>
+
+<p>Deschnev started on the 1st July, 1648, from the Kolyma in
+command of one of the seven vessels (<i>Kotscher</i>),<A HREF="#v1fn11" NAME="v1rn11">[11]</A> manned with
+thirty men, of which the expedition consisted. Concerning the
+fate of four of these vessels we have no information. It is
+probable that they turned back, and were not lost, as several
+writers have supposed; three, under the command of the
+Cossacks, Deschnev and Ankudinov, and the fur-hunter, Kolmogorsov,
+succeeding in reaching Chutskojnos through what appears
+to have been open water. Here Ankudinov's vessel was shipwrecked;
+the men, however, were saved and divided among
+the other two, which were speedily separated. Deschnev continued
+his voyage along the east coast of Kamschatka to the
+Anadir, which was reached in October. Ankudinov is also
+supposed to have reached the mouth of the Kamschatka River,
+where he settled among the natives and finally died of scurvy.</p>
+
+<p>The year following (1649) Staduchin sailed again, for seven
+days, eastward from the Kolyma to the neighbourhood of
+Chutskojnos, in an open sea, so far as we can gather from the
+defective account. Deschnev's own opinion of the possibility
+of navigating this sea may be seen from the fact, that, after
+his own vessel was lost, he had timber collected at the Anadir
+for the purpose of building new ones. With these he intended
+to send to Yakoutsk the tribute of furs which he had received
+from the natives. He was, however, obliged to desist from his
+project by an easily understood want of materials for the building
+of the new vessels; he remarks also in connection with this
+that the sea round Chutskojnos is not free of ice every year.</p>
+
+<p>A number of voyages from the Siberian rivers northward, were
+also made after the founding of Nischni Kolymsk, by Michael
+Staduchin in 1644 in consequence of the reports which were
+current among the natives at the coast, of the existence of large
+inhabited islands, rich in walrus tusks and mammoth bones,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page23" id="v1page23"></a>[pg 23]</span>
+in the Siberian Polar Sea. Often disputed, but persistently taken
+up by the hunting races, these reports have finally been verified
+by the discovery of the islands of New Siberia, of Wrangel's
+Land, and of the part of North America east of Behring's Straits,
+whose natural state gave occasion to the golden glamour of
+tradition with which the belief of the common people incorrectly
+adorned the bleak, treeless islands in the Polar Sea.</p>
+
+<p>All these attempts to force a passage in the open sea from the
+Siberian coasts northwards, failed, for the single reason, that an
+open sea with a fresh breeze was as destructive to the craft
+which were at the disposal of the adventurous, but ill-equipped
+Siberian polar explorer as an ice-filled sea; indeed, more dangerous,
+for in the latter case the crew, if the vessel was nipped, generally
+saved themselves on the ice, and had only to contend with
+hunger, snow, cold, and other difficulties to which the most
+of them had been accustomed from their childhood; but in the
+open sea the ill-built, weak vessel, caulked with moss mixed
+with clay, and held together with willows, leaked already with
+a moderate sea, and with a heavier, was helplessly lost, if a
+harbour could not be reached in time of need.</p>
+
+<p>The explorers soon preferred to reach the islands by sledge
+journeys on the ice, and thus at last discovered the whole of the
+large group of islands which is named New Siberia. The islands
+were often visited by hunters for the purpose of collecting mammoth
+tusks, of which great masses, together with the bones
+of the mammoth, rhinoceros, sheep, ox, horse, etc., are found
+imbedded in the beds of clay and sand here. Afterwards they
+were completely surveyed during Hedenstr&ouml;m's expeditions, fitted
+out by Count Rumanzov, Chancellor of the Russian Empire, in
+the years 1809-1811, and during Lieutenant Anjou's in 1823.
+Hedenstr&ouml;m's expeditions were carried out by travelling with
+dog-sledges on the ice, before it broke, to the islands, passing
+the summer there, and returning in autumn, when the sea was
+again covered with ice. As the question relates to the possibility
+of navigating this sea, these expeditions, carried out in a very
+praiseworthy way, might be expected to have great interest,
+especially through observations from land, concerning the state
+of the ice in autumn; but in the short account of Hedenstr&ouml;m's
+expeditions which is inserted in Wrangel's <i>Travels</i>, pp. 99-119, the
+only source accessible to me in this respect, there is not a single
+word on this point.<A HREF="#v1fn12" NAME="v1rn12">[12]</A> Information on this subject, so important
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page24" id="v1page24"></a>[pg 24]</span>
+for our expedition, has, however, by Mr. Sibiriakoff's care, been
+received from inhabitants of North Siberia, who earn their living
+by collecting mammoths' tusks on the group of islands in
+question. By these accounts the sea between the north coast
+of Asia and the islands of New Siberia, is every year pretty free
+of ice.</p>
+
+<p>A very remarkable discovery was made in 1811 by a member
+of Hedenstr&ouml;m's expedition, the Yakoutsk townsman Sannikov;
+for he found, on the west coast of the island Katelnoj, remains
+of a roughly-timbered winter habitation, in the neighbourhood
+of the wreck of a vessel, differing completely in build from those
+which are common in Siberia. Partly from this, partly from a
+number of tools which lay scattered on the beach, Sannikov
+drew the conclusion, that a hunter from Spitzbergen or Novaya
+Zemlya had been driven thither by the wind, and had lived there
+for a season with his crew. Unfortunately the inscription on
+a monumental cross in the neighbourhood of the hut was not
+translated.</p>
+
+<p>During the great northern expeditions,<A HREF="#v1fn13" NAME="v1rn13">[13]</A> several attempts were
+also made to force a passage eastwards from the Lena. The first
+was under the command of Lieutenant Lassinius in 1735. He
+left the most easterly mouth-arm of the Lena on the 21st of
+August, and sailed 120 versts eastward, and there encountered
+drift ice which compelled him to seek a harbour at the coast.
+Here the winter was passed, with the unfortunate result, that
+the chief himself, and most of the fifty-two men belonging
+to the expedition, perished of scurvy.</p>
+
+<p>The following year, 1736, there was sent out, in the same
+direction, a new expedition under Lieutenant Dmitri Laptev.
+With the vessel of Lassinius he attempted, in the middle of
+August, to sail eastward, but he soon fell in with a great deal of
+drift ice. So soon as the end of the month&mdash;the time when navigation
+ought properly to begin&mdash;he turned towards the Lena on
+account of ice.</p>
+
+<p>In 1739 Laptev undertook his third voyage. He penetrated
+to the mouth of the Indigirka, which was frozen over on
+the 21st September, and wintered there. The following year
+the voyage was continued somewhat beyond the mouth of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page25" id="v1page25"></a>[pg 25]</span>
+Kolyma to Cape Great Baranov, where further advance was prevented
+by drift ice on the 26th September. After having
+returned to the Kolyma, and wintered at Nischni Kolymsk, he
+attempted, the following year, again to make his way eastwards
+in some large boats built during winter, but, on account of
+fog, contrary winds, and ice, without success. In judging of the
+results these voyages yielded, we must take into consideration
+the utterly unsuitable vessels in which they were undertaken&mdash;at
+first in a double sloop, built at Yakoutsk, in 1735, afterwards
+in two large boats built at Nischni Kolymsk. If we may judge
+of the nature of these craft from those now used on the Siberian
+rivers, we ought rather to be surprised that any of them could
+venture out on a real sea, than consider the unsuccessful
+voyages just described as proofs that there is no probability of
+being able to force a passage here with a vessel of modern build,
+and provided with steam power.</p>
+
+<p>It remains, finally, for me to give an account of the attempts
+that have been made to penetrate westward from
+Behring's Straits.</p>
+
+<p>Deschnev's voyage, from the Lena, through Behring's Straits
+to the mouth of the Anadir, in 1648, became completely forgotten
+in the course of about a century, until Muller, by searches in
+the Siberian archives, recovered the details of these and various
+other voyages along the north coast of Siberia. That the
+memory of these remarkable voyages has been preserved to
+after-times, however, depends, as has been already stated, upon
+accidental circumstances, lawsuits, and such like, which led to
+correspondence with the authorities. Of other similar undertakings
+we have certainly no knowledge, although now and then
+we find it noted that the Polar Sea had in former times often
+been traversed. In accounts of the expeditions fitted out by
+the authorities, it, for instance, often happens that mention is
+made of meeting with hunters and traders, who were sailing
+along the coast in the prosecution of private enterprise. Little
+attention was, however, given to these voyages, and, eighty-one
+years after Deschnev's voyage, the existence of straits between
+the north-eastern extremity of Asia and the north-western extremity
+of America was quite unknown, or at least doubted.
+Finally, in 1729, Behring anew sailed through the Sound, and
+attached his name to it. He did not sail, however, very far (to
+172&deg; W. Long.) along the north coast of Asia, although he does
+not appear to have met with any obstacle from ice. Nearly fifty
+years afterwards Cook concluded in these waters the series of
+splendid discoveries with which he enriched geographical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page26" id="v1page26"></a>[pg 26]</span>
+science. After having, in 1778, sailed a good way eastwards
+along the north coast of America, he turned towards the west,
+and reached the 180th degree of longitude on the 29th August:
+the fear of meeting with ice deterred him from sailing further
+westward, and his vessel appears to have scarcely been equipped
+or fitted for sailing among ice.</p>
+
+<p>After Cook's time we know of only three expeditions which
+have sailed westwards from Behring's Straits. The first was an
+American expedition, under Captain Rodgers, in 1855. He
+reached, through what appears to have been open water, the
+longitude of Cape Yakan (176&deg; E. from Greenwich). The second
+was that of the English steam-whaler Long, who, in 1867, in search
+of a new profitable whale-fishing ground, sailed further west than
+any before him. By the 10th August he had reached the
+longitude of Tschaun Bay (170&deg; E. from Greenwich). He was
+engaged in whale-fishing, not in an exploring expedition, and
+turned here; but, in the short account he has given of his
+voyage, he expresses the decided conviction that a voyage from
+Behring's Straits to the Atlantic belongs to the region of possibilities,
+and adds that, even if this sea-route does not come to
+be of any commercial importance, that between the Lena and
+Behring's Straits ought to be useful for turning to account the
+products of Northern Siberia.<A HREF="#v1fn14" NAME="v1rn14">[14]</A> Finally, last year a Russian
+expedition was sent out to endeavour to reach Wrangel's Land
+from Behring's Straits. According to communications in the
+newspapers, it was prevented by ice from sailing thence, as
+well as from sailing far to the west.</p>
+
+<p>Information has been obtained through Mr. Sibiriakoff, from
+North Siberia, regarding the state of the ice in the neighbouring
+sea. The hunting in these regions appears to have now
+fallen off so seriously, that only few persons were found who
+could give any answers to the questions put.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in Yakoutsk there was only one man (a priest) who
+had been at the coast of the Polar Sea. He states that when
+the wind blows off the land the sea becomes free of ice, but
+that the ice comes back when the wind blows on to the land,
+and thereby exposes the vessels which cannot reach a safe
+harbour to great danger.</p>
+
+<p>Another correspondent states, on the ground of observations
+made during Tschikanovski's expedition, that in 1875 the
+sea off the Olonek was <i>completely</i> free of ice, but adds at the
+same time that the year in this respect was an exceptional one.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page27" id="v1page27"></a>[pg 27]</span>
+The Arctic Ocean, not only in summer, but also during winter,
+is <i>occasionally</i> free of ice, and at a distance of 200 versts from the
+coast, the sea is open even in winter, in what direction, however,
+is uncertain. The latter fact is also confirmed by Wrangel's
+journeys with dog-sledges on the ice in 1821-1823.</p>
+
+<p>A third person says, &quot;According to the information which I
+have received, the north coast, from the mouth of the Lena to
+that of the Indigirka, is free from ice from July to September.
+The north wind drives the ice towards the coast, but not in
+large masses. According to the observations of the men who
+search for mammoth tusks, the sea is open as far as the
+southern part of the New Siberia Islands. It is probable that
+these islands form a protection against the ice in the Werchnojan
+region. It is otherwise on the Kolyma coast; and if the
+Kolyma can be reached from Behring's Straits, so certainly can
+the Lena.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The circumstance that the ice during summer is driven from
+the coast by southerly winds, yet not so far but that it returns,
+in larger or smaller quantity, with northerly winds, is further
+confirmed by other correspondents, and appears to me to
+show that the New Siberian Islands and Wrangel's Land only
+form links in an extensive group of islands, running parallel with
+the north coast of Siberia, which, on the one hand, keeps the
+ice from the intermediate sea from drifting away altogether, and
+favours the formation of ice during winter, but, on the other
+hand, protects the coast from the Polar ice proper, formed to the
+north of the islands. The information I have received besides,
+refers principally to the summer months. As in the Kara
+Sea, which formerly had a yet worse reputation, the ice here,
+too, perhaps, melts away for the most part during autumn, so
+that at this season we may reckon on a pretty open sea.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the correspondents, who have given information
+about the state of the ice in the Siberian Polar Sea, concern
+themselves further with the reports current in Siberia, that
+American whalers have been seen from the coast far to the
+westward. The correctness of these reports was always denied
+in the most decided way: yet they rest, at least to some
+extent, on a basis of fact. For I have myself met with a
+whaler, who for three years in a steamer carried on trade with
+the inhabitants of the coast from Cape Yakan to Behring's
+Straits. He was quite convinced that some years at least it
+would be possible to sail from Behring's Straits to the Atlantic.
+On one occasion he had returned through Behring's Straits as
+late as the 17th October.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page28" id="v1page28"></a>[pg 28]</span>
+From what I have thus stated, it follows,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>That the ocean lying north of the north coast of Siberia,
+between the mouth of the Yenisej and Tschaun Bay, has never
+been ploughed by the keel of any proper sea-going vessel, still
+less been traversed by any steamer specially fitted out for
+navigation among ice:</p>
+
+<p>That the small vessels with which it has been attempted
+to traverse this part of the ocean never ventured very far
+from the coast:</p>
+
+<p>That an open sea, with a fresh breeze, was as destructive for
+them, indeed more destructive, than a sea covered with drift
+ice:</p>
+
+<p>That they almost always sought some convenient winter harbour,
+just at that season of the year when the sea is freest of
+ice, namely, late summer or autumn:</p>
+
+<p>That, notwithstanding the sea from Cape Chelyuskin to
+Bearing's Straits has been repeatedly traversed, no one has yet
+succeeded in sailing over the whole extent at once:</p>
+
+<p>That the covering of ice formed during winter along the coast,
+but probably not in the open sea, is every summer broken up,
+giving origin to extensive fields of drift ice, which are driven,
+now by a northerly wind towards the coast, now by a south
+wind out to sea, yet not so far but that it comes back to the
+coast after some days' northerly wind; whence it appears
+probable that the Siberian Sea is, so to say, shut off from
+the Polar Sea proper, by a series of islands, of which, for the
+present, we know only Wrangel's Land and the islands which
+form New Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it seems to me probable that a well-equipped
+steamer would be able without meeting too many
+difficulties, at least obstacles from ice, to force a passage this
+way during autumn in a few days, and thus not only solve a
+geographical problem of several centuries' standing, but also, with
+all the means that are now at the disposal of the man of science
+in researches in geography, hydrography, geology, and natural
+history, survey a hitherto almost unknown sea of enormous
+extent.</p>
+
+<p>The sea north of Behring's Straits is now visited by hundreds
+of whaling steamers, and the way thence to American and
+European harbours therefore forms a much-frequented route.
+Some few decades back, this was, however, by no means the case.
+The voyages of Behring, Cook, Kotzebue, Beechey, and others
+were then considered as adventurous, fortunate exploring expeditions
+of great value and importance in respect of science,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page29" id="v1page29"></a>[pg 29]</span>
+but without any direct practical utility. For nearly a hundred
+and fifty years the same was the case with Spangberg's voyage
+from Kamschatka to Japan in the year 1739, by which the
+exploring expeditions of the Russians, in the northernmost part
+of the Pacific Ocean, were connected with those of the Dutch
+and the Portuguese to India, and Japan; and in case our expedition
+succeeds in reaching the Suez Canal, after having circumnavigated
+Asia, there will meet us there a splendid work, which,
+more than any other, reminds us, that what to-day is declared
+by experts to be impossible, is often carried into execution
+to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>I am also fully convinced that it is not only possible to sail
+along the north coast of Asia, provided circumstances are not too
+unfavourable, but that such an enterprise will be of incalculable
+practical importance, by no means directly, as opening a new
+commercial route, but indirectly, by the impression which would
+thereby be communicated of the practical utility of a communication
+by sea between the ports of North Scandinavia and
+the Obi and Yenisej, on the one hand, and between the Pacific
+Ocean and the Lena on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Should the expedition, contrary to expectation, not succeed
+in carrying out the programme which has been arranged in its
+entirety, it ought not to be looked upon as having failed. In
+such a case the expedition will remain for a considerable time
+at places on the north coast of Siberia, suitable for scientific
+research. Every mile beyond the mouth of the Yenisej is a step
+forward to a complete knowledge of our globe&mdash;an object which
+sometime or other must be attained, and towards which it is
+a point of honour for every civilised nation to contribute in its
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Men of science will have an opportunity, in these hitherto
+unvisited waters, of answering a number of questions regarding
+the former and present state of the Polar countries, of which
+more than one is of sufficient weight and importance to lead to
+such an expedition as the present. I may be permitted here
+to refer to only a few of these.</p>
+
+<p>If we except that part of the Kara Sea which has been
+surveyed by the two last Swedish expeditions, we have for the
+present no knowledge of the vegetable and animal life in the
+sea which washes the north coast of Siberia. Quite certainly we
+shall here, in opposition to what has been hitherto supposed,
+meet with the same abundance of animals and plants as in the
+sea round Spitzbergen. In the Siberian Polar sea, the animal
+and vegetable types, so far as we can judge beforehand, exclusively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page30" id="v1page30"></a>[pg 30]</span>
+consist of survivals from the glacial period, which next preceded
+the present, which is not the case in the Polar Sea, where the
+Gulf Stream distributes its waters, and whither it thus carries
+types from more southerly regions. But a complete and exact
+knowledge of which animal types are of glacial, and which of
+Atlantic origin, is of the greatest importance, not only for zoology
+and the geography of animals, but also for the geology of Scandinavia,
+and especially for the knowledge of our loose earthy layers.</p>
+
+<p>Few scientific discoveries have so powerfully captivated the
+interest, both of the learned and unlearned, as that of the colossal
+remains of elephants, sometimes well preserved, with flesh and
+hair, in the frozen soil of Siberia. Such discoveries have more
+than once formed the object of scientific expeditions, and careful
+researches by eminent men; but there is still much that is
+enigmatical with respect to a number of circumstances connected
+with the mammoth period of Siberia, which <i>perhaps</i> was contemporaneous
+with our glacial period. Specially is our knowledge
+of the animal and vegetable types, which lived contemporaneously
+with the mammoth, exceedingly incomplete, although
+we know that in the northernmost parts of Siberia, which are
+also most inaccessible from land, there are small hills covered
+with the bones of the mammoth and other contemporaneous
+animals, and that there is found everywhere in that region so-called
+Noah's wood, that is to say, half-petrified or carbonised
+vegetable remains from several different geological periods.</p>
+
+<p>Taking a general view of the subject, we see that an
+investigation, as complete as possibly, of the geology of the
+Polar countries, so difficult of access, is a condition indispensable
+to a knowledge of the former history of our globe. In
+order to prove this I need only point to the epoch-making
+influence which has been exerted on geological theories by the
+discovery, in the rocks and earthy layers of the Polar countries,
+of beautiful fossil plants from widely separated geological
+periods. In this field too our expedition to the north coast of
+Siberia ought to expect to reap abundant harvests. There are
+besides to be found in Siberia, strata which have been deposited
+almost contemporaneously with the coal-bearing formations of
+South Sweden, and which therefore contain animal and vegetable
+petrifications which just now are of very special interest for
+geological science in our own country, with reference to the discoveries
+of splendid fossil plants which of late years have been
+made at several places among us, and give us so lively an idea
+of the sub-tropical vegetation which in former times covered the
+Scandinavian peninsula.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page31" id="v1page31"></a>[pg 31]</span>
+Few sciences perhaps will yield so important practical results
+as meteorology is likely to do at some future date&mdash;a fact, or
+rather an already partly realised expectation, which has won
+general recognition, as is shown by the large sums which in
+all civilised countries have been set apart for establishing
+meteorological offices and for encouraging meteorological research.
+But the state of the weather in a country is so
+dependent on the temperature, wind, pressure of the air, etc.,
+in very remote regions that the laws of the meteorology of a
+country can only be ascertained by comparing observations from
+the most distant regions. Several international meteorological
+enterprises have already been started, and we may almost consider
+the meteorological institutions of the different countries as
+separate departments of one and the same office, distributed over
+the whole world, through whose harmonious co-operation the
+object in view shall one day be reached. But, beyond the places
+for which daily series of observations may be obtained, there are
+regions hundreds of square miles in extent from which no
+observations, or only scattered ones, are yet to be had, and here
+notwithstanding we have just the key to many meteorological
+phenomena, otherwise difficult of explanation, within the civilised
+countries of Europe. Such a meteorological territory, unknown,
+but of the greatest importance, is formed by the Polar Sea lying
+to the north of Siberia, and the land and islands there situated.
+It is of great importance for the meteorology of Europe and of
+Sweden to obtain trustworthy accounts of the distribution of the
+land, of the state of the ice, the pressure of the air, and the
+temperature in that in these respects little-known part of the
+globe, and the Swedish expedition will here have a subject for
+investigation of direct importance for our own country.</p>
+
+<p>To a certain extent the same may be said of the contributions
+which may be obtained from those regions to our knowledge
+of terrestrial magnetism, of the aurora, etc. There are, besides,
+the examination of the flora and fauna in those countries,
+hitherto unknown in this respect, ethnographical researches,
+hydrographical work, etc.</p>
+
+<p>I have of course only been able to notice shortly the scientific
+questions which will meet the expedition during a stay of some
+length on the north coast of Siberia, but what has been said
+may perhaps be sufficient to show that the expedition, even
+if its geographical objects were not attained, ought to be a
+worthy continuation of similar enterprises which have been set
+on foot in this country, and which have brought gain to science
+and honour to Sweden.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page32" id="v1page32"></a>[pg 32]</span>
+Should the expedition again, as I hope, be able to reach
+Behring's Straits with little hindrance, and thus in a comparatively
+short time&mdash;in that case indeed the time, which on
+the way can be devoted to researches in natural history, will be
+quite too short for solving many of the scientific questions I
+have mentioned. But without reckoning the world-historical
+navigation problem which will then be solved, extensive contributions
+of immense importance ought also to be obtainable
+regarding the geography, hydrography, zoology, and botany
+of the Siberian Polar Sea, and, beyond Behring's Straits, the
+expedition will meet with other countries having a more
+luxuriant and varied nature, where other questions which
+perhaps concern us less, but are not on that account of less
+importance for science as a whole, will claim the attention
+of the observer and yield him a rich reward for his labour
+and pains. These are the considerations which formed the
+grounds for the arrangement of the plan of the expedition which
+is now in question.</p>
+
+<p>It is my intention to leave Sweden in the beginning of
+July, 1878, in a steamer, specially built for navigation among
+ice, which will be provisioned for two years at most, and
+which, besides a scientific staff of four or five persons, will
+have on board a naval officer, a physician, and at most eighteen
+men&mdash;petty officers and crew, preferably volunteers, from your
+Royal Majesty's navy. Four walrus-hunters will also be hired
+in Norway. The course will be shaped at first to Matotschkin
+Sound, in Novaya Zemlya, where a favourable opportunity
+will be awaited for the passage of the Kara Sea. Afterwards
+the voyage will be continued to Port Dickson, at the mouth
+of the Yenisej, which I hope to be able to reach in the first
+half of August. As soon as circumstances permit, the
+expedition will continue its voyage from this point in the open
+channel which the river-water of the Obi and the Yenisej must
+indisputably form along the coast to Cape Chelyuskin, possibly
+with some short excursions towards the north-west in order
+to see whether any large island is to be found between the
+northern part of Novaya Zemlya and New Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>At Cape Chelyuskin the expedition will reach the only
+part of the proposed route which has not been traversed by
+some small vessel, and this place is perhaps rightly considered
+as that which it will be most difficult for a vessel to double
+during the whole north-east passage. As Prontschischev, in
+1736, in small river craft built with insufficient means reached
+within a few minutes of this north-westernmost promontory of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page33" id="v1page33"></a>[pg 33]</span>
+our vessel, equipped with all modern appliances, ought
+not to find insuperable difficulties in doubling this point, and
+if that be accomplished, we will probably have pretty open
+water towards Behring's Straits, which ought to be reached
+before the end of September.</p>
+
+<p>If time, and the state of the ice permit, it would be desirable
+that the expedition during this voyage should make some excursions
+towards the north, in order to ascertain whether land
+is not to be found between Cape Chelyuskin and the New
+Siberian group of islands, and between it and Wrangel's Land.
+From Behring's Straits the course will be shaped, with such
+stoppages as circumstances give rise to, for some Asiatic port,
+from which accounts may be sent home, and then onwards round
+Asia to Suez. Should the expedition be prevented from
+forcing a passage east of Cape Chelyuskin, it will depend on
+circumstances which it is difficult to foresee, whether it will
+immediately return to Europe, in which case the vessel with its
+equipment and crew may be immediately available for some
+other purpose, or whether it ought not to winter in some suitable
+harbour in the bays at the mouths of the Tajmur,
+Pj&auml;sina, or Yenisej. Again, in case obstacles from ice occur east
+of Cape Chelyuskin, a harbour ought to be sought for at
+some convenient place on the north coast of Siberia, from
+which, during the following summer, opportunities would be
+found for important surveys in the Polar Sea, and during the
+course of the summer some favourable opening will also certainly
+occur, when southerly winds have driven the ice from
+the coast, for reaching Behring's Straits. Probably also, if
+it be necessary to winter, there will be opportunities of sending
+home letters from the winter station.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p053.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p053.png" alt="" ></a>
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn1" NAME="v1fn1">[1]</A> The expeditions to Spitzbergen in 1868, to Greenland in 1870, to
+Spitzbergen in 1872-73, and to the Yenisej in 1875 and 1876.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn2" NAME="v1fn2">[2]</A> The first cargo of goods from Europe to the Yenisej was taken
+thither by me in the <i>Ymer</i> in 1876. The first vessel that sailed from
+the Yenisej to the Atlantic was a sloop, <i>The Dawn</i>, built at Yeniseisk,
+commanded by the Russian merchant captain, Schwanenberg, in 1877.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn3" NAME="v1fn3">[3]</A> In order to obtain sufficient room for coal and provisions most of
+these tanks were taken out at Karlskrona.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn4" NAME="v1fn4">[4]</A> The consumption of coal, however, was reckoned by Captain Palander
+at twelve cubic feet or 0.3 cubic metre an hour, with a speed of seven
+knots.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn5" NAME="v1fn5">[5]</A> The preserved provisions were purchased part from Z. Wikstr&ouml;m of
+Stockholm, part from J.D. Beauvois of Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn6" NAME="v1fn6">[6]</A> The potatoes were to be delivered at Gothenburg on the 1st July. In
+order to keep, they had to be newly taken up and yet <i>ripe</i>. They were
+therefore procured from the south through Mr. Carl W. Boman of
+Stockholm. Of these, certainly one of the best of all anti-scorbutics,
+we had still some remaining on our arrival at Japan.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn7" NAME="v1fn7">[7]</A> A carefully written account of these voyages will be found in <i>Reise
+des Kaiserlich-russischen Flotten-Lieutenants Ferdinand von Wrangel
+l&auml;ngs der Nordk&uuml;ste von Siberien und auf dem Eismeere</i>, 1820-1824,
+bearbeitet von G. Engelhardt, Berlin, 1839; and G.P. M&uuml;ller, <i>Voyages et
+D&eacute;couvertes faites par les Russes le long des C&ocirc;tes de la Mer Glaciale</i>,
+&amp;c. Amsterdam: 1766.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn8" NAME="v1fn8">[8]</A> Th. von Middendorff, <i>Reise in dem &auml;ussersten Norden und Osten
+Siberiens,</i> vol. iv. I., pages 21 and 508 (1867).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn9" NAME="v1fn9">[9]</A> Compare von Middendorff, <i>Reise im Norden u. Osten Siberiens</i>
+(1848), part i., page 59, and a paper by von Baer, <i>Ueber das Klima des
+Tajmurlandes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn10" NAME="v1fn10">[10]</A> The map bears the title, &quot;Nouvelle carte des d&eacute;couvertes faites par
+des vaisseaux Russiens, etc., dress&eacute;e sur des m&eacute;moires authentiques de
+ceux qui ont assist&eacute; &agrave; ces d&eacute;couvertes, et sur d'autres connaissances
+dont on rend raison dans un m&eacute;moire s&eacute;par&eacute;. St. P&eacute;tersbourg &agrave; l'Acad&eacute;mie
+Imp&eacute;riale des Sciences, 1758.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn11" NAME="v1fn11">[11]</A> Pretty broad, flat-bottomed, keelless vessels, 12 fathoms long,
+generally moved forward by rowing; sail only used with fair wind
+(<i>Wrangels Reise</i>, p. 4).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn12" NAME="v1fn12">[12]</A> Wrangel's own journeys were carried out during winter, with dog
+sledges on the ice, and, however interesting in many other respects, do
+not yield any other direct contribution to our knowledge of the state of
+the ice in summer and autumn.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1fn13" NAME="v1fn13">[13]</A> This is a common name for the many Russian expeditions which,
+during the years 1734-1743, were sent into the North Polar Sea from the
+Dwina, Obi, Yenisej, Lena, and Kamschatka.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn14" NAME="v1fn14">[14]</A> <i>Petermann's Mittheilungen</i>, 1868, p. 1, and 1869, p. 32.</p>
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page34" id="v1page34"></a>[pg 34]</span>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page35" id="v1page35"></a>[pg 35]</span>
+<br>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_I"></a><h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Departure&mdash;Tromsoe&mdash;Members of the Expedition&mdash;Stay at Maosoe&mdash;Limit
+of Trees&mdash;Climate&mdash;Scurvy and Antiscorbutics&mdash;The first doubling of
+North Cape&mdash;Othere's account of his Travels&mdash;Ideas concerning the
+Geography of Scandinavia current during the first half of the sixteenth
+century&mdash;The oldest Maps of the North&mdash;Herbertstein's account of
+Istoma's voyage&mdash;Gustaf Vasa and the North-east Passage&mdash;Willoughby
+and Chancelor's voyages.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i> left the harbour of Karlskrona on the 22nd
+June, 1878. Including Lieutenants Palander and Brusewitz,
+there were then on board nineteen men belonging to the
+Swedish navy, and two foreign naval officers, who were to
+take part in the expedition&mdash;Lieutenants Hovgaard and
+Bove. The two latter had lived some time at Karlskrona
+in order to be present at the fitting out and repairing of
+the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th June the <i>Vega</i> called at Copenhagen in order to
+take on board the large quantity of provisions which had been
+purchased there. On the 26th June the voyage was resumed to
+Gothenburg, where the <i>Vega</i> anchored on the 27th. During the
+passage there was on board the famous Italian geographer, Commendatore
+CHRISTOFORO NEGRI, who, for several years back,
+had followed with special interest all Arctic voyages, and now
+had received a commission from the Government of his native
+country to be present at the departure of the <i>Vega</i> from</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page36" id="v1page36"></a>[pg 36]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p055.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p055.png" alt="TROMSOE." ></a>
+TROMSOE.
+<br>After a photograph by Glaus Knudsen, Christiania. </div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page37" id="v1page37"></a>[pg 37]</span>
+<p>Sweden, and to make himself acquainted with its equipment,
+&amp;c. At Gothenburg there embarked Docent Kjellman,
+Dr. Almquist, Dr. Stuxberg, Lieutenant Nordquist,
+and an assistant to the naturalists, who had been hired in
+Stockholm; and here were taken on board the greater part
+of the scientific equipment of the expedition, and various
+stocks of provisions, clothes, &amp;c., that had been purchased
+in Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>On the 4th July the <i>Vega</i> left the harbour of Gothenburg.
+While sailing along the west coast of Norway there blew a
+fresh head wind, by which the arrival of the vessel at Tromsoe
+was delayed till the 17th July. Here I went on board. Coal,
+water, reindeer furs<A HREF="#v1fn15" NAME="v1rn15">[15]</A> for all our men, and a large quantity of
+other stores, bought in Finmark for the expedition, were taken
+in here; and three walrus-hunters, hired for the voyage,
+embarked.</p>
+
+<p>On the 21st July the whole equipment of the <i>Vega</i> was on
+board, the number of its crew complete, all clear for departure,
+and the same day at 2.15 P.M. we weighed anchor, with lively
+hurrahs from a numerous crowd assembled at the beach, to
+enter in earnest on our Arctic voyage.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page38" id="v1page38"></a>[pg 38]</span>
+The members of the expedition on board the <i>Vega</i> were&mdash;</p>
+
+<pre>
+A.E. Nordenski&ouml;ld, Professor, in command<br>
+of the expedition........................ born 18th Nov.  1832<br>
+<br>
+A.A.L. Palander, Lieutenant, now Captain<br>
+in the Royal Swedish Navy, chief<br>
+of the steamer <i>Vega</i>......................   &quot;   2nd Oct.  1840<br>
+<br>
+F.R. Kjellman, Ph.D., Docent in Botany<br>
+in the University of Upsala, superintendent<br>
+of the botanical work of the<br>
+expedition...............................   &quot;   4th Nov.  1846<br>
+<br>
+A.J. Stuxberg, Ph.D., superintendent<br>
+of the zoological work...................   &quot;  18th April 1849<br>
+<br>
+E. Almquist, Candidate of Medicine,<br>
+medical officer of the expedition,<br>
+lichenologist............................   &quot;   8th Aug.  1852<br>
+<br>
+E.O. Brusewitz, Lieutenant in the Royal<br>
+Swedish Navy, second in command of<br>
+the vessel...............................   &quot;   1st Dec.  1844<br>
+<br>
+G. Bove, Lieutenant in the Royal Italian<br>
+Navy, superintendent of the hydrographical<br>
+work of the expedition ..................   &quot;  23rd Oct.  1853<br>
+<br>
+A. Hovgaard, Lieutenant in the Royal<br>
+Danish Navy, superintendent of the<br>
+magnetical and meteorological work<br>
+of the expedition........................   &quot;   1st Nov.  1853<br>
+<br>
+O. Nordquist, Lieutenant in the Imperial<br>
+Russian Regiment of Guards,<br>
+interpreter, assistant zoologist.........   &quot;  20th May   1858<br>
+<br>
+R. Nilsson, sailing-master ..............   &quot;   5th Jan.  1837<br>
+<br>
+F.A. Pettersson, first engineer..........   &quot;   3rd July  1835<br>
+<br>
+O. Nordstr&ouml;m, second engineer............   &quot;  24th Feb.  1855<br>
+<br>
+C. Carlstr&ouml;m, fireman ...................   &quot;  14th Dec.  1845<br>
+<br>
+O. Ingelsson, fireman....................   &quot;   2nd Feb.  1849<br>
+<br>
+O.Oeman, seaman..........................   &quot;  23rd April 1843<br>
+<br>
+G. Carlsson, seaman......................   &quot;  22nd Sep.  1843<br>
+<br>
+C. Lundgren, seaman......................   &quot;   5th July  1851<br>
+<br>
+O. Hansson, seaman.......................   &quot;   6th April 1856<br>
+<br>
+D. Asplund, boatswain, cook..............   &quot;  28th Jan.  1827<br>
+<br>
+C. J. Smaolaenning, boatswain............   &quot;  27th Sep.  1839<br>
+<br>
+C. Levin, boatswain, steward.............   &quot;  24th Jan.  1844<br>
+<br>
+P.M. Lustig, boatswain...................   &quot;  22nd April 1845<br>
+<br>
+C. Ljungstrom, boatswain.................   &quot;  12th Oct.  1845<br>
+<br>
+P. Lind, boatswain.......................   &quot;  15th Sep.  1856<br>
+</pre> </* note..come out of preformat to keep cosistant page number font size *>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page39" id="v1page39"></a>[pg 39]</span>
+<pre>
+P. O. Faeste, boatswain.................. born 23rd Sep.  1856<br>
+<br>
+S. Andersson, carpenter...................  &quot;   3rd Sep.  1847<br>
+<br>
+J. Haugan, walrus-hunter<A HREF="#v1fn16" NAME="v1rn16">[16]</A>..............  &quot;  23rd Jan.  1825<br>
+<br>
+P. Johnsen, walrus-hunter.................  &quot;  15th May   1845<br>
+<br>
+P. Sivertsen, walrus-hunter...............  &quot;   2nd Jan.  1853<br>
+<br>
+Th. A. Bostrom, assistant to the scientific<br>
+men.......................................  &quot;  21st Sep.  1857<br>
+</pre>
+
+
+<p>There was also on board the <i>Vega</i> during the voyage from
+Tromsoe to Port Dickson, as commissioner for Mr. Sibiriakoff,
+Mr. S.J. Serebrenikoff, who had it in charge to oversee the
+taking on board and the landing of the goods that were to be
+carried to and from Siberia in the <i>Fraser</i> and <i>Express</i>. These
+vessels had sailed several days before from Vardoe to Chabarova
+in Yugor Schar, where they had orders to wait for the <i>Vega</i>.
+The <i>Lena</i>, again, the fourth vessel that was placed at my
+disposal, had, in obedience to orders, awaited the <i>Vega</i> in
+the harbour of Tromsoe, from which port these two steamers
+were now to proceed eastwards in company.</p>
+
+<p>After leaving Tromsoe, the course was shaped at first within
+the archipelago to Maosoe, in whose harbour the <i>Vega</i> was to
+make some hours' stay, for the purpose of posting letters in
+the post-office there, probably the most northerly in the world.
+But during this time so violent a north-west wind began to
+blow, that we were detained there three days.</p>
+
+<p>Maosoe is a little rocky island situated in 71&deg; N. L., thirty-two
+kilometres south-west from North Cape, in a region abounding
+in fish, about halfway between Bred Sound and Mageroe Sound.
+The eastern coast of the island is indented by a bay, which
+forms a well-protected harbour. Here, only a few kilometres
+south of the northernmost promontory of Europe, are to be
+found, besides a large number of fishermen's huts, a church,
+shop, post-office, hospital, &amp;c.; and I need scarcely add, at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page40" id="v1page40"></a>[pg 40]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p059.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p059.png" alt="OLD-WORLD POLAR DRESS." ></a>
+OLD-WORLD POLAR DRESS.
+<br>Lapp, after original in the Northern Museum, Stockholm.</div>
+
+
+<p>least for the benefit of those who have travelled in the north
+of Norway, several friendly, hospitable families in whose society
+we talked away many hours of our involuntary stay in the
+neighbourhood. The inhabitants of course live on fish. All
+agriculture is impossible here. Potatoes have indeed sometimes
+yielded an abundant crop on the neighbouring Ingoe
+(71&deg; 5' N. L.), but their cultivation commonly fails, in consequence
+of the shortness of the summer; on the other hand,
+radishes and a number of other vegetables are grown with
+success in the garden-beds. Of wild berries there is found here
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page41" id="v1page41"></a>[pg 41]</span>
+the red whortleberry, yet in so small quantity that one can
+seldom collect a quart or two: the bilberry is somewhat more
+plentiful; but the grapes of the north, the cloudberry (<i>multer</i>),
+grow in profuse abundance. From an area of several square</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p060.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p060.png" alt="NEW WORLD POLAR DRESS." ></a>
+NEW WORLD POLAR DRESS.
+<br>Greenlanders, after an old painting in the Ethnographical Museum, Copenhagen.<A HREF="#v1fn17" NAME="v1rn17">[17]</A></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page42" id="v1page42"></a>[pg 42]</span>
+<p>fathoms one can often gather a couple of quarts. There is no
+wood here&mdash;only bushes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p061.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p061.png" alt="LIMIT OF TREES IN NORWAY." ></a>
+LIMIT OF TREES IN NORWAY.
+<br>At Pr&aelig;stevandet, on Tromsoen, after a photograph. </div>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of North Cape, the wood, for the
+present, does not go quite to the coast of the Polar Sea, but at
+sheltered places, situated at a little distance from the beach,
+birches,<A HREF="#v1fn18" NAME="v1rn18">[18]</A> three to four metres high, are already to be met with.
+In former times, however, the outer archipelago itself was
+covered with trees, which is proved by the tree-stems, found
+imbedded in the mosses on the outer islands on the coast of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page43" id="v1page43"></a>[pg 43]</span>
+Finmark, for instance, upon Renoe. In Siberia the limit of
+trees runs to the beginning of the estuary delta, <i>i e</i>., to about
+72&deg; N.L.<A HREF="#v1fn19" NAME="v1rn19">[19]</A> As the latitude of North Cape is 71&deg; 10', the wood
+in Siberia at several places, viz, along the great rivers, goes
+considerably farther north than in Europe. This depends partly
+on the large quantity of warm water which these rivers, in
+summer, carry down from the south, partly on the transport of
+seeds with the river water, and on the more favourable soil,
+which consists of a rich mould, yearly renewed by inundations,
+but in Norway again for the most part of rocks of granite and
+gneiss or of barren beds of sand. Besides, the limit of trees
+has a quite dissimilar appearance in Siberia and Scandinavia:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p062.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p062.png" alt="LIMIT OF TREES IN SIBERIA." ></a>
+LIMIT OF TREES IN SIBERIA.
+<br>At Boganida, after Middendorff.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page44" id="v1page44"></a>[pg 44]</span>
+<p>in the latter country, the farthest outposts of the forests towards
+the north consist of scraggy birches, which, notwithstanding
+their stunted stems, clothe the mountain sides with a very
+lively and close green; while in Siberia the outermost trees are
+gnarled and half-withered larches (<i>Larix daliurica</i>, Turez),
+which stick up over the tops of the hills like a thin grey
+brush.<A HREF="#v1fn20" NAME="v1rn20">[20]</A> North of this limit there are to be seen on the Yenisej</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p063.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p063.png" alt="THE CLOUDBERRY (RUBUS CHAM&AElig;MORUS, L.)" ></a>
+THE CLOUDBERRY (RUBUS CHAM&AElig;MORUS, L.)
+<br>Fruit of the natural size. Flowering stalks diminished. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page45" id="v1page45"></a>[pg 45]</span>
+<p>luxuriant bushes of willow and alder. That in Siberia too, the
+large wood, some hundreds or thousands of years ago, went
+farther north than now, is shown by colossal tree-stumps found
+still standing in the <i>tundra</i>, nor is it necessary now to go far
+south of the extreme limit, before the river banks are to be
+seen crowned with high, flourishing, luxuriant trees.</p>
+
+<p>The climate at Maosoe is not distinguished by any severe
+winter cold,<A HREF="#v1fn21" NAME="v1rn21">[21]</A> but the air is moist and raw nearly all the year
+round. The region would however be very healthy, did not
+scurvy, especially in humid winters, attack the population,
+educated and uneducated, rich and poor, old and young.
+According to a statement made by a lady resident on the spot,
+very severe attacks of scurvy are cured without fail by preserved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page46" id="v1page46"></a>[pg 46]</span>
+cloudberries and rum. Several spoonfuls are given to the
+patient daily, and a couple of quarts of the medicine is said
+to be sufficient for the complete cure of children severely
+attacked by the disease. I mention this new method of using
+the cloudberry, the old well-known antidote to scurvy, because
+I am convinced that future Polar expeditions, if they will avail
+themselves of the knowledge of this cure, will find that it
+conduces to the health and comfort of all on board, and that
+the medicine is seldom refused, unless it be by too obstinate
+abstainers from spirituous liquors.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It enters into the plan of this work, as the <i>Vega</i> sails along,
+to give a brief account of the voyages of the men who first
+opened the route along which she advances, and who thus, each
+in his measure, contributed to prepare the way for the voyage
+whereby the passage round Asia and Europe has now at last
+been accomplished. On this account it is incumbent on me
+to begin by giving a narrative of the voyage of discovery during
+which the northernmost point of Europe was first doubled, the
+rather because this narrative has besides great interest for
+us, as containing much remarkable information regarding the
+condition of the former population in the north of Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>This voyage was accomplished about a thousand years ago
+by a Norwegian, OTHERE, from Halogaland or Helgeland, that
+part of the Norwegian coast which lies between 65&deg; and 66&deg;
+N.L. Othere, who appears to have travelled far and wide, came
+in one of his excursions to the court of the famous English
+king, Alfred the Great. In presence of this king he gave, in a
+simple, graphic style, a sketch of a voyage which he had undertaken
+from his home in Norway towards the north and east. The
+narrative has been preserved by its having been incorporated,
+along with an account of the travels of another Norseman,
+Wulfstan, to the southern part of the Baltic, in the first chapter
+of Alfred's Anglo-Saxon reproduction of the history of PAULUS
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page47" id="v1page47"></a>[pg 47]</span>
+OROSIUS: <i>De Miseria Mundi.<A HREF="#v1fn22" NAME="v1rn22">[22]</A></i> This work has since been
+the subject of translation and exposition by a great number
+of learned men, among whom may be named here the
+Scandinavians, H.G. PORTHAN of &Aring;bo, RASMUS RASK and C-CHR.
+RAFN of Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding Othere's relations to King Alfred statements differ.
+Some inquirers suppose that he was only on a visit at the court
+of the king, others that he had been sent out by King Alfred
+on voyages of discovery, and finally, others say that he was
+a prisoner of war, who incidentally narrated his experience
+of foreign lands. Othere's account of his travels runs as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Othere told his lord, King Alfred, that he dwelt northmost
+of all the Northmen. He said that he dwelt in the land to the
+northward, along the West-Sea; he said, however, that that
+land is very long north from thence, but it is all waste, except
+in a few places where the Fins at times dwell, hunting in the
+winter, and in the summer fishing in that sea. He said that he
+was desirous to try, once on a time, how far that country extended
+due north, or whether any one lived to the north of the waste.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page48" id="v1page48"></a>[pg 48]</span>
+He then went due north along the country, leaving all the way
+the waste land on the right, and the wide sea on the left. After
+three days he was as far north as the whale-hunters go at the
+farthest. Then he proceeded in his course due north, as far as he
+could sail within another three days; then the land there inclined
+due east, or the sea into the land, he knew not which; but
+he knew that he waited there for a west wind or a little north,
+and sailed thence eastward along that land as far as he could
+sail in four days. Then he had to wait for a due north wind
+because the land inclined there due south, or the sea in on that
+land, he knew not which. He then sailed along the coast due
+south, as far as he could sail in five days. There lay a great river
+up in that land; they then turned in that river, because they
+durst not sail on up the river on account of hostility; because
+all that country was inhabited on the other side of the river.
+He had not before met with any land that was inhabited since
+he left his own home; but all the way he had waste land on his
+right, except some fishermen, fowlers, and hunters, all of whom
+were Fins: and he had constantly a wide sea to the left. The
+Beormas had well cultivated their country, but they (Othere
+and his companions) did not dare to enter it. And the Terfinna<A HREF="#v1fn23" NAME="v1rn23">[23]</A>
+land was all waste, except where hunters, fishers, or
+fowlers had taken up their quarters.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The Beormas told him many particulars both of their own
+land and of other lands lying around them; but he knew not
+what was true because he did not see it himself. It seemed to
+him that the Fins and the Beormas spoke nearly the same language.
+He went thither chiefly, in addition to seeing the
+country, on account of the walruses,<A HREF="#v1fn24" NAME="v1rn24">[24]</A> because they have very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page49" id="v1page49"></a>[pg 49]</span>
+noble bones in their teeth, of which the travellers brought some
+to the king; and their hides are very good for ship-ropes.
+These whales are much less than other whales, not being longer
+than seven ells. But in his own country is the best whale-hunting.
+There they are eight-and-forty ells long, and the largest
+are fifty ells long. Of these he said he and five others had killed
+sixty in two days.<A HREF="#v1fn25" NAME="v1rn25">[25]</A> He was a very wealthy man in those possessions
+in which their wealth consists, that is, in wild deer. He
+had at the time he came to the king, six hundred unsold tame
+deer. These deer they call rein-deer, of which there were six
+decoy rein-deer, which are very valuable among the Fins, because
+they catch the wild rein-deer with them.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;He was one of the first men in that country, yet he had not
+more than twenty horned cattle, twenty sheep and twenty swine,
+and the little that he ploughed he ploughed with horses. But their
+wealth consists mostly in the rent paid them by the Fins. That
+rent is in skins of animals and birds' feathers, and whalebone,
+and in ship-ropes made of whales'<A HREF="#v1fn26" NAME="v1rn26">[26]</A> hides, and of seals'. Every
+one pays according to his birth; the best-born, it is said, pay the
+skins of fifteen martens, and five rein-deers, and one bear's skin,
+ten ambers of feathers, a bear's or otter's skin kyrtle, and two ship-ropes,
+each sixty ells long, made either of whale or of seal hide.&quot;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page50" id="v1page50"></a>[pg 50]</span>
+<p>The continuation of Othere's narrative consists of a sketch of
+the Scandinavian peninsula, and of a journey which he undertook
+from his home towards the south. King Alfred then gives
+an account of the Dane, Wulfstan's voyage in the Baltic. This
+part of the introduction to Orosius, however, has too remote
+a connection with my subject to be quoted in this historical
+sketch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p069.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p069.png" alt="NORSE SHIP OF THE TENTH CENTURY." ></a>
+NORSE SHIP OF THE TENTH CENTURY.
+<br>Drawn with reference to the vessel found at Sandefjord in 1880, under the superintendence of
+Ingvald Undset, Assistant at the Christiania University's collection of Northern antiquities. </div>
+
+<p>It appears from Othere's simple and very clear narrative that
+he undertook a veritable voyage of discovery in order to explore
+the unknown lands and sea lying to the north-east. This
+voyage was also very rich in results, as in the course of it
+the northernmost part of Europe was circumnavigated. Nor
+perhaps is there any doubt that during this voyage Othere
+penetrated as far as to the mouth of the Dwina or at least
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page51" id="v1page51"></a>[pg 51]</span>
+of the Mesen in the land of the Beormas.<A HREF="#v1fn27" NAME="v1rn27">[27]</A> We learn from
+the narrative besides, that the northernmost part of Scandinavia
+was already, though sparsely, peopled by Lapps, whose mode of
+life did not differ much from that followed by their descendants,
+who live on the coast at the present day.</p>
+
+<a name="v1map51"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p051.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p051th.jpg" alt="Map of North Europe, from Nicholas Donis's edition of Ptolemy's Cosmographia, Ulm, 1482" ></a>
+<br>Map of North Europe, from Nicholas Donis's edition of Ptolemy's <i>Cosmographia</i>, Ulm, 1482
+</div>
+
+<a name="v1map52"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p052.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p052th.jpg" alt="Map of the North, from Jakob Ziegler's Schondia, Strassburg, 1532." ></a>
+<br>Map of the North, from Jakob Ziegler's <i>Schondia</i>, Strassburg, 1532.
+</div>
+
+<a name="v1map53"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p053.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p053th.jpg" alt="Map of North. Europe from Olai Magni Historia de gentium septentrionalium variis conditionibus, Basil, 1567." ></a>
+<br>Map of North. Europe from <i>Olai Magni Historia de gentium septentrionalium variis conditionibus</i>, Basil, 1567.
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The Scandinavian race first migrated to Finmark and settled
+there in the 13th century, and from that period there was
+naturally spread abroad in the northern countries a greater
+knowledge of those regions, which, however, was for a long time
+exceedingly incomplete, and even in certain respects less correct
+than Othere's. The idea of the northernmost parts of Europe,
+which was current during the first half of the 16th century, is
+shown by lithographed copies of two maps of the north, one
+dated 1482, the other 1532,<A HREF="#v1fn28" NAME="v1rn28">[28]</A> which are appended to this work.
+On the latter of these Greenland is still delineated as connected
+with Norway in the neighbourhood of Vardoehus. This map,
+however, is grounded, according to the statement of the author
+in the introduction, among other sources, on the statements of
+two archbishops of the diocese of Nidaro,<A HREF="#v1fn29" NAME="v1rn29">[29]</A> to which Greenland
+and Finmark belonged, and from whose inhabited parts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page52" id="v1page52"></a>[pg 52]</span>
+expeditions were often undertaken both for trade and plunder,
+by land and sea, as far away as to the land of the Beormas. It
+is difficult to understand how with such maps of the distribution
+of land in the north the thought of the north-east passage could
+arise, if voices were not even then raised for an altogether
+opposite view, grounded partly on a survival of the old idea,
+we may say the old popular belief, that Asia, Europe and
+Africa were surrounded by water, partly on stories of Indians
+having been driven by wind to Europe, along the north coast of
+Asia.<A HREF="#v1fn30" NAME="v1rn30">[30]</A> To these was added in 1539 the map of the north by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page53" id="v1page53"></a>[pg 53]</span>
+Swedish bishop OLAUS MAGNUS,<A HREF="#v1fn31" NAME="v1rn31">[31]</A> which for the first time gave
+to Scandinavia an approximately correct boundary towards the
+north. Six hundred years,<A HREF="#v1fn32" NAME="v1rn32">[32]</A> in any case, had run their course
+before Othere found a successor in Sir Hugh Willoughby; and it
+is usual to pass by the former, and to ascribe to the latter the
+honour of being the first in that long succession of men who
+endeavoured to force a passage by the north-east from the
+Atlantic Ocean to China.</p>
+
+<p>Here however it ought to be remarked that while such maps
+as those of Ziegler were published in western Europe, other and
+better knowledge of the regions in question prevailed in the north.
+For it may be considered certain that Norwegians, Russians
+and Karelians often travelled in boats on peaceful or warlike
+errands, during the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth
+century, from the west coast of Norway to the White Sea, and
+in the opposite direction, although we find nothing on record
+regarding such journeys except the account that SIGISMUND VON
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page54" id="v1page54"></a>[pg 54]</span>
+HERBERSTEIN<A HREF="#v1fn33" NAME="v1rn33">[33]</A> gives, in his famous book on Russia, of the
+voyage of GREGORY ISTOMA and the envoy DAVID from the
+White Sea to Trondhjem in the year 1496.</p>
+
+<p>The voyage is inserted under the distinctive title <i>Navigatio
+per Mare Glaciale</i><A HREF="#v1fn34" NAME="v1rn34">[34]</A> and the narrative begins with an explanation
+that Herbertstein got it from Istoma himself, who, when a youth,
+had learned Latin in Denmark. As the reasons for choosing the
+unusual, long, &quot;but safe&quot; circuitous route over the North Sea in
+preference to the shorter way that was usually taken, Istoma
+gives the disputes between Sweden and Russia, and the revolt
+of Sweden against Denmark, at the time when the voyage was
+undertaken (1496). After giving an account of his journey
+from Moscow to the mouth of the Dwina, he continues thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After having gone on board of four boats, they kept first
+along the right bank of the ocean, where they saw very high
+mountain, peaks;<A HREF="#v1fn35" NAME="v1rn35">[35]</A> and after having in this way travelled sixteen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page55" id="v1page55"></a>[pg 55]</span>
+miles, and crossed an arm of the sea, they followed the
+western strand, leaving on their right the open sea, which like
+the neighbouring mountains has its name from the river Petzora.
+They came here to a people called Fin-Lapps, who, though they
+dwell in low wretched huts by the sea, and live almost like wild
+beasts, in any case are said to be much more peaceable than the
+people who are called wild Lapps. Then, after they had passed
+the land of the Lapps and sailed forward eighty miles, they came
+to the land, Nortpoden, which is part of the dominions of the
+King of Sweden. This region the Rutheni call Kayenska
+Selma, and the people they call Kayeni. After sailing thence
+along a very indented coast which jutted out to the right, they
+came to a peninsula, called the Holy Nose,<A HREF="#v1fn36" NAME="v1rn36">[36]</A> consisting of a
+great rock, which like a nose projects into the sea. But in this
+there is a grotto or hollow which for six hours at a time
+swallows up water, and then with great noise and din casts out
+again in whirls the water which it had swallowed. Some call
+it the navel of the sea, others Charybdis. It is said that this
+whirlpool has such power, that it draws to itself ships and other
+things in its neighbourhood and swallows them. Istoma said
+that he had never been in such danger as at that place, because
+the whirlpool drew the ship in which he travelled with such
+force, that it was only by extreme exertion at the oars that
+they could escape. After passing this <i>Holy Nose</i> they came to
+a rocky promontory, which they had to sail round. After having
+waited here some days on account of head winds, the skipper
+said: 'This rock, which ye see, is called Semes, and we shall
+not get so easily past it if it be not propitiated by some offering.'
+Istoma said that he reproved the skipper for his foolish
+superstition, on which the reprimanded skipper said nothing
+more. They waited thus the fourth day at the place on account
+of the stormy state of the sea, but after that the storm
+ceased, and the anchor was weighed. When the voyage was
+now continued with a favourable wind, the skipper said: 'You
+laughed at my advice to propitiate the Semes rock, and considered
+it a foolish superstition, but it certainly would have
+been impossible for us to get past it, if I had not secretly by
+night ascended the rock and sacrificed.' To the inquiry what
+he had offered, the skipper replied: 'I scattered oatmeal
+mixed with butter on the projecting rock which we saw.'
+As they sailed further they came to another great promontory,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page56" id="v1page56"></a>[pg 56]</span>
+called Motka, resembling a peninsula. At the end of this
+there was a castle, Barthus, which means <i>vakthus</i>, watch-house,
+for there the King of Norway keeps a guard to protect his
+frontiers. The interpreter said that this promontory was so
+long that it could scarcely be sailed round in eight days, on
+which account, in order not to be delayed in this way, they
+carried their boats and baggage with great labour on their
+shoulders over land for the distance of about half a mile. They
+then sailed on along the land of the Dikilopps or wild Lapps
+to a place which is called Dront (Trondhjem) and lies 200
+miles north of<A HREF="#v1fn37" NAME="v1rn37">[37]</A> the Dwina. And they said that the prince of
+Moscow used to receive tribute as far as to this place.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The narrative is of interest, because it gives us an idea
+of the way in which men travelled along the north coast of
+Norway, four hundred years ago. It may possibly have had an
+indirect influence on the sending of Sir Hugh Willoughby's
+expedition, as the edition of Herbertstein's work printed
+at Venice in 1550 probably soon became known to the
+Venetian, Cabot, who, at that time, as Grand Pilot of England,
+superintended with great care the fitting out of the first
+English expedition to the north-east.</p>
+
+<p>There is still greater probability that the map of Scandinavia
+by Olaus Magnus, already mentioned, was known in England
+before 1553. This map is an expression of a view which before
+that time had taken root in the north, which, in opposition to
+the maps of the South-European cosmographers, assumed the
+existence of an open sea-communication in the north, between
+the Chinese Sea and the Atlantic, and which even induced
+GUSTAF VASA to attempt to bring about a north-east expedition.
+This unfortunately did not come to completion, and all that
+we know of it is contained in a letter to the Elector August of
+Saxony, from the Frenchman HUBERT LANGUET, who visited
+Sweden in 1554. In this letter, dated 1st April 1576, Languet
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page57" id="v1page57"></a>[pg 57]</span>
+says:&mdash;&quot;When I was in Sweden twenty-two years ago, King
+Gustaf often talked with me about this sea route. At last he
+urged me to undertake a voyage in this direction, and promised
+to fit out two vessels with all that was necessary for a protracted
+voyage, and to man them with the most skilful seamen, who
+should do what I ordered. But I replied that I preferred
+journeys in inhabitated regions to the search for new unsettled
+lands.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn38" NAME="v1rn38">[38]</A> If Gustaf Vasa had found a man fit to carry out
+his great plans, it might readily have happened that Sweden
+would have contended with England for the honour of opening
+the long series of expeditions to the north-east.<A HREF="#v1fn39" NAME="v1rn39">[39]</A></p>
+
+<p>England's navigation is at present greater beyond comparison
+than that of any other country, but it is not of old date. In the
+middle of the sixteenth century it was still very inconsiderable,
+and mainly confined to coast voyages in Europe, and a few
+fishing expeditions to Iceland and Newfoundland.<A HREF="#v1fn40" NAME="v1rn40">[40]</A> The great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page58" id="v1page58"></a>[pg 58]</span>
+power of Spain and Portugal by sea, and their jealousy of other
+countries rendered it impossible at that period for foreign seafarers
+to carry on traffic in the East-Asiatic countries, which
+had been sketched by Marco Polo with so attractive accounts of
+unheard-of richness in gold and jewels, in costly stuffs, in spices
+and perfumes. In order that the merchants of northern Europe
+might obtain a share of the profit, it appeared to be necessary
+to discover new routes, inaccessible to the armadas of the
+Pyrenean peninsula. Here lies the explanation of the zeal with
+which the English and the Dutch, time after time, sent out
+vessels, equipped at great expense, in search of a new way to
+India and China, either by the Pole, by the north-west, along
+the north coast of the new world, or by the north-east, along
+the north coast of the old. The voyages first ceased when the
+maritime supremacy of Spain and Portugal was broken. By
+none of them was the intended object gained, but it is remarkable
+that in any case they gave the first start to the development
+of England's ocean navigation.</p>
+
+<p>Sir HUGH WILLOUOUGHBY's in 1553 was thus the first maritime
+expedition undertaken on a large scale, which was sent from
+England to far distant seas. The equipment of the vessels
+was carried out with great care under the superintendence of
+the famous navigator, Sebastian Cabot, then an old man, who
+also gave the commander precise instructions how he should
+behave in the different incidents of the voyage. Some of these
+instructions now indeed appear rather childish,<A HREF="#v1fn41" NAME="v1rn41">[41]</A> but others
+might still be used as rules for every well-ordered exploratory
+expedition. Sir Hugh besides obtained from Edward VI. an
+<span class="pagenum">[pg 59f]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p078.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p078.png" alt="SIR HUGH WILLOUGHBY." ></a>
+SIR HUGH WILLOUGHBY.
+<br>(After a portrait in the Great Picture Hall, Greenwich.)</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page59" id="v1page59"></a>[pg 59]</span>
+<p>open letter written, in Latin, Greek, and several other languages,
+in which it was stated that discoveries and the making of commercial
+treaties were the sole objects of the expedition; and the
+people, with whom the expedition might come in contact, were
+requested to treat Sir Hugh Willoughby as they themselves
+would wish to be treated in case they should come to England.
+So sanguine were the promoters of the voyage of its success in
+reaching the Indian seas by this route, that they caused the
+ships that were placed at Sir Hugh Willoughby's disposal to be
+sheathed with lead in order to protect them from the attacks of
+the teredo and other worms.<A HREF="#v1fn43" NAME="v1rn43">[43]</A> These vessels were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p079.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p079.png" alt="SEBASTIAN CABOT." ></a>
+SEBASTIAN CABOT.
+<br>After a portrait in E. Vale Blake's Arctic Experiences, London. 1874.<A HREF="#v1fn42" NAME="v1rn42">[42]</A></div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page60" id="v1page60"></a>[pg 60]</span>
+<p>1. The <i>Bona Esperanza</i>, admiral of the fleet, of 120 tons
+burden, on board of which was Sir Hugh Willoughby, himself,
+as captain general of the fleet. The number of persons in this
+ship, including Willoughby, the master of the vessel, William
+Gefferson, and six merchants, was thirty-five.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, of 160 tons burden, the command
+of which was given to Richard Chancelor, captain and pilot
+major of the fleet. There were on board this vessel fifty men,
+including two merchants. Among the crew whose names are
+given in Hakluyt we find the name of Stephen Burrough,
+afterwards renowned in the history of the north-east passage,
+and that of Arthur Pet.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Bona Confidentia</i>, of ninety tons, under command of
+Cornelius Durfoorth, with twenty-eight men, including three
+merchants.</p>
+
+<p>The expense of fitting out the vessels amounted to a sum
+of &pound;6,000, divided into shares of &pound;25. Sir Hugh Willoughby
+was chosen commander &quot;both by reason of his goodly personage
+(for he was of tall stature) as also for his singular skill in the
+services of warre.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn44" NAME="v1rn44">[44]</A> In order to ascertain the nature of the
+lands of the east, two &quot;Tartars&quot; who were employed at the
+royal stables were consulted, but without any information
+being obtained from them. The ships left Ratcliffe the 20/10th
+May 1553.<A HREF="#v1fn45" NAME="v1rn45">[45]</A> They were towed down by the boats, &quot;the
+mariners being apparelled in watchet or skie coloured cloth,&quot;
+with a favourable wind to Greenwich, where the court then was.
+The King being unwell could not be present, but &quot;the courtiers
+came running out, and the common people flockt together,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page61" id="v1page61"></a>[pg 61]</span>
+standing very thicke upon the shoare; the Privie Consel, they
+lookt out at the windowes of the court, and the rest ran up to
+the toppes of the towers; the shippes hereupon discharge their
+ordinance, and shoot off their pieces after the maner of warre, and
+of the sea, insomuch that the tops of the hilles sounded therewith,
+the valleys and the waters gave an echo, and the mariners
+they shouted in such sort, that the skie rang again with the noise
+thereof.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn46" NAME="v1rn46">[46]</A> All was joy and triumph; it seemed as if men foresaw
+that the greatest maritime power, the history of the world
+can show, was that day born.</p>
+
+<p>The voyage itself was, however, very disastrous for Sir Hugh
+and many of his companions. After sailing along the east coast
+of England and Scotland the three vessels crossed in company
+to Norway, the coast of which came in sight the 24/14th July in
+66&deg; N.L. A landing was effected and thirty small houses were
+found, whose inhabitants had fled, probably from fear of the
+foreigners. The region was called, as was afterwards ascertained,
+&quot;Halgeland,&quot; and was just that part of Norway from which
+Othere began his voyage to the White Sea. Hence they sailed
+on along the coast. On the 6th Aug/27th July they anchored in a harbour,
+&quot;Stanfew&quot; (perhaps Steenfjord on the west coast of Lofoten),
+where they found a numerous and friendly population, with no
+articles of commerce, however, but dried fish and train oil. In the
+middle of September the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, at Senjen during
+a storm, parted company with the two other vessels. These now
+endeavoured to reach Vardoehus, and therefore sailed backwards
+and forwards in different directions, during which they came
+among others to an uninhabited, ice-encompassed land, along
+whose coast the sea was so shallow that it was impossible for
+a boat to land. It was said to be situated 480' east by north
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page62" id="v1page62"></a>[pg 62]</span>
+from Senjen, in 72&deg; N. L.<A HREF="#v1fn47" NAME="v1rn47">[47]</A> Hence they sailed first to the north,
+then to the south-east. Thus they reached the coast of Russian
+Lapland, where, on the 28/18th September they found a good
+harbour, in which Sir Hugh determined to pass the winter.
+The harbour was situated at the mouth of the river Arzina
+&quot;near Kegor.&quot; Of the further fate of Sir Hugh Willoughby and
+his sixty-two companions, we know only that during the course
+of the winter they all perished, doubtless of scurvy. The journal
+of the commander ends with the statement that immediately
+after the arrival of the vessels three men were sent south-south
+west, three west, and three south-east to search if they could
+find people, but that they all returned &quot;without finding of
+people or any similitude of habitation.&quot; The following
+year Russian fishermen found at the wintering station the ships
+and dead bodies of those who had thus perished, together with
+the journal from which the extract given above is taken, and a
+will witnessed by Willoughby,<A HREF="#v1fn48" NAME="v1rn48">[48]</A> from which it appeared that he
+himself and most of the company of the two ships were alive
+in January, 1554.<A HREF="#v1fn49" NAME="v1rn49">[49]</A> The two vessels, together with Willoughby's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page63" id="v1page63"></a>[pg 63]</span>
+corpse, were sent to England in 1555 by the merchant George
+Killingworth.<A HREF="#v1fn50" NAME="v1rn50">[50]</A></p>
+
+<p>With regard to the position of Arzina it appears from a statement
+in Anthony Jenkinson's first voyage (<i>Hakluyt</i>, p. 335) that
+it took seven days to go from Vardoehus to Swjatoinos, and that
+on the sixth he passed the mouth of the river where Sir Hugh
+Willoughby wintered. At a distance from Vardoehus of about
+six-sevenths of the way between that town and Swjatoinos,
+there debouches into the Arctic Ocean, in 68&deg;20 N.L. and 38&deg;30'
+E.L. from Greenwich, a river, which in recent maps is called
+the Varzina. It was doubtless at the mouth of this river that
+two vessels of the first North-east Passage Expedition wintered
+with so unfortunate an issue for the officers and men.</p>
+
+<p>The third vessel, the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, commanded by
+Chancelor, had on the contrary a successful voyage, and one
+of great importance for the commerce of the world. As has
+been already stated, Chancelor was separated from his companions
+during a storm in August. He now sailed alone to
+Vardoehus. After waiting there seven days for Sir Hugh
+Willoughby, he set out again, resolutely determined &quot;either
+to bring that to passe which was intended, or else to die
+the death;&quot; and though &quot;certaine Scottishmen&quot; earnestly
+attempted to persuade him to return, &quot;he held on his course
+towards that unknown part of the world, and sailed so farre that
+hee came at last to the place where hee found no night at all,
+but a continuall light and brightnesse of the sunne shining
+clearly upon the huge and mighty sea.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn51" NAME="v1rn51">[51]</A> In this way he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page65" id="v1page65"></a>[pg 65]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p084.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p084.png" alt="VARDOE IN 1594." ></a>
+VARDOE IN 1594.
+<br>After Linschoten.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page66" id="v1page66"></a>[pg 66]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p085.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p085.png" alt="VARDOE IN OUR DAYS." ></a>
+VARDOE IN OUR DAYS.
+<br>After a photograph.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page67" id="v1page67"></a>[pg 67]</span>
+<p>finally reached the mouth of the river Dwina in the White Sea,
+where a small monastery was then standing at the place where
+Archangel is now situated. By friendly treatment he soon won
+the confidence of the inhabitants, who received him with great
+hospitality. They, however, immediately sent off a courier to
+inform Czar Ivan Vasilievitsch of the remarkable occurrence.
+The result was that Chancelor was invited to the court at
+Moscow, where he and his companions passed a part of the
+winter, well entertained by the Czar. The following summer he
+returned with his vessel to England. Thus a commercial connection
+was brought about, which soon became of immense
+importance to both nations, and within a few years gave
+rise to a number of voyages, of which I cannot here give any
+account, as they have no connection with the history of the
+North-east Passage.<A HREF="#v1fn52" NAME="v1rn52">[52]</A></p>
+
+<p>Great geographer or seaman Sir Hugh Willoughby clearly
+was not, but his and his followers' voluntary self-sacrifice and
+undaunted courage have a strong claim on our admiration. Incalculable
+also was the influence which the voyages of Willoughby
+and Chancelor had upon English commerce, and on the development
+of the whole of Russia, and of the north of Norway. From
+the monastery at the mouth of the Dwina a flourishing commercial
+town has arisen, and a numerous population has settled
+on the coast of the Polar Sea, formerly so desolate. Already
+there is regular steam and telegraphic communication to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page68" id="v1page68"></a>[pg 68]</span>
+confines of Russia. The people of Vardoe can thus in a few
+hours get accounts of what has happened not only in Paris or
+London, but also in New York, the Indies, the Cape, Australia,
+Brazil, &amp;c., while a hundred years ago the post came thither only
+once a year. It was then that a journal-loving commandant took
+the step, giving evidence of strong self-command, of not &quot;devouring&quot;
+the post at once, but reading the newspapers day by day
+a year after they were published. All this is now different, and
+yet men are not satisfied. The interests of commerce and the
+fisheries require railway communication with the rest of Europe.
+That will certainly come in a few years, nor will it be long
+before the telegraph has spun its net, and regular steam
+communication has commenced along the coast of the Arctic
+Ocean far beyond the sea which was opened by Chancelor to
+the commerce of the world.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page70" id="v1page70"></a>[pg 70]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p088.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p088.png" alt="COAST LANDSCAPE FROM MATOTSCHKIN SCHAR." ></a>
+COAST LANDSCAPE FROM MATOTSCHKIN SCHAR.
+<br>After Svenske.</div>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn15" NAME="v1fn15">[15]</A> In many Polar expeditions, sealskin has been used as clothing
+instead of reindeer skin. The reindeer skin, however, is lighter and
+warmer, and ought therefore to have an unconditional preference as a
+means of protection against severe cold. In mild weather, clothing made
+of reindeer skin in the common way has indeed the defect that it is
+drenched through with water, and thereby becomes useless, but in such
+weather it is in general unnecessary to use furs. The coast Chukchis,
+who catch great numbers of seals, but can only obtain reindeer skins by
+purchase, yet consider clothing made of the latter material
+indispensable in winter. During this season they wear an overcoat of the
+same form as the Lapps' <i>pesk</i>, the suitableness of whose cut thus
+appears to be well proved. On this account I prefer the old-world Polar
+dress to that of the new, which consists of more closely fitting
+clothes. The Lapp shoes of reindeer skin (<i>renskallar, komager</i>) are, on
+the other hand, if one has not opportunity to change them frequently,
+nor time to take sufficient care of them, quite unserviceable for Arctic
+journeys.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn16" NAME="v1fn16">[16]</A> Haugan had formerly for a long series of years carried his own
+vessel to Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, and was known as one of the
+most fortunate walrus-hunters of the Norwegian Polar Sea fleet.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn17" NAME="v1fn17">[17]</A> The original of this drawing, for which I am indebted to Councillor
+of Justice H. Rink, of Copenhagen, was painted by a German painter at
+Beigen, in 1654. The painting has the following inscription:&mdash;</p>
+
+Mit Ledern Schifflein auff dem Meer<br>
+De gr&ouml;nleinder fein bein undt her<br>
+Bon Thieren undt B&ouml;gelen haben see Ire tracht<br>
+Das falte lands bon winter nacht<br>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn18" NAME="v1fn18">[18]</A> The birch which grows here is the sweet-scented birch (<i>Betula
+odorata</i>, Bechst.), not the dwarf birch (<i>Betula nana</i>, L.), which is
+found as far north as Ice Fjord in Spitzbergen (78&deg; 7' N.L.), though
+there it only rises a few inches above ground.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn19" NAME="v1fn19">[19]</A> According to Latkin, <i>Die Lena und ihr Flussgebiet (Petermann's
+Mittheilungen</i>, 1879, p. 91). On the map which accompanies Engehardt's
+reproduction of Wrangel's <i>Journey</i> (Berlin, 1839), the limit of trees
+at the Lena is placed at 71&deg; N.L.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn20" NAME="v1fn20">[20]</A> On the Kola Peninsula, and in the neighbourhood of the White Sea,
+as far as to Ural, the limit of trees consists of a species of pine
+(<i>Picea</i> <i>obovata</i>, Ledeb.), but farther east in Kamschatka again of
+birch.&mdash;Th. von Middendorff, <i>Reise in dem &auml;ussersten Norden und Osten
+Sibiriens</i>, vol. iv. p. 582.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn21" NAME="v1fn21">[21]</A> An idea of the influence exerted by the immediate neighbourhood of
+a warm ocean-current in making the climate milder may be obtained from
+the following table of the mean temperatures of the different months at
+1. Tromsoe (69&deg; 30' N. L.); 2. Fruholm, near North Cape (71&deg; 6' N. L.);
+3. Vardoe (70&deg; 22' N. L.); 4. Enontekis and Karesuando, on the river
+Muonio, in the interior of Lapland (68&deg; 26' N. L.).</p>
+
+<pre>
+                   Tromsoe        Fruholm       Vardoe         Enontekis<br>
+January........... - 4.2&deg;           -2.7&deg;        -6.0&deg;           -13.7&deg;<br>
+February.......... - 4.0            -4.7         -6.4            -17.1<br>
+March............. - 3.8            -3.2         -5.1            -11.4<br>
+April............. - 0.1            -0.9         -1.7            - 6.0<br>
+May............... + 3.2            +2.7         +1.8            + 0.9<br>
+June.............. + 8.7            +7.5         +5.9            + 8.0<br>
+July.............. +11.5            +9.3         +8.8            +11.6<br>
+August...........  +10.4            +9.9         +9.8            +12.0<br>
+September......... + 7.0            +5.8         +6.4            + 4.5<br>
+October........... + 2.0            +2.5         +1.3            - 4.0<br>
+November.......... - 1.7            -1.1         -2.1            - 9.9<br>
+December.......... - 3.2            -1.9         -4.0            -11.3<br>
+</pre>
+
+<p>The figures are taken from H. Mohn's <i>Norges Klima</i> (reprinted from O.
+F. Schubeler's <i>Voextlivet i Norge</i>, Christiania, 1879), and A. J.
+&Aring;ngstr&ouml;m, <i>Om lufttemperaturen i Enontekis</i> (&Ouml;fvers. af Vet. Akad.
+F&ouml;rhandl, 1860).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn22" NAME="v1fn22">[22]</A> Orosius was born in Spain in the fourth century after Christ, and
+died in the beginning of the fifth. He was a Christian, and wrote his
+work to show that the world, in opposition to the statements of several
+heathen writers, had been visited during the heathen period by quite as
+great calamities as during the Christian. This is probably the reason
+why his monotonous sketch of all the misfortunes and calamities which
+befell the heathen world was long so highly valued, was spread in many
+copies and printed in innumerable editions, the oldest at Vienna in
+1471. In the Anglo-Saxon translation now in question, Othere's account
+of his journey is inserted in the first chapter, which properly forms a
+geographical introduction to the work written by King Alfred. This old
+Anglo-Saxon work is preserved in England in two beautiful manuscripts
+from the ninth and tenth centuries. Orosius' history itself is now
+forgotten, but King Alfred's introduction, and especially his account of
+Othere's and Wulfstan's travels, have attracted much attention from
+inquirers, as appears from the list of translations of this part of King
+Alfred's Orosius, given by Joseph Bosworth in his <i>King Alfred's
+Anglo-Saxon version of the Compendious History of the World by Orosius</i>.
+London, 1859.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn23" NAME="v1fn23">[23]</A> By Fins are here meant Lapps; by Terfins the inhabitants of the
+Tersk coast of Russian Lapland.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn24" NAME="v1fn24">[24]</A> Walruses are still captured yearly on the ice at the mouth of the
+White Sea, not very far from the shore (cf. A. E. Nordenski&ouml;ld,
+<i>Redog&ouml;relse f&ouml;r en expedition till mynningen af Jenisej och Sibirien
+&aring;r</i> 1875, p. 23; <i>Bihang till Vetenskaps-A kad. Handl</i>. B. iv. No. 1).
+Now they occur there indeed only in small numbers, and, it appears, not
+in the immediate neighbourhood of land; but there is scarcely any doubt
+that in former days they were common on the most northerly coasts of
+Norway. They have evidently been driven away thence in the same way as
+they are now being driven away from Spitzbergen. With what rapidity
+their numbers at the latter place are yearly diminished, may be seen
+from the fact that during my many Arctic journeys, beginning in 1858, I
+never saw walruses on Bear Island or the west coast of Spitzbergen, but
+have conversed with hunters who ten years before had seen them in herds
+of hundreds and thousands. I have myself seen such herds in Hinloopen
+Strait in July 1861, but when during my journeys in 1868 and 1872-3 I
+again visited the same regions, I saw there not a single walrus.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn25" NAME="v1fn25">[25]</A> As it appears to be impossible for six men to kill sixty great
+whales in two days, this passage has caused the editors of Othere's
+narrative much perplexity, which is not wonderful if great whales, as
+the <i>Bal&aelig;na mysticetus</i> are here meant. But if the narrative relates to
+the smaller species of the whale, a similar catch may still, at the
+present day, be made on the coasts of the Polar countries. For various
+small species go together in great shoals; and, as they occasionally
+come into water so shallow that they are left aground at ebb, they can
+be killed with ease. Sometimes, too, a successful attempt is made to
+drive them into shallow water. That whales visit the coast of Norway in
+spring in large shoals dangerous to the navigator is also stated by
+Jacob Ziegler, in his work, <i>Qu&aelig; intus continentur Syria, Palestina,
+Arabia, &AElig;gyptus, Schondia, &amp;c.</i> Argentorati, 1532, p. 97.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn26" NAME="v1fn26">[26]</A> In this case is meant by &quot;whale&quot; evidently the walrus, whose skin
+is still used for lines by the Norwegian walrus-hunters, by the Eskimo,
+and the Chukchis. The skin of the true whale might probably be used for
+the same purpose, although, on account of its thickness, perhaps
+scarcely with advantage without the use of special tools for cutting it
+up.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn27" NAME="v1fn27">[27]</A> It ought to be remarked here that the distances which Othere in
+that case traversed every day, give a speed of sailing approximating to
+that which a common sailing vessel of the present day attains <i>on an
+average</i>. This circumstance, which on a cursory examination may appear
+somewhat strange, finds its explanation when we consider that Othere
+sailed only with a favourable wind, and, when the wind was unfavourable,
+lay still. It appears that he usually sailed 70' to 80' in twenty-four
+hours, or perhaps rather <i>per diem</i>.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn28" NAME="v1fn28">[28]</A> The maps are taken from <i>Ptolem&aelig;i Cosmographia latine reddita a
+Jac. Angelo, curam mapparum gerente Nicolao Donis Germano, Ulmoe</i> 1482,
+and from the above-quoted work of Jacobus Ziegler, printed in 1532. That
+portion of the latter which concerns the geography of Scandinavia is
+reprinted in <i>Geografiska Sektionens Tidskrift</i>, B.I. Stockholm, 1878.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn29" NAME="v1fn29">[29]</A> These were the Dane, Erik Valkendorff, and the Norwegian, Olof
+Engelbrektsson. The Swedes, Johannes Magnus, Archbishop of Upsala, and
+Peder Maonsson, Bishop of Vesteraos, also gave Ziegler important
+information regarding the northern countries.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn30" NAME="v1fn30">[30]</A> Of these much-discussed narratives concerning <i>Indians</i>&mdash;probably
+men from North Scandinavia, Russia, or North America, certainly not
+Japanese, Chinese, or Indians&mdash;who were driven by storms to the coasts
+of Germany, the first comes down to us from the time before the birth of
+Christ. For B.C. 62 Quintus Metellus Celer, &quot;when as proconsul he
+governed Gaul, received as a present from the King of the Baeti [Pliny
+says of the Suevi] some Indians, and when he inquired how they came to
+those countries, he was informed that they had been driven by storm from
+the Indian Ocean to the coasts of Germany&quot; (Pomponius Mela, lib. iii.
+cap. 5, after a lost work of Cornelius Nepos. Plinius, <i>Hist. Nat</i>.,
+lib. ii. cap. 67).</p>
+
+<p>Of a similar occurrence in the middle ages, the learned AEneas Sylvius,
+afterwards Pope under the name of Pius II., gives the following account
+of his cosmography:&mdash;&quot;I have myself read in Otto [Bishop Otto, of
+Freising], that in the time of the German Emperor an Indian vessel and
+Indian merchants were driven by storm to the German coast. Certain it
+was that, driven about by contrary winds, they came from the east, which
+had been by no means possible, if, as many suppose, the North Sea were
+unnavigable and frozen&quot; (Pius II., <i>Cosmographia in Asiae et Europae
+eleganti descriptione, etc</i>., Parisiis, 1509, leaf 2). Probably it is
+the same occurrence which is mentioned by the Spanish historian Gomara
+(<i>Historia general de las Indias</i>, Sarago&ccedil;a, 1552-53), with the addition,
+that the Indians stranded at L&uuml;beck in the time of the Emperor Frederick
+Barbarossa (1152-1190). Gomara also states that he met with the exiled
+Swedish Bishop Olaus Magnus, who positively assured him that it was
+possible to sail from Norway by the north along the coasts to China
+(French translation of the above-quoted work, Paris, 1587, leaf 12). An
+exceedingly instructive treatise on this subject is to be found in
+<i>Aarb&ouml;ger for nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie</i>, Kj&ouml;benhavn, 1880. It is
+written by F. Schiern, and entitled <i>Om en etnologisk Gaade fra
+Oldtiden</i>.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn31" NAME="v1fn31">[31]</A> Olaus Magnus, <i>Auslegung und Verklerung der neuen Mappen von den
+alten Goettewreich</i>, Venedig, 1539. Now perhaps (according to a
+communication from the Librarian-in-chief, G.E. Klemming) there is
+scarcely any copy of this edition of the map still in existence, but it
+is given unaltered in the 1567 Basel edition of Olaus Magnus, &quot;<i>De
+gentium septentrionalium rariis conditionibus</i>,&quot; &amp;c. The edition of the
+same work printed at Rome in 1555, on the other hand, has a map, which
+differs a little from the original map of 1539.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn32" NAME="v1fn32">[32]</A> To interpret Nicol&ograve; and Antonio Zeno's travels towards the end of
+the fourteenth century, which have given rise to so much discussion, as
+Mr. Fr. Krarup has done, in such a way as if they had visited the shores
+of the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea, appears to me to be a very
+unfortunate guess, opposed to innumerable particulars in the narrative
+of the Zenos, and to the accompanying map, remarkable in more respects
+than one, which was first published at Venice in 1558, unfortunately in
+a somewhat &quot;improved&quot; form by one of Zeno's descendants. On the map
+there is the date MCCCLXXX. (Cf. <i>Zeniernes Reise til Norden, et
+Tolknings Fors&ouml;g</i>, af Fr. Krarup, Kj&ouml;benhavn, 1878; R.H. Major, <i>The
+Voyages of the Venetian Brothers Nicol&ograve; and Antonio Zeno</i>, London, 1873,
+and other works concerning these much-bewritten travels).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn33" NAME="v1fn33">[33]</A> The first edition, entitled <i>Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii,
+&amp;c.</i>, Vienna, 1549, has three plates, and a map of great value for the
+former geography of Russia. It is, however, to judge by the copy in the
+Royal Library at Stockholm, partly drawn by hand, and much inferior to
+the map in the Italian edition of the following year (<i>Comentari della
+Moscovia et parimente della Russia, &amp;c., per il Signor Sigismondo libero
+Barone in Herbetstain, Neiperg and Guetnbag, tradotti nuaomente di
+Latino in lingua nostra volgare Italiana</i>, Venetia, 1550, with two
+plates and a map, with the inscription &quot;per Giacomo Gastaldo cosmographo
+in Venetia, MDL&quot;). Von Herbertstein visited Russia as ambassador from
+the Roman Emperor on two occasions, the first time in 1517, the second
+in 1525, and on the ground of these two journeys published a sketch of
+the country, by which it first became known to West-Europeans, and even
+for Russians themselves it forms an important original source of
+information regarding the state of civilisation of the empire of the
+Czar in former times. Von Adelung enumerates in <i>Kritisch-liter&auml;rische
+&Uuml;bersicht der Reisenden in Russland bis 1700</i>, St. Petersburg and
+Leipzig, 1846, eleven Latin, two Italian, nine German, and one Bohemian
+translation of this work. An English translation has since been
+published by the Hakluyt Society.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn34" NAME="v1fn34">[34]</A> <i>Von Herbertstein</i>, first edition, leaf xxviii., in the second of
+the three separately-paged portions of the work.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn35" NAME="v1fn35">[35]</A> An erroneous transposition of mountains seen in Norway, the
+northeastern shore of the White Sea being low land.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn36" NAME="v1fn36">[36]</A> An unfortunate translation, which often occurs in old works, of
+Swjatoinos, &quot;the holy headland.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn37" NAME="v1fn37">[37]</A> Instead of &quot;north of,&quot; the true reading probably is &quot;beyond&quot; the
+Dwina.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn38" NAME="v1fn38">[38]</A> Huberti Langueti <i>Epistoloe Secretoe</i>, Hal&aelig;, 1699, i. 171. Compare
+also a paper by A. G. Ahlquist, in <i>Ny Illustrerad Tidning</i> for 1875, p.
+270.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn39" NAME="v1fn39">[39]</A> The first to incite to voyages of discovery in the polar regions
+was an Englishman, Robert Thorne, who long lived at Seville. Seeing all
+other countries were already discovered by Spaniards and Portuguese, he
+urged Henry VIII. in 1527 to undertake discoveries in the north. After
+reaching the Pole (going sufficiently far north) one could turn to the
+east, and, first passing the land of the Tartars, get to China and so to
+Malacca, the East Indies, and the Cape of Good Hope, and thus
+circumnavigate the &quot;whole world.&quot; One could also turn to the west, sail
+along the back of Newfoundland, and return by the Straits of Magellan
+(Richard Hakluyt, <i>The Principael Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries
+of the English Nation, &amp;c.</i>, London, 1589, p. 250). Two years before,
+Paulus Jovius, on the ground of communications from an ambassador from
+the Russian Czar to Pope Clement VII., states that Russia is surrounded
+on the north by an immense ocean, by which it is possible, if one keeps
+to the right shore, and if no land comes between, to sail to China.
+(Pauli Jovii <i>Opera, Omnia</i>, Basel, 1578, third part, p. 88; the
+description of Russia, inserted there under the title &quot;Libellus de
+legatione Basilii ad Clementem VII.,&quot; was printed for the first time at
+Rome in 1525.)</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn40" NAME="v1fn40">[40]</A> In the year 1540, London, exclusive of the Royal Navy, had no more
+than four vessels, whose draught exceeded 120 tons (Anderson, <i>Origin of
+Commerce</i>, London, 1787, vol. ii. p. 67). Most of the coast towns of
+Scandinavia have thus in our days a greater sea-going fleet than London
+had at that time.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn41" NAME="v1fn41">[41]</A> For instance Article 30: &quot;Item, if you shall see them [the
+foreigners met with during the voyage] weare Lyons or Bears skinnes,
+hauing long bowes, and arrowes, be not afraid of that sight: for such be
+worne oftentimes more to feare strangers, then for any other cause.&quot;
+(<i>Hakluyt</i>, 1st edition, p. 262.)</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn42" NAME="v1fn42">[42]</A> The endeavour to procure for this work a copy of an original
+portrait of Cabot, stated to be in existence in England, has
+unfortunately not been crowned with success.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn43" NAME="v1fn43">[43]</A> According to Clement Adams' account of the voyage. (<i>Hakluyt</i>, 1st
+edition, p. 271.)</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn44" NAME="v1fn44">[44]</A> &quot;Cum ob corporis formam (erat enim procer&aelig; statur&aelig;) tum ob
+singularem in re bellica industriam.&quot; Clement Adams' account&mdash;<i>Hakluyt,
+</i> p. 271.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn45" NAME="v1fn45">[45]</A> Ten days earlier or later are of very great importance with respect
+to the state of the ice in summer in the Polar seas. I have, therefore,
+in quoting from the travels of my predecessors, reduced the old style to
+the new.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn46" NAME="v1fn46">[46]</A> &quot;Vibrantur bombardarum fulmina, Tartari&aelig; volvuntur nubes, Martem
+sonant crepitacula, reboant summa montium juga, reboant valles, reboant
+und&aelig;, claraque Nautarum percellit sydara clamor.&quot; Clement Adams'
+account.&mdash;<i>Hakluyt</i>, p. 272.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn47" NAME="v1fn47">[47]</A> At the time when the whale-fishing at Spitzbergen commenced, Thomas
+Edge, a captain of one of the Muscovy Company's vessels, endeavoured to
+show that the land which Willoughby discovered while sailing about after
+parting company with Chancelor was Spitzbergen (<i>Purchas</i>, iii. p.
+462). The statement, which was evidently called forth by the wish to
+monopolise the Spitzbergen whale-fishing for England, can be shown to be
+incorrect. It has also for a long time back been looked upon as
+groundless. Later inquirers have instead supposed that the land which
+Willoughby saw was Gooseland, on Novaya Zemlya. For reasons which want
+of space prevents me from stating here, this also does not appear to me
+to be possible. On the other hand, I consider it highly probable that
+&quot;Willoughby's Land&quot; was Kolgujev Island, which is surrounded by shallow
+sand-banks. Its latitude has indeed in that case been stated 2&deg; too
+high, but such errors are not impossible in the determinations of the
+oldest explorers.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn48" NAME="v1fn48">[48]</A> The testator was Gabriel Willoughby, who, as merchant, sailed in
+the commander's vessel.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn49" NAME="v1fn49">[49]</A> <i>Hakluyt</i>, p. 500; <i>Purchas</i>, iii. p. 249, and in the margin of p.
+463.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn50" NAME="v1fn50">[50]</A> It is of him that it is narrated in a letter written from Moscow by
+Henrie Lane, that the Czar at an entertainment &quot;called them to his
+table, to receave each one a cuppe from his hand to drinke, and tooke
+into his hand Master George Killingworths beard, which reached over the
+table, and pleasantly delivered it the Metropolitane, who seeming to
+bless it, sad in Russe, 'this is Gods gift.'&quot;&mdash;<i>Hakluyt</i>, p. 500.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn51" NAME="v1fn51">[51]</A> As the Dwina lies to the south of Vardoehus, these remarks probably
+relate to an earlier part of the voyage than that which is referred to
+in the narrative.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn52" NAME="v1fn52">[52]</A> Writings on these voyages are exceedingly numerous. An account of
+them was published for the first time in Hakluyt, <i>The principael
+Navigations, Voiages, and Discoveries of the English Nation,
+&amp;c.</i>, London, 1589; <i>Ordinances, King Edward's Past, &amp;c.</i>., p. 259; <i>Copy
+of Sir Hugh Willoughby's Journal, with a List of all the Members of the
+Expedition</i>, p. 265; <i>Clement Adams' Account of Chancelor's Voyage</i>, p.
+270, &amp;c. The same documents were afterwards printed in Purchas'
+<i>Pilgrimage</i>, iii. p. 211. For those who wish to study the literature of
+this subject further, I may refer to Fr. von Adelung,
+<i>Kritisch-liter&auml;rische &Uuml;bersicht der Reisenden in Russland</i>, St.
+Petersburg and Leipzig, 1846, p. 200; and L. Hamel, <i>Tradesrunt der
+Aeltere 1618 in Russland</i>, St. Petersburg and Leipzig, 1847.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page71" id="v1page71"></a>[pg 71]</span>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_II"></a><h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<p>Departure from Maosoe&mdash;Gooseland&mdash;State of the Ice&mdash;The Vessels of
+the Expedition assemble at Chabarova&mdash;The Samoyed town there&mdash;The
+Church&mdash;Russians and Samoyeds&mdash;Visit to Ohabarova in 1875&mdash;Purchase
+of Samoyed Idols&mdash;Dress and Dwellings of the Samoyeds
+&mdash;Comparison of the Polar Races&mdash;Sacrificial Places and Samoyed
+Grave on Vaygats Island visited&mdash;Former accounts of the Samoyeds
+&mdash;Their place in Ethnography.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i> was detained at Maosoe by a steady head wind,
+rain, fog, and a very heavy sea till the evening of the 25th July.
+Though the weather was still very unfavourable, we then
+weighed anchor, impatient to proceed on our voyage, and
+steamed out to sea through Mageroe Sound. The <i>Lena</i> also
+started at the same time, having received orders to accompany
+the <i>Vega</i> as far as possible, and, in case separation could not be
+avoided, to steer her course to the point, Ohabarova in Yugor
+Schar, which I had fixed on as the rendezvous of the four
+vessels of the expedition. The first night, during the fog that
+then prevailed, we lost sight of the <i>Lena</i>, and did not see her
+again until we had reached the meeting place.</p>
+
+<p>The course of the <i>Vega</i> was shaped for South Goose Cape.
+Although, while at Tromsoe, I had resolved to enter the Kara
+Sea through Yugor Schar, the most southerly of the sounds
+which lead to it&mdash;so northerly a course was taken, because
+experience has shown that in the beginning of summer so
+much ice often drives backwards and forwards in the bay
+between the west coast of Vaygats Island and the mainland,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page72" id="v1page72"></a>[pg 72]</span>
+that navigation in these waters is rendered rather difficult.
+This is avoided by touching Novaya Zemlya first at Gooseland,
+and thence following the western shore of this island and Vaygats
+to Yugor Schar. Now this precaution was unnecessary; for
+the state of the ice was singularly favourable, and Yugor Schar
+was readied without seeing a trace of it.</p>
+
+<p>During our passage from Norway to Gooseland we were,
+favoured at first with a fresh breeze, which, however, fell as we
+approached Novaya Zemlya; this notwithstanding, we made
+rapid progress under steam, and without incident, except that
+the excessive rolling of the vessel caused the overturn of some
+boxes containing instruments and books, fortunately without
+any serious damage ensuing.</p>
+
+<p>Land was sighted on the 28th July at 10.30 P.M. It was
+the headland which juts out from the south of Gooseland in
+70&deg; 33' N. L. and 51&deg; 54' E. L. (Greenwich). Gooseland is a low
+stretch of coast, occupied by grassy flats and innumerable
+small lakes, which projects from the mainland of Novaya
+Zemlya between 72&deg; 10' and 71&deg; 30' N. L. The name is a translation
+of the Russian Gusinnaja Semlja, and arises from the
+large number of geese and swans (<i>Cygnus Bewickii</i>, Yarr.) which
+breed in that region. The geese commonly place their exceedingly
+inconsiderable nests on little hillocks near the small
+lakes which are scattered over the whole of Gooseland; the
+powerful swans, which are very difficult of approach by the
+hunter, on the other hand breed on the open plain. The swans'
+nests are so large that they may be seen at a great distance.
+The building material is moss, which is plucked from the
+ground within a distance of two metres from the nest, which
+by the excavation which is thus produced, is surrounded by a
+sort of moat. The nest itself forms a truncated cone, 0.6 metre
+high and 2.4 metres in diameter at the bottom. In its upper
+part there is a cavity, 0.2 metre deep and 0.6 metre broad, in
+which the four large grayish-white eggs of the bird are laid.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page73" id="v1page73"></a>[pg 73]</span>
+The female hatches the eggs, but the male also remains in the
+neighbourhood of the nest. Along with the swans and geese, a
+large number of waders, a couple of species of Lestris, an owl
+and other birds breed on the plains of Gooseland, and a few
+guillemots or gulls upon the summits of the strand cliffs. The
+avifauna along the coast here is besides rather poor. At least
+there are none of the rich fowl-fells, which, with their millions
+of inhabitants and the conflicts and quarrels which rage amongst
+them, commonly give so peculiar a character to the coast
+cliffs of the high north. I first met with true loom and
+kittiwake fells farther north on the southern shore of Besimannaja
+Bay.</p>
+
+<p>Although Gooseland, seen from a distance, appears quite level
+and low, it yet rises gradually, with an undulating surface, from
+the coast towards the interior, to a grassy plain about sixty metres
+above the sea-level, with innumerable small lakes scattered over
+it. The plain sinks towards the sea nearly everywhere with a
+steep escarpment, three to fifteen metres high, below which
+there is formed during the course of the winter an immense
+snowdrift or so-called &quot;snow-foot,&quot; which does not melt until
+late in the season. <i>There are no true glaciers here, nor any
+erratic blocks, to show that circumstances were different in former
+times</i>. Nor are any snow-covered mountain-tops visible from
+the sea. It is therefore possible at a certain season of the
+year (during the whole of the month of August) to sail from
+Norway to Novaya Zemlya, make sporting exclusions there,
+and return without having seen a trace of ice or snow. This
+holds good indeed only of the low-lying part of the south island,
+but in any case it shows how erroneous the prevailing idea of
+the natural state of Novaya Zemlya is. By the end of June
+or beginning of July the greater part of Gooseland is nearly
+free of snow, and soon after the Arctic flower-world develops
+during a few weeks all its splendour of colour. Dry, favourably
+situated spots are now covered by a low, but exceedingly rich
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page74" id="v1page74"></a>[pg 74]</span>
+flower bed, concealed by no high grass or bushes. On moister
+places true grassy turf is to be met with, which, at least when
+seen from a distance, resembles smiling meadows.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the loss of time which had been caused
+by the delay in sailing along the coast of Norway, and our stay
+at Maosoe, we were unable to land on this occasion, but
+immediately continued our course along the west coast of
+Novaya Zemlya towards Yugor Schar, the weather being for
+the most part glorious and calm. The sea was completely
+free of ice, and the land bare, with the exception of some small
+snow-fields concealed in the valleys. Here and there too along
+the steep strand escarpments were to be seen, remains of the
+winter's snow-foot, which often, when the lower stratum of
+air was strongly heated by the sun, were magnified by a strong
+mirage, so that, when seen from a distance, they resembled
+immense glaciers terminating perpendicularly towards the sea.
+Coming farther south the clear weather gave us a good view
+of Vaygats Island. It appears, when seen from the sea off the
+west coast, to form a level grassy plain, but when we approached
+Yugor Schar, low ridges were seen to run along the east side
+of the island, which are probably the last ramifications of the
+north spur of Ural, known by the name of Paj-koi.</p>
+
+<p>When we were off the entrance to Yugor Schar, a steamer
+was sighted. After much guessing, the <i>Fraser</i> was recognised. I
+was at first very uneasy, and feared that an accident had occurred,
+as the course of the vessel was exactly the opposite of that
+which had been fixed beforehand, but found, when Captain
+Nilsson soon after came on board, that he had only come out
+to look for us. The <i>Express</i> and the <i>Fraser</i> had been waiting
+for us at the appointed rendezvous since the 20th. They had
+left Vardoe on the 13th, and during the passage had met with
+as little ice as ourselves. The <i>Vega</i> and <i>Fraser</i> now made
+for the harbour at Chabarova, where they anchored on the
+evening of the 30th July with a depth of fourteen metres and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page75" id="v1page75"></a>[pg 75]</span>
+a clay bottom. The <i>Lena</i> was still wanting. We feared that
+the little steamer had had some difficulty in keeping afloat
+in the sea which had been encountered on the other side of
+North Cape. A breaker had even dashed over the side of
+the larger <i>Vega</i> and broken in pieces one of the boxes which
+were fastened to the deck. Our fears were unwarranted. The
+<i>Lena</i> had done honour to her builders at Motala works, and
+behaved well in the heavy sea. The delay had been caused by
+a compass deviation, which, on account of the slight horizontal
+intensity of the magnetism of the earth in these northern
+latitudes, was greater than that obtained during the examination
+made before the departure of the vessel from Gothenburg.
+On the 31st the <i>Lena</i> anchored alongside the other vessels, and
+thus the whole of our little Polar Sea squadron was collected at
+the appointed rendezvous.</p>
+
+<p>Chabarova is a little village, situated on the mainland, south
+of Yugor Schar, west of the mouth of a small river in which at
+certain seasons fish are exceedingly abundant. During summer
+the place is inhabited by a number of Samoyeds, who pasture
+their herds of reindeer on Vaygats Island and the surrounding
+<i>tundra</i>, and by some Russians and Russianised Fins, who come
+hither from Pustosersk to carry on barter with the Samoyeds,
+and with their help to fish and hunt in the neighbouring sea.
+During winter the Samoyeds drive their herds to more
+southern regions, and the merchants carry their wares to
+Pustosersk, Mesen, Archangel, and other places. Thus it has probably
+gone on for centuries back, but it is only in comparatively
+recent times that fixed dwellings have been erected, for they are
+not mentioned in the accounts of the voyages of the Dutch in
+these regions.</p>
+
+<p>The village, or &quot;Samoyed town&quot; as the walrus-hunters
+grandiosely call it, consists, like other great towns, of two
+portions, the town of the rich&mdash;some cabins built of wood,
+with flat turf-covered roofs&mdash;and the quarter of the common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page76" id="v1page76"></a>[pg 76]</span>
+people, a collection of dirty Samoyed tents. There is, besides, a
+little church, where, as at several places along the shore, votive
+crosses have been erected. The church is a wooden building,
+divided by a partition wall into two parts, of which the inner,
+the church proper, is little more than two and a half metres in
+height and about five metres square. On the eastern wall during
+the time the region is inhabited, there is a large number of
+sacred pictures placed there for the occasion by the hunters. One
+of them, which represented St. Nicholas, was very valuable, the
+material being embossed silver gilt. Before the lamps hung
+large dinted old copper lamps or rather light-holders, resembling
+inverted Byzantine cupolas, suspended by three chains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p094.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p094.png" alt="CHURCH OF CHABAROVA." ></a>
+CHURCH OF CHABAROVA.
+<br>After a photograph by L. Palander. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page77" id="v1page77"></a>[pg 77]</span>
+<p>They were set full of numerous small, and some few thick wax
+lights which were lighted on the occasion of our visit. Right
+above our landing-place there were lying a number of sledges
+laden with goods which the Russian merchants had procured
+by barter, and which were to be conveyed to Pustosersk the
+following autumn. The goods consisted mainly of train oil
+and the skins of the mountain fox, common fox, Polar bear,
+glutton, reindeer, and seal. The bears' skins had often a very
+close, white winter coat, but they were spoiled by the head and
+paws having been cut off. Some of the wolf skins which they
+showed us were very close and fine. The merchants had besides
+collected a considerable stock of goose quills, feathers, down,
+and ptarmigans' wings. For what purpose these last are used
+I could not learn. I was merely informed that they would be
+sold in Archangel. Perhaps they go thence to the dealers in
+fashions in Western Europe, to be afterwards used as ornaments
+on our ladies' hats. Ptarmigans' wings were bought as
+long ago as 1611 at Pustosersk by Englishmen.<A HREF="#v1fn53" NAME="v1rn53">[53]</A></p>
+
+<p>At the same time I saw, among the stocks of the merchants,
+walrus tusks and lines of walrus hide. It is noteworthy that
+these wares are already mentioned in Othere's narrative.</p>
+
+<p>As I was not myself sufficiently master of the Russian
+language, I requested Mr. Serebrenikoff to make inquiries on the
+spot, regarding the mode of life and domestic economy of the
+Russians in the neighbourhood, and I have received from him
+the following communication on the subject:&mdash;</p>
+<br>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The village consists of several cabins and tents. In the
+cabins nine Russian householders live with their servants, who
+are Samoyeds.<A HREF="#v1fn54" NAME="v1rn54">[54]</A> The Russians bring hither neither their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page78" id="v1page78"></a>[pg 78]</span>
+wives nor children. In the tents the Samoyeds live with their
+families. The Russians are from the village Pustosersk on the
+Petchora river, from which they set out immediately after
+Easter, arriving at Chabarova about the end of May, after
+having traversed a distance of between 600 and 700 versts.
+During their stay at Chabarova they employ themselves in the
+management of reindeer, in catching whales, and in carrying
+on barter with the Samoyeds. They bring with them from
+home all their household articles and commercial wares on
+sledges drawn by reindeer, and as there is a poor ruinous chapel
+there, they bring also pictures of St. Nicholas and other saints.
+The holy Nicholas also figures as a shareholder in a company
+for the capture of whales. Part of their reindeer is left during
+summer on Vaygats, and after their arrival at Chabarova they
+still pass over on the ice to that island. Towards the close of
+August, when the cold commences, the reindeer are driven
+across Yugor Schar from Vaygats to the mainland. About the
+1st October, old style, the Russians return with their reindeer
+to Pustosersk. Vaygats Island is considered by them to afford
+exceedingly good pasturage for reindeer; they therefore allow a
+number of them to winter on the island under the care of some
+Samoyed families, and this is considered the more advantageous,
+as the reindeer there are never stolen. Such thefts, on
+the contrary, are often committed by the Samoyeds on the
+mainland. For thirty years back the Siberian plague has
+raged severely among the reindeer. A Russian informed me
+that he now owned but two hundred, while some years ago he
+had a thousand; and this statement was confirmed by the other
+Russians. Men too are attacked by this disease. Two or three
+days before our arrival a Samoyed and his wife had eaten the
+flesh of a diseased animal, in consequence of which the woman
+died the following day, and the man still lay ill, and, as the
+people on the spot said, would not probably survive. Some of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page79" id="v1page79"></a>[pg 79]</span>
+the Samoyeds are considered rich, for instance the 'eldest'
+(starschina) of the tribe, who owns a thousand reindeer. The
+Samoyeds also employ themselves, like the Russians, in fishing.
+During winter some betake themselves to Western Siberia,
+where 'corn is cheap,' and some go to Pustosersk.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The nine Russians form a company (artell) for whale-fishing.
+There are twenty-two shares, two of which fall to the holy
+Nicholas, and the other twenty are divided among the shareholders.
+The company's profit for the fishing season commonly
+amounts to 1,500 or 2,000 pood train oil of the white whale
+(<i>Beluga</i>), but this season there had been no fishing on account
+of disagreements among the shareholders. For in the Russian
+'artell' the rule is, 'equal liability, equal rights,' and as the
+rich will never comply with the first part of the rule, it was
+their arrogance and greed which caused contention here, as
+everywhere else in the world.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Neither the Russians nor the Samoyeds carry on any agriculture.
+The former buy meal for bread from Irbit. The price
+of meal varies; this season it costs one rouble ten copecks per
+pood in Pustosersk. Salt is now brought from Norway to
+Mesen, where it costs fifty to sixty copecks per pood. The Samoyeds
+buy nearly everything from the Russians. There were
+many inquiries for gunpowder, shot, cheap fowling-pieces, rum,
+bread, sugar, and culinary vessels (teacups, &amp;c.). The Samoyed
+women wear clothes of different colours, chiefly red. In
+exchange for the goods enumerated above there may be obtained
+fish, train oil, reindeer skins, walrus tusks, and furs, viz, the skins
+of the red, white, and brown fox, wolf, Polar bear, and glutton.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The Russians in question are 'Old Believers,' but the
+difference between them and the orthodox consists merely in
+their not smoking tobacco, and in their making the sign of the
+cross with the thumb, the ring finger, and the little finger,
+while the orthodox Russians, on the other hand, make it with
+the thumb, the forefinger, and the middle finger. All Samoyeds
+are baptised into the orthodox faith, but they worship their
+old idols at the same time. They travel over a thousand versts
+as pilgrims to their sacrificial places. There are several such
+places on Vaygats, where their idols are to be found. The
+Russians call these idols 'bolvany.'<A HREF="#v1fn55" NAME="v1rn55">[55]</A> Both the Russians and
+Samoyeds are very tolerant in regard to matters of faith. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page80" id="v1page80"></a>[pg 80]</span>
+Russians, for instance, say that the Samoyeds attribute to their
+'bolvans' the same importance which they themselves attach
+to their sacred pictures, and find in this nothing objectionable.
+The Samoyeds have songs and sagas, relating among other
+things to their migrations.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The Samoyed has one or more wives; even sisters may
+marry the same man. Marriage is entered upon without
+any solemnity. The wives are considered by the men as having
+equal rights with themselves, and are treated accordingly, which
+is very remarkable, as the Russians, like other Christian nations,
+consider the woman as in certain respects inferior to the man.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>I visited the place for the first time in the beginning of
+August, 1875. It was a Russian holiday, and, while still a
+long way off at sea, we could see a large number of Russians
+and Samoyeds standing in groups on the beach. Coming
+nearer we found them engaged in playing various different
+games, and though it was the first time in the memory of
+man that European gentlemen had visited their &quot;town,&quot; they
+scarcely allowed themselves to be more disturbed in their occupation
+than if some stranger Samoyeds had suddenly joined
+their company. Some stood in a circle and by turns threw a
+piece of iron, shaped somewhat like a marlinspike, to the
+ground; the art consisting in getting the sharp end to strike it
+just in front of rings placed on the ground, in such a way that
+the piece of iron remained standing. Others were engaged in
+playing a game resembling our nine-pins; others, again, in
+wrestling, &amp;c. The Russians and Samoyeds played with each
+other without distinction. The Samoyeds, small of stature,
+dirty, with matted, unkempt hair, were clad in dirty summer
+clothes of skin, sometimes with a showy-coloured cotton shirt
+drawn over them; the Russians (probably originally of the
+Finnish race and descendants of the old Beormas) tall, well-grown,
+with long hair shining with oil, ornamentally parted,
+combed, and frizzled, and held together by a head band, or
+covered with a cap resembling that shown in the accompanying
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page81" id="v1page81"></a>[pg 81]</span>
+woodcut, were clad in long variegated blouses, or &quot;mekkor,&quot;
+fastened at the waist with a belt. Notwithstanding the feigned
+indifference shown at first, which was evidently considered good
+manners, we were received in a friendly way. We were first
+invited to try our luck and skill in the game in turn with the
+rest, when it soon appeared, to the no small gratification of our
+hosts, that we were quite incapable
+of entering into competition
+either with Russian or
+Samoyed. Thereupon one of
+the Russians invited us to enter
+his cabin, where we were entertained
+with tea, Russian wheaten
+cakes of unfermented dough, and
+brandy. Some small presents
+were given us with a na&iuml;ve notification
+of what would be welcome
+in their stead, a notification
+which I with pleasure complied
+with as far as my resources permitted.
+A complete unanimity
+at first prevailed between our
+Russian and Samoyed hosts, but
+on the following day a sharp dispute
+was like to arise because the
+former invited one of us to drive
+with a reindeer team standing in
+the neighbourhood of a Russian
+hut. The Samoyeds were much displeased on this account, but
+declared at the same time, as well as they could by signs, that
+they themselves were willing to drive us, if we so desired, and
+they showed that they were serious in their declaration by there
+and then breaking off the quarrel in order to take a short turn
+with their reindeer teams at a rapid rate among the tents.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v1p099.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p099.png" alt="SAMOYED WOMAN'S HOOD." ></a>
+SAMOYED WOMAN'S HOOD.
+<br>One-eighth of natural size. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page82" id="v1page82"></a>[pg 82]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p100.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p100.png" alt="SAMOYED SLEIGH." ></a>
+SAMOYED SLEIGH.
+<br>After a drawing by Hj Th&eacute;el. </div>
+
+<p>The Samoyed sleigh is intended both for winter travelling
+on the snow, and for summer travelling on the mosses and
+water-drenched bogs of the <i>tundra</i>. They are, therefore, constructed
+quite differently from the &quot;akja&quot; of the Lapp. As
+the woodcut below shows, it completely resembles a high
+sledge, the carriage consisting of a low and short box, which, in
+convenience, style, and warmth, cannot be compared to the
+well-known equipage of the Lapps. We have here two quite
+different types of sleighs. The Lapp &quot;akja&quot; appears from
+time immemorial to have been peculiar to the Scandinavian
+north; the high sleigh, on the contrary, to northern Russia.
+Thus we find &quot;akjas&quot; of the kind still in common use, delineated
+in Olaus Magnus (Rome edition, 1555, page 598);
+Samoyed sleighs, again, in the first works we have on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page83" id="v1page83"></a>[pg 83]</span>
+those regions, for instance, in HUYGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN'S
+<i>Schip-vaert van by Noorden</i>, &amp;c., Amsterdam, 1601, as a side
+drawing on the principal map. Such high sleighs are also used
+on the Kanin peninsula, on Yalmal, and in Western Siberia.</p>
+
+<p>The sleighs of the Chukchis, on the other hand as will be
+seen by a drawing given farther on, are lower, and thus more
+resemble our &quot;kaelkar,&quot; or work-sledges.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p101.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p101.png" alt="LAPP AKJA." ></a>
+LAPP AKJA.
+<br>After original in the Northern Museum, Stockholm. </div>
+
+<p>The neighbourhood of the tents swarmed with small black
+or white long-haired dogs, with pointed nose and pointed ears
+They are used exclusively for tending the herds of reindeer, and
+appear to be of the same race as the &quot;renvallhund,&quot; the reindeer
+dog. At several places on the coast of the White Sea, however,
+dogs are also employed as beasts of draught, but according
+to information which I procured before my departure for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page84" id="v1page84"></a>[pg 84]</span>
+Spitzbergen in 1872&mdash;it was then under discussion whether
+dogs should be used during the projected ice journey&mdash;these
+are of a different race, larger and stronger than the Lapp or
+Samoyed dogs proper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p102.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p102.png" alt="SAMOYED SLEIGH AND IDOLS." ></a>
+<p><i>Samoiedarum, trahis a rangiferis protractis infidentium
+Nec non Idolorum ab &yuml;sdem cultorum effigies</i>.</p>
+<br>SAMOYED SLEIGH AND IDOLS.
+<br>After an old Dutch engraving. </div>
+
+<p>Immediately after the <i>Vega</i> came to anchor, I went on land
+on this occasion also; in the first place with a view to take some
+solar altitudes, in order to ascertain the chronometer's rate of
+going; for during the voyage of 1875 I had had an opportunity
+of determining the position of this place as accurately as is
+possible with the common reflecting circle and chronometer,
+with the following result:&mdash;<br>
+The Church at Chabarova (Latitude 69&deg; 38' 50&quot;.;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+Longitude 60&deg;&nbsp; 19' 49&quot; E. from Greenwich.)<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page85" id="v1page85"></a>[pg 85]</span>
+<p>When the observations were finished I hastened to renew my
+acquaintance with my old friends on the spot. I also endeavoured
+to purchase from the Samoyeds dresses and household
+articles; but as I had not then with me goods for barter, and
+ready money appeared to be of small account with them, prices
+were very high; for instance, for a lady's beautiful &quot;pesk,&quot;
+twenty roubles; for a cap with brass ornaments, ten roubles;
+for a pair of boots of reindeer skin, two roubles; for copper
+ornaments for hoods, two roubles each; and so on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p103.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p103.png" alt="SAMOYED IDOLS." ></a>
+SAMOYED IDOLS.
+<br>One-third of natural size. </div>
+
+<p>As I knew that the Samoyeds during their wanderings
+always carry idols with them, I asked them whether they could
+not sell me some. All at first answered in the negative. It
+was evident that they were hindered from complying with my
+requests partly by superstition, partly by being a little ashamed,
+before the West European, of the nature of their gods. The
+metallic lustre of some rouble pieces which I had procured in
+Stockholm, however, at last induced an old woman to set aside
+all fears. She went to one of the loaded sledges, which appeared
+to be used as magazines, and searched for a long time till she
+got hold of an old useless skin boot, from which she drew a fine
+skin stocking, out of which at last four idols appeared. After
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page86" id="v1page86"></a>[pg 86]</span>
+further negotiations they were sold to me at a very high price.
+They consisted of a miniature &quot;pesk,&quot; with belt, without body; a
+skin doll thirteen centimetres long, with face of brass; another
+doll, with a bent piece of copper plate for a nose; and a stone,
+wrapped round with rags and hung with brass plates, a corner
+of the stone forming the countenance of the human figure it
+was intended to resemble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p104.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p104.png" alt="SAMOYED HAIR ORNAMENTS." ></a>
+SAMOYED HAIR ORNAMENTS.
+<br>One-third of natural size. </div>
+
+<p>More finely-formed gods, dolls pretty well made, with bows
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page87" id="v1page87"></a>[pg 87]</span>
+forged of iron, I have seen, but have not had the good fortune
+to get possession of. In the case now in question the traffic
+was facilitated by the circumstance that the old witch, Anna
+Petrovna, who sold her gods, was baptised, which was naturally
+taken advantage of by me to represent to her that it was wrong
+for her as a Christian to worship such trash as &quot;bolvans,&quot; and
+the necessity of immediately getting rid of them. But my arguments,
+at once sophistic and egoistic, met with disapproval, both
+from the Russians and Samoyeds standing round, inasmuch as
+they declared that on the whole there was no great difference
+between the &quot;bolvan&quot; of the Samoyed and the sacred picture
+of the Christian. It would even appear as if the Russians
+themselves considered the &quot;bolvans&quot; as representatives of some
+sort of Samoyed saints in the other world.</p>
+
+<p>When the traffic in gods was finished, though not to my full
+satisfaction, because I thought I had got too little, we were
+invited by one of the Russians, as in 1875, to drink tea in his
+cabin. This consisted of a lobby, and a room about four metres
+square, and scarcely two metres and a half high. One corner
+was occupied by a large chimney, at the side of which was the
+very low door, and right opposite the window opening, under
+which were placed some chests, serving as tea-table for the
+occasion. Along the two remaining sides of the room there
+were fastened to the wall sleeping places of boards covered with
+reindeer skin. The window appeared to have been formerly
+filled with panes of glass, but most of these were now broken,
+and replaced by boards. It need scarcely surprise us if glass
+is a scarce article of luxury here.</p>
+
+<p>We had no sooner entered the cabin than preparations for tea
+commenced. Sugar, biscuits, teacups and saucers, and a brandy
+flask were produced from a common Russian travelling trunk.
+Fire was lighted, water boiled, and tea made in the common
+way, a thick smoke and strong fames from the burning fuel
+spreading in the upper part of the low room, which for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page88" id="v1page88"></a>[pg 88]</span>
+time was packed full of curious visitors. Excepting these
+trifling inconveniences the entertainment passed off very agreeably,
+with constant conversation, which was carried on with
+great liveliness, though the hosts and most of the guests could
+only with difficulty make themselves mutually intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>Hence we betook ourselves to the skin tents of the Samoyeds
+which stood apart from the wooden huts inhabited by the
+Russians. Here too we met with a friendly reception. Several
+of the inhabitants of the tents were now clad with somewhat
+greater care in a dress of reindeer skin, resembling that of the
+Lapps. The women's holiday dress was particularly showy.
+It consisted of a pretty long garment of reindeer skin, fitting
+closely at the waist, so thin that it hung from the middle in
+beautiful regular folds. The petticoat has two or three differently
+coloured fringes of dogskin, between which stripes of
+brightly coloured cloth are sewed on. The foot-covering consists
+of boots of reindeer skin beautifully and tastefully embroidered.
+During summer the men go bare-headed. The
+women then have their black straight hair divided behind into
+two tresses, which are braided with straps, variegated ribbons
+and beads, which are continued beyond the point where the
+hair ends as an artificial prolongation of the braids, so that, including
+the straps which form this continuation, loaded as they
+are with beads, buttons, and metal ornaments of all kinds, they
+nearly reach the ground. The whole is so skilfully done, that
+at first one is inclined to believe that the women here were
+gifted with a quite incredible growth of hair. A mass of other
+bands of beads ornamented with buttons was besides often
+intertwined with the hair in a very tasteful way, or fixed to the
+perforated ears. All this hair ornamentation is naturally very
+heavy, and the head is still more weighed down in winter, as it
+is protected from the cold by a thick and very warm cap of reindeer
+skin, bordered with dogskin, from the back part of which
+hang clown two straps set full of heavy plates of brass or copper.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page89" id="v1page89"></a>[pg 89]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p107.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p107.png" alt="SAMOYED WOMAN'S DRESS." ></a>
+SAMOYED WOMAN'S DRESS.
+<br>After a drawing by Hj Th&eacute;el. </div>
+
+<p>The young woman also, even here as everywhere else, bedecks
+herself as best she can; but fair she certainly is not in our eyes.
+She competes with the man in dirt. Like the man she is small
+of stature, has black coarse hair resembling that of a horse's
+mane or tail, face of a yellow colour, often concealed by dirt,
+small, oblique, often running and sore eyes, a flat nose, broad
+projecting cheekbones, slender legs and small feet and hands.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page90" id="v1page90"></a>[pg 90]</span>
+The dress of the man, which resembles that of the Lapps,
+consists of a plain, full and long &quot;pesk,&quot; confined at the waist
+with a belt richly ornamented with buttons and brass mounting,
+from which the knife is suspended. The boots of reindeer
+skin commonly go above the knees, and the head covering
+consists of a closely fitting cap, also of reindeer skin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p108.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p108.png" alt="SAMOYED BELT WITH KNIFE." ></a>
+SAMOYED BELT WITH KNIFE.
+<br>One-sixth of natural size. </div>
+
+<p>The summer tents, the only ones we saw, are conical, with a
+hole in the roof for carrying off the smoke from the fireplace,
+which is placed in the middle of the floor. The sleeping
+places in many of the tents are concealed by a curtain of variegated
+cotton cloth. Such cloth is also used, when there is a
+supply of it, for the inner parts of the dress. Skin, it would
+appear, is not a very comfortable material for dress, for the first
+thing, after fire-water and iron, which the skin-clad savage
+purchases from the European, is cotton, linen, or woollen cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Polar races, whose acquaintance I have made, the
+reindeer Lapps undoubtedly stand highest; next to them
+come the Eskimo of Danish Greenland. Both these races are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page91" id="v1page91"></a>[pg 91]</span>
+Christian and able to read, and have learned to use and require a
+large number of the products of agriculture, commerce, and the
+industrial arts of the present day, as cotton and woollen cloth,
+tools of forged and cast iron, firearms, coffee, sugar, bread, &amp;c.
+They are still nomads and hunters, but cannot be called savages;
+and the educated European who has lived among them for a
+considerable time commonly acquires a liking for many points of
+their natural disposition and mode of life. Next to them in
+civilisation come the Eskimo of North-western America, on
+whose originally rough life contact with the American whale-fishers
+appears to have had a very beneficial influence. I form
+my judgment from the Eskimo tribe at Port Clarence. The
+members of this tribe were still heathens, but a few of them
+were far travelled, and had brought home from the Sandwich</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p109.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p109.png" alt="SACRIFICIAL EMINENCE ON VAYGATS ISLAND." ></a>
+SACRIFICIAL EMINENCE ON VAYGATS ISLAND.
+<br>After a drawing by A Hovgaard. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page92" id="v1page92"></a>[pg 92]</span>
+<p>Islands not only cocoa-nuts and palm mats, but also a trace of
+the South Sea islander's greater love for ornament and order.
+Next come the Chukchis, who have as yet come in contact
+with men of European race to a limited extent, but whose resources
+appear to have seriously diminished in recent times, in
+consequence of which the vigour and vitality of the tribe have
+decreased to a noteworthy extent. Last of all come the Samoyeds,
+or at least the Samoyeds who inhabit regions bordering
+on countries inhabited by the Caucasian races; on them the
+influence of the higher race, with its regulations and ordinances,
+its merchants, and, above all, its fire-water, has had a distinctly
+deteriorating effect.</p>
+
+<p>When I once asked an Eskimo in North-western Greenland,
+known for his excessive self-esteem, whether he would not admit
+that the Danish Inspector (Governor) was superior to him, I
+got for answer: &quot;That is not so certain: the Inspector has, it
+is true, more property, and appears to have more power, but
+there are people in Copenhagen whom he must obey. I receive
+orders from none.&quot; The same haughty self-esteem one meets
+with in his host in the &quot;gamma&quot; of the reindeer Lapp, and the
+skin tent of the Chukchi. In the Samoyed, on the other
+hand, it appears to have been expelled by a feeling of inferiority
+and timidity, which in that race has deprived the savage of his
+most striking characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>I knew from old travels and from my own experience on
+Yalmal, that another sort of gods, and one perhaps inferior to
+those which Anna Petrovna pulled out of her old boot, was
+to be found set up at various places on eminences strewn with
+the bones of animals that had been offered in sacrifice. Our
+Russian host informed us the Samoyeds from far distant
+regions are accustomed to make pilgrimages to these places
+in order to offer sacrifices and make vows. They eat the flesh
+of the animals they sacrifice, the bones are scattered over the
+sacrificial height, and the idols are besmeared with the blood of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page93" id="v1page93"></a>[pg 93]</span>
+the sacrificed animal. I immediately declared that I wished
+to visit such a place. But for a long time none of the Russians
+who were present was willing to act as guide. At last however
+a young man offered to conduct me to a place on Vaygats
+Island, where I could see what I wished. Accordingly the
+following day, accompanied by Dr. Almquist, Lieutenant
+Hovgaard, Captain Nilsson, and my Russian guide, I made
+an excursion in one of the steam launches to the other shore
+of Yugor Straits.</p>
+
+<p>The sacrificial eminence was situated on the highest point of
+the south-western headland of Vaygats Island, and consisted
+of a natural hillock which rose a couple of metres above the
+surrounding plain. The plain terminated towards the sea
+with a steep escarpment. The land was even, but rose gradually
+to a height of eighteen metres above the sea. The country
+consisted of upright strata of Silurian limestone running
+from east to west, and at certain places containing fossils
+resembling those of Gotland. Here and there were shallow
+depressions in the plain, covered with a very rich and uniformly
+green growth of grass. The high-lying dry parts again made a
+gorgeous show, covered as they were with an exceedingly
+luxuriant carpet of yellow and white saxifrages, blue <i>Eritrichia,
+Polemonia</i> and <i>Parryoe</i> and yellow <i>Chrysosplenia</i>, &amp;c. The last
+named, commonly quite modest flowers, are here so luxuriant
+that they form an important part of the flower covering.
+Trees are wholly wanting. Even bushes are scarcely two feet
+high, and that only at sheltered places, in hollows and at the
+foot of steep slopes looking towards the south. The sacrificial
+mound consisted of a cairn of stones some few metres square,
+situated on a special elevation of the plain. Among the stones
+there were found:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Reindeer skulls, broken in pieces for the purpose of
+extracting the brains, but with the horns still fast to the
+coronal bone; these were now so arranged among the stones
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page94" id="v1page94"></a>[pg 94]</span>
+that they formed a close thicket of reindeer horns, which, gave
+to the sacrificial mound its peculiar character.</p>
+
+<p>2. Reindeer skulls with the coronal bone bored through, set
+up on sticks which were stuck in the mound. Sometimes
+there was carved on these sticks a number of faces, the one
+over the other.</p>
+
+<p>3. A large number of other bones of
+reindeer, among them marrow bones,
+broken for the purpose of extracting the
+marrow.</p>
+
+<p>4. Bones of the bear, among which
+were observed the paws and the head,
+only half flayed, of a bear which had been
+shot so recently that the flesh had not
+begun to decompose; alongside of this
+bear's head there were found two lead
+bullets placed on a stone.</p>
+
+<p>5. A quantity of pieces of iron, for
+instance, broken axes, fragments of iron
+pots, metal parts of a broken barmonicon,
+&amp;c.; and finally,</p>
+
+<p>6. The mighty beings to which all this
+splendour was offered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p112.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p112.png" alt="IDOLS FROM THE SACRIFICIAL CAIRN." ></a>
+IDOLS FROM THE SACRIFICIAL CAIRN.
+<br>One-twelfth of natural size. </div>
+
+<p>They consisted of hundreds of small
+wooden sticks, the upper portions of which
+were carved very clumsily in the form of
+the human countenance, most of them from
+fifteen to twenty, but some of them 370
+centimetres in length. They were all
+stuck in the ground on the south-east part
+of the eminence. Near the place of sacrifice there were to be seen
+pieces of driftwood and remains of the fireplace at which the
+sacrificial meal was prepared. Our guide told us that at these
+meals the mouths of the idols were besmeared with blood and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page95" id="v1page95"></a>[pg 95]</span>
+wetted with brandy, and the former statement was confirmed by
+the large spots of blood which were found on most of the large
+idols below the holes intended to represent the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>After a drawing had been made of the mound, we robbed it
+discreetly, and put some of the idols and the bones of the animals
+offered in sacrifice into a bag which I ordered to be carried down
+to the boat. My guide now became evidently uncomfortable,
+and said that I ought to propitiate the wrath of the &quot;bolvans&quot;
+by myself offering something. I immediately said that I was
+ready to do that, if he would only show me how to go to
+work. A little at a loss, and doubting whether he ought to
+be more afraid of the wrath of the &quot;bolvans&quot; or of the punishment
+which in another world would befal those who had
+sacrificed to false gods, he replied that it was only necessary
+to place some small coins among the stones. With a solemn
+countenance I now laid my gift upon the cairn. It was certainly
+the most precious thing that had ever been offered
+there, consisting as it did of two silver pieces. The Russian
+was now satisfied, but declared that I was too lavish, &quot;a
+couple of copper coins had been quite enough.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The following day the Samoyeds came to know that I had
+been shown their sacrificial mound. For their own part
+they appeared to attach little importance to this, but they
+declared that the guide would be punished by the offended
+&quot;bolvans.&quot; He would perhaps come to repent of his deed
+by the following autumn, when his reindeer should return
+from Vaygats Island, where they for the present were tended
+by Samoyeds; indeed if punishment did not befall him now,
+it would reach him in the future and visit his children and
+grandchildren&mdash;certain it was that the gods would not leave him
+unpunished. In respect to God's wrath their religious ideas
+were thus in full accordance with the teaching of the Old
+Testament.</p>
+
+<p>This place of sacrifice was besides not particularly old, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page96" id="v1page96"></a>[pg 96]</span>
+there had been an older place situated 600 metres nearer the
+shore, beside a grotto which was regarded by the Samoyeds
+with superstitious veneration. A larger number of wooden
+idols had been set up there, but about thirty years ago a
+zealous, newly-appointed, and therefore clean-sweeping archimandrite
+visited the place, set fire to the sacrificial mound,
+and in its place erected a cross, which is still standing. The
+Samoyeds had not sought to retaliate by destroying in their</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p114.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p114.png" alt="SACRIFICIAL CAVITY ON VANGATA ISLAND." ></a>
+SACRIFICIAL CAVITY ON VANGATA ISLAND.
+<br>After a drawing by A. Hovgaard. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page97" id="v1page97"></a>[pg 97]</span>
+<p>turn the symbol of Christian worship. They left revenge to
+the gods themselves, certain that in a short time they would
+destroy all the archimandrite's reindeer, and merely removed
+their own place of sacrifice a little farther into the land.
+There no injudicious religious zeal has since attacked their
+worship of the &quot;bolvans.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The old place of sacrifice was still recognisable by the number
+of fragments of bones and rusted pieces of iron which lay strewed
+about on the ground, over a very extensive area, by the side
+of the Russian cross. Remains of the fireplace, on which
+the Schaman gods had been burned, were also visible. These
+had been much larger and finer than the gods on the present
+eminence, which is also confirmed by a comparison of the
+drawings here given of the latter with those from the time
+of the Dutch explorers. The race of the Schaman gods has
+evidently deteriorated in the course of the last three hundred
+years.</p>
+
+<p>After I had completed my examination and collected some
+contributions from the old sacrificial mound I ordered a little
+boat, which the steam-launch had taken in tow, to be carried
+over the sandy neck of land which separates the lake shown on
+the map from the sea, and rowed with Captain Nilsson and my
+Russian guide to a Samoyed burying-place farther inland by
+the shore of the lake.</p>
+
+<p>Only one person was found buried at the place. The grave
+was beautifully situated on the sloping beach of the lake, now
+gay with numberless Polar flowers. It consisted of a box
+carefully constructed of broad stout planks, fixed to the ground
+with earthfast stakes and cross-bars, so that neither beasts of
+prey nor lemmings could get through. The planks appeared
+not to have been hewn out of drift-wood, but were probably
+brought from the south, like the birch bark with which the
+bottom of the coffin was covered. As a &quot;pesk,&quot; now fallen in
+pieces, lying round the skeleton, and various rotten rags showed,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page98" id="v1page98"></a>[pg 98]</span>
+the dead body had been wrapped in the common Samoyed
+dress. In the grave were found besides the remains of an iron
+pot, an axe, knife, boring tool, bow, wooden arrow, some copper
+ornaments, &amp;c. Rolled-up pieces of bark also lay in the coffin,
+which were doubtless intended to be used in lighting fires
+in another world. Beside the grave lay a sleigh turned upside
+down, evidently placed there in order that the dead man should
+not, away there, want a means of transport, and it is probable
+that reindeer for drawing it were slaughtered at the funeral
+banquet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p116.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p116.png" alt="SAMOYED GRAVE ON VAYGATS ISLAND." ></a>
+SAMOYED GRAVE ON VAYGATS ISLAND.
+</div>
+
+<p>As it may be of interest to ascertain to what extent the
+Samoyeds have undergone any considerable changes in their
+mode of life since they first became known to West-Europeans,
+I shall here quote some of the sketches of them which we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page99" id="v1page99"></a>[pg 99]</span>
+find in the accounts of the voyages of the English and Dutch
+travellers to the North-East.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p117.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p117.png" alt="SAMOYED-ARCHERS." ></a>
+SAMOYED-ARCHERS.
+<br>After Linschoten. </div>
+
+<p>That changes have taken place in their weapons, in other
+words, that the Samoyeds have made progress in the art of
+war or the chase, is shown by the old drawings, some of which
+are here reproduced. For in these they are nearly always
+delineated with bows and arrows. Now the bow appears to
+have almost completely gone out of use, for we saw not
+a single Samoyed archer. They had, on the other hand, the
+wretched old flint firelocks, in which lost pieces of the lock
+were often replaced in a very ingenious way with pieces of bone
+and thongs. They also inquired eagerly for percussion guns,
+but breechloaders were still unknown to them. In this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page100" id="v1page100"></a>[pg 100]</span>
+respect they had not kept abreast of the times so well as the
+Eskimo at Port Clarence.</p>
+
+<p>One of the oldest accounts of the Samoyeds which I know
+is that of Stephen Burrough from 1556. It is given in
+Hakluyt (1st edition, page 318). In the narrative of the
+voyage of the <i>Searchthrift</i> we read:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On Saturday the 1st August 1556 I went ashore,<A HREF="#v1fn56" NAME="v1rn56">[56]</A> and there
+saw three morses that they (Russian hunters) had killed: they
+held one tooth of a morse, which was not great, at a roble, and
+one white beare skin at three robles and two robles: they
+further told me, that there were people called Samoeds on the
+great Island, and that they would not abide them nor us, who
+have no houses, but only coverings made of Deerskins, set ouer
+them with stakes: they are men expert in shooting, and have
+great plenty of Deere. On Monday the 3rd we weyed and
+went roome with another Island, which was five leagues (15')
+East-north-east from us: and there I met againe with Loshak,<A HREF="#v1fn57" NAME="v1rn57">[57]</A>
+and went on shore with him, and he brought me to a heap of
+Samoeds idols, which were in number above 300, the worst
+and the most unartificiall worke that ever I saw: the eyes and
+mouthes of sundrie of them were bloodie, they had the shape
+of men, women, and children, very grosly wrought, and that
+which they had made for other parts, was also sprinkled with
+blood. Some of their idols were an olde sticke with two or
+three notches, made with a knife in it. There was one
+of their sleds broken and lay by the heape of idols, and
+there I saw a deers skinne which the foules had spoyled: and
+before certaine of their idols blocks were made as high as their
+mouthes, being all bloody, I thought that to be the table
+whereon they offered their sacrifice: I saw also the instruments
+whereupon they had roasted flesh, and as farre as I could
+perceiue, they make the fire directly under the spit. Their
+boates are made of Deers skins, and when they come on shoare
+they cary their boates with them upon their backs: for their
+cariages they haue no other beastes to serve them but Deere
+only. As for bread and corne they have none, except the Russes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page101" id="v1page101"></a>[pg 101]</span>
+bring it to them: their knowledge is very base for they know
+no letter.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Giles Fletcher, who in 1588 was Queen Elizabeth's
+ambassador to the Czar, writes in his account of Russia of the
+Samoyeds in the following way:&mdash;<A HREF="#v1fn58" NAME="v1rn58">[58]</A></p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The <i>Samoyt</i> hath his name (as the <i>Russe</i> saith) of eating
+himselfe: as if in times past they lived as the <i>Cannibals</i>, eating
+one another. Which they make more probable, because at
+this time they eate all kind of raw flesh, whatsoeuer it bee,
+euen the very carrion that lyeth in the ditch. But as the
+<i>Samoits</i> themselves will say, they were called <i>Samoie</i>, that is,
+<i>of themselves</i>, as though they were <i>Indigen&aelig;</i>, or people bred
+upon that very soyle that never changed their seate from one
+place to another, as most Nations have done. They are clad
+in Seale-skinnes, with the hayrie side outwards downe as low
+as the knees, with their Breeches and Netherstocks of the
+same, both men and women. They are all Blacke hayred,
+naturally beardless. And therefore the Men are hardly discerned
+from the Women by their lookes: saue that the Women
+weare a locke of hayre down along both their eares.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In nearly the same way the Samoyeds are described by
+G. DE VEER in his account of Barents' second voyage in 1595.
+Barents got good information from the Samoyeds as to the
+navigable water to the eastward, and always stood on a good
+footing with them, excepting on one occasion when the
+Samoyeds went down to the Dutchmen's boats and took back
+an idol which had been carried off from a large sacrificial
+mound.</p>
+
+<p>The Samoyeds have since formed the subject of a very
+extensive literature, of which however it is impossible for
+me to give any account here. Among other points their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page102" id="v1page102"></a>[pg 102]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p120.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p120.png" alt="SAMOYEDS." ></a>
+SAMOYEDS.
+<br>From Schleissing's Neu-entdecktes Sieweria, worinnen die Zobeln gefangen werden.
+Zittau 1693.<A HREF="#v1fn59" NAME="v1rn59">[59]</A></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page103" id="v1page103"></a>[pg 103]</span>
+<p>relations to other races have been much discussed. On this
+subject I have received from my learned friend, the renowned
+philologist Professor AHLQUIST of Helsingfors the following
+communication:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">The Samoyeds are reckoned, along with the Tungoose, the
+Mongolian, the Turkish and the Finnish-Ugrian races, to belong
+to the so-called Altaic or Ural-Altaic stem. What is mainly
+characteristic of this stem, is that all the languages occurring
+within it belong to the so-called agglutinating type. For in
+these languages the relations of ideas are expressed exclusively
+by terminations or suffixes&mdash;inflections, prefixes and prepositions,
+as expressive of relations, being completely unknown
+to them. Other peculiarities characteristic of the Altaic
+languages are the vocal harmony occurring in many of them,
+the inability to have more than one consonant in the beginning
+of a word, and the expression of the plural by a peculiar affix,
+the case terminations being the same in the plural as in the
+singular. The affinity between the different branches of the
+Altaic stem is thus founded mainly on analogy or resemblance
+in the construction of the languages, while the different tongues
+in the material of language (both in the words themselves
+and in the expression of relations) show a very limited affinity
+or none at all. The circumstance that the Samoyeds for the
+present have as their nearest neighbours several Finnish-Ugrian
+races (Lapps, Syrjaeni, Ostjaks, and Voguls), and that these
+to a great extent carry on the same modes of life as themselves,
+has led some authors to assume a close affinity between the
+Samoyeds and the Fins and the Finnish races in general. The
+speech of the two neighbouring tribes however affords no
+ground for such a supposition. Even the language of the
+Ostjak, which is the most closely related to that of the
+Samoyeds, is separated heaven-wide from it and has nothing
+in common with it, except a small number of borrowed words
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page104" id="v1page104"></a>[pg 104]</span>
+(chiefly names of articles from the Polar nomad's life), which the
+Ostjak has taken from the language of his northern neighbour.
+With respect to their language, however, the Samoyeds are
+said to stand at a like distance from the other branches of the
+stem in question. To what extent craniology or the modern
+anthropology can more accurately determine the affinity-relationship
+of the Samoyed to other tribes, is still a question of
+the future.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page105" id="v1page105"></a>[pg 105]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p123.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p123.png" alt="BREEDING-PLACE FOR LITTLE AUKS." ></a>
+BREEDING-PLACE FOR LITTLE AUKS.
+<br>Foul Bay, on the West Coast of Spitzbergen, after a photograph taken by A. Envall on the 30th August, 1872. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page106" id="v1page106"></a>[pg 106]</span>
+<br>
+<br>
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn53" NAME="v1fn53">[53]</A> &quot;Letter of Richard Finch to Sir Thomas Smith, Governor; and to the
+rest of the Worshipful Companie of English Merchants, trading into
+Russia.&quot; <i>Purchas</i>, iii. p. 534.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn54" NAME="v1fn54">[54]</A> Mr. Serebrenikoff writes <i>Samodin</i> instead of <i>Samoyed</i>,
+considering the latter name incorrect. For <i>Samoyed</i> means &quot;self-eater,&quot;
+while <i>Samodin</i> denotes &quot;an individual,&quot; &quot;one who cannot be mistaken for
+any other,&quot; and, as the Samoyeds never were cannibals, Mr. Serebrenikoff
+gives a preference to the latter name, which is used by the Russians at
+Chabarova, and appears to be a literal translation of the name which the
+Samoyeds give themselves. I consider it probable, however, that the old
+tradition of man-eaters (<i>androphagi</i>) living in the north, which
+originated with Herodotus, and was afterwards universally adopted in the
+geographical literature of the middle ages, reappears in a Russianised
+form in the name &quot;Samoyed.&quot; (Compare what is quoted further on from
+Giles Fletcher's narrative).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn55" NAME="v1fn55">[55]</A> This name, which properly denotes a coarse likeness, has passed
+into the Swedish, the word <i>bulvan</i> being one of the few which that
+language has borrowed from the Russian.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn56" NAME="v1fn56">[56]</A> Probably on one of the small islands near Vaygats.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn57" NAME="v1fn57">[57]</A> A Russian hunter who had been serviceable to Stephen Burrough in
+many ways.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn58" NAME="v1fn58">[58]</A> <i>Treatise of Russia and the adjoining Regions</i>, written by Doctor
+Giles Fletcher, Lord Ambassador from the late Queen, Everglorious
+Elizabeth, to Theodore, then Emperor of Russia. A.D. 1588. <i>Purchas</i>,
+iii. p. 413.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn59" NAME="v1fn59">[59]</A> A still more extraordinary idea of the Samoyeds, than that which
+this woodcut gives us, we get from the way in which they are mentioned
+in the account of the journey which the Italian Minorite, Joannes de
+Plano Carpini, undertook in High Asia in the years 1245-47 as ambassador
+from the Pope to the mighty conqueror of the Mongolian hordes. In this
+book of travels it is said that Occodai Khan, Chingis Khan's son, after
+having been defeated by the Hungarians and Poles, turned towards the
+north, conquered the Bascarti, <i>i.e.</i> the Great Hungarians, then came
+into collision with the Parositi&mdash;who had wonderfully small stomachs and
+mouths, and did not eat flesh, but only boiled it and nourished
+themselves by inhaling the steam&mdash;and finally came to the <i>Samogedi</i>,
+who lived only by the chase and had houses and clothes of skin, and to a
+land by the ocean, where there were monsters with the bodies of men, the
+feet of oxen and the faces of dogs (<i>Relation des Mongols ou Tartares</i>,
+par le fr&egrave;re Jean du Plan de Carpin, publ. par M. d'Avezac, Paris 1838,
+p. 281. Compare Ramusio, <i>Delle navigationi e viaggi</i>, ii. 1583, leaf
+236). At another place in the same work it is said that &quot;the land
+Comania has on the north immediately after Russia, the Mordvini and
+Bileri, <i>i.e.</i> the Great Bulgarians, the Bascarti, <i>i.e.</i> the Great
+Hungarians, then the Parositi and <i>Samogedi</i>, who are said to have the
+faces of dogs&quot; (<i>Relation des Mongols</i>, p. 351. Ramusio, ii., leaf 239).</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page107" id="v1page107"></a>[pg 107]</span>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_III"></a><h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<p>From the Animal World of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;The Fulmar Petrel&mdash;The
+Rotge or Little Auk&mdash;Br&uuml;nnich's Guillemot&mdash;The Black Guillemot&mdash;The
+Arctic Puffin&mdash;The Gulls&mdash;Richardson's Skua&mdash;the Tern&mdash;Ducks
+and Geese&mdash;The Swan&mdash;Waders&mdash;The Snow Bunting&mdash;The Ptarmigan&mdash;The
+Snowy Owl&mdash;The Reindeer&mdash;The Polar Bear&mdash;The Mountain Fox&mdash;The
+Lemming&mdash;Insects&mdash;The Walrus&mdash;The Seal&mdash;Whales.</p>
+
+<p>If we do not take into account the few Samoyeds who of
+recent years have settled on Novaya Zemlya or wander about
+during summer on the plains of Vaygats Island, all the lands
+which in the old world have formed the field of research of
+the Polar explorer&mdash;Spitzbergen, Franz-Josef Land, Novaya
+Zemlya, Vaygats Island, the Taimur Peninsula, the New
+Siberian Islands, and perhaps Wrangel's Land also&mdash;are uninhabited.
+The pictures of life and variety, which the native,
+with his peculiar manners and customs, commonly offers to the
+foreigner in distant foreign lands, are not to be met with here.
+But, instead, the animal life, which he finds there in summer&mdash;for
+during winter almost all beings who live above the surface of
+the sea disappear from the highest North&mdash;is more vigorous and
+perhaps even more abundant, or, to speak more correctly, less
+concealed by the luxuriance of vegetation than in the south.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, the larger mammalia&mdash;whales, walruses,
+seals, bears and reindeer&mdash;that attract attention in the first place,
+but the innumerable flocks of birds that swarm around the Polar
+traveller during the long summer day of the North.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page108" id="v1page108"></a>[pg 108]</span>
+Long before one enters the region of the Polar Sea proper, the
+vessel is surrounded by flocks of large grey birds which fly, or
+rather hover without moving their wings, close to the surface of
+the sea, rising and sinking with the swelling of the billows,
+eagerly searching for some eatable object on the surface of the
+water, or swim in the wake of the vessel in order to snap up
+any scraps that may be thrown overboard. It is the Arctic
+<i>stormfogel</i><A HREF="#v1fn60" NAME="v1rn60">[60]</A> (Fulmar, &quot;Mallemuck,&quot; &quot;Hafhaest,&quot; <i>Procellaria
+glacialis</i>, L.). The fulmar is bold and voracious, and smells
+villanously, on which account it is only eaten in cases of
+necessity, although its flesh, if the bird has not recently devoured
+too much rotten blubber, is by no means without relish, at least
+for those who have become accustomed to the flavour of train
+oil, when not too strong. It is more common on Bear Island
+and Spitzbergen than on Novaya Zemlya, and scarcely appears
+to breed in any considerable numbers on the last-named place.
+I know three places north of Scandinavia where the fulmar
+breeds in large numbers: the first on Bear Island, on the
+slopes of some not very steep cliffs near the so-called south
+harbour of the island,<A HREF="#v1fn61" NAME="v1rn61">[61]</A> the second on the southern shore of
+Brandywine Bay on North-East Land, the third on ledges of the
+perpendicular rock-walls in the interior of Ice Fjord. At the
+two latter places the nests are inaccessible. On Bear Island, on
+the other hand, one can without very great difficulty plunder the
+whole colony of the dirty grey, short eggs, which are equally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page109" id="v1page109"></a>[pg 109]</span>
+rounded at both ends. The eggs taste exceedingly well. The
+nest is very inconsiderable, smelling badly like the bird itself.</p>
+
+<p>When the navigator has gone a little further north and come
+to an ice-bestrewed sea, the swell ceases at once, the wind is
+hushed and the sea becomes bright as a mirror, rising and
+sinking with a slow gentle heaving. Flocks of little auks
+(<i>Mergulus alle</i>, L.) Br&uuml;nnich's guillemots (<i>Uria Br&uuml;nnichii</i>,
+Sabine), and black guillemots (<i>Uria grylle</i>, L.) now swarm in the
+air and swim among the ice floes. The <i>alke-kung</i> (little auk), also
+called the &quot;sea king,&quot; or rotge, occurs only sparingly off the
+southern part of Novaya Zemlya, and does not, so far as I know,
+breed there. The situation of the land is too southerly, the
+accumulations of stones along the sides of the mountains too
+inconsiderable, for the thriving of this little bird. But on
+Spitzbergen it occurs in incredible numbers, and breeds in the
+talus, 100 to 200 metres high, which frost and weathering have
+formed at several places on the steep slopes of the coast mountain
+sides; for instance, at Horn Sound, at Magdalena Bay, on the
+Norways (near 80&deg; N.L.), and other places. These stone heaps
+form the palace of the rotge, richer in rooms and halls than any
+other in the wide round world. If one climbs up among the
+stones, he sees at intervals actual clouds of fowl suddenly emerge
+from the ground either to swarm round in the air or else to fly
+out to sea, and at the same time those that remain make their
+presence underground known by an unceasing cackling and din,
+resembling, according to Friedrich Martens, the noise of a
+crowd of quarrelling women. Should this sound be stilled for
+a few moments, one need only attempt in some opening among
+the stones to imitate their cry (according to Martens: <i>rott-tet-tet-tet-tet</i>)
+to get immediately eager and sustained replies from
+all sides. The fowl circling in the air soon settle again on the
+stones of the mountain slopes, where, squabbling and fighting,
+they pack themselves so close together that from fifteen to thirty
+of them may be killed by a single shot. A portion of the flock
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page110" id="v1page110"></a>[pg 110]</span>
+now flies up again, others seek their safety like rats in concealment
+among the blocks of stone. But they soon creep out
+again, in order, as if by agreement, to fly out to sea and search
+for their food, which consists of crustacea and vermes. The
+rotge dives with ease. Its single blueish-white egg is laid on
+the bare ground without a nest, so deep down among the stones
+that it is only with difficulty that it can be got at. In the
+talus of the mountains north of Horn Sound I found on the
+18th June, 1858, two eggs of this bird lying directly on the
+layer of ice between the stones. Probably the hatching season
+had not then begun. Where the
+main body of these flocks of birds
+passes the winter, is unknown,<A HREF="#v1fn62" NAME="v1rn62">[62]</A>
+but they return to the north
+early&mdash;sometimes too early. Thus
+in 1873 at the end of April I
+saw a large number of rotges
+frozen to death on the ice in the
+north part of Hinloopen Strait.
+When cooked the rotge tastes
+exceedingly well, and in consequence
+of the great development
+of the breast muscles it
+affords more food than could be expected from its small size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p127.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p127.png" alt="THE LITTLE AUK, OR ROTGE." ></a>
+THE LITTLE AUK, OR ROTGE.
+<br>Swedish, Alkekung. (<i>Mergulus Alle</i>, L.) </div>
+
+<p>Along with the rotge we find among the ice far out at sea
+flocks of <i>alkor</i> (looms, or Br&uuml;nnich's guillemots), and the nearer
+we come to the coast, the more do these increase in number,
+especially if the cliffs along the shore offer to this species of sea-fowl&mdash;the
+most common of the Polar lands&mdash;convenient hatching
+places. For this purpose are chosen the faces of cliffs which rise
+perpendicularly out of the sea, but yet by ledges and uneven
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page111" id="v1page111"></a>[pg 111]</span>
+places afford room for the hatching fowl. On the guillemot-fells
+proper, eggs lie beside eggs in close rows from the crown of
+the cliff to near the sea level, and the whole fell is also closely
+covered with seafowl, which besides in flocks of thousands and
+thousands fly to and from the cliffs, filling the air with their
+exceedingly unpleasant scream. The eggs are laid, without trace
+of a nest, on the rock, which is either bare or only covered with
+old birds' dung, so closely packed together, that in 1858 from a
+ledge of small extent, which I reached by means of a rope from
+the top of the fell, I collected more than half a barrel-full
+of eggs. Each bird has but one very large egg, grey pricked
+with brown, of very variable size and form. After it has been
+sat upon for some time, it is covered with a thick layer of birds'
+dung, and in this way the hunters are accustomed to distinguish
+uneatable eggs from fresh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p128.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p128.png" alt="THE LOOM OR BR&Uuml;NNICH'S GUILLEMOT." ></a>
+THE LOOM OR BR&Uuml;NNICH'S GUILLEMOT.
+<br>Swedish, Alka (<i>Uria Br&uuml;nnichii</i>, Sabine). </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page112" id="v1page112"></a>[pg 112]</span>
+<p>If a shot be fired at a &quot;loomery,&quot; the fowl fly away in
+thousands from their hatching places, without the number of
+those that are not frightened away being apparently diminished.
+The clumsy and short-winged birds, when they cast themselves
+out of their places, fall down at first a good way before they
+get &quot;sufficient air&quot; under their wings to be able to fly. Before
+this takes place, many plump down into the water, sometimes
+even into the boat which may be rowed along the foot of
+the fell.</p>
+
+<p>An unceasing, unpleasant cackling noise indicates that a
+continual gossip goes on in the &quot;loomery&quot;; and that the
+unanimity there is not great, is proved by the passionate
+screams which are heard now and then. A bird squeezes
+forward in order to get a place on a ledge of rock already
+packed full, a couple of others quarrel about the ownership of
+an egg which has been laid on a corner of the rock only a few
+inches broad, and which now during the dispute is precipitated
+into the abyss. By the beginning of July most of the eggs
+are uneatable. I have seen the young of the size of a rotge
+accompany their mothers in the middle of August. The
+loom breeds on Walden Island and the north coast of
+North-East land, accordingly far north of 80&deg;. I found the
+largest &quot;loomeries&quot; on Spitzbergen south of Lomme Bay in
+Hinloopen Strait, at the southern entrance to Van Meyen Bay
+in Bell Sound, and at Alkornet in Ice Fjord. In respect to the
+large number of fowl, however, only the first of these can
+compete with the south shore of Besimannaja Bay (72&deg; 54' N.L.)
+and with the part of Novaya Zemlya that lies immediately to
+the south of this bay. The eggs of the loom are palatable,
+and the flesh is excellent, though not quite free from the
+flavour of train oil. In any case it tastes much better than
+that of the eider.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the rotge and the loom two nearly allied
+species of birds, <i>lunnefogeln</i>, the Arctic puffin (<i>Mormon</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page113" id="v1page113"></a>[pg 113]</span>
+<i>arcticus</i>, L.) and <i>tejsten</i> or <i>tobis-grisslan</i>, the black guillemot
+(<i>Uria grylle</i>, L.) are to be seen among the drift-ice. I do not
+know any puffin-fells on Spitzbergen. The bird appears to
+breed there only in small numbers, though it is still found on
+the most northerly part of the island. On Novaya Zemlya,
+too, it occurs rather sparingly. The black guillemot, on the other
+hand, is found everywhere, though never collected in large
+flocks, along the shores of Spitzbergen, and Novaya Zemlya,
+even as far north as Parry Island in 80&deg; 40' N.L., where in 1861
+I saw several of their nests. These are placed near the summits
+of steep cliffs along the shore. The black guillemots often swim
+out together in pairs in the fjords. Their flesh has about the
+same taste as Br&uuml;nnich's guillemot, but is tougher and of
+inferior quality; the eggs, on the other hand, are excellent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p130.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p130.png" alt="THE ARCTIC PUFFIN. THE BLACK GUILLEMOT. " ></a>
+THE ARCTIC PUFFIN. THE BLACK GUILLEMOT.
+<br>Swedish, Lunnefogel. (Mormon Arcticus, L.)
+<br>THE BLACK GUILLEMOT.
+<br>Swedish, Tejst. (Uria Grylle, L.) </div>
+
+<p>The sea fowl mentioned above are never met with inland.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page114" id="v1page114"></a>[pg 114]</span>
+They never settle on a grassy sward or on a level sandy beach.
+The steep fowl-fell sides, the sea, ground-ice, pieces of drift-ice
+and small stones rising above the water, form their habitat.
+They swim with great skill both on, and under the water. The
+black guillemots and rotges fly swiftly and well; Br&uuml;nnich's
+guillemots, on the contrary, heavily and ill. The latter therefore
+do not perhaps remove in winter farther from their hatching
+places than to the nearest open water, and it is probable that
+colonies of Br&uuml;nnich's guillemots are not located at places
+where the sea freezes completely even far out from the coast.
+On this perhaps depends the scarcity of Br&uuml;nnich's guillemot
+in the Kara Sea.</p>
+
+<p>While sailing in the Arctic Ocean, vessels are nearly always
+attended by two kinds of gulls, the greedy <i>stormaosen</i> or
+<i>borgmaesteren</i>, glaucous gull (<i>Larus glaucus</i>, Br&uuml;nn.), and the
+gracefully formed, swiftly flying <i>kryckian</i> or <i>tretaoiga maosen</i>,
+kittiwake (<i>Larus tridactylus</i>, L.), and if the hunter lies to at an
+ice-floe to flense upon it a seal which has been shot, it is not
+long till a large number of snow-white birds with dark blue
+bills and black legs settle down in the neighbourhood in order
+that they may get a portion of the spoil. They belong to the
+third kind of gull common in the north, <i>ismaosen</i>, the ivory
+gull (<i>Larus eburneus</i>, Gmel.).</p>
+
+<p>In disposition and mode of life these gulls differ much from
+each other. The glaucous gull is sufficiently strong to be able
+to defend its eggs and young against the attack of the mountain
+fox. It therefore breeds commonly on the summits of easily
+accessible small cliffs, hillocks or heaps of stones, preferably in
+the neighbourhood of &quot;loomeries&quot; or on fowl-islands, where
+the young of the neighbouring birds offer an opportunity for
+prey and hunting during the season when its own young are
+being fed. Sometimes, as for instance at Brandywine Bay on
+Spitzbergen, the glaucous gull breeds in great flocks on the
+ledges of steep fell-sides, right in the midst of Br&uuml;nnich's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page115" id="v1page115"></a>[pg 115]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p132.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p132.png" alt="BREEDING-PLACE FOR GLAUCOUS GULLS." ></a>
+BREEDING-PLACE FOR GLAUCOUS GULLS.
+<br>Borgmaestareport on Bear Island, after a midnight photograph taken by the Author on the 18th-19th June, 1864. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page117" id="v1page117"></a>[pg 117]</span>
+<p>guillemots. On Bear Island I have seen it hatch on the very beach,
+at a place, for instance, under the arch of a waterfall
+leaping down from a precipitous cliff. The nests, which, to
+judge from the quantity of birds' dung in their neighbourhood,
+are used for a long succession of years, are placed in a depression
+in the rock or the ground, and lined with a little straw or a
+feather or two. The number of the eggs is three or four.
+After boiling they show a jellylike, half transparent white, and
+a reddish yellow, and are exceedingly delicious. The young
+birds have white flesh, resembling chicken. The burgomaster
+is common everywhere along the coasts of Novaya Zemlya and
+Spitzbergen. Yet I have not seen the nest of this gull on the
+north coast of North East Land or on the Seven Islands.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p133.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p133.png" alt="A. THE KITTIWAKE.    B. THE IVORY GULL." ></a>
+A. THE KITTIWAKE.    B. THE IVORY GULL.
+<br>Swedish, Kryckia. (Larus tridactylus, L.) Swedish, Ismaos (Larus eburneus, L.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page118" id="v1page118"></a>[pg 118]</span>
+
+<p>Still more common than the glaucous gull in the lands of the
+High North is <i>kryckian</i>, the kittiwake. It is met with far out
+at sea, where it accompanies the vessel whole days, circling
+round the tops of the masts, and sometimes&mdash;according to the
+statements of the walrus-hunters, when a storm is approaching&mdash;pecking
+at the points of the pendant. When the vessel is in
+harbour, the kittiwakes commonly gather round it to pick out
+anything eatable in the refuse that may be thrown away. They
+breed in great flocks on the steep escarpments in some separate
+part of the fowl-fells, in connection with which, it is evident
+that the kittiwakes always endeavour to choose the best places
+of the fell&mdash;those that are most inaccessible to the fox and are
+best protected against bad weather. Among the birds of the
+north the kittiwake is the best builder; for its nest is walled
+with straw and mud, and is very firm. It juts out like a great
+swallow's nest from the little ledge to which it is fixed.
+Projecting ends of straw are mostly bent in, so that
+the nest, with its regularly rounded form, has a very tidy
+appearance. The interior is further lined with a soft, carefully
+arranged layer of moss, grass and seaweed, on which the bird
+lays three to four well-flavoured eggs. The soft warm
+underlayer is, however, not without its inconvenience; for
+Dr. Stuxberg during the voyage of 1875 found in such a nest
+no fewer than twelve kinds of insects, among them <i>Pulex
+vagabundus</i>, Bohem. in nine specimens, a, beetle, a fly, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The ivory gull, called by Fr. Martens &quot;Rathsherr,&quot; the
+Councillor, is found, as its Swedish name indicates, principally
+out at sea in the <i>pack</i>, or in fjords filled with drift-ice. It is a
+true ice-bird, and, it may almost be said, scarcely a water-bird at
+all, for it is seldom seen swimming on the surface, and it can
+dive as little as its relatives, the glaucous gull and the kittiwake.
+In greed it competes with the fulmar. When any large animal
+has been killed among the drift-ice, the ivory gull seldom fails to
+put in an appearance in order to quench its hunger with flesh
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page119" id="v1page119"></a>[pg 119]</span>
+and blubber. It consumes at the same time the excrements of
+the seal and the walrus, on which account from three to five
+ivory gulls may often be seen sitting for a long time round a
+seal-hole, quiet and motionless, waiting patiently the arrival of
+the seal (Malmgren).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p135.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p135.png" alt="RARE NORTHERN GULLS." ></a>
+RARE NORTHERN GULLS.
+<br>A. Sabine's Gull-(Larus Sabinii, Sabine) B. Ross's Gull. (Larus Rossii, Richaids.) </div>
+
+<p>The proper breeding places of this bird scarcely appear to be
+yet known. So common as it is both on the coasts of Spitzbergen
+from the Seven Islands to South Cape and on the north
+coast of Novaya Zemlya and America, its nest has only been
+found twice, once in 1853 by McClintock at Cape Krabbe
+in North America in 77&deg; 25' N.L., the second time by Dr.
+Malmgren at Murchison Bay, in 82&deg; 2' N.L. The two nests
+that Malmgren found consisted of depressions, twenty-three
+to twenty-six centimetres in diameter, in a heap of loose gravel,
+on a ledge of a steeply-sloping limestone-rock wall. In each
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page120" id="v1page120"></a>[pg 120]</span>
+nest was found only one egg, which, on the 30th July, already
+contained a down-covered young bird. For all the ivory gulls
+which have their home on Spitzbergen there were doubtless
+required several hundred such breeding-places as that at
+Murchison Bay. When to this is added the fact that we never
+in autumn saw on Spitzbergen any full-grown young of this
+kind of gull, I assume that its proper breeding-place must be
+found farther north, on the shores of some still unknown Polar
+land, perhaps continually surrounded by ice. It deserves to
+be mentioned with reference to this, that Murchison Bay was
+covered with ice when Malmgren found the nests referred to
+above.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these varieties of the gull, two other species have
+been found, though very rarely, in the Polar regions, viz.,
+<i>Larus Sabinii</i>, Sabine, and <i>Larus Rossii</i>, Richards. Although
+I have myself only seen the latter, and that but once (on the
+Chukchi Peninsula), I here give drawings of them both for
+the use of future Polar explorers. They are perhaps, if they
+be properly observed, not so rare as is commonly supposed.</p>
+
+<p>Often during summer in the Arctic regions one hears a
+penetrating shriek in the air. When one inquires into the
+reason of this, it is found to proceed from a kittiwake, more
+rarely from a glaucous gull, eagerly pursued by a bird as large
+as a crow, dark-brown, with white breast and long tail-feathers.
+It is <i>labben</i>, the common skua (<i>Lestris parasitica</i>, L.), known by
+the Norwegian walrus-hunters under the name of <i>tjufjo</i>, derived
+from the bird's cry,&quot;<i>I-o i-o</i>&quot;, and its shameless thief-nature.
+When the &quot;tjufjo&quot; sees a kittiwake or a glaucous gull fly off
+with a shrimp, a fish, or a piece of blubber, it instantly attacks
+it. It flies with great swiftness backwards and forwards
+around its victim, striking it with its bill, until the attacked
+bird either drops what it has caught, which is then immediately
+snapped up by the skua, or else settles down upon the surface
+of the water, where it is protected against attack. The skua
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page121" id="v1page121"></a>[pg 121]</span>
+besides eats eggs of other birds, especially of eiders and geese.
+If the eggs are left but for a few moments unprotected in the
+nest, it is immediately to the front and shows itself so voracious
+that it is not afraid to attack nests from which the hatching</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p137.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p137.png" alt="A. THE COMMON SKUA. " ></a>
+A. THE COMMON SKUA.
+<br>Swedish, Labben, (Lestris parasitica, L.)
+<br>B. BUFFON'S SKUA.
+<br>Swedish, Fjellabben. (Lestris Buffonii, Boie.)
+<br>C. THE POMARINE SKUA.
+<br>Swedish, Bredstjertade Labben (Lestris pomarina. Tem.) </div>
+
+
+<p>birds have been frightened away by men engaged in gathering
+eggs only a few yards off. With incredible dexterity it pecks
+a hole in the eggs and sucks their contents. If speed is
+necessary, this takes place so quickly and out of so many eggs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page122" id="v1page122"></a>[pg 122]</span>
+in succession that it sometimes has to stand without moving,
+unable to fly further until it has thrown up what it had
+swallowed. The skua in this way commonly takes part in
+the plundering of every eider island. The walrus-hunters are
+very much embittered against the bird on account of this intrusion
+on their industry, and kill it whenever they can. The
+whalers called it &quot;struntjaeger&quot;&mdash;refuse-hunter&mdash;because they
+believed that it hunted gulls in order to make them void their
+excrements which &quot;struntjaegeren&quot; was said to devour as a
+luxury.</p>
+
+<p>The skua breeds upon low, unsheltered, often water-drenched
+headlands and islands, where it lays one or two eggs on the
+bare ground, often without trace of a nest. The eggs are so
+like the ground that it is only with difficulty that they can be
+found. The male remains in the neighbourhood of the nest
+during the hatching season. If a man, or an animal which
+the bird considers dangerous, approaches the eggs, the pair
+endeavour to draw attention from them by removing from the
+nest, creeping on the ground and flapping their wings in the
+most pitiful way. The bird thus acts with great skill a
+veritable comedy, but takes good care that it is not caught.</p>
+
+<p>As is well known, we know only two varieties of colour in
+this bird, a self-coloured brown, and a brown on the upper part
+of the body with white below. Of these I have only once in
+the Arctic regions seen the self-coloured variety, viz. at Bell
+Sound in 1858. All the hundreds of skuas which I have
+seen, besides, have had the throat and lower part of the body
+coloured white.</p>
+
+<p>This bird is very common on Spitzbergen and Novaya
+Zemlya. Yet perhaps it scarcely breeds on the north part of
+North-East Land. Along with the bird now described there
+occur, though sparingly, two others:&mdash;<i>bredstjertade labben</i>, the
+Pomarine skua (<i>Lestris pomarina</i>, Tem.) and <i>fjellalbben</i>, Buffon's
+skua (<i>Lestris Buffonii</i>, Boie). The latter is distinguished by its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page123" id="v1page123"></a>[pg 123]</span>
+more slender build and two very long tail-feathers, and it is
+much more common farther to the east than on Spitzbergen.
+I have not had an opportunity of making any observations on
+the mode of life of these birds.</p>
+
+<p>As the skua pursues the kittiwake and the glaucous gull, it
+is in its turn pursued with extraordinary fierceness by the little
+swiftly-flying and daring bird <i>taernan</i>, the Arctic tern (<i>Sterna
+macroura</i>, Naum.). This beautiful bird is common everywhere
+on the coasts of Spitzbergen, but rather rare on Novaya Zemlya.
+It breeds in considerable flocks on low grass-free headlands or
+islands, covered with sand or pebbles. The eggs, which are
+laid on the bare ground without any trace of a nest, are so like
+lichen-covered pebbles in colour, that it is only with difficulty
+one can get eyes upon them; and this is the case in a yet
+higher degree with the newly-hatched young, which notwithstanding
+their thin dress of down have to lie without anything
+below them among the bare stones. From the shortness of
+their legs and the length of their wings it is only with difficulty
+that the tern can go on the ground. It is therefore impossible
+for it to protect its nest in the same way as the &quot;tjufjo.&quot; Instead,
+this least of all the swimming birds of the Polar lands
+does not hesitate to attack any one, whoever he may be, that
+dares to approach its nest. The bird circles round the disturber
+of the peace with evident exasperation, and now and then goes
+whizzing past his head at such a furious rate that he must every
+moment fear that he will be wounded with its sharp beak.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the swimmers enumerated above, we find everywhere
+along these shores two species of eider, the <i>vanliga eidern</i>,
+common eider (<i>Somateria mollissima</i>, L.) and <i>praktejdern</i>, king-duck
+(<i>Somateria spectabilis</i>, L.). The former prefers to breed on
+low islands, which, at the season for laying eggs, are already
+surrounded by open water and are thus rendered inaccessible to
+the mountain foxes that wander about on the mainland. The
+richest eider islands I have seen in Spitzbergen are the Down
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page124" id="v1page124"></a>[pg 124]</span>
+Islands at Horn Sound. When I visited the place in 1858 the
+whole islands were so thickly covered with nests that it was
+necessary to proceed with great caution in order not to trample
+on eggs. Their number in every nest was five to six, sometimes
+larger, the latter case, according to the walrus-hunters, being
+accounted for by the female when she sits stealing eggs from
+her neighbours. I have myself seen an egg of <i>Anser bernicla</i>in
+an eider's nest. The eggs are hatched by the female, but
+the beautifully coloured male watches in her neighbourhood and</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p140.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p140.png" alt="HEADS OF THE A. EIDER; B. KING DUCK; C. BARNACLE GOOSE; D. WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE." ></a>
+HEADS OF THE A. EIDER; B. KING DUCK; C. BARNACLE GOOSE; D. WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE.
+</div>
+
+<p>gives the signal of flight when danger approaches. The nest
+consists of a rich, soft, down bed. The best down is got by
+robbing the down-covered nest, an inferior kind by plucking
+the dead birds. When the female is driven from the nest she
+seeks in haste to scrape down over the eggs in order that they
+may not be visible. She besides squirts over them a very stinking
+fluid, whose disgusting smell adheres to the collected eggs
+and down. The stinking substance is however so volatile or
+so easily decomposed in the air that the smell completely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page125" id="v1page125"></a>[pg 125]</span>
+disappears in a few hours. The eider, which some years ago was
+very numerous on Spitzbergen,<A HREF="#v1fn63" NAME="v1rn63">[63]</A> has of late years considerably
+diminished in numbers, and perhaps will soon be completely
+driven thence, if some restraint be not laid on the heedless way
+in which not only the Eider Islands are now plundered, but the
+birds too killed, often for the mere pleasure of slaughter. On
+Novaya Zemlya, too, the eider is common. It breeds, for instance,
+in not inconsiderable numbers on the high islands in
+Karmakul Bay. The eider's flesh has, it is true, but a slight
+flavour of train oil, but it is coarse and far inferior to that of
+Br&uuml;nnich's guillemot. In particular, the flesh of the female
+while hatching is almost uneatable.</p>
+
+<p>The king-duck occurs more sparingly than the common
+eider. On Spitzbergen it is called the &quot;Greenland eider,&quot; on
+Greenland the &quot;Spitzbergen eider,&quot; which appears to indicate
+that in neither place is it quite at home. On Novaya Zemlya, on
+the other hand, it occurs in larger numbers. Only once have I
+seen the nest of this bird, namely, in 1873 on Axel's Islands in
+Bell Sound, where it bred in limited numbers together with the
+common eider. In the years 1858 and 1864, when I visited the
+same place, it did not breed there. Possibly its proper breeding
+place is on Novaya Zemlya at the inland lakes a little way from
+the coast. The walrus-hunters say that its eggs taste better
+than those of the common eider. They are somewhat smaller
+and have a darker green colour.</p>
+
+<p>On the Down Islands hatches, along with the eiders, the long-necked
+<i>prutgaessen</i>, barnacle goose (<i>Anser bernicla</i>, L.) marked
+on the upper part of the body in black and brownish grey.
+It lays four to five white eggs in an artless nest without
+down, scattered here and there among the eiders' nests rich in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page126" id="v1page126"></a>[pg 126]</span>
+down. This variety of goose is found in greatest numbers
+during the moulting season at small inland lakes along the
+coast, for instance on the line of coast between Bell Sound and
+Ice Fjord and on Gooseland. The walrus-hunters sometimes
+call them &quot;rapphoens&quot;&mdash;partridges&mdash;a misleading name, which
+in 1873 induced me to land on the open coast south of Ice
+Fjord, where &quot;rapphoens&quot; were to be found in great numbers.
+On landing I found only moulting barnacle geese. The barnacle
+goose finds its food more on land and inland lakes than
+in the sea. Its flesh accordingly is free from the flavour of
+train oil and tastes well, except that of the female during the
+hatching season, when it is poor and tough. The eggs are
+better than the eider's.</p>
+
+<p>On Spitzbergen besides the barnacle goose we meet with the
+closely allied species <i>Anser leucopsis</i>, Bechst. It is rather rare,
+but more common on Novaya Zemlya. Further there occurs at
+the last-named place a third species of goose, <i>vildgaosen</i>, the
+&quot;grey goose&quot; or &quot;great goose&quot; of the walrus-hunters; the bean
+goose (<i>Anser segetum</i>,Gmel.), which is replaced on Spitzbergen
+by a nearly allied type, the pink-footed goose (<i>Anser brachyrhynchus</i>,
+Baillon). These geese are much larger than both the
+eider and the barnacle goose, and appear to be sufficiently
+strong to defend themselves against the fox. They commonly
+breed high up on some mossy or grassy oasis, among the stone
+mounds of the coast mountains, or on the summit of a steep
+strand escarpment in the interior of the fjords. During the
+moulting season the grey geese collect in flocks at the small
+fresh-water lakes along the coast. The flesh of this species of
+goose is finer than that of the common tame goose and has no
+trace of any train flavour.</p>
+
+<p>Among the swimming birds that give the summer life on
+Novaya Zemlya its peculiar character, we may further reckon
+the scaup-duck and the swan. <i>Alfogel</i> or <i>allan</i>, the long-tailed
+duck (<i>Fuligula glacialis</i>,L.) is rare on Spitzbergen, but occurs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page127" id="v1page127"></a>[pg 127]</span>
+very generally on Novaya Zemlya, and especially in the Kara
+Sea, on whose coasts it is seen in summer collected in large
+flocks. <i>Mindre saongsvanen</i>, Bewick's swan (<i>Cygnus Bewickii</i>,
+Yarr.), is the most nobly formed and coloured bird of the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p143.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p143.png" alt="BEWICK'S SWAN." ></a>
+BEWICK'S SWAN.
+<br>Swedish, Mindre Saongsvanen. (Cygnus Bewickii, Yarr).
+<br>BREASTBONE.
+<br>of Cygnus Bewickii, showing the peculiar position of the windpipe. After Yarrell. </div>
+
+<p>north. I have already described its nest, which is found in
+considerable numbers in Gooseland. The bird is blinding
+white, resembling the common swan, but somewhat smaller
+and with a considerable difference in the formation of the windpipe
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page128" id="v1page128"></a>[pg 128]</span>
+and the &quot;keel&quot; of the breastbone. The flesh is said to
+be coarse and of inferior flavour.</p>
+
+<p>The land-birds in the Arctic regions are less numerous both
+in species and individuals than the sea-birds. Some of them,
+however, also occur in large numbers. Almost wherever one
+lands, some small greyish brown waders are seen running quickly
+to and fro, sometimes in pairs, sometimes in flocks of ten to
+twenty. It is the most common wader of the north, the
+<i>fjaerplyt</i> of the walrus-hunters, the purple sandpiper (<i>Tringa
+maritima</i>, Br&uuml;nn.). It lives on flies, gnats, and other land
+insects. Its well-filled crop shows how well the bird knows
+how to collect its food even in regions where the entomologist
+can only with difficulty get hold of a few of the animal forms
+belonging to his field of research. The purple sandpiper lays
+its four or five eggs in a pretty little nest of dry straw on open
+grassy or mossy plains a little distance from the sea. It also
+endeavours to protect its nest by acting a comedy like that of
+the <i>tjufjo</i>. Its flesh is delicious.</p>
+
+<p>In the company of the purple sandpiper there is often seen a
+somewhat larger wader, or, more correctly, a bird intermediate
+between the waders and the swimming birds. This is the
+beautiful <i>brednaebbade simsnaeppan</i>, the grey (or red) phalarope
+(<i>Phalaropus fulicarius</i>, Bonap.). It is not rare on Spitzbergen,
+and it is exceedingly common, perhaps even the commonest
+bird on the north coast of Asia. I imagine therefore that it is
+not absent from Novaya Zemlya, though there has hitherto been
+observed there only the nearly allied <i>smalnaebbade simsnaeppan</i>,
+the red-necked phalarope (<i>Phalaropus hyperboreus</i>, Lath.).
+This bird might be taken as the symbol of married love, so
+faithful are the male and female, being continually to be seen
+in each other's company. While they search for their food in
+pools of water along the coast, they nearly always bear each
+other company, swimming in zigzag, so that every now and
+then they brush past each other. If one of them is shot, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page129" id="v1page129"></a>[pg 129]</span>
+other flies away only for a short time until it observes that its
+mate is left behind. It then flies back, swims with evident
+distress round its dead friend, and pushes it with its bill to get
+it to rise. It does not, however, spend any special care on its
+nest or the rearing of its young, at least to judge by the nest
+which Dun&eacute;r found at Bell Sound in 1864. The position of
+the nest was indicated by three eggs laid without anything
+below them on the bare ground, consisting of stone splinters.
+The flesh of the phalarope is a great delicacy, like that of other
+waders which occur in the regions in question, but which I
+cannot now stay to describe.</p>
+
+<p>During excursions in the interior of the land along the coast,
+one often hears, near heaps of stones or shattered cliffs, a
+merry twitter. It comes from an old acquaintance from the
+home land, the <i>snoesparfven</i> or <i>snoelaerkan</i>, the snow-bunting
+(<i>Emberiza nivalis</i>, L.). The name is well chosen, for in winter
+this pretty bird lives as far south as the snow goes on the
+Scandinavian peninsula, and in summer betakes itself to the
+snow limit in Lapland, the <i>tundra</i> of North Siberia, or the
+coasts of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya. It there builds
+its carefully-constructed nest of grass, feathers and down, deep
+in a stone heap, preferably surrounded by a grassy plain.
+The air resounds with the twitter of the little gay warbler,
+which makes the deeper impression because it is the only
+true bird's song one hears in the highest north.<A HREF="#v1fn64" NAME="v1rn64">[64]</A></p>
+
+<p>On Spitzbergen there is sometimes to be met with in the
+interior of the country, on the mountain slopes, a game bird,
+<i>spetsbergsripan</i>, the rock ptarmigan (<i>Lagopus hyperboreus</i>,
+Sund.). A nearly allied type occurs on the Taimur peninsula,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page130" id="v1page130"></a>[pg 130]</span>
+and along the whole north coast of Asia. It perhaps therefore
+can scarcely be doubted that it is also to be found on Novaya
+Zemlya, though we have not hitherto seen it there. On Spitzbergen
+this bird had only been found before 1872 in single
+specimens, but in that year, to our glad surprise, we discovered
+an actual ptarmigan-fell in the neighbourhood of our winter
+colony, immediately south of the 80th degree of latitude. It
+formed the haunt of probably a thousand birds; at least a
+couple of hundred were shot there in the course of the winter.
+They probably breed there under stones in summer, and creeping
+in among the stones pass the winter there, at certain seasons
+doubtless in a kind of torpid state.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p146.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p146.png" alt="PTARMIGAN FELL." ></a>
+PTARMIGAN FELL.
+<br>Mussel Bay on Spitzbergen, after a photograph taken by A. Envall on the 21st June, 1872. </div>
+
+<p>The mode of life of the Spitzbergen ptarmigan is thus widely
+different from that of the Scandinavian ptarmigan, and its flesh
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page131" id="v1page131"></a>[pg 131]</span>
+also tastes differently. For the bird is exceedingly fat, and its
+flesh, as regards flavour, is intermediate between black-cock and
+fat goose.<A HREF="#v1fn65" NAME="v1rn65">[65]</A> We may infer from this that it is a great delicacy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p147.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p147.png" alt="THE SNOWY OWL." ></a>
+THE SNOWY OWL.
+<br>Swedish, Fjelluggla (Strix nyctea L.)</div>
+
+<p>When I was returning, in the autumn of 1872, from an excursion
+of some length along the shore of Wijde Bay, I fell in
+with one of our sportsmen, who had in his hand a white bird
+marked with black spots, which he showed me as a &quot;very large
+ptarmigan.&quot; In doing so, however, he fell into a great ornithological
+mistake, for it was not a ptarmigan at all, but another
+kind of bird, similarly marked in winter, namely, <i>fjellugglan</i>,
+the walrus-hunter's <i>isoern</i>, the snowy owl (<i>Strix nyctea</i>, L.). It
+evidently breeds and winters at the ptarmigan-fell, which it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page132" id="v1page132"></a>[pg 132]</span>
+appears to consider as its own poultry-yard. In fact, the
+marking of this bird of prey is so similar to that of its victim
+that the latter can scarcely perhaps know how to take care of
+itself. On Spitzbergen the snowy owl is very rare; but on
+Novaya Zemlya and the North coast of Asia&mdash;where the lemming,
+which is wanting on Spitzbergen, occurs in great crowds&mdash;it is common. It commonly sits immoveable on an open
+mountain slope, visible at a great distance, from the strong
+contrast of its white colour with the greyish-green ground.
+Even, in the brightest sunshine, unlike other owls, it sees
+exceedingly well. It is very shy, and therefore difficult to
+shoot. The snow ptarmigan and the snowy owl are the only
+birds of which we know with certainty that they winter on
+Spitzbergen, and both are, according to Hedenstr&ouml;m, native
+to the New Siberian Islands (<i>Otrywki o Sibiri</i>, p. 112).</p>
+
+<p class="tb">In the cultivated regions of Europe the larger mammalia
+are so rare that most men in their whole lifetime have never
+seen a wild mammal so large as a dog. This is not the case
+in the high north. The number of the larger mammalia here
+is indeed no longer so large as in the seventeenth century, when
+their capture yielded an abundant living to from twenty to
+thirty thousand men; but sport on Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen
+still supports several hundred hunters, and during
+summer scarcely a day passes without a visitor of the coasts of
+these islands seeing a seal or a walrus, a reindeer or a Polar
+bear. In order to present a true picture of the Polar traveller's
+surroundings and mode of life, it is absolutely necessary to
+give a sketch of the occurrence and mode of life of the wild
+mammalia in the Polar lands.</p>
+
+<p>I shall make a beginning with the reindeer. This graminivorous
+animal goes nearly as far to the north as the land in
+the old world. It was not, indeed, observed by Payer on Franz
+Josef Land, but traces of the reindeer were seen by us on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page133" id="v1page133"></a>[pg 133]</span>
+the clay beds at Cape Chelyuskin; remnants of reindeer were
+observed at Barents' winter harbour on the northernmost part
+of Novaya Zemlya; some very fat animals were killed by
+Norwegian walrus-hunters on King Karl's Land east of Spitzbergen,
+and for some years back the reindeer was very numerous
+even on the north coast of North East Land, and on Castr&eacute;n's,
+Parry's, Marten's, and Phipps' Islands, lying still farther to the
+north. Although these regions are situated between 80&deg; and
+81&deg; N.L., the reindeer evidently thrives there very well, and
+finds, even in winter, abundant food on the mountain slopes
+swept clear of snow by storms, as is shown by the good condition
+in which several of the animals shot by us were, and by
+the numerous reindeer traces and tracks which we saw on
+Castr&eacute;n's Island in the month of May, 1873. Nor does a
+winter temperature of -40&deg; to -50&deg; appear to agree particularly
+ill with these relatives of the deer of the south. Even
+the Norwegian reindeer can bear the climate of Spitzbergen,
+for some of the selected draught reindeer which I took with
+me to Spitzbergen in 1872, and which made their escape soon
+after they were landed, were shot by hunters in 1875. They
+then pastured in company with wild reindeer, and were, like
+them, very fat. It is remarkable that the reindeer, notwithstanding
+the devastating pursuit to which it is exposed on
+Spitzbergen,<A HREF="#v1fn66" NAME="v1rn66">[66]</A> is found there in much larger numbers than on
+North Novaya Zemlya or the Taimur peninsula, where it is
+almost protected from the attacks of the hunter. Even on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page134" id="v1page134"></a>[pg 134]</span>
+low-lying part of South Novaya Zemlya, the reindeer, notwithstanding
+the abundance of the summer pasture, is so rare that,
+when one lands there, any reindeer-hunting is scarcely to be
+counted on. It first occurs in any considerable numbers farther
+to the north, on both sides of Matotschkin Schar.</p>
+
+<p>It deserves to be mentioned here that three hundred years
+ago, when the north part of Novaya Zemlya was for the
+first time visited by man, reindeer do not appear to have
+been more numerous there than now. In the narrative of
+Barents' third voyage (De Veer, <i>Diarium Nauticum</i>, 21st
+June, 1506) it is expressly stated: &quot;Here it may be remarked
+that; although the land, which we consider as Groenland (the
+present Spitzbergen), lies under and over the 80th degree of
+latitude, there grow there abundant leaves and grass, and
+there are found there such animals as eat grass, as <i>reindeer</i>,
+while on the other hand, on Novaya Zemlya, under the 76th
+degree of latitude, there are neither leaves nor grass nor any
+grass-eating animal.&quot; After this, however, traces of reins were
+found even at the winter station; a bear, for instance, was
+killed that had devoured a reindeer.</p>
+
+<p>On Spitzbergen the reindeer have been considerably diminished
+in numbers by the hunting, first of the Dutch and English,
+and afterwards of the Russians and Norwegians. In the northwestern
+part of the island, where the Dutch had their train-boiling
+establishments, the animal has been completely extirpated.<A HREF="#v1fn67" NAME="v1rn67">[67]</A>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page135" id="v1page135"></a>[pg 135]</span>
+It still, however, occurs on Ice Fjord in very great numbers,
+which, were the animal protected, would speedily increase.</p>
+
+<p>That so devastating a pursuit as that which goes on year after
+year on Spitzbergen can be carried on without the animal being
+extirpated, has even given rise to the hypothesis of an immigration
+from Novaya Zemlya. But since I have become better
+acquainted with the occurrence of the reindeer in the latter
+place, this mode of explanation does not appear to me to be
+correct. If, therefore, as several circumstances in fact indicate,
+an immigration of reindeer to Spitzbergen does take place, it
+must be from some still unknown Polar land situated to the
+north-north-east. In the opinion of some of the walrus-hunters
+there are indications that this unknown land is inhabited, for
+it has repeatedly been stated that <i>marked</i> reindeer have been
+taken on Spitzbergen. The first statement on this point is to
+be found in Witsen (<i>Noort ooster gedeelte van Asia en Europa</i>,
+1705, ii. page 904), where the reins are said to have been
+marked on the horns and the ears; and I have myself heard
+hunters, who in Norway were well acquainted with the care of
+reindeer, state positively that the ears of some of the Spitzbergen
+reindeer they shot were clipped&mdash;probably, however,
+the whole has originated from the ears having been marked
+by frost. That no immigration to Spitzbergen of reindeer from
+Novaya Zemlya takes place, is shown besides by the fact that
+the Spitzbergen reindeer appears to belong to a race differing
+from the Novaya Zemlya reindeer, and distinguished by its
+smaller size, shorter head and legs, and plumper and fatter body.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page136" id="v1page136"></a>[pg 136]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p152.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p152.png" alt="REINDEER PASTURE." ></a>
+REINDEER PASTURE.
+<br>Green Harbour on Spitzbergen, after a photograph taken by A. Envall on the 20th July, 1873. </div>
+
+<p>The life of the wild reindeer is best known from Spitzbergen.
+During summer it betakes itself to the grassy plains in the
+ice-free valleys of the island, in late autumn it withdraws&mdash;according
+to the walrus-hunters' statements&mdash;to the sea-coast, in
+order to eat the seaweed that is thrown up on the beach, and in
+winter it goes back to the lichen-clad mountain heights in the
+interior of the country, where it appears to thrive exceedingly
+well, though the cold during winter must be excessively severe;
+for when the reindeer in spring return to the coast they are
+still very fat, but some weeks afterwards, when the snow has
+frozen, on the surface, and a crust of ice makes it difficult for
+them to get at the mountain sides, they become so poor as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page137" id="v1page137"></a>[pg 137]</span>
+scarcely to be eatable. In summer, however, they speedily eat
+themselves back into condition, and in autumn they are so fat
+that they would certainly take prizes at an exhibition of fat
+cattle. In the museum at Tromsoe there is preserved the
+backbone of a reindeer, shot on King Karl's Land, which had a
+layer of fat seven to eight centimetres in thickness on the loin.</p>
+
+<p>The reindeer, in regions where it has been much hunted, is
+very shy, but, if the ground is not quite even, one can creep
+within range, if the precaution be taken not to approach it
+from the windward. During the rutting season, which falls in
+late autumn, it sometimes happens that the reindeer attacks
+the hunter.</p>
+
+<p>The Spitzbergen reindeer is not tormented, like the reindeer
+in Lapland and on Novaya Zemlya, by &quot;gorm&quot; (inch-long
+larv&aelig; of a fly, which are developed under the animal's skin).
+Its flesh is also better than that of the Lapp reindeer. None
+of the contagious diseases which of late years have raged so
+dreadfully among the reindeer in northern Europe has ever, at
+least during the last fifty years, been common on Spitzbergen.</p>
+
+<p>The Polar bear occurs principally on coasts and islands which
+are surrounded by drift-ice, often even upon ice-fields far out at
+sea, for his best hunting is among the ice-floes. Now he is
+rather rare on the south-western coasts of Spitzbergen and
+Novaya Zemlya which are almost free of ice during summer,
+but more common on the northern parts of these islands, which
+are almost always surrounded by ice. Thus for instance during
+my many landings at Horn Sound, Bell Sound, Ice Fjord, Foreland
+Sound, and King's Bay, on the west coast of Spitzbergen,
+I have never seen a single bear. On the other hand, bears
+were seen at nearly every resting-place during the boat voyage
+I made in 1861 with Torell in Hinloopen Strait and along the
+shores of the most northerly islands on Spitzbergen, also during
+the sledge journey which Palander and I made in the spring of
+1873 round North East Land. The Polar bear is besides found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page138" id="v1page138"></a>[pg 138]</span>
+everywhere along the north coast of Asia and America,
+apparently in greater numbers the farther north we go.
+Sometimes too, first on ice and then swimming, he has
+reached the north coast of Norway, for instance, in March
+1853, when, according to a statement in <i>Tromsoe Stiftstidende</i>
+(No. 4 for 1869), a Polar bear was killed in Kjoellefjord in East
+Einmark.</p>
+
+<p>The bear is not difficult to kill. When he observes a man he
+commonly approaches in hope of prey, with supple movements,
+and in a hundred zigzag bends, in order to conceal the direction
+he intends to take, and thus keep his prey from being frightened.
+During his approach he often climbs up on blocks of ice, or
+raises himself on his hind legs, in order to get a more extensive
+view, or else stands snuffing up the air with evident care in all
+directions, in order, by the aid of smell, which he seems to rely
+upon more than sight, to ascertain the true kind and nature of
+the surrounding objects. If he thinks he has to do with a seal,
+he creeps or trails himself forward along the ice, and is said
+then to conceal with the fore-paws the only part of his body that
+contrasts with the white colour of the snow&mdash;his large black
+nose. If one keeps quite still, the bear comes in this way so
+near that one can shoot him at the distance of two gun-lengths,
+or, what the hunters consider safer, kill him with the lance.
+If an unarmed man falls in with a Polar bear, some rapid
+movements and loud cries are generally sufficient to put him to
+flight, but if the man himself flies, he is certain to have the
+bear after him at full speed. If the bear is wounded, he
+always takes to flight. He often lays snow upon the wound
+with his fore-paws; sometimes in his death struggles he scrapes
+with his fore-feet a hole in the snow, in which he buries his head.</p>
+
+<p>When a vessel lies at anchor, the bear sometimes swims out
+to it, and if one encamps in distant regions one often finds on
+getting up in the morning a Polar bear in the neighbourhood,
+who during the night has gone and nosed round the tent,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page139" id="v1page139"></a>[pg 139]</span>
+without daring to attack it. I remember only one case of a
+bear venturing to look into an inhabited tent; it was during
+Kane's journey. He was frightened on that occasion by the
+lighting of some lucifers. I have myself with my comrades
+encamped without a watch in regions where we were certain
+that our encampment would be visited, while we lay in deep
+sleep, by some bear, that seldom, when the cook rose to make
+coffee, failed to come within range of shot.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p155.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p155.png" alt="POLAR BEARS." ></a>
+POLAR BEARS.
+<br>Drawn by G M&uuml;tzel of Berlin. </div>
+
+<p>The bear on the other hand has a special fancy for taking an
+inventory of dep&ocirc;ts of provisions, of abandoned vessels, or of
+boats that have been left drawn up on the beach. Most Arctic
+travellers have remarkable adventures to relate, which both
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page140" id="v1page140"></a>[pg 140]</span>
+men and bears have gone through on such occasions. During our
+expedition in 1864, for instance, a large bear came and closely
+examined the contents of a boat covered with a tent, which we
+had left unwatched for a few hours at the bottom of Stor Fjord.
+He ate up a carefully-cooked reindeer roast, tore the reserve
+clothes, scattered about the ship-biscuit, &amp;c.; and after we had
+returned in the evening, gathered our things together in a heap,
+closed the tent and lain down to sleep, the same bear returned,
+and, while we slept, appropriated all the reindeer beef we had
+cooked to be used, in place of the roast we had lost, during the
+following day's journey. During one of the English expeditions
+in search of Franklin, there was killed on one occasion, a bear
+in whose stomach there was found, among many other articles,
+the stock of sticking-plaster from a neighbouring dep&ocirc;t. The
+bear can also roll away very large stones, but a layer of frozen
+sand is too much for him.</p>
+
+<p>The Polar bear swims exceedingly well, but not so fast as that
+he can escape in this way, if he be pursued in a boat; if a boat
+and stout rowers are at hand he is accordingly done for, if, as
+often happens, he in attempting to escape seeks his deliverance
+in the sea. There, he is, as the hunters say, &quot;as easy to kill as
+a sheep,&quot; but one has to make haste to get hold of the killed
+animal with a harpoon or in some other way, for it speedily
+sinks, unless it is very fat.</p>
+
+<p>The walrus-hunting vessels from Tromsoe brought home in
+1868 twenty, in 1869 fifty-three, in 1870 ninety-eight, in 1871
+seventy-four, and in 1872 thirty-three bears. It may be inferred
+from this that the Norwegian walrus-hunters kill yearly on an
+average at least a hundred bears. It is remarkable that in this
+large number a pregnant female or one with newly-born young
+is never found.<A HREF="#v1fn68" NAME="v1rn68">[68]</A> The female bear appears to keep herself well
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page141" id="v1page141"></a>[pg 141]</span>
+concealed during the time she is pregnant; perhaps in some
+ice-hole in the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the Polar bear hibernates during winter is not
+quite settled; various facts, however, point in this direction.
+For instance, he disappears almost completely from wintering
+stations during the dark time, and holes have sometimes
+been met with in which bears were concealed. Thus it once
+happened to Tobiesen that he went down with one foot into
+such a hole, to the no small dismay not only of the experienced
+walrus-hunter, but also of the bear.</p>
+
+<p>It is also stated that the bear during the dark time goes to
+the edge of the ice to seek his food. I cannot say positively
+whether this is the case or not; but the fact points in an
+opposite direction, that while only a single bear was seen in the
+course of the winter in the open water in the neighbourhood of
+our winter station at Mussel Bay in 1872-73, Palander and I
+almost daily saw bears on the hard frozen sea north of North
+East Land. Tracks of bears were visible there in all directions
+on the ice, and along with them light, sinuous traces of the fox.
+There were, on the other hand, no seal holes to be found, and it
+was accordingly difficult to understand wherefore the bears had
+chosen just this desolate stretch of ice as their haunt. The
+bears that were killed were besides uncommonly lean, the fat
+which they yielded being scarcely available as fuel for the
+sledge-party's cooking apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>During their extended excursions after prey the male and the
+female, the latter generally attended by one or two large young
+ones, keep each other company. Larger numbers are seldom
+seen together, unless at places where a good many carcases of
+walruses, seals, or white fish are lying.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the sight of a bear created great dismay in
+Polar travellers, but now the walrus-hunters do not hesitate a
+moment to attack, lance in hand, a large number of bears.
+They have sometimes in this way killed as many as twelve
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page142" id="v1page142"></a>[pg 142]</span>
+within a short time. They depend less on the gun. During
+the expedition of 1861 Carl Chydenius shot three in a few
+minutes, close to his tent-covered boat.</p>
+
+<p>I do not know a single case in which any Norwegian walrus-hunter
+has been seriously wounded by a bear. It appears,
+however, as if this animal were bolder and more dangerous in
+regions where he has not made acquaintance with man's dangerous
+hunting implements. During the first English and
+Dutch voyages to Novaya Zemlya, bears were met with at
+nearly every place where a landing was effected, in regions where
+the Polar bear is now wholly absent, and the travellers were
+compelled to undertake actual combats&mdash;combats which cost
+several human lives. During Barents' second voyage some men
+on the 26th/16th September, 1593, landed on the mainland near the
+eastern mouth of Yugor Schar, in order to collect &quot;a sort of
+diamonds occurring there&quot; (valueless rock crystals), when a large
+white bear, according to De Veer, rushed forward and caught one
+of the stone collectors by the neck. On the man screaming
+&quot;Who seizes me by the neck?&quot; a comrade standing beside
+answered, &quot;A bear,&quot; and ran off. The bear immediately bit
+asunder the head of his prey, and sucked the blood. The rest of
+the men who were on land now came to his relief, attacking the
+bear with levelled guns and lances. But the bear was not
+frightened, but rushed forward and laid hold of a man in the
+rank of the attacking party, and killed him too, whereupon all
+the rest took to flight. Assistance now came from the vessel,
+and the bear was surrounded by thirty men, but against their
+will, because they had to do with a &quot;grim, undaunted, and greedy
+beast.&quot; Of these thirty men only three ventured to attack the
+bear, whom these &quot;courageous&quot; men finally killed, after a rather
+severe struggle.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of occurrences of a similar nature, though
+commonly attended with fortunate results, are to be found
+recorded in most of the narratives of Arctic travel. Thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page143" id="v1page143"></a>[pg 143]</span>
+a sailor was once carried off from a whaler caught in the ice
+in Davis' Straits, and in 1820, among the drift-ice in the
+sea between Greenland and Spitzbergen, the same fate was
+like to befall one of the crew of a Hull whaler; but he succeeded
+in effecting his escape by taking to flight, and throwing to the
+bear, first his only weapon of defence, a lance, and then his
+articles of clothing, one after the other.<A HREF="#v1fn69" NAME="v1rn69">[69]</A> On the 6th of March
+1870, Dr. Boergen was attacked by a bear, and dragged a
+considerable distance.<A HREF="#v1fn70" NAME="v1rn70">[70]</A> It is remarkable that the bear did not
+this time either kill his prey, but that he had time to cry out,
+&quot;A bear is dragging me away;&quot; and that, after the bear had
+dragged him several hundred yards and he had got free, he
+could, though very badly scalped, himself make his way back to
+the vessel. The scalping had been done by the bear attempting
+to crush the skull in its mouth, as it is accustomed to do to the
+seals it catches. Scoresby considers it dangerous to hunt the
+Polar bear in deep snow. The well-known Dane, C. Petersen,
+guide to McClintock, Kane and others, on the other hand,
+considered it as little dangerous to attack a bear as to slaughter
+a sheep. The Siberian traveller, Hedenstr&ouml;m, says that a man
+may venture to do so with a knife tied to a walking-stick, and
+the Norwegian hunters, or at least the Norwegian-Finnish
+harpooners, express themselves in much the same way regarding
+&quot;this noble and dangerous&quot; sport.</p>
+
+<p>The bear's principal food consists of the seal and walrus.
+It is said that with a single stroke of his powerful paw he can
+cast a walrus up on the ice. On the other hand he seldom
+succeeds in catching the reindeer, because it is fleeter than the
+bear. I have, however, in North East Land, on two occasions,
+seen blood and hair of reindeer which had been caught by bears.
+There is not the least doubt that, along with flesh, the bear also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page144" id="v1page144"></a>[pg 144]</span>
+eats vegetable substances, as seaweed, grass, and lichens. I
+have several times, on examining the stomach of a bear that
+had been shot, found in it only remains of vegetable substances;
+and the walrus-hunters know this so well that they called a
+large old Polar bear, which Dr. Th&eacute;el shot at Port Dickson in
+1875, &quot;an old Land-king&quot; that was too fat to go a hunting, and
+therefore ate grass on land. He makes use besides of food of
+many different kinds; a bear, for instance, in the winter 1865-66
+consumed for Tobiesen the contents of two barrels of salt fish,
+which he had left behind in a deserted hut.</p>
+
+<p>The flesh of the bear, if he is not too old or has not recently
+eaten rotten seal-flesh, is very eatable, being intermediate in
+taste between pork and beef. The flesh of the young bear is
+white and resembles veal. The eating of the liver causes
+sudden illness.</p>
+
+<p>Although, as already mentioned, the Polar bear sometimes
+drifts to land and is killed in the northernmost part of Norway,
+his skin is not enumerated by Othere among the products of
+Finmark. It thus appears to have become known in Europe
+first after the Norwegians' discovery of Iceland and Greenland,
+and was at first considered an extraordinary rarity. A Norwegian
+of importance, who had emigrated to Iceland, and there succeeded
+in getting hold of a female bear with two young, sent
+them in 880 to the King of Norway, and got in return a small
+vessel laden with wood. This animal had not then been seen in
+Norway before. The old sagas of the north are said to relate
+further that the priest Isleif, in order to be nominated bishop of
+Iceland, in the year 1056 presented a white bear to Kejsar
+Henrik. In the year 1064 the King of Denmark gave in
+exchange for a white bear from Greenland a well-equipped, full
+rigged, trading vessel, a considerable sum of money, and a
+valuable gold ring.<A HREF="#v1fn71" NAME="v1rn71">[71]</A></p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo also says in his account of the country of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page145" id="v1page145"></a>[pg 145]</span>
+peace-loving nomad Tatar tribes living in the north, that there
+are to be found there white bears most of them twenty hands long,
+large black foxes, wild asses (reindeer), and a little animal called
+&quot;rondes,&quot; from which we get the sable fur.<A HREF="#v1fn72" NAME="v1rn72">[72]</A> As the Polar
+bear is only to be found on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, these
+statements prove that in the thirteenth century the northernmost
+part of Asia was inhabited or at least visited by hunters. Olaus
+Magnus even describes the bear's mode of life not incorrectly,</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p161.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p161.png" alt="POLAR BEARS." ></a>
+POLAR BEARS.
+<br>After Olaus Magnus (1555). </div>
+
+<p>with the addition that it was customary to present their skins
+to the altars of cathedrals and parish churches in order that
+the feet of the priest might not freeze during mass.<A HREF="#v1fn73" NAME="v1rn73">[73]</A> The Polar
+bear however first became more generally known in Western
+Europe by the Arctic voyages of the English and Dutch, and its
+price has now sunk so much that its skin, which was once considered
+an article of extraordinary value, is now, in adjusting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page146" id="v1page146"></a>[pg 146]</span>
+accounts between the owners of a vessel and the walrus-hunters,
+reckoned at from twenty-five to fifty Scandinavian crowns
+(say twenty-eight to fifty-six shillings).</p>
+
+<p>In 1609 Stephen Bennet, during his seventh voyage to Bear
+Island, captured two young Polar bears, which were brought to
+England and kept at Paris Garden (Purchas, iii. p. 562). Now
+such animals are very frequently brought to Norway in order to
+be sent from thence to the zoological gardens of Europe,
+in which the Polar bear is seldom wanting. The capture is
+facilitated by the circumstance that the young bears seldom
+leave their mother when she is killed.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the reindeer and the bear there are found in
+the regions now in question only two other land-mammalia,
+the mountain fox (<i>Vulpes lagopus</i>L.) and the lemming (<i>Myodes
+obensis</i> Brants).<A HREF="#v1fn74" NAME="v1rn74">[74]</A> The fox is rather common both on Spitzbergen
+and Novaya Zemlya. Its abode sometimes consists of
+a number of passages excavated in the ground and connected
+together, with several openings. Such a nest I saw on
+Wahlberg's Island in Hinloopen Strait on the summit of a
+fowl-fell; it was abundantly provided with a stock of half-rotten
+guillemots, concealed in the passages. The old foxes
+were not visible while we were there, but several young ones,
+some black, some variegated red and white, ran hither and
+thither from out the openings and played with supple movements
+in the neighbourhood of the nest. A similar nest also,
+with young that ran between its openings, played and hunted
+each other, I have seen on the north shore of Matotschkin
+Schar, and uninhabited fox-holes and passages at several
+places on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, commonly in the
+tops of dry sandy knolls.</p>
+
+<p>The lemming is not found on Spitzbergen, but must at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page147" id="v1page147"></a>[pg 147]</span>
+certain seasons occur in incredible numbers on Novaya Zemlya.
+For at the commencement of summer, when the snow has
+recently melted away, there are to be seen, everywhere in the
+level fertile places in the very close grass of the meadows, footpaths
+about an inch and a half deep, which have been formed
+during winter by the trampling of these small animals, under the
+snow, in the bed of grass or lichens which lies immediately
+above the frozen ground. They have in this way united with each
+other the dwellings they had excavated in the ground, and constructed
+for themselves convenient ways, well protected against
+the severe cold of winter, to their fodder-places. Thousands
+and thousands of animals must be required in order to
+carry out this work even over a small area, and wonderfully
+keen must their sense of locality be, if, as seems probable, they
+can find their way with certainty in the endless labyrinth they
+have thus formed. During the snow-melting season these passages
+form channels for running off the water, small indeed, but
+everywhere to be met with, and contributing in a considerable
+degree to the drying of the ground. The ground besides is at
+certain places so thickly strewed with lemming dung, that it
+must have a considerable influence on the condition of the soil.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">In the Arctic regions proper one is not tormented by the
+mosquito,<A HREF="#v1fn75" NAME="v1rn75">[75]</A> and viewed as a whole the insect fauna of the entire
+Polar area is exceedingly scanty, although richer than was
+before supposed. Arachnids, acarids, and podurids occur most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page148" id="v1page148"></a>[pg 148]</span>
+plentifully, Dr. Stuxberg having been able during the Yenisej expedition
+of 1875 to collect a very large number of them, which
+were worked out after his return&mdash;the podurids by Dr. T.
+TULLBERG of Upsala, the arachnids by Dr. T. KOCH of Nurnberg.
+These small animals are found in very numerous individual specimens,
+among mouldering vegetable remains, under stones and
+pieces of wood on the beach, creeping about on grass, straws, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Of the insects proper there were brought home from Novaya
+Zemlya, during the same expedition, nine species of coleoptera,
+which were determined by Professor F. W. M&Auml;KLIN, of Helsingfors.<A HREF="#v1fn76" NAME="v1rn76">[76]</A>
+Some few hemiptera and lepidoptera and orthoptera,
+and a large number of hymenoptera and diptera from the same
+expedition have been examined by Lector A. E. HOLMGREN of
+Stockholm. Dr. Stuxberg also collected a large number of
+land-worms, which have been described by our countryman Dr.
+G. EISEN, now settled in California. The occurrence of this
+animal group in a region where the ground at the depth of a
+few inches is continually frozen, appears to me exceedingly
+remarkable&mdash;and from a general point of view the occurrence of
+insects in a land which is exposed to a winter cold below the
+freezing-point of mercury, and where the animal cannot seek
+protection from it by creeping down to a stratum of earth which
+never freezes, presupposes that either the insect itself, its egg,
+larva, or pupa, may be frozen stiff without being killed. Only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page149" id="v1page149"></a>[pg 149]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p165.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p165.png" alt="WALRUSES." ></a>
+WALRUSES.
+<br>After a drawing by G. von Yhlen (1861). </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page151" id="v1page151"></a>[pg 151]</span>
+<p>very few species of these small animals, however, appear to
+survive such a freezing test, and the actual land-evertebrate-fauna
+of the Polar countries is therefore exceedingly scanty in
+comparison with that of more southerly regions.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite otherwise as regards the sea. Here animal life is
+exceedingly abundant as far as man has succeeded in making his
+way to the farthest north. At nearly every sweep the dredge
+brings up from the sea-bottom masses of decapods, crustacea,
+mussels, asterids, echini,<A HREF="#v1fn77" NAME="v1rn77">[77]</A> &amp;c., in varying forms, and the surface
+of the sea on a sunny day swarms with pteropods, beroids,
+surface-crustacea, &amp;c. Dr. Stuxberg will give, farther on, a
+sketch of this department of animal life, which in the high
+north is so rich in variety. In the meantime I can but refer to
+the large number of papers on this subject which have been
+issued in the publications of the Swedish Academy of Sciences.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Of the higher animal types a greater number within the Polar
+territory occur in the sea than on the land. Thus by far the greater
+number of the birds I have enumerated above belong to the
+sea, not to the land, and this is the case with nearly all the
+animals which for three or four hundred years back have been the
+objects of capture in the Arctic regions. This industry, which
+during the whale-fishing period yielded a return perhaps equal to
+that of the American oil-wells in our time, has not now in the
+most limited degree the importance it formerly had. For the
+animal whose capture yielded this rich return, the right whale
+(<i>Bal&aelig;na mysticetus</i> L.), is now so extirpated in these navigable
+waters, that the whalers were long ago compelled to seek new
+fishing-places in other parts of the Polar seas. It is therefore
+no longer the whale, but other species of animals which attract
+the hunter to the coasts of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>Of these animals the most important for the last fifty years
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page152" id="v1page152"></a>[pg 152]</span>
+has been the walrus, but it too is in course of being extirpated.
+It is now seldom found during summer on the west coast of
+Novaya Zemlya south of Matotschkin Schar. During our visits
+to that island in 1875, 1876, and 1878 we did not see one of
+these animals. But in the Kara Gate, on the east coast of
+Novaya Zemlya, and at certain places in the Kara Sea, abundant
+hunting is still to be had. Earlier in the year the walrus is also
+to be met with among the drift-ice on the west coast, and to the
+south, off the mouth of the Petchora, although the number of
+the animals that are captured by the Samoyeds at Chabarova
+appears to be exceedingly small. On the other hand the Dutch,
+in their first voyages hither, saw a considerable number of
+these gregarious animals. The walrus, however, did not then
+occur here in such abundance as they did at the same time on
+Spitzbergen and Bear Island, which evidently formed their
+principal haunts.</p>
+
+<p>During Stephen Bennet's third voyage to Bear Island in 1606,
+700 to 800 walruses were killed there in six hours, and in 1608
+nearly 1,000 in seven hours. The carcases left lying on the
+beach attracted bears thither in such numbers that, for instance,
+in 1609 nearly fifty of them were killed by the crew of a single
+vessel. At one place eighteen bears were seen at once (Purchas,
+iii. p. 560). A Norwegian skipper was still able during a
+wintering in 1824-25 to kill 677 walruses. But when Tobiesen
+wintered there in 1865-66 he killed only a single walrus, and
+on the two occasions of my landing there I did not see one.
+Formerly the hunters almost every year, during late autumn
+when the drift-ice had disappeared, found &quot;walrus on land,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>
+herds of several hundred walruses which had crept up on some
+low, even, sandy beach, to pass days and weeks there in an
+almost motionless state. During this period of rest most of
+them appear to be sunk in deep sleep, yet not all, for&mdash;according
+to the concurrent statements of all the walrus-hunters with
+whom I have conversed on this subject&mdash;they keep a watch to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page153" id="v1page153"></a>[pg 153]</span>
+warn their comrades when danger is near. If necessary precautions
+are observed, <i>i.e.</i> if the hunters approach the beach
+where the animals are assembled when the wind blows from the
+land, and kill with the lance those that lie nearest the water, the
+rest are slaughtered without difficulty, being prevented by the
+carcases of their dead comrades from reaching the sea. Now
+such an opportunity for the hunter happens exceedingly seldom;
+there are famous headlands on which in former times the
+walrus was found by hundreds, in whose neighbourhood now not
+a single one is to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>In the sea too there are certain places which the walrus
+principally haunts, and which are therefore known by the
+hunters as walrus-banks. Such a bank is to be found in the
+neighbourhood of Muffin Island, situated on the north coast
+of Spitzbergen in 80&deg; north latitude, and the animals that have
+been killed here must be reckoned by thousands. Another bank
+of the same kind is to be met with in 72&deg; 15' north latitude, on
+the coast of Yalmal. The reason why the walruses delight to
+haunt these places is doubtless that they find there abundant food,
+which does not consist, as has often been stated, of seaweed, but
+of various living mussels from the bottom of the sea, principally
+<i>Mya truncata</i>and <i>Saxicava rugosa</i>. Their fleshy parts are freed,
+before they are swallowed, so remarkably well from the shells,
+and cleaned so thoroughly, that the contents of the stomach
+have the appearance of a dish of carefully-shelled oysters. In
+collecting its food the walrus probably uses its long tusks to
+dig up the mussels and worms which are deeply concealed in
+the clay.<A HREF="#v1fn78" NAME="v1rn78">[78]</A> Scoresby states that in the stomach of a walrus he
+found, along with small crabs, pieces of a young seal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page154" id="v1page154"></a>[pg 154]</span>
+The largest walrus tusks I have seen were two of a male
+walrus purchased in the summer of 1879 at St. Lawrence Island,
+in the north part of Behring's Sea. They measured 830 and
+825 millimetres in length, their largest circumference was 227
+and 230 millimetres, and they weighed together 6,680 gram.
+I have seen the tusks of females of nearly the same length, but
+they are distinguished from those of the male by being much
+more slender. The surface of the tusks is always full of cracks,
+but under it there is a layer of ivory free of cracks, which again
+incloses a grained kernel of bone which at some places is semi-transparent,
+as if drenched with oil.</p>
+
+<p>When the walrus ox gets very old, he swims about by
+himself as a solitary individual, but otherwise animals of the
+same age and sex keep together in large herds. The young
+walrus long follows its mother, and is protected by her with
+evident fondness and very conspicuous maternal affection. Her
+first care, when she is pursued, is accordingly to save her young
+even at the sacrifice of her own life. A female walrus with
+young is nearly always lost, if they be discovered from a hunting
+boat. However eagerly she may try by blows and cuffs to get
+her young under water or lead her pursuers astray by diving
+with it under her forepaw, she is generally overtaken and killed.
+Such a hunt is truly grim, but the walrus-hunter knows no
+mercy in following his occupation. The walrus, especially the
+old solitary male, sleeps and rests during autumn, when the
+drift-ice has disappeared, also in the water, with his head now
+above the surface, now under it, and with his lungs so strongly
+inflated that the body is kept floating, with part of the back
+projecting out of the water. The latter way of sleeping is
+indeed possible only for so long at once as the animal can keep
+below, but this is said to be a very long time. If a hunting
+boat meets a walrus sleeping in this way it is first wakened with
+a loud &quot;strike up&quot; before it is harpooned, &quot;in order that in
+its fright it may not knock a hole in the boat with its tusks.&quot;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page155" id="v1page155"></a>[pg 155]</span>
+The walrus sinks and is lost, if he is killed by a shot while in
+the water, or if he be shot while lying on a piece of ice, but
+without being killed so instantaneously that he cannot cast
+himself into the water in his death struggles. He is killed
+accordingly almost exclusively with the harpoon or lance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p170.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p170.png" alt="WALRUS TUSKS." ></a>
+WALRUS TUSKS.
+<br>A. Tusk of male, outside. B. Tusk of male, inside C. Tusks of female.
+<br>One-tenth of natural size. </div>
+
+<p>The harpoon consists of a large and strong iron hook, very
+sharp on the outer edge, and provided with a barb. The hook
+is loosely fixed to the shaft, but securely fastened to the end of
+a slender line ten fathoms long, generally made of walrus hide.
+The line is fastened at its other end to the boat, in the forepart
+of which it lies in a carefully arranged coil. There are from five
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page156" id="v1page156"></a>[pg 156]</span>
+to ten such harpoon lines in every hunting boat. When the
+hunters see a herd of walrus, either on a piece of drift-ice or
+in the water, they endeavour silently and against the wind to
+approach sufficiently near to one of the animals to be able to
+harpoon it. If this is managed, the walrus first dives and then
+endeavours to swim under water all he can. But he is fixed</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p171.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p171.png" alt="HUNTING IMPLEMENTS." ></a>
+HUNTING IMPLEMENTS.
+<br>(1) Harpoon, and (2) Lance for Walrus-hunting.
+(3) &quot;Skottel&quot; for the capture of the White Whale.
+<br>One-fifteenth of natural size. </div>
+
+<p>with the line to the boat, and must
+draw it along with him. His comrades
+swim towards the boat, curious
+to ascertain the cause of the alarm.
+A new walrus is fixed with another
+harpoon, and so it goes on, one after
+another, until all the harpoons are
+in use. The boat is now drawn forward
+at a whizzing speed, although
+the rowers hold back with the oars;
+but there is no actual danger as
+long as all the animals draw in
+the same direction. If one of them
+seeks to take a different course
+from that of his comrades in misfortune,
+his line must be cut off,
+otherwise the boat capsizes. When
+the walruses get exhausted by their
+exertions and by loss of blood, the
+hunters begin to haul in the lines.
+One animal after the other is drawn
+to the stem of the boat, and there
+they commonly first get a blow on
+the head with the flat of a lance, and when they turn to guard
+against it, a lance is thrust into the heart. Since breechloaders
+have begun to be used by the walrus-hunters, they often prefer to
+kill the harpooned walruses with a ball instead of &quot;lancing&quot; them.
+To shoot an unharpooned walrus, on the other hand, the walrus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page157" id="v1page157"></a>[pg 157]</span>
+hunters formerly considered an unpardonable piece of thoughtlessness,
+because the animal was in this way generally wounded
+or killed without any advantage accruing. They therefore
+expressed themselves with great irritation against the tourists who
+sometimes came to Spitzbergen, and in this way destroyed the
+hunting. It cannot however be denied that they themselves in
+recent times have often followed the bad example, and many
+consider that this is one of the main reasons of the great diminution
+in the numbers of the walrus of late years. Should
+an international code be established for hunting in the Polar sea,
+all shooting of unharpooned walruses ought to be forbidden in
+the first place.</p>
+
+<p>Gregariousness and curiosity appear to be the main characteristics
+of the walrus. These qualities of theirs I had an
+opportunity of observing when once, on a glorious northern
+summer day, I rowed forward over a mirror-bright, drift-ice-bestrewn
+sea right into the midst of a considerable herd of
+these animals. Part followed the boat long distances quite
+peaceably, now and then emitting a grunting sound; others
+swam quite close, and raised themselves high out of the water
+in order to take a view of the foreigners; others, again, lay
+so closely packed on pieces of drift-ice as to sink them down
+to the water's edge, while their comrades swimming about
+in the sea endeavoured with violence to gain a place on the
+already overfilled resting-places, though a number of unoccupied
+pieces of ice floated up and down in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>When the hunters have killed a female walrus, it often
+happens that they take the young living. It is easily
+tamed, and soon regards its keeper with warm attachment. It
+seeks, as best it can&mdash;poorly equipped as it is for moving about
+on dry land&mdash;to follow the seamen on the deck, and gives
+itself no rest if it be left alone. Unfortunately, one does not
+succeed in keeping them long alive, probably because it is
+impossible to provide them with suitable food. There are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page158" id="v1page158"></a>[pg 158]</span>
+instances, however, of the young of the walrus being brought
+to Europe alive. Thus it is said (Purchas, iii., p. 560), that
+Master Welden and Stephen Bennet, on the 22nd/12th July, 1608,
+caught two young walruses alive, one a male and the other
+a female. The female died before they reached England, but
+the male lived ten weeks. He was carried to court, shown
+to the king and many honourable gentlemen, and excited
+general admiration for his extraordinary form and great docility.
+A young walrus that was taken to St. Petersburg in 1829-30,
+also died in a short time. It gave occasion to K. E. von BAER'S
+famous treatise: &quot;Anatomische und zoologische Untersuchungen
+&uuml;ber das Wallross,&quot; printed in <i>M&eacute;moires de l'Acad&eacute;mie
+Imp&eacute;riale des Sciences de St. P&eacute;tersbourg</i>, ser. vi., t. iv. 2, 1838,
+p. 97.</p>
+
+<p>The walrus is hunted for its skin, blubber, and oil. The
+value of a full-grown walrus was calculated at Tromsoe, in
+1868, in settling accounts between the owners of hunting
+sloops and the hunters, at eighty Scandinavian crowns (say
+4<i>l</i>. 10s.), but it sank in 1871 to only forty-eight crowns (say
+2<i>l</i>. 15s.). The flesh of the walrus is coarse and train-flavoured,
+and is eaten by the hunters only in cases of necessity. From
+my own experience, however, I can certify that its comparatively
+small tongue is very delicious. By the Eskimo and the
+Chukchis the flesh of the walrus is considered a delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>The walrus was doubtless hunted by the Polar tribes long
+before the historic period,<A HREF="#v1fn79" NAME="v1rn79">[79]</A> but it is mentioned for the first time
+in writing in the sketch of Othere's Arctic journey. The
+narrative shows that it was then captured on the north coast of
+Scandinavia. This appears the less improbable, as a walrus now
+and then even in our days drifts to land on the Norwegian coast,
+and walruses are still annually killed off Swjatoinos on the
+Kola peninsula,<A HREF="#v1fn80" NAME="v1rn80">[80]</A> The walrus is very correctly described in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page159" id="v1page159"></a>[pg 159]</span>
+well-known Norse confession written in the end of the eleventh
+century, &quot;Konungs skuggsj&aacute;&quot; (the King's Mirror), as an animal
+resembling the seal,<A HREF="#v1fn81" NAME="v1rn81">[81]</A> except that, besides several smaller teeth, it
+has two large tusks which project beyond the upper jaw. This
+clear and unexaggerated sketch is however replaced in the later
+writings of the middle ages by the most extraordinary accounts
+of the animal's appearance and mode of capture. Thus Albertus
+Magnus,<A HREF="#v1fn82" NAME="v1rn82">[82]</A> who died in 1280, says that the walrus is taken by the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p174.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p174.png" alt="WALRUS HUNTING." ></a>
+WALRUS HUNTING.
+<br>After Olaus Magnus (1555). </div>
+
+<p>hunter, while the sleeping animal hangs by its large tusks to a
+cleft of the rock, cutting out a piece of its skin and fastening to
+it a strong rope whose other end is tied to trees, posts, or large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page160" id="v1page160"></a>[pg 160]</span>
+rings fixed to rocks. The walrus is then wakened by throwing
+large stones at its head. In its attempts to escape it leaves its
+hide behind. It perishes soon after, or is thrown up half dead
+on the beach. He further states that walrus lines on account of
+their strength are suitable for lifting great weights, and that they
+are always on sale at Cologne. They were probably used at the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p175.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p175.png" alt="WALRUSES (female with young)." ></a>
+WALRUSES (female with young).
+<br>Old Dutch drawing.<A HREF="#v1fn83" NAME="v1rn83">[83]</A></div>
+
+<p>building of the Cathedral there. Similar extraordinary representations
+of the appearance and mode of life of the walrus are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page161" id="v1page161"></a>[pg 161]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p176.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p176.png" alt="JAPANESE DRAWING OF THE WALRUS." ></a>
+JAPANESE DRAWING OF THE WALRUS.<A HREF="#v1fn84" NAME="v1rn84">[84]</A>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page162" id="v1page162"></a>[pg 162]</span>
+<p>repeated in a more or less altered form even by Olaus Magnus,
+whose representation of the walrus is shown by the accompanying
+woodcut.</p>
+
+<p>The 11th/1st of August 1556, the year after the publication of the
+work of Olaus Magnus, a West European saw for the first time
+some actual walruses, which had been killed by Russian hunters
+at Vaygats Island. No description of the animal, however,
+is given, but from that period all the members of the English
+and Dutch north-east expeditions had opportunities of seeing
+walruses in hundreds and thousands. It was now first that man
+learned actually to know this remarkable animal which had
+been decked out in so many fables. To this period belongs the
+beautiful and natural delineation of the walrus which is given
+above.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiarity of the walrus may be mentioned here. The
+hide, especially in old males, is often full of wounds and scratches,
+which appear to be caused partly by combats and scraping
+against sharp pieces of ice, partly by some severe disease of the
+skin. Mr. H. W. Elliot has remarked this of the walrus in
+Behring's Sea<A HREF="#v1fn85" NAME="v1rn85">[85]</A>. The walrus is also troubled with lice, which
+is not the case, so far as I know, with any kind of seal.
+Masses of intestinal worms are found instead in the stomach
+of the seal, while on the contrary none are found in that
+of the walrus.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the other animals that are hunted in the
+Polar Sea I am compelled to be very brief, as I have scarcely
+any observations to make regarding them which are not already
+sufficiently known by numerous writings.</p>
+
+<p>There are three kinds of seals on Novaya Zemlya. <i>Storsaelen</i>,
+the bearded seal (<i>Phoca barbata</i>,Fabr.) occurs pretty generally
+even on the coasts of Spitzbergen, though never in large flocks.
+The pursuit of this animal is the most important part of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page163" id="v1page163"></a>[pg 163]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p178.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p178.png" alt="YOUNG OF THE GREENLAND SEAL." ></a>
+YOUNG OF THE GREENLAND SEAL.
+<br>After a drawing by A W. Quennerstedt (1864).</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page164" id="v1page164"></a>[pg 164]</span>
+<br>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page165" id="v1page165"></a>[pg 165]</span>
+<p>seal-fishing in these waters, and the bearded seal is still killed
+yearly by thousands. Their value is reckoned in settling
+accounts between owners and hunters at twenty to twenty-five
+Scandinavian crowns (say 22s. to 27s. 6d.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Groenlands</i> or <i>Jan-Mayen-saelen</i>, the Greenland seal (<i>Phoca
+Groenlandica</i> Muller), which at Jan Mayen gives occasion to so
+profitable a fishing, also is of general occurrence among the
+drift-ice in the Munnan and Kara seas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Snadden</i>, the rough or bristled seal (<i>Phoca hispida</i>, Erxl.) is also
+common on the coast. These animals in particular are seen to
+lie, each at its hole, on the ice of fjords, which has not been
+broken up. It also many times follows with curiosity in the
+wake of a vessel for long distances, and can then be easily shot,
+because it is often so fat that, unlike the two other kinds of
+seals, it does not sink when it has been shot dead in the
+water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Klapmytsen</i>, the bladdernose seal, (<i>Cystophora cristata</i>, Erxl.)
+the walrus-hunters say they have never seen on Novaya Zemlya,
+but it is stated to occur yearly in pretty large numbers among
+the ice W.S.W. of South Cape on Spitzbergen. Only once
+during our many voyages in the Polar Sea has a <i>Klapmyts</i> been
+seen, viz, a young one that was killed in 1858 in the neighbourhood
+of Bear Island.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various species of whales, the narwhal, distinguished
+by its long and valuable horn projecting in the longitudinal
+direction of the body from the upper jaw, now occurs so seldom on
+the coast of Novaya Zemlya that it has never been seen there
+by the Norwegian walrus-hunters. It is more common at Hope
+Island, and Witsen states (p. 903) that large herds of narwhals
+have been seen between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>The white whale or beluga, of equal size with the narwhal,
+on the other hand, occurs in large shoals on the coasts of
+Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, especially near the mouths of
+fresh-water streams. These animals were formerly captured, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page166" id="v1page166"></a>[pg 166]</span>
+not with any great success, by means of a peculiar sort of
+harpoon, called by the hunters &quot;skottel.&quot; Now they are caught</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p180.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p180.png" alt="THE BEARDED SEAL." ></a>
+THE BEARDED SEAL.
+<br>Swedish, Storsal (<i>Phoca barbata</i>, Fabr.)
+<br>THE ROUGH SEAL.
+<br>Swedish, Snadd. (<i>Phoca hispida</i>, Erxl.)
+</div>
+
+<p>with nets of extraordinary size and strength, which are laid out
+from the shore at places which the white whales are wont to
+frequent. In this way there were taken in the year 1871, when
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page167" id="v1page167"></a>[pg 167]</span>
+the fishing appears to have been most productive, by vessels
+belonging to Tromsoe alone, 2,167 white whales. Their value
+was estimated at fifty-four Scandinavian crowns each (about 3<i>l</i>.).
+The fishing, though tempting, is yet very uncertain; it sometimes
+falls out extraordinarily abundant, as in the spring of 1880, when
+a skipper immediately on arriving at Magdalena Bay caught 300
+of these animals at a cast of the net. Of the whales thus
+killed not only the blubber and hide are taken away, but also,
+when possible, the carcases, which, when cheap freight can be
+had, are utilised at the guano manufactories in the north of
+Norway. After having lain a whole year on the beach at
+Spitzbergen they may be taken on board a vessel without any
+great inconvenience, a proof that putrefaction proceeds with
+extreme slowness in the Polar regions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p181.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p181.png" alt="THE WHITE WHALE." ></a>
+THE WHITE WHALE. (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>, Pallas)
+<br>After a drawing by A.W. Quennerstedt (1804). </div>
+
+<p>With its blinding milk-white hide, on which it is seldom
+possible to discover a spot, wrinkle, or scratch, the full-grown
+white whale is an animal of extraordinary beauty. The young
+whales are not white, but very light greyish brown. The white
+whale is taken in nets not only by the Norwegians at Spitzbergen,
+but also by the Russians and Samoyeds at Chabarova. In
+former times they appear to have been also caught at the mouth
+of the Yenisej, to judge by the large number of vertebr&aelig; that
+are found at the now deserted settlements there. The white
+whale there goes several hundred kilometres up the river. I
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page168" id="v1page168"></a>[pg 168]</span>
+have also seen large shoals of this small species of whale on the
+north coast of Spitzbergen and the Taimur peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Other species of the whale occur seldom on Novaya Zemlya.
+Thus on this occasion only two small whales were seen during
+our passage from Tromsoe, and I do not remember having seen
+more than one in the sea round Novaya Zemlya in the course of
+my two previous voyages to the Yenisej. At the north part of
+the island, too, these animals occur so seldom, that a hunter told
+me, as something remarkable, that towards the end of July, 1873,
+W.N.W. of the western entrance to Matotschkin Schar 20' to 30'
+from land, he had seen a large number of whales, belonging to
+two species, of which one was a <i>slaethval</i>, and the other had as
+it were a top, instead of a fin, on the back.</p>
+
+<p>It is very remarkable that whales still occur in great abundance
+on the Norwegian coast, though they have been hunted
+there for a thousand years back, but, on the other hand, if we
+except the little white whale, only occasionally east of the
+White Sea. The whale fishing which was carried on on so
+grand a scale on the west coast of Spitzbergen, has therefore
+never been prosecuted to any great extent on Novaya Zemlya;
+and fragments of skeletons of the whale which are found thrown
+up in such quantities on the shores of Spitzbergen, are not to be
+found, so far as my experience reaches, either on the shores of
+Novaya Zemlya, on the coast of the Kara Sea, or at the places
+on the north coast of Siberia between the Yenisej and the Lena,
+at which we landed. The sacrifices which were so long made
+in vain in the endeavour to find a passage to China in this
+direction accordingly were not compensated, as on Spitzbergen,
+by the rise of a profitable whale fishery. Meeting with a whale
+is spoken of by the first seafarers in these regions as something
+very remarkable and dangerous; for instance, in the account of
+Stephen Burrough's voyage in 1556:&mdash;&quot;On St. James his
+day, there was a monstrous whale aboord of us, so neere to our
+side that we might have thrust a sworde or any other weapon in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page169" id="v1page169"></a>[pg 169]</span>
+him, which we durst not doe for feare lie should have over-throwen
+our shippe; and then I called my company together,
+and all of us shouted, and with the crie that we made he departed
+from us; there was as much above water of his back as
+the bredth of our pinnesse, and at his falling down he made
+such a terrible noise in the water, that a man would greatly have
+marvelled, except he had known the cause of it; but, God be
+thanked, we were quietly delivered of him.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn86" NAME="v1rn86">[86]</A> When Nearchus
+sailed with the fleet of Alexander the Great from the Indus to
+the Red Sea, a whale also caused so great a panic that it was
+only with difficulty that the commander could restore order
+among the frightened seamen, and get the rowers to row to the
+place where the whale spouted water and caused a commotion
+in the sea like that of a whirlwind. All the men now shouted,
+struck the water with their oars, and sounded their trumpets, so
+that the large, and, in the judgment of the Macedonian heroes,
+terrible animal, was frightened. It seems to me that from these
+incidents we may draw the conclusion that great whales in
+Alexander's time were exceedingly rare in the sea which
+surrounds Greece, and in Burrough's time in that which washes
+the shores of England. Quite otherwise was the whale regarded
+on Spitzbergen some few years after Burrough's voyage by the
+Dutch and English whalers. At the sight of a whale all men
+were out of themselves with joy, and rushed down into the boats
+in order from them to attack and kill the valuable animal. The
+fishery was carried on with such success, that, as has already
+been stated, the right whale (<i>Bal&aelig;na mysticetus</i> L.), whose
+pursuit then gave full employment to ships by hundreds, and to
+men by tens of thousands, is now practically extirpated. Thus
+during our many voyages in these waters we have only seen one
+such whale, which happened on the 23rd June, 1864, among the
+drift-ice off the west coast of Spitzbergen in 78&deg; N.L. As the
+right whale still occurs in no limited numbers in other parts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page170" id="v1page170"></a>[pg 170]</span>
+the Polar Sea, and as there has been no whale fishing on the
+coast of Spitzbergen for the last forty or fifty years, this state of
+things shows how difficult it is to get an animal type to return
+to a region where it has once been extirpated, or from which it
+has been driven away.</p>
+
+<p>The whale which Captain Svend Foeyn has almost exclusively
+hunted on the coast of Finmark since 1864 belongs to quite
+another species, <i>blaohvalen (Bal&aelig;noptera Sibbaldii</i> Gray); and
+there are likewise other species of the whale which still in pretty
+large numbers follow shoals of fish to the Norwegian coast, where
+they sometimes strand and are killed in considerable numbers.
+A <i>tandhval</i>, killer or sword-fish (<i>Orca gladiator</i> Desm.) was even
+captured some years ago in the harbour of Tromsoe. This whale
+was already dying of suffocation, caused by an attempt to
+swallow an eider which entered the gullet, not, as the proper way
+is, with the head, but with the tail foremost. When the mouthful
+should have slidden down, it was prevented by the stiff
+feathers sticking out, and the bird stuck in the whale's throat,
+which, to judge by the extraordinary struggles it immediately
+began to make, must have caused it great inconvenience,
+which was increased still more when the inhabitants did not
+neglect to take advantage of its helpless condition to harpoon it.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn60" NAME="v1fn60">[60]</A> The name <i>stormfogel</i> is also used for the Stormy Petrel
+(<i>Thalassidroma pelagica</i>, Vig.). This bird does not occur in the
+portions of the Polar Sea with which we are now concerned.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn61" NAME="v1fn61">[61]</A> At Bear Island, Tobiesen, on the 28th May, 1866, saw fulmars' eggs
+laid immediately on the ice which still covered the rock. At one place a
+bird sitting on its eggs was even frozen fast by one leg to the ice on
+the 31/21 August, 1596. Barents found on the north part of Novaya Zemlya
+that some fulmars had chosen as a hatching-place a piece of ice covered
+with a little earth. In both these cases the under part of the egg
+during hatching could never be warmed above the freezing-point.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn62" NAME="v1fn62">[62]</A> It deserves to be investigated whether some little auks do not,
+like the Spitzbergen ptarmigan, pass the winter in their stone mounds,
+flying out to sea only at pretty long intervals in order to collect
+their food.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn63" NAME="v1fn63">[63]</A> The quantity of eider-down which was brought from the Polar lands
+to Tromsoe amounted in 1868 to 540, in 1869 to 963, in 1870 to 882, in
+1871 to 630, and in 1872 to 306 kilograms. The total annual yield may be
+estimated at probably three times as much.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn64" NAME="v1fn64">[64]</A> There are, however, various other song-birds found already on south
+Novaya Zemlya, for instance, <i>lappsparfven</i>, the Lapland bunting
+(<i>Emberiza lapponica</i>, L.), and <i>berglaerkan</i>, the shore-lark (<i>Alauda
+alpestris</i>, L.). They hatch on the ground under bushes, tufts of grass,
+or stones, in very carefully constructed nests lined with cotton-grass
+and feathers, and are not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn65" NAME="v1fn65">[65]</A> Hedenstr&ouml;m also states (<i>Otrywki o Sibiri</i>, St. Petersburg, 1830,
+p. 130,) that the ptarmigan winters on the New Siberian Islands, and
+that there it is fatter and more savoury than on the mainland.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn66" NAME="v1fn66">[66]</A> The hunters from Tromsoe brought home, in 1868, 996; in 1869, 975;
+and in 1870, 837 reindeer. When to this we add the great number of
+reindeer which are shot in spring and are not included in these
+calculations, and when we consider that the number of walrus-hunting
+vessels which are fitted out from Tromsoe is less than that of those
+which go out from Hammerfest, and that the shooting of reindeer on
+Spitzbergen is also carried on by hunters from other towns, and by
+tourists, we must suppose that at least 3,000 reindeer have been killed
+during each of those years. Formerly reindeer stalking was yet more
+productive, but since 1870 the number killed has considerably
+diminished.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn67" NAME="v1fn67">[67]</A> When Spitzbergen was first mapped, a great number of places were
+named after reindeer, which shows that the reindeer was found there in
+large numbers, and now just at these places it is completely absent. On
+the other hand, the Dutch and English explorers during the sixteenth
+century saw no reindeer on Novaya Zemlya. During the Swedish expedition
+of 1875 no reindeer were seen on the west coast of this island south of
+Karmakul Bay, while a number were shot at Besimannaja Bay and
+Matotschkin Schar. When some of the companions of the well-known
+walrus-hunting captain, Sievert Tobiesen, were compelled in 1872-73 to
+winter at North Goose Cape, they shot during winter and spring only
+eleven reindeer. Some Russians, who by an accident were obliged to pass
+six years in succession somewhere on the coast of Stans Foreland (Maloy
+Broun), and who, during this long time, were dependent for their food on
+what they could procure by hunting without the use of fire-arms (they
+had when they landed powder and ball for only twelve shots), when the
+three survivors were found and taken home in 1749, had killed two
+hundred and fifty reindeer (P.L. le Roy, <i>Relation des Aventures
+arriv&eacute;es &agrave; quatre matelots Russes jett&eacute;s par une temp&ecirc;te pr&egrave;s de l'Isle
+deserte d'Ost-Spitzbergen, sur laquelle ils ont pass&eacute; six ans et trois
+mois</i>, 1766).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn68" NAME="v1fn68">[68]</A> During the wintering of 1869-70 on East Greenland, Dr. Punsch once
+saw a female bear with quite small young (<i>Die zweite deutsche
+Nordpolarfahrt</i>, Leipzig, 1873-74. Vol. II p. 157).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn69" NAME="v1fn69">[69]</A> W. Scoresby's des J&uuml;ngern, <i>Tagebuch einer Reise auf dem
+Wallfischfang. Aus dem engl. &uuml;ebers</i>. Hamburg, 1825, p. 127.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn70" NAME="v1fn70">[70]</A> <i>Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt</i>, Vol. I. p. 465.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn71" NAME="v1fn71">[71]</A> <i>Gr&ouml;nlands historiske Mindesm&auml;rker</i>. Kj&ouml;benhavn, 1838, III. p. 384.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn72" NAME="v1fn72">[72]</A> Ramusio, Part II., Venice, 1583, p. 60.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn73" NAME="v1fn73">[73]</A> Ol. Magnus. Rome edition, 1555, p. 621.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn74" NAME="v1fn74">[74]</A> It is stated that wolves also occur on Novaya Zemlya as far up as
+to Matotschkin Sound. They are exceedingly common on the north coasts of
+Asia and Eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn75" NAME="v1fn75">[75]</A> That is to say, not on Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, for it is
+otherwise on the coast of the mainland. In West Greenland the mosquito
+as far north as the southern part of Disco Island is still so terrible,
+especially to the new comer during the first days, that the face of any
+one who without a veil ventures into marshy ground overgrown with
+bushes, becomes in a few hours unrecognisable. The eyelids are closed
+with swelling and changed into water-filled bladders, suppurating
+tumours are formed in the head under the hair, &amp;c. But when a man has
+once undergone this unpleasant and painful inoculation, the body
+appears, at least for one summer, to be less susceptible to the
+mosquito-poison.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn76" NAME="v1fn76">[76]</A> As the <i>only</i> Chrysomela, which von Baer found at Matotschkin
+Schar, played so great a <i>r&ocirc;le</i> in Arctic-zoological literature, I shall
+here enumerate the species of coleoptera, now known&mdash;after Professor
+M&auml;klim's determination of the collections which we brought home with
+us&mdash;to exist on Novaya Zemlya. These are:&mdash;<i>Feronia borealis</i> M&eacute;n&eacute;tr.,
+<i>F. gelida</i> M&auml;kl., <i>Amara alpina</i> Fabr., <i>Agabus subquadratus</i> Motsch.,
+<i>Homalota sibirica</i> M&auml;kl., <i>Homalium angustatum</i> M&auml;kl., <i>Cylletron (?)
+hyperboreum</i> M&auml;kl., <i>Chrysomela septentrionalis</i> (?) M&eacute;n&eacute;tr., <i>Prasocuris
+hannoverana</i> Fabr., v. <i>degenerata</i>. From Vaygats Island we brought home
+seven species more, which were not found on Novaya Zemlya. The insects
+occur partly under stones, especially at places where lemming dung is
+abundant, or in tracts where birds'-nests are numerous, partly in warm
+days on willow-bushes.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn77" NAME="v1fn77">[77]</A> Echini occur only very sparingly in the Kara Sea and the Siberian
+Polar Sea, but west of Novaya Zemlya at certain places in such numbers
+that they almost appear to cover the sea-bottom.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn78" NAME="v1fn78">[78]</A> Compare Malmgren's instructive papers in the publications of the
+Royal (Swedish) Academy of Sciences and Scoresby's <i>Arctic Regions</i>,
+Edinburgh, 1820, i., p. 502. That the walrus eats mussels is already
+indicated in the Dutch drawing from the beginning of the seventeenth
+century reproduced below, <a href="#v1page160">page 160.</a></p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn79" NAME="v1fn79">[79]</A> Implements of walrus-bone occur among the Northern grave <i>finds</i>.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn80" NAME="v1fn80">[80]</A> Compare note at page 48 above.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn81" NAME="v1fn81">[81]</A> I saw in 1858 a <i>Phoca barbata</i>with tusks worn away by age, which
+in its reddish-brown colour very much resembled a walrus, and was little
+inferior to it in size.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn82" NAME="v1fn82">[82]</A> Albertus Magnus, <i>De animalibus</i>, Mantua, 1479, Lib. xxiv. At the
+same place however is given a description of the whale-fishery grounded
+on actual experience, but with the shrewd addition that what the old
+authors had written on the subject did not correspond with experience.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn83" NAME="v1fn83">[83]</A> This drawing is made after a facsimile by Frederick M&uuml;ller from
+Hessel Gerritz, <i>Descriptio et delineatio geographica detectionis freti,
+&amp;c.</i> Amsterodami, 1613. The same drawing is reproduced coloured in
+Blavii <i>Atlas major</i>, Part I, 1665, p. 25, with the inscription: &quot;Ad
+vivum delineatum ab Hesselo G.A.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn84" NAME="v1fn84">[84]</A> The drawing is taken from a Japanese manuscript book of
+travels&mdash;No. 360 of the Japanese library which I brought home. According
+to a communication by an attach&eacute; of the Japanese embassy which visited
+Stockholm in the autumn of 1880, the book is entitled <i>Kau-kai-i-fun</i>,
+&quot;Narrative of a remarkable voyage on distant seas.&quot; The manuscript, in
+four volumes, was written in 1830. In the introduction it is stated that
+when some Japanese, on the 21st November, 1793 (?), were proceeding with
+a cargo of rice to Yesso, they were thrown out of their course by a
+storm, and were driven far away on the sea, till in the beginning of the
+following June they came to some of the Aleutian islands, which had
+recently been taken by the Russians. They remained there ten months, and
+next year in the end of June they came to Ochotsk. The following year in
+autumn they were carried to Irkutsk, where they remained eight years,
+well treated by the Russians. They were then taken to St. Petersburg,
+where they had an audience of the Czar, and got furs and splendid food.
+Finally they were sent back by sea round Cape Horn to Japan in one of
+Captain von Krusenstern's vessels. They were handed over to the Japanese
+authorities in the spring of 1805, after having been absent from their
+native country about thirteen years. From Nagasaki they were carried to
+Yeddo, where they were subjected to an examination. One person put
+questions, another wrote the answers, and a third showed by drawings all
+the remarkable events they had survived. They were then sent to their
+native place. In the introduction it is further said that the
+shipwrecked were unskilful seamen, by whom little attention was often
+given to the most important matters. A warning accordingly is given
+against full reliance on their accounts and the drawings in the book.
+The latter occupy the fourth part of the work, consisting of more than
+100 quarto pages. It is remarkable that the first Russian
+circumnavigation of the globe, and the first journey of the Japanese
+round the world, happened at the same time.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn85" NAME="v1fn85">[85]</A> <i>A Report upon the Condition of Affairs in the Territory of
+Alaska</i>. Washington, 1875, p. 160.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn86" NAME="v1fn86">[86]</A> Hakluyt, first edition, p. 317.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page171" id="v1page171"></a>[pg 171]</span>
+<br>
+<a name="CHAPTER_IV"></a><h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2> <br>
+
+<p>The Origin of the names Yugor Schar and Kara Sea&mdash;Rules for Sailing
+through Yugor Schar&mdash;The &quot;Highest Mountain&quot; on Earth
+&mdash;Anchorages&mdash;Entering the Kara Sea&mdash;Its Surroundings&mdash;The Inland-ice
+of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;True Icebergs rare in certain parts of the Polar
+Sea&mdash;The Natural Conditions of the Kara Sea&mdash;Animals, Plants, Bog
+Ore&mdash;Passage across the Kara Sea&mdash;The Influence of the Ice on
+the Sea-bottom&mdash;Fresh-water Diatoms on Sea-ice&mdash;Arrival at Port
+Dickson&mdash;Animal Life there&mdash;Settlers and Settlements at the Mouth of
+the Yenisej&mdash;The Flora at Port Dickson&mdash;Evertebrates&mdash;Excursion to
+White Island&mdash;Yalmal&mdash;Previous Visits&mdash;Nmmnelin's Wintering on the
+Briochov Islands.</p>
+
+<p>In crossing to Vaygats Island I met the <i>Lena</i>, which then first
+steamed to the rendezvous that had been fixed upon. I gave
+the captain orders to anchor without delay, to coal from the
+<i>Express</i>, and to be prepared immediately after my return from
+the excursion to weigh anchor and start along with the other
+vessels. I came on board the <i>Vega</i> on the evening of the 31st
+July, much pleased and gratified with what I had seen and
+collected in the course of my excursion on Vaygats Island.
+The <i>Lena</i>, however, was not quite ready, and so the start was put
+off till the morning of the 1st August. All the vessels then
+weighed anchor, and sailed or steamed through Vaygats Sound
+or Yugor Schar into the Kara Sea.</p>
+
+<p>We do not meet with the name Yugor Schar in the oldest
+narratives of travel or on the oldest maps. But it is found in
+an account dating from 1611, of a Russian commercial route
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page172" id="v1page172"></a>[pg 172]</span>
+between &quot;Pechorskoie Zauorot and Mongozei,&quot; which is annexed
+to the letter of Richard Finch to Sir Thomas Smith, already
+quoted (Purchas, iii. p. 539). The name is clearly derived
+from the old name, Jugaria, for the land lying south of the sound,
+and it is said, for instance, in the map to Herberstein's work,
+to have its name from the Hungarians, who are supposed to
+derive their origin from these regions. The first Dutch north-east
+explorers called it Vaygats Sound or Fretum Nassovicum.
+More recent geographers call it also Pet's Strait, which is incorrect,
+as Pet did not sail through it.</p>
+
+<p>There was at first no special name for the gulf between the
+Taimur peninsula and Novaya Zemlya. The name &quot;Carska
+Bay&quot; however is to be found already in the information about
+sailing to the north-east, communicated to the Muscovie Companie
+by its principal factor, Antonie Marsh (Purchas, iii. p. 805).
+At first this name was applied only to the estuary of the Kara
+river, but it was gradually transferred to the whole of the
+neighbouring sea, whose oldest Samoyed name, also derived
+from a river, was in a somewhat Russianised form, &quot;Neremskoe&quot;
+(compare Purchas, iii. p. 805, Witsen, p. 917). I shall in the
+following part of this work comprehend under the name &quot;Kara
+Sea&quot; the whole of that gulf which from 77&deg; N.L. between Cape
+Chelyuskin and the northern extremity of Novaya Zemlya extends
+towards the south to the north coast of Europe and Asia.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Palander gives the following directions for sailing
+through the sound between Vaygats Island and the mainland:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;As Yugor Straits are difficult to discover far out at sea, good
+solar observations ought to be taken on approaching them, where
+such can be had, and after these the course is to be shaped
+in the middle of the strait, preferably about N.E. by the compass.
+On coming nearer land (three to four English miles) one distinguishes
+the straits with ease. Afterwards there is nothing
+else to observe than on entering to keep right in the middle of
+the fairway.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page173" id="v1page173"></a>[pg 173]</span>
+&quot;If one wishes to anchor at the Samoyed village one ought
+to keep about an English mile from the land on the starboard,
+and steer N.E. by the compass, until the Samoyed huts are
+seen, when one bends off from starboard, keeping the church a
+little to starboard. For larger vessels it is not advisable to go
+in shallower water than eight to nine fathoms, because the depth
+then diminishes rather suddenly to from three to four fathoms.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;From the Samoyed village the course is shaped right to
+the south-east headland of Vaygats Island (Suchoi Nos), which
+ought to be passed at the distance of half an English mile.
+Immediately south-west of this headland lies a very long shoal,
+which one ought to take care of.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;From this headland the vessel is to be steered N.-1/2E. out
+into the Kara Sea. With this course there are two shoals on
+starboard and two on port at the distance of half an English mile.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The depth is in general ten fathoms; at no place in the
+fairway is it less than nine fathoms.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Vessels of the greatest draught may thus sail through
+Yugor Schar. In passing the straits it is recommended to
+keep a good outlook from the top, whence in clear weather
+the shoals may easily be seen.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the oldest narratives very high mountains, covered with ice
+and snow, are spoken of as occurring in the neighbourhood of
+the sound between Vaygats Island and the mainland. It is
+even said that here were to be found the highest mountains
+on earth, whose tops were said to raise themselves to a height
+of a hundred German miles.<A HREF="#v1fn87" NAME="v1rn87">[87]</A> The honour of having the highest
+mountains on earth has since been ascribed by the dwellers
+on the plains of Northern Russia to the neighbourhood of
+Matotschkin Schar, &quot;where the mountains are even much higher
+than Bolschoj Kamen,&quot; a rocky eminence some hundreds of feet
+high at the mouth of the Petchora&mdash;an orographic idea which
+forms a new proof of the correctness of the old saying:&mdash;&quot;In the
+kingdom of the blind the one-eyed is king.&quot; Matotschkin Schar
+indeed is surrounded by a wild Alpine tract with peaks that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page174" id="v1page174"></a>[pg 174]</span>
+rise to a height of 1,000 to 1,200 metres. On the other hand
+there are to be seen around Yugor Straits only low level plains,
+terminating towards the sea with a steep escarpment. These
+plains are early free of snow, and are covered with a rich turf,
+which yields good pasture to the Samoyed reindeer herds.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the vessels that wish to sail into the Kara Sea through
+Yugor Schar require to anchor here some days to wait for favourable
+winds and state of the ice. There are no good harbours
+in the neighbourhood of the sound, but available anchorages
+occur, some in the bay at Chabarova, at the western entrance
+of the sound; some, according to the old Dutch maps, on the
+eastern side of the sound, between Mestni Island (Staten Eiland)
+and the mainland. I have, however, no experience of my own
+of the latter anchorages, nor have I heard that the Norwegian
+walrus-hunters have anchored there. Perhaps by this time they
+are become too shallow.</p>
+
+<p>When we sailed through Yugor Schar in 1878, the sound was
+completely free of ice. The weather was glorious, but the wind
+was so light that the sails did little service. In consequence
+of this we did not go very rapidly forward, especially as I wished
+to keep the three vessels together, and the sailing ship <i>Express</i>,
+not to be left behind, had to be towed by the <i>Fraser</i>. Time was
+lost besides in dredging and taking specimens of water. The
+dredgings gave at some places, for instance off Chabarova, a rich
+yield, especially of isopods and sponges. The samples of water
+showed that already at a limited depth from the surface it had
+a considerable salinity, and that therefore no notable portion
+of the mass of fresh water, which the rivers Kara, Obi, Tas, and
+Yenisej and others pour into the Kara Sea, flows through this
+sound into the Atlantic Ocean.</p>
+
+<p>In the afternoon of the 1st August we passed through the
+sound and steamed into the sea lying to the east of it, which
+had been the object of so many speculations, expectations, and
+conclusions of so many cautious governments, merchants eager
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page175" id="v1page175"></a>[pg 175]</span>
+for gain, and learned cosmographers, from the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, and which even to the geographer and
+man of science of the present has been a <i>mare incognitum</i> down
+to the most recent date. It is just this sea that formed the
+turning-point of all the foregoing north-east voyages, from
+Burrough's to Wood's and Vlamingh's, and it may therefore not
+be out of place here, before I proceed further with the sketch
+of our journey, to give some account of its surroundings and
+hydrography.</p>
+
+<p>If attention be not fixed on the little new-discovered island,
+&quot;Ensamheten,&quot; the Kara Sea is open to the north-east. It
+is bounded on the west by Novaya Zemlya and Vaygats Island;
+on the east by the Taimur peninsula, the land between the
+Pjaesina and the Yenisej and Yalmal; and on the south by the
+northernmost portion of European Russia, Beli Ostrov, and the
+large estuaries of the Obi and the Yenisej. The coast between
+Cape Chelyuskin and the Yenisej consists of low rocky heights,
+formed of crystalline schists, gneiss, and eruptive rocks, from
+the Yenisej to beyond the most southerly part of the Kara
+Sea, of the Gyda and Yalmal <i>tundras</i> beds of sand of equal
+fineness, and at Vaygats Island and the southern part of
+Novaya Zemlya (to 73&deg; N.L.) of limestone and beds of schist<A HREF="#v1fn88" NAME="v1rn88">[88]</A>
+which slope towards the sea with a steep escarpment three
+to fifteen metres high, but form, besides, the substratum of a
+level plain, full of small collections of water which is quite
+free of snow in summer. North of 73&deg; again the west coast
+of the Kara Sea is occupied by mountains, which near
+Matotschkin are very high, and distributed in a confused
+mass of isolated peaks, but farther north become lower and
+take the form of a plateau.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page176" id="v1page176"></a>[pg 176]</span>
+Where the mountains begin, some few or only very inconsiderable
+collections of ice are to be seen, and the very mountain
+tops are in summer free of snow. Farther north glaciers
+commence, which increase towards the north in number and
+size, till they finally form a continuous inland-ice which, like
+those of Greenland and Spitzbergen, with its enormous ice-sheet,
+levels mountains and valleys, and converts the interior of the
+land into a wilderness of ice, and forms one of the fields for the
+formation of icebergs or glacier-iceblocks, which play so great
+a <i>r&ocirc;le</i> in sketches of voyages in the Polar seas. I have not
+myself visited the inland-ice on the northern part of Novaya
+Zemlya, but doubtless the experience I have previously gained
+during an excursion with Dr. Berggren on the inland-ice of
+Greenland in the month of July 1870, <i>after all the snow on it
+had melted</i>, and with Captain Palander on the inland-ice of
+North-East Land in the beginning of June 1873, <i>before any
+melting of snow had commenced</i>, is also applicable to the ice-wilderness
+of north Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p190.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p190.png" alt="SECTION OF INLAND-ICE." ></a>
+SECTION OF INLAND-ICE.
+<br>Open glacier-canal. B. Snow-filled canal. C. Canal concealed by a snow-vault.
+D. Glacier-clefts. </div>
+
+<p>As on Spitzbergen the ice-field here is doubtless interrupted
+by deep bottomless clefts, over which the snowstorms of winter
+throw fragile snow-bridges, which conceal the openings of the
+abysses so completely that one may stand close to their edge
+without having any suspicion that a step further is certain
+death to the man, who, without observing the usual precaution
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page177" id="v1page177"></a>[pg 177]</span>
+of being bound by a rope to his companions, seeks his way
+over the blinding-white, almost velvet-like, surface of this
+snow-field, hard packed indeed, but bound together by no
+firm crust. If a man, after taking necessary precautions against
+the danger of tumbling down into these crevasses, betakes
+himself farther into the country in the hope that the apparently
+even surface of the snow will allow of long day's marches, he is
+soon disappointed in his expectations; for he comes to regions
+where the ice is everywhere crossed by narrow depressions,
+<i>canals</i>, bounded by dangerous clefts, with perpendicular walls
+up to fifteen metres in height. One can cross these depressions</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p191.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p191.png" alt="VIEW FROM THE INLAND-ICE OF GREENLAND." ></a>
+VIEW FROM THE INLAND-ICE OF GREENLAND.
+<br>After a drawing by S Berggren, 23rd July, 1870. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page178" id="v1page178"></a>[pg 178]</span>
+<p>only alter endless zigzag wanderings, at places where they have
+become filled with snow and thereby passable. In summer
+again, when the snow has melted, the surface of the ice-wilderness
+has quite a different appearance. The snow has
+disappeared and the ground is now formed of a blue ice, which
+however is not clean, but everywhere rendered dirty by
+a grey argillaceous dust, carried to the surface of the
+glacier by wind and rain, probably from distant mountain
+heights. Among this clay, and even directly on the ice itself,
+there is a scanty covering of low vegetable organisms. The
+ice-deserts of the Polar lands are thus the habitat of a peculiar
+flora, which, insignificant as it appears to be, forms however</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p192.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p192.png" alt="GREENLAND ICE FJORD." ></a>
+GREENLAND ICE FJORD.
+<br>After a design drawn and lithographed by a Greenland Eskimo. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page179" id="v1page179"></a>[pg 179]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p193.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p193.png" alt="SLOWLY-ADVANCING GLACIER." ></a>
+SLOWLY-ADVANCING GLACIER.
+<br>At Foul Bay, on the west coast of Spitzbergen, after a photograph taken by A. Envall,
+30th August, 1872.
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p193a.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p193a.png" alt="GLACIER WITH STATIONARY FRONT." ></a>
+GLACIER WITH STATIONARY FRONT.
+<br>Udde Bay, on Novaya Zemlya, after a drawing by Hj. Th&eacute;el (1875).
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page180" id="v1page180"></a>[pg 180]</span>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page181" id="v1page181"></a>[pg 181]</span>
+<p>an important condition for the issue of the conflict which goes
+on here, year after year, century after century, between the sun
+and the ice. For the dark clay and the dark parts of plants
+absorb the warm rays of the sun better than the ice, and
+therefore powerfully promote its melting. They eat themselves
+down in perpendicular cylindrical holes thirty to sixty centimetres
+in depth, and from a few millimetres to a whole metre
+in diameter. The surface of the ice is thus destroyed and
+broken up.</p>
+
+<p>After the melting of the snow there appears besides a number
+of inequalities, and the clefts previously covered with a fragile
+snow-bridge now gape before the wanderer where he goes
+forward, with their bluish-black abysses, bottomless as far as
+we can depend on ocular evidence. At some places there are
+also to be found in the ice extensive shallow depressions, down
+whose sides innumerable rapid streams flow in beds of azure-blue
+ice, often of such a volume of water as to form actual
+rivers. They generally debouch in a lake situated in the middle
+of the depression. The lake has generally an underground
+outlet through a grotto-vault of ice several thousands of feet
+high. At other places a river is to be seen, which has bored
+itself a hole through the ice-sheet, down which it suddenly
+disappears with a roar and din which are heard far and wide,
+and at a little distance from it there is projected from the ice a
+column of water, which, like a geyser with a large intermittent
+jet in which the water is mixed with air, rises to a great height.</p>
+
+<p>Now and then a report is heard, resembling that of a cannon
+shot fired in the interior of the icy mass. It is a new crevasse
+that has been formed, or if one is near the border of the ice-desert,
+an ice-block that has fallen down into the sea. For, like,
+ordinary collections of water, an ice-lake also has its outlet into
+the sea. These outlets are of three kinds, viz., <i>ice-rapids</i>, in
+which the thick ice-sheet, split up and broken in pieces, is
+pressed forward at a comparatively high speed down a narrow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page182" id="v1page182"></a>[pg 182]</span>
+steeply-sloping valley, where ice-blocks tumble on each other
+with a crashing noise and din, and from which true icebergs
+of giant-like dimensions are projected in hundreds and thousands;
+<i>broad; slowly-advancing glaciers</i>, which terminate towards the
+sea with an even perpendicular face, from which now and then
+considerable ice-blocks, but no true icebergs, fall down; and
+<i>smaller stationary glaciers</i>, which advance so slowly that the ice
+in the brim melts away about as fast as the whole mass of ice
+glides forward, and which thus terminate at the beach not with
+a perpendicular face but with a long ice-slope covered with clay,
+sand, and gravel.</p>
+
+<p>The inland-ice on Novaya Zemlya is of too inconsiderable
+extent to allow of any large icebergs being formed. There are
+none such accordingly in the Kara Sea<A HREF="#v1fn89" NAME="v1rn89">[89]</A>, and it is seldom that
+even a large glacier ice-block is to be met with drifting about.</p>
+
+<p>The name ice-house, conferred on the Kara Sea by a
+famous Russian man of science, did not originate from the large
+number of icebergs<A HREF="#v1fn90" NAME="v1rn90">[90]</A>, but from the fact that the covering of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page183" id="v1page183"></a>[pg 183]</span>
+ice, which during winter, on account of the severity of the cold
+and the slight salinity of the surface-water, is immensely thick,
+cannot, though early broken up, be carried away by the marine
+currents and be scattered over a sea that is open even during
+winter<A HREF="#v1fn91" NAME="v1rn91">[91]</A>. Most of the ice formed during winter in the Kara Sea,
+and perhaps some of that which is drifted down from the Polar
+basin, is on the contrary heaped by the marine currents against
+the east coast of Novaya Zemlya, where during early summer it
+blocks the three sounds which unite the Kara Sea with the
+Atlantic. It was these ice-conditions which caused the failure of
+all the older north-east voyages and gave to the Kara Sea its
+bad report and name of ice-house. Now we know that it is not
+so dangerous in this respect as it was formerly believed to be&mdash;that
+the ice of the Kara Sea melts away for the most part, and
+that during autumn this sea is quite available for navigation.</p>
+
+<p>In general our knowledge of the Kara Sea some decades
+back was not only incomplete, but also erroneous. It was believed
+that its animal life was exceedingly scanty, and that alg&aelig;
+were absolutely wanting; no soundings had been taken elsewhere
+than close to the coast; and much doubt was thrown, not
+without reason, on the correctness of the maps. Now all this is
+changed to a great extent. The coast line, bordering on the
+sea, is settled on the maps; the ice-conditions, currents and
+depth of water in different parts of the sea are ascertained, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page184" id="v1page184"></a>[pg 184]</span>
+we know that the old ideas of its poverty in
+animals and plants are quite erroneous.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p197.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p197.png" alt="UMBELLULA FROM THE KARA SEA." ></a>
+UMBELLULA FROM THE KARA SEA.
+<br>Polype stem entire, one-half the natural size.
+B. Polype stem, upper part, one-and-a-half times the natural size. </div>
+
+<p>In respect to depth the Kara Sea is distinguished
+by a special regularity, and by
+the absence of sudden changes. Along the
+east coast of Novaya Zemlya and Vaygats
+Island there runs a channel, up to 500
+metres in depth, filled with cold salt-water,
+which forms the haunt of a fauna rich not
+only in individuals, but also in a large
+number of remarkable and rare types, as
+Umbellula, Elpidia, Alecto, asterids of many
+kinds, &amp;c. Towards the east the sea-bottom
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page185" id="v1page185"></a>[pg 185]</span>
+rises gradually and then forms a plain lying 30 to 90 metres
+below the surface of the sea, nearly as level as the surface of
+the superincumbent water. The bottom of the sea in the south
+and west parts of it consists of clay, in the regions of Beli
+Ostrov of sand, farther north of gravel. Shells of crustacea and
+pebbles are here often surrounded by bog-ore formations,
+resembling the figures on page 186. These also occur over an
+extensive area north-east of Port Dickson in such quantity that
+they might be used for the manufacture of iron, if the region
+were less inaccessible.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the shallower parts of the Kara Sea the water at
+the bottom is nearly as salt as in the Atlantic Ocean, and all
+the year round cooled to a temperature of -2&deg; to -2&deg;.7. The
+surface-water, on the contrary, is very variable in its composition,
+sometimes at certain places almost drinkable, and in summer
+often strongly heated. The remarkable circumstance takes
+place here that the surface water in consequence of its limited
+salinity freezes to ice if it be exposed to the temperature which
+prevails in the salt stratum of water next the bottom, and that
+it forms a deadly poison for many of the decapoda, worms,
+mussels, crustacea and asterids which crawl in myriads among
+the beds of clay or sand at the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>At many places the loose nature of the bottom does not
+permit the existence of any alg&aelig;, but in the neighbourhood of
+Beli Ostrov, Johannesen discovered extensive banks covered
+with &quot;sea-grass&quot; (alg&aelig;), and from the east coast of Novaya
+Zemlya Dr. Kjellman in 1875 collected no small number of
+alg&aelig;<A HREF="#v1fn92" NAME="v1rn92">[92]</A>, being thereby enabled to take exception to the
+old erroneous statements as to the nature of the marine flora.
+He has drawn up for this work a full account of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page186" id="v1page186"></a>[pg 186]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p199.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p199.png" alt="ELPIDIA GLACIALIS (TH&Eacute;EL) FROM THE KARA SEA." ></a>
+ELPIDIA GLACIALIS (TH&Eacute;EL) FROM THE KARA SEA.
+<br>Magnified three times.
+<br>A. Belly. B. Back.
+<p>MANGANIFEROUS IRON-ORE FORMATIONS FROM THE KARA SEA.
+<br>Half the natural size. </p></div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page187" id="v1page187"></a>[pg 187]</span>
+<p>marine vegetation in the Kara Sea, which will be found
+further on.</p>
+
+<p>I shall now return to the account of our passage across this sea.
+On this subject my journal contains the following notes:</p>
+
+<p><i>August 2nd</i>. Still glorious weather&mdash;no ice. The <i>Lena</i>
+appears to wish to get away from the other vessels, and does
+not observe the flag which was hoisted as the signal agreed upon
+beforehand that her Captain should come on board, or at least
+bring his little vessel within hail. The <i>Fraser</i> was therefore
+sent in pursuit, and succeeded in overtaking her towards night.</p>
+
+<p><i>August 3rd</i>. In the morning Captain Johannesen came on
+board the <i>Vega</i>. I gave him orders to take on board Dr.
+Almquist and Lieutenants Hovgaard and Nordquist, and go
+with them to Beli Ostrov, where they should have freedom for
+thirty-six hours to study the people, animals, and plants, as they
+pleased; the <i>Lena</i> was then, if possible, to pass through the
+Sound between the island and Yalmal to Port Dickson, where
+the three other vessels should be found. Almquist, Nordquist,
+and Hovgaard were already quite in order for the excursion;
+they went immediately on board the <i>Lena</i>, and were soon,
+thanks to the great power of the engine in proportion to the
+size of the vessel, far on their way.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the day we met with very open and rotten
+ice, which would only have been of use to us by its moderating
+effect on the sea, if it had not been accompanied by the usual
+attendant of the border of the ice, a thick fog, which however
+sometimes lightened. Towards evening we came in sight of
+Beli Ostrov. This island, as seen from the sea, forms a quite
+level plain, which rises little above the surface of the water.
+The sea off the island is of an even depth, but so shallow, that
+at a distance of twenty to thirty kilometres from the shore there
+is only from seven to nine metres of water. According to a
+communication from Captain Schwanenberg, there is, however,
+a depth of three to four metres close to the north shore. Such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page188" id="v1page188"></a>[pg 188]</span>
+a state of things, that is, a uniform depth, amounting near the
+shore to from four to ten metres, but afterwards increasing only
+gradually and remaining unchanged over very extensive areas,
+is very common in the Arctic regions, and is caused by the
+ice-mud-work which goes on there nearly all the year round.
+Another remarkable effect of the action of the ice is that all the
+blocks of stone to be found in the sea next the beach are forced
+up on land. The beach itself is formed accordingly at many
+places, for instance at several points in Matotschkin Sound, of a
+nearly continuous stone rampart going to the sea level, while
+in front of it there is a quite even sea bottom without a
+fragment of stone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p201.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p201.png" alt="SECTION FROM THE SOUTH COAST OF MATOTSCHKIN SOUND." ></a>
+SECTION FROM THE SOUTH COAST OF MATOTSCHKIN SOUND.
+<br>Showing the origin of Stone-ramparts at the beach. </div>
+
+<p><i>August 4th</i>. In the morning a gentle heaving indicated that
+the sea was again free of ice, at least over a considerable space
+to windward. Yesterday the salinity in the water was already
+diminished and the amount of clay increased; now the water
+after being filtered is almost drinkable. It has assumed a
+yellowish-grey colour and is nearly opaque, so that the vessel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page189" id="v1page189"></a>[pg 189]</span>
+appears to sail in clay mud. We are evidently in the area of
+the Ob-Yenisej current. The ice we sailed through yesterday
+probably came from the Gulf of Obi, Yenisej or Pj&auml;sina. Its
+surface was dirty, not clean and white like the surface of
+glacier-ice or the sea-ice that has never come in contact with
+land or with muddy river-water. Off the large rivers the ice,
+when the snow has melted, is generally covered with a yellow
+layer of clay. This clay evidently consists of mud, which has
+been washed down by the river-water and been afterwards
+thrown up by the swell on the snow-covered ice. The layer of
+snow acts as a filter and separates the mud from the water.
+The former, therefore, after the melting of the snow may form
+upon true sea-ice a layer of dirt, containing a large number of
+minute organisms which live only in fresh water.</p>
+
+<p><i>August 5th</i>. Still under sail in the Kara Sea, in which a
+few pieces of ice are floating about. The ice completely disappeared
+when we came north-west of Beli Ostrov. We were
+several times in the course of the day in only nine metres of
+water, which, however, in consequence of the evenness of the
+bottom, is not dangerous. Fog, a heavy sea, and an intermittent
+but pretty fresh breeze delayed our progress.</p>
+
+<p><i>August 6th</i>. At three o'clock in the morning we had land
+in sight. In the fog we had gone a little way up the Gulf
+of Yenisej, and so had to turn in order to reach our destination,
+Port Dickson. The mast-tops of the <i>Express</i> were seen projecting
+over islands to the north, and both vessels soon anchored
+south of an island which was supposed to be Dickson's Island,
+but when the <i>Fraser</i> soon after joined us we learned that this
+was a mistake. The shore, which, seen from our first anchorage,
+appeared to be that of the mainland, belonged in fact to the
+pretty extensive island, off which the haven itself is situated.</p>
+
+<p>After an excursion on land, in the course of which a covey
+of partridges was seen, and Dr. Kjellman on the diorite rocks of
+the island made a pretty abundant collection of plants, belonging
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page190" id="v1page190"></a>[pg 190]</span>
+partly to species which he had not before met with in the
+Arctic regions, we again weighed anchor in order to remove to
+the proper harbour.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Palander went before in the steam launch in order to
+examine the yet unsurveyed fairway. On the way he fell in
+with and killed a bear, an exceedingly fat and large male. Like
+the bear Dr. Th&eacute;el shot here in 1875, he had only mosses and
+lichens in his stomach, and as it is scarcely probable that the
+bear in this region can catch a great many seals in summer, it
+is to be supposed that his food consists principally of vegetable
+substances, with the addition perhaps of a reindeer or two
+when he can succeed in getting hold of them. In the year 1875
+we saw here an old male bear that appeared to pasture quite
+peaceably in company with some reindeer, probably with a view
+to get near enough to spring upon them. Bears must besides
+be very common in that part of the north coast of Siberia, for
+during the few days we now remained there, two more were
+shot, both of them very fat.</p>
+
+<p>The haven, which has now been surveyed by Lieutenant Bove,
+was discovered by me in 1875 and named Port Dickson. It is
+the best known haven on the whole north coast of Asia, and will
+certainly in the future be of great importance for the foreign
+commerce of Siberia. It is surrounded on all sides by rocky
+islands, and is thus completely sheltered. The anchorage is a
+good clay bottom. The haven may be entered both from the
+north and from the south-west; but in sailing in, caution should
+be used, because some rocky shoals may be met with which are
+not shown on Lieutenant Bove's sketch chart, which was made
+in the greatest haste. The water probably varies considerably
+as to its salinity with the season of the year and
+with ebb and flood tides, but is never, even at the surface, completely
+fresh. It can therefore be used in cooking only in case
+of the greatest necessity. But two streams on the mainland,
+one debouching north and the other south of the harbour, yield
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page191" id="v1page191"></a>[pg 191]</span>
+an abundant supply of good water, in case snow water cannot be
+obtained from any of the beds of snow which up to autumn are
+to be found at several places along the strand escarpments in
+the neighbourhood of the harbour.</p>
+
+<p>At our arrival six wild reindeer were seen pasturing on Dickson's
+Island; one of them was killed by Palander, the others were
+stalked unsuccessfully. Some bears, as has already been stated,
+were also seen, and everywhere among the heaps of stones there
+were numerous remains of the lemming and the fox. With
+these exceptions there were few of the higher animals. Of
+birds we thus saw only snow-buntings, which bred among the
+stone heaps both on the mainland and on the islands, a
+covey of ptarmigan, a large number of birds, principally
+species of Tringa and Phalaropus, but not further determined,
+eiders, black guillemots and burgomasters in limited
+numbers, and long-tailed ducks and loons in somewhat greater
+abundance. There are no &quot;down islands,&quot; and as there are no
+precipitous shore cliffs neither are there any looneries. A
+shoal of fish was seen in Lena Sound, and fish are probably
+exceedingly abundant. Seals and white whales also perhaps
+occur here at certain seasons of the year in no small numbers.
+It was doubtless with a view to hunt these animals that a
+hut was occupied, the remains of which are visible on one of the
+small rocky islands at the north entrance into the harbour. The
+ruin, if we may apply the term to a wooden hut which has
+fallen in pieces, showed that the building had consisted of a
+room with a fireplace and a storehouse situated in front, and
+that it was only intended as a summer dwelling for the hunters
+and fishers who came hither during the hunting season from the
+now deserted <i>simovies<A HREF="#v1fn93" NAME="v1rn93">[93]</A></i> lying farther south.</p>
+
+<p>I am convinced that the day will come when great warehouses
+and many dwellings inhabited all the year round will be found at
+Port Dickson. Now the region is entirely uninhabited as far
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page192" id="v1page192"></a>[pg 192]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p205.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p205.png" alt="MAP OF THE MOUTH OF THE YENISEJ." ></a>
+MAP OF THE MOUTH OF THE YENISEJ.
+<br>FROM
+ATLAS RUSSICUS CURA ET OPERE ACADEMIAE
+IMPERIALIS SCIENTIARUM PETROPOLITANAE
+PETROPOLI 1745. </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page193" id="v1page193"></a>[pg 193]</span>
+as Goltschicha, although, as the map reproduced here shows,
+numerous dwelling-houses were to be found built along the river
+bank and sea-shore beyond the mouth of the Yenisej and as far
+as to the Pj&auml;sina. They have long since been abandoned, in the
+first place in consequence of the hunting falling off, but probably
+also because even here, far away on the north coast of Siberia,
+the old simple and unpretentious habits have given way to
+new wants which were difficult to satisfy at the time when
+no steamers carried on traffic on the river Yenisej. Thus, for
+instance, the difficulty of procuring meal some decades back,
+accordingly before the commencement of steam communication
+on the Yenisej, led to the abandonment of a <i>simovie</i> situated on
+the eastern bank of the river in latitude 72&deg; 25' north.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>simovies</i> at the mouth of the Yenisej formed in their
+time the most northerly fixed dwelling-places of the European
+races.<A HREF="#v1fn94" NAME="v1rn94">[94]</A> Situated as they were at the foot of the cold <i>tundra</i>,
+exposed to continual snowstorms in winter and to close fogs
+during the greater part of summer, which here is extremely
+short, it seems as if they could not offer their inhabitants
+many opportunities for enjoyment, and the reason why this tract
+was chosen for a residence, especially in a country so rich in
+fertile soil as Siberia, appears to be difficult to find. The
+remains of an old <i>simovie</i> (Krestovskoj), which I saw in 1875
+while travelling up the river along with Dr. Lundstr&ouml;m and Dr.
+Stuxberg, however, produced the impression that a true home
+life had once been led there. Three houses with turf-covered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page194" id="v1page194"></a>[pg 194]</span>
+roofs then still remained in such a state that one could form an
+idea of their former arrangement and of the life which had
+been earned on in them. Each cabin contained a whole labyrinth
+of very small rooms; dwelling-rooms with sleeping places
+fixed to the walls, bake-rooms with immense fireplaces, bathing
+houses with furnaces for vapour-baths, storehouses for train-oil
+with large train-drenched blubber troughs hollowed out of
+enormous tree-stems, blubber tanks with remains of the white
+whale, &amp;c., all witnessing that the place had had a flourishing
+period, when prosperity was found there, when the home was
+regarded with loyalty, and formed in all its loneliness the central
+point of a life richer perhaps in peace and well-being than one
+is inclined beforehand to suppose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p207.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p207.png" alt="RUINS OF A SIMOVIE AT KRESTOVSKOJ." ></a>
+RUINS OF A SIMOVIE AT KRESTOVSKOJ.
+<br>After a drawing by A. Stuxberg. </div>
+
+<p>In 1875 a &quot;prikaschik&quot; (foreman) and three Russian
+labourers lived all the year round at Goltschicha. Sverevo was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page195" id="v1page195"></a>[pg 195]</span>
+inhabited by one man and Priluschnoj by an old man and his
+son. All were poor; they dwelt in small turf-covered cabins,
+consisting of a lobby and a dirty room, smoked and sooty, with
+a large fireplace, wooden benches along the walls, and a sleeping
+place fixed to the wall, high above the floor. Of household
+furniture only the implements of fishing and the chase were
+numerously represented. There were in addition pots and pans,
+and occasionally a tea-urn. The houses were all situated near
+the river-bank, so high up that they could not be reached by
+the spring inundations. A disorderly midden was always to be
+found in the near neighbourhood, with a number of draught
+dogs wandering about on it seeking something to eat. Only
+one of the Russian settlers here was married, and we were
+informed that there was no great supply of the material for
+Russian housewives for the inhabitants of these legions. At
+least the Cossack Feodor, who in 1875 and 1876 made several
+unsuccessful attempts to serve me as pilot, and who himself
+was a bachelor already grown old and wrinkled, complained
+that the fair or weaker sex was poorly represented among the
+Russians. He often talked of the advantages of mixed
+marriages, being of opinion, under the inspiration of memory
+or hope, I know not which, that a Dolgan woman was the
+most eligible <i>purti</i> for a man disposed to marry in that part of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>A little farther south, but still far north of the limit of trees,
+there are, however, very well-to-do peasants, who inhabit large
+<i>simovies</i>, consisting of a great number of houses and rooms, in
+which a certain luxury prevails, where one walks on floor-coverings
+of skins, where the windows are whole, the sacred
+pictures covered with plates of gold and silver, and the walls
+provided with mirrors and covered with finely coloured copper-plate
+portraits of Russian Czars and generals. This prosperity
+is won by traffic with the natives, who wander about as nomads
+on the <i>tundra</i> with their reindeer herds.</p>
+
+<p>The cliffs around Port Dickson consist of diorite, hard and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page196" id="v1page196"></a>[pg 196]</span>
+difficult to break in pieces, but weathering readily. The rocky
+hills are therefore so generally split up that they form enormous
+stone mounds. They were covered with a great abundance of
+lichens, and the plains between them yielded to Dr. Kjellman
+the following phanerogamous plants:<br>
+<br>
+Cineraria frigida RICHARDS.<br>
+Erigeron uniflorus L.<br>
+Saussurea alpina DC.<br>
+Taraxacum phymatocarpum J. VAHL.<br>
+Gymnandra Stelleri CH. &amp;c. SCHL.<br>
+Pedicularis sudetica WILLD.<br>
+Pedicularis hirsuta L.<br>
+Pedicularis Oederi VAHL.<br>
+Eritrichium villosum BUNGE.<br>
+Myosotis silvatica HOFFM.<br>
+Astragalus alpinus L.<br>
+Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC.<br>
+Dryas octopetala L.<br>
+Sieversia glacialis B. BR.<br>
+Potentilla emarginata PURSH.<br>
+Saxifraga oppositifolia L.<br>
+Saxifraga bronchialis L.<br>
+Saxifraga Hirculus L.<br>
+Saxifraga stellaris L.<br>
+Saxifraga nivalis L.<br>
+Saxifraga hieraciifolia WALDST. &amp;c. KIT.<br>
+Saxifraga punctata L.<br>
+Saxifraga cernua L.<br>
+Saxifraga rivularis L.<br>
+Saxifraga c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Chrysosplenium alternifolium L.<br>
+Rhodiola rosea L.<br>
+Parrya macrocarpa R. BR.<br>
+Cardamine pratensis L.<br>
+Cardamine bellidifolia L.<br>
+Eutrema Edwardsii R. BR.<br>
+Cochlearia fenestrata R. BR.<br>
+Draba alpina L.<br>
+Draba oblongata (R. BR.) DC.<br>
+Draba corymbosa R. BR.<br>
+Draba Wahlenbergii HN.<br>
+Draba altaica (LEDEB.) BUNGE.<br>
+Papaver nudicaule L.<br>
+Banunculus pygm&aelig;us WG.<br>
+Ranunculus hyperboreus ROTTB.<br>
+Ranunculus lapponicus L.<br>
+Ranunculus nivalis L.<br>
+Ranunculus sulphureus SOL.<br>
+Ranunculus affinis R. BR.<br>
+Caltha palustris L.<br>
+Wahlbergella apetala (L.) FR.<br>
+Stellaria Edwardsii R. BR.<br>
+Cerastium alpinum L.<br>
+Alsine arctica FENZL.<br>
+Alsine macrocarpa FENZL.<br>
+Alsine rubella WG.<br>
+Sagina nivalis FR.<br>
+Oxyria digyna (L.) HILL.<br>
+Rumex arcticus TRAUTV.<br>
+Polygonum viviparum L.<br>
+Polygonum Bistorta L.<br>
+Salix polaris WG.<br>
+Festuca rubra L.<br>
+Poa cenisea ALL.<br>
+Poa arctica R BR.<br>
+Glyceria angustata B. BR.<br>
+Catabrosa algida (SOL.) FR.<br>
+Catabrosa concinna TH. FR.<br>
+Colpodium latifolium E. BR.<br>
+Dupontia Fisheri E. BR.<br>
+Koeleria hirsuta GAUD.<br>
+Aira c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Alopecurus alpinus SM.<br>
+Eriophorum angustifolium ROTH.<br>
+Eriophorum vaginatum L.<br>
+Eriophorum Scheuchzeri HOPPE.<br>
+Carex rigida GOOD.<br>
+Carex&nbsp;  aquatilis WG.<br>
+Juncus biglumis L.<br>
+Luzula hyperborea R BR.<br>
+Luzula  arctica BL.<br>
+Lloydia serotina (L.) REICHENB.<br>
+Banunculus pygm&aelig;us WG.<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page197" id="v1page197"></a>[pg 197]</span>
+Our botanists thus made on land a not inconsiderable
+collection, considering the northerly position of the region. On
+the other hand no large alg&aelig; were met with in the sea, nor was
+it to be expected that there would, for the samples of water</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p210.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p210.png" alt="SIEVERSIA GLACIALIS R. BR." ></a>
+SIEVERSIA GLACIALIS R. BR.
+<br>From Port Dickson. </div>
+
+<p>taken up with Ekman's instrument showed that the salinity at
+the bottom was as slight as at the surface, viz. only 0.3 per
+cent. The temperature of the water was also at the time of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page198" id="v1page198"></a>[pg 198]</span>
+our visit about the same at the bottom as at the surface, viz.
++9&deg; to +10&deg;. In spring, when the snow melts, the water
+here is probably quite fresh, in winter again cold, and as
+salt as at the bottom of the Kara Sea. Under so variable
+hydrographical conditions we might have expected an exceedingly
+scanty marine fauna, but this was by no means the
+case. For the dredgings in the harbour gave Dr. Stuxberg a
+not inconsiderable yield, consisting of the same types as those
+which are found in the salt water at the bottom of the Kara Sea.
+This circumstance appears to show that certain evertebrate
+types can endure a much greater variation in the temperature
+and salinity of the water than the alg&aelig;, and that there is a
+number of species which, though as a rule they live in the
+strongly cooled layer of salt water at the bottom of the
+Kara Sea, can bear without injury a considerable diminution in
+the salinity of the water and an increase of temperature of
+about 12&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>For the science of our time, which so often places the origin
+of a northern form in the south, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>, as the foundation
+of very wide theoretical conclusions, a knowledge of the types
+which can live by turns in nearly fresh water of a temperature
+of +10&deg;, and in water cooled to -2&deg;.7 and of nearly the same
+salinity as that of the Mediterranean, must have a certain
+interest. The most remarkable were, according to Dr. Stuxberg,
+the following: a species of Mysis, <i>Diastylis Rathkei</i> KR.,
+<i>Idothea entomon</i> LIN., <i>Idothea Sabinei</i> KR., two species of
+Lysianassida, <i>Pontoporeia setosa</i> STBRG., <i>Halimedon brevicalcar</i>
+GO&Euml;S, an Annelid, a Molgula, <i>Yoldia intermedia</i> M. SARS,
+<i>Yoldia</i> (?) <i>arctica</i> GRAY, and a Solecurtus.</p>
+
+<p>Driftwood in the form both of small branches and pieces of
+roots, and of whole trees with adhering portions of branches
+and roots, occurs in such quantities at the bottom of two well-protected
+coves at Port Dickson, that the seafarer may without
+difficulty provide himself with the necessary stock of fuel. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page199" id="v1page199"></a>[pg 199]</span>
+great mass of the driftwood which the river bears along,
+however, does not remain on its own banks, but floats
+out to sea to drift about with the marine currents until
+the wood has absorbed so much water that it sinks, or
+until it is thrown up on the shores of Novaya Zemlya, the
+north coast of Asia, Spitzbergen or perhaps Greenland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p212.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p212.png" alt="EVERTIBRATIS FROM PORT DICKSON." ></a>
+EVERTIBRATIS FROM PORT DICKSON.
+<br>A. Yoldia arctica GRAY. One and two-thirds of natural size. B. Diastylis Rathkei KR.
+<br>Magnified three times. </div>
+
+<p>Another portion of the wood sinks, before it reaches the sea,
+often in such a way that the stems stand upright in the river
+bottom, with one end, so to say, rooted in the sand. They may
+thus be inconvenient for the navigation, at least at the shallower
+places of the river. A bay immediately off Port Dickson
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page200" id="v1page200"></a>[pg 200]</span>
+was almost barred by a natural palisade-work of driftwood
+stems.</p>
+
+<p><i>August 7th</i>. The <i>Vega</i> coaled from the <i>Express</i>. In the
+evening the <i>Lena</i> arrived, 36 hours after the <i>Vega</i> had anchored,
+that is to say, precisely at the appointed time. Concerning this
+excursion. Dr. Almquist reports:</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 2nd August we&mdash;Horgaard, Nordquist and I&mdash;went
+on board the <i>Lena</i> to make an excursion to Beli Ostrov. We
+were to land on the south-western headland and there undertake
+botanical and zoological researches. Thereafter we were to
+direct some attention to the opposite shore of Yalmal and visit
+the Samoyeds living there.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;We left the <i>Vega</i> at eleven o'clock forenoon. In the course
+of the day we saw here and there in the south scattered ice, and
+at half-past ten at night we ran into a large belt, about 300
+metres broad, of scattered ice, which lay stretched out from N.E.
+to S.W. It was passed without difficulty. In the course of the
+night we now and then fell in with a little scattered ice, and in
+the morning with a belt of masses of ice of considerable dimensions;
+sounding constantly in 10 to 3-1/2 metres water we succeeded,
+notwithstanding the fog and rain, in finding the straits between
+Beli Ostrov and the mainland, and on the 3rd August at eleven
+o'clock forenoon we anchored a little to the east of the southern
+extremity of the island. The <i>Lena</i> lay in 3-1/2 metres water,
+about an English mile out to sea. The water was shallow for
+so great a distance from the beach that we had to leave our
+boat about 300 metres out to sea and wade to land.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Beli Ostrov consists entirely of fine sand, and only on that
+part of the beach which is washed by the sea-water did we see
+any stones as large as walnuts; higher up we did not find a
+piece of stone even of the size of the nail. The highest point
+of the island appears to be scarcely three metres above the
+surface of the sea. That part of the island over which the sea
+water washes, that is, the beach and the deep bays which indent
+the land here and there, shows the fine sand bare, without trace
+of vegetation. Where the ground rises a little, it becomes
+covered with a black and white variegated covering of mosses
+and lichens; scattered among which at long intervals are small
+tufts of grass. First somewhat higher up, and properly only round
+the marshy margins of the numerous small fresh-water lakes and
+in hollows and bogs, is the ground slightly green. The higher
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page201" id="v1page201"></a>[pg 201]</span>
+plants are represented by only 17 species, all small and stunted,<A HREF="#v1fn95" NAME="v1rn95">[95]</A>
+most of them rising only some few lines above the sand. Very
+few plants reached a height of 15 centimetres. No kind of
+willow was found, nor any flower seen of any other colour than
+green or white.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The lichen-flora too was scanty. No species showed any
+great luxuriance, and seldom did the black and white lichen-crust
+produce any 'apothecium,' The lichen-vegetation was
+most abundant on the driftwood of the beach and on the tufts
+in the marshes. The larger lichens, as the reindeer and Iceland
+lichens, occurred very sparingly. About 80 species were found.
+The land evertebrates were so sparingly represented, that only
+three diptera, one species of hymenoptera, and some insect larv&aelig;
+and spiders could be collected. Only podur&aelig; were found in
+great abundance; they completely covered the whole ground at
+the beach.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Several herds of reindeer were seen, but we did not succeed
+in getting within range of them. A little fish of the Cottus
+family was caught by Nordquist in a ditch which was in connection
+with the sea. Driftwood still fresh was found in great
+abundance, and farther up on land here and there lay a more
+rotten stem.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Rain and fog rendered impossible any determination of
+position. During night we went across the sound and anchored
+about an English mile and a half from the shore of Yalmal,
+right opposite some Samoyed tents which we discovered a little
+inland. In the same unfavourable weather as that of the day
+before we attempted to land there, but found the water too
+shallow. First pretty far to the east we succeeded in reaching
+the beach at a place where the land rose out of the sea with a
+steep bank about nine metres high. Above the bank, which
+consisted of loose clay, we found a plain with the appearance of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page202" id="v1page202"></a>[pg 202]</span>
+a rich watered <i>tundra</i>, full of marshes and streams, and therefore
+presenting a very green appearance. In order to meet with the
+Samoyeds we now went westwards, passing several rivulets which
+cut deeply into the land and had high banks, until after half an
+hour's walking we came to a broad but not very deep river, which
+it was impossible to ford. We therefore returned to our boat with
+the view of seeking a landing-place on the other side of the river;
+but as the <i>Lena's</i> distance from land was considerable and the
+breeze was freshening, the captain considered that the time at
+our disposal did not permit us to undertake so long an excursion.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;So far as we may judge from our hasty visit, the vegetation
+on this part of Yalmal struck us as being remarkably abundant.
+The high banks especially were richly covered by phanerogamous
+plants and lichens, and would have deserved a closer examination.
+Our cursory observations of the plants here may however be
+interesting for comparison with the flora of Beli Ostrov; we
+collected and noted the higher plants<A HREF="#v1fn96" NAME="v1rn96">[96]</A> and about 40 species of
+lichens. Nordquist found that the fauna resembled that of the
+neighbouring island, and collected besides two species of
+Coleoptera.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After lying 26 hours in the sound we weighed anchor again
+and went westwards, following a channel with ten to sixteen
+metres water. We could not find its course farther to the east,
+and were compelled, although we were near the eastern extremity
+of Beli Ostrov, to turn in order to pass out through the western
+entrance of the sound. We saw a quantity of stranded ice on
+the north coast of the island, which, seen from the sea, did not
+present any dissimilarity to the part which we had visited. On
+the 7th August we arrived at Port Dickson.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>From Lieutenant Hovgaard's report on this excursion, a map
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page203" id="v1page203"></a>[pg 203]</span>
+is given here of Beli Ostrov and the neighbouring coast of
+Yalmal, in which I have named the sound between the island
+and the mainland after MALYGIN, one of the gallant Russian
+seamen who first sailed through it nearly a century and a
+half ago.</p>
+
+<p>Yalmal has been visited by Europeans so seldom, and their
+observations are scattered in printed papers so inaccessible, that
+it may perhaps not be out of place here to collect the most
+important facts which are known regarding this peninsula, along
+with the necessary bibliographical references.</p>
+
+<p>First as to its name, it is sometimes also written &quot;Yelmert
+Land,&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn97" NAME="v1rn97">[97]</A> but this is quite incorrect.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Yalmal&quot; is of Samoyed origin, and has, according to a
+private communication from the well-known philologist Dr. E.D.
+EUROP&AElig;US, the distinctive meaning &quot;land's-end.&quot; YELMERT
+again was a boatswain with the Dutch whale-fisher VLAMINGH,
+who in 1664 sailed round the northern extremity of Novaya
+Zemlya to Barents' winter haven, and thence farther to the
+south-east. Vlamingh himself at his turning-point saw no
+land, though all signs showed that land ought to be found in
+the neighbourhood; but several of the crew thought they saw
+land, and the report of this to a Dutch mapmaker, DICK
+REMBRANTSZ. VAN NIEROP, led to the introduction of the supposed
+land into a great many maps, commonly as a large island in
+the Kara Sea. This island was named Yelmert Land. The
+similarity between the names Yelmert Land and Yalmal, and
+the doubt as to the existence of the Yelmert Island first shown
+on the maps, have led to the transfer of the name Yelmert
+Land to the peninsula which separates the Gulf of Obi from the
+Kara Sea. It is to be remarked, however, that the name
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page204" id="v1page204"></a>[pg 204]</span>
+Yalmal is not found in the older accounts of voyages from the
+European waters to the Obi. The first time I met with it
+was in the narrative of Skuratov's journey in 1737, as the
+designation of the most north-easterly promontory of the
+peninsula which now bears that name.</p>
+
+<p>Yalmal's grassy plains offer the Samoyeds during summer
+reindeer pastures which are highly valued, and the land is said
+to have a very numerous population in comparison with other
+regions along the shores of the Polar Sea, the greater portion,
+however, drawing southward towards winter with their large
+herds of reindeer. But the land is, notwithstanding this, among
+the most imperfectly known parts of the great Russian empire.
+Some information regarding it we may obtain from sketches of
+the following journeys:</p>
+
+<p>SELIFONTOV, 1737. In the months of July and August the
+surveyor Selifontov travelled in a reindeer sledge along the
+coast of the Gulf of Obi as far as to Beli Ostrov. About this
+journey unfortunately nothing else has been published than is
+to be found in LITKE, <i>Viermalige Reise</i>, &amp;c., Berlin, 1835, p. 66,
+and WRANGEL, <i>Sibirische Reise</i>, Berlin, 1839, p. 37.</p>
+
+<p>SUJEFF, in 1771, travelled under the direction of Pallas over
+the southern part of Yalmal from Obdorsk to the Kara Sea, and
+gives an instructive account of observations made during his
+journey in PALLAS, <i>Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des
+russischen Reiches</i>, St. Petersburg, 1771&mdash;76, III. pp. 14&mdash;35.</p>
+
+<p>KRUSENSTERN, 1862. During his second voyage in the Kara
+Sea, which ended with the abandonment of the ship <i>Yermak</i>
+on the coast of Yalmal in about 69&deg; 54' N. L., Krusenstern
+junior escaped with his crew to the shore, reaching it in
+a completely destitute condition. He had lost all, and would
+certainly have perished if he had not near the landing-place
+fallen in with a rich Samoyed, the owner of two thousand
+reindeer, who received the shipwrecked men in a very friendly
+way and conveyed them with his reindeer to Obdorsk, distant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page205" id="v1page205"></a>[pg 205]</span>
+in a straight line 500, but, according to the Samoyed's reckoning,
+1,000 versts. In the sketch of Krusenstern's travels, to which
+I have had access, there is unfortunately no information regarding
+the tribe with which he came in contact during this
+remarkable journey.<A HREF="#v1fn98" NAME="v1rn98">[98]</A></p>
+
+<p>WALDBURG-ZEIL and FINSCH, 1876. A very full and exceedingly
+interesting description of the natural conditions in the
+southernmost part of the peninsula is to be found in the
+accounts of Count Waldburg-Zeil and Dr. Finsch's journey
+in the year 1876.<A HREF="#v1fn99" NAME="v1rn99">[99]</A></p>
+
+<p>SCHWANENBERG, 1877. Captain Schwanenberg landed on the
+north part of Beli Ostrov during the remarkable voyage which
+he made in that year from the Yenisej to St. Petersburg. No
+traces of men, but some of reindeer and bears, were visible.
+The sea was sufficiently deep close to the shore for vessels of
+light draught, according to a private communication which I
+have received from Captain Schwanenberg.</p>
+
+<p>THE SWEDISH EXPEDITION, 1875. During this voyage we
+landed about the middle of the west coast of Yalmal. In order
+to give an idea of the nature of the country, I make the following
+extract from my narrative of the voyage,<A HREF="#v1fn100" NAME="v1rn100">[100]</A> which has had but
+a limited circulation:</p>
+
+<p>
+&quot;In the afternoon of the 8th August I landed, along with
+Lundstr&ouml;m and Stuxberg, on a headland projecting a little from
+Yalmal, on the north side of the mouth of a pretty large river.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page206" id="v1page206"></a>[pg 206]</span>
+The landing place was situated in lat. 72&deg; 18', long. 68&deg; 42'. The
+land was bounded here by a low beach, from which at a distance
+of one hundred paces a steep bank rose to a height of from six
+to thirty metres. Beyond this bank there is an extensive,
+slightly undulating plain, covered with a vegetation which indeed
+was exceedingly monotonous, but much more luxuriant than
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p219.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p219.png" alt="PLACE OF SACRIFICE ON YALMAL." ></a>
+PLACE OF SACRIFICE ON YALMAL.
+<br>After a drawing by A. N. Lundstr&ouml;m. </div>
+<p>
+that of Vaygats Island or Novaya Zemlya. The uniformity of
+the vegetation is perhaps caused, in a considerable degree, by
+the uniform nature of the terrain. There is no solid rock here.
+The ground everywhere consists of sand and sandy clay, in which
+I could not find a stone so large as a bullet or even as a pea,
+though I searched for a distance of several kilometres along the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page207" id="v1page207"></a>[pg 207]</span>
+strand-bank. Nor did the dredge bring up any stones from the
+sea-bottom off the coast, a circumstance which, among other
+things, is remarkable, because it appears to show that the strand-ice
+from the Obi and Yenisej does not drift down to and melt
+in this part of the Kara Sea. Nor do the sand beds contain any
+sub-fossil shells, as is the case with the sand beds of the Yenisej
+<i>tundra</i>. 'Noah's wood' also appears to be absent here. To
+judge from our observations at this place, the peninsula between
+the Gulf of Obi and the Kara Sea thus differs very essentially
+from the <i>tundra</i> lying east of the Yenisej.
+</p><p>
+&quot;We saw no inhabitants, but everywhere along the beach
+numerous traces of men&mdash;some of them barefoot&mdash;of reindeer,
+dogs and Samoyed sleighs, were visible. On the top of the
+strand-bank was found a place of sacrifice, consisting of forty-five
+bears' skulls of various ages placed in a heap, a large
+number of reindeer skulls, the lower jaw of a walrus, &amp;c. From
+most of the bears' skulls the canine teeth were broken out, and
+the lower jaw was frequently entirely wanting. Some of the
+bones were overgrown with moss and lay sunk in the earth;
+others had, as the adhering flesh showed, been placed there during
+the present year. In the middle of the heap of bones stood four
+erect pieces of wood. Two consisted of sticks a metre in length
+with notches cut in them, serving to bear up the reindeer and
+bears' skulls, which were partly placed on the points of the
+sticks or hung up by means of the notches, or spitted on the sticks
+by four-cornered holes cut in the skulls. The two others, which
+clearly were the proper idols of this place of sacrifice, consisted
+of driftwood roots, on which some carvings had been made to
+distinguish the eyes, mouth, and nose. The parts of the pieces
+of wood, intended to represent the eyes and mouth, had recently
+been besmeared with blood, and there still lay at the heap of
+bones the entrails of a newly-killed reindeer. Close beside were
+found the remains of a fireplace, and of a midden, consisting of
+reindeer bones of various kinds and the lower jaws of bears.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page208" id="v1page208"></a>[pg 208]</span>
+&quot;As the sandy slopes of the beach offered no suitable
+breeding-place for looms, black guillemots, or other sea-fowl,
+and there were no islands along the coast which could serve as
+breeding-places for eiders and other species of geese which
+breed in colonies, the abundant bird-life of the Polar Sea was
+wanting here. At the mouth of the river, however, large
+flocks of eiders and long-tailed ducks flew about, and on the
+sandy banks along the shore, flocks of <i>Calidris arenaria</i> and
+a Tringa or two ran about restlessly seeking their food. The
+solitude of the <i>tundra</i> was broken only by a couple of larks
+and a pair of falcons (<i>Falco peregrinus</i>) with young. Traces
+of reindeer were also seen, and two fox-traps set on the strand-bank
+showed that foxes occur in these regions in sufficient
+numbers to be the object of capture.
+</p><p>
+&quot;Later in the afternoon, when some solar altitudes had been
+taken, in order to determine the geographical position of the
+place, we rowed back to our vessel and sailed on, keeping at
+some distance from the coast, and at one place passing between
+the shore and a long series of blocks of ground-ice, which had
+stranded along the coast in a depth of nine to sixteen metres.
+During night we passed a place where five Samoyed tents were
+pitched, in whose neighbourhood a large number of reindeer
+pastured. The land was now quite low, and the sea had become
+considerably shallower. The course was therefore shaped for the
+N.W., in which direction deeper water was soon met with.
+Notwithstanding the slight salinity and high temperature
+(+ 7&deg;.7) of the surface water a <i>Clio borealis</i>and a large number
+of Copepoda were taken at the surface.&quot;
+</p><p>
+The excursion now described and Almquist's and Hovgaard's
+landing in 1878 were, as far as I am aware, the only occasions
+on which naturalists have visited the northern part of that
+peninsula which separates the Kara Sea from the Obi. The
+Norwegian hunters also visit the place seldom, the main reasons
+being the inaccessibility of the shallow east coast, and the want
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page209" id="v1page209"></a>[pg 209]</span>
+of harbours. They now, however, land occasionally to take in
+water, and perhaps to barter the tobacco they have saved from
+their rations, knives they have no use for, and old-fashioned
+guns, gunpowder, lead, &amp;c., for the products of the Samoyeds'
+reindeer husbandry, hunting and fishing. At first the natives
+fled when they saw the Norwegians coming, and, when they
+could not make their escape, they saluted them with great
+humility, falling on their knees and bending their heads to the
+earth, and were unwilling to enter into any traffic with them
+or to show them their goods. But since the Samoyeds observed
+that the Norwegians never did them any harm, the mistrust
+and excessive humility have completely disappeared. Now a
+visit of Europeans is very agreeable to them, partly for the
+opportunity which it offers of obtaining by barter certain
+articles of necessity, luxury, or show, partly perhaps also for
+the interruption thereby caused in the monotony of the <i>tundra</i>
+life. When the walrus-hunters row or sail along that open
+coast, it often happens that natives run backwards and forwards
+on the shore, and by signs eagerly invite the foreigners to land;
+if they do so, and there are any wealthy Samoyeds in the
+neighbourhood, there immediately begins a grand entertainment,
+according to the customs of the people, with more than one
+trait reminding us of the sketches from the traditionary periods
+of the civilised nations.
+</p><p>
+What I have stated here is about all that we know of Yalmal,
+and we see from this that a very promising, yet untouched field
+for researches in ethnography and natural history here lies
+before future travellers to the Yenisej.
+</p><p class="tb">
+What sort of winter is there at the mouth of the Yenisej?
+We have for the present no information on this point, as no scientific
+man has wintered there. But on the other hand we have a
+very exciting narrative of the wintering of the Fin, NUMMELIN,
+at the Briochov Islands in the Yenisej in lat. 70&deg; 48' north.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page210" id="v1page210"></a>[pg 210]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p223.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p223.png" alt="&quot;JORDGAMMOR&quot; ON THE BRIOCHOV ISLANDS." ></a>
+&quot;JORDGAMMOR&quot; ON THE BRIOCHOV ISLANDS.
+<br>After a sketch by the Author. </div>
+
+<p>
+I visited the place on the 27th August 1875. It consisted
+of a fishing post, occupied only in summer, and at that season of
+the year very attractive, surrounded as it is by luxuriant
+vegetation of grass and bushes. The houses were situated on
+a sound running between the Briochov Islands, which form the
+northernmost group of the labyrinth of islands which occupy
+the channel of the Yenisej between 69-1/2&deg; and 71&deg; N.L. At the
+time of our visit the fishing was over for the season and the
+place deserted. But two small houses and a number of earth-huts
+(<i>jordgammor</i>), all in good repair, stood on the river bank
+and gave evidence, along with a number of large boats drawn
+up on land, and wooden vessels intended for salting fish, of the
+industry which had been carried on there earlier in the summer.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page211" id="v1page211"></a>[pg 211]</span>
+It was at this place that Nummelin passed one of the severest
+winters that Arctic literature has to record.<A HREF="#v1fn101" NAME="v1rn101">[101]</A>
+</p><p>
+In 1876 M. Sidoroff, well known for the lively interest which
+he takes in navigation in the Siberian waters, had a ship <i>Severnoe
+Sianie</i> (the <i>Aurora</i>) built and fitted out at Yeniseisk, in order to
+carry goods from the Yenisej to Europe. The vessel was placed
+under the command of a Russian sea-captain, Schwanenberg.
+Under him Nummelin served as mate, and the vessel had a
+crew of eighteen men, most of whom had been exiled to Siberia for
+crime. In consequence of various mishaps the vessel could not
+get farther the first year than to the neighbourhood of the
+mouth of the Yenisej, where it was left in winter quarters
+at the place which has been named above. Nummelin and
+four exiles remained on board, while Schwanenberg and the
+rest of the crew returned to Yeniseisk on the 28th September.
+Frost had already commenced. During the two following weeks
+the temperature kept in the neighbourhood of the freezing
+point; clear weather alternating with snow and rain.
+</p><p>
+On the 5th of October the crew withdrew to their winter
+quarters, having previously collected driftwood and placed it
+in heaps in order that they might easily find it under the snow.
+</p><p>
+On the 16th October the thermometer at eight o'clock in the
+morning showed -4.5&deg; and afterwards sank lower every day, until
+after the 21st October the mercury for some days was constantly
+under -10&deg;. On the 26th October the temperature was -18&deg;,
+but in the beginning of November it rose again to -2&deg;. On the
+6th November it sank again to -17&deg;, but rose on the 11th to
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">-3.5.&deg; On the 14th November the thermometer showed -23.5&deg;,</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page212" id="v1page212"></a>[pg 212]</span>
+on the 21st -29'5&deg;. Next day in the morning it stood at -32&deg;,
+and in the evening at -37&deg;, but these figures were arrived at
+<i>by guess</i>, the instrument not indicating so low temperatures.
+This temperature of -30&deg; to -32&deg;, varying with frozen
+mercury, continued till the end of November, when it rose again
+to -11.5&deg;. At Christmas there was again a temperature of -31&deg;
+and the six following days the mercury was frozen, with which
+the new year came in. The temperature then rose again to -20&deg;,
+but soon sank so that from the 16th January the mercury was
+frozen for five days. On the 22nd January the reading was -9&deg;.
+On the 26th the mercury froze again, and on the 29th the temperature
+was -6&deg;. During the month of February the temperature
+never rose above -24&deg;; the mercury was frozen on the 20th, 25th,
+26th, and 28th. This was the case on the 1st, 3rd, 6th, 7th,
+14th, 16th, and 18th March; on the 22nd March the reading
+was -7&deg;, on the 30th -29&deg;. April began with -31&deg;, but the
+temperature afterwards rose, so that on the 16th it reached -11&deg;
+and varied between -21&deg; and -6&deg; (the 25th). On the 2nd May the
+reading in the morning and evening was -12&deg;, at mid-day -2&deg; to
+-5&deg;. On the 8th May it was +0, on the 17th -10.5&deg;, on the
+31st +0.5&deg;. June began with +1.5&deg;. On the 8th the reading
+at mid-day was +11&deg;, on the morning and evening of the same
+day +2&deg; to +3&deg;. During the remainder of June and the month
+of July the temperature varied between +2&deg; and +21&deg;.
+</p><p>
+It was in such circumstances that Nummelin and his four
+companions lived in the ill-provided house of planks on the
+Little Briochov Island. They removed to it, as has been already
+said, on the 5th October; on the 20th the ice was so hard frozen
+that they could walk upon it. On the 26th snowstorms
+commenced, so that it was impossible to go out of the house.
+</p><p>
+The sun was visible for the last time on the 21st November,
+and it reappeared on the 19th January. On the 15th May the
+sun no longer set. The temperature was then under the
+freezing point of mercury. That the upper edge of the sun
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page213" id="v1page213"></a>[pg 213]</span>
+should be visible on the 19th January we must assume a horizontal
+refraction of nearly 1&deg;. The islands on the Yenisej are
+so low that there was probably a pretty open horizon towards
+the south.
+</p><p>
+Soon after Christmas scurvy began to show itself. Nummelin's
+companions were condemned and punished criminals, in
+whom there was to be expected neither physical nor moral
+power of resistance to this disease. They all died, three of
+scurvy, and one in the attempt to cross from the Briochov
+Islands to a <i>simovie</i> at Tolstoinos. In their stead Nummelin
+succeeded in procuring two men from Tolstoinos, and later on
+one from Goltschicha. On the 11th May a relief party arrived
+from the south. It consisted of three men under the mate
+Meyenwaldt, whom Sidoroff had sent to help to save the vessel.
+They had first to shovel away the snow which weighed it down.
+The snow lay nearly six metres deep on the river ice, which
+was three metres thick. When they at last had got the vessel
+nearly dug out, it was buried again by a new snowstorm.
+</p><p>
+In the middle of June the ice began to move, and the river
+water rose so high that Nummelin, Meyenwaldt, and four men,
+along with two dogs, were compelled to betake themselves to
+the roof of the hut, where they had laid in a small stock of
+provisions and fuel. Here they passed six days in constant
+peril of their lives.
+</p><p>
+The river had now risen five metres; the roof of the hut rose
+but a quarter of a metre above the surface of the swollen river,
+and was every instant in danger of being carried away by a
+floating piece of ice. In such a case a small boat tied to the
+roof was their only means of escape.
+</p><p>
+The whole landscape was overflowed. The other houses and
+huts were carried away by the water and the drifting ice, which
+also constantly threatened the only remaining building. The
+men on its roof were compelled to work night and day to keep
+the pieces of ice at a distance with poles.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page214" id="v1page214"></a>[pg 214]</span>
+The great inundation had even taken the migrating birds at
+unawares. For long stretches there was not a dry spot for
+them to rest upon, and thus it happened that exhausted ptarmigan
+alighted among the men on the roof; once a ptarmigan settled
+on Meyenwaldt's head, and a pair on the dogs.
+</p><p>
+On the 23rd June the water began to fall, and by the 25th it
+had sunk so low that Nummelin and his companions could leave
+the roof and remove to the deserted interior of the house.
+</p><p>
+The narrative of Nummelin's return to Europe by sea, in
+company with Schwanenberg, belongs to a following chapter.
+
+</p>
+<br>
+FOOTNOTES:<br>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn87" NAME="v1fn87">[87]</A> <i>Les moeurs et usages des Ostiackes</i>, par Jean Bernard Muller,
+Capitaine de dragon au service de la Su&egrave;de, pendant sa captivit&eacute; en
+Sib&eacute;rie (<i>Recueil de Voiages au Nord</i>. T. VIII., Amsterdam, 1727, p.
+389).</p>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn88" NAME="v1fn88">[88]</A> I come to this conclusion from the appearance of the strata as seen
+from the sea, and from their nature on Vaygats Island and the west coast
+of Novaya Zemlya. So far as I know, no geologist has landed on this part
+of the east coast.
+</p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn89" NAME="v1fn89">[89]</A> Sometimes, however, icebergs are to be met with in the most
+northerly part of the Kara Sea and on the north coast of Novaya Zemlya,
+whither they may drive down from Franz Josef Land or from other yet
+unknown Polar lands lying farther north.
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn90" NAME="v1fn90">[90]</A> In most of the literary narratives of Polar journeys colossal
+icebergs play a very prominent part in the author's delineations both
+with the pencil and the pen. The actual fact, however, is that icebergs
+occur in far greater numbers in the seas which are yearly accessible
+than in those in which the advance of the Polar travellers' vessel is
+hindered by impenetrable masses of ice. If we may borrow a term from the
+geography of plants to indicate the distribution of icebergs, they may
+be said to be more <i>boreal</i> than <i>polar</i> forms of ice. All the fishers
+on the coast of Newfoundland, and most of the captains on the steamers
+between New York and Liverpool, have some time or other seen true
+icebergs, but to most north-east voyagers this formation is unknown,
+though the name iceberg is often in their narratives given to glacier
+ice-blocks of somewhat considerable dimensions. This, however, takes
+place on the same ground and with the same justification as that on
+which the dwellers on the Petchora consider Bolschoj-Kamen a very high
+mountain. But although no true icebergs are ever formed at the glaciers
+so common on Spitzbergen and also on North Novaya Zemlya, it however
+often happens that large blocks of ice fall down from them and give rise
+to a swell, which may be very dangerous to vessels in their
+neighbourhood. Thus a wave caused by the falling of a piece of ice from
+a glacier on the 23rd (13th) of June, 1619, broke the masts of a vessel
+anchored at Bell Sound on Spitzbergen, threw a cannon overboard, killed
+three men, and wounded many more (Purchas, iii., p. 734). Several
+similar adventures, if on a smaller scale, I could relate from my own
+experience and that of the walrus-hunters. Care is taken on this account
+to avoid anchoring too near the perpendicular faces of glaciers.
+</p>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn91" NAME="v1fn91">[91]</A> It may, however, be doubted whether the <i>whole</i> of the Kara Sea is
+completely frozen over in winter.
+</p>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn92" NAME="v1fn92">[92]</A> Already in 1771 one of Pallas' companions, the student Sujeff,
+found large alg&aelig; in the Kara Sea (Pallas, <i>Reise</i>. St. Petersburg,
+1771&mdash;1776, ii. p. 34).
+</p>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn93" NAME="v1fn93">[93]</A> Dwellings intended both for winter and summer habitation.
+</p>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn94" NAME="v1fn94">[94]</A> The most northerly fixed dwelling-place, which is at present
+inhabited by Europeans, is the Danish commercial post Tasiusak, in
+north-western Greenland, situated in 73&deg; 24' N.L. How little is known,
+even in Russia, of the former dwellings at the mouth of the Yenisej may
+be seen from <i>Neueste Nachrichten &uuml;ber die n&ouml;rdlichste Gegend von
+Sibirien zwischen den Fl&uuml;ssen Pjassida und Chatanga in Fragen und
+Autworten abgefasst. Mit Einleitung und Anmerkungen vom Herausgeber</i>
+(K.E. v. Baer und Gr. v. Helmersen, <i>Beitr&auml;ge sur Kenntniss des
+russischen Reiches</i>, vol. iv. p. 269. St. Petersburg, 1841).
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn95" NAME="v1fn95">[95]</A> The collections made here were after our return determined by Dr.
+Kjellman, who has communicated the following list:</p>
+
+Saxifraga stellaris L.<br>
+Saxifraga cernua L.<br>
+Saxifraga rivularis L.<br>
+Cochlearia fenestrata R. BR.<br>
+Stellaria humifusa ROTTB.<br>
+Sagina nivalis FR.<br>
+Arctophila pendulina (LAEST.) ANDS.<br>
+Catabrosa algida (SOL.) FR.<br>
+Dupontia Fisheri R. BR.<br>
+Aira c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Hierochloa pauciflora R. BR.<br>
+Eriophorum russeolum FR.<br>
+Eriophorum Scheuchzeri HOPPE.<br>
+Carex salina WG.<br>
+Carex ursina DESV.<br>
+Luzula hyperborea R. BR.<br>
+Luzula arctica BL.<br>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn96" NAME="v1fn96">[96]</A> These according to Dr. Kjellman's determination are:</p>
+Saxifraga cernua L.<br>
+Saxifraga c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Cochlearia fenestrata R. BR.<br>
+Draba alpina L.<br>
+Ranunculus sulphureus SOL.<br>
+Ranunculus nivalis L.<br>
+Ranunculus pygm&aelig;us WG.<br>
+Ranunculus lapponicus L.<br>
+Ranunculus borealis TRAUTV.<br>
+Stellaria Edwardsii R. BR.<br>
+Salix glauca L.<br>
+Arctophila pendulina (LAEST.) AND.<br>
+Catabrosa algida (SOL.) FR.<br>
+Catabrosa concinna TH. FR.<br>
+Dupontia Fisheri R. BR.<br>
+Calamagrostis lapponica L.<br>
+Carex salina WG.<br>
+Carex rigida GOOD.<br>
+Eriophorum russeolum FR.<br>
+Luzula arcuata SM. f. hyperborea  R. BR.<br>
+Lloydia serotina (L.) REICHENB.<br>
+<p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn97" NAME="v1fn97">[97]</A> On the maps in Linschoten's work already quoted, printed in 1601,
+and in Blavii <i>Atlas Major</i> (1665, t. i. pp. 24, 25), this land is
+called &quot;Nieu West Vrieslant&quot; and &quot;West Frisia Nova,&quot; names which indeed
+have priority <i>in print</i>, but yet cannot obtain a preference over the
+inhabitants' own beautiful name.
+</p><p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn98" NAME="v1fn98">[98]</A> Paul von Krusenstern, <i>Skizzen aus seinem Seemannsleben</i>.
+Hirschberg in Silesia. Farther on I intend to give a more detailed
+account of von Krusenstern's two voyages in the Kara Sea.
+</p><p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn99" NAME="v1fn99">[99]</A> <i>Deutsche Geogr. Bl&auml;tter</i> von Lindemann Namens d. Geogr.
+Gesellsch., Bremen. I. 1877. II. 1878. O. Finsch, <i>Reise nach
+West-Sibirien im Jahre 1876</i>. Berlin, 1879. A bibliographical list has
+been drawn up by Count von Waldburg-Zeil under the title,
+<i>Litteratur-Nachweis fur das Gebiet des unteren, Ob</i>.
+</p><p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn100" NAME="v1fn100">[100]</A> Nordenski&ouml;ld, <i>Redog&ouml;relse for en expedition till mynningen af
+Jenisej och Sibirien &aring;r 1875</i>, Bih. till Kongl. Vet.-Ak. Handl, vol.
+iv., No. 1, p. 38-42.
+</p><p>
+<A HREF="#v1rn101" NAME="v1fn101">[101]</A> I give the particulars of this wintering partly after
+communications made to me in conversation by Nummelin, partly after
+<i>G&ouml;teborgs Handelsoch Sj&ouml;fartstidning</i> for the 20th and 21st November,
+1877. This <i>first</i> and, as far as I know, only detailed narrative of the
+voyage in question, was dictated to the editor of that journal,
+<i>reference being made to the log</i> by Schwanenberg and Nummelin.
+Schwanenberg had come to Gothenburg some days before with his
+Yeniseisk-built vessel.
+</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page215" id="v1page215"></a>[pg 215]</span>
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_V"></a><h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<p>
+The history of the North-east Passage from 1556 to 1878&mdash;Burrough, 1556
+&mdash;Pet and Jackman, 1580&mdash;-The first voyage of the Dutch, 1594&mdash;Oliver
+Brunel&mdash;The second voyage, 1595&mdash;The third voyage, 1596&mdash;Hudson,
+1608&mdash;Gourdon, 1611&mdash;Bosman, 1625&mdash;De la Martini&egrave;re, 1653&mdash;Vlamingh,
+1664&mdash;Snobberger, 1675&mdash;Roule reaches a land north of
+Novaya Zemlya&mdash;Wood and Flawes, 1676&mdash;Discussion in England concerning
+the state of the ice in the Polar Sea&mdash;Views of the condition of
+the Polar Sea still divided&mdash;Payer and Weyprecht, 1872-74.
+</p><p>
+The sea which washes the north coast of European Russia
+is named by King Alfred (<i>Orosius</i>, Book I. Chaps, i. ii.) the
+Quaen Sea (in Anglo-Saxon <i>Cwen Sae</i>),<A HREF="#v1fn102" NAME="v1rn102">[102]</A> a distinctive name,
+which unquestionably has the priority, and well deserves to be
+retained. To the inhabitants of Western Europe the islands,
+Novaya Zemlya and Vaygats, first became known through
+Stephen Burrough's voyage of discovery in 1556. Burrough
+therefore is often called the discoverer of Novaya Zemlya, but
+incorrectly. For when he came thither he found Russian
+vessels, manned by hunters well acquainted with the navigable
+waters and the land. It is clear from this that Novaya Zemlya
+had then already been known to the inhabitants of Northern
+Russia for such a length of time that a very actively prosecuted
+hunting could arise there. It is even probable that in the
+same way as the northernmost part of Norway was already
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page216" id="v1page216"></a>[pg 216]</span>
+known for a thousand years back, not only to wandering Lapps,
+but also to Norwegians and Quaens, the lands round Yugor
+Schar and Vaygats were known several centuries before Burrough's
+time, not only to the nomad Samoyeds on the mainland,
+but also to various Beorma or Finnish tribes. Probably
+the Samoyeds then, as now, drove their reindeer herds up
+thither to pasture on the grassy plains along the coast of the
+Polar Sea, where they were less troubled by the mosquito and
+the reindeer fly than further to the south, and probably the wild
+nomads were accompanied then, as now, by merchants from the
+more civilised races settled in Northern Russia. The name
+Novaya Zemlya (New Land), indicates that it was discovered
+at a later period, probably by Russians, but we know neither
+when nor how.<A HREF="#v1fn103" NAME="v1rn103">[103]</A> The narrative of Stephen Burrough's voyage,
+which, like so many others, has been preserved from oblivion
+by Hakluyt's famous collection, thus not only forms a sketch
+of the first expedition of West-Europeans to Novaya Zemlya,
+but is also the principal source of our knowledge of the earliest
+Russian voyages to these regions. I shall on this account go
+into greater detail in the case of this voyage than in those of
+the other voyages that will be referred to here.
+</p><p>
+It is self-evident that the new important commercial treaties,
+to which Chancelor's discovery of the route from England to
+the White Sea led, would be hailed with great delight both
+in England and in Russia, and would give occasion to a number
+of new undertakings. At first, as early as 1555, there was
+formed in England a company of &quot;merchant adventurers of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page217" id="v1page217"></a>[pg 217]</span>
+England for the discoverie of landes, territories, isles, dominions,
+and seigniories unknowen,&quot; commonly called &quot;the Muscovy
+Company,&quot; Sebastian Cabot, then almost an octogenarian, was
+appointed governor for the term of his natural life, and a
+number of privileges were conferred upon it by the rulers
+both of England and Russia. At the same time negotiators,
+merchants, and inquirers were sent by different ways from
+England to Russia in order to confirm the amity with that
+country, and more thoroughly examine the, at least to England,
+new world, which had now been discovered in the East. But a
+detailed account of these journeys does not enter into the plan
+of this work.
+</p><p>
+With this, however, men were not content. They considered
+Chancelor's voyage as but the first step to something far more
+important, namely, the opening of the North-East Passage to
+China and India. While Chancelor himself the year after his
+return was sent along with several merchants to the White
+Sea, a further attempt was planned to reach the east coast of
+Asia by the same route. A small vessel, the <i>Searchthrift</i>, was
+fitted out for this purpose and placed under the command of
+Stephen Burrough.<A HREF="#v1fn104" NAME="v1rn104">[104]</A> The most important occurrences during
+the voyage were the following:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+On the 3rd May/23rd April, 1556, the start was made from Ratcliffe to
+Blackwall and Grays. Here Sebastian Cabot came on board,
+together with some distinguished gentlemen and ladies. They
+were first entertained on board the vessel and gave liberal
+presents to the sailors, alms being given at the same time to a
+number of poor people, in order that they might pray for good
+luck and a good voyage; &quot;then at the signe of the Christopher,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page218" id="v1page218"></a>[pg 218]</span>
+Master Cabot and his friends banketted, and made them that
+were in the company great cheere; and for very joy that he
+had to see the towardness of our intended discovery, he entered
+into the dance himselfe, amongst the rest of the young and
+lusty company.&quot; At Orwell Burrough left his own vessel, in
+order, at the wish of the merchants, to make the passage to
+Vardoehus in the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>. In the end of May
+he was off the North Cape, which name Burrough says he
+gave to this northernmost headland of Europe during his
+first voyage.<A HREF="#v1fn105" NAME="v1rn105">[105]</A> When Burrough left the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>
+and went on board his own vessel is not stated, but on the 17th/7th
+June he replied on the <i>Searchthrift</i> to the parting salute of
+the <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>. On the 20th/10th June Kola was reached,
+and its latitude fixed at 63&deg; 48'.<A HREF="#v1fn106" NAME="v1rn106">[106]</A>
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;On Thursday the 21st/11th June at 6 of the clocke in the morning,
+there came aboord of vs one of the Russe Lodiaes, rowing
+with twentie oares, and there were foure and twentie men in
+her. The master of the boate presented me with a great loafe
+of bread, and six rings of bread, which they call Colaches,
+and foure dryed pikes, and a peck of fine otemeale, and I gave
+vnto the Master of the boate a combe, and a small glasse. He
+declared vnto me that he was bound to Pechora, and after that
+I made to drinke, the tide being somewhat broken, they gently
+departed. The Master's name was Pheother (Feodor)....
+Thursday (the 28th/18th June) we weyed our ankers in the Riuer Cola,
+and went into the Sea seuen or eight leagues, where we met
+with the winde farre Northerly, that of force it constrained vs
+to goe againe backe into the sayd riuer, where came aboord of
+vs sundry of their Boates, which declared unto me that they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page219" id="v1page219"></a>[pg 219]</span>
+were also bound to the northwards, a fishing for Morse and
+Salmon, and gave me liberally of their white and wheaten bread.
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;As we roade in this riuer, wee saw dayly comming downe
+the riuer many of their Lodias, and they that had least, had
+foure and twentie men in them, and at the last they grew to
+thirtie saile of them; and amongst the rest, there was one of
+them whose name was Gabriel, who shewed me very much
+friendshippe, and he declared vnto mee that all they were
+bound to Pechora, a fishing for salmons, and morses: insomuch
+that hee shewed mee by demonstrations, that with a faire winde
+we had seuen or eight dayes sailing to the riuer Pechora, so
+that I was glad of their company. This Gabriel promised to
+giue mee warning of shoales, as he did indeede.... Sunday
+being the one and twentieth day [of June, 1st July new style],
+Gabriel gaue mee a barrell of Meade, and one of his speciall
+friends gaue me a barrell of beere, which was caryed upon
+mens backs at least 2 miles.
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;Munday we departed from the riuer Cola, with all the rest
+of the said Lodias, but sailing before the wind they were all
+too good for vs:<A HREF="#v1fn107" NAME="v1rn107">[107]</A> but according to promise, this Gabriel and his
+friend did often strike their sayles, and taryed for us forsaking
+their owne company. Tuesday at an Eastnortheast sunne we
+were thwart of Cape St. John.<A HREF="#v1fn108" NAME="v1rn108">[108]</A> It is to be vnderstood, that
+from the Cape S. John vnto the riuer or bay that goeth to
+Mezen, it is all sunke land, and full of shoales and dangers,
+you shall haue scant two fadome water and see no land. And
+this present day wee came to an anker thwart of a creeke,
+which is 4 or 5 leagues to the northwards of the sayd Cape,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page220" id="v1page220"></a>[pg 220]</span>
+into which creeke Gabriel and his fellow rowed, but we could
+not get in: and before night there were aboue 20 saile that
+went into the sayd creeke, the wind being at the Northeast.
+We had indifferent good landfang. This afternoone Gabriel
+came aboord with his skiffe, and then I rewarded him for the
+good company that he kept with vs ouer the Shoales, with two
+small iuory combes, and a steele glasse with two or three trifles
+more, for which he was not ungratefull. But notwithstanding,
+his first company had gotten further to the Northwards.
+Wednesday being Midsummer day we sent our skiffe aland to
+sound the creeke, where they found it almost drie at a low
+water. And all the Lodias within were on ground. (In consequence
+of the threatening appearance of the weather Burrough
+determined to go into the bay at high water. In
+doing so he ran aground, but got help from his Russian
+friends.) Gabriel came out with his skiffe, and so did sundry
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p233.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p233.png" alt="RUSSIAN &quot;LODJA.&quot;" ></a>
+RUSSIAN &quot;LODJA.&quot;
+<br>After G. de Veer. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page221" id="v1page221"></a>[pg 221]</span>
+<p class="blockquote">
+others also, shewing their good will to help us, but all to no
+purpose, for they were likely to have bene drowned for their
+labour, in so much that I desired Gabriel to lend me his
+anker, because our owne ankers were too big for our skiffe
+to lay out, who sent me his owne, and borrowed another also
+and sent it vs.&quot;
+</p><p>
+After much trouble Burrough succeeded in getting his vessel
+off the shoal, and then sought for a better anchorage on the
+other side of Cape St. John.
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;Friday (6th July/26th June) at afternoone we weyed, and departed from
+thence, the wether being mostly faire, and the winde at East-southeast,
+and plied for the place where we left our cable and
+anker, and our hawser, and as soone as we were at an anker the
+foresaid Gabriel came aboord of vs, with 3 or foure more of
+their small boats, and brought with them of their Aquauit&aelig;
+and Meade, professing unto me very much friendship, and
+reioiced to see vs againe, declaring that they earnestly thought
+that we had bene lost. This Gabriel declared vnto me that
+they had saued both the ankers and our hauser, and after we
+had thus communed, I caused 4 or 5 of them to goe into
+my cabbin, where I gaue them figs and made them such cheere
+as I could. While I was banketing of them, there came
+another of their Skiffes aboord with one who was a Kerill
+(Karelian), whose name afterwards I learned, and that he
+dwelt in Colmogro, and Gabriel dwelled in the towne of Cola,
+which is not far from the river's mouth. This foresaid Keril
+said vnto me that one of the ankers which I borrowed was his.
+I gave him thanks for the lone of it, thinking it had bene
+sufficient. And as I continued in our accustomed maner, that
+if the present which they brought were worth enterteinment,
+they had it accordingly, he brought nothing with him, and
+therfore I regarded him but litle. And thus we ended, and
+they took their leaue and went ashore. At their comming
+ashore, Gabriel and Keril were at vnconvenient words, and by
+the eares, as I vnderstand; the cause was because the one had
+better enterteinment than the other; but you shal vnderstand
+that Gabriel was not able to make his party good, because
+there were 17 lodias of the Kerils company who tooke
+his part, and but 2 of Gabriel's company. The next high
+water Gabriel and his company departed from thence, and
+rowed to their former company and neighbours, which were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page222" id="v1page222"></a>[pg 222]</span>
+in number 28 at the least, and all of them belonging
+to the river Cola. And as I vnderstood Keril made reckoning
+that the hauser which was fast in his anker should have bene
+his owne, and at first would not deliver it to our boat, insomuch
+that I sent him worde that I would complain vpon him, whereupon
+he deliuered the hauser to my company. The next day
+being Saturday, I sent our boat on shore to fetch fresh water
+and wood, and at their comming on shore this Keril welcomed
+our men most gently, and also banketed them, and in the
+meanetime caused some of his men to fill our baricoes with
+water, and to help our men to beare wood into their boat; and
+then he put on his best silke coate, and his collar of pearles
+and came aboorde againe, and brought his present with him:
+and thus having more respect vnto his present than to his
+person, because I perceiued him to be vain-glorious, I bade
+him welcome and gaue him a dish of figs; and then he
+declared vnto me that his father was a gentleman, and that he
+was able to shew me pleasure, and not Gabriel, who was but a
+priest's sonne.&quot;
+</p><p>
+After Burrough has given account of a storm, during which
+he lost a jolly boat, which he had purchased at Vardoehus, and
+by which they were detained some time in the neighbourhood
+of Cape St. John (whose latitude was fixed at 66&deg; 50') he
+continues:&mdash;
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;Saturday (the 14/24th July) at a Northnorthwest sunne the
+wind came at Eastnortheast, and then we weied, and plied to
+the Northwards, and as we were two leagues shot past the
+Cape, we saw a house standing in a valley, which is dainty to
+be seene in those parts and by and by I saw three men on the
+top of the hil. Then I iudged them, as it afterwards proued,
+that they were men which came from some other place to set
+traps to take vermin<A HREF="#v1fn109" NAME="v1rn109">[109]</A> for their furres, which trappes we did
+perceiue very thicke alongst the shore as we went.&quot;
+</p><p>
+The 14th to the 19th July, new style, were passed on the
+coast of Kanin Nos.<A HREF="#v1fn110" NAME="v1rn110">[110]</A> On the 19th at noon Burrough was in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page223" id="v1page223"></a>[pg 223]</span>
+lat. 68&deg; 40' north. On Friday, the 10/20th July another storm
+appeared to threaten.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;And as I was musing what was best to be done, I saw a sail
+come out of a creeke under the foresayd Caninoz, which was
+my friend Gabriel, who forsook his harborough and company,
+and came as neere us as he might, and pointed vs to the
+Eastwards, and then we weyed and followed him. Saturday we
+went eastsoutheast and followed Gabriel, and he brought vs
+into an harborough called Morgiouets, which is 30 leagues
+from Caninoz. This morning Gabriel saw a smoke on ye way,
+who rowed vnto it with his skiffe, which smoke was two leagues
+from the place where we road; and at a Northwest sunne
+he came aboord again, and brought with him a Samoed,<A HREF="#v1fn111" NAME="v1rn111">[111]</A> which
+was but a young man; his apparell was then strange vnto vs,
+and he presented me with three young wild geese, and one
+young barnacle.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th/14th July Burrough sailed past Dolgoi Island, and the
+following day entered the mouth of the Petchora, the latitude
+of which was fixed at 69&deg; 10'.<A HREF="#v1fn112" NAME="v1rn112">[112]</A> On the 30th/20th they sailed out
+again over sandbanks in only five feet of water, and thanked
+God that their vessel was of so light draught. The day after
+ice was met with for the first time. On the 4th Aug./6th July in lat.
+70&deg; 20' north, they had the meeting already described with an
+enormous whale.<A HREF="#v1fn113" NAME="v1rn113">[113]</A> Somewhat later on the same day the
+<i>Searchthrift</i> anchored in a good haven between two islands,
+situated in 70&deg; 42' N. L.<A HREF="#v1fn114" NAME="v1rn114">[114]</A> They were named by Burrough
+St. James's Islands.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Tuesday, the 7th Aug./29th July we plyed to the Westwards alongst
+the shoare, the wind being at Northwest, and as I was about
+to come to anker, we saw a sail comming about the point
+whereunder we thought to have ankered. Then I sent a skiffe
+aboorde of him, and at their comming aboord, they tooke
+acquaintance of them, and the chiefe man said hee had bene
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page224" id="v1page224"></a>[pg 224]</span>
+in our company in the riuer Cola, and also declared vnto them
+that we were past the way which should bring vs to the Ob.
+This land, sayd he, is called Nova Zembla, that is to say, the
+New Land; and then he came aboord himselfe with his skiffe he
+told me the like ... he made me also certaine demonstrations
+of the way to the Ob. I gave him a steele glasse, two pewter
+spoons, and a paire of veluet sheathed knives; and then he
+seemed somewhat the more willing to tary and shewed me as
+much as he knew for our purpose; he also gave me 17
+wild geese.... This man's name was Loshak. Wednesday,
+as we plied to Eastwards, we espied another saile, which
+was one of this Loshak's company, and we bare roome and
+spake with him, who in like sort tolde us of the Ob, as the other  had done....
+Friday (the 10th Aug./31st July) the gale of winde began to
+increase, and came Westerly withall, so that by a Northwest
+sunne we were at an anker among the Islands of Waigats,
+where we saw two small lodias; the one of them came aboord
+of us and presented me with a great loafe of bread; and they told
+me they were all of Colmogro, except one man that dwelt at
+Pechora, who seemed to be the chiefest among them in killing
+of the Morse.<A HREF="#v1fn115" NAME="v1rn115">[115]</A> There were some of their company on shoare
+which did chase a white beare ouer the high clifs into the
+water, which beare the lodia that was aboord of us killed in
+our sight. This day there was a great gale of wind at North,
+and we saw so much ice driving a seaboord that it was then no
+going to sea.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>During the first days of August the vessel lay for the most
+part in company with or in the neighbourhood of Loshak,
+who gave them information about the Samoyeds, after which
+Burrough visited their sacrificial places.<A HREF="#v1fn116" NAME="v1rn116">[116]</A></p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Tuesday (the 14/4th) August we turned for the harborough
+where Loshak's barke lay,<A HREF="#v1fn117" NAME="v1rn117">[117]</A> where, as before, we road vnder an
+Island. And there he came aboord of vs and said unto me: if
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page225" id="v1page225"></a>[pg 225]</span>
+God send wind and weather to serve, I will go to the Ob with
+you, because the Morses were scant at these Islands of Vaigats;
+but if he could not get to the riuer of Ob, then he sayd hee
+would goe to the riuer of Narainzay,<A HREF="#v1fn118" NAME="v1rn118">[118]</A> where the people were not
+altogether so savage as the Samoyds of the Ob are: hee
+shewed me that they will shoot at all men to the vttermost of
+their power, that cannot speake their speech.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 15/5th of August much ice was seen to drift towards the
+haven where the vessel lay, wherefore Burrough removed back
+to the place where he had lain a few days before, and whose
+latitude he now found to be 70&deg; 25'. Loshak left him unexpectedly
+the following day, while Burrough was taking solar
+altitudes, and on the 19/9th Burrough too weighed anchor to sail
+south along the coast of Vaygats. After sailing about in these
+waters for a time, and being exposed to a severe storm with an
+exceedingly heavy sea, Burrough, on the 3rd Sept./23rd Aug., determined to
+turn. On the 21st/11th September he arrived at Colmogro, where
+he wintered with a view to continue his voyage next year to
+the Obi. This voyage, however, was abandoned, because he
+instead went westwards in order to search for two of the ships
+which accompanied Chancelor, and which had been lost during
+the return voyage from Archangel.<A HREF="#v1fn119" NAME="v1rn119">[119]</A></p>
+
+<p>From this narrative we see that a highly developed Russian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page226" id="v1page226"></a>[pg 226]</span>
+or Russian-Finnish navigation was carried on as early as the
+middle of the fifteenth century between the White Sea, the
+Petchora, Vaygats, and Novaya Zemlya, and that at that time the
+Russians or Finns even sailed to the Obi. The sketch, which
+Burrough gives of the Russian or Russian-Finnish hunters,
+shows, besides, that they were brave and skilful seamen, with
+vessels which for the time were very good, and even superior to
+the English in sailing before the wind. With very few alterations
+this sketch might also be applied to the present state of
+things in these regions, which shows that they continue to stand
+at a point which was then high, but is now low. Taking a
+general view of matters, it appears as if these lands had rather
+fallen behind than advanced in well-being during the last
+three hundred years.</p>
+
+<p>To judge by a letter from the Russian Merchant Company,
+which was formed in London, it was at his own instance that
+Stephen Burrough in 1557 sailed from Colmogro, not to Obi,
+but to the coast of Russian Lapland to search for the lost
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page227" id="v1page227"></a>[pg 227]</span>
+vessels.<A HREF="#v1fn120" NAME="v1rn120">[120]</A> The following year the English were so occupied with
+their new commercial treaties with Russia and with the fitting
+out of Frobisher's three expeditions to the north-west, that it
+was long before a new attempt was made in the direction of the
+north-east, namely till ARTHUR PETS' voyage in 1580.<A HREF="#v1fn121" NAME="v1rn121">[121]</A> He was
+the first who penetrated from Western Europe into the Kara
+Sea, and thus brought the solution of the problem of the
+North-East Passage to the Pacific a good way forward. The
+principal incidents of this voyage too must therefore be briefly
+stated here.</p>
+
+<p>PET and JACKMAN, the former in the <i>George</i>, the latter in the
+<i>William</i>, sailed from Harwich on the 9th June/30th May, 1580. On the
+2nd July/22nd June they doubled the North Cape, and on the 12th/2nd July, Pet
+was separated from Jackman after appointing to meet with him
+at &quot;Verove Ostrove or Waygats.&quot; On the 15/5th land was in
+sight, the latitude having the preceding day been ascertained
+to be 71&deg; 38'. Pet was thus at Gooseland, on the west coast
+of Novaya Zemlya. He now sailed E.S.E., and fell in with ice
+on the 16/6th July. On the 20/10th July, land was seen, and the
+vessel anchored at an island, probably one of the many small
+islands in the Kara Port, where wood and water were taken
+on board.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24/14th July, Pet was in the neighbourhood of land in
+70&deg; 26'. At first he thought that the land was an island, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page228" id="v1page228"></a>[pg 228]</span>
+endeavoured to sail round it, but as he did not succeed in doing
+so, he supposed it to be Novaya Zemlya. Hence he sailed in
+different directions between S.W. and S.E., and was on the
+26/16th in 69&deg; 40' N.L. Next day there was lightning with showers
+of rain. Pet believed himself now to be in Petchora Bay, and
+after sighting, on the 28/18th July, the headland which bounds the
+mouth of the river on the north-east, he sailed, it would seem,
+between this headland and the Selenetz Islands into the great
+bay east of Medinski Savorot. Here he made soundings on
+the supposition that the sound between Vaygats Island and the
+mainland would open out at this place, but the water was found
+to be too shallow, even for a boat. Pet now sailed past Yugor
+Schar along the coast of Vaygats towards Novaya Zemlya,
+to a bay on the west coast of Vaygats Island, where he anchored
+between two small islands, which were supposed to be Woronski
+Ostrov. <i>The entrance to an excellent haven was indicated on both
+sides by two crosses.<A HREF="#v1fn122" NAME="v1rn122">[122]</A></i> On the islands there was abundance of
+driftwood, and on one of them was found a cross, at the foot
+of which a man was buried. Pet inscribed his name on the
+cross, and likewise on a stone at the foot of the cross, &quot;in order
+that Jackman, if he came thither, might know that Pet had
+been there.&quot; In the afternoon Pet again weighed anchor,
+doubled the western extremity of Vaygats Island, and continued
+his voyage, following all along the coast of Vaygats,
+first to the north and north-east, then to the south, between
+an ice-field and the land, until the ice came so close to the
+shore that the vessel could make no headway, when he anchored
+in a good haven by an island which lay on the east side of
+Vaygats in the neighbourhood of the mainland. It was perhaps
+the island which in recent maps is called Mestni Island.
+Pet was thus now in the Kara Sea.<A HREF="#v1fn123" NAME="v1rn123">[123]</A> The latitude given&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page229" id="v1page229"></a>[pg 229]</span>
+69&deg; 14'&mdash;shows even, if it is correct, that he went far into the
+bay at the mouth of the Kara river. Here Pet fell in with his
+comrade Jackman, from whom he had parted on the coast of
+Kola, and of whose voyage during the interval we know nothing.
+When the vessels met they were both damaged by ice. As,
+in addition, the sea to the north and east was barred by compact
+masses of ice, the captains, after deliberating with the inferior
+officers, determined to return. They had, also, during the
+return voyage, to contend with formidable ice obstacles, until,
+on the 25/15th August, in Lat. 69&deg; 49' north, near the southeastern
+extremity of Vaygats they met with open water. They
+sailed along the east coast of Vaygats through the Kara Port,
+which was passed on the 27/17th August. Hence the course was
+shaped for Kolgujev Island, on whose sandbanks both vessels
+ran aground, but were soon got off again without loss. The
+latitude of the sandbanks was correctly fixed at 68&deg; 48'.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st Sept./22nd Aug. <i>William</i> was again lost sight of.<A HREF="#v1fn124" NAME="v1rn124">[124]</A> On the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page230" id="v1page230"></a>[pg 230]</span>
+8th Sept./29th Aug. the <i>George</i> anchored in Tana Fiord, on which there was
+a town named Hungon.<A HREF="#v1fn125" NAME="v1rn125">[125]</A> Two days afterwards the <i>George</i>
+doubled the North Cape, and on the 5th Nov./26th Oct. again anchored
+at Ratcliffe.</p>
+
+<p>Pet and Jackman were the first north-east explorers who
+ventured themselves in earnest amongst the drift-ice. In
+navigating among ice they showed good judgment and readiness
+of resource, and in the history of navigation the honour falls
+to them of having commanded the first vessels from Western
+Europe that forced their way into the Kara Sea. It is therefore
+without justification that BARROW says of them that they
+were but indifferent navigators.<A HREF="#v1fn126" NAME="v1rn126">[126]</A></p>
+
+<p>With Pet and Jackman's voyage the English North-east
+Passage expeditions were broken off for a long time. But the
+problem was, instead, taken up with great zeal in Holland.
+Through the fortunate issue of the war of freedom with Spain,
+and the incitement to enterprise which civil freedom always
+brings along with it, Holland, already a great industrial and
+commercial state, had begun, towards the close of the sixteenth
+century, to develop into a maritime power of the first rank.
+But navigation to India and China was then rendered impossible
+for the Dutch, as for the English, by the supremacy of Spain
+and Portugal at sea, and through the endeavours of these
+countries to retain the sole right to the commercial routes they
+had discovered. In order to become sharers in the great profits
+which commerce with the land of silks and perfumes brought
+with it, it therefore appeared to be indispensable to discover
+a new sea route north of Asia or America to the Eastern seas.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page231" id="v1page231"></a>[pg 231]</span>
+If such a route had been actually found, it was clear that the
+position of Holland would have been specially favourable for
+undertaking this lucrative trade. In this state of things we
+have to seek for the reason of the delight with which the Dutch
+hailed the first proposal to force a passage by sea north of Asia
+to China or Japan. Three successive expeditions were at great
+expense fitted out for this purpose.
+These expeditions did not, indeed,
+attain the intended goal&mdash;the discovery
+of a north-eastern sea route
+to Eastern Asia, but they not only
+gained for themselves a prominent
+place in the history of geographical
+discovery, but also repaid a hundred
+fold the money that had been spent
+on them, in part directly through
+the whale-fishing to which they
+gave rise, and which was so profitable
+to Holland, and in part indirectly
+through the elevation they
+gave to the self-respect and national
+feeling of the people. They compared
+the achievements of their
+countrymen among the ice and
+snow of the Polar lands to the voyage
+of the Argonauts, to Hannibal's
+passage of the Alps, and to the campaign of the Macedonians
+in Asia and the deserts of Libya (see, for instance, BLAVIUS.
+<i>Atlas major</i>, Latin edition, t. i., pp. 24 and 31.) As these
+voyages together present the grandest attempts to solve the
+problem that lay before the <i>Vega</i> expedition, I shall here give
+a somewhat detailed account of them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p244.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p244.png" alt="DUTCH SKIPPER." ></a>
+DUTCH SKIPPER.
+<br>After G. de Veer. </div>
+
+
+<p>THE FIRST DUTCH EXPEDITION, 1594.&mdash;This was fitted out
+at the expense of private persons, mainly by the merchants
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page232" id="v1page232"></a>[pg 232]</span>
+BALTHASAR MUCHERON, JACOB VALCKE, and FRANCISCUS
+MAELSON. The first intention was to send out only two
+vessels with the view of forcing a passage through the sound
+at Vaygats towards the east, but on the famous geographer
+PLANCIUS representing that the route north of Novaya Zemlya
+was that which would lead most certainly to the desired goal,
+other two were fitted out, so that no fewer than four vessels
+went out in the year 1594 on an exploratory expedition towards
+the north. Of these, two, viz. a large vessel, specially equipped,
+it would appear, for the northern waters, called the <i>Mercurius</i>,
+and commanded by WILLEM BARENTS,<A HREF="#v1fn127" NAME="v1rn127">[127]</A> and a common fishing-sloop,
+attempted the way past the northern extremity of Novaya
+Zemlya. The two others, viz. the <i>Swan</i> of Zeeland, commanded
+by CORNELIS CORNELISZ. NAY, and the <i>Mercurius</i>
+of Enkhuizen, commanded by BRANDT YSBRADTSZ. TETGALES,
+were to pass through the sound at Vaygats Island.</p>
+
+<p>All the four vessels left the Texel on the 15/5th June, and
+eighteen days later arrived at Kilduin in Russian Lapland,
+a place where at that time vessels, bound for the White
+Sea, often called. Here the two divisions of the expedition
+parted company.</p>
+
+<p>Barents sailed to Novaya Zemlya, which was reached on the
+14/4th July in 73&deg; 25'; the latitude was determined by measuring
+the altitude of the midnight sun at an island which was called
+Willem's Island. Barents sailed on along the coast in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page233" id="v1page233"></a>[pg 233]</span>
+northerly direction, and two days afterwards reached the
+latitude of 75&deg; 54' north. On the 19/9th July there was a remarkable
+chase of a Polar bear. The bear was fallen in with
+on land and was pierced by a bullet, but notwithstanding this
+he threw himself into the water, and swam with a vigour
+&quot;that surpassed all that had been heard of the lion or other
+wild animal.&quot; Some of the crew pursued him in a boat, and
+succeeded in casting a noose round his neck in order to catch
+him living, with a view to carry him to Holland. But when
+the bear knew that he was caught &quot;he roared and threw himself
+about so violently that it can scarcely be described in
+words.&quot; In order to tire him they gave him a little longer line,
+rowing forward slowly the while, and Barents at intervals struck
+him with a rope. Enraged at this treatment, the bear swam to
+the boat, and caught it with one of his forepaws, on which
+Barents said: &quot;he wishes to rest himself a little.&quot; But the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p246.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p246.png" alt="CAPTURE OF A POLAR BEAR." ></a>
+CAPTURE OF A POLAR BEAR.
+<br>After G. de Veer. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page234" id="v1page234"></a>[pg 234]</span>
+<p>bear had another object in view, for he cast himself into the
+boat with such violence that half his body was soon within it.
+The sailors were so frightened that they rushed to the fore and
+thought that their last hour was come. Fortunately the bear
+could make no further advance, because the noose that was
+thrown round his neck had fastened in the rudder. A sailor
+taking courage, now went aft and killed the bear with the stroke
+of an axe. The skin was sent to Amsterdam. On account of
+this occurrence the place was called &quot;Bear Cape.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Barents sailed on towards the north and north-east, past the
+place which he called Cruys Eylandt (Cross Island)<A HREF="#v1fn128" NAME="v1rn128">[128]</A> and Cape
+Nassau, a name which has been retained in recent maps, to the
+latitude of 77&deg; 55', which was reached on the 23rd/13th July. Here
+from the mast-top an ice-field was seen, which it was impossible
+to see beyond, which compelled Barents to turn. However, he
+still remained in these northern regions, waiting for a better
+state of the ice, till the 8th August/29th July, when the vessel was due west
+of a promontory situated in latitude 77&deg; north, which was
+named Ice Cape. Some gold-glittering stones were found here
+on the ground. Such <i>finds</i> have played a not inconsiderable
+<i>r&ocirc;le</i> in the history of Arctic voyages, and shiploads of worthless
+ore have on several occasions been brought home. On the
+16th August/31st July, while sailing among the Orange Islands, they saw 200
+walruses on land. The sailors attacked them with axes and
+lances, without killing a single walrus, but they succeeded
+during the attempt to kill them in striking out several tusks,
+which they carried home with them.</p>
+
+<p>Convinced that he could not reach the intended goal by this
+northern route, Barents determined, after consulting with his
+men, to turn south and sail to Vaygats. While sailing down,
+Barents, in latitude 71&deg; north, makes the remark that he was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page235" id="v1page235"></a>[pg 235]</span>
+now probably at a place where OLIVER BRUNEL<A HREF="#v1fn129" NAME="v1rn129">[129]</A> had been
+before, and which had been named by him Costinsark, evidently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page236" id="v1page236"></a>[pg 236]</span>
+the present Kostin Schar, a Russian name still in use for the
+sound which separates Meschduschar Island from the main
+island. It ought to be observed, however, that on old maps
+Matotschkin Schar is often marked with some perversion of the
+word Kostin Schar.</p>
+
+<p>South of &quot;St. Laurens Bay,&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn130" NAME="v1rn130">[130]</A> in 70-3/4&deg;, Barents, on the 21st/11th
+August, found upon a headland across erected, and in the neighbourhood
+of it three wooden buildings, the hull of a Russian
+vessel and several sacks of meal, and at the same place some
+graves, all clearly remains of some Russian salmon-fishers. On
+the 25/15th August he arrived at Dolgoi Island, where he fell in
+with the two other vessels from Zeeland and Enkhuizen that
+had come thither shortly before. All the four vessels sailed
+back thence to Holland, arriving there in the middle of
+September. The narrative of this voyage closes with the
+statement that Barents brought home with him a walrus, which
+had been fallen in with and killed on the drift-ice. Barents
+during this journey discovered and explored the northern part of
+Novaya Zemlya, never before visited by West-European seafarers.</p>
+
+<p>The two other vessels, that left the Texel at the same time as
+Barents, also made a remarkable voyage, specially sketched by
+the distinguished voyager JAN HUYGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN.<A HREF="#v1fn131" NAME="v1rn131">[131]</A></p>
+
+<p>The vessels were manned by fifty men, among them two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page237" id="v1page237"></a>[pg 237]</span>
+interpreters&mdash;a Slav, CHRISTOFFEL SPLINDLER, and a Dutch
+merchant, who had lived long in Russia, FR. DE LA DALE.
+Provisions for eight months only were taken on board. At first
+Nay and Tetgales accompanied Barents to Kilduin, which island</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p250.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p250.png" alt="JAN HUYGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN." ></a>
+JAN HUYGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN.
+<br>Born in 1563 at Haarlem, died in 1611 at Enkhuizen.
+<br>After a portrait in his work, <i>Navigatio in Orientalem sive Lusitanorum Indiam</i>,
+Hag&aelig; Comitis, 1590. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page238" id="v1page238"></a>[pg 238]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p251.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p251.png" alt="KILDUIN, IN RUSSIAN LAPLAND, IN 1504." ></a>
+KILDUIN, IN RUSSIAN LAPLAND, IN 1504.
+<br>After Linschoten. </div>
+
+<a name="v1map239"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p239.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p239th.jpg" alt="Russian Map of the North Polar Sea" ></a>
+<br>Russian Map of the North Polar Sea from the beginning of the 17th
+   century, published in Holland in 1612 by Isaac Massa.
+</div>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page239" id="v1page239"></a>[pg 239]</span>
+<p>is delineated and described in considerable detail in Linschoten's
+work.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th/2nd July Nay and Tetgales sailed from Kilduin for
+Vaygats Island. Three days afterwards they fell in with much
+drift-ice. On the 20/10th they arrived at Toxar, according to
+Linschoten's map an island on the Timan coast, a little west of
+the entrance to Petchora. They there met with a Russian
+<i>lodja</i>, whose captain stated that he believed, after hearsay, that
+the Vaygats Sound<A HREF="#v1fn132" NAME="v1rn132">[132]</A> was continually covered with ice, and that,
+when it was passed, men came to a sea which lay to the south
+of, and was warmer than, the Polar Sea. Some other Russians
+added, the following day, that it was quite possible to sail
+through Vaygats Sound, if the whales and walruses, that
+destroy all vessels that seek to pass through, did not form an
+obstacle; that the great number of rocks and reefs scarcely
+permitted the passage of a vessel; and finally, that the Grand
+Duke had ordered three vessels to attempt the passage, but
+that they had all been crushed by ice.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22nd/12th July there came to Toxar hunters from the White
+Sea, who spoke another language than the Russians, and
+belonged to another race of men&mdash;they were evidently Finns or
+Karelians. A large number of whales were seen in the haven,
+which gave occasion to a remark by Linschoten that whale-fishing
+ought to be profitable there. After the ice had broken up, and
+crosses with inscriptions giving information of their movements
+had been erected on the shore, they sailed on. On the 31/21st July
+they sighted Vaygats. They landed at a headland marked with
+two crosses, and there fell in with a native, clad in much the
+same way as a Kilduin Lapp, who soon took to flight. Other
+headlands marked with crosses were afterwards visited, and
+places where idols were found set up by hundreds. Linschoten
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page240" id="v1page240"></a>[pg 240]</span>
+also landed on that Idol Cape which was visited during the
+voyage of the <i>Vega</i>. There were then from three to four
+hundred wooden idols, which, according to Lindschoten's description,
+were very similar in appearance to those we saw. They
+were so ill made, says he, that one could scarcely guess that
+they were intended to represent men. The visage was very
+broad, the nose projecting, there were two holes in place of the
+eyes, and another hole represented the mouth. Five, six, or
+seven faces were often found carved on one and the same stock
+&quot;perhaps intended to represent a whole family.&quot; Many Russian
+crosses were also erected there. Some days later they found on
+the south shore of the sound a small house filled with idols,
+much better made than the former, with eyes and paps
+of metal. While the Dutch were employed in examining this
+collection of idols, a reindeer sledge was driven forward in which
+sat a man armed with a bow. When he saw the foreigners, he
+called loudly, on which a number of sledges with about thirty
+men drove out of a valley and endeavoured to surround the
+Dutch. They now fled in haste to their boat, and when it had
+left the beach the Samoyeds shot at it with their arrows, but
+without hitting it. This bloodless conflict is, so far as we know,
+the only one that took place between the natives and the
+north-east voyagers. The latter are thus free from the great
+bloodguiltiness which attaches to most of those, who in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries made voyages of discovery in
+southern regions.</p>
+
+<p>Some days later, on the 10th August/31st July, the Dutch had a friendly
+meeting with the Samoyeds, who gave them very correct information
+concerning the state of the land and the sea, telling
+them that &quot;after ten or twelve days they would meet with no
+more ice, and that summer would last six or seven weeks
+longer.&quot; After the Dutch had learned all they could from these
+&quot;barbarians, who had greater skill in managing their bow than
+a nautical gnomon, and could give better information regarding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page241" id="v1page241"></a>[pg 241]</span>
+their hunting than about the navigable water,&quot; they took their
+departure. When one of the sailors hereupon blew a horn, the
+savages were so frightened, that they begun to take to flight,
+but, quieted by the assurance that the blast of the horn was
+only a sign of friendship, they returned and on the beach
+saluted the departing strangers, bowing themselves to the earth
+with uncovered heads and crossed hands.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th/1st August the Dutch, full of hope, sailed into the
+Kara Sea, or, as they called it, the &quot;North Tartaric Ocean.&quot;
+They soon fell in with ice, on which account on the 13th/3rd they
+sought protection under Mestni Island (Staten Eiland). Here
+they found a sort of rock crystal resembling diamonds in all
+respects except hardness, a disappointing circumstance which
+was ascribed to the action of cold. Here also were seen images
+and sacrificial places, but no houses and no trees.</p>
+
+<p>When Nay and Tetgales sailed on, they came to an extensive
+open sea, and on the 20/10th August they believed that they were
+off the mouth of the Obi. Two of its principal mouth-arms
+they named, after the vessels, &quot;Swan&quot; and &quot;Mercurius,&quot; names
+which have since been forgotten. It is quite evident that the
+river which the Dutch took for the Obi was the Kara, and that
+the mouth-arms, Swan and Mercurius, were two small coast
+rivers which debouch from Yalmal into the Kara Sea.</p>
+
+<p>On the 21st/11th August they determined to return home, taking it
+for proved that, from the point which had been reached, it would
+be easy to double &quot;Promontorium Tabin,&quot; and thus get to China
+by the north-east passage. A large number of whales were seen
+raising half their bodies out of the sea and spouting jets of water
+from their nostrils in the common way, which was considered a
+further sign that they had an extensive ocean before them.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24/14th August, Nay and Tetgales sailed again through
+Yugor Schar (Fretum Nassovicum), and the day after at three
+small islands, which were called Mauritius, Orange, and
+New Walcheren, they fell in with Barents, and all sailed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page242" id="v1page242"></a>[pg 242]</span>
+home to Holland, fully convinced that the question of the
+possibility of a north-east passage to China was now solved.
+It was shown indeed, in the following year, that this supposition
+rested on quite too slight a foundation, but the voyages of Nay
+and Tetgales deserve in any case an honoured place in the
+history of navigation, for they extended considerably the knowledge
+of the northern regions through the discovery, or at least
+through the first passage of, Yogor Schar, and, like Barents,
+these seafarers must get the credit of carrying out the task
+assigned to them with skill, insight, resolution, and resource.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p255.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p255.png" alt="MAP OF FRETUM NASSOVICUM OR YUGOR SCHAR." ></a>
+MAP OF FRETUM NASSOVICUM OR YUGOR SCHAR.
+<br>After Linschoten. </div>
+
+<p>THE SECOND DUTCH EXPEDITION, 1595.<A HREF="#v1fn133" NAME="v1rn133">[133]</A> After the return
+of the first expedition a report of the discoveries which had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page243" id="v1page243"></a>[pg 243]</span>
+been made was given in to Prince MAURICE of ORANGE, JAN
+VAN OLDENBARNEVELT, Advocate of Holland, and the other
+authorities at home. They were so convinced by this report
+that the sea route to China was actually discovered, that they
+immediately made arrangements to send out the following year
+a flotilla of seven vessels, two from Amsterdam, two from
+Zeeland, two from Enkhuizen, and one from Rotterdam, with a
+view to open the new commercial communication.</p>
+
+<p>The commanders of the vessels were CORNELIS NAY (Admiral),
+BRANDT TETGALES (Second in Command), BARENTS, LAMBERT
+GERRITSZ. OOM, THOMAS WILLEMSZ., HARMAN JANSZ., and
+HENDRIK HARTMAN. The lieutenants were LINSCHOTEN, JACOB
+HEEMSKERK, FRAN&Ccedil;OYS DE LA DALE, JAN CORNELISZ., RIJP,
+and N. BUYS. Six of the vessels were laden with goods and
+coin; the seventh was to return, home with news when the
+fleet had sailed through Vaygats Sound. The great preparations,
+however, occupied so much time that it was not until the
+12th/2nd July that the voyage could be begun. On the 22nd/12th August,
+Kegor on the Ribatschni peninsula was sighted, and on the
+29/19th August the fleet arrived at the Sound between Vaygats
+and the mainland, and found a great deal of ice there.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd Sep./24th Aug. the Dutch met with some Russians, who told
+them that the winter had been very severe, but that the ice
+would in a short time disappear, and that the summer would still
+last six weeks. They also stated that the land to the northward,
+which was called Vaygats, was an island, separated on its
+north side from Novaya Zemlya; that it was visited in summer
+by natives, who towards winter returned to the mainland; that
+Russian vessels, laden with goods, yearly sailed through Vaygats
+Sound past the Obi to the river Gillissy (Yenisej), where they
+passed the winter; that the dwellers on the Yenisej were of the
+Greek-Christian religion, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th Sept./31st Aug. the Dutch came in contact with the Samoyeds
+south of Vaygats Sound. Their &quot;king&quot; received the strangers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page244" id="v1page244"></a>[pg 244]</span>
+in a very hospitable and friendly manner, and informed them
+that in three or four weeks the cold would begin; that in some
+years the drift-ice did not disappear; that during winter the
+whole sound and the bays and coves were frozen over, but that
+the sea on both sides did not freeze; that beyond the mouth
+of the river Ob there were the mouths of two other rivers,
+of which the more remote was called the &quot;Molconsay,&quot; the
+nearer, which was often visited by Russian trading vessels, the
+Gillissy; that the land continued beyond the Ob to a cape which
+projected towards Novaya Zemlya, and that beyond this promontory
+there was a great sea, which extended along Tartary
+to warm regions.<A HREF="#v1fn134" NAME="v1rn134">[134]</A></p>
+
+<p>When the Dutch sailed into the Kara Sea they fell in with
+much ice, on which account they anchored at the island, Staten
+Eiland, where during the preceding voyage rock crystal had
+been found. Here two men were killed in the way that has
+already been described.<A HREF="#v1fn135" NAME="v1rn135">[135]</A> Depressed by this unfortunate occurrence
+and afraid to expose their vessels, laden with valuable
+goods, too late in the season, to the large quantity of ice which
+drifted about in the Kara Sea, the commanders determined to
+turn. The fleet returned to Holland without further adventure,
+passing through Vaygats Sound on the 25/15th September.</p>
+
+<p>This expedition did not yield any new contribution to the
+knowledge of our globe. But it deserves to be noted that we
+can state with certainty, with the knowledge we now possess of
+the ice-conditions of the Kara Sea, that the Dutch during both
+their first and second voyages had the way open to the Obi and
+Yenisej. If they had availed themselves of this and continued
+their voyage till they came to inhabited regions on either of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page245" id="v1page245"></a>[pg 245]</span>
+these rivers, a considerable commerce would certainly have
+arisen between Middle Asia and Europe by this route as early
+as the beginning of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p258.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p258.png" alt="UNSUCCESSFUL FIGHT WITH A POLAR BEAR." ></a>
+UNSUCCESSFUL FIGHT WITH A POLAR BEAR.
+<br>During the Second Dutch Expedition. From De Veer. </div>
+
+<p>THE THIRD DUTCH EXPEDITION, 1596-97.<A HREF="#v1fn136" NAME="v1rn136">[136]</A> After the
+unfortunate issue of the expedition of 1595, which had been
+fitted out at so great an expense, and which had raised so
+great expectations, the States-General would not grant the
+necessary funds for a third voyage, but they offered instead
+a great prize to the states or merchants that at their own
+expense should send out a vessel that should by the route north
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page246" id="v1page246"></a>[pg 246]</span>
+of Asia force a passage to Asia and China.<A HREF="#v1fn137" NAME="v1rn137">[137]</A> Encouraged by
+this offer the merchants of Amsterdam sent out two vessels,
+one under the command of Willem Barents and Jacob van
+Heemskerk, the other under Jan Cornelisz. Rijp. The crew
+were chosen with care, unmarried men being preferred, with
+the idea that wife and children would detract from the
+bravery of the members of the expedition and lead them to
+return home prematurely.</p>
+
+<p>On the 20/10th May these vessels left Amsterdam. On the 14/4th
+June they saw in lat. 71&deg; North some beautiful parhelia, which
+are found delineated in De Veer's work, and Blavii <i>Atlas
+Major</i>.</p>
+
+<a name="v1map247"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p247.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p247th.jpg" alt="Map showing Barents' Third Voyage." ></a>
+<br>Map showing Barents' Third Voyage, from <i>J.L. Pontani Rerum et urbis Amstelodamensium historia</i>, Amst., 1611.
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 15/5th June one of the crew cried out from the deck
+that he saw white swans, but on a closer examination it appeared
+that they consisted of large pieces of ice, which drifted along
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page247" id="v1page247"></a>[pg 247]</span>
+the edge of the pack.<A HREF="#v1fn138" NAME="v1rn138">[138]</A> On the 19/9th they discovered, north of
+North Cape, a new island, situated in latitude 74&deg; 30' North.
+A large bear was killed here, and on this account the island
+was called Bear Island. On the 29/19th they came in the 80th
+degree of latitude to another formerly unknown land, which
+they believed to be connected with Greenland. It was in fact
+the large group of islands, which afterwards obtained the name
+Spitzbergen. There were found here on a small island the
+eggs of a species of goose&mdash;<i>rotgansen</i><A HREF="#v1fn139" NAME="v1rn139">[139]</A> which comes yearly
+to Holland in great flocks, but whose breeding place was
+before unknown. With reference to this, De Veer says that
+it is finally proved that this goose is not, as has been hitherto
+supposed, propagated in Scotland by the goose laying her eggs
+from the branches of trees overhanging the water, the eggs
+being broken in pieces against the surface of the water, and
+the newly hatched young immediately swimming about.</p>
+
+<p>After an unsuccessful attempt had been made to sail to the
+north of Spitzbergen the vessels proceeded southwards along the
+west coast,<A HREF="#v1fn140" NAME="v1rn140">[140]</A> and on the 11th/1st July came again to Bear Island.
+Here the vessels parted company, Barents sailing eastwards
+towards Novaya Zemlya, Rijp northwards towards the east
+coast of Spitzbergen. On the 27/17th July, Barents reached the
+west coast of Novaya Zemlya in latitude 73&deg; 20' North. On
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page248" id="v1page248"></a>[pg 248]</span>
+the 30/20th July, no further advance could be made for ice, which
+still lay close to the shore. During the stay here there were
+several adventures with bears, all of which, came off successfully.
+In consequence of ice obstacles their progress was exceedingly
+slow, so that it was not until the 25/15th August that they reached
+the Orange Islands. The following day several of the crew
+ascended a high mountain, from which they saw open water</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p261.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p261.png" alt="BARENTS' AND RIJP'S VESSELS." ></a>
+BARENTS' AND RIJP'S VESSELS.
+<br>From De Veer. </div>
+
+<p>on the other side of an island. As glad at the sight of the
+sea as the ten thousand under Xenophon, they rushed back
+to the vessel to give Barents the important news. He now
+did all he could to pass the north extremity of Novaya Zemlya.
+He was successful in doing so, and on the 31/21st a haven, situated
+in about the latitude of 76&deg; North, was reached with great
+difficulty, but all attempts to sail eastwards from it were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page249" id="v1page249"></a>[pg 249]</span>
+unsuccessful. Finally, on the 4th Sept./25th Aug. Barents determined to
+return to Holland.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, it was too late. The haven was blocked with
+drift-ice, which was in constant motion, several times pressed
+the vessel high up between the pieces of ice, and finally broke
+the rudder in pieces. It was now evident that it would be
+necessary to winter, and for this purpose the requisite tools,
+household articles, and provisions were landed and men sent
+out to examine the neighbourhood. Reindeer tracks were seen,
+and, what was more important, there were found on the beach
+large tree-stems with their roots still adhering, and other wood
+which the marine currents had drifted to this otherwise completely
+woodless region. The drift-wood was collected in large
+heaps that it might not be buried under the snow in winter.
+A place was chosen for a house, and the Dutch began to draw
+timber to the place. The openings in the drift-ice were on
+the 25/15th September covered with a crust of ice two inches thick,
+but on the 5th Oct./15th Sept. the ice was again somewhat broken up, which
+however was of no advantage to the imprisoned, because their
+vessel was forced up so high on a block of ground ice that
+it could not be got off. Bears were hunted almost daily. They
+were very bold and sometimes came on board the vessel. On
+the 15/5th October all ice was driven off as far as the eye could
+see, but the vessel still lay motionless on the blocks of ground
+ice. Round these the ice closed in again, to break up anew
+at a greater or less distance from the beach. On the 4th March/22nd Feb. there
+was still much open water visible from the beach, and on the
+16/6th and 18/8th March, the sea appears to have been in one
+direction completely free of ice.</p>
+
+<p>On the 31/21st October, the crew began to remove into the house,
+where they afterwards passed the winter 1596-97 with many
+sufferings, dangers, difficulties, and privations which are described
+in De Veer's work. The crew, however, never lost
+courage, which undoubtedly was a principal cause of most of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page250" id="v1page250"></a>[pg 250]</span>
+them being saved. The house was built on the north-east side
+of Novaya Zemlya, on the shore of Barents' Ice Haven. It
+was situated far to the north of any other place where men
+had previously passed the winter. The land and its animal
+life was unknown, the hard frozen, almost rock-fast and yet
+continually moving ice-covering, with which the sea was
+bound, was something quite novel, as also were the effects which
+long continued and severe cold exerts on animate and inanimate</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p263.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p263.png" alt="BARENTS' HOUSE, OUTSIDE." ></a>
+BARENTS' HOUSE, OUTSIDE.
+<br>From De Veer. </div>
+
+<p>objects. Before the attempt was made it was not considered
+at all certain that men could actually endure the severe cold
+of the highest north and the winter night three or four months
+long. No wonder therefore that the skill and undaunted
+resolution of the Dutch Polar explorers aroused unmingled
+admiration among all civilised nations, and that the narrative
+of their wintering was received with unbounded interest and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page251" id="v1page251"></a>[pg 251]</span>
+formed the subject of innumerable writings and reproductions
+both in prose and verse in almost all civilised languages. Only
+a few facts from the journal of the wintering need therefore
+be given here.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p264.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p264.png" alt="BARENTS' HOUSE, INSIDE." ></a>
+BARENTS' HOUSE, INSIDE.
+<br>From De Bry. </div>
+
+<p>On the 14/4th November the sun disappeared, and was again
+visible on the 3rd Feb./24th Jan. These dates have caused scientific men
+much perplexity, because in latitude 76&deg; North, the upper edge
+of the sun ought to have ceased to be visible when the sun's
+south declination in autumn became greater than 13&deg;,<A HREF="#v1fn141" NAME="v1rn141">[141]</A> and
+to have again become visible when the declination again became
+less than that figure; that is so say, the sun ought to have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page252" id="v1page252"></a>[pg 252]</span>
+been seen for the last time at Barents' Ice Haven on the 27/17th
+October, and it ought to have appeared again there on the 14/4th
+February. It has been supposed that the deviation arose from
+some considerable error in counting the days, but this was
+unanimously denied by the crew who wintered.<A HREF="#v1fn142" NAME="v1rn142">[142]</A> The bears
+disappeared and reappeared with the sun. Instead, foxes came
+during winter to the building, and were caught for food in
+numbers, many on the roof of the house. In order to pass
+the time and keep up their courage, the Dutch sometimes had
+entertainments, at which the cheerfulness of the partakers had
+to make up for the meagreness of the fare. After the return
+of the sun the bears again came very close, so that there was
+a number of hunting adventures with them, all of which came
+off successfully. Several bears made themselves at home in
+the vessel abandoned by the crew, casting everything about,
+and broke up the hatch of the kitchen, covered as it was with
+deep snow. An attempt to eat bear's liver resulted in those
+that ate of it becoming very ill, and after recovery renewing
+their skin over the whole body. Once during severe cold,
+when pitcoal was used to warm the building, all the men in
+it were like to have died of the fumes. On one or two occasions,
+for instance on the 25/15th February, so much snow had
+collected outside the door, that it was necessary to go out by the
+chimney. For the preservation of their health the Dutch often
+took a vapour bath in a barrel fitted up for the purpose.
+On the 7th May/27th April the first small birds were seen, and on the 25/15th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page253" id="v1page253"></a>[pg 253]</span>
+May Barents declared that if the vessel were not got off before
+the end of the month, they should return in boats, which were
+therefore immediately got ready. This was, however, attended
+with great difficulty, because most of the crew had during the
+course of the winter become exceedingly weak, evidently from
+scurvy. After the equipment of the boats had been completed
+and they had been properly laden with provisions, the Dutch at
+last started on the 23rd/13th June.</p>
+
+<p>A man had died on the 6th Feb./27th Jan. At beginning of the boat
+voyage Barents himself was very ill, and six days after, on the
+30/20th June, he died, while resting with his companions on a
+large floe, being compelled to do so by the drift-ice. On the
+same day one of the crew died, and on the 15/5th July another.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th Aug./28 July returning Arctic explorers at St. Lawrens'
+Bay fell in with two vessels manned by Russian hunters,
+whose acquaintance the Dutchmen had made the year before,
+and who now received them with great friendliness and pity for
+their sufferings. They continued their voyage in their small
+open boats, and all arrived in good health and spirits at Kola,
+where they were received with festivities by the inhabitants.
+It gave them still greater joy to meet here Jan Cornelisz. Rijp,
+from whom they had parted at Bear Island the preceding year,
+and of whose voyage we know only that he intended to sail up
+along the east coast of Spitzbergen, and that, when this was
+found to be impossible, he returned home the same autumn.</p>
+
+<p>After the two boats, in which Barents' companions had
+travelled with so many dangers and difficulties from their winter
+haven to Russian Lapland, had been left in the merchant's yard<A HREF="#v1fn143" NAME="v1rn143">[143]</A>
+at Kola, as a memorial of the journey&mdash;the first memorial of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page254" id="v1page254"></a>[pg 254]</span>
+a Polar expedition was thus raised at Kola&mdash;they went on
+board Rijp's vessel, and sailed in it to Holland, arriving there
+the 8th November/29th October. Sixteen men had left Holland with Barents,
+twelve men returned in safety to their native land, and among
+them JACOB VAN HEEMSKERK, a man who during the whole</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p267.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p267.png" alt="JACOB VAN HEEMSKERK." ></a>
+JACOB VAN HEEMSKERK.
+<br>Born in 1567 at Amsterdam, died in 1607 at Gibraltar
+After a contemporary engraving by N. de Clerck. </div>
+
+<p>voyage had played a prominent part, and afterwards lived long
+enough to see the time when the Dutch were a match at sea
+for the Spaniards. For he fell as commander of the Dutch fleet
+which defeated the Spanish at Gibraltar on April 25, 1607.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page255" id="v1page255"></a>[pg 255]</span>
+During Barents' third voyage Bear Island and Spitzbergen
+were discovered, and the natural conditions of the high northern
+regions during winter first became known. On the other
+hand, the unfortunate issue of the maritime expeditions sent
+out from Holland appears to have completely deterred from
+farther attempts to find a north-eastern commercial route to
+China and Japan, and this route was also now less necessary,
+as Houtman returned with the first Dutch fleet from the East
+Indies the same year that Barents' companions came back from
+their wintering. The problem was therefore seriously taken up
+anew for the first time during the present century; though
+during the intervening period attempts to solve it were not
+wholly wanting.</p>
+
+<p>For the desire to extend the White Sea trade to Siberia,
+and jealousy of the companies that had known how to procure
+for themselves a monopoly of the lucrative commerce with
+eastern Asia, still led various merchants now and then during
+the seventeenth century to send out vessels to try whether it
+was possible to penetrate beyond Novaya Zemlya. I shall
+confine myself here to an enumeration of the most important
+of these undertakings, with the necessary bibliographical
+references.</p>
+
+<p>1608. HENRY HUDSON, during his second voyage, landed on
+Novaya Zemlya at Karmakul Bay and other places, but did not
+succeed in his attempt to sail further to the east, north of this
+island. He made the voyage on account of English merchants.
+A narrative of it is to be found in <i>Purchas</i> (iii. p. 574), and an
+excellent critical collection of all the original documents
+relating to Hudson's life and voyages in G.M. Asher's
+<i>Henry Hudson the Navigator</i>, London, 1860 (Works issued by
+the Hakluyt Society, No. 26). It was west of the Atlantic
+that Hudson earned the laurels which gave him for all time so
+prominent a place in the history of navigation, and the sea
+there also became his grave. Eastwards he did not penetrate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page256" id="v1page256"></a>[pg 256]</span>
+so far as his predecessors. I cannot therefore here find room
+for any account of his voyage to Novaya Zemlya; it may
+only be mentioned that two of his crew on the morning
+of the 25/15th of June, 1608, in 75&deg; N.L., saw a mermaid. The
+following statement is taken from his journal: &quot;This morning
+one of the crew, as he looked over the side, saw a mermaid.
+Another of his comrades came up at his call. She was
+close to the vessel's side, looking steadily at the men. Soon
+after she was thrown down by a wave. From the middle
+upwards her back and breast were like a woman's. Her body
+was as large as a man's, her skin very white, and long dark
+hair hung down her back. When she dived, they saw her
+tail, which resembled that of a dolphin and was spotted like
+a mackerel's. The names of the men who saw her were
+Thomas Hiller and Robert Bayner.&quot; It was probably a curious
+seal that gave occasion to this version of the old yarn.</p>
+
+<p>1611. WILLIAM GOURDON, with the title &quot;appointed chief
+pilote for discoverie to Ob,&quot; brought this year a cargo of goods
+to Pustosersk, and sailed thence to Novaya Zemlya. At the
+mouth of the Petchora he saw 24 <i>lodjas</i>, manned with ten to
+16 men each, bound for &quot;Mangansei&quot; east of Ob (<i>Purchas</i>, iii.
+pp. 530, 534). While attempting to get further information
+regarding these voyages to Siberia, the Muscovy Company's
+envoy learned that, at least as a rule, the question was only of
+carrying goods by sea to the bottom of Kara Bay, whence they
+were transported overland to Ob, advantage being taken of two
+small rivers and a lake (<i>Purchas</i>, iii. p. 539). But other
+accounts lead us to infer that the Russian <i>lodjas</i> actually sailed
+to Ob, even through Matotschkin Schar, as appears from
+statements in <i>Purchas</i> (iii. pp. 804, 805). At the same place
+we find the statement, already quoted, of a Russian, who in
+1584 offered for fifty roubles to act as guide overland from the
+Petchora to the Ob, that a West-European ship was wrecked
+at the mouth of the Ob, and its crew killed by the Samoyeds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page257" id="v1page257"></a>[pg 257]</span>
+who lived there. The Russian also said that it was an easy
+matter to sail from Vaygats to the mouth of the Ob.</p>
+
+<p>1612. The whaling captain JAN CORNELISZ. VAN HOORN
+endeavoured to sail north of Novaya Zemlya towards the east,
+but met with ice in 77&deg; N.L., which compelled him to return
+(<i>Witsen</i>, p. 906).</p>
+
+<p>1625. CORNELIS BOSMAN, at the instance of the Northern
+Company of the Netherlands, with a vessel of 90 tons, manned
+by 24 men, and provisioned for two and a half years, passed
+through Yugor Schar eastwards, but fell in with so much ice in
+the Kara Sea that he was compelled to seek for a harbour in
+that sound. There he waited for more favourable conditions,
+but was finally compelled by storm and ice to return with his
+object unaccomplished. (S. Muller, <i>Geschiedenis der Noordsche
+Compagnie</i>, Utrecht, 1874, p. 185.)</p>
+
+<p>1653.<A HREF="#v1fn144" NAME="v1rn144">[144]</A> This year a Danish expedition was sent out to the
+North-east. An account of the voyage was given by DE LA
+MARTINI&Egrave;RE, surgeon to the expedition, in a work published for
+the first time at Paris in 1671, with the following title: <i>Voyage
+des Pais Septentrionaux. Dans lequel se void les moeurs, mani&egrave;re de
+vivre, &amp;c. superstitions des Norweguiens, Lappons, Kiloppes, Borandiens,
+Syberiens, Samojedes, Zembliens, &amp;c. Islandois, enrichi de
+plusieurs figures</i>.<A HREF="#v1fn145" NAME="v1rn145">[145]</A> This work afterwards attained a considerable
+circulation, doubtless in consequence of Martini&egrave;re's easy style,
+contrasting so strongly with the common dry ship's-log manner,
+and the large number of wonderful stories he narrates, without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page258" id="v1page258"></a>[pg 258]</span>
+the least regard to truth or probability. He is the Munchhausen
+of the North-east voyages. The Norse peasants, for instance, are
+said to be all slaves to the nobles, who have sovereign power
+over their property, tyrannise over their inferiors, and are prone
+to insurrection. The elks are said to be liable to falling sickness,
+and therefore fall down in convulsions when they are hunted&mdash;hence
+their name &quot;eleend.&quot; Sailors are said to have purchased
+on the north-west coast of Norway for ten crowns and a pound
+of tobacco three knots of wind from the Lapps living there, who
+were all magicians; when the first knot was loosed, a gentle
+breeze arose, the second gave a strong gale, the third a storm,
+during which the vessel was in danger of being wrecked.<A HREF="#v1fn146" NAME="v1rn146">[146]</A>.
+Novaya Zemlya is stated to be inhabited by a peculiar tribe,
+&quot;the Zembliens,&quot; of whom two were taken prisoners and carried
+to Copenhagen. De la Martini&egrave;re also got the head of a walrus,
+which had been harpooned with great difficulty; the animal was
+drawn as a fish with a long horn projecting from its head. As
+a specimen of the birds of Novaya Zemlya a penguin was
+drawn and described, and finally the work closed with a rectification
+of the map of the Polar Regions, which according to the
+author's ideas ought to be as represented below. I refer to these
+absurdities, because the account of Martini&egrave;re's voyage exerted
+no little influence on the older writings relating to the Arctic
+Regions.</p>
+
+<p>1664 and 1668. A whaling captain, WILLEM DE VLAMINGH,
+sailed in 1664 round the northern extremity of Novaya Zemlya
+to Barents' winter quarters, and thence eastwards, where one
+of his men thought he saw land (&quot;Jelmert-landt,&quot; <i>Witsen</i>,
+p. 902).<A HREF="#v1fn147" NAME="v1rn147">[147]</A> The same Vlamingh says that in 1668 he discovered,
+twenty-five miles N.N.E. of Kolgujev, a new island three to four
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page259" id="v1page259"></a>[pg 259]</span>
+miles in circumference. This island, which was described in
+great detail, and named by the discoverer &quot;Witsen's Island,&quot;
+has not since been seen again (<i>Witsen</i>, p. 923).</p>
+
+<p>1666. In this year some vessels were sent from the Netherlands
+to the north-east. There were Jews among the owners,
+and the seafarers were furnished with letters in Hebrew, because
+it was believed that they would come in contact with some of
+the lost tribes of Israel. Nothing farther appears to have been
+known of the voyage, which undoubtedly was without result.
+(<i>Witsen</i>, p. 962.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p272.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p272.png" alt="DE LA MARTINI&Egrave;RE'S MAP." ></a>
+DE LA MARTINI&Egrave;RE'S MAP.</div>
+
+<p>1675. A Dutch whaling captain, CORNELIS PIERSZ. SNOB-BERGER,
+visited Novaya Zemlya, on whose coast he killed three
+whales and six hundred walruses. He would probably have
+got still more &quot;fish,&quot; if he had not in 72-1/2&deg; found an ore, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page260" id="v1page260"></a>[pg 260]</span>
+appeared to contain silver, gold, and other metals. Instead of
+blubber the skipper now loaded ore, which in his opinion was
+precious, but afterwards on being tested at home was found to
+be valueless (<i>Witsen</i>, p. 918).</p>
+
+<p>17th Century, year not stated. Shipmaster CORNELIS ROULE
+is said to have sailed in the longitude of Novaya Zemlya to 84-1/2&deg;
+or 85&deg; N.L. and there discovered a fjord-land, along which he
+sailed ten miles. Beyond that a large open sea was seen. From
+a high mountain situated on a sound, in which he rode, it
+appeared that he might sail one or two watches further to the
+north. He found there large numbers of birds, which were
+exceedingly tame (<i>Witsen</i>, p. 920). If we take some degrees
+from the latitude stated, which is perhaps not very unreasonable
+in dealing with the narratives of old whalers, which
+have passed through two or three hands, Roule may, as far
+back as two hundred years ago, have reached Franz-Josef's
+Land, and sailed along its coast to a very high latitude for
+those regions.</p>
+
+<p>1676. WOOD and FLAWES were sent out from England by
+Charles II. to sail by the north-east passage to the Pacific. For
+this purpose the English Admiralty fitted out a vessel, the
+<i>Speedwell</i>, while &quot;as all exploratory voyages are exposed to the
+possibility of disaster,&quot; another small ship, the <i>Prosperous</i>, was
+purchased and handed over to the expedition by private gentlemen.<A HREF="#v1fn148" NAME="v1rn148">[148]</A>
+The command of the first vessel was given to Captain
+Wood, the chief promoter of the undertaking, and the other
+vessel was commanded by Captain Flawes. The voyage was
+completely without result, as Wood did not penetrate so far,
+either to the north or east, as his predecessors or as the
+whalers, who appear to have at that time frequently visited
+North Novaya Zemlya. Wood had previously accompanied Sir
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page261" id="v1page261"></a>[pg 261]</span>
+John Narborough during a voyage through the dangerous
+Magellan Straits, in the course of which he became known
+as a bold and skilful seaman, but he not only wanted experience
+in sailing amongst ice, but also the endurance and the
+coolness that are required for voyages in the high north. He
+thereby showed himself to be quite unfit for the command
+which he undertook. Before his departure he was unreasonably
+certain of success; with the first encounter with ice his
+self-reliance gave way entirely; and when his vessel was
+wrecked on the coast of Novaya Zemlya, he knew no other way
+to keep up the courage of his men and prevent mutiny than
+to send the brandy bottle round.<A HREF="#v1fn149" NAME="v1rn149">[149]</A> Finally after his return
+he made Barents and other distinguished seafarers in the
+Arctic Regions answerable for all the skipper tales collected
+from quite other quarters, which he before his departure held
+to be proved undoubtedly true. This voyage would therefore
+not have been referred to here, if it had not been preceded and
+followed by lively discussions regarding the fitness of the Polar
+Sea for navigation, during which at least a portion of the
+experience which Dutch and English whalers had gained of the
+state of the ice between Greenland and Novaya Zemlya was
+rescued from oblivion, though unfortunately almost exclusively
+in the form of unconfirmed statements of very high latitudes,
+which had been occasionally reached. Three papers mainly led
+to Wood's voyage. These were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. A letter, inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society,<A HREF="#v1fn150" NAME="v1rn150">[150]</A>
+on the state of Novaya Zemlya, said to be founded on discoveries
+which had been made at the express command of the Czar.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page262" id="v1page262"></a>[pg 262]</span>
+The letter was accompanied by a map, drawn by an artist
+named Panelapoetski, who sent it from Moscow as a present
+to the writer. The Kara Sea is said to be a freshwater inland
+lake which freezes strongly in winter, and it is stated that
+according to the unanimous accounts of the Samoyeds and
+Tartars it is quite possible to sail north of Novaya Zemlya to
+Japan.</p>
+
+<p>2. Another letter was inserted in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal
+Society,<A HREF="#v1fn151" NAME="v1rn151">[151]</A> in which the statement in the former letter on the
+connection of Novaya Zemlya with the mainland is repeated,
+and the difficulties which Barents met with ascribed to the
+circumstance that he sailed too near the land, along which the
+sea is often frozen; some miles from the shore, on the other
+hand, it never freezes, even at the Pole, unless occasionally.
+It is also said that some Amsterdam merchants sailed more
+than a hundred leagues eastward of Novaya Zemlya, and on
+that account petitioned the States-General for privileges.<A HREF="#v1fn152" NAME="v1rn152">[152]</A>
+However, in consequence of opposition from the Dutch East
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page263" id="v1page263"></a>[pg 263]</span>
+India Company, their petition was not granted, on which the
+merchants turned to Denmark. Here their proposal was
+immediately received with favour. Two vessels were fitted out,
+but instead of sailing to Japan, they went to Spitzbergen to
+the whale-fishing. It is further stated in the letter that it
+would not be unadvisable to let some persons live for a time
+with the Samoyeds, in order to find out what they knew of the
+matter, and that, when a more complete knowledge of the
+navigable waters was acquired, the whole voyage from England
+to Japan might be accomplished in five or six weeks. Were a
+wintering necessary, it would not be attended with any danger,
+if, instead of a house of thick planks standing by itself, earth
+huts were used.</p>
+
+<p>3. A pamphlet, whose contents are given in the long and
+peculiar title: &quot;A brief Discourse of a Passage by the North-Pole
+to Japan, China, etc. Pleaded by Three Experiments:
+and Answers to all Objections that can be urged against a
+Passage that way. As: 1. By a Navigation from Amsterdam
+into the North-Pole, and two Degrees beyond it. 2. By a
+Navigation from Japan towards the North-Pole. 3. By an
+Experiment made by the Czar of Muscovy, whereby it appears,
+that to the Northwards of Nova Zembla is a free and open Sea
+as far as Japan, China, etc. With a Map of all the Discovered
+Lands neerest to the Pole. By Joseph Moxon, Hydrographer
+to the King's most Exellent Majesty. London, 1674.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable passage in this scarce little book is the
+following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Being about twenty-two years ago in Amsterdam, I
+went into a drinking-house to drink a cup of beer for my thirst,
+and sitting by the public fire, among several people, there
+happened a seaman to come in, who, seeing a friend of his
+there, whom he knew went in the Greenland voyage, wondered
+to see him, because it was not yet time for the Greenland fleet
+to come home, and asked him what accident brought him home
+so soon; his friend (who was the steer-man aforsaid in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page264" id="v1page264"></a>[pg 264]</span>
+Greenland ship that summer) told him, that their ship went
+not out to fish that summer, but only to take in the lading of
+the whole fleet, to bring it to an early market. But, said he,
+before the fleet had caught fish enough to lade us, we, by order
+of the Greenland Company, sailed unto the north pole and back
+again. Whereupon (his relation being novel to me) I entered
+into discourse with him, and seemed to question the truth of
+what he said; but he did ensure me it was true, and that the
+ship was then in Amsterdam, and many of the seamen
+belonging to her to justify the truth of it; and told me, moreover,
+that they had sailed two degrees beyond the pole. I asked him
+if they found no land or islands about the pole? He told me,
+No, they saw no ice; I asked him what weather they had
+there? He told me fine warm weather, such as was at
+Amsterdam in the summer time and as hot.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn153" NAME="v1rn153">[153]</A></p>
+
+<p>In addition to these stories there were several contributions
+to a solution of the problem, which Wood himself collected, as
+a statement by Captain Goulden, who had made thirty voyages
+to Spitzbergen, that two Dutchmen had penetrated eastward
+of that group of islands to 89&deg; N.L.; the observation that
+on the coast of Corea whales had been caught with European
+harpoons in them;<A HREF="#v1fn154" NAME="v1rn154">[154]</A> and that driftwood eaten to the heart
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page265" id="v1page265"></a>[pg 265]</span>
+by the sea-worm was found on the coasts of the Polar
+lands, &amp;c.<A HREF="#v1fn155" NAME="v1rn155">[155]</A></p>
+
+<p>When Wood failed, he abandoned the views he had before
+maintained, declaring that the statements on which he had
+founded his plans were downright lies and delusions. But the
+belief in a polar sea that is occasionally navigable is not yet
+given up. It has since then been maintained by such men as
+DAINES BARRINGTON,<A HREF="#v1fn156" NAME="v1rn156">[156]</A> FERDINAND VON WRANGEL, AUGUSTUS
+PETERMANN,<A HREF="#v1fn157" NAME="v1rn157">[157]</A> and others. Along with nearly all Polar travellers
+of the present day, I had long been of an opposite opinion,
+believing the Polar Sea to be constantly covered with impenetrable
+masses of ice, continuous or broken up, but I have
+come to entertain other views since in the course of two
+winterings&mdash;the first in 79&deg;53', that is to say, nearer the Pole
+than any other has wintered in the old world, the second in
+the neighbourhood of the Asiatic Pole of cold&mdash;I have seen that
+the sea does not freeze completely, even in the immediate</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page266" id="v1page266"></a>[pg 266]</span>
+neighbourhood of land. From this I draw the conclusion that
+the sea scarcely anywhere permanently<A HREF="#v1fn158" NAME="v1rn158">[158]</A> freezes over where it is
+of any considerable depth, and far from land. If this be the
+case, there is nothing unreasonable in the old accounts, and
+what has happened once we may expect to happen another time.</p>
+
+<p>However this may be, it is certain that the ignominious
+result of Wood's voyage exerted so great a deterring influence
+from all new undertakings in the same direction, that nearly
+two hundred years elapsed before an expedition was again sent
+out with the distinctly declared intention, which was afterwards
+disavowed, of achieving a north-east passage. This was the
+famous Austrian expedition of PAYER and WEYPRECHT in
+1872-74, which failed indeed in penetrating far to the eastward,
+but which in any case formed an epoch in the history of
+Arctic exploration by the discovery of Franz-Josef's Land
+and by many valuable researches on the natural conditions
+of the Polar lands. Considered as a North-east voyage, this
+expedition was the immediate predecessor of that of the <i>Vega</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page267" id="v1page267"></a>[pg 267]</span>
+It is so well known through numerous works recently published,
+and above all by Payer's spirited narrative, that I need not go
+into further detail regarding it.</p>
+
+<p>But if the North-east voyages proper thus almost entirely
+ceased during the long interval between Wood's and Payer's
+voyages, a large number of other journeys for the purpose of
+research and hunting were instead carried out during this
+period, through which we obtained the first knowledge founded
+on actual observations of the natural conditions of Novaya
+Zemlya and the Kara Sea. Of these voyages, mainly made by
+Russians and Scandinavians, I shall give an account in the next
+chapter. It was these that prepared the way for the success
+which we at last achieved.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn102" NAME="v1fn102">[102]</A> In Bosworth's translation this name is replaced by <i>White Sea</i>, an
+unnecessary modernising of the name, and incorrect besides, as the White
+Sea is only a bay of the ocean which bounds Europe on the north.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn103" NAME="v1fn103">[103]</A> The Russian chronicles state that the land between the Dwina and
+the Petchora (Savolotskaja Tchud) was made tributary under the Slavs in
+Novgorod during the first half of the ninth century. A monastery is
+spoken of in the beginning of the twelfth century at the mouth of the
+Dwina, whence we may conclude that the land was even then partly peopled
+by Russians, but we want trustworthy information as to the time when the
+Russian-Finnish Arctic voyages began (compare F. Litke, <i>Viermalige
+Reise durch das n&ouml;rdliche Eismeer</i>. Berlin, 1835, p. 3).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn104" NAME="v1fn104">[104]</A> The voyage is described in <i>Hakluyt</i>, 1st Edition, p. 311. It is
+inserted in the list of contents in the following terms: &quot;The voyage of
+Steven Burrough towarde the river Ob, intending the discoverie of the
+north-east passage. An. 1556.&quot; It appears from the introduction to
+Hakluyt's work that the narrative was revised by Burrough himself. In
+the text Burrowe is written instead of Burrough.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn105" NAME="v1fn105">[105]</A> As I have already mentioned, von Herbertstein states that the
+Russians (Istoma and others) as early as 1496 sailed round the northern
+extremity of Norway in boats, which when necessary could be carried over
+land. North Cape, or rather Nordkyn, was called at that time Murmanski
+Nos (the Norman Cape). When Hulsius in his collection of travels gives
+von Herbertstein's account of Istoma's voyage, he considers Swjatoi Nos
+on the Kola peninsula to be North Cape (Harnel, <i>Tradescant</i>, St.
+Petersburg, 1847, p. 40).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn106" NAME="v1fn106">[106]</A> This must be a slip of the pen or an error of the press; it was
+probably intended to be 68&deg; 48'. Kola lies in 68&deg; 51' N.L.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn107" NAME="v1fn107">[107]</A> This statement is very remarkable. For it shows that the vessels,
+that were then used by the Russians and Fins, were not very inferior as
+compared with those of the West-Europeans, which is confirmed by the
+fact, among others, that, nowhere in accounts of the voyages of the
+English or Dutch in former times to Novaya Zemlya, do we find it stated
+that in respect to navigation they were very superior to the Kola men.
+As the Russian-Finnish <i>lodjas</i> of the time were probably beyond the
+influence of the shipbuilding art of Western Europe, it is of importance
+to collect all that is known about the way in which these vessels were
+built. Several drawings of them occur in the accounts of the Dutch
+voyages, but it is uncertain how far they are accurate. According to
+these the <i>lodja</i> was klinker-built, with boards not riveted together
+but bound fast with willows, as is still occasionally practised in these
+regions. The form of the craft besides reminds us of that of the present
+walrus-hunting sloop.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn108" NAME="v1fn108">[108]</A> Cape Voronov, on the west side of the mouth of the river Mesen.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn109" NAME="v1fn109">[109]</A> Probably mountain foxes. Remains of these fox-traps are still
+frequently met with along the coast of the Polar Sea, where the Russians
+have carried on hunting.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn110" NAME="v1fn110">[110]</A> Kanin Nos is in 68&deg; 30' N. L.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn111" NAME="v1fn111">[111]</A> This was the first meeting between West-Europeans and Samoyeds.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn112" NAME="v1fn112">[112]</A> The capes which bound the mouth of the Petchora&mdash;Cape Ruski
+Savorot and Cape Medinski Savorot,&mdash;are very nearly in lat. 69&deg;.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn113" NAME="v1fn113">[113]</A> See above, <a href="#v1page168">page 168.</a></p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn114" NAME="v1fn114">[114]</A> Evidently islands near the southern extremity of Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn115" NAME="v1fn115">[115]</A> Probably he was of Finnish race. The Quaens in North Norway are
+still the most skilful harpooners. In recent times they have found
+rivals in skill with the harpoon and gun in the Lapps.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn116" NAME="v1fn116">[116]</A> The information Burrough obtained regarding the Samoyeds is given
+above at <a href="#v1page100">page 100.</a></p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn117" NAME="v1fn117">[117]</A> From the context, and the circumstance that &quot;much ice was drifting
+in the sea,&quot; we may conclude that this haven was situated on the north
+side of the island at the entrance to the Kara Port.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn118" NAME="v1fn118">[118]</A> Probably the river which on Massa's map is called Narontza, and
+debouches on the west coast of Yalmal.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn119" NAME="v1fn119">[119]</A> All the three vessels that were employed in the first English
+expedition to the North-east had an unfortunate fate, viz.:</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Edward Bonaventure</i>, commanded by Chancelor and Burrough, sailed in
+1553 from England to the White Sea, returned to England in 1554 and was
+on the way plundered by the Dutch (<i>Purchas</i>, iii. p. 250); started
+again with Chancelor for the Dwina in 1555, and returned the same year
+to England under Captain John Buckland; accompanied Burrough in 1556 to
+the Kola peninsula; went thence to the Dwina to convey to England
+Chancelor and a Russian embassy, consisting of the ambassador Ossip
+Gregorjevitsch Nepeja and a suite of sixteen men; the vessel besides
+being laden with goods to the value of 20,000<i>l</i>. It was wrecked in the
+neighbourhood of Aberdeen (Aberdour Bay) on the 20th (10th) November.
+Chancelor himself, his wife, and seven Russians were drowned, and most
+of the cargo lost.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Bona Esperanza</i>, admiral of the fleet during the expedition of
+1553. Its commander and whole crew perished, as has been already stated,
+of disease at Arzina on the coast of Kola in the beginning of 1554. The
+vessel was saved and was to have been used in 1556 to carry to England
+the Russian embassy already mentioned. After having been driven by a
+storm into the North Sea, it reached a harbour in the neighbourhood of
+Trondhjem, but after leaving that harbour disappeared completely,
+nothing being known of its fate.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Bona Confidentia</i> was saved like the <i>Bona Esperanza</i> after the
+disastrous wintering at Arzina; was also used in conveying the Russian
+embassy from Archangel in 1556, but stranded on the Norwegian coast,
+every man on board perishing and the whole cargo being lost.</p>
+
+<p>Of the four vessels that left the Dwina on the 2nd August, 1556, only
+the <i>Philip and Mary</i> succeeded, after wintering at Trondhjem, in
+reaching the Thames on the 28th (18th) April, 1557. (A letter of Master
+Henrie Lane to the worshipfull Master William Sanderson, containing a
+brief discourse of that which passed in the north-east discoverie, for
+the space of three and thirtie yeeres, <i>Purchas</i>, iii. p. 249.)</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn120" NAME="v1fn120">[120]</A> Hamel, <i>Tradescant der &auml;ltere</i>, p. 106. Hakluyt, 1st Edition, p.
+326. <i>The voiage of the foresaid M. Stephen Burrough An</i>. 1557 <i>from
+Colmogro to Wordhouse, &amp;c.</i> This voyage of Burrough has attracted little
+attention; from it however we learn that the Dutch even at that time
+carried on an extensive commerce with Russian Lapland. In the same
+narrative there is also a list of words with statements of prices and
+suitable goods for trade with the inhabitants of the Kola peninsula.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn121" NAME="v1fn121">[121]</A> Two accounts of this voyage are to be found in Hakluyt's
+collection (pp. 466 and 476). A copy of Pet's own journal was discovered
+some years ago, along with other books, frozen in among the remains of
+Barents' wintering on the north-east side of Novaya Zemlya. It has not
+been published, but is in the possession of Consul Rein at Hammerfest.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn122" NAME="v1fn122">[122]</A> The Russians had thus landmarks on Novaya Zemlya 300 years ago.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn123" NAME="v1fn123">[123]</A> It is commonly assumed that Pet sailed into the Kara Sea through
+Yugor Schar, but that this was not the case is shown partly by the fact
+that he never speaks of sailing through a long and narrow sound, partly
+by the account of the many islands which he saw in his voyage, and
+partly by the statement that coming from the south he sailed round the
+westernmost promontory of Vaygats Island. If we except small rocks near
+the shore, there are no islands off the southern part of Vaygats Island.
+In sailing east of Medinski Savorot, Pet took the land south of Yugor
+Schar for Vaygats, and the soundings on the 29th (19th) July were
+carried out undoubtedly in the mouth of some small river debouching
+there.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn124" NAME="v1fn124">[124]</A> Of Jackman Hakluyt says (2nd Edition, i. p. 453): &quot;William with
+Charles Jackman came to a haven in Norway between Tronden and Rostock in
+October, 1580, and wintered there. Thence the following February he went
+with a vessel, belonging to the king of Denmark, to Iceland, and since
+then nothing has been heard of him.&quot; About that time an English ship
+stranded at the Ob, and the crew were killed by the Samoyeds. It has
+been conjectured that it possibly was Jackman (compare <i>Purchas</i>, iii.
+p. 546; <i>Hamel</i>, p. 238). It is more probable that the vessel which
+suffered this fate was that which, two years before Pet and Jackman's
+voyage, appears to have been sent out by the Muscovy Company to
+penetrate eastwards from the Petchora. The members of this expedition
+were James Bassendine, James Woodcocke, and Richard Brown, but we know
+nothing concerning it except the very sensible and judicious rules that
+were drawn up for the expedition (<i>Hakluyt</i>, 1st Edition, p. 406).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn125" NAME="v1fn125">[125]</A> I have not been able to find any name resembling this on modern
+maps.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn126" NAME="v1fn126">[126]</A> <i>A Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions</i>.
+London, 1818, p. 99.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn127" NAME="v1fn127">[127]</A> His proper name was Willem Barentszoon; it was also written
+Barentz, Barendsz, Bernardsson, &amp;c. Barents' three voyages formed the
+subject of a work by GERRIT DE VEER, which was published for the first
+time in 1598 at Amsterdam in a Dutch, a Latin, and a French edition. The
+last-mentioned has the following title: <i>Vray Description de Trois
+Voyages des Mer tr&egrave;s admirables faicis</i> ... <i>par les navires d'Hollande
+&amp;c. Zelande au nord</i> ... <i>vers les Royaumes de China &amp;c. Catay, etc</i>.
+Afterwards this work was frequently reprinted in different languages,
+both singly and in DE BEY'S, PURCHAS', and other collections of Travels.
+See on this point P. A. Tiele, <i>M&eacute;moire bibliographique sur les journaux
+des navigateurs N&eacute;erlandais</i>. Amsterdam, 1867.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn128" NAME="v1fn128">[128]</A> From two large crosses which were found erected on the island.
+This shows that the Russians had also explored the north part of Novaya
+Zemlya before the West-Europeans.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn129" NAME="v1fn129">[129]</A> The name Oliver Brunel occurs so often in accounts of the first
+voyages to Novaya Zemlya, and the man who bore it appears to have
+exercised so great an influence on the development of commercial
+communications with Russia, and the sending out of exploratory
+expeditions to the North Polar Sea, that I shall give a brief sketch of
+his life, mainly after S. Muller, <i>Geschiedenis der Noordsche
+Compagnie</i>, Utrecht, 1874, p. 26.</p>
+
+<p>Oliver Brunel was born in Brussels, and in 1565 went in a Russian vessel
+from Kola to Kolmogor in order to learn the Russian language and make
+himself acquainted with the trade of the region. But the English, who of
+course eagerly endeavoured to prevent any intrusion on their
+newly-discovered commercial territory, prevailed on the Russians to keep
+him in prison for several years. In the end he was set at liberty, or
+rather handed over to the rich merchants Jakov and Grigory Anikiev
+(Stroganov). In consequence of this, Brunel came to take part in the
+commercial expeditions sent out by this mercantile house, (which by the
+conquest of Siberia acquired a world-historical importance, both by land
+and sea,) to the parts of Asia bordering on Russia, whereby he became
+well acquainted with the Polar Sea and the Gulf of Obi. Brunel
+afterwards brought about direct communication between the Netherlands
+and the great commercial house, almost sovereign <i>de facto</i> if not <i>de
+jure</i> in extensive countries. In connection with this Brunel made
+strenuous exertions to open in earnest the navigation of the Netherlands
+to the White Sea, and there found a Netherlands factory, which was
+placed not on Rosen Island, which was occupied by the English, but on
+the spot where the present Archangel is situated. Brunel next took part
+in preparations for a Russian North-east expedition, for which Swedish
+shipbuilders were received into Stroganov's service. Brunei himself
+travelled by land to Holland to enlist men. A number of particulars
+regarding these undertakings of Brunel are contained in a letter of JOHN
+BALAK to GERARD MERCATOR, dated &quot;Arusburgi ad Ossellam fluvium&quot; the 20th
+February, 1581. The letter is printed in the second edition of
+<i>Hakluyt</i>, 1598, i. p. 509. Scarcely however had Brunel returned to his
+native country, before he altered his plan and wished to procure for his
+own fatherland the honour and advantage of the undertaking. The first
+attempt of the Dutch to reach China and Japan by the north-east thus
+came about. Of this voyage we know only that Brunel endeavoured without
+success to sail through Yugor Schar, and that his vessel, heavily laden
+with furs, plates of mica, and rock-crystal, was wrecked on the way home
+at the mouth of the Petchora (<i>Beschryvinghe vander Samoyeden Landt in
+Tartarien, &amp;c.</i> Amsterdam, 1612. S. Muller's Photolithographic
+Reproduction, 1878). The mica and rock-crystal were undoubtedly brought
+from the Ural, as no useful plates of mica or large rock-crystals are
+found in the region of the Petchora. Brunel then entered the Danish
+service. For we know that an Oliver Brunel during the reign of King
+Fredrik II. in Denmark offered to explore Greenland, and for that
+purpose in 1583 obtained the right to settle in Bergen and there enjoy
+six years freedom from taxes (Cf. <i>Groenlands historiske Mindesmoerker</i>,
+Copenhagen, 1838, vol. iii. p. 666).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn130" NAME="v1fn130">[130]</A> Probably the Sachanich Bay of the Russians.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn131" NAME="v1fn131">[131]</A> <i>Voyagie, ofte Schip Vaert, van Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, van by
+Noorden, om langes Noorwegen de Noortcaep, Laplant, Vinlant, Ruslandt</i>
+... <i>tot voorby de revier Oby</i>, Franeker, 1601. Another edition at
+Amsterdam in 1624, and in abstract in Saeghman's collection of travels
+in 1665. The voyage is also described in Blavii <i>Atlas Major</i>, 1665.
+Linschoten was &quot;commis&quot; on board, a post which included both the
+employment of supercargo and that of owners' commissioner.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn132" NAME="v1fn132">[132]</A> That is Yugor Schar. This name also occurs, though in a somewhat
+altered form, as &quot;Wegorscoi tzar,&quot; on Isaac Massa's map of 1612, which,
+according to the statement of the publisher, is a copy of a Russian
+chart.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn133" NAME="v1fn133">[133]</A> Accounts of this expedition are given both by De Veer and
+Linschoten in the above-named works.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn134" NAME="v1fn134">[134]</A> These remarkable statements are found in Linschoten's above quoted
+work printed in 1601, and cannot therefore be spurious. They thus show
+that Taimur Land was inhabited by Samoyeds, and that the geography of
+this region was then well known.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn135" NAME="v1fn135">[135]</A> See above, <a href="#v1page142">page 142.</a></p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn136" NAME="v1fn136">[136]</A> The sketch of this voyage forms the main portion of the above
+mentioned work of De Veer. Undoubtedly the adventures during the
+wintering, the first in so high a latitude, in the first place procured
+for De Veer's work the enormous popularity it enjoyed, and led to its
+being translated into so many languages.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn137" NAME="v1fn137">[137]</A> The resolution regarding the offer of this prize is given below:
+Extract nit het Register der Resolutien van de Hoog Mogende Heeren
+Staten Generael der Vereenigde Nederlanden.</p>
+
+<p>Folio 158 vso 13 April 1596.</p>
+
+<p>De Gedeputeerde van de Heeren Staten van Holland verclaren dat heure
+principalen geadviseert hebbende op de hervattinge van het voyagie naer
+China en Japan, benoorden om, deselve voyage afgeslagen hebben, ten
+aenzien van de groote costen die nu twee Jaren achter den anderen om de
+reyse te verzoeken te vorgeefs angewent zijn, maer dat Hare E.
+goetgevonden ende geconsenteert hebben, mede tgevolgh van de andere
+provincien bij zoeverre datter eenige coopluijden aventuriers bij
+compagnie ofte anderssine de voerscreven reijse op heure costen ende
+risique, zonder te schepen ende tgelt van den lande, zonde begeren te
+verzoeken, dat men dezelve aventuriers de reijse gevonden ende gedaen
+hebbende, daervan brengende goet ende geloofflijck beschijt, tot haer
+luijder wedercomste, zal vereeren mette somme van vijff en twintich
+duysent gulden eens. Item daar enboven accorderen den vrijdom voor tw&eacute;e
+jaren van convoyen der goederen die zij uit dese landen naer China off
+Japan zullen transporteren, ende noch vrijdom voer den tyd van acht
+jaren van te goederen die zij uit China ofte Japan in dese landen sullen
+bringen. Waerop geadviseert wesende hebben de Gedeputeerde van d'andere
+provincien hen daarmede geconformeert, die van Seelant opt welbehagen
+van heure principalen, maer die van Utrecht hebben verclart niet te
+consenteren in de vereeringe van XXVm &pound;.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn138" NAME="v1fn138">[138]</A> Every Polar traveller has at one time or other made the same or a
+similar mistake. In 1861, for instance, a boat party, of whom I was one,
+thought that they saw clearly sailors in sou'-westers and with white
+shirtsleeves building a cairn on a point which appeared to be at no
+great distance. But the cairn was found to be a very distant mountain,
+the shirt-sleeves were formed of snow-fields, the sou'-westers of
+pointed cliffs, and the motion arose from oscillatory changes in the
+atmospheric strata.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn139" NAME="v1fn139">[139]</A> Undoubtedly <i>Anser bernicla</i>, which is common on the west coast of
+Spitzbergen. The Dutch name ought neither to be translated <i>red goose</i>,
+as some Englishmen have done, nor confounded with <i>rotges</i>.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn140" NAME="v1fn140">[140]</A> See the copy of Barents' own map with his course laid down upon
+it, which is to be found in Pontanus, <i>Rerum et urbis Amstelodamensium
+Historia</i> (Amst. 1611), and is annexed to this work in photolithographic
+facsimile.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn141" NAME="v1fn141">[141]</A> On the assumption of a horizontal refraction of about 45'.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn142" NAME="v1fn142">[142]</A> See on this point De Veer, leaf 25 and an unpaged leaf between
+pages 30 and 31 in Blavii <i>Atlas Major</i>, tom. i. That a mistake occurred
+in the date is not possible, because the latitude was determined by
+solar observations on the 29th (19th) February, the 21st (11th) and 31st
+(21st) March (see De Veer, I. 27). Besides, at the correct date, the 3rd
+February (24th January), a conjunction of Jupiter and the moon was
+observed, whereby the difference of longitude between Ice Haven and
+Venice was determined to be 75&deg;. However erroneous this determination
+may be, it shows, however, that the date was correct.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn143" NAME="v1fn143">[143]</A> Built along with a weigh-house intended for the Norwegians in 1582
+by the first vojvode in Kola (<i>Hamel</i>, p. 66). In Pontanus (<i>Rerum et
+urbis Amstelodamensium Historia</i>, Amsterodami, 1611, p. 142), there is a
+drawing of the inner yard of this house, and of the reception of
+shipwrecked men there.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn144" NAME="v1fn144">[144]</A> The year is incorrectly given as 1647 by F. von Adelung
+(<i>Kritisch-Litter&auml;rische Uebersicht</i>, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn145" NAME="v1fn145">[145]</A> The following editions are enumerated: four French, Paris, 1671,
+1672, 1676, and Amsterdam, 1708; six German, Hamburg, 1675, Leipzig,
+1703, 1706, 1710, 1711, and 1718; one Latin, Gl&uuml;ckstadt, 1675; two
+Dutch, Amsterdam, 1681 and 1685; one Italian, printed in Conte Aurelio
+degli Anzi's <i>Il Genio Vagante</i>, Parma, 1691; two English, one printed
+separately in 1706, the other in Harris, <i>Navigantium atque Itinerantium
+Bibl.</i>, 3rd edition. London, 1744-48, Vol. II. p. 457.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn146" NAME="v1fn146">[146]</A> The story of the wind knots is taken from Olaus Magnus, <i>De
+gentibus septentrionalibus</i>, Rome, 1555, p. 119. There a drawing of the
+appearance of the knots is also given.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn147" NAME="v1fn147">[147]</A> Compare page 203.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn148" NAME="v1fn148">[148]</A> These were James Duke of York, Lord Berkley, Sir John Williamson,
+Sir John Bankes, Mr. Samuel Peeps, Captain Herbert, Mr. Dupey, and Mr.
+Hoopgood (Harris, <i>Nav. Bibl.</i>,, vol. ii. p. 453).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn149" NAME="v1fn149">[149]</A> &quot;All I could do in this exigency was to let the brandy-bottle go
+round, which kept them allways fox'd, till the 8th July Captain Flawes
+came so seasonably to our relief&quot; (Barrow, <i>A Chronological History of
+Voyages into the Arctic Regions</i>. London, 1818, p. 268).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn150" NAME="v1fn150">[150]</A> &quot;A letter, not long since written to the Publisher by an
+Experienced person residing at Amsterdam,&quot; etc. (<i>Philosophical
+Transactions</i>, vol. IX. p. 3, London, 1674).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn151" NAME="v1fn151">[151]</A> &quot;A summary Relation of what hath been hitherto discovered in the
+matter of the North-East passage; communicated by a good Hand&quot; (<i>Phil.
+Trans.</i>, vol. x. p. 417. London, 1675).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn152" NAME="v1fn152">[152]</A> The time when the voyage was made is not stated in the letter
+quoted. Harris says that he with great difficulty ascertained the year
+of the successful voyage to the eastward to be 1670. He says further
+that the persons who gave him this information also stated that, at the
+time when this petition was given in to the States-General, it was also
+asserted that there was no difficulty in sailing northwards from
+Spitzbergen (Greenland), and that many Dutch vessels had actually done
+it. To confirm this statement the merchants proposed that the logs of
+the Spitzbergen fleet for the year 1655 should be examined. This was
+done. In seven of them it was found recorded that the vessels had sailed
+to 79&deg; N. L. Three other logs agreed in the point that on the 1st
+August, 1655, 88&deg; 56' <i>was observed</i>. The sea here was open and the
+swell heavy (Harris, <i>Nav. Bibl.</i>, ii. p. 453). J. R. Forster
+(<i>Geschichte der Entdeckungen und Schiffsfahrten im Norden</i>, Frankfurt
+a. d. Oder, 1874) appears to place the voyage eastward of Novaya Zemlya
+in the period before 1614. It is, however, probable that the voyage in
+question is Vlamingh's remarkable one in 1664, or that in 1666, of which
+I have already given an account.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn153" NAME="v1fn153">[153]</A> In more recent times the whalers have been more modest in their
+statements about high northern latitudes reached. Thus a Dutchman who
+had gone whale-fishing for twenty-two years, at an accidental meeting
+with Tschitschagoff in Bell Sound in the year 1766, stated among other
+things that he himself had once been in 81&deg;, but that he heard that
+other whalers had been in 83&deg; and had seen land over the ice. He had
+seen the east coast of Greenland (Spitzbergen) only once in 75&deg; N. L.
+(Herrn von Tschitschagoff Russisch-kaiserliehen Admirals <i>Reise nach dem
+Eissmeer</i>, St. Petersburg, 1793, p. 83). Dutch shipmasters too, who in
+the beginning of the seventeenth century penetrated north of Spitzbergen
+to 82&deg;, said that they had thence seen land towards the north (Muller,
+<i>Geschiedenis der Noordsche Compagnie</i>.p. 180).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn154" NAME="v1fn154">[154]</A> Witsen states, p. 43, that he had conversed with a Dutch seaman,
+Benedictus Klerk, who had formerly served on board a whaler, and
+afterwards been a prisoner in Corea. He had asserted that in whales that
+were killed on the coast of that country he had found Dutch harpoons.
+The Dutch then carried on whale-fishing only in the north part of the
+Atlantic. The <i>find</i> thus shows that whales can swim from one ocean to
+the other. As we know that these colossal inhabitants of the Polar Sea do not swim
+from one ice-ocean to the other across the equator, this observation
+must be considered very important, especially at a time when the
+question whether Asia and America are connected across the Pole was yet
+unsettled. Witsen also enumerates, at p. 900, several occasions on which
+stone harpoons were found in the skins of whales caught in the North
+Atlantic. These harpoons, however, may as well be derived from the wild
+races, unacquainted with iron, at Davis Strait, as from tribes living on
+the north part of the Pacific. At Kamschatka, too, long before
+whale-fishing by Europeans began in Behring's Sea, harpoons marked with
+Latin letters were found in whales (Steller, <i>Beschreibung von dem Lande
+Kamtschatka</i>, Frankfurt und Leipzig, 1774, p. 102).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn155" NAME="v1fn155">[155]</A> The account of Wood's voyage was printed in London in 1694 by
+Smith and Walford, printers to the Royal Society (according to a
+statement by Barrington, <i>The possibility of approaching the North Pole
+asserted</i>, 2nd Edition, London, 1818, p. 34). I have only had an
+opportunity of seeing extracts from the account of this voyage in
+<i>Harris</i> and others.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn156" NAME="v1fn156">[156]</A> Barrington published a number of papers on this question, which
+are collected in the work whose title is given above, of which there
+were two editions.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn157" NAME="v1fn157">[157]</A> At several places in his <i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1855-79.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn158" NAME="v1fn158">[158]</A> That thin sheets of ice are formed in clear and calm weather, even
+in the open sea and over great depths, was observed several times during
+the expedition of 1868. But when we consider that salt water has no
+maximum of density situated above the freezing-point, that ice is a bad
+conductor of heat, and that the clear, newly-formed ice is soon covered
+by a layer of snow which hinders radiation, it appears to me to be
+improbable that the ice-covering at deep, open places can become so
+thick that it is not broken up even by a moderate storm. Even the
+shallow harbour at Mussel Bay first froze permanently in the beginning
+of February, and in the end of January the swell in the harbour was so
+heavy, that all the three vessels of the Swedish Expedition were in
+danger of being wrecked&mdash;<i>in consequence of the tremendous sea in 80&deg;
+N.L. in the end of January!</i> The sea must then have been open very far
+to the north-west On the west coast of Spitzbergen the sea in winter is
+seldom completely frozen within sight of land. Even at Barents' winter
+haven on the north-east coast of Novaya Zemlya, the sea during the
+coldest season of the year was often free of ice, and Hudson's
+statement, &quot;that it is not surprising that the navigator falls in with
+so much ice in the North Atlantic, when there are so many sounds and
+bays on Spitzbergen,&quot; shows that even he did not believe in any ice
+being formed in the open sea.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page268" id="v1page268"></a>[pg 268]</span>
+<br>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_VI"></a><h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<p>The North-east Voyages of the Russians and Norwegians&mdash;Rodivan
+Ivanov, 1690&mdash;The great Northern Expedition, 1734-37&mdash;The supposed
+richness in metals of Novaya Zemlya&mdash;Juschkov, 1757&mdash;Savva
+Loschkin, 1760&mdash;Rossmuislov, 1768&mdash;Lasarev, 1819&mdash;L&uuml;tke, 1821-24&mdash;
+Ivanov, 1822-28&mdash;Pachtussov, 1832-35&mdash;Von Baer, 1837&mdash;Zivolka and
+Moissejev, 1838-39&mdash;Von Krusenstern, 1860-62&mdash;The Origin and History
+of the Polar Sea Hunting&mdash;Carlsen, 1868&mdash;Ed. Johannesen, 1869-
+70&mdash;Ulve, Mack, and Quale, 1870&mdash;Mack, 1871&mdash;Discovery of the
+Relics of Barents' wintering&mdash;Tobiesen's wintering, 1872-73&mdash;The
+Swedish Expeditions, 1875 and 1876&mdash;Wiggins, 1876&mdash;Later Voyages
+to and from the Yenisej.</p>
+
+<p>From what I have stated above it follows that the coast
+population of North Russia earned on an active navigation on
+the Polar Sea long before the English and the Dutch, and that
+commercial expeditions were often undertaken from the White
+Sea and the Petchora to the Ob and the Yenisej, sometimes
+wholly by sea round Yalmal, but most frequently partly by sea and
+partly by land transport over that peninsula. In the latter case
+the Russians went to work in the following way; they first sailed
+through Yugor Straits, and over the southern part of the Kara
+Sea to the mouth of the Mutnaja, a river debouching on Yalmal;
+they then rowed or towed the boats up the river and over two
+lakes to a ridge about 350 metres broad, which forms the
+watershed on Yalmal between the rivers running west and those
+running east; over this ridge the boats and the goods were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page269" id="v1page269"></a>[pg 269]</span>
+dragged to another lake, Selennoe, from which they were finally
+carried down the River Selennaja to the Gulf of Obi.<A HREF="#v1fn159" NAME="v1rn159">[159]</A></p>
+
+<p>These and similar accounts were collected with great difficulty,
+and not without danger, by the Muscovy Company's envoys; but
+among the accounts that have been thus preserved we do not
+find a single sketch of any special voyage, on the ground of
+which we could place a Russian name beside that of Willoughby,
+Burrough, Pet and Barents in the older history of the North-East
+Passage. The historical sources of Russia too must be
+similarly incomplete in this respect, to judge from the otherwise
+instructive historical introduction to L&uuml;tke's voyage. Gallant
+seamen, but no Hakluyt, were born during the sixteenth and
+seventeenth century on the shores of the White Sea, and
+therefore the names of these seamen and the story of their
+voyages have long since fallen into complete obscurity, excepting
+some in comparatively recent times.</p>
+
+<p>In the second edition of Witsen's great work we find, at page
+913, an account of an unsuccessful hunting voyage to the Kara
+Sea, undertaken in 1690, that is to say, at a time when voyages
+between the White Sea and the Obi and Yenisej were on the
+point of ceasing completely. The account was drawn up by
+Witsen from an oral communication by one of the shipwrecked
+men, Rodivan Ivanov, who was for several years mate on a
+Russian vessel, employed in seal-fishing on the coast of Novaya
+Zemlya and Vaygats Island.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th/1st September this Rodivan Ivanov suffered shipwreck
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page270" id="v1page270"></a>[pg 270]</span>
+with two vessels on Serapoa Koska (Serapov's Bank),
+probably situated in the Southern part of the Kara Sea. The
+ice was thrown up here in winter into lofty ice-casts with
+such a crashing noise that &quot;the world was believed to be coming
+to an end,&quot; and at high water with a strong breeze the whole
+island was submerged with the exception of some knolls. On
+one of these the winter house was erected. It was built of clay,
+which was kneaded with the blood and hair of the seal and
+walrus. This mixture hardened to a solid mass, of which the
+walls were built with the help of boards from the vessel.
+The house thus afforded good protection not only from cold and
+bad weather, but also from bears. A furnace was also built
+inside the house and fired with driftwood collected on the beach.
+Train oil from the captured animals was used for lighting.
+There wintered here fifteen men in all, of whom eleven died
+of scurvy. Want of exercise perhaps mainly conduced to bring
+on this disease. For most of them did not leave the house
+during the winter night, five weeks long. Those were most
+healthy who had most exercise, as, for instance, the mate, who
+was the youngest among the crew, and therefore had to go round
+the island to collect wood. Another cause of the great mortality
+was the total want of provisions brought from home. For the
+first eight days their food consisted of seaweed dredged up from
+the bottom of the sea, with which some meal was mixed. Afterwards
+they ate the flesh of the seal and walrus, and of the Polar
+bear and the fox. The flesh of the bear and the walrus, however,
+was considered <i>unclean</i><A HREF="#v1fn160" NAME="v1rn160">[160]</A> on which account it was eaten
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page271" id="v1page271"></a>[pg 271]</span>
+only in case of necessity, and the flesh of the fox had an unpleasant
+flavour. Sometimes the want of food was so great
+that they were compelled to eat the leather of their boots and
+furs. The number of the seals and walruses which they caught
+was so great, &quot;that the killed animals, laid together, would
+have formed a heap ninety fathoms in length, of the same
+breadth, and six feet high.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn161" NAME="v1rn161">[161]</A> They found, besides, on the island
+a stranded whale.</p>
+
+<p>In spring Samoyeds came from the mainland, and plundered
+the Russians of part of their catch. Probably for fear of the
+Samoyeds, the surviving hunters did not go over the ice to the
+mainland, but remained on the desert island until by a fortunate
+accident they were rescued by some of their countrymen engaged
+in a hunting expedition. In connection with the account of this
+voyage Witsen states that the previous year a Russian hunting
+vessel stranded <i>east of the Ob</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that towards the close of the sixteenth century
+the Russian hunting voyages to Novaya Zemlya had already
+fallen off considerably. The commercial voyages perhaps had
+long before altogether ceased. It appears as if after the complete
+conquest of Siberia the land route over the Ural mountains,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page272" id="v1page272"></a>[pg 272]</span>
+formerly regarded with such superstitious feelings, was preferred
+to the unsafe sea route across the Kara Sea, and as if the Government
+even put obstacles in the way of the latter by setting
+watches at Matvejev Island and at Yugor Straits.<A HREF="#v1fn162" NAME="v1rn162">[162]</A> These were
+to receive payments from the hunters and merchants, and the
+regulations and exactions connected with this arrangement
+deprived the Polar Sea voyages of just that charm which had
+hitherto induced the bravest and hardiest of the population
+to devote themselves to the dangerous traffic to the Ob, and
+to the employment of hunting, in which they were exposed to
+so many dangers, and subject to so great privations.</p>
+
+<p>The circumstance to which we have referred may also be the
+reason why we do not know of a single voyage in this part
+of the Polar Sea during the period which elapsed from the
+voyage of Rodivan Ivanov to &quot;the great Northern Expedition.&quot;
+It examined, among other parts of the widely extended north
+coast of the Russian empire, the southern portion also of the
+navigable waters here in question, in the years 1734, 35,
+under Muravjev and Paulov, and in 1736, 37 under Malygin,
+Skuratov, and Suchotin. Their main working field however did
+not lie here, but in Siberia itself; and I shall give an account
+of their voyages in the Kara Sea further on, when I come to
+treat of the development of our knowledge of the north coast
+of Asia. Here I will only state that they actually succeeded,
+after untold exertions, in penetrating from the White Sea to the
+Ob, and that the maps of the land between that river and the
+Petchora, which are still in use, are mainly grounded on the
+work of the great northern expedition, but that the bad repute
+of the Kara Sea also arose from the difficulties to which these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page273" id="v1page273"></a>[pg 273]</span>
+explorers were exposed, difficulties owing in no small degree
+to the defective nature of the vessels, and a number of mistakes
+which were made in connection with their equipment, the choice
+of the time of sailing, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v1p286.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p286.png" alt="AMMONITE WITH GOLD LUSTRE." ></a>
+AMMONITE WITH GOLD LUSTRE.
+<br>From Novaya Zemlya. <i>Ammonites alternans</i>. V. BUCH. </div>
+
+<p>Like all distant unknown regions, Novaya Zemlya was of old
+renowned for its richness in the noble metals. The report indeed
+has never been confirmed, and probably was occasioned only by the
+occurrence of traces of ore, and the beautiful gold-glancing film
+of pyrites with which a number of the fossils found here are
+covered; but it has, notwithstanding, given occasion to a number
+of voyages to Novaya Zemlya, of which the first known is that
+of the mate JUSCHKOV, in 1757. As the
+mate of a hunting-vessel he had observed
+the stones glittering with gold and silver,
+and he succeeded in convincing an Archangel
+tallow-merchant that they indicated
+great riches in the interior of the earth.
+In order to get possession of these treasures
+the tallow-merchant fitted out a vessel,
+promising Juschkov at the same time a
+reward of 250 roubles for the discovery.
+The whole undertaking, however, led to no
+result, because the discoverer of these treasures died during
+the passage to Novaya Zemlya (L&uuml;tke, p. 70).</p>
+
+<p>Three years after, in 1760,<A HREF="#v1fn163" NAME="v1rn163">[163]</A> a hunting mate, SAVVA LOSCHKIN,
+a native of Olonets, hit on the idea, which was certainly
+a correct one, that the east coast of Novaya Zemlya, which was
+never visited by hunters, ought to be richer in game than other
+parts of the island. Induced by this idea, and probably also by
+the wish to do something extraordinary, he undertook a hunting
+expedition thither. Of this expedition we know only that he
+actually succeeded in travelling round the whole island, thanks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page274" id="v1page274"></a>[pg 274]</span>
+to the resolution which led him to spend on this self-imposed
+task two winters and three summers. It was proved by this
+journey that Novaya Zemlya is actually an island, a fact which
+in the middle of last century was still doubted by many
+geographers.<A HREF="#v1fn164" NAME="v1rn164">[164]</A></p>
+
+<p>Even after the failure of Juschkov's expedition the report
+of the richness of Novaya Zemlya in metals still maintained
+itself, and accordingly Lieutenant<A HREF="#v1fn165" NAME="v1rn165">[165]</A> ROSSMUISLOV was sent out
+with second mate GUBIN, the Polar Sea pilot TSCHIRAKIN, and
+eleven men, to search for the supposed treasures, and at the
+same time to survey the unknown portions of the island. The
+vessel that was used in this Polar Sea voyage must have been
+a very remarkable one. For shortly before the start, leaks, which
+had to be stopped, were discovered at many different places
+in it, and of its power of sailing Rossmuislov himself says:
+&quot;So long as the wind came from the stern the large sail helped
+us exceedingly well, but, as soon as it turned and became a head
+wind, we were compelled to hoist another smaller sail, in consequence
+of which we were driven back to the point from which
+we came.&quot; Rossmuislov appears to have been a very skilful man
+in his profession. Without meeting with any obstacle from ice,
+but at all events with difficulty enough in consequence of the
+unsuitableness of the vessel, he arrived at Matotschkin Sound,
+which he carefully surveyed and took soundings in. From a
+high mountain at its eastern mouth he saw on the 10th Sept./30th Aug. the
+Kara Sea completely free of ice&mdash;and the way to the Yenisej
+thus open; but his vessel was useless for further sailing. He
+therefore determined to winter at a bay named Tjulnaja Guba,
+near the eastern entrance to Matotschkin Sound. To this place
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page275" id="v1page275"></a>[pg 275]</span>
+he removed a house which some hunters had built on the sound
+farther to the west, and erected another house, the materials
+of which he had brought from home, on a headland jutting out
+into the sound a little more to the east. The latter I visited
+in 1876. The walls were then still standing, but the flat roof,
+loaded with earth and stones, had fallen in, as is often the case
+with deserted wooden houses in the Polar regions. The house
+was small, and had consisted of a lobby and a room with an
+immense fireplace, and sleeping places fixed to the walls.</p>
+<br>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p288.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p288.png" alt="VIEW FROM MATOTSCHKIN SCHAR." ></a>
+VIEW FROM MATOTSCHKIN SCHAR.
+<br>(After a drawing by Hj Th&eacute;el. 1875.) </div>
+
+<p>On the 1st Oct./20th Sept., Matotschkin Sound was frozen over, and some
+days after the Kara Sea was covered with ice as far as the eye
+could reach. Storms from the north-east, west, and north-west,
+with drifting snow of such violence prevailed during the course
+of the winter that one could scarcely go ten fathoms from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page276" id="v1page276"></a>[pg 276]</span>
+house. In its neighbourhood a man was overtaken by such
+a storm of drifting snow while hunting a reindeer. When he
+did not return after two days' absence it was determined to note
+him in the journal as having &quot;perished without burial.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 28/17th April, 1769, there was a storm from the south-west,
+with mist, rain, and hail as large as half a bullet. On the
+2nd June/22nd May a dreadful wind raged from the north-west, bringing from
+the high mountains a &quot;sharp smoke-like air,&quot;&mdash;it was certainly
+a <i>f&ouml;hn</i> wind. The painful, depressing effect of this wind is generally
+known from Switzerland and from north-western Greenland.
+At the latter place it rushes right down with excessive violence
+from the ice-desert of the interior. But far from on that
+account bringing cold with it, the temperature suddenly rises
+above the freezing-point, the snow disappears as if by magic
+through melting and evaporation, and men and animals feel
+themselves suffering from the sudden change in the weather.
+Such winds besides occur everywhere in the Polar regions in the
+neighbourhood of high mountains, and it is probably on their
+account that a stay in the hill-enclosed kettle-valleys is in
+Greenland considered to be very unhealthy and to lead to
+attacks of scurvy among the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The crew remained during the winter whole days, indeed
+whole weeks in succession, in their confined dwellings, carefully
+made tight, without taking any regular exercise in the open air.
+We can easily understand from this that they could not escape
+scurvy, by which most of them appear to have been attacked,
+and of which seven died, among them Tschirakin. It is surprising
+that any one of them could survive with such a mode of
+life during the dark Polar night. The brewing of <i>quass</i>, the
+daily baking of bread, and perhaps even the vapour-baths, mainly
+contributed to this.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29/18th July the ice on Matotschkin Schar broke up, and
+on the 13th/2nd August the sound was completely free of ice. An
+attempt was now made to continue the voyage across the Kara
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page277" id="v1page277"></a>[pg 277]</span>
+Sea, and an endeavour was made for this purpose to put the vessel,
+defective from the first, and now still further damaged by ice, in
+repair, by stopping the leaks, as far as possible, with a mixture
+of clay and decayed seaweed. &quot;Floating coffins&quot; have often
+been used in Arctic voyages, and many times with greater success
+than the stateliest man-of-war. This time, however, Rossmuislov,
+after having sailed some few miles eastward from Matotschkin
+Sound, in order to avoid certain loss, had to return
+to his winter quarters, where he fortunately fell in with a
+Russian hunter, with whom he commenced his return to
+Archangel. No precious metals were found, nor &quot;any pearl-mussels,&quot;
+but Tschirakin confided to Rossmuislov the secret that
+at a certain place on the south coast he had found a block of
+stone of such extraordinary beauty that in the light of day it
+shone with the most splendid fire. After Tschirakin's death
+Rossmuislov sought for the stone, but without success, and he
+therefore broke out in violent reproaches of his deceased
+comrade. I can, however, free him from the blame of deception;
+for, during my voyage in 1875, I found in several of the blocks
+of schist in the region small veins of quartz, crossing the mass of
+stone. The walls of these veins were covered with hundreds of
+sharply-developed rock crystals with mirror-bright faces.
+Tschirakin's precious stone was doubtless nothing else than a
+druse of this shining but valueless mineral.</p>
+
+<p>Once more, nearly fifty years after Rossmuislov's voyage, in
+the year 1807, a miner, LUDLOW, was sent out to investigate more
+thoroughly the supposed richness of the island in metals. He
+returned without having found any ore, but with the first
+accounts of the geological formation of the country; and we have
+his companion POSPJELOV to thank for some careful surveys on
+the west coast of Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>The next expedition to the island was equipped and sent out
+from the naval dockyard at Archangel in 1819 under Lieutenant
+LASAREV, and had, in comparison with its predecessors, very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page278" id="v1page278"></a>[pg 278]</span>
+abundant resources. But Lasarev was clearly unfit for the task
+he had undertaken, of commanding an Arctic exploratory
+expedition. In the middle of summer many of his crew were
+attacked by scurvy. Some few weeks after his departure from
+Archangel, at a time when pools of excellent drinking-water are
+to be found on nearly every large piece of drift-ice, and rapid
+torrents of melted snow empty themselves everywhere along the
+coast into the sea, he complains of the difficulty of procuring
+fresh water, &amp;c. The expedition accordingly was altogether
+fruitless.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p291.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p291.png" alt="FRIEDRICH BENJAMIN VON L&Uuml;TKE." ></a>
+FRIEDRICH BENJAMIN VON L&Uuml;TKE.
+<br>Born in 1797 in St. Petersburg. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page279" id="v1page279"></a>[pg 279]</span>
+<p>Of much greater importance were Captain-lieutenant (afterwards
+Admiral Count) L&Uuml;TKE's voyages to Novaya Zemlya in the
+summers of 1821, 1822, 1823, and 1824, voyages conducted with
+special skill and scientific insight. The narrative of them form
+one of the richest sources of our knowledge of this part of the
+Polar Sea. But as he did not penetrate in any direction farther
+than his predecessors, an account of these voyages does not enter
+into the plan of the historical part of this work.</p>
+
+<p>Among Russian journeys the following may be noticed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Those of the mate IVANOV in 1822-28, during which he
+surveyed the coast between the Kara river and the Petchora by
+overland travelling in Samoyed sleighs.</p>
+
+<p>PACHTUSSOV'S voyages in 1832-35.<A HREF="#v1fn166" NAME="v1rn166">[166]</A> W. BRANDT, merchant,
+and KLOKOV, chief of the civil service, at Archangel, sent out in
+1832 an expedition with very comprehensive aims from that town,
+for the purpose of re-establishing the sea-route to the Yenisej,
+of surveying the east coast of Novaya Zemlya, and of walrus-hunting
+there. Three vessels were employed, viz., a &quot;carbasse&quot;
+manned by ten men, including the Commander-lieutenant in
+the corps of mates Pachtussov, who in previous voyages with
+Ivanov had become well acquainted with land and people along
+the coasts of the Polar Sea;<A HREF="#v1fn167" NAME="v1rn167">[167]</A> the schooner <i>Yenisej</i> under
+Lieutenat KROTOV with ten men; and a hunting <i>lodja</i> commanded
+by the hunting mate GWOSDAREV. Pachtussov was to
+undertake the east coast of Novaya Zemlya, Krotov to sail
+through Matotschkin Sound and across the Kara Sea to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page280" id="v1page280"></a>[pg 280]</span>
+Yenisej, and Gwosdarev to carry on hunting in order to cover
+part of the costs of the expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Pachtussov could not penetrate into the Kara Sea, but wintered
+the first time on South Novaya Zemlya in 70&deg; 36' N.L. and 59&deg;
+32' E.L. (Greenwich), in an old house which lie found there, and
+which according to an inscription on a cross in its neighbourhood
+had been built in 1759. This ruinous house was repaired with
+driftwood, which was found in great abundance in that region.
+A separate bath-house was built, and was connected with the
+dwelling-house by a passage formed of empty barrels and
+covered with canvas. Eleven days were spent in putting the
+old house into such repair that it could be occupied. It was
+afterwards kept so warm that the inmates could stay there in
+their shirt-sleeves without freezing. The Commander, clear-headed
+and specially fit for his post as he was, did not permit
+his crew to fall into habits of idleness, dirt, and laziness, but
+kept them to regular work, bathing and change of linen twice
+a week. Every second hour meteorological observations were
+taken. During the whole winter the crew remained in good
+health, but in spring (March) scurvy broke out, notwithstanding
+the precautions that were taken, and two men died of it in May.
+Many times during winter the ice broke up, and at a short
+distance from the land the Kara Sea was open as far as the eye
+could reach. A herd of reindeer numbering about 500 head
+were seen in the end of September; a number of foxes were
+taken in traps, and two Polar hears were killed. Geese were
+seen for the first time in spring on the 27th/15th of May.</p>
+
+<p>Next summer Pachtussov rowed up along the east coast to
+71&deg; 38' N.L. On the west bank of a river, called Savina, he
+found a very good harbour. He found there the remains of a
+hut, with a cross erected beside it, on which was the inscription
+&quot;Savva Th&mdash;&mdash;anov 9th June 1742,&quot; which he considered to
+belong to the time of Savva Loschkin's voyage. After his
+return from this boat journey Pachtussov went on board his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page281" id="v1page281"></a>[pg 281]</span>
+vessel and sailed along the east coast north of Matotschkin Sound
+from the 23rd/11th July to the 25th/13th August without meeting with any
+obstacle from ice. During this voyage he passed a very good
+harbour in 72&deg; 26' N.L., in a bay, called L&uuml;tke's Bay. Pachtussov
+then returned through Matotschkin Sound to the Petchora.
+Even along the east coast of North Novaya Zemlya the sea was
+open, but the stock of provisions, intended at their departure
+from Archangel for fourteen months, was now so low, that the
+gallant Polar explorer could not avail himself of this opportunity
+of perhaps circumnavigating the whole of Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two other vessels that sailed from Archangel at the
+same time as Pachtussov's, the <i>lodja</i> returned heavily laden with
+the spoils of the chase, but on the other hand nothing was ever
+heard of the <i>Yenisej</i>. A concern, not without justification, for
+its fate, and the desire to acquire as good knowledge of the east
+coast of the North Island as had been obtained of that of the
+South, gave occasion to Pachtussov's second voyage.</p>
+
+<p>For this the Government fitted out two vessels, a schooner and
+a &quot;carbasse,&quot; which were named after the two officers of the
+<i>Yenisej</i>, Krotov and Kasakov. The command of the former was
+undertaken by Pachtussov, and of the latter by the mate
+ZIVOLKA. This time they wintered in 1834-35 on the south
+side of Matotschkin Sound at the mouth of the river Tschirakina,
+in a house built for the purpose, for which they used, besides
+materials brought with them, the remains of three old huts,
+found in the neighbourhood, and the wreck of Rossmuislov's
+vessel which still lay on the beach. The house was a palace in
+comparison with that in which Pachtussov wintered before.
+It consisted of two rooms, one 21 feet by 16 feet, intended
+for the crew (fourteen men), the other 12 feet by 10 feet,
+for the officers and surgeon, with a bath-house in addition.
+Matotschkin Sound was frozen over for the first time on the 28/16th
+November. The thermometer never sank below the freezing-point
+of mercury, and the cold of winter could be easily borne,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page282" id="v1page282"></a>[pg 282]</span>
+because the crew wore the Samoyed dress. But the snowstorms
+were so severe, that sometimes it was impossible for eight
+days at a time to leave the house, which was so snowed up that
+the opening in the roof for smoke had several times to be used
+as a door. The house had no true chimney, but was built like a
+Lapp hut. Eleven of the bears, who came in large numbers
+to the hut, were killed, one of them on the roof and another in
+the porch. During winter the crew were kept in constant employment
+in killing foxes and at other work. Their state of
+health was also very good for the circumstances of the time.
+Only two men died. In spring Matotschkin Sound and part of
+the east coast of the North Island were surveyed by means of
+sledge journeys, after which an attempt was made during summer
+to circumnavigate the North Island, but without success. Lightning
+accompanied by heavy rain was observed on the 24/12th June.
+On the 15th/3rd September they sailed back to Archangel. Unfortunately
+soon after his arrival there Pachtussov fell ill of nervous
+fever and died on the 19/7th November, 1835. It was a great loss,
+for by his devotion to the task he had undertaken, by judgment,
+courage, and endurance, he takes one of the foremost places
+among the Polar explorers of all countries. Besides, few of the
+older Arctic expeditions have brought home such a series of
+valuable astronomical determinations of position, geodetical
+measurements, meteorological and tidal observations, &amp;c., as
+Pachtussov.<A HREF="#v1fn168" NAME="v1rn168">[168]</A></p>
+
+<p>In 1837 the famous naturalist K.E. VON BAER undertook a
+voyage to Novaya Zemlya, accompanied by Lieutenant ZIVOLKA,
+LEHMANN the geologist, R&Ouml;DER the draughtsman, and PHILIPPOV
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page283" id="v1page283"></a>[pg 283]</span>
+the conservator.<A HREF="#v1fn169" NAME="v1rn169">[169]</A> They visited Matotschkin Schar, penetrated
+by boat to its eastern end and found the Kara Sea open, landing
+afterwards at Besimannaja Bay, Nechvatova, and on an island
+in Kostin Schar. The expedition thus nowhere penetrated so
+far as its predecessors, but it is of importance as the first
+examination of the natural history of the Polar Sea surrounding
+Novaya Zemlya carried out by actual men of science. With all
+the respect we must entertain for von Baer's great name as a
+scientific man, it cannot be denied that, through his papers on
+the natural history of the island, grounded on a cursory inspection,
+a number of erroneous ideas regarding the natural
+conditions of the eastern Polar Sea obtained a footing in scientific
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>In order to complete the survey of the island the Russian
+Government sent out in 1838 a new expedition under Lieutenants
+Zivolka and MOISSEJEV. They wintered in 1838-39 in
+Melkaja Guba on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 73&deg; 57'
+N. L.; but on this occasion Pachtussov's judgment and insight
+were wanting, and the wintering was very unfortunate. Of the
+twenty-five men belonging to the expedition most were attacked
+during winter by scurvy; nine died, among them Zivolka himself.
+During spring, excursions for the purpose of surveying the
+neighbouring coasts had to be broken off because they had not
+brought snow-glasses with them&mdash;a thing that Pachtussov
+did not neglect, being accustomed besides to blacken the under
+eyelid as a protection against the blinding brightness of the
+snow. By the expedition, however, considerable stretches of
+the west coast of Novaya Zemlya were surveyed, and valuable
+contributions to a knowledge of the climatic conditions of this
+region obtained. These turned out to be less severe than had
+been expected. During winter the thermometer never sank
+below -33&deg;; in July there were only two nights of frost, and on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page284" id="v1page284"></a>[pg 284]</span>
+two occasions + 18&deg; was observed in the shade; in August there
+were only three hours of frost. All this depends of course on
+the neighbourhood of warm marine currents and of a sea open
+all the year round at a short distance from the coast.</p>
+
+<p>With this unfortunate and to all appearance ill-arranged
+expedition the Russian Novaya Zemlya voyages ceased for a
+long time. For before the beginning of the Norwegian hunting
+we have only two other Russian voyages to notice in our sketch
+of the history of the North East passage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p297.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p297.png" alt="AUGUST KARLOVITZ ZIVOLKA." ></a>
+AUGUST KARLOVITZ ZIVOLKA.
+<br>Born in 1810 at Warsaw, died in 1839 on Novaya Zemlya.
+<br>(After a pen-and-ink drawing communicated by Herr Paul Daschkoff.) </div>
+
+<p>The first of these owed its origin to the desire of the captain
+of a Russian man-of-war, PAUL VON KRUSENSTERN, to undertake
+a voyage in the Polar Sea in a schooner, the <i>Yermak</i>,
+which belonged to him and which was for the time lying at the
+Petchora, in order to survey the coasts lying to the eastward.
+He intended himself to undertake the command, and to take
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page285" id="v1page285"></a>[pg 285]</span>
+with him as second in command his son PAUL VON KRUSENSTERN.
+lieutenant in the Russian marine. The latter was sent before
+to equip the <i>Yermak</i>, which he did with wonderful judgment
+and skill, in the best way possible, in a region where at that
+time nearly every requisite for the equipment of a vessel was
+wanting. The elder Krusenstern was unable to reach the place
+of sailing in time, on which account the command was given to
+the son.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p298.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p298.png" alt="PAUL VON KRUSENSTERN, JUNIOR." ></a>
+PAUL VON KRUSENSTERN, JUNIOR.
+<br>Born at Revel in 1834; died at Dorpat in 1871. </div>
+
+<p>He left the mouth of the Petchora on the 10th Sept/29th Aug, 1860.
+Three days after he reached the Kara port, which was completely
+free of ice, as was the sea to the eastward. But the late season
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page286" id="v1page286"></a>[pg 286]</span>
+of the year, the defective equipment of the <i>Yermak</i>, and, it
+would appear, the wording of the orders he had received,
+compelled him to turn after he had penetrated some distance
+into the Kara Sea. On the 19/7th September accordingly he was
+again at the Petchora, without having reached his goal. The</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p299.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p299.png" alt="MICHAEL KONSTANTINOVITSCH SIDOROFF." ></a>
+MICHAEL KONSTANTINOVITSCH SIDOROFF.
+<br>Born in 1823 at Archangel. </div>
+
+<p>attempt to penetrate eastwards from this river was resumed at
+the instance of MICHAEL SIDOROFF, afterwards so well known
+as the restless promoter of sea-communication between Siberia
+and Europe. The <i>Yermak</i> was repaired, along with a decked
+Norwegian pilot-boat, which was named the <i>Embrio</i>. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page287" id="v1page287"></a>[pg 287]</span>
+command was undertaken by P. von Krusenstern, junior. He
+left the anchorage Kuya on the Petchora on the 13th/1st August.
+On the 26th/14th August, the two small vessels sailed into Yugor
+Schar, after having been long detained during their course by
+storms and head-winds. Some huts erected by hunters were
+seen on the right shore of the sound, and on both sides of it
+Samoyed &quot;chums&quot; (tents of reindeer skin) and reindeer. The
+inhabitants had climbed up on the roofs and indicated their
+astonishment by gesticulations. Both vessels anchored in the
+neighbourhood of Vaygats Island. But a couple of hours
+afterwards large masses of ice drove with an altered current into
+the harbour, forced the <i>Yermak</i> from its anchor and carried the
+vessel into the Kara Sea. It was only with great trouble that it
+was released from the ice and anchored in the eastern mouth of
+Yugor Schar.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27/15th von Krusenstern again weighed anchor, either
+to sail to the eastward or to search for a more secure anchorage
+than that which he had been compelled for the time to make
+use of. But the wind was so light that he could not hold a
+course independent of the currents. It was, therefore, necessary
+to moor the vessel to a large ice-field, and with this the
+<i>Yermak</i> during the following days drifted farther and farther.
+Soon the vessel was completely enclosed by the ice, and thus
+rendered unmanageable. The weather was often fine, the
+thermometer showed +4&deg;, a strong aerial reflection elevated
+images of the pieces of ice at the horizon, and gave them the
+most wonderful and beautiful forms. Everywhere there were
+upon the ice fresh-water pools, some of which were of great
+extent and of no inconsiderable depth. Thus, on the ice-field
+lying nearest the vessel there were different &quot;lakes,&quot; one of
+which was used for drinking, another for filling the water-casks,
+a third to supply washing-water to the crew, and a fourth for
+washing their clothes.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd Sept./22nd Aug. the ice began to be pressed together by a light
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page288" id="v1page288"></a>[pg 288]</span>
+W.S.W. wind. Convinced that the vessel would soon be nipped,
+the men on board began to save the stock of provisions and the
+boats, by placing them on the ice, but the pressure soon ceased.
+There fell a heavy rain, which afterwards, when the wind
+changed to north-west, passed into snow. On the 7th Sept./26th Aug. the
+coast of Yalmal was sighted. A fathom-thick ice-floe shot
+under the vessel and caused it to heel over to starboard. The
+following day there was a storm from the S.S.W. with snow.
+The ice forcing itself forward shook the vessel several times so
+violently that the crew rushed up to save the provisions, &amp;c., on
+the ice. They were now in the neighbourhood of 70&deg; N.L. and
+65&deg; E.L. (Greenwich), almost right off the mouth of the Kara
+river. The crew worked the whole day with axes and iron bars
+hewing off the sharp projecting corners of the ice-blocks that
+were pressed against the vessel. On the 11th Sept./20 Aug. there was warm
+weather with rain. The ice was in so violent motion that it
+was impossible to walk upon it. On the afternoon of the same
+day the <i>Yermak</i> sustained several violent concussions, and the
+hull was lifted one foot. On the 13th/1st September, a violent storm broke
+out, which drove the vessel to the north-east. It was expected
+every moment that the vessel would be nipped, and a
+tent was accordingly pitched on the ice, in order that part of the
+provisions from the hold might be placed in it. Wood even was
+carried to it. It was Russia's thousand-years' day, and it was
+celebrated with a festive ball and merry songs, although they
+every instant expected their vessel to be crushed by the masses
+of ice that were pressed together by the fearful storm. On the
+14th/2nd September, the stem of the vessel was forced five feet above
+the water-line, and the whole night a continual cracking of
+timbers was heard in the hull. The water rose rapidly to a
+depth of two feet. Every man left the vessel and removed
+to the ice, but soon after the immense ice-field on which the
+tent was pitched went in pieces, while the leak in the vessel
+closed, and the crew in consequence went on board again. On
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page289" id="v1page289"></a>[pg 289]</span>
+the 15th/3rd September, the vessel was again pressed so, that the deck
+at times was bent to the form of a vault. On the 19th/7th September,
+von Krusenstern called the crew together that they might
+choose from their number three persons to advise with the
+commander on the best means of making their escape, and two
+days after the vessel was abandoned, after a meal at which the
+crew were literally offered all the house afforded. They then
+broke up for a journey to land, which was exceedingly difficult
+on account of the unevenness of the ice. They were soon
+obliged to leave the boat, which they had at first endeavoured to
+drag along with them over the ice, and take the most indispensable
+of the provisions on their own backs. On leaving the
+ship a sailor had secretly got possession of so much brandy, that
+during the first day's march he had the opportunity of drinking
+himself dead drunk. To carry him along was not possible, to
+wait was not advisable. He was left therefore to sleep off the
+drink; and in order that he might do so as soon as possible they
+took off his clothes and left him lying upon the ice with only
+his shirt on. Next day, however, he got up with his comrades
+after following their track in the darkness the whole night.
+Open places were often met with, which the travellers had to
+cross on pieces of drift-ice rowed forward by boat-hooks. Once
+when the shipwrecked men were ferrying themselves over upon
+a piece of ice which was already fully loaded, six walruses were
+seen in the neighbourhood. They showed a disposition to
+accompany the seafarers on the piece of ice, which in that case
+would certainly have sunk, and it was only after a ball had been
+sent through the leader's head that the animals gave up their
+plan for resting, which gave evidence of a gregariousness as
+great as their want of acquaintance with mankind. After
+Krusenstern and his companions had for several days in succession
+drifted backwards and forwards on a piece of ice in the
+neighbourhood of land, and traversed long stretches by jumping
+from one piece of ice to another, they at last reached the shore
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page290" id="v1page290"></a>[pg 290]</span>
+on the 28/16th September. In the immediate neighbourhood they
+found an encampment, whose inhabitants (Samoyeds) gave the
+shipwrecked men a friendly reception, and entertained them
+with the luxuries of the reindeer herd&mdash;raw and cooked reindeer
+flesh, reindeer tongues, reindeer marrow&mdash;raw fish and goose-fat.
+After the meal was finished the exhausted wanderers lay
+down to sleep in the Samoyed tents on the soft reindeer skins;
+&quot;all sorrows and difficulties were forgotten; we felt a boundless
+enjoyment, as if we had come to paradise.&quot; Thence they
+travelled in reindeer sledges to Obdorsk, everywhere received in
+a friendly and hospitable manner by the wild tribes on the way,
+although the hospitality sometimes became troublesome; as for
+instance when an Ostyak compelled von Krusenstern to drink
+tea six times a day, and six cups each time, and offered him
+as a special luxury an extract of tobacco in brandy.<A HREF="#v1fn170" NAME="v1rn170">[170]</A></p>
+
+<p>Krusenstern's adventurous journey across the Kara Sea is one
+of the many proofs that a Polar navigator ought above everything
+to avoid being beset. The very circumstance that the
+ice-field, in which he became fixed in the neighbourhood of
+Yugor Schar, could drift across to the east coast of the Kara
+Sea, shows that it was for the most part open, and that a
+steamer or a good sailing-vessel that year, and probably also
+the preceding, might very readily have reached the mouth of
+the Ob or the Yenisej. The narrative of von Krusenstern's
+journey is besides the first complete sketch we have of a passage
+from west to east over the Kara Sea. Little idea could any one
+then have that within a single decade a number of vessels
+should sail free and unhindered along this route.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the two voyages I have described above, and
+before they became generally known in the geographical literature
+of Western Europe, a new era began in the navigation of
+the Kara Sea, which was brought about by the Norwegian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page291" id="v1page291"></a>[pg 291]</span>
+hunters being compelled to seek for new fields of sport on and
+beyond Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Spitzbergen hunting has not yet been
+written in a satisfactory way, and is in many respects very
+obscure. It is supposed that after the discovery of Spitzbergen
+in 1596 by Barents, the hunting in the Polar Seas began during
+BENNET'S first voyage in 1603, and that the whale-fishing was
+introduced by JONAS POOLE in 1610. But already in the following
+year Poole, whose vessel was then wrecked on the west coast
+of Spitzbergen, found in Horn Sound a ship from Hull, to
+which he gave charge of saving his cargo, and two years after
+the English were compelled, in order to keep foreigners from
+the fishing field they wished to monopolise, to send out six
+men-of-war, which found there eight Spanish, and a number of
+Dutch and French vessels (<i>Purchas</i>, iii. pp. 462, 716, &amp;c.).
+Even in our days the accounts of new sources of wealth do not
+spread so speedily as in this case, unless, along with the history
+of the discovery which was written by Hakluyt, Purchas, De
+Veer, &amp;c., there had been an unknown history of discovery and
+the whale-fishing, of which it may still be possible to collect
+some particulars from the archives of San Sebastian, Dunkirk,
+Hull, and other ports.</p>
+
+<p>However this may be, it is certain that the English and
+Dutch North-east voyages gave origin to a whale-fishery in the
+sea round Spitzbergen, which increased by many millions the
+national wealth of these rich commercial states. The fishing
+went on at first immediately along the coasts, from which,
+however, the whales were soon driven, so that the whale-fishers
+had to seek new fishing-grounds, first farther out to sea between
+Spitzbergen and Greenland, then in Davis' Strait, and finally in
+the South Polar Sea, or in the sea on both sides of Behring's
+Straits.</p>
+
+<p>Spitzbergen, when the whale-fishing ceased in its neighbourhood,
+was mostly abandoned, until the Russians began to settle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page292" id="v1page292"></a>[pg 292]</span>
+there, principally for the hunting of the mountain fox and the
+reindeer. Of their hunting voyages we know very little, but
+that they had been widely prosecuted is shown by the remains
+of their dwellings or huts on nearly all the fjords of Spitzbergen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p305.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p305.png" alt="NORWEGIAN HUNTING SLOOP." ></a>
+NORWEGIAN HUNTING SLOOP.
+<br>The <i>Proeven</i>, employed by the Swedish Expedition to the Yenisej in 1875. </div>
+
+<p>They seem to have often wintered, probably because the
+defective build of their vessels only permitted them to sail to
+and from Spitzbergen during the height of summer, and they
+could not thus take part without wintering in the autumn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page293" id="v1page293"></a>[pg 293]</span>
+hunting, during which the fattest reindeer are got; nor could
+the thick and valuable fur of the winter-fox be obtained without
+wintering.<A HREF="#v1fn171" NAME="v1rn171">[171]</A> But the hunting voyages of the Russians to Spitzbergen
+have also long ceased. The last voyage thither took
+place in 1851-52, and had a very unfortunate issue for most of
+those who took part in it, twelve men dying out of twenty. On
+the other hand, the Norwegian voyages to Spitzbergen for the
+seal and walrus-hunting, begun in the end of last century, still
+go on. Their history, too, is, even here in the North, very
+incompletely known, at least to 1858, when the Swedish scientific
+expeditions began regularly to visit those regions, and to
+include in the narratives of their voyages more or less complete
+accounts of the Norwegian hunting, an example that has since
+been followed, though by no means very completely or systematically,
+by the editors of Norwegian and foreign journals, in
+the first place by Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i>.<A HREF="#v1fn172" NAME="v1rn172">[172]</A></p>
+
+<p>Between 1860 and 1870 the game (walrus, seal, bear, and
+reindeer) began to diminish in such a degree that the hunters
+were compelled to seek for themselves new hunting-grounds.
+They turned to the north and east, the less accessible parts of
+Spitzbergen, afterwards still farther eastwards towards Novaya
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page294" id="v1page294"></a>[pg 294]</span>
+Zemlya, and beyond this island to the Kara Sea, and they
+penetrated farther than all their predecessors. In the history
+of the North-east Passage therefore some pages must always be
+devoted to the bold voyages to Novaya Zemlya of these small
+hunting sloops, provisioned only for the summer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p307.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p307.png" alt="ELLING CARLSEN." ></a>
+ELLING CARLSEN.
+<br>Born at Tromsoe in 1819. </div>
+
+<p>The Norwegian hunter who first visited Novaya Zemlya was
+ELLING CARLSEN, afterwards known as a member of the
+Austrian Polar expedition. In 1868 he sailed in a sloop from
+Hammerfest on a hunting voyage eastward, forced his way into
+the Kara Sea through the Kara Port, but soon returned through
+Yugor Schar, and then sailed northwards as far as Cape Nassau.
+Induced by the abundance of game, he returned next year to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page295" id="v1page295"></a>[pg 295]</span>
+same regions, and then succeeded in penetrating the Kara Sea
+as far as the neighbourhood of Beli Ostrov, whence he returned
+to Norway through Matotschkin Schar. Carlsen's lead was
+immediately followed by several Norwegian hunters, one of
+whom, EDWARD JOHANNESEN, made a very remarkable voyage,
+of which I will here give a brief account.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p308.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p308.png" alt="EDWARD HOLM JOHANNESEN." ></a>
+EDWARD HOLM JOHANNESEN.
+<br>Born in 1844, at Balsfjord Parsonage. </div>
+
+<p>Johannesen anchored on the 31st May, 1869, at Meschduschar
+Island, without having seen any drift-ice in the course
+of his voyage. He then sailed up along the west coast of
+Novaya Zemlya in nearly open water past Matotschkin Sound
+to Cape Nassau, which was reached on the 19th June. Hence
+he returned, following the coast toward the south, until, on the
+29th June, he sailed through the Kara Port into the Kara Sea.
+This was passed in very open water, and after coming to its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page296" id="v1page296"></a>[pg 296]</span>
+eastern side he followed the coast of Yalmal towards the north
+to Beli Ostrov. This island was reached on the 7th August, and
+from it he steered south along the east coast of Novaya Zemlya
+to the Kara Port, through which he returned to Norway.<A HREF="#v1fn173" NAME="v1rn173">[173]</A></p>
+
+<p>The same year, the English sportsman, Mr. JOHN PALLISER<A HREF="#v1fn174" NAME="v1rn174">[174]</A>
+sailed across the Kara Sea, through Matotschkin Schar to Beli
+Ostrov. He returned through Yugor Schar with abundance
+of booty<A HREF="#v1fn175" NAME="v1rn175">[175]</A> from the hunting grounds where formerly the
+walruses tumbled undisturbed among the drift-ice, and where
+the white bear has not yet met his superior.<A HREF="#v1fn176" NAME="v1rn176">[176]</A></p>
+
+<p>These voyages are amongst the most remarkable that the
+history of Arctic navigation can show. They at once overturned
+all the theories which, on the ground of an often superficial
+study of preceding unsuccessful voyages, had been set up
+regarding the state of the ice east of Novaya Zemlya, and they
+thus form the starting-point of a new era in the history of the
+North-east Passage.</p>
+
+<p>After his return to Norway Johannesen sent to the Academy
+of Sciences in Stockholm a paper on his voyage in 1869, and on
+his hydrographical observations in the Kara Sea, for which he
+received a silver medal. This I was commissioned to send him,
+and in the correspondence which took place regarding it I on
+one occasion said in jest that a circumnavigation of Novaya
+Zemlya would certainly entitle him to a gold medal from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page297" id="v1page297"></a>[pg 297]</span>
+same famous scientific institution that had given him the silver
+medal. I myself travelled the following summer, in 1870, to
+Greenland, and returned thence late in autumn. I then had
+the pleasure of receiving from Captain Johannesen a new paper,
+afterwards inserted in the <i>&Ouml;fcersigt</i>, of the transactions of the
+Royal Academy of Sciences for the year 1871, p. 157, &quot;Hydro-grafiske
+Iakttagelser under en Fangsttour 1870 rundt om Novaja
+Zemlja.&quot; Johannesen now as on the first occasion sailed backwards
+and forwards along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya,
+then through the Kara Port, which was passed on the 12th July.
+He then followed the east coast of Vaygats to Mestni Island,
+where he came in contact with Samoyeds, in connection with
+which he makes the remark, certainly quite unexpected by
+philologists, that in the language of the Samoyeds &quot;certain
+Norwegian words were recognised.&quot; Their exterior was not
+at all attractive. They had flat noses, their eyes were dreadfully
+oblique, and many had also oblique mouths. The men
+received the foreigners drawn up in a row, with the women
+in the second rank. All were very friendly. On the 11th
+August he was on the coast of Yalmal in 71&deg; 48' N.L., whence
+he sailed over to Novaya Zemlya in order to take on board wood
+and water. He anchored in the neighbourhood of Udde Bay in
+73&deg; 48' N.L., and saw there twenty wild reindeer. Then he
+sailed again over the Kara Sea to Yalmal.</p>
+
+<p>During these cruisings in the Kara Sea the summer had
+passed. Johannesen's vessel was now full, but notwithstanding
+this he determined, at a season of the year when the walrus-hunters
+commonly return to Norway, to see whether the offered
+prize could not be won into the bargain. The course was shaped
+first to the north-east, then westward to the north coast of
+Novaya Zemlya, which was reached on the 3rd September. The
+whole sea here was open, which Johannesen, on the ground
+of finding Norwegian fishing-net floats among the driftwood,
+attributed to the action of the Gulf Stream. Hence he returned
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page298" id="v1page298"></a>[pg 298]</span>
+to Norway, after having completed a voyage which some years
+before all geographical authorities would have considered an
+impossibility. I need scarcely mention that the Academy in
+Stockholm redeemed the promise which one of its members had
+given without the necessary authority. Johannesen was then
+twenty-six years old. Son of a skilful hunter, he had from his
+childhood taken part in Arctic voyages, and thus grown up in
+the employment to which he had devoted himself.</p>
+
+<p>The same year several other walrus-hunters also made remarkable
+voyages in the Kara Sea. Captain E. A. ULVE first sailed
+along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya to 76&deg; 47' N.L., then
+back to Matotschkin Schar, through which he passed on the
+7th and 8th August into the Kara Sea, which was completely
+free of ice, with the exception of some few very scattered pieces.
+After sailing backwards and forwards in different directions in
+the Kara Sea, he returned through the Kara Port on the 24th
+August. Captain F. E. MACK made a similar voyage. He
+sailed from the 28th June to the 8th July northwards along the
+west coast of Novaya Zemlya, which was free of ice between the
+Petchora and the Admiralty peninsula, where fast ice was
+found, and fourteen sailing vessels and two steamers were now
+assembled. On the 8th and 9th June thunder was heard here.
+From the Admiralty peninsula Mack sailed again, first to the
+south, and then, on the 18th July, through Matotschkin Sound
+into the Kara Sea, which was nearly free of ice. Captain P.
+QUALE, again, and A. O. NEDREVAAG, sailing master, penetrated
+through Yugor Sound into the Kara Sea, and sailed there to
+75&deg; 22' N.L., and 74&deg; 35' E.L. (Greenwich).<A HREF="#v1fn177" NAME="v1rn177">[177]</A>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page299" id="v1page299"></a>[pg 299]</span></p>
+<br>
+
+<p>Also in 1871 a number of walrus-hunters made remarkable
+voyages in the Kara Sea. Of these, however, only one, Mack,
+in the schooner <i>Pole Star</i>, penetrated eastwards farther than all
+his predecessors. On the 14th June he sailed into the Kara
+Sea through the Kara Port, but found the sea still covered with
+continuous fast ice, from 1.8 to 2 metres in thickness. He
+therefore turned and sailed northwards along the west coast of
+Novaya Zemlya to the Gulf Stream Islands (76&deg; 10' N.L.),
+where he remained till the 3rd of August. The temperature
+of the air rose here to +10&deg;.5. The name, which the Norwegian
+walrus-hunters have given these islands, owes its origin to the
+large number of objects from southern seas which the Gulf
+Stream carries with it thither, as floats from the Norwegian
+fisheries, with their owner's marks frequently recognisable by
+the walrus-hunters&mdash;beans of <i>Entada gigalobium</i> from the West
+Indies, pumice-stone from Iceland, fragments of wrecked vessels,
+&amp;c. On the 3rd of August Mack passed the northernmost
+promontory of Novaya Zemlya. Hence he sailed into the Kara
+Sea, where at first he fell in with ice. Farther on, however, the
+ice disappeared completely, and Mack on the 12th of September
+reached 75&deg; 25' N.L. and 82&deg; 30' E.L. (Greenwich) according
+to Petermann, but 81&deg; 11' Long, according to the <i>Tromsoe
+Stiftstidende</i>. He returned through Yugor Schar, which was
+passed on the 26th September.<A HREF="#v1fn178" NAME="v1rn178">[178]</A> The same year E. Johannesen,
+after long endeavouring without success to make his way into
+the Kara Sea through the southern strait, sailed northwards
+along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, and did not leave Cape
+Nassau until the 15th October.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page300" id="v1page300"></a>[pg 300]</span></p>
+
+<p>From the same year too Petermann also publishes very
+remarkable journals of the Norwegian walrus-hunting captains,
+S. TOBIESEN, H. CH. JOHANNESEN, J. N. ISAKSEN, S&Ouml;REN
+JOHANNESEN, DOERMA, SIMONSEN, and E. CARLSEN; but as none
+of these gallant seamen that year penetrated to the north or
+east beyond the points which their predecessors had reached,
+I may be allowed with regard to their voyages to refer to
+<i>Mittheilungen</i> for 1872 (pp. 386-391 and 395), also to the
+maps which are inserted in the same volume of that journal
+(pl. 19 and 20), and which are grounded on the working out by
+Prof. H. MOHN, of Christiania, of his countrymen's observations.
+With respect to Captain E. Carlsen's voyage, however, it may
+be stated, that in the course of it a discovery was made, which
+has been represented as that of an Arctic Pompeii, remarkably
+well protected against the depredation of the tooth of Time, not
+indeed by lava and volcanic ashes, but by ice and snow. For
+when Carlsen on the 9th September landed on the north-east
+coast of Novaya Zemlya in 76&deg; 7' N.L., he found there a house,
+10 metres long and 6 metres wide, with the roof fallen in, long
+since abandoned and filled with gravel and ice. From this
+frozen gravel were dug up a large number of household articles,
+books, boxes, &amp;c., which showed that they were relics of Barents'
+winter dwelling, which now, almost three hundred years after
+the place had been abandoned, came to the light of day, so well
+preserved that they gave a lively idea of the way in which the
+European passed his first winter in the true Polar regions.
+When Carlsen had erected a cairn in which he placed a tin
+canister containing an account of the discovery, he took on
+board the most important of the articles which he had found
+and returned to Norway. There he sold them at first for 10,800
+crowns to an Englishman, Mr. Ellis C. Lister Kay, who afterwards
+made them over for the price he had paid for them to the
+Dutch Government. They are now to be found arranged at the
+Marine Department at the Hague in a model room, which is an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page301" id="v1page301"></a>[pg 301]</span>
+exact reproduction of the interior of Barents' house on Novaya
+Zemlya.<A HREF="#v1fn179" NAME="v1rn179">[179]</A></p>
+
+<p>After Carlsen, Barents' winter haven was visited in the year
+1875 by the Norwegian walrus-hunter, M. GUNDERSEN, who
+among other things found there a broken chest containing two
+maps and a Dutch translation of the narrative of Pet's and
+Jackman's voyages, and in the year 1876 by Mr. CHARLES
+GARDINER, who through more systematic excavations succeeded
+in collecting a considerable additional number of remarkable
+things, among which were the ink-horn and the pens which the
+Polar travellers had used nearly three centuries ago, and a
+powder-horn, containing a short account, signed by Heemskerk
+and Barents, of the most important incidents of the expedition.
+Gundersen's <i>find</i> is still, as far as I know, at Hammerfest;
+Gardiner's has been handed over to the Dutch Government to
+be preserved along with the other Barents relics at the Hague.</p>
+
+<p>In 1872 the state of the ice both north of Spitzbergen and
+round Novaya Zemlya was exceedingly unfavourable,<A HREF="#v1fn180" NAME="v1rn180">[180]</A> and several
+of the scientific expeditions and hunting vessels, which that
+year visited the Arctic Ocean, there underwent severe calamities
+and misfortunes. Five of the best hunting vessels from
+Tromsoe were lost in the ice; the Swedish expedition, which
+that year started for the north, could not, as was intended, erect
+its winter dwelling on the Seven Islands, but was compelled to
+winter at the more southerly Mussel Bay; and the Austrian
+expedition under the leadership of Payer and Weyprecht was
+beset by ice a few hours after its campaign had commenced in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page302" id="v1page302"></a>[pg 302]</span>
+earnest. It is well known how this carefully equipped expedition
+afterwards for two winters in succession drifted about in the
+Polar Sea, until it finally came to a standstill at a previously unknown
+land lying north of Novaya Zemlya, which was named
+after the Austrian Emperor, Franz Josef. These two expeditions,
+however, did not touch the territory of the <i>Vega's</i> voyage, on
+which account I cannot here take any further notice of them.<A HREF="#v1fn181" NAME="v1rn181">[181]</A>
+But the same year a wintering took place on the west coast of
+Novaya Zemlya, of which I consider that I ought to give a
+somewhat more detailed account, both because in the course of
+it one of the most gallant Polar voyagers of Norway met his
+fate, and because it shows us various new, hitherto untouched
+sides of winter life in the High North.</p>
+
+<p>SIVERT TOBIESEN was one of the oldest and boldest of the
+Norwegian walrus-hunting skippers; he had with life and soul
+devoted himself to his calling, and in it was exposed to many
+dangers and difficulties, which he knew how to escape through
+courage and skill. In 1864 he had sailed round the northeastern
+part of North-east Land, and had been very successful
+in hunting; but as he was about to return home, his vessel was
+beset by ice near the southern entrance to Hinloopen Strait,
+where the same fate also overtook two other hunting sloops, one
+of them commanded by the old hunting skipper MATTILAS, who
+in the winter of 1872-73 died in a tent at Grey Hook, the
+other by the skipper J. &Aacute;STROM. They were compelled to save
+themselves in boats, in which they rowed through Hinloopen
+Strait to the mouth of Ice Fjord, where the shipwrecked crews
+were met and saved by the Swedish expedition of 1864. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page303" id="v1page303"></a>[pg 303]</span>
+passed the winter of 1865-66 happily, in a house built for the
+purpose on Bear Island, and communicated to the Swedish
+Academy of Sciences a series of valuable meteorological observations,
+made during the wintering.<A HREF="#v1fn182" NAME="v1rn182">[182]</A> After 1868 he had made
+several successful voyages to Novaya Zemlya, some of which
+were also remarkable from a geographical point of view, and in
+1872 he was also on a hunting expedition to the same regions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p316.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p316.png" alt="SIVERT KRISTIAN TOBIESEN." ></a>
+SIVERT KRISTIAN TOBIESEN.
+<br>Born at Tromsoe in 1821, died on Novaya Zemlya in 1873. </div>
+
+<p>As he could not enter the Kara Sea, he sailed up along the west
+coast, where in the middle of September he was beset in the
+neighbourhood of the Cross Islands. Hence seven of the crew
+travelled south in a boat to seek for a vessel, but Tobiesen himself,
+his son and two men, remained on board. Their stock of
+provisions consisted of only a small barrel of bread, a sack of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page304" id="v1page304"></a>[pg 304]</span>
+corners and fragments of ship biscuit, a small quantity of coffee,
+tea, sugar, syrup, groats, salt meat, salt fish, a few pounds of
+pork, a couple of tin canisters of preserved vegetables, a little
+bad butter, &amp;c. There was abundance of wood on board and
+on the land. Notwithstanding the defective equipment they
+went on bravely and hopefully with the preparations for wintering,
+gathered drift-wood in heaps on the beach, threw a tent of</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p317.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p317.png" alt="TOBIESEN'S WINTER HOUSE ON BEAR ISLAND." ></a>
+TOBIESEN'S WINTER HOUSE ON BEAR ISLAND.
+<br>(After a sketch by the Author.) </div>
+
+<p>sails over the vessel, threw up snow about its sides, covered the
+deck with, the hides of the seals and walruses that had been
+captured during summer, did what could be done to bring
+about good ventilation on board, &amp;c. A large number of
+bears came to the winter station at the commencement of
+the wintering, affording an abundant supply of fresh bears'
+flesh. So long as this lasted, the health of the party was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page305" id="v1page305"></a>[pg 305]</span>
+good, but when it came to an end at the new year, their
+food for three weeks consisted mainly of ill-smelling salt bears'
+flesh. Tobiesen and one of the men were now taken ill.
+The cold sank to -39-1/2&deg;C.<A HREF="#v1fn183" NAME="v1rn183">[183]</A> On the 29th April, 1873,
+Tobiesen died of scurvy. In the month of May his son was
+also attacked, and died on the 5th July. The two men also
+suffered from scurvy, but recovered. They rowed south in the
+month of August, and were rescued by a Russian hunting-vessel.</p>
+
+<p>The seven men, the harpooner Henrik Nilsen, Ole Andreas
+Olsen, Axel Henriksen, Amandus Hansen, Nils Andreas Foxen,
+Johan Andersson and Lars Larsen, who rowed away in autumn,
+had an exceedingly remarkable fate. When they left the vessel
+they could only take with them fourteen ship biscuits, six boxes
+of lucifers, two guns, with ammunition, a spy-glass, a coffeepot
+and an iron pot, but no winter clothes to protect them from
+the cold. At first, in order to get to open water, they had to
+drag the boat about seven kilometres over the ice. They then
+steered southwards along the land. The journey was made
+under circumstances of great difficulty and privation. The
+darkness and cold increased, as did the storm, and what was
+worst of all their stock of provisions was very soon consumed.
+On the second day, however, they wore fortunate enough to
+shoot a bear; afterwards they also succeeded in killing a pair
+of seals. Finally, after having partly rowed and partly sailed
+about three weeks (they had no almanac with them), and travelled
+nearly 400 kilometres, they came to two small hunting or
+store houses, which the Russians had built on the north side of
+Gooseland. In order to have at least a roof over their heads
+the exhausted men settled there, though in the house they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page306" id="v1page306"></a>[pg 306]</span>
+found neither food, clothes, nor hunting implements. They
+were all much enfeebled by hunger, thirst, cold, and the long
+boat journey; their feet were swollen and partly frost-bitten.</p>
+
+<p>They remained in the house three weeks, and during that
+time shot a seal, two white foxes, and four reindeer, with which
+they kept in their lives; but as it appeared that there were no
+more reindeer to be had, and there were no more opportunities
+of shooting seals or reindeer, they determined to leave the
+house and endeavour to get to Vaygats Island. When they
+broke up, Ole Andreas Olsen and Henrik Nilsen took the guns
+and ammunition, while the other five commenced the journey
+with some small sledges they had found at the house, on which
+they loaded what they had of clothes and other articles. The
+boat was left behind. Soon after they left the house Ole
+Andreas Olsen and Henrik Nilsen were separated in a snowstorm
+from the others who drew the sledges. The latter now
+agreed to determine by lot whether they should return to the
+house or continue their journey, and when the lot fell for the
+latter they allowed it to settle the matter, and so went south.<A HREF="#v1fn184" NAME="v1rn184">[184]</A></p>
+
+<p>Their position was now desperate in the extreme. When
+they left the house they had about half a pound of reindeer
+flesh and a little blubber remaining. The weather was dreadful;
+they were badly clothed, and they wanted water. In consequence
+they could make only very short days' marches. At
+night they buried themselves in the snow, and while the rest
+slept, one man kept constant watch, to prevent the others from
+being snowed up and to keep the bears at a distance. They all
+held out till the sixth night. Then Amandus Hansen died.
+The rest were compelled to leave him in the snow and continue
+their journey as well as they could, but they had by degrees
+become so weak and exhausted that, after having traversed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page307" id="v1page307"></a>[pg 307]</span>
+probably about 100 kilometres, for the most part along the
+coast, they had to leave even the sledges and the most of what
+they had with them. The seventh or eighth day they caught
+sight of a little pile of fuel, and the track of a sledge in the
+snow. By following this track for about ten kilometres they
+found a small house, inhabited by Samoyeds, who immediately
+gave them a friendly reception, and entertained them in the
+most hospitable way. In particular they showed much kindness
+to Nils Andreas Foxen, whose toes were frost-bitten, and who
+was in other respects much enfeebled.</p>
+
+<p>These Samoyeds, three men, three women, and a boy, spoke
+Russian. They had settled for the winter on the south part of
+Gooseland to shoot the seal and the walrus. They had with
+them a large barge, besides some small Samoyed boats, and were
+comparatively well provided with reindeer flesh, meal, tea,
+sugar, &amp;c. Their guns were old flint-lock fowling-pieces, but
+they were good shots. With these Samoyeds the four shipwrecked
+men remained the whole winter, and were tolerably
+well off. When the weather permitted they assisted the
+Samoyeds in capturing seals, and when the weather was bad they
+passed the time as well as they could, the Samoyeds generally
+employing themselves in playing cards or draughts. In order
+to avoid scurvy the Samoyeds often took exercise in the open
+air, and ate reindeer flesh, partly cooked and partly raw, and
+drank the blood. They lived in the house until March was well
+advanced, when, for want of fuel, they were obliged to hew it
+down. Instead they removed into a tent of reindeer skin.
+These Samoyeds appear to have been Christians in name,
+though they must have had strange ideas of their new God.
+When, for instance, they saw a seal and missed shooting it, they
+shot at the sun, because they believed that God was angry
+with them. They lived in a sort of marriage, but if the man
+became unfriendly to the woman, or tired of her, he could
+take another; they had no clocks, but, notwithstanding, had a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page308" id="v1page308"></a>[pg 308]</span>
+tolerably good idea of time by the help of the stars and the
+sun; instead of an almanac they used a piece of wood, in which
+for every day they cut a notch. Although they sometimes
+quarrelled with and threatened one another, they were, however,
+on the whole friendly, and reasonable, and showed much kindness
+to the four shipwrecked men, whom they provided with
+warm skin clothes, and during the whole time with food in
+abundance, according to their circumstances, so that they did
+not suffer any want.</p>
+
+<p>Ole Andreas Olsen and Henrik Nilsen had, when they were
+separated in the snowstorm from the sledge party, half a pound
+of flesh and their guns, and nothing more. They did not
+succeed in finding any game, and though they were not very
+far from the house, they required three days and a half to get
+back to it. In the meantime, also, these two comrades in misfortune
+had been separated. Henrik Nilsen found the house
+first, lighted a fire, roasted and ate some pieces of fox flesh that
+he found remaining. Ole Andreas Olsen, who in desperation
+had endeavoured to quench his thirst with sea-water, was so
+weak that, when late at night he came to the boat, he could not
+crawl up to the house. He had kept himself in life by eating
+snow and devouring large pieces of his &quot;pesk,&quot; which was
+made of the raw hides of reindeer he had previously shot.
+After having lain a while in the boat he crept up to the house,
+where he found Henrik sleeping by the fire, which was not yet
+quite extinguished. The following day they both began to
+make arrangements for a lengthened stay in the house. But
+here they found nothing, neither food, household furniture, nor
+aught else. Nor did they succeed at first in getting any game;
+and for more then a fortnight they sustained life by boiling and
+gnawing the flesh from the bones of the reindeer, the seal, and
+the bear, that lay under the snow, remains from the Russian
+hunting excursions of the preceding year. Finally, before
+Christmas they succeeded in killing a reindeer. Their lucifers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page309" id="v1page309"></a>[pg 309]</span>
+were now done, but they lighted a fire by loading their guns with
+a mixture of which gunpowder formed a part, and firing into
+old ropes, left behind by the Russians, which they picked
+asunder and dried. One of the Russian huts they tore down
+and used as fuel. They had neither axe nor saw, but they split
+up the fuel by means of a piece of iron, which they took from
+the keel of the boat, and of which they made, by hammering
+with stones, a sort of knife. Of some nails, which they also
+took from the boat, they likewise forged needles by means of
+stones; they used reindeer sinews for thread, and of the hides
+they sewed clothes for themselves. They lived in the hut until
+some time in April. During this time they shot eleven reindeer
+and a bear, so that they did not actually suffer hunger; but
+in the middle of April they had powder remaining for only
+three shots, and they now saw the impossibility of supporting
+themselves longer at that place, wherefore they determined to
+go farther south, in order, if possible, to reach Vaygats Island.
+They went by land along the sea-shore, leaving the boat behind.
+After the lapse of some days they came to the same Samoyeds
+with whom the other four of the crew were, and they now remained
+till the middle of June with the Samoyeds, who gave
+them the same hospitable treatment as their companions in
+misfortune. When at the time specified it was determined to
+fetch the boat from the Russian hut, in order that they might
+make their way southwards, Johan Andersson, a Swede by
+birth, declared that he wished to remain with the Samoyeds,
+and was not willing to accompany the other five on their
+homeward journey.</p>
+
+<p>The latter now dragged the boat for two days over the ice
+but when it became too heavy they had to cut it through the
+middle and leave a half behind. Of a large sealskin, which
+they got from the Samoyeds, they made a stern to the other
+half, which they continued to drag over the ice for three days,
+until they came to open water. Then they rowed in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page310" id="v1page310"></a>[pg 310]</span>
+truncated boat ten days, until they reached a fast ice-border at
+the Vaygats Island, where they again fell in with Samoyeds.
+Even by these, who could speak neither Russian nor Quaen, and
+by whom they could with difficulty make themselves understood,
+they were well received. They remained there eight
+days and got good entertainment. These Samoyeds had tame
+reindeer, with which they sent the shipwrecked men on their
+way southwards, till they fell in with a vessel, with which four
+returned to Norway. Lars Larsen now did not wish to go
+home, preferring to remain with the Samoyed family which he
+had last met with. Samoyed life, however, must not be so
+pleasant after all, for in a year or two both the men who had
+remained among the Samoyeds returned home. As a reward
+for the hospitality which the shipwrecked walrus-hunters had
+received from the Samoyeds on Gooseland, the Norwegian
+Government presented them with a number of gifts, consisting
+of clothes, pearls, breechloaders, with ammunition, &amp;c., which
+were handed over to them with festive speeches and toasts on
+the 17th July, 1880. During the entertainment which took
+place on this occasion on the coast of Novaya Zemlya, toasts
+were drunk in champagne, and it is said that this liquor was
+very much relished by the Samoyeds.<A HREF="#v1fn185" NAME="v1rn185">[185]</A></p>
+
+<p>As little as Tobiesen could any other walrus-hunter make his
+way, either in 1872 or 1873, into the Kara Sea, the entrances of
+which were during these summers blocked by a compact belt of
+ice, which extended along the east coast of Novaya Zemlya and
+Vaygats Island to the mainland. In the belief of a large
+number of experienced walrus-hunters, with whom I have
+conversed on the subject, this belt of ice was only some few
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page311" id="v1page311"></a>[pg 311]</span>
+nautical miles broad, and it is therefore probable that even in
+those years there would have been no obstacle to prevent a
+passage eastwards by this route in autumn.</p>
+
+<p>In 1874, on the contrary, the state of the ice became very
+favourable, and many walrus-hunters again as formerly sailed
+in all directions across the Kara Sea, which this year was also
+visited by an Englishman, Captain J. WIGGINS. None of them,
+however, penetrated farther to the east or north than Johannesen,
+Carlsen, Mack, and others had done during the years 1869-70.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the following year that the North-east
+voyages took a step forward, important both in a purely
+geographical as well as a practical point of view, when I
+succeeded in a walrus-hunting sloop, the <i>Proeven</i>, commanded
+by the walrus-hunting Captain Isaksen, in sailing through
+Yugor Straits, which were passed on 2nd August, and over the
+nearly ice-free Kara Sea as far as to the mouth of the Yenisej.
+The <i>Proeven</i> anchored there on the 15th August 1875, in, or
+more correctly immediately off, the same splendid haven where
+the <i>Vega</i> expedition lay at anchor from the 6th to the 10th
+August, 1878. Hence I sailed under various difficulties along
+with Dr. Stuxberg and Dr. Lundstr&ouml;m and three men in a
+Nordland boat, up the river to Saostrovskoj, where we fell in
+with a steamer, in which we afterwards travelled to Yenisejsk.
+On leaving Port Dickson I handed over the command to Dr.
+Kjellman, who along with Dr. Th&euml;el returned by sea to Europe
+across the Kara Sea and through Matotschkin Schar, which
+was passed during the return voyage on the 4th to the 11th
+September.</p>
+
+<p>By this voyage of 1875 I was the first who succeeded in
+penetrating from the Atlantic Ocean in a vessel to the mouths
+of the great Siberian rivers. One of the objects which the old
+North-east voyagers had aimed at was thus at last accomplished,
+and that in a way that promised to be of immense practical
+importance for the whole of Siberia. The voyage was also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page312" id="v1page312"></a>[pg 312]</span>
+regarded in that light by leading men in the great empire of
+the East, and our return journey from Yenisejsk by Krasnojarsk,
+Tomsk, Omsk, Yekaterinburg, Nischni-Novgorod, Moscow and
+St. Petersburg, became therefore a journey from <i>f&ecirc;te</i> to <i>f&ecirc;te</i>.
+But a number of voices were simultaneously raised, which
+asserted that the success of the <i>Proeven</i> depended on an
+accidental combination of fortunate circumstances, which would
+not soon occur again. In order to show that this was not the
+case, and that I might myself bring the first goods by sea to
+Siberia, I undertook my second voyage to the Yenisej in 1876,
+in which I penetrated with the steamer <i>Ymer</i>, not only to the
+mouth of the river, but also up the river to the neighbourhood
+of Yakovieva in 71&deg; N.L. Hence I returned the same year by
+sea to Europe.<A HREF="#v1fn186" NAME="v1rn186">[186]</A> In the gulf of Yenisej a large island was
+discovered, which I named after Mr. Alexander Sibiriakoff, who
+defrayed the principal expenses of the expedition. Before
+starting on this voyage, I visited the Philadelphia Exhibition,
+and it may perhaps deserve to be mentioned, that leaving
+New York on the 1st July by one of the ordinary steamers,
+and going on board my own vessel in Norway, I reached
+the mouth of the Yenisej on the 15th August, that is to say,
+in forty-six days.</p>
+
+<p>The same year Captain Wiggins also undertook a voyage to
+the Yenisej, in which he penetrated with a steamer up the
+river beyond the labyrinth of islands lying between 70&deg; and
+71&deg; N.L. The vessel wintered there, but was lost the following
+spring at the breaking up of the ice.<A HREF="#v1fn187" NAME="v1rn187">[187]</A>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page313" id="v1page313"></a>[pg 313]</span>
+The voyages of the <i>Proeven</i> and the <i>Ymer</i> led to several
+purely commercial voyages to the Yenisej and the Ob, of which
+however I can here with the greatest brevity mention only
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p326.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p326.png" alt="JOSEPH WIGGINS." ></a>
+JOSEPH WIGGINS.
+</div>
+
+<p>The Swedish steamer <i>Fraser</i>, commanded by the German
+Captain DALLMANN, after having been fitted out at Gothenburg
+on Sibiriakoff's account, sailed in 1877 with a cargo from Bremen
+to the Yenisej and back. The vessel left Hammerfest on the
+9th August, arrived at Goltschicha on the 21st August, commenced
+the return voyage on the 14th September, and on
+the 24th of the same month was back at Hammerfest.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page314" id="v1page314"></a>[pg 314]</span>
+The steamer <i>Louise</i> commanded by Captain DAHL, with a
+cargo of iron, olive oil, and sugar, the same year made the
+first voyage from England to Tobolsk, starting from Hull on
+the 18th July and arriving at Tobolsk on the 20th September.<A HREF="#v1fn188" NAME="v1rn188">[188]</A></p>
+
+<p>Captain SCHWANENBERG sailed in a half-decked sloop, the
+<i>Utrennaja Saria</i>, from the Yenisej to Europe. To what has
+been already said of this voyage, I may here add a few words
+more.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p327.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p327.png" alt="DAVID IVANOVITSCH SCHWANENBERG." ></a>
+DAVID IVANOVITSCH SCHWANENBERG.
+<br>Born in Courland in 1831. </div>
+
+<p>During the inundation in the spring of 1877, which compelled
+the mate Nummelin to betake himself for eight days to
+the roof of the fragile dwelling in which he had passed the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page315" id="v1page315"></a>[pg 315]</span>
+winter, the Yenisejsk-built vessel, the <i>Aurora</i> (or <i>Severnoe Sianie</i>)
+was lost. Schwanenberg, who soon afterwards came to the
+neighbourhood, succeeded in purchasing from an Englishman,
+Mr. SEEBOHM, another little vessel, which was also built at
+Yenisejsk by Mr. Boiling for the purpose of transporting thither
+the goods which I had carried in the <i>Ymer</i> to Korepovskoj, a
+<i>simovie</i> on the bank of the Yenisej in 71&deg; 19' N.L. The
+goods however had been taken up the river by a steamer, on
+which account the vessel was sold by Boiling to Mr. Seebohm,
+who made an excursion in it to the lower courses of the
+Yenisej for ornithological researches. He named the vessel the
+<i>Ibis</i>. When Mr. Seebohm no longer required it, there was at
+first a proposal that it should be taken over by Captain Wiggins,
+who, as has been already stated, had the year before come to
+the Yenisej with a small steamer, which wintered at the islands
+in the river, and had now stranded during the breaking up of
+the ice. He wished to carry his men on the <i>Ibis</i> either home
+or to the Ob, but the English seamen declared that they would
+not for all the world's honour and riches sail in that vessel.
+Schwanenberg had thus an opportunity of purchasing the vessel,
+whose name he altered to the <i>Utrennaja Saria</i> (the <i>Dawn</i>), and
+to the surprise of all experienced seamen he actually made a
+successful passage to Norway. The vessel was then towed
+along the coast to Gothenburg, and through the G&ouml;ta Canal
+to Stockholm, and finally crossed the Baltic to St. Petersburg.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th August Schwanenberg hoisted the Russian flag
+on his little vessel. During his outward passage he met, in the
+mouth of the Yenisej, Sibiriakoff's steamer the <i>Fraser</i>, Captain
+Dallmann, who in vain endeavoured to dissuade him from prosecuting
+the adventurous voyage. He anchored at Beli Ostrov
+on the 24th August, passed the Kara Port on the 30th August,
+and reached Vardoe on the 11th September. The <i>Utrennaja
+Saria</i> arrived at Christiania on the 31st October, at Gothenburg
+on the 15th November, passed Motala on the 20th, reached
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page316" id="v1page316"></a>[pg 316]</span>
+Stockholm on the 23rd November and St. Petersburg on the
+3rd December. Everywhere in Scandinavia the gallant seamen
+met with the heartiest reception. Their vessel was the first
+that sailed from the town of Yenisejsk to Europe, and is still,
+when this is being written, the only one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p329.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p329.png" alt="GUSTAF ADOLF NUMMELIN." ></a>
+GUSTAF ADOLF NUMMELIN.
+<br>Born at Viborg in 1853. </div>
+
+<p>The <i>Dawn</i> is 56 feet long, 14 feet beam, and draws 6 feet of
+water. Aft there is a little cabin in which there is scant space
+for three men. Cooking is done in the fore. The cargo consisted
+of a small quantity of graphite, fish, furs, and other
+samples of the products of Siberia.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page317" id="v1page317"></a>[pg 317]</span>
+<p>The vessel was manned by Captain Schwanenberg, the mates
+Nummelin and Meyenwaldt, and two exiled criminals, who in this
+unexpected way returned to their native country. I take it for
+granted that by the rare nautical exploit they took part in, they
+there won forgiveness for former offences.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p330.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p330.png" alt="THE SLOOP UTRENNAJA SARIA." ></a>
+THE SLOOP UTRENNAJA SARIA.</div>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn159" NAME="v1fn159">[159]</A> Compare: &quot;The names of the places that the Russes sayle by, from
+Pechorskoie Zauorot to Mongozey&quot; (<i>Purchas</i>, III. p. 539): &quot;The voyage
+of Master Josias Logan to Pechora, and his wintering there with Master
+William Pursglove and Marmaduke Wilson, Anno 1611&quot; (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 541):
+&quot;Extracts taken out of two letters of Josias Logan from Pechora, to
+Master Hakluyt, Prebend of Westminster&quot; (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 546): &quot;Other
+obseruations of the sayd William Pursglove&quot; (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 550). The
+last paper contains good information regarding the Obi, Tas, Yenisej,
+Pj&auml;sina, Chatanga, and Lena.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn160" NAME="v1fn160">[160]</A> The stringent regulations regarding fasting of the Russians,
+especially the Old Believers, if they be literally observed, form an
+insuperable obstacle to the colonisation of high-northern regions, in
+which, to avoid scurvy, man requires an abundant supply of fresh flesh.
+Thus, undoubtedly, religious prejudices against certain kinds of food
+caused the failure of the colony of Old Believers which was founded in
+1767 on Kolgujev Island, in order that its members might undisturbed use
+their old church books and cross themselves in the way they considered
+most proper. The same cause also perhaps conduced to the failure of the
+attempts which are said to have been made after the destruction of
+Novgorod by Ivan the Terrible in 1570 by fugitives from that town to
+found a colony on Novaya Zemlya (<i>Historische Nachrichten von den
+Samojeden und den Lappl&auml;ndern</i>, Riga und Mietau, 1769, p. 28). This book
+was first printed in French at K&ouml;nigsberg in 1762. The author was
+Klingstedt, a Swede in the Russian service, who long lived at Archangel.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn161" NAME="v1fn161">[161]</A> The statement is incredible, and probably originated in some
+mistake. To form such a heap of walruses at least 50,000 animals would
+have been required, and it is certain that fifteen men could not have
+killed so many. If we assume that in the statement of the length and
+breadth, feet ought to stand in place of fathoms, we get the still
+excessive number of 1,500 to 3,000 killed animals. Probably instead of
+90 we should have 9, in which case the heap would correspond to about
+500 walruses and seals killed. The walrus tusks collected weighed 40
+pood, which again indicates the capture of 150 to 200 animals.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn162" NAME="v1fn162">[162]</A> <i>Witsen</i>, p. 915. Klingstedt states that fifty soldiers with their
+wives and children were removed in 1648 to Pustosersk, and that the
+vojvode there had so large an income that in three or four years he
+could accumulate 12,000 to 15,000 roubles (<i>Historische Nachrichten von
+den Samojeden</i>, &amp;c., p. 53).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn163" NAME="v1fn163">[163]</A> According to L&uuml;tke, p. 70. Hamel, <i>Tradescant d. &auml;ltere</i>, gives
+the date 1742-44.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn164" NAME="v1fn164">[164]</A> Thus on the first map in an atlas published in 1737 by the St.
+Petersburg Academy, Novaya Zemlya is delineated as a peninsula
+projecting from Taimur Land north of the Pj&auml;sina.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn165" NAME="v1fn165">[165]</A> Properly &quot;Mate, with the rank of Lieutenant,&quot; from which we may
+conclude that Rossmuislov wanted the usual education of an officer.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn166" NAME="v1fn166">[166]</A> These remarkable voyages were described for the first time, after
+the accounts of Zivolka, by the academician K.E. v. Baer in <i>Bulletin
+scientifique publ. par l'Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Petersburg</i>, t.
+ii. No. 9, 10, 11 (1837). Before this there does not appear to have been
+in St. Petersburg any knowledge of Pachtussov's voyages, the most
+remarkable which the history of Russian Polar Sea exploration has to
+show.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn167" NAME="v1fn167">[167]</A> The carbasse was named, like the vessels of Lasarev and L&uuml;tke, the
+<i>Novaya Zemlya</i>. It was forty-two feet long, fourteen feet beam, and six
+feet deep, decked fore and aft, and with the open space between
+protected by canvas from breakers.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn168" NAME="v1fn168">[168]</A> The details of Pachtussov's voyages are taken partly from von
+Baer's work already quoted, partly from Carl Svenske, <i>Novaya Zemlya</i>,
+&amp;c., St. Petersburg, 1866 (in Russian, published at the expense of M.K.
+Sidoroff), and J. Sp&ouml;rer, <i>Nowaja Seml&auml; in geographischer,
+naturhistorischer und volkswirthschaftlicher Beziehung, nach den Quellen
+bearbsitet</i>. Erg&auml;nz-Heft. No. 21 zu Peterm. <i>Geogr. Mittheilungen</i>,
+Gotha, 1867.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn169" NAME="v1fn169">[169]</A> <i>Bulletin scientifique publi&eacute; par l'Acad&eacute;mie Imp. de St.
+Petersburg</i>, t. ii. (1837), p. 315; iii. (1838), p. 96, and other
+places.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn170" NAME="v1fn170">[170]</A> Paul von Krusenstern, <i>Skizzen aus sienem Seemannsleben. Seinen
+Freunden gewidmet</i>. Hirschberg in Silesia, without date.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn171" NAME="v1fn171">[171]</A> Information regarding the mode of life of the Russian hunters on
+the coasts of Spitzbergen is to be found in P.A. le Roy, <i>Relation des
+avantures arriv&eacute;es &agrave; quatre matelots Russes, &amp;c.</i> 1766; Tschitschagov's
+<i>Reise nach dem Eismeer</i>, St. Petersburg, 1793; John Bacstrom, <i>Account
+of a voyage to Spitzbergen</i>, 1780, London, 1808 (as stated; I have not
+seen this work); B.M. Keilhau, <i>Reise i &Ouml;st og Vest Finmarken, samt til
+Beeren-Eiland og Spetsbergen i Aarene 1827 og 1828</i>, Christiania, 1831;
+A. Erman, <i>Archiv f&uuml;r wissenschastliche Kunde von Russland</i>, Part 13
+(1854), p. 260; K. Chydenius, <i>Svenska expeditionen till Spetsbergen
+1861</i> (p. 435); Dun&eacute;r and Nordenski&ouml;ld, <i>Svenska Expeditioner till
+Spetsbergen och Jan Mayen 1863 och 1864</i> (p. 101).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn172" NAME="v1fn172">[172]</A> Before 1858 there is to be found in Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i>
+only a single notice of the Norwegian Spitzbergen hunting, the existence
+of which was at the time probably known to no great number of European
+geographers.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn173" NAME="v1fn173">[173]</A> The first account of this voyage was published in <i>&Ouml;fversigt af
+Svenska Vetenskaps-akademiens forhandlingar</i>, 1870, p. 111.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn174" NAME="v1fn174">[174]</A> <i>Athenoeum</i>, 1869, p. 498. Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1869, p.
+391.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn175" NAME="v1fn175">[175]</A> Palliser's game consisted of 49 walruses, 14 Polar bears and 25
+seals; that of the working hunters was many times greater. All the
+vessels which went from Tromsoe that year captured 805 walruses, 2,302
+seals, 53 bears, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn176" NAME="v1fn176">[176]</A> Sidoroff too started in 1869 on a north-east voyage in a steamer
+of his own, the <i>George</i>. However, he only reached the Petchora, and the
+statement that went the round of the press, that the <i>George</i> actually
+reached the Ob, is thus one of the many mistakes which so readily find
+their way into the news of the day.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn177" NAME="v1fn177">[177]</A> Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1871, p. 97. Along with Ulve's,
+Mack's, and Quale's voyages, Petermann refers to a voyage round Novaya
+Zemlya by T. Torkildsen. In this case, however, Petermann was exposed to
+a possibly unintended deception. Torkildsen, who visited the Polar Sea
+for the first time in 1870, indeed made the voyage round Novaya Zemlya,
+but only as a rescued man on Johannesen's vessel. Torkildsen's own
+vessel, the <i>Alfa</i>, had been wrecked on the 13th July at the bottom of
+Kara Bay, after which the skipper and six men were saved by Johannesen,
+yet by no means so that Torkildsen, as is stated by Petermann, had the
+least command of the vessel that saved him. (Cf. <i>Tromsoe
+Stiftstidende</i>, 1871, No. 23.)</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn178" NAME="v1fn178">[178]</A> <i>Tromsoe Stiftstidende</i>, 1871, No. 83; Petermann's
+<i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1872, p. 384.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn179" NAME="v1fn179">[179]</A> Cf. <i>The Three Voyages of William Barents</i>, by Gerrit de Veer, 2nd
+Edition, with an Introduction by Lieutenant Koolem&auml;ns Beynen. London,
+1876 (Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, No. 54).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn180" NAME="v1fn180">[180]</A> The sea in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen on the east was on the
+other hand very open that year, so that it was possible for the same
+time to reach and circumnavigate the large island situated to the east
+of Spitzbergen, which had been seen in 1864 by Dun&eacute;r and me from the top
+of White Mount in the interior of Stor Fjord.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn181" NAME="v1fn181">[181]</A> Nor does space permit me to give an account of various
+expeditions, which indeed concerned Novaya Zemlya, but did not penetrate
+farther eastward than their predecessors; for instance, the Rosenthal
+expedition of 1871, in which the well-known African traveller and
+Spitzbergen voyager Baron von Heuglin, and the Norwegian botanist Aage
+Aagaard, took part as naturalists; Payer and Weyprecht's voyage of
+reconnaissance in the sea between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya in 1871,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn182" NAME="v1fn182">[182]</A> Kongl. <i>Svenska Vetenskaps-akademiens handlingar</i>, 1869.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn183" NAME="v1fn183">[183]</A> At Mussel Bay, too, during the winter of 1872-73, the greatest
+degree of cold was the same; that is to say, at neither place did it
+reach the freezing-point of mercury. At the <i>Vega's</i> winter station, on
+the contrary, it was considerably greater.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn184" NAME="v1fn184">[184]</A> It is very common that the hunters in cases of importance and
+danger when it is difficult to settle what course ought to be taken,
+permit the drawing of lots to determine the choice.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn185" NAME="v1fn185">[185]</A> The statements made here regarding the wintering of Tobiesen and
+his companions are taken partly from a copy which I caused to be made of
+his journal, partly from an account of the adventures of the seven
+hunters, copied from <i>Finmarksposten</i> into <i>Aftonbladet</i> for 1873, No.
+220. Finally, the account of the distribution of presents to the
+Samoyeds is copied from Norwegian journals into <i>Aftonbladet</i> for 1880,
+No. 197.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn186" NAME="v1fn186">[186]</A> The dates of the <i>Ymer's</i> voyage are as follows:&mdash;Left the coast
+of Norway on the 26th July; stay at Matotschkin Sound, through which I,
+on this occasion, steamed into the Kara Sea from the 30th July to the
+5th August; arrival at the Yenisej on the 15th August; arrival at the
+anchorage at Goltschicha on the 16th August; commenced the return voyage
+on the 1st September, in the course of it passed Matotschkin Schar on
+the 7th September.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn187" NAME="v1fn187">[187]</A> Of Captain Wiggins' voyage I know only that his original
+destination was the Ob, but that on account of currents and shoals
+which, he encountered at the mouth of this river, he altered his plan,
+and reached the Yenisej in the beginning of September.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn188" NAME="v1fn188">[188]</A> <i>Deutsche Geographische Bl&auml;tter</i>, Bremen, 1870, i. p. 216, and ii.
+p. 35.</p>
+
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page318" id="v1page318"></a>[pg 318]</span>
+
+<a name="v1map318"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p318.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p318th.jpg" alt="Maps" ></a>
+<p>Map of Port Dickson, by G. Bove. Map of Cape Bolvan on Vaygats
+   Island, by the author. The <i>Lena's</i> cruise in Malygin Sound, by
+   A. Hovgaard. Map of Cape Chelyuskin, by G. Bove.
+</p></div>
+
+<br>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_VII"></a><h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<p>Departure from Port Dickson&mdash;Landing on a rocky island east of the
+Yenisej&mdash;Self-dead animals&mdash;Discovery of crystals on the surface of
+the drift-ice&mdash;Cosmic dust&mdash;Stay in Actinia Bay&mdash;Johannesen's discovery
+of the island Ensamheten&mdash;Arrival at Cape Chelyuskin&mdash;The
+natural state of the land and sea there&mdash;Attempt to penetrate right
+eastwards to the New Siberian Islands&mdash;The effect of the mist&mdash;Abundant
+dredging-yield&mdash;Preobraschenie Island&mdash;Separation from the
+<i>Lena</i> at the mouth of the river Lena.</p>
+
+<p>When on the morning of the 9th August the <i>Fraser</i> and
+<i>Express</i> sailed for the point higher up the river where their
+cargo was lying, the <i>Vega</i> and the <i>Lena</i> were also ready to sail.
+I, however, permitted the vessels to remain at Port Dickson a
+day longer, in order to allow Lieutenant Bove to finish his
+survey, and for the purpose of determining astronomically, if
+possible, the position of this important place. In consequence
+of a continuous fog, however, I had as little opportunity of
+doing so on this occasion as during the voyage of 1875, which
+serves to show of what sort the weather is during summer at
+the place where the warm water of the Yenisej is poured into
+the Arctic Ocean. It was thus not until the morning of the
+10th August that the <i>Vega</i> and the <i>Lena</i> weighed anchor in
+order to continue their voyage. The course was shaped for the
+most westerly of the islands, which old maps place off the
+estuary-bay of the Pj&auml;sina, and name Kammenni Ostrova
+(Stone Islands), a name which seems to indicate that in their
+natural state they correspond to the rocky islands about Port
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page319" id="v1page319"></a>[pg 319]</span>
+Dickson. The sky was hid by mist, the temperature of the air
+rose to +10&deg;.4 C.; that of the water was at first +10&deg;, afterwards
++8&deg;; its salinity at the surface of the sea was inconsiderable.
+No ice was seen during the course of the day. Favoured
+by a fresh breeze from the south-east, the <i>Vega</i> could thus
+begin her voyage with all sail set. Small rocky islands, which
+are not to be found on the chart, soon reminded us of the
+untrustworthiness of the maps. This, together with the prevailing
+fog, compelled Captain Palander to sail forward with
+great caution, keeping a good outlook and sounding constantly.
+Warm weather and an open sea were also favourable for the
+next day's voyage. But the fog now became so dense, that the
+<i>Vega</i> had to lie-to in the morning at one of the many small
+islands which we still met with on our way.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Kjellman, Dr. Almquist, Lieutenant Nordquist, and I,
+landed here. The bare and utterly desolate island consisted of
+a low gneiss rock, rising here and there into cliffs, which were
+shattered by the frost and rather richly clothed with lichens.
+On the more low-lying places the rock was covered with a layer
+of gravel, which, through drying and consequent contraction,
+had burst into six-sided figures, mostly from 0.3 to 0.5 metre in
+diameter. The interior of the figures was completely bare of
+vegetation, only in the cracks there was to be seen an exceedingly
+scanty growth of stunted mosses, lichens, and flowering
+plants. Of the last-named group there were found fifteen
+species,<A HREF="#v1fn189" NAME="v1rn189">[189]</A> which could with success, or more correctly without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page320" id="v1page320"></a>[pg 320]</span>
+succumbing, survive the struggle for existence on the little poor
+archipelago, protected by no mountain heights, from the storms
+of the Polar Sea; but of these species, perhaps a couple seldom
+develop any flowers. The mosses, too, were in great part
+without fruit, with the exception of those which grew on the
+margin, formed of hard clay covered with mud, of a pool, filled
+with brackish water and lying close to the sea-margin. A large
+number of pieces of driftwood scattered round this pool showed
+that the place was occasionally overflowed with sea-water, which
+thus appears to have been favourable to the development of the
+mosses. Of lichens Dr. Almquist found a number of species,
+well developed, and occurring in comparative abundance. On
+the contrary, the sea, although the surrounding rocky islands
+indicated a good bottom for alg&aelig;, was so completely destitute of
+the higher alg&aelig;, that only a single microscopic species was
+found by Dr. Kjellman. No mammalia were seen, not even the
+usual inhabitant of the desolate rocky islands of the Polar Sea,
+the Polar bear, who, in regions where he has not made acquaintance
+with the hunter's ball or lance, in secure reliance on his
+hitherto unvanquished might, seldom neglects to scrutinise the
+newly arrived guests from the tops of high rocks or ice-blocks.
+We saw here only six species of birds. The first of these that
+attracted our attention was the snow-bunting, which had left
+the more fertile mountain heights of the south to choose this
+bare and desolate island in the Arctic Ocean for its breeding-place,
+and now fluttered round the stone mounds, where it had
+its nest, with unceasing twitter, as if to express its satisfaction
+with its choice. Further, two species of waders, <i>Tringa maritima</i>
+and <i>Phalaropus fulicarius</i>, were observed running restlessly
+about the beach to collect their food, which consists of insects.
+The birds that were killed often had their crops full of the
+remains of insects, although living at a place where the
+naturalist has to search for hours to find a dozen gnats or their
+equals in size, a circumstance that tells very favourably for these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page321" id="v1page321"></a>[pg 321]</span>
+birds' powers of vision, of locomotion, and of apprehension. It
+is difficult in any case to understand what it is that attracts this
+insectivorous bird to one of the regions that is poorest in insect
+life in the whole world. The glaucous gulls' plunderer, the
+skua, and its chastiser the bold tern, were also observed, as were a
+few barnacle geese. On the other hand, no eiders were met with.
+All the birds named occurred only in inconsiderable numbers, and
+there was nothing found here resembling the life which prevails
+on a Spitzbergen fowl-island. Finally, it may be mentioned
+that Lieutenant Nordquist found under stones and pieces of
+drift-wood a few insects, among them a beetle (a <i>staphylinid</i>).
+Dr. Stuxberg afterwards found a specimen of the same insect
+species at Cape Chelyuskin itself. No beetle is found on Spitzbergen,
+though the greater portion of that group of islands is,
+in respect of climate, soil, and vegetation, much better favoured</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p334.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p334.png" alt="THE VEGA AND LENA MOORED TO AN ICE-FLOE." ></a>
+THE VEGA AND LENA MOORED TO AN ICE-FLOE.
+<br>On the morning of the 12th August, 1878. (After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page322" id="v1page322"></a>[pg 322]</span>
+<p>than the region now in question. This seems to me to show
+that the insect fauna of Spitzbergen, exceedingly inconsiderable
+and limited in numbers as it is, has migrated thither in comparatively
+recent times, and in how high a degree the migration
+of beetles is rendered difficult by their inability to pass broad
+expanses of water.</p>
+
+<p>By afternoon the air had again cleared somewhat, so that we
+could sail on. A piece of ice was seen here and there, and at
+night the ice increased for a little to an unpleasant extent.
+Now, however, it did not occur in such quantity as to prove an
+obstacle to navigation in clear weather or in known waters.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th August we still sailed through considerable
+fields of scattered drift-ice, consisting partly of old ice of large
+dimensions, partly of very rotten year's ice. It formed, however,
+no serious obstacle to our advance, and nearer the shore
+we would probably have had quite open water, but of course it
+was not advisable to go too near land in the fog and unknown
+waters, without being obliged. A large number of fish (<i>Gadus
+polaris</i>) were seen above the foot of a large block of ground ice,
+near which we lay-to for some hours. Next day we saw near one
+of the islands, where the water was very clear, the sea-bottom
+bestrewed with innumerable fish of the same species. They
+had probably perished from the same cause, which often kills
+fish in the river Ob in so great numbers that the water is infected,
+namely, from a large shoal of fish having been enclosed
+by ice in a small hole, where the water, when its surface has
+frozen, could no longer by absorption from the air replace
+the oxygen consumed, and where the fish have thus been
+literally drowned. I mention this inconsiderable <i>find</i> of some
+self-dead fish, because self-dead vertebrate animals, even fish,
+are found exceedingly seldom. Such <i>finds</i> therefore deserve to
+be noted with much greater care than, for instance, the occurrence
+of animal species in the neighbourhood of places where
+they have been seen a thousand times before. During my nine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page323" id="v1page323"></a>[pg 323]</span>
+expeditions in the Arctic regions, where animal life during
+summer is so exceedingly abundant, the case just mentioned
+has been one of the few in which I have found remains of recent
+vertebrate animals which could be proved to have died a natural
+death. Near hunting-grounds there are to be seen often enough
+the remains of reindeer, seals, foxes, or birds that have died
+from gunshot wounds, but no self-dead Polar bear, seal, walrus,
+white whale, fox, goose, auk, lemming or other vertebrate. The
+Polar bear and the reindeer are found there in hundreds, the
+seal, walrus, and white whale in thousands, and birds in millions.<A HREF="#v1fn190" NAME="v1rn190">[190]</A>
+These animals must die a &quot;natural&quot; death in untold numbers.
+What becomes of their bodies? Of this we have for the
+present no idea, and yet we have here a problem of immense
+importance for the answering of a large number of questions
+concerning the formation of fossiliferous strata. It is strange
+in any case that on Spitzbergen it is easier to find vertebr&aelig; of
+a gigantic lizard of the Trias, than bones of a self-dead seal,
+walrus, or bird, and the same also holds good of more southerly
+inhabited lands.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th August we again sailed past a large number of
+small rocks or islands. The sea was at first pretty free of ice,
+but was afterwards bestrewed with even, thin pieces of drift-ice,
+which were not forced up on each other, and thus had not been
+exposed in winter to any ice-pressure. This ice did not cause
+any inconvenience to the navigation, but at the same time all
+was wrapt in a very close mist, which soon compelled us to
+anchor near the shore in a little bay. I endeavoured without
+success to determine the position of the place by astronomical
+observations. Along the shore there still remained nearly
+everywhere a pretty high snow and ice-foot, which in the fog
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page324" id="v1page324"></a>[pg 324]</span>
+presented the appearance of immense glaciers. The land besides
+was free of ice. In respect of its geological formation and
+its animals and plants it resembled completely the island I have
+just described. But the sea-water here was clear and salt, and
+the dredging therefore yielded to Dr. Kjellman some large alg&aelig;,
+and to Dr. Stuxberg a large number of marine evertebrates.</p>
+
+<p>When the fog lightened, we immediately steamed on, but we
+had scarcely got to sea before we were again wrapped in so close
+a fog that we were compelled to lie-to for the night beside a
+large piece of drift-ice. The hempen tangles were used, and
+brought up a very abundant yield of large, beautiful animal
+forms, a large number of asterids, Astrophyton, Antedon, &amp;c.
+There was besides made here an exceedingly remarkable, and
+to me still, while I write, a very enigmatical <i>find</i>.</p>
+
+<p>For several years back I have been zealous for the examination
+of all substances of the nature of dust which fall to the
+surface of the earth with rain or snow, and I have proved that a
+portion of them is of cosmic origin. This inconsiderable fall of
+dust is thus of immense importance for the history of the development
+of our globe, and we regard it, besides, with the
+intense interest which we inevitably cherish for all that brings
+us an actual experience regarding the material world beyond
+our globe. The inhabited countries of the earth, however, are
+less suitable for such investigations, as the particles of cosmic
+dust falling down here in very limited quantity can only with
+difficulty be distinguished from the dust of civilization, arising
+from human dwellings, from the offal of industry, from furnaces
+and the chimneys of steam-engines. The case is quite different
+on the snow and ice-fields of the High North, remote from
+human habitations and the tracks of steamers. Every foreign
+grain of dust can here he easily distinguished and removed,
+and there is a strong probability that the offal of civilization
+is here nearly wholly wanting. It is self-evident from this
+that I would not be disposed to neglect the first opportunity
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page325" id="v1page325"></a>[pg 325]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p338.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p338.png" alt="HAIRSTAR FROM THE TAIMUR COAST." ></a>
+HAIRSTAR FROM THE TAIMUR COAST.
+<br><i>Antedon Eschrichtii</i>, J. M&Uuml;LLER.
+<br>Three-fifths of the natural size. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page326" id="v1page326"></a>[pg 326]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page327" id="v1page327"></a>[pg 327]</span>
+<p>for renewed investigations in the direction indicated,
+our involuntary rest at the drift-ice field offered.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p340.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p340.png" alt="FORM OF THE CRYSTALS." ></a>
+FORM OF THE CRYSTALS.
+<br>Found on the ice off the Taimur coast.
+Magnified thirty to forty times. </div>
+
+<p>Immediately after the <i>Vega</i> lay-to, I therefore went down on
+the ice in order to see whether here too some such metalliferous
+dust, as I had before found north of Spitzbergen, was not to be
+found on the surface of the ice. Nothing of the kind, however,
+was to be seen. On the other hand, Lieutenant Nordquist
+observed small yellow specks in the snow, which I asked him to
+collect and hand over for investigation to Dr. Kjellman. For I
+supposed that the specks consisted of diatom ooze. After examining
+them Dr. Kjellman however declared that they did not
+consist of any organic substance,
+but of crystallised grains of sand.
+I too now examined them more
+closely, but unfortunately not until
+the morning after we had left the
+ice-field, and then found that the
+supposed ooze consisted of pale
+yellow crystals (not fragments of
+crystals) without mixture of foreign
+matter. The quantity of crystals,
+which were obtained from about
+three litres of snow, skimmed from
+the surface of the snow on an
+area of at most 10 square metres, amounted to nearly 0.2 gram.
+The crystals were found only near the surface of the snow, not
+in the deeper layers. They were up to 1 mm. in diameter, had
+the appearance shown in the accompanying woodcut, and
+appeared to belong to the rhombic system, as they had one
+perfect cleavage and formed striated prisms terminated at either
+end by truncated pyramids. Unfortunately I could not make
+any actual measurements of them, because after being kept
+for some time in the air they weathered to a white non-crystalline
+powder. They lay, without being sensibly dissolved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page328" id="v1page328"></a>[pg 328]</span>
+for a whole night in the water formed by the melting of the
+snow. On being heated, too, they fell asunder into a tasteless
+white powder. The white powder, that was formed by the
+weathering of the crystals, was analysed after our return&mdash;21
+months after the discovery of the crystals&mdash;and was found to
+contain only carbonate of lime.</p>
+
+<p>The original composition and origin of this substance appears
+to me exceedingly enigmatical. It was not common carbonate
+of lime, for the crystals were rhombohedral and did not show
+the cleavage of calcite. Nor can there be a question of
+its being arragonite, because this mineral might indeed fall
+asunder &quot;of itself,&quot; but in that case the newly-formed powder
+ought to be crystalline. Have the crystals originally been a
+new hydrated carbonate of lime, formed by crystallising out
+of the sea-water in intense cold, and then losing its water
+at a temperature of 10&deg; or 20&deg; above the freezing-point? In
+such a case they ought not to have been found on the surface of
+the <i>snow</i>, but lower down on the surface of the <i>ice</i>. Or have
+they fallen down from the inter-planetary spaces to the surface
+of the earth, and before crumbling down have had a composition
+differing from terrestrial substances in the same way as various
+chemical compounds found in recent times in meteoric stones?
+The occurrence of the crystals in the uppermost layer of snow
+and their felling asunder in the air, tell in favour of this view.
+Unfortunately there is now no possibility of settling these
+questions, but at all events this discovery is a further incitement
+to those who travel in the High North to collect with extreme
+care, from snow-fields lying far from the ordinary routes of communication,
+all foreign substances, though apparently of trifling
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>As this question can be answered with the greatest ease and
+certainty by investigations in the Polar regions, I shall here, for
+the guidance of future travellers, enumerate some discoveries
+of a like nature which have been made by me, or at my instance.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page329" id="v1page329"></a>[pg 329]</span>
+1. In the beginning of December, 1871, there happened at
+Stockholm an exceedingly heavy fall of snow, perhaps the
+heaviest which has taken place in the memory of man. Several
+persons perished in the snow in the immediate neighbourhood
+of Stockholm. During the last days of the snowfall I had
+about a cubic metre of snow collected and melted in a vessel.
+It left a residue of black powder, which contained grains of
+metallic iron that were attracted by the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>2. In the middle of March, 1872, a similar
+investigation was made by my brother, KARL
+NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD, in a remote forest settlement,
+Evois, in Finland. Here, too, was
+obtained, on the melting of the snow, a
+small residuum, consisting of a black powder
+containing metallic iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p342.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p342.png" alt="SECTION OF THE UPPER PART OF THE SNOW ON A DRIFT-ICE FIELD IN 60&deg; N.L." ></a>
+SECTION OF THE UPPER PART OF THE SNOW ON A DRIFT-ICE FIELD IN 60&deg; N.L.
+<br>One-half the natural size. </div>
+
+<p>3. On the 8th August and 2nd September
+of the same year, I examined, north of
+Spitzbergen, in 80&deg; N.L., and 13&deg; to 15&deg; E.L.,
+the layer of snow that there covered the
+ice. The nature of this layer is shown by
+the accompanying woodcut, in which 1, is
+new-fallen snow; 2, a layer of hardened old
+snow, eight mm. in thickness; 3, a layer of
+snow conglomerated to a crystalline granular
+mass; and 4, common granular hardened
+snow. Layer 3 was full of small black grains, among which
+were found numerous metallic particles that were attracted by
+the magnet, and were found to contain iron, cobalt, and possibly
+nickel also.</p>
+
+<p>4. On the melting of 500 gram. hail, which fell in Stockholm
+in the autumn of 1873, similar metallic particles containing
+cobalt (nickel) were obtained, which, in this case, might possibly
+have come from the neighbouring roofs, because the hail was
+collected in a yard surrounded by houses roofed with sheet-iron
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page330" id="v1page330"></a>[pg 330]</span>
+painted red. The black colour of the metallic particles enclosed
+in the hail, their position in the hail, and finally, the cobalt
+they contained, however, indicate in this case too, a quite
+different origin.</p>
+
+<p>5. In a dust (kryokonite), collected on the inland ice of
+Greenland in the month of July, 1870, there were also found
+mixed with it grains of metallic iron, containing cobalt. The
+main mass consisted of a crystalline, double-refracting silicate,
+drenched through with an ill-smelling organic substance. The
+dust was found in large quantities at the bottom of innumerable
+small holes in the surface of the inland ice. This dust could
+scarcely be of volcanic origin, because by its crystalline structure
+it differs completely from the glass-dust that is commonly
+thrown out of volcanoes, and is often carried by the wind to
+very remote regions, as also from the dust which, on the 30th
+March, 1875, fell at many places in the middle of Scandinavia,
+and which was proved to have been thrown out by volcanoes
+on Iceland. For, while kryokonite consists of small angular
+double-refracting crystal-fragments without any mixture of
+particles of glass, the volcanic Haga-dust<A HREF="#v1fn191" NAME="v1rn191">[191]</A> consists almost
+wholly of small microscopic glass bubbles that have no action
+on the polarisation-planes of the light that passes through
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Similar investigations have since been made, among others,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page331" id="v1page331"></a>[pg 331]</span>
+by M. TISSANDIER in Paris, and during NARES' English Polar
+Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>It may appear to many that it is below the dignity of science
+to concern one's self with so trifling an affair as the fall of a
+small quantity of dust. But this is by no means the case. For
+I estimate the quantity of the dust that was found on the ice
+north of Spitzbergen at from 0.1 to 1 milligram per square
+metre, and probably the whole fall of dust for the year far
+exceeded the latter figure. But a milligram on every square
+metre of the surface of the earth amounts for the whole globe
+to five hundred million kilograms (say half a million tons)!
+Such a mass collected year by year during the geological ages,
+of a duration probably incomprehensible by us, forms too important
+a factor to be neglected, when the fundamental facts of
+the geological history of our planet are enumerated. A continuation
+of these investigations will perhaps show, that our
+globe has increased gradually from a small beginning to the
+dimensions it now possesses; that a considerable quantity of the
+constituents of our sedimentary strata, especially of those that
+have been deposited in the open sea far from land, are of cosmic
+origin; and will throw an unexpected light on the origin of the
+fire-hearths of the volcanoes, and afford a simple explanation of
+the remarkable resemblance which unmistakably exists between
+plutonic rocks and meteoric stones.<A HREF="#v1fn192" NAME="v1rn192">[192]</A></p>
+
+<p class="tb">On the 14th August, when the fog had lightened a little, we
+got up steam, but were soon compelled to anchor again in a bay
+running into Taimur Island from the north side of Taimur
+Sound, which I named Actinia Bay, from the large number of
+actinia which the dredge brought up there. It is, besides, not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page332" id="v1page332"></a>[pg 332]</span>
+the only place in the Kara Sea which might be named from
+the evertebrate life prevailing there, so unexpectedly abundant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p345.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p345.png" alt="GRASS FROM ACTINIA BAY." ></a>
+GRASS FROM ACTINIA BAY.
+<br><i>Pleuropogon Sabini</i>, R. BR. </div>
+
+<p>Unfavourable weather detained us in Actinia Bay, which
+is a good and well-protected haven, till the 18th August,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page333" id="v1page333"></a>[pg 333]</span>
+during which time excursions were made in various directions,
+among others farther into Taimur Sound, where a variable
+strong current was found to prevail. The Sound is too shallow
+to be passed through by large vessels. The rocks round Taimur
+Sound consist of gneiss strata, which form low ridges that
+have been so shattered by the frost that they have been converted
+into immense lichen-clad stone mounds. Between these
+stretch extensive valleys and plains, now free of snow, if we
+except a snow-drift remaining here and there in the hollows.
+The plains were all covered with a very green continuous
+vegetation, which however on a closer examination was found
+to be not a true turf, but a mixture of grasses, allied plants, and
+a large number of different kinds of mosses and lichens. Actual
+flowers were found here only sparingly.<A HREF="#v1fn193" NAME="v1rn193">[193]</A> In this respect the
+coast <i>tundra</i> shows a remarkable difference from the coast lands
+on Vaygats Island and Novaya Zemlya. On the other hand, the
+abundance of luxuriant lichens and mosses was striking. The
+mosses along the beach and the borders of the snow-drifts
+remaining here and there bore fruit in abundance. Animal life
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page334" id="v1page334"></a>[pg 334]</span>
+on land was scanty; some few reindeer were seen, a mountain
+fox was killed, and a lemming caught.</p>
+
+<a name="v1map333"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p333.png">
+<img src="images/v1p333th.png" alt="Sketch-Map of Taimur Sound; Map of Actinia Bay, both by G. Bove" ></a>
+Sketch-Map of Taimur Sound; Map of Actinia Bay, both by G. Bove.
+</div>
+
+<p>Only the following birds were seen: owls (<i>Strix nyctea</i>) rather
+numerous, of which one was killed; a species of falcon, which
+was hunted unsuccessfully; snow buntings, breeding very generally
+in the stone mounds; a covey of snow ptarmigan, of which
+some young birds were shot; six species of waders, the most
+common birds of the region, of which a large number were
+shot; two kinds of gulls (<i>Larus glaucus</i> and <i>tridactylus</i>); <i>Lestris
+parasitica</i> and <i>Buffonii</i>, the latter the more common of the two;
+<i>Anser bernicla</i>, very common; and finally the long-tailed duck
+(<i>Harelda glacialis</i>) in great flocks swimming in the Sound.
+Bird life, viewed as a whole, was still scanty here, in comparison
+with that which we were accustomed to see in the northern
+regions west of Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p>In the sea the higher animal life was somewhat more abundant.
+A walrus had been seen during the passage from the
+Yenisej, and on the ice drifting about in the Sound a number of
+seals, both <i>Phoca barbata</i> and <i>Phoca hispida</i>, were observed.
+This gave rise to the supposition that at the sea-bottom animal
+life was richer, which was also confirmed by the dredging yield.
+Nowhere was seen on our arrival any trace of man, but a cairn
+now indicates the place, off which the <i>Vega</i> and the <i>Lena</i> were
+anchored.</p>
+
+<p>In this sea never before visited by any vessel, however, we
+were nearly coming in contact with a countryman. For while
+we lay at anchor in Taimur Sound, Captain Edward Johannesen
+came into the neighbourhood of the same place with his sailing
+vessel <i>Nordland</i> from Tromsoe. He had left Norway on the 22nd
+May 1878, had come to Gooseland in Novaya Zemlya on the 6th
+June, and had reached the northernmost point of that island
+on the 22nd July. Here loud thunder was heard on the 26th
+July. On the 10th August he steered eastwards from Novaya
+Zemlya across the Kara Sea between 76&deg; and 77&deg; N.L. in open
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page335" id="v1page335"></a>[pg 335]</span>
+water. On the 16th he had the Taimur country in sight.
+Here he turned, and steered first to the west, then to the north.
+In 77&deg; 31' N.L. and 86&deg; E.L. from Greenwich he discovered and
+circumnavigated a new island, which was named &quot;Ensamheten&quot;
+(Solitude). The island was free of snow, but not overgrown with
+grass. The animals that were seen were some bears and bearded
+seals, terns, fulmars, ivory gulls, flocks of black guillemots, and
+a &quot;bird with a rounded tail and long bill,&quot; probably some wader.
+On the north-east side of the island a strong northerly current
+prevailed. The remote position and desolate appearance of the
+island gave occasion to the name proposed by Johannesen.
+Hence Johannesen sailed with a great bend to the north, which
+brought him to 78&deg; N.L., back to the northern extremity of
+Novaya Zemlya, and thence on the 12th September to Norway.
+During the return voyage across the Kara Sea also scarcely any
+ice was met with.<A HREF="#v1fn194" NAME="v1rn194">[194]</A></p>
+
+<p>An exceedingly persistent fog prevailed during the whole
+of the time we remained here, but at last on the 18th it lightened
+a little. We immediately weighed anchor and steamed
+along the western shore of Taimur Island. It is surrounded by
+a large number of islands that are not given on the map, and
+possibly Taimur Island itself is divided by sounds into several
+parts. During our voyage, however, the fog that was still very
+close hindered us from mapping, otherwise than in a very loose
+way, the islands, large and small, between and past which the
+<i>Vega</i> searched for a passage. So much we could in any case see,
+that the northern extremity of Taimur Island does not run so
+far north as the common maps show.</p>
+
+<p>Ice we met with only in small quantity, and what we saw was
+very rotten fjord or river ice. I scarcely believe that in the
+course of the day we met with a single piece of ice large enough
+to flense a seal upon. We had as yet seen no true old drift-ice
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page336" id="v1page336"></a>[pg 336]</span>
+such as is to be met with north of Spitzbergen. In respect
+to the nature of the ice, there is a complete dissimilarity between
+the Kara Sea and the sea north and east of Spitzbergen. Another
+striking difference is the scarcity of warm-blooded animals
+which prevails in this region, hitherto exempted from all hunting.
+In the course of the day we had not seen a single bird&mdash;something
+which never before happened to me during a summer journey in
+the Arctic regions&mdash;and scarcely any seals.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th August we continued to sail and steam along
+the coast, mostly in a very close fog, which only at intervals
+dispersed so much that the lie of the coast could be made out.
+In order that they might not be separated, both vessels had
+often to signal to each other with the steam-whistle. The sea
+was bright as a mirror. Drift-ice was seen now and then, but
+only in small quantity and very rotten; but in the course of the
+day we steamed past an extensive unbroken ice-field, fast to the
+land, which occupied a bay on the west side of the Chelyuskin
+peninsula. The ice, of which it consisted, appeared in the mist
+immensely rough and high, although in fact it was nearly as
+rotten as that of which the narrow belts of ice were formed
+which we now and then met with out at sea.</p>
+
+<p>The fog prevented all view far across the ice, and I already
+feared that the northernmost promontory of Asia would be so
+surrounded with ice that we could not land upon it. But soon a
+dark, ice-free cape peeped out of the mist in the north-east. A
+bay open to the north here cuts into the land, and in this bay
+both the vessels anchored on the 19th August at 6 o'clock p.m.</p>
+
+<p>We had now reached a great goal, which for centuries had
+been the object of unsuccessful struggles. For the first time a
+vessel lay at anchor off the northernmost cape of the old world.
+No wonder then that the occurrence was celebrated by a display
+of flags and the firing of salutes, and, when we returned from our
+excursion on land, by festivities on board, by wine and toasts.</p>
+
+<p>As on our arrival at the Yenisej, we were received here too by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page337" id="v1page337"></a>[pg 337]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p350.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p350.png" alt="THE VEGA AND LENA SALUTING CAPE CHELYUSKIN." ></a>
+THE VEGA AND LENA SALUTING CAPE CHELYUSKIN.
+<br>(After a drawing by A. Hovgaard.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page339" id="v1page339"></a>[pg 339]</span>
+<p>a large Polar bear, who, even before the vessel anchored, was
+seen to go backwards and forwards on the beach, now and then
+turning his glance and his nose uneasily out to sea in order to
+investigate what remarkable guests had now for the first time
+come to his kingdom. A boat was put off to kill him. Brusewitz
+was the chosen shot; but on this occasion the bear took care
+not to form any closer acquaintance with our guns. The firing
+of the salute put him so thoroughly to flight, that he did not, as
+bears are wont, return the following day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p351.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p351.png" alt="VIEW AT CAPE CHELYUSKIN DURING THE STAY OF THE EXPEDITION." ></a>
+VIEW AT CAPE CHELYUSKIN DURING THE STAY OF THE EXPEDITION.
+<br>(After a drawing by A. Hovgaard.) </div>
+
+<p>The north point of Asia forms a low promontory, which a bay
+divides into two, the eastern arm projecting a little farther to
+the north than the western. A ridge of hills with gently sloping
+sides runs into the land from the eastern point, and appears
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page340" id="v1page340"></a>[pg 340]</span>
+within sight of the western to reach a height of 300 metres.
+Like the plains lying below, the summits of this range were
+nearly free of snow. Only on the hill-sides or in deep furrows
+excavated by the streams of melted snow, and in dales in the
+plains, were large white snow-fields to be seen. A low ice-foot
+still remained at most places along the shore. But no glacier
+rolled its bluish-white ice-masses down the mountain sides, and
+no inland lakes, no perpendicular cliffs, no high mountain
+summits, gave any natural beauty to the landscape, which was
+the most monotonous and the most desolate I have seen in the
+High North.</p>
+
+<p>As on the island off which we lay at anchor on the 11th
+August, the ground was everywhere burst asunder into more or
+less regular six-sided figures, the interior of which was usually
+bare of vegetation, while stunted flowering-plants, lichens and
+mosses, rose out of the cracks. At some few places, however,
+the ground was covered with a carpet of mosses, lichens, grasses
+and allied plants, resembling that which I previously found at
+Actinia Bay. Yet the flowering-plants were less numerous here,
+and the mosses more stunted and bearing fruit less abundantly.
+The lichen flora was also, according to Dr. Almquist's examination,
+monotonous, though very luxuriant. The plants were
+most abundant on the farthest extremity of the Cape. It
+almost appeared as if many of the plants of the Taimur country
+had attempted to migrate hence farther to the north, but meeting
+the sea, had stood still, unable to go farther and unwilling
+to turn. For here Dr. Kjellman found on a very limited area
+nearly all the plants of the region. The species which were
+distinctive of the vegetation here were the following: <i>Saxifraga
+oppositifolia</i> L., <i>Papaver nudicaule</i> L., <i>Draba alpina</i> L.,
+<i>Cerastium alpinum</i> L., <i>Stellaria Edwardsii</i> R. BR., <i>Alsine
+macrocarpa</i> FENZL., <i>Aira coespitosa</i> L., <i>Catabrosa algida</i> (SOL.) FR.,
+and <i>Alopecurus alpinus</i> SM. The following plants occurred less
+frequently: <i>Eritrichium villosum</i> BUNGE, <i>Saxifraga nivalis</i> L.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page341" id="v1page341"></a>[pg 341]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p353.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p353.png" alt="DRABA ALPINA L. FROM CAPE CHELYUSKIN." ></a>
+DRABA ALPINA L. FROM CAPE CHELYUSKIN.
+<br>Natural size. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page342" id="v1page342"></a>[pg 342]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page343" id="v1page343"></a>[pg 343]</span>
+<p><i>S cernua</i> L., <i>S. rivularis</i> L., <i>S. stellaris</i> L., <i>S. caspitesa</i> L., <i>S.
+flagellaris</i> WILLD., <i>S. serpyllifolia</i> PURSH., <i>Cardamine bellidifolia</i>
+L., <i>Cochlearia fenestrata</i> R. BR., <i>Oxyria digyna</i> (L.) HILL., <i>Salix
+polaris</i> WG, <i>Poa flexuosa</i> WG., and <i>Lucula hyperborea</i> R. BR.
+There were thus found in all only twenty-three species of
+inconsiderable flowering-plants, among them eight species
+belonging to the Saxifrage family, a sulphur-yellow poppy,
+commonly cultivated in our gardens, and the exceedingly
+beautiful, forget-me-not-like Eritrichium. That the vegetation
+here on the northernmost point of Asia
+has to contend with a severe climate is
+shown, among other things, as Dr. Kjellman
+has pointed out, by most of the
+flowering-plants there having a special
+tendency to form exceedingly compact
+half-globular tufts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v1p355.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p355.png" alt="THE BEETLE LIVING FARTHEST TO THE NORTH." ></a>
+THE BEETLE LIVING FARTHEST TO THE NORTH.
+<br>Micralymma Dicksoni MAKL. Magnified twelve times. </div>
+
+<p>The only insects which occurred here in
+any large number were podur&aelig;, but some
+flies were also seen, and even a beetle, the
+before-mentioned Staphylinid. Of birds,
+there were seen a large number of sandpipers,
+an exceedingly numerous flock
+of barnacle geese&mdash;evidently migrating to
+more southerly regions, perhaps from some
+Polar land lying to the north of Cape Chelyuskin&mdash;a loom, some
+kittiwakes and ivory gulls, and remains of owls. Mammalia
+were represented by the bear already mentioned, and by the
+reindeer and the lemming, whose traces and dung were seen on
+the plains. In the sea, a walrus, several rough seals (<i>Phoca
+hispida</i>), and two shoals of white whales were seen.</p>
+
+<p>All rivers were now dried up, but wide, shallow river-beds
+indicated that during the snow-melting season there was an
+abundant flow of water. The rush of snow rivulets and the cry
+of birds then certainly cause an interruption in the desolation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page344" id="v1page344"></a>[pg 344]</span>
+and silence which were now spread over the clay beds of the
+plains, nearly bare of all vegetation. Probably, however, a little
+farther into the country, in some valley protected from the winds
+of the Polar Sea, we might find quite different natural conditions,
+a more abundant animal life, and a vegetable world, in
+summer, as rich in flowers as that which we meet with in the
+valleys of Ice Fjord or the &quot;Nameless Bay&quot; (Besimannaja Bay).
+We saw no trace of man here. The accounts, which were
+current as early as the sixteenth century, relating to the nature
+of the north point of Asia, however, make it probable that the
+Siberian nomads at one time drove their reindeer herds up
+hither. It is even not impossible that Russian hunters from
+Chatanga may have prosecuted the chase here, and that Chelyuskin
+actually was here, of which we have evidence in the very
+correct way in which the Cape, that now rightly bears his name,
+is laid down on the Russian maps.<A HREF="#v1fn195" NAME="v1rn195">[195]</A></p>
+
+<p>The rocks consist of a clay-slate, with crystals resembling
+chiastolite and crystals of sulphide of iron interspersed. At the
+Cape itself the clay-slate is crossed by a thick vein of pure white
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page345" id="v1page345"></a>[pg 345]</span>
+quartz. Here, according to an old custom of Polar travellers, a
+stately cairn was erected.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p357.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p357.png" alt="OPHIURID FROM THE SEA NORTH OF CAPE CHELYUSKIN." ></a>
+OPHIURID FROM THE SEA NORTH OF CAPE CHELYUSKIN.
+<br><i>Ophlacantha bidentata</i>, RETZ. One and one-third of the natural size. </div>
+
+<p>In order to get a good
+astronomical determination
+of the position of this important
+point I remained
+there until the 20th August
+at noon. The <i>Lena</i> was
+ordered to steam out to
+dredge during this time.
+Eight minutes north of
+the bay, where we lay at
+anchor, heavy and very
+close ice was met with.
+There the depth of the sea
+increased rapidly. Animal
+life at the sea-bottom was
+very abundant, among other
+things in large asterids and
+ophiurids.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">According to the plan of
+the voyage I now wished
+to steam from this point
+right eastwards towards the
+New Siberian Islands, in
+order to see if we should
+fall in with land on the way.
+On the 20th and 21st we
+went forward in this direction
+among scattered drift-ice,
+which was heavier and
+less broken up than that which we had met with on the
+other side of Taimur Land, but without meeting with any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page346" id="v1page346"></a>[pg 346]</span>
+serious obstacles. We fell in also with some very large ice-floes,
+but not with any icebergs. We were besides again
+attended by so close a mist that we could only see ice-fields
+and pieces of ice in the immediate neighbourhood of the
+vessel. Besides species of Lestris and kittiwakes we now
+also saw looms, birds that are almost wanting in the Kara
+Sea. Johannesen was of opinion that the presence of these
+birds showed that the sea is not completely frozen over in
+winter, because it is not probable that the loom in autumn and
+spring would fly across the frozen Kara Sea to seek in this
+distant region their food and their breeding-haunts.</p>
+
+<p>The night before the 22nd we steamed through pretty close
+ice. The whole day so thick a fog still prevailed that we could
+not see the extent of the ice-fields in the neighbourhood of the
+vessel. Towards noon we were, therefore, compelled to take
+a more southerly course. When we found that we could not
+advance in this direction, we lay-to at a large ice-floe, waiting
+for clear weather, until in the afternoon the fog again lightened
+somewhat, so that we could continue our voyage. But it was
+not long before the fog again became so thick that, as the
+sailors say, you could cut it with a knife. There was now
+evidently a risk that the <i>Vega</i>, while thus continuing to &quot;box the
+compass&quot; in the ice-labyrinth, in which we had entangled ourselves,
+would meet with the same fate that befell the <i>Tegetthoff</i>.
+In order to avoid this, it became necessary to abandon our
+attempt to sail from Cape Chelyuskin straight to the New
+Siberian Islands, and to endeavour to reach as soon as possible
+the open water at the coast.</p>
+
+<p>When it cleared on the morning of the 23rd, we therefore
+began again to steam forward among the fields of drift-ice, but
+now not with the intention of advancing in a given direction,
+but only of getting to open water. The ice-fields we now met
+with were very much broken up, which was an indication that
+we could not be very far from the edge of the <i>pack</i>. But
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page347" id="v1page347"></a>[pg 347]</span>
+notwithstanding this, all our attempts to find penetrable ice in an
+easterly, westerly, or southerly direction were unsuccessful. We
+had thus to search in a northerly direction for the opening by
+which we had sailed in. This was so much the more unpleasant
+as the wind had changed to a pretty fresh N.W. breeze, on
+which account, with the <i>Vega's</i> weak steam-power, we could
+make way only slowly. It was not until 6.30 p.m. that we at
+last came to the sack-formed opening in the ice through which
+we had sailed in at noon of the previous day.</p>
+
+<p>One can scarcely, without having experienced it, form any
+idea of the optical illusions, which are produced by mist, in
+regions where the size of the objects which are visible through
+the fog is not known beforehand, and thus does not give the
+spectator an idea of the distance. Our estimate of distance
+and size in such cases depend wholly on accident. The obscure
+contours of the fog-concealed objects themselves, besides, are
+often by the ignorance of the spectator converted into whimsical
+fantastic forms. During a boat journey in Hinloopen Strait I
+once intended to row among drift-ice to an island at a distance
+of some few kilometres. When the boat started the air was
+clear, but while we were employed, as best we could, in shooting
+sea-fowl for dinner, all was wrapt in a thick mist, and
+that so unexpectedly, that we had not time to take the bearings
+of the island. This led to a not altogether pleasant row by
+guess among the pieces of ice that were drifting about in
+rapid motion in the sound. All exerted themselves as much as
+possible to get sight of the island, whose beach would afford
+us a safe resting-place. While thus occupied, a dark border
+was seen through the mist at the horizon. It was taken for
+the island which we were bound for, and it was not at first
+considered remarkable that the dark border rose rapidly, for we
+thought that the mist was dispersing and in consequence of that
+more of the land was visible. Soon two white snow-fields, that
+we had not observed before, were seen on both sides of the land,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page348" id="v1page348"></a>[pg 348]</span>
+and immediately after this was changed to a sea-monster, resembling
+a walrus-head, as large as a mountain. This got life
+and motion, and finally sank all at once to the head of a common
+walrus, which lay on a piece of ice in the neighbourhood of the
+boat; the white tusks formed the snow-fields and the dark-brown
+round head the mountain. Scarce was this illusion gone when
+one of the men cried out &quot;Land right a head&mdash;high land!&quot; We
+now all saw before us a high Alpine region, with mountain peaks
+and glaciers, but this too sank a moment afterwards all at once to
+a common ice-border, blackened with earth. In the spring of
+1873 Palander and I with nine men made a sledge journey round
+North-east Land. In the course of this journey a great many
+bears were seen and killed. When a bear was seen while we
+were dragging our sledges forward, the train commonly stood
+still, and, not to frighten the bear, all the men concealed themselves
+behind the sledges, with the exception of the marksman,
+who, squatting down in some convenient place, waited till his
+prey should come sufficiently within range to be killed with
+certainty. It happened once during foggy weather on the ice at
+Wahlenberg Bay that the bear that was expected and had been
+clearly seen by all of us, instead of approaching with his usual
+supple zigzag movements, and with his ordinary attempts to nose
+himself to a sure insight into the fitness of the foreigners for
+food, just as the marksman took aim, spread out gigantic wings
+and flew away in the form of a small ivory gull. Another time
+during the same sledge journey we heard from the tent in which
+we rested the cook, who was employed outside, cry out: &quot;A bear!
+a great bear! No! a reindeer, a very little reindeer!&quot; The
+same instant a well-directed shot was fired, and the bear-reindeer
+was found to be a very small fox, which thus paid with
+its life for the honour of having for some moments played the
+part of a big animal. From these accounts it may be seen
+how difficult navigation among drift-ice must be in unknown
+waters.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page349" id="v1page349"></a>[pg 349]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:90%;"><a href="images/v1p361.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p361.png" alt="SEA SPIDER (PYCNOGONID) FROM THE SEA EAST OF CAPE CHELYUSKIN." ></a>
+SEA SPIDER (PYCNOGONID) FROM THE SEA EAST OF CAPE CHELYUSKIN.
+<br>Half the normal size. </div>
+
+<p>On the two occasions on which the vessel was anchored to
+ice-floes the trawl-net was used, and the hempen tangles. The
+net was drawn forward slowly with the ice which was drifting to
+the north-west before a fresh S.E. breeze which was blowing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page350" id="v1page350"></a>[pg 350]</span>
+at the time. The yield of the trawling was extraordinarily
+abundant; large asterids, crinoids, sponges, holothuria, a
+gigantic sea-spider (Pycnogonid), masses of worms, crustacea, &amp;c.
+<i>It was the most abundant yield that the trawl-net at any one time
+brought up during the whole of our voyage round the coast of Asia</i>,
+and this from the sea off the northern extremity of that
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>Among the forms collected here we may specially refer to
+the large sea-spider, of which a drawing is given (p. 349);
+and three specimens of small stalked crinoids. The depth
+varied between 60 and 100 metres. The temperature of the
+water was at the surface +0&deg; to&mdash;0&deg;.6; at the bottom&mdash;1&deg;.4 to
+1&deg;.6; its salinity was considerable, both at the bottom, where it
+was very nearly equal to that of the other great oceans, and at
+the surface, where it was indeed about a fifth-part less, but
+yet much greater than that of the surface-water in the Kara
+Sea.</p>
+
+<p>It is singular that a temperature under the freezing-point
+of pure water should be advantageous for the development
+of an animal life so extremely rich as that which is found here,
+and that this animal life should not suffer any harm from the
+complete darkness, which during the greater portion of the
+year prevails at the bottom of the ice-covered sea.</p>
+
+<p>When we got out of the ice we steamed towards the land,
+which was sighted on the 23rd at 8.45 p.m. The land was low
+and free from snow; the depth of the sea at a distance of ten
+kilometres from the coast varied between thirteen and fifteen
+metres. The coast here stretched from north to south. We
+followed it at a distance of seven to ten kilometres. A north-westerly
+breeze here carried the vessel, without the help of
+steam, rapidly forward over a completely smooth sea.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th August we still sailed along the land towards
+the south. The depth of the sea now increased to thirty-three
+metres at a distance of ten kilometres from land. The land rose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page351" id="v1page351"></a>[pg 351]</span>
+gradually, and some distance from the coast beautiful mountain
+chains were seen, which, judging by the eye, rose to a height
+of from 600 to 900 metres. They were, like the plains along
+the coast, quite free from snow. Only in the clefts of the
+mountains there remained some few collections of snow or ice,
+which at two places appeared to form true glaciers, which however
+terminated at a considerable height above the sea. The snow-free
+slopes between the foot of the mountain and the shore
+bank, thirty to sixty metres high, formed an even plain, covered
+by a brownish-green turf, probably of the same nature as that
+we saw on Taimur Island.</p>
+
+<p>During the forenoon we had splendid clear weather, and
+often we could see from the vessel no trace of ice. We saw a
+large number of walruses, and to judge by the fire which this
+sight kindled in the eyes of our hunters, it will not be long
+till the Norwegian hunting voyages are extended to the sea
+north and east of the north point of Asia. We saw besides a
+large number of looms and black guillemots, the former
+accompanied by young of the year, as large as rotges.
+About noon we sighted &quot;land ahead to larboard.&quot; It was
+evidently Preobraschenie Island. I determined to land on it
+for a few hours to carry on researches in natural history, and
+to fix the position of the place by astronomical observations, if
+the weather should permit. The distance of this high-lying
+island was however greater than we expected. So that it was
+not until six o'clock in the evening that we could anchor off
+its south-west side, near the almost perpendicular face of cliffs
+abounding in sea-fowl.</p>
+
+<p>During the last two days we had been sailing over a region,
+which on recent maps is marked as land. This shows that a
+considerable change must be made on the map of North Siberia,
+and I shall therefore quote here the observations on which the
+determination of our course is grounded.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page352" id="v1page352"></a>[pg 352]</span><br>
+
+<pre>
+                                             Latitude.   Longitude
+Cape Chelyuskin<A HREF="#v1fn196" NAME="v1rn196">[196]</A>.......................    77&deg;36.8' 103&deg;17.2'
+On board the <i>Vega</i><A HREF="#v1fn197" NAME="v1rn197">[197]</A>at noon of the 21st Aug. 77&deg;25'   109&deg;12'
+,,   ,,    ,,    ,,    ,,   ,,   ,,  22nd Aug. 76&deg;33'   116&deg; 9'
+,,   ,,    ,,    ,,    ,,   ,,   ,,  23rd Aug. 76&deg;48'   115&deg; 0'
+,,   ,,    ,,    ,,    ,,   ,,   ,,  24th Aug. 73&deg; 0'   113&deg;33'
+</pre>
+
+<p>At the last mentioned point we had laud to starboard of us
+at an estimated distance of 4'. Preobraschenie Island lay
+S. 21&deg; W. 17.5' off. It is on the ground of these data and of
+the courses recorded in the log, that the track of the <i>Vega</i>
+has been laid down on the map, and no doubt can arise that the
+position of the east coast of Taimur peninsula, as indicated by
+us, is in the main correct.</p>
+
+<p>Preobraschenie Island forms a pretty even grassy plain, lying
+from thirty to sixty metres above the sea-level, which in the
+north-west terminates towards the sea with an almost perpendicular
+rocky wall, but to the south-east sinks gradually
+down to two sand-banks which run far out to sea. At the
+time of our visit the island was free of snow and covered with
+a carpet of mosses mixed with grass, which was exceedingly
+abundant, especially on the south-west slopes of the island, protected
+as they were from the north winds. Here we encountered
+anew the Arctic animal world in all its profusion. The ledges
+of the perpendicular shore-cliffs of the island formed the
+breeding-place of numberless looms and kittiwakes, to which a
+few black guillemots attached themselves. Along the farthest
+margin of the beach waders ran busily backwards and forwards
+in order to collect their food. At the summits of the cliffs
+a flock of glaucous gulls were breeding, and on the slopes
+of the low land the white mountain owl was seen lying in wait
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page353" id="v1page353"></a>[pg 353]</span>
+for its prey, quiet and motionless for hours, but as usual it was
+wary and shy, so that it was only with difficulty that the hunter
+could get within range of it. At some places there extended
+between the foot of the &quot;loomery&quot; and the sea a stone-bestrewn
+beach, which at high water was mostly covered by the sea, and
+at low water was full of shallow salt-water pools. Here had
+settled two Polar bears that were soon killed, one by Lieutenant
+Brusewitz, the other by Captain Johannesen. The bears had
+evidently been on the hunt for looms, which along with their
+young, large as rotges and already able to swim, were swimming
+in the pools of water at the foot of the &quot;loomery,&quot; and above all
+perhaps they were lying in wait for birds which by some accident
+happened to fall down from the breeding-place. In the sea no
+small number of seals were seen, and but a few hours before
+our arrival at the island we had sailed past herds of walrus.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p365.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p365.png" alt="PREOBRASCHENIE ISLAND." ></a>
+PREOBRASCHENIE ISLAND.
+<br>(After a sketch by O. Nordquist.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page354" id="v1page354"></a>[pg 354]</span>
+<p>Vegetation was much more luxuriant and richer in species
+than at Cape Chelyuskin, and naturally bore a more southern
+stamp, not only in consequence of the more southerly position
+of the island, but also on account of its shores being washed
+by the water of the Chatanga river, which is warm during
+summer.<A HREF="#v1fn198" NAME="v1rn198">[198]</A></p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, on account of the advanced season of the year
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page355" id="v1page355"></a>[pg 355]</span>
+I could only allow the <i>Vega</i> to remain a few hours off this
+interesting island, and at 10.30 p.m. accordingly the anchor was
+weighed and our voyage along the coast resumed.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th, 26th and 27th August we had for the most
+part calm, fine weather, and the sea was completely free of ice.
+The temperature of the water again rose to +5&deg;.8, and its
+salinity diminished considerably. But the depth now decreased
+so much, that, for instance, on the night before the 26th we had
+great difficulty in getting past some shoals lying west of the
+delta of the Lena, off the mouth of the Olonek.</p>
+
+<p>It had originally been my intention to let the <i>Vega</i> separate
+from the <i>Lena</i> at some anchorage in one of the mouth-arms of
+the Lena river. But on account of the shallowness of the
+water, the favourable wind and the ice-free sea, that now lay
+before us to the eastward, I determined to part from the <i>Lena</i>
+in the open sea off Tumat Island. This parting took place on
+the night between the 27th and 28th August, after Captain
+Johannesen had been signalled to come on board the <i>Vega</i>, to
+receive orders, passport,<A HREF="#v1fn199" NAME="v1rn199">[199]</A> and letters for home. As a parting
+salute to our trusty little attendant during our voyage round
+the north point of Asia some rockets were fired, on which we
+steamed or sailed on, each to his destination.</p>
+
+<p>During our passage from Norway to the Lena we had been
+much troubled with fog, but it was only when we left the
+navigable water along the coast to the east of Cape Chelyuskin
+that we fell in with ice in such quantity that it was an obstacle
+to our voyage. If the coast had been followed the whole time,
+if the weather had been clear and the navigable water sufficiently
+surveyed, so that it had been possible to keep the course of
+the vessel near the land, the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> to the mouth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page356" id="v1page356"></a>[pg 356]</span>
+of the Lena <i>would never have been obstructed by ice</i>, and I am
+convinced that this will happen year after year during the close
+of August, at least between the Yenisej and the Lena. For
+I believe that the place where ice-obstacles will perhaps be met
+with most frequently will not be the north point of Asia, but
+the region east of the entrance to the Kara Sea.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn189" NAME="v1fn189">[189]</A> Namely, according to Dr. Kjellman's determination, the following:</p>
+
+Saxifraga oppositifolia L.<br>
+Saxifraga rivularis L.<br>
+Saxifraga c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Cardamine bellidifolia L.<br>
+Cochlearia fenestrata R. BR.<br>
+Ranunculus hyperboreus ROTTB.<br>
+Stellaria Edwardsii R. BR.<br>
+Cerastium alpinum L.<br>
+Alsine macrocarpa FENZL.<br>
+Sagina nivalis FR.<br>
+Salix polaris WG.<br>
+Glyceria vilfoidea (ANDS.) TH. FR.<br>
+Catabrosa algida (SOL.) FR.<br>
+Aira c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Juncus biglumis L.<br>
+<br>
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn190" NAME="v1fn190">[190]</a> I can remember only one other instance of finding self-dead
+vertebrate animals, viz. when in 1873, as has already been stated (p. <a href="#v1page110">110</a>),
+I found a large number of dead rotges on the ice at the mouth of
+Hinloopen Strait.</p>
+<br>
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn191" NAME="v1fn191">[191]</a> I use this name because the ash-rain of March 1875 was first
+observed at Haga palace near Stockholm, and thus at the outer limit of
+the known area of distribution of the dust. It was first through the
+request which in consequence of this observation was published in the
+newspapers, that communications regarding singular observations in other
+quarters should be sent to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, that it
+became known that a similar rain had about the same time taken place
+over a very large part of middle Sweden and Norway. The dust however did
+not fall evenly, but distributed in spots, and at several different
+times. The distance from Stockholm of the volcanoes, where the outbreak
+took place, is nearly 2000 kilometres.</p>
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn192" NAME="v1fn192">[192]</a> Namely, by showing that the principal material of the plutonic and
+volcanic rocks is of cosmic origin, and that the phenomena of heat,
+which occur in these layers, depend on chemical changes to which the
+cosmic sediment, after being covered by thick terrestrial formations, is
+subjected.</p>
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn193" NAME="v1fn193">[193]</a> Dr. Kjellman has given the following list of the flowering plants
+collected by him in this region:&mdash;
+<br>
+Cineraria frigida RICHARDS.<br>
+Potentilla emarginata PURSH.<br>
+Saxifraga stellaris L. f. comosa.<br>
+Saxifraga nivalis L.<br>
+Saxifraga cernua L.<br>
+Saxifraga rivularis L.<br>
+Chrysosplenium alternifolium L.<br>
+Cardamine bellidifolia L.<br>
+Draba corymbosa R. BR.<br>
+Papaver nudicaule L.<br>
+Ranunculus pygm&aelig;us WG.<br>
+Ranunculus hyperboreus ROTTB.<br>
+Ranunculus sulphureus SOL.<br>
+Stellaria Edwardsii R. BR.<br>
+Cerastium alpinum L.<br>
+Alsine macrocarpa FENZL.<br>
+Salix polaris WG.<br>
+Poa arctica R. BR.<br>
+Arctophila peudulina (LAEST.) ANDS.<br>
+Catabrosa algida (Sol.) FR.<br>
+Colpodium latifolium R. BR.<br>
+Dupontia Fisheri R. BR.<br>
+Pleuropogon Sabini R. BR.<br>
+Aira c&aelig;spitosa L.<br>
+Hierochloa pauciflora R. BR.<br>
+Calamagrostis lapponica (WG.) HN.<br>
+Alopecurus alpinus SM.<br>
+Eriophorum angustifolium ROTH.<br>
+Eriophorum Scheuchzeri HOPPE.<br>
+Carex aquatilis WG.<br>
+Carex rigida GOOD.<br>
+Juncus biglumis L.<br>
+Luzula hyperborea R. BR.<br>
+Luzula arctica BL.<br>
+</p>
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn194" NAME="v1fn194">[194]</A> <i>H. Mohn.</i> Die Insel Einsamkeit, &amp;c., with a map (Petermann's
+<i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1879, p. 57).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn195" NAME="v1fn195">[195]</A> This has been doubted by Russian geographers. Von Baer for
+instance says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Daruber ist gar kein Zweifel, dass dieses Vorgebirge nie umsegelt ist,
+und dass es auf einem Irrthum beruhte, wenn Laptew auf einer Seefahrt
+die Bucht, in welche der Taimur sich m&uuml;ndet, erreicht zu haben glaubte.
+Seine eigenen sp&auml;teren Fahrten erwiesen diesen Irrthum. Die Vergleichung
+der Berichte und Verh&auml;ltnisse l&auml;sst mich aber auch glauben, dass selbst
+zu Lande man das Ende dieses Vorgebirges nie erreicht habe; sondern
+Tscheljuskin, um dieser, man kann wohl sagen, gr&auml;sslichen Versuche
+endlich &uuml;berhoben zu seyr, sich zu der ungegr&uuml;ndeten Behauptung
+entschloss, er habe das Ende gesehen, und sich &uuml;berzeugt, Sibirien sei
+nach Norden &uuml;berall vom Meere umgr&auml;nzt,&quot; [statement by von Baer in
+<i>Neueste Nachrichten &uuml;ber die n&ouml;rdlichste Gegend von Siberien</i>; von Baer
+and von Helmersen, <i>Beitr&auml;ge zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reiches</i>. IV.
+St. Petersburg, 1841, p. 275]. In the following page in the same paper
+von Baer indeed says that he will not lay any special weight on
+Strahlenberg's statement that Siberia and Novaya Zemlya hang together,
+but he appears to believe that they are connected by a bridge of
+perpetual ice.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn196" NAME="v1fn196">[196]</A> According to an observation with an artificial horizon on land.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn197" NAME="v1fn197">[197]</A> According to an observation on board. The observations for
+longitude that were made some hours before or after noon, are reduced to
+noon.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn198" NAME="v1fn198">[198]</A> The following 65 species were collected here by Dr. Kjellman.&mdash;/*
+Saussurea alpina DC. Gymnandra Stelleri CHAM. &amp;c. SCHLECHT. Pedicularis
+hirsuta L. Eritrichium villosum BUNGE. Myosotis silvatica HOFFM. Phaca
+frigida L. Dryas octopetala L. Sieversia glacialis R. BR. Potentilla
+emarginata PURSH. Saxifraga oppositifolia L. Saxifraga bronchialis L.
+Saxifraga flagellaris WILLD. Saxifraga Hirculus L. Saxifraga
+serpyllifolia PURSH. Saxifraga stellaris L.f. comosa. Saxifraga nivalis
+L. Saxifraga hieraciifolia WALDST. &amp;c. KIT. Saxifraga punctata L.
+Saxifraga cernua L. Saxifraga rivularis L. Saxifraga c&aelig;spitosa L.
+Chrysosplenium alternifolium L. Eutrema Edwardsii R. BR. Parrya
+macrocarpa R. BR. Cardamine bellidifolia L. Cochlearia fenestrata R. BR.
+Draba alpina L. Papaver nudicaule L. Ranunculus pygm&aelig;us WG. Ranunculus
+hyperboreus ROTTB. Ranunculus nivalis L. Ranunculus sulphurous SOL.
+Caltha palustris L. Wahlbergella apetala (L.) FR. Stellaria humifusa
+ROTTB. Stellaria Edwardsii R. BR. Cerastium alpinum L. Alsine macrocarpa
+FENZL. Alsine rubella WG. Sagina nivalis FR. Oxyria digyna (L.) HILL.
+Polygonum viviparum L. Salix arctica PALL. Salix reticulata L. Salix
+polaris WG. Poa arctica R. BR. Poa pratensis L. Glyceria angustata R.
+BR. Glyceria vilfoidea (ANDS.) TH. FR. Arctophila pendulina (LAEST.)
+AND. Catabrosa algida (SOL.) FR. Colpodium latifolium R. BR. Dupontia
+Fisheri R. BR. Aira c&aelig;spitosa L. Hierochloa pauciflora R. BR.
+Alopecurus alpinus SM. Eriophorum angustifolium ROTH. Eriophorum
+russeolum FR. Eriophorum Scheuchzeri HOPPE. Carex ursina DESV. Carex
+aquatilis WG. Juncus biglumis L. Luzula hyperborea R. BR. Luzula arctica
+BL. Lloydia serotina (L.) REICHENB.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn199" NAME="v1fn199">[199]</A> Before our departure, I had through the Swedish Foreign Office
+obtained from the Russian Government letters patent in which the Russian
+authorities with whom we might come in contact were instructed to give
+us all the assistance that circumstances might call for.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page357" id="v1page357"></a>[pg 357]</span>
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_VIII"></a><h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>The voyage of the <i>Fraser</i> and the <i>Express</i> up the Yenisej and their return
+to Norway&mdash;Contract for the piloting of the <i>Lena</i> up the Lena river&mdash;The
+voyage of the <i>Lena</i> through the delta and up the river to Yakutsk
+&mdash;The natural state of Siberia in general&mdash;The river territories&mdash;The
+fitness of the land for cultivation and the necessity for improved communications
+&mdash;The great rivers, the future commercial highways of
+Siberia&mdash;-Voyage up the Yenisej in 1875&mdash;Sibiriakoff's Island&mdash;The
+<i>tundra</i>&mdash;The primeval Siberian forest&mdash;The inhabitants of Western
+Siberia: the Russians, the Exiles, the &quot;Asiatics&quot;&mdash;Ways of travelling
+on the Yenisej: dog-boats, floating trading stores propelled by steam
+&mdash;New prospects for Siberia.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>I have mentioned in the Introduction that the <i>Vega</i> during
+the first part of the voyage was accompanied by three other
+vessels, which together with the principal vessel of the Expedition
+stood at my disposal and under my orders, and I have stated
+in passing that their voyages too deserve a place in the history
+of navigation. Now, when we were parted from the vessel
+which had accompanied the <i>Vega</i> farthest in her route eastwards,
+it may be the proper place to give a brief account of the close
+of the voyages of the <i>Fraser</i>, the <i>Express</i>, and the <i>Lena</i> and
+give reasons for what I have said of the importance of these
+voyages.</p>
+
+<p>On the 9th August at 10 a.m., after Mr. Serebrenikoff had
+gone on board the <i>Express</i> to take command, as Sibiriakoff's
+commissioner, of the two vessels bound for the Yenisej, the
+<i>Fraser</i>, with the <i>Express</i> in tow, started from Port Dickson for
+the river. The voyage passed without other adventures than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page358" id="v1page358"></a>[pg 358]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p370.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p370.png" alt="THE STEAMER &quot;FRASER&quot;" ></a>
+THE STEAMER &quot;FRASER.&quot;</div>
+
+<p>that in consequence of unacquaintance with the navigable
+waters the vessel sometimes gently grounded. On the 11th
+August Korepovskoj was reached, the same place where I laid up
+in 1876 the goods which I had brought with me in the <i>Ymer</i>.
+Here my old friend from my voyages of 1875 and 1876, the
+Cossack Feodor, was taken on board. He however proved now
+as unskilful a pilot as before. Notwithstanding his experience
+in 1876, when, he several times ran the <i>Ymer</i> aground, he had
+not yet got a clear idea of the difference between the build of
+an ocean vessel and of the common flat-bottomed Yenisej
+lighters, and his conception of the responsibility of a pilot was
+expressed by his seeking, when he was allowed to take his own
+course, to forget in the arms of sleep all dangers and difficulties.
+Mr. Serebrenikoff and the captains of the vessels were therefore
+themselves compelled by means of frequent soundings,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page359" id="v1page359"></a>[pg 359]</span>
+which were commonly made from a steam launch in advance, to
+endeavour to find out the proper course. The navigable water
+between the level islands covered with bushy thickets and rich
+grassy meadows was often very narrow, but appears to have
+been pretty deep, as, even when the vessels went forward without
+the guidance of a skilful pilot, there was a depth of from
+5 to 30 metres; and after a fisher, who knew the river better
+than Feodor, had been taken on board, it was found possible to
+go at full speed between the more southerly of the Briochov
+Islands<A HREF="#v1fn200" NAME="v1rn200">[200]</A> in a depth of 30 to 50 metres. On 14th August the
+vessels reached Tolstojnos, where a very well preserved <i>simovie</i>
+is situated about 70&deg; 10' N.L., 370 kilometres south of Port
+Dickson. On the 15th August they anchored in a good haven
+at Saostrovskoj, a <i>simovie</i> lying 100 kilometres farther up the
+river at the limit of trees, where the goods were to be discharged
+and another cargo taken on board. After a jetty had been
+constructed on the 16th, the landing of the goods began on the
+17th, and was finished on the 20th. The <i>Fraser</i> went still farther
+up the river to Dudino, in order to load various goods laid up
+there&mdash;tallow, wheat, rye, and oats. On the 2nd September
+the steamer returned to Saostrovskoj, where in the meantime
+the <i>Express</i> had taken on board her cargo.</p>
+
+<p>Dudino is a church village, situated at the point where the
+river Dudinka flows into the Yenisej. Here live two priests, a
+<i>smotritel</i> (a police official), a couple of exiles, some Russian
+workmen, and a number of natives, as well as the owner of the
+place, the influential merchant SOTNIKOFF. This active and
+able man is in an economical point of view ruler over the whole
+of the surrounding region, all whose inhabitants are in one way
+or other dependent upon him. He exchanges grain, brandy,
+sugar, tea, iron goods, powder and lead, cloth and leather, for
+furs, fish, mammoth-ivory, &amp;c.; and these goods are sent by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page360" id="v1page360"></a>[pg 360]</span>
+steamer to Yenisejsk to be forwarded from thence to China,
+Moscow, St. Petersburg, &amp;c. Among other things he is also the
+owner of very thick coal-seams in the Noril Mountains lying
+about 60 kilometres from Dudino. This simple and unostentatious
+man has been very obliging to all the scientific men who
+have visited the region. His dwelling, situated in the neighbourhood
+of the limit of trees, is probably the stateliest palace of
+the Siberian <i>tundra</i>, admired by natives from far and near. It
+is built of large logs, consists of two stories, has a roof painted
+green, many windows with decorated frames painted white and
+blue; the rooms are warm, provided with carpets of furs, pot-flowers
+in the windows, numerous sacred pictures, photographs,
+and copper engravings.</p>
+
+<p>On the 7th September all was ready for departure. The
+<i>Fraser</i> and <i>Express</i> weighed anchor to commence the return
+voyage down the river. At Tolstojnos two days after they met
+the steamer <i>Moskwa</i><A HREF="#v1fn201" NAME="v1rn201">[201]</A> of Bremen, Captain Dallmann, having on
+board the crew of the Norwegian steamer <i>Zaritza</i>, Captain Brun,
+which had stranded at the mouth of the Yenisej and been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page361" id="v1page361"></a>[pg 361]</span>
+abandoned by the crew. In the case of this stranding, however,
+the damage done had not been greater than that, when the
+<i>Fraser</i> fell in with the stranded <i>Zaritza</i>, it could be pumped dry,
+taken off the shoal, and, the engine having first been put in
+order, carried back to Norway. On the 19th September all the
+three vessels arrived at Matotschkin Sound, where they lay
+some days in Beluga Bay in order to take in water and trim
+the cargo and coal; after which on the 22nd of the same month
+they sailed through the sound to the west, and on the 26th
+anchored at Hammerfest in good condition and with full cargoes.<A HREF="#v1fn202" NAME="v1rn202">[202]</A>
+The goods, which now for the first time were carried from the
+Yenisej to Europe, consisted of about 600 tons&mdash;tallow, wheat,
+rye and oats. The goods imported into Siberia consisted mainly
+of 16 tons nails, 8 tons horseshoes, 4 tons horsenails, 16-1/2 tons
+bar iron, 33 tons tobacco, 60 tons salt, 24 casks petroleum, an
+iron lighter in pieces with the necessary adjuncts of anchors, &amp;c.<A HREF="#v1fn203" NAME="v1rn203">[203]</A></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Before I begin to give an account of the voyage of the <i>Lena</i>
+I must briefly mention the steps which Mr. Sibiriakoff took for
+her safety during her voyage from the mouth of the river, where
+she was to part from the <i>Vega</i>, to her proper destination, the town
+of Yakutsk. It is naturally very difficult for a vessel to seek
+her way without a pilot through an extensive delta completely
+unknown in a hydrographic respect, and crossed by a large
+number of deeper or shallower river arms. Mr. Sibiriakoff had
+therefore arranged that a river pilot should meet the <i>Lena</i> at the
+north point of the delta, and had through Mr. Kolesoff negotiated
+with him the following contract, which I reproduce here in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page362" id="v1page362"></a>[pg 362]</span>
+full, because it gives in several respects a very graphic picture
+of various social relations in these remote regions. The copy of
+the contract which has been communicated to me when
+translated runs thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">At Yakutsk, in the year one thousand eight hundred and
+seventy-eight on the 18th February, I, the undersigned Yakut
+AFONASII FEODOROFF WINOKUROFF, have concluded the following
+contract with IVAN PLATONOWITSCH KOLESOFF, merchant
+of the second guild in the town of Yakutsk.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">1. I, Winokuroff bind myself as pilot to carry the vessel of
+Professor Nordenski&ouml;ld's expedition up the river Lena from the
+village Tas-Ary, which lies about 150 versts below the village
+Bulun. From Tumat Island, which is situated in the northeastern
+part of the Lena delta, I bind myself for the piloting of
+the same vessel to procure at my own cost among the inhabitants
+of the place a pilot who knows well the deepest channel of the
+Lena river as far as the village Tas-Ary. This pilot the chief
+of the expedition shall discharge at the village Tas-Ary.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">2. As I am not master of the Russian language I bind myself
+to bring along with me a Yakut interpreter, who knows the
+Russian language and is able to write. In May of this year, I,
+Winokuroff, with the interpreter shall travel from the town
+of Yakutsk down the Lena river to Tumat Island and there
+along with the interpreter wait for the expedition.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">3. During the passage down the river I am bound to hire
+among the inhabitants of the regions a competent guide, who
+shall accompany us in my own boats to the island by the
+deepest channel in the Lena delta. During the passage from
+the village Tas-Ary I shall take soundings and record the depth
+of the fairway.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">4. Between the village Bulun and Tumat Island, I bind
+myself to seek for two places for the wintering of the vessel,
+which are quite suitable for the purpose, and protected from ice.
+I shall further lay before the commander of the expedition a
+journal containing everything which I can find that it would be
+advantageous to know for the safety of navigation and for the
+wintering of the vessels, also accounts of the places which are
+dangerous or unsuitable for navigation.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">5. On my arrival at Tumat Island I shall make it my first
+duty to find a deep and convenient haven for the seagoing vessels
+on the western side of the island. For this purpose I bind myself
+to have with me two boats, which, if necessary, shall be given
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page363" id="v1page363"></a>[pg 363]</span>
+over to the expedition. At the haven when found I bind myself
+to erect on some eminence near the shore of the island, which
+can be seen from Cape Olonek, a signal tower of driftwood or
+earth, like a Cossack mound, not lower than seven feet. On
+this foundation I shall raise a pyramidal frame of three or more
+thick logs, on the top of which I shall fix a flagstaff with a
+pulley block for the flag. The flag is to be flown at least 42
+feet from the ground. I shall guard the landmark thus erected
+until the river freezes. For this purpose Herr Kolesoff has
+provided me with a ready-made flag, a pulley block and a line.
+And when the nights become dark I shall light two or three
+large fires or hang up lanterns on the landmark itself, so that
+these fires or lanterns may be seen from the sea.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">6. From the village Tas-Ary I shall carry the vessel of the
+expedition to the town of Yakutsk, inasmuch as I shall show
+the proper fairway on the Lena river. The interpreter shall be
+at my side during the whole journey.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">7. During the whole time from the day when I start from
+Yakutsk, up to the close of my time of service in Nordenski&ouml;ld's
+expedition we, I, Winokuroff, and my interpreter, must be always
+sober (never intoxicated), behave faithfully and courteously, and
+punctually comply with the captain's orders.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">8. For all these obligations Herr Kolesoff has to pay me 900
+roubles.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">9. After the arrival of the expedition at Yakutsk I will not
+be allowed to leave the ship without the permission of the chief,
+but shall still remain on board. If the captain finds it necessary
+that I accompany him back to the mouth of the Lena, I shall
+conform to his wish in consideration of an extra fee of 300
+roubles. During this latter passage I am not bound to have
+with me any interpreter.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">10. If the arrival of the expedition at Tumat Island is delayed
+by any circumstance to the month of November, I have the
+right to betake myself along with my interpreter to Yakutsk
+and here to produce to Herr Kolesoff an official certificate given
+by Commandant Baschleff or any other local official that I had
+erected a landmark on Tumat Island and remained there until the
+river was frozen over, and that I did not leave until the expedition
+was no longer to be expected. Then Herr Kolesoff on the
+ground of this contract must settle with me by paying me the
+whole sum of 900 roubles, together with 200 roubles for
+my return journey.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">11. If the vessel of the expedition arrive at Tumat Island so
+late that the voyage becomes impossible, we, I and my interpreter,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page364" id="v1page364"></a>[pg 364]</span>
+shall winter with the expedition until the river becomes open
+in 1879. And in this case we, I and my interpreter, shall
+live at our own expense, and serve the expedition as belonging
+to its crew. After the commencement of navigation in 1879
+I shall conduct the vessel from the wintering station to the town
+of Yakutsk. On this account I have to receive, besides the 900
+roubles coming to me, 800 roubles more. If during this voyage
+too it should be necessary to accompany the vessels from
+Yakutsk back to the mouth of the Lena, I shall do that, and
+receive on that account 300 roubles. But if the vessels
+winter at Yakutsk, I shall be free during winter, and only
+during next year's voyage, if so required, accompany them
+to the mouth of the Lena. In that case I have to receive 300
+roubles.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">12. Of this sum agreed upon Herr Kolesoff shall pay me in
+advance on the conclusion of this contract 300 roubles, in the
+month of May at my departure 150 roubles, and at the village
+Bulun 250 roubles, for my payment to my companions and pilot
+and other expenses. The balance shall be paid to me after
+my return to Yakutsk.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">13. In the month of May, at the time for starting, if I be prevented
+by illness from betaking myself to Tumat Island, I shall
+repay to Herr Kolesoff the sum paid to me at the conclusion of
+this contract, with the exception of the money I have paid to
+the interpreter as pocket-money and for the boats. Should I
+not be able to repay the sum, I, Winokuroff, shall work out the
+amount not repaid at Herr Sibiriakoff's gold mines.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">14. All this are we, the two contracting parties, bound to
+observe in full and without infringement.</p>
+
+<p>A note to the copy further informs us that to this contract
+the Yakut Afonasii Feodoroff Winokuroff had, in place of his
+signature, attached his own seal, which the Yakut Alexii
+Zassimoff Mironoff had engraved, and that the conditions had
+been approved by the merchant Ivan Kolesoff, and the whole
+registered at the police-office of the Yakutsk circle.</p>
+
+<p>The contract had been entered into with the friendly co-operation
+of the Governor and Bishop of Yakutsk, who were much
+interested in the proposed voyage. The latter knew the coast
+of the Polar Sea from his own experience. But notwithstanding
+all this, the affair was attended with no better success than that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page365" id="v1page365"></a>[pg 365]</span>
+the pilot celebrated the receipt of the large sum of money by
+getting thoroughly intoxicated, and while in that state he broke
+one of the bones of the fore-arm. He was thus unable ever to
+reach the appointed rendezvous, and Johannesen was allowed to
+manage by his own hand, as best he could, his little steamer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p377.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p377.png" alt="THE STEAMER &quot;LENA.&quot;" ></a>
+THE STEAMER &quot;LENA.&quot;</div>
+
+<p>After the <i>Lena</i> had parted with the <i>Vega</i> during the night
+between the 27th and 28th August, she steamed towards land,
+and came the same day to the northernmost cape of the Lena
+delta, situated in 73&deg; 47' N.L.<A HREF="#v1fn204" NAME="v1rn204">[204]</A> It was here that the pilot's
+landmark was to have been erected, but there was no pilot here,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page366" id="v1page366"></a>[pg 366]</span>
+and no flagstaff was visible. In order to fall in with this landmark
+Johannesen sailed forty kilometres westward along the
+shore, but as his search in this direction was not attended with
+success, he turned back to the first-mentioned place and landed
+there. On the shore stood a very old hut, already completely
+filled with earth. It probably dated from some of the expeditions
+which visited the region in the beginning of the century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p378.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p378.png" alt="HANS CHRISTIAN JOHANNESEN." ></a>
+HANS CHRISTIAN JOHANNESEN.
+<br>Captain of the &quot;Lena.&quot; Born in 1846. </div>
+
+<p>Wild reindeer were seen in large numbers. As according to the
+contract which has been quoted the landmark was to be visible
+from Cape Olonek, Johannesen steamed once more to the west,
+running as close to the land as possible. But as the water here
+became shallower and shallower without any signal-tower being
+visible, Johannesen had to find his way himself through the
+delta; and for this purpose he determined to search for the
+easternmost arm of the river, which, on the maps, is drawn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page367" id="v1page367"></a>[pg 367]</span>
+as being very broad, and also appears to have been made use of
+by the vessels of &quot;the great northern expeditions.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn205" NAME="v1rn205">[205]</A></p>
+
+<p>Forty kilometres east of the northern extremity of the Lena
+delta Johannesen encountered three sandbanks, which he sailed
+round. After passing these the water became deeper, so that
+he could advance at a distance of five kilometres from land.
+On the 1st September Johannesen anchored in a bay on the
+mainland in the neighbourhood of the Bychov mouth, whence
+on the 3rd September, at 2.30 a.m., he continued his course up
+the river, but by 10 o'clock the <i>Lena</i> was aground. The water
+was falling, and did not begin to rise until an hour after midnight.
+It was not, therefore, until 8 a.m. the following day
+that the <i>Lena</i> was got off, and that with great difficulty. The
+sailing through the delta was rendered difficult by the maps,
+which were made 140 years ago, being now useless. For the
+delta has undergone great alterations since then. Where at
+that time there were sandbanks, there are now large islands,
+overgrown with wood and grass. At other places again whole
+islands have been washed away by the river.</p>
+
+<p>While the vessel was aground nine Tunguses came on board.
+They rowed in small boats, which were made of a single tree
+stem, hollowed out, and could just carry a man each. Johannesen
+endeavoured in vain to induce some of the Tunguses to
+pilot the steamer; he did not succeed in explaining his wish to
+them, notwithstanding all the attempts of the Russian interpreter,
+a proof of the slight contact these Tunguses had had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page368" id="v1page368"></a>[pg 368]</span>
+with the rulers of Siberia, and also of the difficulty and unwillingness
+with which the savage learns the language of the
+civilised nations.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the 7th September that the delta was finally
+passed, and the <i>Lena</i> steamed in the river proper, where the
+fairway became considerably better. Johannesen says in his
+account of the voyage that it is improbable that any of the
+western arms of the Lena are of importance, partly because the
+mass of water which flows in an easterly direction is very
+considerable in comparison with the whole quantity of water in
+the river, partly because the western and northern arms which
+Johannesen visited contained only salt water, while the water
+in the eastern arm was completely free from any salt taste. On
+the 8th, early in the morning, the first fixed dwelling-place on
+the Lena, Tas-Ary, was reached. Here the voyagers landed to
+get information about the fairway, but could not enter into
+communication with the natives, because they were Tunguses.
+In the afternoon of the same day they came to another river
+village, Bulun. Impatient to proceed, and supposing that it
+too was inhabited wholly by &quot;Asiatics,&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn206" NAME="v1rn206">[206]</A> Johannesen intended
+to pass it without stopping. But when the inhabitants saw the
+steamer they welcomed it with a salute from all the guns that
+could be got hold of in haste.<A HREF="#v1fn207" NAME="v1rn207">[207]</A> The <i>Lena</i> then anchored. Two
+Crown officials and a priest came on board, and the latter
+performed a thanksgiving service.</p>
+
+<p>Even at that remote spot on the border of the <i>tundra</i> the
+Asiatic comprehended very well the importance of vessels from
+the great oceans being able to reach the large rivers of Siberia.
+I too had a proof of this in the year 1875. While still rowing
+up the river in my own Nordland boat with two scientific men
+and three hunters, before we got up with the steamer <i>Alexander</i>
+we landed, among others, at a place where a number of Dolgans
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page369" id="v1page369"></a>[pg 369]</span>
+were collected. When they understood clearly that we had
+come to them, not as brandy-sellers or fish-buyers from the
+south, but from the north, <i>from the ocean</i>, they went into complete
+ecstasies. We were exposed to unpleasant embraces from
+our skin-clad admirers, and finally one of us had the misfortune
+to get a bath in the river in the course of an attempt which the
+Dolgans in their excitement made to carry him almost with
+violence to the boat, which was lying in the shallow water some
+distance from the shore. At Dudino, also, the priests living
+there held a thanksgiving service for our happy arrival thither.
+Two of them said mass, while the clerk, clad in a sheepskin
+caftan reaching to his feet, zealously and devoutly swung an
+immense censer. The odour from it was at first not particularly
+pleasant, but it soon became so strong and disagreeable that I,
+who had my place in front of the audience, was like to choke,
+though the ceremony was performed in the open air. Soon the
+clerk was completely concealed in a dense cloud of smoke, and
+it was now observed that his skin cloak had been set fire to at
+the same time as the incense. The service, however, was not
+interrupted by this incident, but the fire was merely extinguished
+by a bucket of water being thrown, to the amusement
+of all, over the clerk.</p>
+
+<p>At nine in the morning the <i>Lena</i> continued her voyage up
+the river with the priest and the Crown officials on board, but
+they had soon to be landed, because in their joy they had
+become dead drunk. On the 13th September Schigansk was
+reached, and samples of the coal found there were taken
+on board, but these proved unserviceable,<A HREF="#v1fn208" NAME="v1rn208">[208]</A> and on the 21st
+September the <i>Lena</i> reached Yakutsk. The first vessel which,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page370" id="v1page370"></a>[pg 370]</span>
+coming from the ocean, reached the heart of Siberia was
+received with great goodwill and hospitality, both by the
+authorities and the common people. But when Johannesen did
+not find here Sibiriakoff's representative, Kolesoff, he continued
+his voyage up the river, until, on the 8th October, he came to
+the village Njaskaja, 220 versts from Vitim, in about 60&deg; N.L.
+Here he turned back to Yakutsk and laid up the steamer in
+winter quarters a little to the south of that town.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p382.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p382.png" alt="YAKUTSK IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY." ></a>
+YAKUTSK IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+<br>(After Witsen.) </div>
+
+<p>Both the <i>Fraser</i> and <i>Express</i> and the <i>Lena</i> had thus fully
+answered the purposes intended before the departure of the
+expedition, and their voyages will always form an important
+link in the chain of the attempts through which navigation in
+the Siberian Polar Sea has been opened.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page371" id="v1page371"></a>[pg 371]</span>
+In order to give an idea of the influence which this sea-route
+may have on the commerce of the world, and the new source of
+fortune and prosperity which thereby maybe rendered accessible
+to millions, I shall in a few words give an account of the nature
+of the territory which by means of this sea-communication
+will be brought into contact with the old civilised countries
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p383.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p383.png" alt="YAKUTSK IN OUR DAYS." ></a>
+YAKUTSK IN OUR DAYS.
+<br>(After a recent Russian drawing.) </div>
+
+<p>If we take Siberia in its widest sense, that is to say, if we
+include under that name not only Siberia proper, but also the
+parts of High Asia which lie round the sources of the great
+Siberian rivers, this land may very well be compared in extent,
+climate, fertility, and the possibility of supporting a dense
+population, with America north of 40&deg; N.L. Like America,
+Siberia is occupied in the north by woodless plains. South of
+this region, where only the hunter, the fisher, and the reindeer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page372" id="v1page372"></a>[pg 372]</span>
+nomad can find a scanty livelihood, there lies a widely extended
+forest territory, difficult of cultivation, and in its natural conditions,
+perhaps, somewhat resembling Sweden and Finland north
+of 60&deg; or 61&deg; N.L. South of this wooded belt, again, we have,
+both in Siberia and America, immeasurable stretches of an
+exceedingly fertile soil, of whose power to repay the toil of the
+cultivator the grain exports during recent years from the frontier
+lands between the United States and Canada have afforded
+so striking evidence. There is, however, this dissimilarity
+between Siberia and America, that while the products of the
+soil in America may be carried easily and cheaply to the
+harbours of the Atlantic and the Pacific, the best part of
+Siberia, that which lies round the upper part of the courses of
+the Irtisch-Ob and the Yenisej, is shut out from the great
+oceans of the world by immense tracts lying in front of it, and
+the great rivers which in Siberia cross the country and appear
+to be intended by nature to form not only the arteries for its
+inner life, but also channels of communication with the rest of
+the world, all flow towards the north and fall into a sea which,
+down to the most recent times, has been considered completely
+inaccessible.</p>
+
+<a name="v1map372"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v1p372.jpg">
+<img src="images/v1p372th.jpg" alt="Map of the River System of Siberia." ></a>
+<br>Map of the River System of Siberia.</div>
+
+<p>Of these rivers the double river, Ob-Irtisch, with its numerous
+affluents, occupies an area of more than 60,000 geographical
+square miles, the Yenisej-Angara, not quite 50,000, and the
+Lena, somewhat over 40,000.<A HREF="#v1fn209" NAME="v1rn209">[209]</A> As the map of the river system
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page373" id="v1page373"></a>[pg 373]</span>
+of Siberia, which accompanies this work, shows, but a small part
+of these enormous territories lies north of the Arctic Circle, and
+only very inconsiderable portions of it are occupied by woodless
+<i>tundra</i>, which is explained by the fact that the greater part of
+the coast-land bordering on the Arctic Ocean is drained by
+small rivers of its own, and therefore cannot be considered to
+belong to the river territories now in question. If we draw the
+northern boundary of the land that may be cultivated with
+advantage at 60&deg; N.L., there remains a cultivable area of
+90,000 geographical square miles. Perhaps a third part of this
+is occupied by rocky country which is wooded, and probably
+capable of being cultivated only with considerable difficulty,
+but the rest consists for the most part of easily cultivated
+grassy plains, with little wood, and covered with the most
+luxuriant vegetation. The soil, in many places resembling
+the black earth or <i>tscherno-sem</i>of Russia, recompenses with
+abundant harvests even the slightest labour of cultivation.
+Notwithstanding this, these regions now support only an exceedingly
+sparse population, but many, many millions may without
+difficulty find their subsistence there when once cultivation has
+developed the rich natural resources of the country.</p>
+
+<p>It is a circumstance specially fortunate for the future development
+of Siberia that its three great rivers are already navigable
+for the greater part of their course. The Ob is navigable from
+Biisk (52-1/2&deg; N.L.), and the Irtisch at least from Semipalitinsk
+(50&deg; 18' N.L.). The Yenesej, again, which, after leaving the
+region of its sources in China, crosses with its two main arms
+the whole of Siberia from north to south, from the forty-sixth to
+the seventy-third degree of latitude, and thus traverses a territory
+which corresponds in length to the distance between Venice
+and the North Cape, or between the mouth of the Mississippi
+and the north part of Lake Winnipeg, and is already navigable
+by nature from the sea to Yenisejsk. To this town goods are
+already transported <i>down</i> both the main arms from Minusinsk
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page374" id="v1page374"></a>[pg 374]</span>
+and the region of Lake Baikal. It is said that the Angara
+might be made quite navigable during its whole course at an
+expenditure trifling in comparison with the advantages that
+would thus be gained, as well as its continuation, the Selenga,
+in its lower part between the Chinese frontier and Lake Baikal.
+In this way a river route would be opened for the conveyance of
+the products of North China and South Siberia to a sea which
+an ordinary steamer would cross in five or six days to the White
+Sea or the North Cape. A similar communication with the
+Atlantic may be opened on the double river Ob-Irtisch with
+Western Siberia and High Asia as far as to Chinese Dsungaria,
+where the Irtisch begins its course as a small river, the Black
+Irtisch, which falls into Lake Saisan, and rises south of the
+Altai Mountains in the neighbourhood of the Selenga, the
+source-river of the Yenisej. At several places the river territories
+of the Ob and the Yenesej nearly reach hands to one
+another through affluents, which rise so close to each other that
+the two river systems might easily be connected by canals.
+This is also the case with the affluents of the Yenesej and the
+Lena, which at many places almost meet, and the Lena itself
+is, according to Latkin's statement, navigable from the village
+of Kotschuga to the sea. We see from this how extraordinarily
+advantageous is the natural system of interior communication
+which Siberia possesses, and at the same time that a communication
+by sea between this country and the rest of the world is possible
+only by the Arctic Ocean. It is on this that the enormous
+importance of the navigation of the Siberian Polar Sea depends.
+If this can be brought about, Siberia, with an inconsiderable
+expenditure in making canals, will not only become one of the
+most fortunate countries of the globe in respect of the possibility
+of the cheap transport of goods, but the old proposal of a
+north-eastern commercial route to China may even become a
+reality. If, on the other hand, navigation on the Polar Sea
+be not brought about, Siberia will still long remain what it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page375" id="v1page375"></a>[pg 375]</span>
+at present&mdash;a land rich in raw materials, but poor in all
+that is required for the convenience and comfort with which the
+civilised man in our days can with difficulty dispense.</p>
+
+<p>Many perhaps believe that the present want of commercial
+communication may be removed by a railway running across
+Russia and Southern Siberia. But this is by no means the
+case. On the contrary, communication by sea is an indispensable
+condition of such a railway being profitable. For it can
+never come in question to carry on a railway the products of
+the forest or the field over the stretch of three to five thousand
+kilometres which separates the fertile river territory of the Ob-Irtisch
+from the nearest European port. Even if we suppose
+that the railway freight, inclusive of all costs, could be reduced
+to a farthing the kilometre-ton, it would in any case rise, from
+the grain regions of Siberia to a harbour on the Baltic, to from
+4<i>l</i>. to nearly 7<i>l</i>. per ton. So high a freight, with the costs of
+loading in addition, none of the common products of agriculture
+or forestry can stand, as may easily be seen if we compare this
+amount with the prices current in the markets of the world
+for wheat, rye, oats, barley, timber, &amp;c. But if the Siberian
+countryman cannot sell his raw products, the land will continue
+to be as thinly peopled as it is at present, nor can the
+sparse population which will be found there procure themselves
+means to purchase such products of the industry of the present
+day as are able to bear long railway carriage. In the absence of
+contemporaneous sea-communication the railway will therefore
+be without traffic, the land such as it is at present, and
+the unprosperous condition of the European population
+undiminished.</p>
+
+<p>In order to give the reader an idea of the present natural
+conditions, and the present communication on a Siberian river,
+I shall, before returning to the sketch of the voyage of the
+<i>Vega</i>, give some extracts from notes made during my journey
+up the Yenesej in 1875, reminding the reader, however, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page376" id="v1page376"></a>[pg 376]</span>
+the natural conditions of the Ob-Irtisch and the Lena differ
+considerably from those of the Yenisej, the Ob-Irtisch flowing
+through lower, more fertile, and more thickly peopled regions,
+the Lena again through a wilder, more beautiful, but less
+cultivated country.</p>
+
+<p>When one travels up the river from Port Dickson, the broad
+sound between Sibiriakoff's Island and the mainland is first
+passed, but the island is so low that it is not visible from the
+eastern bank of the river and which is usually followed in
+sailing up or down the river. The mainland, on the other hand,
+is at first high-lying, and in sailing along the coast it is possible
+to distinguish various spurs of the range of hills, estimated to
+be from 150 to 200 metres high, in the interior. These are
+free of snow in summer. A little south of Port Dickson they
+run to the river bank, where they form a low rock and rocky
+island projecting into the river, named after some otherwise
+unknown Siberian Polar trapper, Yefremov Kamen.</p>
+
+<p>Sibiriakoff's Island has never, so far as we know, been visited
+by man, not even during the time when numerous <i>simovies</i> were
+found at the mouth of the Yenesej. For no indication of this
+island is found in the older maps of Siberia, although these, as
+appears from the fac-simile reproduced at <a href="#v1page192">page 192</a>, give the
+names of a number of <i>simovies</i> at the mouth of the Yenisej,
+now abandoned. Nor is it mentioned in the accounts of the
+voyages of the great northern expeditions. The western strand
+of the island, the only one I have seen, completely bore the
+stamp of the <i>tundra</i> described below. Several reindeer were
+seen pasturing on the low grassy eminences of the island, giving
+promise of abundant sport to the hunter who first lands
+there.</p>
+
+<p>Still at Yefremov Kamen we saw in 1875 three Polar bears
+who appeared to pasture in all peacefulness among the rocks,
+and did not allow themselves to be disturbed by the enormous
+log-fire of driftwood we lighted on the strand to make our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page377" id="v1page377"></a>[pg 377]</span>
+coffee. Here were found for the last time during our journey
+up the river actual marine animals: Appendicularia, Olio,
+medus&aelig;, large beroids, &amp;c. Large bushy plants were still completely
+wanting, but the vegetable world already began to
+assume a stamp differing from the Arctic Ocean flora proper. A
+short distance south of Yefremov Kamen begins the veritable
+<i>tundra</i>, a woodless plain, interrupted by no mountain heights,
+with small lakes scattered over it, and narrow valleys crossing
+it, which often make an excursion on the apparently level plain
+exceedingly tiresome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p389.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p389.png" alt="RIVER VIEW ON THE YENISEJ." ></a>
+RIVER VIEW ON THE YEKISEJ.
+<br>(From a drawing by A.N. Lundstr&ouml;m.) </div>
+
+<p>As is the case with all the other Siberian rivers running from
+south to north,<A HREF="#v1fn210" NAME="v1rn210">[210]</A> the western strand of the Yenisej, wherever it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page378" id="v1page378"></a>[pg 378]</span>
+is formed of loose, earthy layers, is also quite low and often
+marshy, while on the other hand the eastern strand consists of
+a steep bank, ten to twenty metres high, which north of the
+limit of trees is distributed in a very remarkable way into
+pyramidal pointed mounds. Numerous shells of crustacea
+found here, belonging to species which still live in the Polar
+Sea, show that at least the upper earthy layer of the <i>tundra</i>
+was deposited in a sea resembling that which now washes the
+north coast of Siberia.<A HREF="#v1fn211" NAME="v1rn211">[211]</A></p>
+
+<p>The <i>tundra</i> itself is in summer completely free of snow, but
+at a limited depth from the surface the ground is continually
+frozen. At some places the earthy strata alternate with strata
+of pure, clear ice. It is in these frozen strata that complete
+carcases of elephants and rhinoceroses have been found, which
+have been protected from putrefaction for hundreds of thousands
+of years. Such <i>finds</i>, however, are uncommon, but on the
+other hand single bones from this primeval animal world occur
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page379" id="v1page379"></a>[pg 379]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p391.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p391.png" alt="SUB-FOSSIL MARINE CRUSTACEA FROM THE TUNDRA." ></a>
+SUB-FOSSIL MARINE CRUSTACEA FROM THE TUNDRA.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page380" id="v1page380"></a>[pg 380]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page381" id="v1page381"></a>[pg 381]</span>
+<p>in rich, abundance, and along with them masses of old driftwood,
+originating from the Mammoth period, known by the
+Russian natives of Siberia under the distinctive name of
+&quot;Noah's wood.&quot; Besides there are to be seen in the most
+recent layer of the Yenesej <i>tundra</i>, considerably north of the
+present limit of actual trees, large tree-stems with their roots
+fast in the soil, which show that the limit of trees in the
+Yenesej region, even during our geological period, went further
+north than now, perhaps as far as, in consequence of favourable
+local circumstances, it now goes on the Lena.</p>
+
+<p>On the slopes of the steep <i>tundra</i> bank and in several of the
+<i>tundra</i> valleys there is an exceedingly rich vegetation, which
+already, only 100 kilometres south of Yefremov Kamen, forms
+actual thickets of flowering plants, while the <i>tundra</i> itself is
+overgrown with an exceedingly scanty carpet, consisting more of
+mosses than of grasses. Salices of little height go as far
+north as Port Dickson (73&deg; 30' N.L,), the dwarf birch (<i>Betula
+nana</i>, L.) is met with, though only as a bush creeping along the
+ground, at Cape Schaitanskoj (72&deg; 8' N.L.); and here in 1875, on
+the ice-mixed soil of the <i>tundra</i>, we gathered ripe cloudberries.
+Very luxuriant alders (<i>Alnaster fruticosus</i>, LEDEB.) occur already
+at Mesenkin (71&deg; 28' N.L.), and the Briochov Islands (70&deg; to
+71&deg; N.L.), are in several places covered with rich and luxuriant
+thickets of bushes. But the limit of trees proper is considered
+to begin first at the great bend which the river makes in
+69&deg; 40' N.L., a little north of Dudino. Here the hills are
+covered with a sort of wood consisting of half-withered, grey,
+moss-grown larches (<i>Larix sibirica</i>), which seldom reach a
+height of more than seven to ten metres, and which much less
+deserve the name of trees than the luxuriant alder bushes
+which grow nearly 2&deg; farther north. But some few miles south
+of this place, and still far north of the Arctic Circle, the pine
+forest becomes tall. Here begins a veritable forest, the greatest
+the earth has to show, extending with little interruption from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page382" id="v1page382"></a>[pg 382]</span>
+the Ural to the neighbourhood of the Sea of Ochotsk, and from
+the fifty-eighth or fifty-ninth degree of latitude to far north
+of the Arctic Circle, that is to say, about one thousand kilometres
+from north to south, and perhaps four times as much
+from east to west. It is a primeval forest of enormous extent,
+nearly untouched by the axe of the cultivator, but at many
+places devastated by extensive forest fires.</p>
+
+<p>On the high eastern bank of the Yenisej the forest begins
+immediately at the river bank. It consists principally of pines:
+the cembra pine (<i>Pinus Cembra</i>, L.), valued for its seeds, enormous
+larches, the nearly awl-formed Siberian pine (<i>Pinus
+sibirica</i>, LEDEB.), the fir (<i>Pinus obovata</i>, TURCZ.), and scattered
+trees of the common pine (<i>Pinus sylvestris</i>, L.). Most of these
+already north of the Arctic Circle reach a colossal size, but in
+such a case are often here, far from all forestry, grey and half-dried
+up with age. Between the trees the ground is so covered
+with fallen branches and stems, only some of which are fresh,
+the others converted into a mass of wood-mould held together
+only by the bark, that there one willingly avoids going forward
+on an unbroken path. If that must be done, the progress made
+is small, and there is constant danger of breaking one's bones
+in the labyrinth of stems. Nearly everywhere the fallen stems
+are covered, often concealed, by an exceedingly luxuriant bed of
+mosses, while on the other hand tree-lichens, probably in consequence
+of the dry inland climate of Siberia, occur sparingly.
+The pines, therefore, want the shaggy covering common in
+Sweden, and the bark of the birches which are seen here
+and there among the pines is distinguished by an uncommon
+blinding whiteness.</p>
+
+<p>The western bank of the Yenesej consists, like the innumerable
+islands of the river, for the most part of lowlying and
+marshy stretches of land, which at the season of the spring
+floods are overflowed by the river and abundantly manured with
+its mud. In this way there is formed here a fertile tract of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page383" id="v1page383"></a>[pg 383]</span>
+meadow covered partly with a grassy turf untouched by the
+scythe, partly with a very peculiar bush vegetation, rising to a
+height of eight metres, among which there are to be found a
+number of families of plants well known by us in Sweden, as
+Impatiens, Urtica, Sonchus, Heracleum, &amp;c., but in gigantic
+forms unknown at home. Often a dense thicket of a willow
+(<i>Salix vitellenia</i>, L.), whose straight, branchless stems resemble
+at a distance the bamboo woods of the south, alternates with
+level, grassy carpets of a lively green and small streams in such
+a way as gives the whole the appearance of the most smiling
+park carefully kept free of fallen branches and dry grass. It is
+the river water which in spring has played the gardener's part
+in these parks, seldom trodden by the foot of man and endlessly
+rich in the most splendid greenery. Near the river there are
+also to be found carpets of a uniform green, consisting of a
+short kind of Equisetum, unmixed with any other plants, which
+forms a &quot;gazon,&quot; to which no nobleman's country seat can show
+a match. The drawback is, that a stay in these regions during
+summer is nearly rendered impossible by the enormous number
+of mosquitoes with which the air is infested.</p>
+
+<p>A table drawn up by Dr. Arnell, to be found in <i>Redog&ouml;relse
+f&ouml;r de svenska expeditionerna till mynningen of Jenisej &aring;r 1876,<A HREF="#v1fn212" NAME="v1rn212">[212]</A></i>
+shows the distribution of the most important varieties of trees.
+From it we see that on the Yenesej the birch (<i>Betula odorata,
+</i> BECHST.), the fir (<i>Pinus obovata</i>, TURCZ.), the larch (<i>Pinus
+larix</i>, L.), and the juniper (<i>Juniperus communis</i>, L.), go to
+69&deg; 35' N.L. (that is to say to the latitude of Tromsoe); the
+sallow (<i>Salix caprea</i>, L.) to 68&deg; 55'; the bird's cherry (<i>Prunus
+padus</i>, L.), and the Siberian pine (<i>Pinus sibirica</i>, LEDEB.), to
+66&deg; 30'; the aspen (<i>Populus tremula</i>, L.) to 65&deg; 55' (the latitude
+of Haparanda); the pine (<i>Pinus sylvatica</i>, L.) to 65&deg; 50', &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the forest belt the wood appears to cover
+the whole land without interruption, there being, unless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page384" id="v1page384"></a>[pg 384]</span>
+exceptionally, no open places. But towards the north the forest
+passes into the treeless <i>tundra</i> through bare spots occurring
+here and there, which gradually increase, until trees grow only
+in valleys and sheltered places, and finally disappear completely.
+Similar is the passage of the forest to treeless regions (steppes),
+which at first are here and there bestrewed with more or less
+detached groups of broad-leaved trees, until they wholly disappear,
+and the land forms an endless plain, out of whose fertile
+soil the warm summer sun calls forth a great variety of
+luxuriant vegetable forms, whose many-hued flowers, often
+large and splendid, clothe the fields with the richest splendour
+of colour. Here is the true homeland of many of the show-plants
+in the flower-gardens of Europe, as, for instance, the
+peony, the Siberian robinia, the blue iris, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>If the Siberian wooded belt forms the most extensive forest
+in the world, this flower-steppe forms the world's greatest
+cultivable field, in all probability unequalled in extent and
+fertility. Without manure and with an exceedingly small
+amount of labour expended on cultivation, man will year by
+year draw forth from its black soil the most abundant harvests.
+For the present, however, this land, with its splendid capabilities
+for cultivation, has an exceedingly scanty population; and
+this holds good in a yet higher degree of the forest belt, which
+is less susceptible of cultivation. At a considerable distance
+from the rivers it is for the most part an unknown land, where
+the European seldom or never sets his foot, and where only the
+native nomad or hunter wanders about. These forests, however,
+are by no means so rich in game as might be expected,
+perhaps because the mosquitoes in summer are unendurable by
+warm-blooded animals.</p>
+
+<p>The main population in the forest belt consists of native nomad
+or hunting tribes, of which Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Tunguses, and
+Yakuts are the most numerous. Only along the rivers do we
+find Russian villages and peasant settlements, placed there for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page385" id="v1page385"></a>[pg 385]</span>
+trading with the natives, for fishing, and at some places for
+washing gold. Not till we come to the middle of the country
+is the Russian population more numerous, here it spreads out in
+a broad belt over the whole of the immense expanse between
+the Ural and the Angara.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p397.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p397.png" alt="SIBERIAN RIVER BOAT." ></a>
+SIBERIAN RIVER BOAT.
+<br>Used by the Norwegian traveller Chr. Hansteen on the river Angara. </div>
+
+<p>In the farthest north the Russian dwelling-places consist of
+single cabins built of logs or planks from broken-up lighters,<A HREF="#v1fn213" NAME="v1rn213">[213]</A>
+and having flat, turf-covered roofs. Such carvings and ornaments
+as are commonly found on the houses of the well-to-do
+Russian peasant, and whose artistic outlines indicate that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page386" id="v1page386"></a>[pg 386]</span>
+inhabitants have had time to think of something else than the
+satisfaction of the wants of the moment, are here completely
+wanting; but further south the villages are larger, and the
+houses finer, with raised roofs and high gables richly ornamented
+with wood-carvings. A church, painted in bright colours,
+generally shows that one of the inhabitants of the village has
+become rich enough to be at the expense of this ornament to
+his native place. The whole indicates a degree of prosperity,
+and the interiors of the houses, if we except the cockroaches,
+which swarm everywhere, are very clean. The walls are ornamented
+with numerous, if not very artistic, photographs and
+lithographs. Sacred pictures, richly ornamented, are placed in
+a corner, and before them hang several small oil-lamps, or small
+wax-lights, which are lighted on festive occasions. The sleeping
+place is formed of a bedstead near the roof, so large that it
+occupies a half or a third of the room, and at such a height
+from the floor that one can stand upright under it. There
+a tropical heat commonly prevails, the occupant of the bed
+accordingly enjoying an almost constant sweat-bath, which does
+not prevent him from going out immediately into the open air
+at a temperature at which mercury freezes. Food is cooked in
+large baking ovens, which are fired daily for that purpose, and
+at the same time heat the cabin. Fresh bread is baked every
+day, and even for the poor a large tea-urn (<i>samovar</i>) is an almost
+indispensable household article. The foreigner is certain to
+receive a hearty and friendly welcome when he crosses the
+threshold, and if he stays a short time in the cabin he will
+generally, whatever time of the day it be, find himself drinking
+a glass of tea with his host. The dress everywhere closely
+resembles the Russian: for the rich, wide velvet trousers stuck
+into the boots, a shirt showily embroidered with silver thread,
+and a large caftan often lined with fur; for the poor, if not too
+ragged, the same cut, but the cloth inferior, dirty, and torn.
+During winter, however, for going out of doors, the Samoyed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page387" id="v1page387"></a>[pg 387]</span>
+<i>pesk</i> is said to be common to high and low, Russian and native,
+settled and nomad.</p>
+
+<p>In my journey up the Yenesej in 1875 I met with only a
+few persons in these regions who had been exiled thither for
+political reasons, but on the other hand very many exiled
+criminals of the deepest dye&mdash;murderers, thieves, forgers, incendiaries,
+&amp;c. Among them were also some few Fins and
+even a Swede, or at least one who, according to his own statement
+in broken Swedish, had formerly served in the King's
+Guard at Stockholm. Security of person and property was in
+any case complete, and it was remarkable that there did not
+appear to be any proper distinction of caste between the
+Russian-Siberian natives and those who had been exiled for
+crime. There appeared even to be little interest in ascertaining
+the crime&mdash;or, as the customary phrase appears to be here, the
+&quot;misfortune&quot;&mdash;which caused the exile. On making inquiry on
+this point I commonly got the answer, susceptible of many
+interpretations, &quot;for bad behaviour.&quot; We found a peculiar sort
+of criminal colony at Selivaninskoj, a very large village situated
+on the eastern bank of the Yenesej in about the latitude of
+Aavasaksa. My journal of the expedition of 1875 contains the
+following notes of my visit to this colony.</p>
+
+<p>The orthodox Russian church, as is well known, is tolerant
+towards the professors of foreign religions&mdash;Lutherans, Catholics,
+Jews, Mohammedans, Buddhists, Shamans, &amp;c.; but, on the
+other hand, in complete correspondence with what took place
+in former times within the Protestant world, persecutes sectaries
+within its own pale, with temporal punishments here upon earth
+and with threatenings of eternal in another world. Especially
+in former times a great many sectaries have been sent to Siberia,
+and therefore there are sometimes to be found there peculiar
+colonies enjoying great prosperity, exclusively inhabited by the
+members of a certain sect. Such is the Skopt colony at Selivaninskoj,
+in connection with which, however, it may be remarked
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page388" id="v1page388"></a>[pg 388]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p400.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p400.png" alt="OSTYAK TENT." ></a>
+OSTYAK TENT.
+<br>(After a Photograph.) </div>
+
+<p>that the nature of the religious delusion in this case accounts
+for the severity of the law or the authorities. For, on the
+ground of a text in the Gospel of Matthew interpreted in a
+very peculiar way, all Skoptzi subject themselves to a mutilation,
+in consequence of which the sect can only exist by new proselytes;
+and remarkably enough, these madmen, notwithstanding
+all persecution, or perhaps just on that account, actually still
+gain followers. A large number of the Skoptzi were Fins from
+Ingermanland, with whom I could converse without difficulty.
+They had, through industry and perseverance, succeeded in
+creating for themselves a certain prosperity, were hospitable and
+friendly, and bore their hard fate with resignation. They would
+not themselves kill any warm-blooded animal, for it was &quot;a sin
+to kill what God had created;&quot; which did not hinder them from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page389" id="v1page389"></a>[pg 389]</span>
+<br><br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page390" id="v1page390"></a>[pg 390]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p402.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p402.png" alt="TOWING WITH DOGS ON THE YENISEJ." ></a>
+TOWING WITH DOGS ON THE YENISEJ.
+<br>The boat <i>Luna</i> with the Swedish Land Expedition of 1876 on board. (After a drawing by Hj Th&eacute;el.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page391" id="v1page391"></a>[pg 391]</span>
+<p>catching and eating fish, and from selling to us, who in any
+case were lost beings, a fine fat ox, on condition that our own
+people should slaughter it. Their abstinence from some
+kinds of animal food had besides the good result of inducing
+them to devote themselves to the cultivation of the soil.
+Round about their cabins accordingly there were patches of land
+growing potatoes, turnips, and cabbage, which at least that year
+yielded an abundant crop, though lying under the Arctic circle.
+Farther south such plots increase in size, and yield rich crops,
+at least, of a very large potato. There is no proper cultivation of
+grain till we come to Sykobatka, situated in 60&deg; N.L., but in a
+future, when forests and mosses are diminished, a profitable
+agriculture will be carried on far to the northward.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the dwellings of the Russians, the tents of the
+natives, or, as the Russians call them, &quot;the Asiatics,&quot; are often
+to be met with. They have the same shape as the Lapp &quot;kota.&quot;
+The Samoyed tent is commonly covered with reindeer skins, the
+Ostyak tent with birch bark. In the neighbourhood of the
+tent there are always large numbers of dogs, which during
+winter are employed for general carrying purposes, and in
+summer for towing boats up the river&mdash;a means of water transport
+which greatly astonished the Norwegian sailors with whom
+I travelled up the river in 1875. To see people travelling in a
+boat drawn by dogs appeared to them more remarkable than
+the Kremlin of Moscow, or the bells of Kiev. For such a
+journey a sufficient number of dogs are harnessed to a long line,
+one end of which is fastened to the stem of the boat. The dogs
+then go along the level bank, where they make actual footpaths.
+The boat being of light draught is kept afloat at a
+sufficient distance from land partly by means of the rudder
+which is managed by a person sitting in the stern of the boat,
+and partly by poling from the fore. Small boats are often
+hollowed out of a single tree-stem, and may notwithstanding,
+thanks to the size which some of the pines attain in those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page392" id="v1page392"></a>[pg 392]</span>
+regions, be very roomy, and of a very beautiful shape. The
+dogs strongly resemble the Eskimo dogs in Greenland, which
+are also used as draught animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p404.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p404.png" alt="FISHING BOATS ON THE OB." ></a>
+FISHING BOATS ON THE OB.
+<br>(After a Photograph.) </div>
+
+<p>Most of the natives who have come into close contact with the
+Russians are said to profess the Christian religion. That many
+heathen customs, however, still adhere to them is shown, among
+other things, by the following incident: At a <i>simovie</i> where we
+landed for some hours on the 16th Sept. we found, as is common,
+a burying-place in the forest near the dwelling houses. The
+corpses were placed in large coffins above ground, at which
+almost always a cross was erected. In one of the crosses a
+sacred picture was inserted, which must be considered a further
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page393" id="v1page393"></a>[pg 393]</span>
+proof that a Christian rested in the coffin. Notwithstanding
+this, we found some clothes, which had belonged to the departed,
+hanging on a bush beside the grave, together with a bundle containing
+food, principally dried fish. At the graves of the richer
+natives the survivors are even said to place along with food
+some rouble notes, in order that the departed may not be altogether
+without ready money on his entrance into the other world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p405.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p405.png" alt="GRAVES IN THE PRIMEVAL FOREST OF SIBERIA." ></a>
+GRAVES IN THE PRIMEVAL FOREST OF SIBERIA.
+<br>(After a drawing by Hj. Th&eacute;el.) </div>
+
+<p>Right opposite the village Nasimovskoj is a gold-digger's
+deserted &quot;residence,&quot; named Yermakova after the first conqueror
+of Siberia. The building owed its origin to the discovery
+of sand-beds rich in gold, occupying a pretty extensive area
+east of the Yenisej, which for a time had the repute of being
+the richest gold territory in the world. Here in a short
+time enormous fortunes were made; and accounts of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page394" id="v1page394"></a>[pg 394]</span>
+hundreds of poods which one or another yearly reaped from
+the sand-beds, and the fast reckless life led by those to whom
+fortune dealt out the great prizes in the gold-digging lottery,
+still form a favourite topic of conversation in the region. A
+rise in the value of labour and a diminished production of the
+noble metal have, however, since led to the abandonment of a
+large number of the diggings that formerly were most productive;
+others now scarcely pay the expense of the working.
+Many of the gold-diggers who were formerly rich, in the
+attempt to win more have been impoverished, and have disappeared;
+others who have succeeded in retaining their &quot;pood
+of gold&quot;&mdash;that is the mint unit which the gold-diggers prefer
+to use in their conversation&mdash;have removed to Omsk, Krasnojarsk,
+Moscow, Petersburg, Paris, &amp;c. The gold-diggers' residences
+stand, therefore, now deserted, and form on the eastern
+bank of the river a row of half-decayed wooden ruins surrounded
+by young trees, after which in no long time only the tradition
+of the former period of prosperity will be found remaining. In
+one respect indeed the gold-diggers have exerted a powerful
+influence on the future of the country. For it was through
+them that the first pioneers were scattered in the wilderness,
+the first seed sown of the cultivation of the region.</p>
+
+<p>In 1875 there were only two steamers on the Yenisej. These
+were neither passenger nor cargo boats, but rather movable
+commercial stores, propelled by steam. The fore-saloon formed
+a shop provided with a desk, and shelves on which were to be
+seen cloths, iron wares, guns, ammunition, tobacco, tea, matches,
+sugar, brightly coloured copper engravings or lithographs, &amp;c.
+In the after-saloon was enthroned, among brandy casks, purchased
+furs, and other precious or delicate wares, he who had
+the command on board, a kind and friendly merchant, who evidently
+did not concern himself much with the work of the
+sailors, but rather with trade and the making of bargains, and
+who was seldom called by the crew captain (<i>kapitan</i>), but generally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page395" id="v1page395"></a>[pg 395]</span>
+master (<i>hosain</i>). After the steamer, or floating commercial
+store, there was towed one or two <i>lodjas</i>, which served as magazines,
+in which meal and salt and other heavy goods were stored,
+the purchased fish were salted and looked after, fresh bread baked
+for the numerous crew, &amp;c. And as there was not a single jetty
+to be found the whole way between Yenisejsk and the sea, both
+the steamer and the <i>lodjas</i>, in order to be able to load and deliver
+goods at any point, had a large number of boats and lighters
+in tow. No place was set apart for passengers, but travellers
+were received in a friendly and hospitable manner when they
+came on board, where they were then allowed to look out for
+themselves as best they could. The nautical command was
+held by two mates or pilots of a stately and original appearance,
+who, clad in long caftans, sat each in his watch on a chair at
+the wheel, generally without steering, mostly smoking a cigarette
+made of coarse paper and, with the most careless appearance in
+the world, exchanging jests with those who were going down the
+river. The prohibition of taking away the attention of the
+steersman from his work by conversation was thus not in force
+hereabouts. A man stood constantly in the fore, uninterruptedly
+testing the depth with a long pole. For in order to avoid the
+strong current of the main stream the course was always shaped
+as near the shore as possible, often so near that one could almost
+jump ashore, and my own Nordland boat, which was towed by
+the side of the steamer, was occasionally drawn over land. It
+will be seen from this of how light draught the steamer was.</p>
+
+<p>Siberia, especially the river territory of the Yenisej and the
+Lena, possesses rich coal seams, which probably extend under
+considerable portions of the Siberian plain, but are yet unworked
+and have attracted little attention. The river steamers accordingly
+are fired, not with coal, but with wood, of which, if I
+remember right, 180 fathoms went to the voyage of the steamer
+<i>Alexander</i> up the river. As the vessel could carry only a small
+portion of this quantity of wood at one time, frequent halts were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page396" id="v1page396"></a>[pg 396]</span>
+necessary, not only for trading with the natives, but also for
+taking fuel on board. In addition to this, the weak engine,
+<i>although the safety valves were overloaded when necessary with lead
+weights</i>, was sometimes unable to make head with all the vessels
+in tow against a current which at some places was very rapid,
+and often, in the attempt to find still water near the river bank,
+the steamer ran aground, notwithstanding the continual &quot;ladno&quot;
+cry of the poling pilot standing in the fore. It made so slow
+progress on this account that the passage from Saostrovskoj to
+Yenisejsk occupied a whole month.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p408.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p408.png" alt="CHUKCH VILLAGE ON A SIBERIAN RIVER." ></a>
+CHUKCH VILLAGE ON A SIBERIAN RIVER.
+<br>(After a Photograph.) </div>
+
+<p>The two main arms into which the Yenisej is divided south
+of Yenisejsk are too rapid for the present Yenisej steamers
+to ascend them, while, as has been already stated, there is no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page397" id="v1page397"></a>[pg 397]</span>
+difficulty in descending these rivers from the Selenga and the
+Baikal Lake on the one hand, and from the Minusinsk region
+abounding in grain on the other. The banks here consist, in
+many places, of high rocky ridges covered with fine forests, with
+wonderfully beautiful valleys between them, covered with
+luxuriant vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>What I have said regarding the mode of travelling up the
+Yenisej refers to the year 1875, in which I went up the river
+accompanied by two Swedish naturalists and three Norwegian
+seamen. It was then by no means unknown, for scientific men
+such as HANSTEEN (1829), CASTR&Eacute;N (1846), MIDDENDORFF (winter
+journeys in 1843 and 1844), and SCHMIDT (1866), had travelled
+hither and communicated their observations to the scientific
+world in valuable works on the nature and people of the region.
+But the visits of the West-European still formed rare exceptions;
+no West-European commercial traveller had yet wandered to
+those regions, and into the calculations of the friendly masters
+of the Yenisej river steamers no import of goods from, or
+export of goods to, Europe had ever entered. All at once a new
+period seemed to begin. If the change has not gone on so fast
+as many expected, life here, however, is more than it was at one
+time, and every year the change is more and more noticeable.
+It is on this account that I consider these notes from the journey
+of 1875 worthy of being preserved.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn200" NAME="v1fn200">[200]</A> With this name, for want of another, I denote all the innumerable
+islands which lie in the Yenisej between 69&deg; 45' and 71&deg; N.L.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn201" NAME="v1fn201">[201]</A> The <i>Moskwa</i> was the first steamer which penetrated from the
+Atlantic to the town of Yenisejsk. The principal dates of this voyage
+may therefore be quoted here.</p>
+
+<p>Baron Knoop, along with several Russian merchants, had chartered in 1878
+a steamer, the <i>Louise</i>; but this vessel stranded on the coast of
+Norway. The <i>Zaritza</i>, another Norwegian steamer, was chartered instead
+to carry the <i>Louise's</i> goods to their destination. But this vessel too
+stranded at the mouth of the Yenisej, and was abandoned by the crew, who
+were rescued by a small steamer, the <i>Moskwa</i>, which accompanied the
+<i>Zaritza</i>. In this steamer Captain Dallmann, the Bremen merchant Helwig
+Schmidt, and Ehlertz, an official in the Russian finance office, now
+travelled up the river. The <i>Moskwa</i> had a successful voyage, arriving
+on the 4th September at Goltschicha, passing Turuchansk in consequence
+of a number of delays only on the 24th September, reaching Podkamenaja
+Tunguska on the 1st October, and on the 14th of the same month its
+destination, a winter harbour on the Tschorna river, some miles north of
+Yenisejsk. (Fahrt auf dem Yenisse; von der M&uuml;ndung bis Yenisejsk im
+Sommer 1878; Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1879, p 81.)</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn202" NAME="v1fn202">[202]</A> The particulars of the voyages of these vessels are taken from a
+copy which I have received of Captain Emil Nilsson's log.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn203" NAME="v1fn203">[203]</A> The goods carried by me and by Wiggins to the Yenisej; in 1876,
+and those which Schwanenberg carried thence in 1877, were properly only
+samples on a somewhat large scale. I have no knowledge of the goods
+which the <i>Zaritza</i> had on board when she ran aground at the mouth of
+the Yenisej.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn204" NAME="v1fn204">[204]</A> According to Johannesen's determination. On Wrangel's map the
+latitude of this cape is given as 73&deg; 30'. Johannesen found the
+longitude to be 125&deg; 31' instead of 127&deg;.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn205" NAME="v1fn205">[205]</A> According to Latkin (Petermann's <i>Mittheilungen</i>, 1879, p. 92),
+the Lena delta is crossed by seven main arms, the westernmost of which
+is called Anatartisch. It debouches into the sea at a cape 58 feet high
+named Ice Cape (Ledjanoi). Next come the river arm Bjelkoj, then Tumat,
+at whose mouth a landmark erected by Laptev in 1739 is still in
+existence. Then come the other three main arms, Kychistach, Trofimov,
+and Kischlach, and finally the very broad eastmost arm, Bychov. Probably
+some of the smaller river arms are to be preferred for sailing up the
+river to this broad arm, which is fouled by shoals.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn206" NAME="v1fn206">[206]</A> A common name used in Siberia for all the native races.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn207" NAME="v1fn207">[207]</A> This has been incorrectly interpreted as if they shot at the
+vessel.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn208" NAME="v1fn208">[208]</A> A coal seam is often unfit for use near the surface, where for
+centuries it has been uncovered and exposed to the action of the
+atmosphere, while farther down it may yield very good coal. It is
+probable besides that the layers of shale, which often surround the coal
+seams, have in this case been mistaken for the true coal. For those who
+are inexperienced in coal-mining to make such a mistake is the rule and
+not the exception.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn209" NAME="v1fn209">[209]</A> In order not to write without due examination about figures which
+have been written about a thousand times before, I have, with the help
+of Petermann's map of North and Middle Asia in Stieler's Hand-Atlas,
+calculated the extent of the areas of the Siberian rivers, and found
+them to be:&mdash;</p>
+
+<pre>
+                                    Square        Geographical
+                                    kilometres.   square miles.
+River area of the Ob (with the Tas) 3,445,000     62,560
+River area of the Yenisej           2,712,000     49,250
+River area of the Lena              2,395,000     43,500
+
+Of these areas 4,966,000 square kilometres, or about 90,000 geographical square miles,
+lie south of 60&deg; N.L.
+</pre>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn210" NAME="v1fn210">[210]</A> For the northern hemisphere it is the general rule that where rivers flow through loose,
+earthy strata in a direction deviating considerably from that of the
+parallels of latitude, the right bank, when one stands facing the mouth
+of the river, is high, and the left low. The cause of this is the
+globular form of the earth and its rotation, which gives rivers flowing
+north a tendency towards the east, and to rivers flowing south a
+tendency to the west This tendency is resisted by the bank, but it is
+gradually eaten into and washed away by degrees, so that the river bed,
+in the course of thousands of years, is shifted in the direction
+indicated.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn211" NAME="v1fn211">[211]</A> As specimens of the sub-fossil mollusc fauna of the <i>tundra</i> some
+of the common species are delineated on the opposite page. These
+are:&mdash;/* 1. <i>Mya arenaria</i>, Lin. 2/3 of natural size. 2. <i>Mya truncata</i>,
+Lin. var. <i>Uddevallensis</i>, Forbes. 2/3 3. <i>Saxicava pholadis</i>, Lin. 2/3.
+4. <i>Tellina lata</i>, Gmel. 2/3 5. <i>Cardium ciliatum</i>, Fabr. 2/3. 6. <i>Leda
+pernula</i>, M&uuml;ll. var. <i>buccata</i>, Steenstr. Natural size. 7. <i>Nucula
+expansa</i>, Reeve. Nat. size. 8. <i>Fusus Kroyeri</i>, M&ouml;ll. 2/3. 9. <i>Fusus
+fornicatus</i>, Reeve. 1/2. 10. <i>Fusus tornatus</i>, Gould. 2/3. 11.
+<i>Margarita elegantissima</i>, Bean. Natural size. 12. <i>Pleurotoma
+plicifera</i>, Wood. Natural size. 13. <i>Pleurotoma pyramidalis</i>, Str&ouml;m.
+1-1/2. 14. <i>Trichotropis borealis</i>, Brod. 1-1/2. 15. <i>Natica
+helicoides</i>, Johnst. Nat. size.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn212" NAME="v1fn212">[212]</A> <i>Bihang till Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> Bd. iv. No. 11, p. 42.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn213" NAME="v1fn213">[213]</A> Provisions and wares intended for trade with the natives are
+transported on the Yenisej, as on many other Siberian rivers, down the
+stream in colossal lighters, built of planks like logs. It does not pay
+to take them up the river again, on which account, after their lading
+has been taken out of them, they are either left on the bank to rot or
+broken up for the timber.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page398" id="v1page398"></a>[pg 398]</span>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_IX"></a><h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>The New Siberian Islands&mdash;The Mammoth&mdash;Discovery of Mammoth and
+Rhinoceros mummies&mdash;Fossil Rhinoceros horns&mdash;Stolbovoj Island&mdash;Liachoff's
+Island&mdash;First discovery of this island&mdash;Passage through the
+sound between this island and the mainland&mdash;Animal life there&mdash;Formation
+of ice in water above the freezing point&mdash;The Bear Islands&mdash;The
+quantity and dimensions of the ice begin to increase&mdash;Different
+kinds of sea-ice&mdash;Renewed attempt to leave the open channel along the
+coast&mdash;Lighthouse Island&mdash;Voyage along the coast to Cape
+Schelagskoj&mdash;Advance delayed by ice, shoals, and fog&mdash;First meeting with the
+Chukches&mdash;Landing and visits to Chukch villages&mdash;Discovery of
+abandoned encampments&mdash;Trade with the natives rendered difficult
+by the want of means of exchange&mdash;Stay at Irkaipij&mdash;Onkilon graves&mdash;Information
+regarding the Onkilon race&mdash;Renewed contact with the
+Chukches&mdash;Kolyutschin Bay&mdash;American statements regarding the state
+of the ice north of Behring's Straits&mdash;The <i>Vega</i> beset.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>After the parting the <i>Lena</i> shaped her course towards the land;
+the <i>Vega</i> continued her voyage in a north-easterly direction
+towards the new Siberian Islands.</p>
+
+<p>These have, from the time of their discovery, been renowned
+among the Russian ivory collectors for their extraordinary richness
+in tusks and portions of skeletons of the extinct northern
+species of elephant known by the name of <i>mammoth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We know by the careful researches of the academicians PALLAS,
+VON BAER, BRANDT, VON MIDDENDORFF, FR. SCHMIDT, &amp;c., that
+the mammoth was a peculiar northern species of elephant with
+a covering of hair, which, at least during certain seasons of the
+year, lived under natural conditions closely resembling those
+which now prevail in middle and even in northern Siberia.
+The widely extended grassy plains and forests of North Asia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page399" id="v1page399"></a>[pg 399]</span>
+were the proper homeland of this animal, and there it must at
+one time have wandered about in large herds.</p>
+
+<p>The same, or a closely allied species of elephant, also occurred
+in North America, in England, France, Switzerland, Germany,
+and North Russia. Indeed, even in Sweden and Finland inconsiderable
+mammoth remains have sometimes been found.<A HREF="#v1fn214" NAME="v1rn214">[214]</A> But
+while in Europe only some more or less inconsiderable remains
+of bones are commonly to be found, in Siberia we meet not only
+with whole skeletons, but also whole animals frozen in the
+earth, with solidified blood, flesh, hide, and hair. Hence we
+may draw the conclusion that the mammoth died out, speaking
+geologically, not so very long ago. This is besides confirmed by
+a remarkable antiquarian discovery made in France. Along
+with a number of roughly worked flint flakes, pieces of ivory
+were found, on which, among other things, a mammoth with
+trunk, tusks, and hair was engraved in rough but unmistakable
+lineaments, and in a style resembling that which distinguishes
+the Chukch drawings, copies of which will be found
+further on in this work. This drawing, whose genuineness
+appears to be proved, surpasses in age, perhaps a hundredfold,
+the oldest monuments that Egypt has to show, and forms a remarkable
+proof that the mammoth, the original of the drawing,
+lived in Western Europe contemporaneously with man. The
+mammoth remains are thus derived from a gigantic animal form,
+living in former times in nearly all the lands now civilized, and
+whose carcase is not yet everywhere completely decomposed.
+Hence the great and intense interest which attaches to all that
+concerns this wonderful animal.</p>
+
+<p>If the interpretation of an obscure passage in Pliny be correct,
+mammoth ivory has, from the most ancient times, formed a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page400" id="v1page400"></a>[pg 400]</span>
+valued article of commerce, which, however, was often mistaken
+for the ivory of living elephants and of the walrus. But portions
+of the skeleton of the mammoth itself are first described in detail
+by WITSEN, who during his stay in Russia in 1686 collected
+a large number of statements regarding it, and at least in the
+second edition of his work gives good drawings of the under jaw
+of a mammoth and the cranium of a fossil species of ox, whose
+bones are found along with the remains of the mammoth (WITSEN,
+2nd. edit. p. 746). But it appears to have escaped Witsen,
+who himself considered mammoth bones to be the remains of
+ancient elephants, and who well knew the walrus, that in a
+number of the accounts which he quotes, the mammoth and the
+walrus are clearly mixed up together, which is not so wonderful,
+as both are found on the coast of the Polar Sea, and both yielded
+ivory to the stocks of the Siberian merchants. In the same
+way all the statements which the French Jesuit, AVRIL, during
+his stay in Moscow in 1686, collected regarding the amphibious
+animal, <i>Behemoth</i>, occurring on the coast of the Tartarian Sea,
+(Polar Sea) refer not to the mammoth, as some writers,
+HOWORTH<A HREF="#v1fn215" NAME="v1rn215">[215]</A> for example, have supposed, but to the walrus.
+The name mammoth, which is probably of Tartar origin, Witsen
+appears to wish to derive from Behemoth, spoken of in the
+fortieth chapter of the Book of Job. The first mammoth tusk
+was brought to England in 1611, by JOSIAS LOGAN. It was
+purchased in the region of the Petchora, and attracted great
+attention, as appears from Logan's remark in a letter to Hakluyt,
+that one would not have dreamed to find such wares in the
+region of the Petchora (<i>Purchas</i>, iii p. 546). As Englishmen
+at that time visited Moscow frequently, and for long periods,
+this remark appears to indicate that fossil ivory first became
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page401" id="v1page401"></a>[pg 401]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p413.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p413.png" alt="MAMMOTH SKELETON IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES IN ST. PETERSBURG." ></a>
+MAMMOTH SKELETON IN THE IMPERIAL MUSEUM OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES IN ST. PETERSBURG.
+<br>After a Photograph communicated by the Academician Friedrich Schmidt in St. Petersburg. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page402" id="v1page402"></a>[pg 402]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page403" id="v1page403"></a>[pg 403]</span>
+<p>known in the capital of Russia some time after the conquest of
+Siberia.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p415.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p415.png" alt="RESTORED FORM OF THE MAMMOTH." ></a>
+RESTORED FORM OF THE MAMMOTH.
+<br>After JUKES, <i>The Student's Manual of Geology</i>, Edinburgh, 1862. </div>
+
+<p>I have not, indeed, been successful during the voyage of the
+<i>Vega</i> in making any remarkable discovery that would throw
+light on the mode of life of the mammoth,<A HREF="#v1fn216" NAME="v1rn216">[216]</A> but as we now sail
+forward between shores probably richer in such remains than any
+other on the surface of the globe, and over a sea, from whose
+bottom our dredge brought up, along with pieces of driftwood,
+half-decayed portions of mammoth tusks, and as the savages
+with whom we came in contact, several times offered us very
+fine mammoth tusks or tools made of mammoth ivory, it may
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page404" id="v1page404"></a>[pg 404]</span>
+not perhaps be out of place here to give a brief account of some
+of the most important mammoth <i>finds</i> which have been preserved
+for science. We can only refer to the discovery of mammoth
+<i>mummies</i>,<A HREF="#v1fn217" NAME="v1rn217">[217]</A> for the <i>finds</i> of mammoth tusks sufficiently well
+preserved to be used for carving are so frequent as to defy
+enumeration. Middendorff reckons the number of the tusks,
+which yearly come into the market, as at least a hundred pairs,<A HREF="#v1fn218" NAME="v1rn218">[218]</A>
+whence we may infer, that during the years that have elapsed
+since the conquest of Siberia useful tusks from more than
+20,000 animals have been collected.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery of a mammoth-<i>mummy</i> is mentioned for the
+first time in detail in the sketch of a journey which the Russian
+ambassador EVERT YSSBRANTS IDES, a Dutchman by birth,
+made in 1692 through Siberia to China. A person whom
+Yssbrants Ides had with him during his journey through Siberia,
+and who travelled every year to collect mammoth ivory, assured
+him that he had once found a head of this animal in a piece of
+frozen earth which had tumbled down. The flesh was putrefied,
+the neck-bone was still coloured by blood, and some distance
+from the head a frozen foot was found.<A HREF="#v1fn219" NAME="v1rn219">[219]</A> The foot was taken to
+Turuchansk, whence we may infer that the <i>find</i> was made on
+the Yenisej. Another time the same man found a pair of tusks
+weighing together twelve poods or nearly 200 kilogram. Ides'
+informant further stated, that while the heathen Yakuts, Tunguses,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page405" id="v1page405"></a>[pg 405]</span>
+and Ostyaks, supposed that the mammoth always lived
+in the earth and went about in it, however hard the ground
+might be frozen, also that the large animal died when it came
+so far up that it saw or smelled the air; the old Russians living
+in Siberia were of opinion that the mammoth was an animal
+of the same kind as the elephant, though with tusks somewhat
+more bent and closer together; that before the Flood Siberia had
+been warmer than now, and elephants had then lived in numbers
+there; that they had been drowned in the Flood, and afterwards,
+when the climate became colder, had frozen in the river mud.<A HREF="#v1fn220" NAME="v1rn220">[220]</A></p>
+
+<p>The folk-lore of the natives regarding the mode of life of the
+mammoth under ground is given in still greater detail in J.B.
+M&Uuml;LLER'S <i>Leben und Gewonheiten der Ostiaken unter dem Polo
+arctico wohnende</i>, &amp;c. Berlin, 1720 (in French in <i>Recueil de
+Voiages au Nord</i>, Amsterdam, 1731-38, Vol. VIII. p. 373).
+According to the accounts given by Muller, who lived in Siberia
+as a Swedish prisoner of war,<A HREF="#v1fn221" NAME="v1rn221">[221]</A> the tusks formed the animal's
+horns. With these, which were fastened above the eyes and
+were movable, the animal dug a way for itself through the clay
+and mud, but when it came to sandy soil, the sand ran together
+so that the mammoth stuck fast and perished. Muller further
+states, that many assured him that they themselves had seen
+such animals on the other side of Beresovsk in large grottos in
+the Ural mountains (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 382).</p>
+
+<p>KLAPROTH received a similar account of the mammoth's way
+of life from the Chinese in the Russo-Chinese frontier and trading
+town Kyachta. For mammoth ivory was considered to be
+tusks of the giant rat <i>tien-shu</i>, which is only found in the cold
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page406" id="v1page406"></a>[pg 406]</span>
+regions along the coast of the Polar Sea, avoids the light, and
+lives in dark holes in the interior of the earth. Its flesh is
+said to be cooling and wholesome. Some Chinese literati considered
+that the discovery of these immense earth rats might
+even explain the origin of earthquakes.<A HREF="#v1fn222" NAME="v1rn222">[222]</A></p>
+
+<p>It was not until the latter half of the last century that a
+European scientific man had an opportunity of examining a
+similar <i>find</i>. In the year 1771 a complete rhinoceros, with flesh
+and hide, was uncovered by a landslip on the river Wilui in 64&deg;
+N.L. Its head and feet are still preserved at St. Petersburg.
+All the other parts were allowed to be destroyed for want of
+means of transport and preservation.<A HREF="#v1fn223" NAME="v1rn223">[223]</A> What was taken away
+showed that this primeval rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros antiquitatis</i>
+Blumenbach) had been covered with hair and differed from all
+now living species of the same family, though strongly resembling
+them in shape and size. Already, long before the
+horns of the fossil rhinoceros had attracted the attention of
+the natives, pieces of these horns were used for the same purposes
+for which the Chukches employ strips of whalebone, viz.
+to increase the elasticity of their bows. They were considered at
+the same time to exert a like beneficial influence on the arrow,
+tending to make it hit the mark, as, according to the hunter's
+superstition among ourselves in former days, some cat's claws
+and owl's eyes placed in the bullet mould had on the ball. The
+natives believed that the crania and horns of the rhinoceros
+found along with the remains of the mammoth belonged to</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page407" id="v1page407"></a>[pg 407]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p419.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p419.png" alt="SIBERIAN RHINOCEROS HORN." ></a>
+SIBERIAN RHINOCEROS HORN.
+<br>Preserved in the Museum at St. Petersburg. </div>
+
+<p>gigantic birds, regarding which there were told in the tents of
+the Yakut, the Ostyak and the Tunguse many tales resembling
+that of the bird Roc in the <i>Thousand and One Nights</i>. Ermann
+and Middendorff even suppose that such <i>finds</i> two thousand
+years ago gave occasion to Herodotus' account of the Arimaspi
+and the gold-guarding dragons (<i>Herodotus</i>, Book IV. chap. 27).
+Certain it is that during the middle ages such &quot;grip-claws&quot;
+were preserved, as of great value, in the treasuries and art collections
+of that time, and that they gave rise to many a romantic
+story in the folk-lore both of the West and East. Even in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page408" id="v1page408"></a>[pg 408]</span>
+this century Hedenstr&ouml;m, the otherwise sagacious traveller on
+the Siberian Polar Sea, believed that the fossil rhinoceros' horns
+were actual, &quot;grip-claws.&quot; For he mentions in his oft-quoted
+work, that he had seen such a claw 20 verschoks (0.9 metre) in
+length, and when he visited St. Petersburg in 1830, the scientific
+men there did not succeed in convincing him that his ideas on
+this subject were incorrect.<A HREF="#v1fn224" NAME="v1rn224">[224]</A></p>
+
+<p>A new <i>find</i> of a mammoth <i>mummy</i> was made in 1787, when
+the natives informed the Russian travellers SARYTSCHEV and
+MERK, that about 100 versts below the village Alasejsk, situated
+on the river Alasej running into the Polar Sea, a gigantic
+animal had been washed out of the sand beds of the beach
+in an upright posture, undamaged, with hide and hair. The
+<i>find</i>, however, does not appear to have been thoroughly
+examined.<A HREF="#v1fn225" NAME="v1rn225">[225]</A></p>
+
+<p>In 1799 a Tunguse found on the Tamut Peninsula, which juts
+out into the sea immediately south-east of the river-arm by
+which the <i>Lena</i>, steamed up the river, another frozen-in mammoth.
+He waited patiently five years for the ground thawing
+so much as that the precious tusks should be uncovered. The
+softer parts of the animal accordingly were partly torn in pieces
+and destroyed by beasts of prey and dogs, when the place was
+closely examined in 1806 by ADAMS the Academician. Only
+the head and two of the feet were then almost undamaged.
+The skeleton, part of the hide, a large quantity of long hair and
+woolly hair a foot and a half long were taken away. How fresh
+the carcase was may be seen from the fact that parts of the eye
+could still be clearly distinguished. Similar remains had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page409" id="v1page409"></a>[pg 409]</span>
+found two years before, a little further beyond the mouth of the
+Lena, but they were neither examined nor removed.<A HREF="#v1fn226" NAME="v1rn226">[226]</A></p>
+
+<p>A new <i>find</i> was made in 1839, when a complete mammoth
+was uncovered by a landslip on the shore of a large lake to the
+west of the mouth of the Yenisej, seventy versts from the Polar
+Sea. It was originally almost entire, so that even the trunk
+appears to have been preserved, to judge by the statement of
+the natives that a black tongue as long as a month-old reindeer
+calf was hanging out of the mouth; but it had, when it was
+removed in 1842, by the care of the merchant TROFIMOV, been
+already much destroyed.<A HREF="#v1fn227" NAME="v1rn227">[227]</A></p>
+
+<p>Next after Trofimov's mammoth come the mammoth-<i>finds</i> of
+Middendorff and Schmidt. The former was made in 1843 on the
+bank of the river Tajmur, under 75&deg; N.L.; the latter in 1866
+or the Gyda <i>tundra</i>, west of the mouth of the Yenisej in 70&deg; 13'
+N.L. The soft parts of these <i>finds</i> were not so well preserved
+as those just mentioned. But the <i>finds</i> at all events had a
+greater importance for science, from the localities having been
+thoroughly examined by competent scientific men. Middendorff
+arrived at the result that the animal found by him had floated
+from more southerly regions to the place where it was found.
+Schmidt on the other hand found that the stratum which contained
+the mammoth rested on a bed of marine clay, containing
+shells of high northern species of crustacea which still live in the
+Polar Sea, and that it was covered with strata of sand alternating
+with beds, from a quarter to half a foot thick, of decayed
+remains of plants, which completely correspond with the turf
+beds which are still formed in the lakes of the <i>tundra</i>. Even
+the very beds of earth and clay in which the bones, pieces of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page410" id="v1page410"></a>[pg 410]</span>
+hide, and hair of the mammoth <i>mummy</i> were enclosed, contained
+pieces of larch, branches and leaves of the dwarf birch
+(<i>Betulct nana</i>), and of two northern species of willow (<i>Salie
+glauca</i>, and <i>herbacea</i>).<A HREF="#v1fn228" NAME="v1rn228">[228]</A> It appears from this that the climate of
+Siberia at the time when these mammoth-carcases were imbedded,
+was very nearly the same as the present, and as the
+stream in whose neighbourhood the find was made is a comparatively
+inconsiderable <i>tundra</i> river, lying wholly to the north
+of the limit of trees, there is no probability that the carcase
+drifted with the spring ice from the wooded region of Siberia
+towards the north. Schmidt, therefore, supposes that the
+Siberian elephant, if it did not always live in the northernmost
+parts of Asia, occasionally wandered thither, in the same
+way that the reindeer now betakes itself to the coast of the
+Polar Sea. VON BRANDT, VON SCHMALHAUSEN, and others, had
+besides already shown that the remains of food which were found
+in the hollows of the teeth of the Wilui rhinoceros consisted of
+portions of leaves and needles of species of trees which still
+grow in Siberia.<A HREF="#v1fn229" NAME="v1rn229">[229]</A></p>
+
+<p>Soon after the mammoth found on the Gyda <i>tundra</i> had been
+examined by Schmidt, similar <i>finds</i> were examined by GERHARD
+VON MAYDELL, at three different places between the rivers
+Kolyma and Indigirka, about a hundred kilometres from the
+Polar Sea. With respect to these <i>finds</i> I can only refer to a
+paper by L. VON SCHRENCK in the <i>Bulletin</i> of the St. Petersburg
+Academy, T. XVI. 1871, p. 147.</p>
+
+<p>Under the guidance of natives I collected in 1876 at the
+confluence of the river Mesenkin with, the Yenisej, in 71&deg; 28'
+N.L., some fragments of bones and pieces of the hide of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page411" id="v1page411"></a>[pg 411]</span>
+mammoth. The hide was 20 to 25 millimetres thick and nearly
+tanned by age, which ought not to appear wonderful, when we
+consider that, though the mammoth lived in one of the latest
+periods of the history of our globe, hundreds of thousands, perhaps
+millions of years have, however, passed since the animal
+died to which these pieces of skin once belonged. It was clear
+that they had been washed by the neighbouring river Mesenkin
+out of the tundra-bank, but I endeavoured, without success, to
+discover the original locality, which was probably already concealed
+by river mud. In the neighbourhood was found a very
+fine cranium of the musk ox.</p>
+
+<p>A new and important <i>find</i> was made in 1877 on a tributary
+of the Lena, in the circle Werchojansk, in 69&deg; N.L. For there
+was found there an exceedingly well preserved carcase of a
+rhinoceros (<i>Rhinoceros Merckii</i>, Jaeg.), a different species from
+the Wilui rhinoceros examined by Pallas. However, before the
+carcase was washed away by the river, there had only been
+removed the hair-covered head and one foot.<A HREF="#v1fn230" NAME="v1rn230">[230]</A> From the <i>find</i>
+Schrenck draws the conclusion that this rhinoceros belonged to
+a high-northern species, adapted to a cold climate, and living in,
+or at least occasionally wandering to, the regions where the
+carcase was found. There the mean temperature of the year
+is now very low,<A HREF="#v1fn231" NAME="v1rn231">[231]</A> the winter exceedingly cold (-63&deg;.2 has been
+registered) and the short summer exceedingly warm. Nowhere
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page412" id="v1page412"></a>[pg 412]</span>
+on earth does the temperature show extremes so widely separated
+as here. Although the trees in winter often split with
+tremendous noise, and the ground is rent with the cold, the
+wood is luxuriant and extends to the neighbourhood of the Polar
+Sea, where besides, the winter is much milder than farther in
+the interior. With respect to the possibility of these large
+animals finding sufficient pasture in the regions in question, it
+ought not to be overlooked that in sheltered places overflowed
+by the spring inundations there are found, still far north of the
+limit of trees, luxuriant bushy thickets, whose newly-expanded
+juicy leaves, burned up by no tropical sun, perhaps form a
+special luxury for grass-eating animals, and that <i>even the bleakest
+stretches of land in the high north are fertile in comparison with
+many regions where at least the camel can find nourishment, for
+instance the east coast of the Red Sea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The nearer we come to the coast of the Polar Sea, the more
+common are the remains of the mammoth, especially at places
+where there have been great landslips at the river banks when
+the ice breaks up in spring. Nowhere, however, are they found
+in such numbers as on the New Siberian Islands. Here Hedenstr&ouml;m
+in the space of a verst saw ten tusks sticking out of the
+ground, and from a single sandbank on the west side of Liachoff's
+Island the ivory collectors had, when this traveller visited
+the spot, for eighty years made their best tusk harvest. That
+new <i>finds</i> may be made there year by year depends on the bones
+and tusks being washed by the waves out of the sandbeds on
+the shore, so that after an east wind which has lasted some time
+they may be collected at low water on the banks then laid
+dry. The tusks which are found on the coast of the Polar
+Sea are said to be smaller than those that are found farther
+south, a circumstance which possibly may be explained by
+supposing that, while the mammoth wandered about on the
+plains of Siberia, animals of different ages pastured in company,
+and that the younger of them, as being more agile and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page413" id="v1page413"></a>[pg 413]</span>
+perhaps more troubled by flies than the older, went farther
+north than these.</p>
+
+<p>Along with bones of the mammoth there are found on the
+New Siberian Islands, in not inconsiderable numbers, portions of
+the skeletons of other animal forms, little known, but naturally
+of immense importance for ascertaining the vertebrate fauna
+which lived at the same time with the mammoth on the plains
+of Siberia, and the New Siberian group of islands is not less
+remarkable for the &quot;wood-hills,&quot; highly enigmatical as to their
+mode of formation, which Hedenstr&ouml;m found on the south coast
+of the northernmost island. These hills are sixty-four metres
+high, and consist of thick horizontal sandstone beds alternating
+with strata of fissile bituminous tree stems, heaped on each
+other to the top of the hill. In the lower part of the hill the
+tree stems lie horizontally, but in the upper strata they stand
+upright, though perhaps not rootfast.<A HREF="#v1fn232" NAME="v1rn232">[232]</A> The flora and fauna of
+the island group besides are still completely unknown, and the
+fossils, among them ammonites with exquisite pearly lustre,
+which Hedenstr&ouml;m brought home from the rock strata on
+Kotelnoj Island, hold out inducement to further researches,
+which ought to yield the geologist valuable information as to the
+former climate and the former distribution of land and sea on
+the surface of the globe. The knowledge of the hydrography
+of this region is besides an indispensable condition for judging
+of the state of the ice in the sea which washes the north coast
+of Asia. Here lies the single available starting-point for the
+exploration of the yet altogether unknown sea farther to the north,
+and from hills on the two northernmost islands Hedenstr&ouml;m
+thought that across the sea to the north-west and north-east he
+saw obscure outlines of new land, on which no man had yet set
+his foot. All these circumstances confer on this group of islands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page414" id="v1page414"></a>[pg 414]</span>
+an uncommon interest in a scientific and geographical respect,
+and therefore no long time can elapse until a scientific expedition
+be sent to these regions. Just for this reason I now
+desired, as a preparation for a future voyage, to wander about
+here for a couple of days, partly on foot, partly by boat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p426.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p426.png" alt="STOLBOVOJ ISLAND." ></a>
+STOLBOVOJ ISLAND.
+<br>After a drawing by O. Nordquist. </div>
+
+<p>The air was calm, but for the most part clouded, the
+temperature as high as +4&deg;, the sea clear of ice, the salinity of
+the water 1.8 per cent, with a temperature of +2&deg; to +3&deg;. At
+first we made rapid progress, but after having in the afternoon
+of the 28th August sighted the westernmost islands, Semenoffskoj
+and Stolbovoj, the sea became so shallow that for long
+stretches we were compelled to sail in six to seven metres water.
+Some very rotten ice, or rather ice sludge, was also met with,
+which compelled us to make tedious <i>d&eacute;tours</i>, and prevented the
+<i>Vega</i> from going at full speed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page415" id="v1page415"></a>[pg 415]</span>
+The animal life was among the scantiest I had seen during my
+many travels in the Polar Seas. A few seals were visible. Of
+birds we saw some terns and gulls, and even far out at sea
+a pretty large number of phalaropes&mdash;the most common kind of
+bird on the coast of the Asiatic Polar Sea, at least in autumn.
+Stolbovoj Island was, especially on the north side, high with
+precipitous shore-cliffs which afforded splendid breeding-places
+for looms, black guillemots and gulls. At all such cliffs there
+breed on Spitzbergen millions of sea fowl, which are met with
+out on the surrounding sea in great flocks searching for their
+food. Here not a single loom was seen, and even the number of
+the gulls was small, which indeed in some degree was to be
+accounted for by the late season of the year, but also by the
+circumstance that no colony of birds had settled on the rocky
+shores of the island.</p>
+
+<p>The sea bottom consisted at certain places of hard packed
+sand, or rather, as I shall endeavour to show farther on, of
+<i>frozen</i> sand, from which the trawl net brought up no animals.
+At other places there was found a clay, exceedingly rich in
+<i>Idothea entomon</i> and <i>Sabinei</i> and an extraordinary mass of
+bryozoa, resembling collections of the eggs of mollusca.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the 30th of August that we were off the west
+side of Ljachoff's Island, on which I intended to land. The
+north coast, and, as it appeared the day after, the east coast was
+clear, of ice, but the winds recently prevailing had heaped a
+mass of rotten ice on the west coast. The sea besides was so
+shallow here, that already at a distance 15' from land we had
+a depth of only eight metres. The ice heaped against the west
+coast of the island did not indeed form any very serious obstacle
+to the advance of the <i>Vega</i>, but in case we had attempted to
+land there it might have been inconvenient enough, when the
+considerable distance between the vessel and the land was to
+be traversed in a boat or the steam launch, and it might even,
+if a sudden frost had occurred, have become a fetter, which would
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page416" id="v1page416"></a>[pg 416]</span>
+have confined us to that spot for the winter. Even a storm
+arising hastily might in this shallow water have been actually
+dangerous to the vessel anchored in an open road. The prospect
+of wandering about for some days on the island did not appear
+to me to outweigh the danger of the possible failure of the main
+object of the expedition. I therefore gave up for the time</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p428.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p428.png" alt="IDOTHEA ESTOMON, LIN." ></a>
+IDOTHEA ESTOMON, LIN.
+<br>From the sea north of the mouth of the Lena.
+<br>(Natural size.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page417" id="v1page417"></a>[pg 417]</span>
+<p>my intention of landing. The course was shaped southwards
+towards the sound, of so bad repute in the history of the
+Siberian Polar Sea, which separates Ljachoff's Island from the
+mainland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v1p429.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p429.png" alt="IDOTHEA SABINEI, KR&Ouml;YER." ></a>
+IDOTHEA SABINEI, KR&Ouml;YER.
+<br>From the sea off the mouth of the Lena.
+<br>(Natural size.) </div>
+
+<p>So far as we could judge at a distance from the appearance
+of the rocks, Stolbovoj consisted of stratified rocks, Ljachoff's
+Island, on the contrary, like the mainland opposite, of high
+hills, much shattered, probably formed of Plutonic stone-masses.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page418" id="v1page418"></a>[pg 418]</span>
+Between these there are extensive plains, which, according to
+a statement by the land surveyor CHVOINOFF, who by order of
+the Czar visited the island in 1775, are formed of ice and sand,
+in which lie imbedded enormous masses of the bones and tusks
+of the mammoth, mixed with the horns and skulls of some
+kind of ox and with rhinoceros' horns. Bones of the whale and
+walrus are not mentioned as occurring there, but &quot;long small
+screw-formed bones,&quot; by which are probably meant the tusks
+of the narwhal.<A HREF="#v1fn233" NAME="v1rn233">[233]</A></p>
+
+<p>All was now clear of snow, with the exception of a few of
+the deeper clefts between the mountains. No traces of glaciers
+were visible, not even such small collections of ice as are to be
+found everywhere on Spitzbergen where the land rises a few
+hundred feet above the surface of the sea. Nor, to judge by
+the appearance of the hills, have there been any glaciers in
+former times, and this is certainly the case on the mainland.
+The northernmost part of Asia in that case has never been
+covered by such an ice-sheet as is assumed by the supporters
+of a general ice age embracing the whole globe.</p>
+
+<p>The large island right opposite to Svjatoinos was discovered
+in 1770 by LJACHOFF, whose name the island now bears. In
+1788 Billings' private secretary, MARTIN SAUER, met with
+Ljachoff at Yakutsk, but he was then old and infirm, on which
+account, when Sauer requested information regarding the
+islands in the Polar Sea, he referred him to one of his companions,
+ZAITAI PROTODIAKONOFF. He informed him that
+the discovery was occasioned by an enormous herd of reindeer
+which Ljachoff, in the month of April 1770, saw going from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page419" id="v1page419"></a>[pg 419]</span>
+Svjatoinos towards the south, and whose track came over the
+ice from the north. On the correct supposition that the reindeer
+came from some land lying to the north, Ljachoff followed the
+track in a dog-sledge, and thus discovered the two most southerly
+of the New Siberian Islands, a discovery which was rewarded
+by the Czarina Catherine II. with the exclusive right to hunt
+and collect ivory on them.<A HREF="#v1fn234" NAME="v1rn234">[234]</A></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p431.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p431.png" alt="LJACHOFF'S ISLAND." ></a>
+LJACHOFF'S ISLAND.
+<br>After a drawing by O. Nordquist. </div>
+
+<p>Ljachoff states the breadth of the sound between the mainland
+and the nearest large island at 70 versts or 40'. On
+Wrangel's map again the breadth is not quite 30'. On the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page420" id="v1page420"></a>[pg 420]</span>
+mainland side it is bounded by a rocky headland projecting
+far into the sea, which often formed the turning point in
+attempts to penetrate eastwards from the mouth of the river
+Lena, and perhaps just on that account, like many other headlands
+dangerous to the navigator on the north coast of Russia,
+was called <i>Svjatoinos</i> (the holy cape), a name which for the
+oldest Russian Polar Sea navigators appears to have had the
+same signification as &quot;the cape that can be passed with difficulty.&quot;
+No one however now thinks with any apprehension of the
+two &quot;holy capes,&quot; which in former times limited the voyages of
+the Russians and Fins living on the White Sea to the east and
+west, and this, I am quite convinced, will some time be the case
+with this and all other holy capes in the Siberian Polar Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The sea water in the sound was much mixed with river water
+and had a comparatively high temperature, even at a depth of
+nine to eleven metres. The animal life at the sea bottom was
+poor in species but rich in individuals, consisting principally of
+<i>Idothea entomon</i>, of which Dr. Stuxberg counted 800 specimens
+from a single sweep of the dredge. There were obtained at the
+same time, besides a few specimens of <i>Idothea Sabinei</i>, sponges
+and bryozoa in great abundance, and small mussels, crustacea,
+vermes, &amp;c. Various fishes were also caught, and some small
+alg&aelig; collected. The trawl-net besides brought up from the
+bottom some fragments of mammoth tusks, and a large number
+of pieces of wood, for the most part sticks or branches, which
+appear to have stood upright in the clay, to judge from the fact
+that one of their ends was often covered with living bryozoa.
+These sticks often caused great inconvenience to the dredgers,
+by tearing the net that was being dragged along the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>On the night preceding the 31st of August, as we steamed
+past Svjatoinos, a peculiar phenomenon was observed. The sky
+was clear in the zenith and in the east; in the west, on the other
+hand, there was a bluish-grey bank of cloud. The temperature
+of the water near the surface varied between +1&deg; and +1&deg;.6,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page421" id="v1page421"></a>[pg 421]</span>
+that of the air on the vessel between +1&deg;.5 and +1&deg;.8. Although
+thus both the air and the water had a temperature somewhat
+above the freezing-point, ice was seen to form on the calm,
+mirror-bright surface of the sea. This ice consisted partly of
+needles, partly of a thin sheet. I have previously on several
+occasions observed in the Arctic seas a similar phenomenon,
+that is to say, have observed the formation of ice when the
+temperature of the air was above the freezing-point. On this
+occasion, when the temperature of the uppermost stratum of
+water was also above the freezing-point, the formation of ice
+was clearly a sort of hoar-frost phenomenon, caused by radiation
+of heat, perhaps both upwards towards the atmosphere and
+downwards towards the bottom layer of water, cooled below
+the freezing-point.</p>
+
+<p>The whole day we continued our voyage eastwards with
+glorious weather over a smooth ice-free sea, and in the same
+way on the 1st September, with a gentle southerly wind, the
+temperature of the air at noon in the shade being +5&deg;.6. On
+the night before the 2nd September the wind became northerly
+and the temperature of the air sank to -1&deg;. Little land was
+seen, though we were still not very far from the coast. Near to
+it there was a broad ice-free, or nearly ice-free, channel, but
+farther out to sea ice commenced. The following night snow
+fell, so that the whole of the deck and the Bear Islands, which
+we reached on the 3rd September, were sprinkled with it.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto, during the whole time we sailed <i>along the coast</i>, we
+had scarcely met with any fields of drift-ice but such as were
+formed of rotten, even, thin and scattered pieces of ice, in many
+places almost converted into ice-sludge, without an &quot;ice-foot&quot;
+and often dirty on the surface. No iceberg had been seen, nor
+any large glacier ice-blocks, such as on the coasts of Spitzbergen
+replace the Greenland icebergs. But east of Svjatoinos the ice
+began to increase in size and assume the same appearance as
+the ice north of Spitzbergen. It was here, besides, less dirty, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page422" id="v1page422"></a>[pg 422]</span>
+rested on a hard ice-foot projecting deep under water and
+treacherous for the navigator.</p>
+
+<p>The ice of the Polar Sea may be divided into the following
+varieties:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Icebergs</i>. The true icebergs have a height above the
+surface of the water rising to 100 metres. They often ground
+in a depth of 200 to 300 metres, and have thus sometimes
+a cross section of up to 400, perhaps 500 metres. Their area
+may amount to several square kilometres. Such enormous
+blocks of ice are projected into the North Polar Sea only from
+the glaciers of Greenland, and according to Payer's statement,
+from those of Franz-Josef Land also; but not, as some authors
+(GEIKIE, BROWN, and others) appear to assume and have shown
+by incorrect ideal drawings, from glaciers which project into the
+sea and there terminate with a perpendicular evenly-cut border,
+but from very uneven glaciers which always enter the sea in the
+bottoms of deep fjords, and are split up into icebergs long before
+they reach it. It is desirable that those who write on the
+origin of icebergs, should take into consideration the fact that
+icebergs are only formed at places where a violent motion takes
+place in the mass of the ice, which again within a comparatively
+short time results in the excavation of the deep ice-fjord. The
+largest iceberg, which, so far as I know, has been <i>measured</i> in
+that part of the Polar Sea which lies between Spitzbergen and
+Wrangel Land, is one which Barents saw at Cape Nassau
+on the 17/7th August 1596. It was sixteen fathoms high, and had
+grounded in a depth of thirty-six fathoms. In the South Polar
+Sea icebergs occur in great numbers and of enormous size. If
+we may assume that they have an origin similar to those
+of Greenland, it is probable that round the South Pole there
+is an extensive continent indented by deep fjords.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Glacier Ice-blocks</i>. These, which indeed have often been
+called icebergs, are distinguished from true icebergs not only
+by their size, but also by the way in which they are formed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page423" id="v1page423"></a>[pg 423]</span>
+They have seldom a cross section of more than thirty or forty
+metres, and it is only exceptionally that they are more
+than ten metres high above the surface of the water. They
+originate from the &quot;calving&quot; of glaciers which project into
+the sea with a straight and evenly high precipitous border.
+Such glaciers occur in large numbers on the coasts of Spitzbergen,
+and they are there of the same height as similar evenly-cut
+glaciers on Greenland. According to the statement of the
+Dane PETERSEN, who took part both in KANE'S expedition in
+1853-55 and in Torell's in 1861, the glaciers, for instance, at
+Hinloopen Strait in Spitzbergen, are fully equal, with respect
+to their size and the height of their borders above the sea-level,
+to the enormous and much bewritten Humboldt glacier in Greenland.
+In Spitzbergen too we find at two places miniatures of
+the Greenland ice-currents, for instance the glacier which filled
+the North Haven in Bell Sound, another glacier which filled
+an old Dutch whaling haven between Recherche Bay and Van
+Keulen Bay, a glacier on the north side of Wablenberg Bay
+and perhaps at that part of the inland ice marked in my
+map of the expedition of 1872 as a bay on the east coast
+of North-east Land. It is even possible that small icebergs
+may be projected from the last-mentioned place, and thence drift
+out into the sea on the east coast of Spitzbergen.</p>
+
+<p>Glacier-ice shows a great disposition to fall asunder into
+smaller pieces without any perceptible cause. It is full of cavities,
+containing compressed air, which, when the ice melts, bursts
+its attenuated envelope with a crackling sound like that of the
+electric spark. It thus behaves in this respect in the same
+way as some mineral salts which dissolve in water with slight
+explosions. Barents relates that on the 20/10th August 1596 he
+anchored his vessel to a block of ice which was aground on the
+coast of Novaya Zemlya. Suddenly, and without any perceptible
+cause, the rock of ice burst asunder into hundreds of smaller
+pieces with a tremendous noise, and to the great terror of all the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page424" id="v1page424"></a>[pg 424]</span>
+men on board. Similar occurrences on a smaller scale I
+have myself witnessed. The cause to which they are due
+appears to me to be the following. The ice-block while part
+of the glacier is exposed to very severe pressure, which ceases
+when it falls into the sea. The pressure now in most cases
+equalises itself without any bursting asunder, but it sometimes
+happens that the inner strongly compressed portions of the ice-block
+cannot, although the pressure has ceased, expand freely
+in consequence of the continuous ice-envelope by which they
+are still surrounded. A powerful internal tension must thereby
+arise in the whole mass, which finally leads to its bursting into
+a thousand pieces. We have here a Prince Rupert's drop, but
+one whose diameter may rise to fifty metres, and which consists
+not of glass but of ice.</p>
+
+<p>Glacier ice-blocks occur abundantly on the coasts of Spitzbergen
+and north Novaya Zemlya, but appear to be wanting or
+exceedingly rare along the whole north coast of Asia, between
+Yugor Schar and Wrangel Land. East of this they again
+occur, but not in any great numbers. This appears to show
+that the Western Siberian Polar Sea is not surrounded by any
+glacial lands. The glacier ice is commonly of a blue colour.
+When melted it yields a pure water, free of salt. Sometimes
+however it gives traces of salt, which are derived from the spray
+which the storms have carried high up on the surface of
+the glacier.</p>
+
+<p>3. Pieces of ice from the ice-foot formed along the sea beach
+or the banks of rivers. They rise sometimes five or six metres
+above the surface of the water. They consist commonly of dirty
+ice, mixed with earth.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>River Ice</i>, level, comparatively small ice fields, which,
+when they reach the sea, are already so rotten that they soon
+melt away and disappear.</p>
+
+<p>5. The walrus-hunters' <i>Bay Ice</i>; by which we understand level
+ice-fields formed in fjords and bays along the coast, and which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page425" id="v1page425"></a>[pg 425]</span>
+have there been exposed to a comparatively early summer heat.
+The bay ice therefore melts away completely during summer,
+and it is not commonly much pressed together. When all the
+snow upon it has disappeared, there is to be seen above the
+surface of the water a little ice of the same colour as the water,
+while under water very considerable portions of unmelted hard
+ice are still remaining. This has given rise to the walrus-hunters'
+statement, which has been warmly maintained, that the
+ice in autumn finally disappears by sinking. Nearly all the ice
+we met with in the course of our voyage belonged to this
+variety.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Sea Ice</i>, or heavy ice, which often exhibits traces of having
+been much pressed together, but has not been exposed to any
+early summer heat. The walrus-hunters call it sea ice, wishing,
+I imagine, to indicate thereby that it is formed in the sea
+farther up towards the north. That it has drifted down from
+the north is indeed correct, but that it has been formed far
+from land over a considerable depth in the open sea is perhaps
+uncertain, as the ice that is formed there cannot, we think,
+be very thick. It has rather perhaps drifted down from the
+neighbourhood of some yet unknown Polar continent. Of
+this ice are formed most of the ice-fields in the seas east
+of Greenland, north of Spitzbergen, between Spitzbergen and
+the north island of Novaya Zemlya, and north of Behring's
+Straits. In the northern seas it does not melt completely
+during the summer, and remains of sea ice therefore often
+enter as component parts into the bay ice formed during the
+following winter. The latter then becomes rough and uneven,
+from remnants of old sea ice being frozen into the newly formed
+ice. Sea ice is often pressed together so as to form great
+<i>torosses</i> or ice-casts, formed of pieces of ice which at first are
+angular and piled loose on each other, but gradually become
+rounded, and freeze together into enormous blocks of ice, which,
+together with the glacier ice-blocks, form the principal mass
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page426" id="v1page426"></a>[pg 426]</span>
+of the ground ice found on the coasts of the Polar lands. The
+water which is obtained by melting sea-ice is not completely
+free from salt, but the older it is the less salt does it contain.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">East of the Bear Islands heavy sea-ice in pretty compact
+masses had drifted down towards the coast, but still left an
+open ice-free channel along the land. Here the higher animal
+world was exceedingly poor, which, as far as the avi-fauna was
+concerned, must be in some degree ascribed to the late season
+of the year. For Wrangel mentions a cliff at the Bear Islands
+which was covered with numberless birds' nests. He saw
+besides, on the largest of these islands, traces of the bear, wolf,
+fox, lemming, and reindeer (Wrangel's <i>Reise</i>, i. pp. 304 and
+327). Now the surrounding sea was completely deserted. No
+Polar bear saluted us from the ice-floes, no walruses, and only
+very few seals were visible. During many watches not a single
+natatory bird was seen. Only the phalarope was still met with
+in large numbers, even pretty far out at sea. Perhaps it was
+then migrating from the north. The lower animal world was
+more abundant. From the surface of the sea the drag-net
+brought up various small surface crustacea, inconsiderable in
+themselves, but important as food for larger animals; and from
+the sea-bottom were obtained a large number of the same animal
+forms as from the sound at Svjatoinos, and in addition some
+beautiful asterids and a multitude of very large beaker sponges.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd September, after we had sailed past the Bear
+Islands, the course was shaped right for Cape Chelagskoj. This
+course, as will be seen by a glance at the map, carried us far
+from the coast, and thus out of the channel next the land, in
+which we had hitherto sailed. The ice was heavy and close,
+although at first so distributed that it was navigable. But with
+a north wind, which began to blow on the night before the
+1st September, the temperature fell below the freezing-point,
+and the water between the pieces of drift-ice was covered with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page427" id="v1page427"></a>[pg 427]</span>
+very thick crust of ice, and the drift-ice came closer and closer
+together. It thus became impossible to continue the course
+which we had taken. We therefore turned towards the land,
+and at 6 o'clock P.M., after various bends in the ice and a few
+concussions against the pieces of ice that barred our way, again
+reached the ice-free channel, eight to twelve kilometres broad,
+next the land. While we lay a little way in among the drift-ice
+fields we could see no sign of open water, but it appeared as
+if the compact ice extended all the way to land, a circumstance
+which shows how careful the navigator ought to be in expressing
+an opinion as to the nature of the <i>pack</i> beyond the immediate
+neighbourhood of the vessel. The temperature of the air,
+which in the ice-field had sunk to -3&deg;, now rose at once to
++ 4&deg;.1, while that of the water rose from -1&deg;.2 to +3&deg;.5,
+and its salinity fell from 2.4 to 13 per cent. All showed that
+we had now come into the current of the Kolyma, which from</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p439.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p439.png" alt="BEAKER SPONGES." ></a>
+BEAKER SPONGES.
+<br>From the sea off the mouth of the Kolyma. </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page428" id="v1page428"></a>[pg 428]</span>
+<p>causes which have been already stated, runs from the mouth of
+the river along the land in an easterly direction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p440.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p440.png" alt="LIGHTHOUSE ISLAND." ></a>
+LIGHTHOUSE ISLAND.
+<br>After a drawing by O. Nordquist. </div>
+
+<p>The Bear Islands lying off the mouth of the Kolyma are,
+for the most part, formed of a plutonic rock, whose upper part
+has weathered away, leaving gigantic isolated pillars. Four
+such pillars have given to the easternmost of the islands the
+name Lighthouse Island (Fyrpelar&ouml;n). Similar ruin-like formations
+are found not only on Cape Baranov, which lies right
+opposite, but also at a great number of other places in that
+portion of the north coast of Siberia which lies farther to the
+east. Generally these cliff-ruins are collected together over
+considerable areas in groups or regular rows. They have thus,
+when seen from the sea, so bewildering a resemblance to the
+ruins of a gigantic city which had once been surrounded by
+strong walls and been full of temples and splendid buildings,
+that one is almost tempted to see in them memorials of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page429" id="v1page429"></a>[pg 429]</span>
+exploits of a Tamerlane or a Chingis Khan, up here in the
+high north.</p>
+
+<p>The north side of the hill-tops was powdered with new-fallen
+snow, but the rest of the land was clear of snow. The distance
+between the south point of Ljachoff's Island and the Bear
+Islands is 360'. This distance we had traversed in three days,
+having thus made 120' in the twenty-four hours, or 5' per hour.
+If we consider the time lost in dredging, sounding, and determining
+the temperature and salinity of the water, and the caution
+which the navigator must observe during a voyage in quite
+unknown waters, this speed shows that during this part of our
+voyage we were hindered by ice only to a slight extent. Cape
+Baranov was passed on the night before the 5th September, the
+mouth of Chaun Bay on the night before the 6th September,
+and Cape Chelagskoj was reached on the 6th at 4 o'clock P.M.
+The distance in a right line between this headland and the Bear
+Islands is 180'. In consequence of the many <i>d&eacute;tours</i> in the ice
+we had required 2-1/2 days to traverse this distance, which corresponds
+to 72' per day, or 3' per hour, a speed which in a
+voyage in unknown, and for the most part ice-bestrewed waters,
+must yet be considered very satisfactory. But after this our
+progress began to be much slower. At midnight the sun was
+already 12&deg; to 13&deg; below the horizon, and the nights were now
+so dark that at that time of day we were compelled to lie still
+anchored to some large ground-ice. A farther loss of time was
+caused by the dense fog which often prevailed by day, and which
+in the unknown shallow water next the land compelled Captain
+Palander to advance with extreme caution. The navigation
+along the north coast of Asia began to get somewhat monotonous.
+Even the most zealous Polar traveller may tire at last of mere
+ice, shallow water and fog; and mere fog, shallow water and ice.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, a pleasant change began, by our coming at
+last in contact with natives. In the whole stretch from Yugor
+Schar to Cape Chelagskoj we had seen neither men nor human
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page430" id="v1page430"></a>[pg 430]</span>
+habitations, if I except the old uninhabited hut between Cape
+Chelyuskin and the Chatanga. But on the 6th September,
+when we were a little way off Cape Chelagskoj, two boats were
+sighted. Every man, with the exception of the cook, who
+could be induced by no catastrophe to leave his pots and pans,
+and who had circumnavigated Asia and Europe perhaps without
+having been once on land, rushed on deck. The boats were of
+skin, built in the same way as the &quot;umiaks&quot; or women's boats
+of the Eskimo. They were fully laden with laughing and
+chattering natives, men, women, and children, who indicated
+by cries and gesticulations that they wished to come on board.
+The engine was stopped, the boats lay to, and a large number
+of skin-clad, bare-headed beings climbed up over the gunwale in
+a way that clearly indicated that they had seen vessels before.
+A lively talk began, but we soon became aware that none of the
+crew of the boats or the vessel knew any language common to
+both. It was an unfortunate circumstance, but signs were</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p442.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p442.png" alt="CHUKCH BOATS." ></a>
+CHUKCH BOATS.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page431" id="v1page431"></a>[pg 431]</span>
+<p>employed as far as possible. This did not prevent the chatter
+from going on, and great gladness soon came to prevail, especially
+when some presents began to be distributed, mainly consisting
+of tobacco and Dutch clay pipes. It was remarkable that none
+of them could speak a single word of Russian, while a boy
+could count tolerably well up to ten in English, which shows that
+the natives here come into closer contact with American whalers
+than with Russian traders. They acknowledged the name
+<i>chukch</i> or <i>chautchu</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many of them were tall, well-grown men. They were clothed
+in close fitting skin trousers and &quot;pesks&quot; of reindeer skin. The
+head was bare, the hair always clipped short, with the exception
+of a small fringe in front, where the hair had a length of four
+centimetres and was combed down over the brow. Some had a
+cap of the sort used by the Russians at Chabarova, stuck into
+the belt behind, but they appeared to consider the weather still
+too warm for the use of this head-covering. The hair of most
+of them was bluish-black and exceedingly thick. The women
+were tattooed with black or bluish-black lines on the brow and
+nose, a number of similar lines on the chin, and finally some
+embellishments on the cheeks. The type of face did not strike
+one as so unpleasant as that of the Samoyeds or Eskimo. Some
+of the young girls were even not absolutely ugly. In comparison
+with the Samoyeds they were even rather cleanly, and had a
+beautiful, almost reddish-white complexion. Two of the men
+were quite fair. Probably they were descendants of Russians,
+who for some reason or other, as prisoners of war or fugitives,
+had come to live among the Chukches and had been nationalised
+by them.</p>
+
+<p>In a little we continued our voyage, after the Chukches had
+returned to their boats, evidently well pleased with the gifts
+they had received and the leaf tobacco I had dealt out in
+bundles,&mdash;along with the clay pipes, of which every one got as
+many as he could carry between his fingers,&mdash;with the finery and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page432" id="v1page432"></a>[pg 432]</span>
+old clothes which my comrades and the crew strewed around
+them with generous hand. For we were all convinced that after
+some days we should come to waters where winter clothes would
+be altogether unnecessary, where our want of any article could
+easily be supplied at the nearest port, and where the means of
+exchange would not consist of goods, but of stamped pieces of
+metal and slips of paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p444.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p444.png" alt="A CHUKCH IN SEAL-GUT GREAT COAT." ></a>
+A CHUKCH IN SEAL-GUT GREAT COAT.
+<br>After a photograph by L. Palander. </div>
+
+<p>On the 7th September, we steamed the whole day along the
+coast in pretty open ice. At night we lay to at a floe. The
+hempen tangles and the trawl-net were put out and yielded a
+very rich harvest. But in the morning we found ourselves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page433" id="v1page433"></a>[pg 433]</span>
+again so surrounded by ice and fog, that, after several unsuccessful
+attempts to make an immediate advance, we were compelled
+to lie-to at a large piece of drift-ice near the shore. When the
+fog had lightened so much that the vessel could be seen from
+the land, we were again visited by a large number of natives,
+whom as before we entertained as best we could. They invited
+us by evident signs to land and visit their tents. As it was in
+any case impossible immediately to continue our voyage, I
+accepted the invitation, ordered a boat to be put out, and landed
+along with most of my comrades.</p>
+
+<p>The beach here is formed of a low bank of sand which runs
+between the sea and a small shallow lagoon or fresh-water lake,
+whose surface is nearly on a level with that of the sea. Farther
+into the interior the land rises gradually to bare hills, clear of
+snow or only covered with a thin coating of powdered snow
+from the fall of the last few days. Lagoon formations, with
+either fresh or salt water, of the same kind as those which we
+saw here for the first time, are distinctive of the north-eastern
+coast of Siberia. It is these formations which gave rise to the
+statement that on the north coast of Siberia it is difficult to
+settle the boundaries between sea and land. In winter this may
+be difficult enough, for the low bank which separates the lagoon
+from the sea is not easily distinguished when it has become
+covered with snow, and it may therefore readily happen in winter
+journeys along the coast that one is far into the land while he
+still believes himself to be out on the sea-ice. But when the
+snow has melted, the boundary is sharp enough, and the sea by
+no means shallow for such a distance as old accounts would
+indicate. A continual ice-mud-work also goes on here during
+the whole summer. Quite close to the beach accordingly the
+depth of water is two metres, and a kilometre farther out ten to
+eleven metres. Off the high rocky promontories the water is
+commonly navigable even for vessels of considerable draught
+close to the foot of the cliffs.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page434" id="v1page434"></a>[pg 434]</span>
+The villages of the Chukches commonly stand on the bank of
+sand which separates the lagoon from the sea. The dwellings
+consist of roomy skin tents, which enclose a sleeping chamber of
+the form of a parallelepiped surrounded by warm well-prepared
+reindeer skins, and lighted and warmed by one or more train-oil
+lamps. It is here that the family sleep during summer, and
+here most of them live day and night during winter. In summer,
+less frequently in winter, a fire is lighted besides in the
+outer tent with wood, for which purpose a hole is opened in the
+top of the raised tent-roof. But to be compelled to use wood
+for heating the inner tent the Chukches consider the extremity
+of scarcity of fuel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p446.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p446.png" alt="CHUKCH TENT." ></a>
+CHUKCH TENT.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.) </div>
+
+<p>We were received everywhere in a very friendly way, and were
+offered whatever the house afforded. At the time the supply
+of food was abundant. In one tent reindeer beef was being
+boiled in a large cast-iron pot. At another two recently shot
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page435" id="v1page435"></a>[pg 435]</span>
+or slaughtered reindeer were being cut in pieces. At a third an
+old woman was employed in taking out of the paunch of the
+reindeer the green spinage-like contents and cramming them
+into a sealskin bag, evidently to be preserved for green food
+during winter. The hand was used in this case as a scoop, and
+the naked arms were coloured high up with the certainly unappetising
+spinage, which however, according to the statements
+of Danish colonists in Greenland, has no unpleasant taste. Other
+skin sacks filled with train-oil stood in rows along the walls of
+the tent.</p>
+
+<p>The Chukches offered train-oil for sale, and appeared to be
+surprised that we would not purchase any. In all the tents
+were found seals cut in pieces, a proof that the catch of seals had
+recently been abundant. At one tent lay two fresh walrus heads
+with large beautiful tusks. I tried without success to purchase
+these heads, but next day the tusks were offered to us. The
+Chukches appear to have a prejudice against disposing of
+the heads of slain animals. According to older travellers they
+even pay the walrus-head a sort of worship.</p>
+
+<p>Children were met with in great numbers, healthy and
+thriving. In the inner tent the older children went nearly
+naked, and I saw them go out from it without shoes or other
+covering and run between the tents on the hoarfrost-covered
+ground. The younger were carried on the shoulders both of
+men and women, and were then so wrapped up that they
+resembled balls of skin. The children were treated with marked
+friendliness, and the older ones were never heard to utter an
+angry word. I purchased here a large number of household
+articles and dresses, which I shall describe further on.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 9th September we endeavoured to
+steam on, but were soon compelled by the dense fog to lie-to
+again at a ground-ice, which, when the fog lightened, was found
+to have stranded quite close to land. The depth here was
+eleven metres. At this place we lay till the morning of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page436" id="v1page436"></a>[pg 436]</span>
+10th. The beach, was formed of a sandbank,<A HREF="#v1fn235" NAME="v1rn235">[235]</A> which immediately
+above high-water mark was covered with a close grassy turf, a
+proof that the climate here, notwithstanding the neighbourhood
+of the pole of cold, is much more favourable to the development
+of vegetation than even the most favoured parts of the
+west coast of Spitzbergen. Farther inland was seen a very high,
+but snow-free, range of hills, and far beyond them some high
+snow-covered mountain summits. No glaciers were found here,
+though I consider it probable that small ones may be found in
+the valleys between the high fells in the interior. Nor were
+any erratic blocks found either in the interior of the coast
+country or along the strand bank. Thus it is probable that no
+such ice-covered land as Greenland for the present bounds the
+Siberian Polar Sea towards the north. At two places at the
+level of the sea in the neighbourhood of our anchorage the solid
+rock was bare. There it formed perpendicular shore cliffs, nine
+to twelve metres high, consisting of magnesian slate, limestone
+more or less mixed with quartz, and silicious slate. The strata
+were nearly perpendicular, ran from north to south, and did not
+contain any fossils. From a geological point of view therefore
+these rocks were of little interest. But they were abundantly
+covered with lichens, and yielded to Dr. Almquist important
+contributions to a knowledge of the previously quite unknown
+lichen flora of this region.</p>
+
+<p>The harvest of the higher land plants on the other hand was,
+in consequence of the far advanced season of the year, inconsiderable,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page437" id="v1page437"></a>[pg 437]</span>
+if also of great scientific interest, as coming from a
+region never before visited by any botanist. In the sea Dr.
+Kjellman dredged without success for alg&aelig;. Of the higher
+animals we saw only a walrus and some few seals, but no land
+mammalia. Lemmings must however occasionally occur in
+incredible numbers, to judge by the holes and passages, excavated
+by these animals, by which the ground is crossed in all
+directions. Of birds the phalarope was still the most common
+species, especially at sea, where in flocks of six or seven it swam
+incessantly backwards and forwards between the pieces of ice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p449.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p449.png" alt="SECTION OF A CHURCH GRAVE." ></a>
+SECTION OF A CHURCH GRAVE. <A HREF="#v1fn236" NAME="v1rn236">[236]</A>
+<br>(After a drawing by A. Stuxberg.)
+<i>a</i> Layer of burned bones, much weathered. <i>b</i> Layer of turf and twigs. <i>c</i>. Stones. </div>
+
+<p>No tents were met with in the neighbourhood of the vessel's
+anchorage, but at many places along the beach there were seen
+marks of old encampments, sooty rolled stones which had been
+used in the erection of the tents, broken household articles, and
+above all remains of the bones of the seal, reindeer, and walrus.
+At one place, a large number of walrus skulls lay in a ring,
+possibly remains from an entertainment following a large catch.
+Near the place where the tents had stood, at the mouth of a small
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page438" id="v1page438"></a>[pg 438]</span>
+stream not yet dried up or frozen, Dr. Stuxberg discovered some
+small mounds containing burnt bones. The cremation had been
+so complete that only one of the pieces of bone that were found
+could be determined by Dr. Almquist. It was a human tooth.
+After cremation the remains of the bones and the ash had been
+collected in an excavation, and covered first with turf and then
+with small flat stones. The encampments struck me as having
+been abandoned only a few years ago, and even the collections
+of bones did not appear to me to be old. But we ought to be
+very cautious when we endeavour in the Arctic regions to
+estimate the age of an old encampment, because in judging of
+the changes which the surface of the earth undergoes with time
+we are apt to be guided by our experience from more southerly
+regions. To how limited an extent this experience may be
+utilised in the high north is shown by RINK'S assertion that on
+Greenland at some of the huts of the Norwegian colonists,
+which have been deserted for centuries, footpaths can still be
+distinguished,<A HREF="#v1fn237" NAME="v1rn237">[237]</A> an observation to which I would scarcely give
+credence, until I had myself seen something similar at the site
+of a house in the bottom of Jacobshaven ice-fjord in northwestern
+Greenland, which had been abandoned for one or two
+centuries. Here footpaths as sharply defined as if they had been
+trampled yesterday ran from the ruin in different directions.
+It may therefore very readily happen that the encampments in
+the neighbourhood of our present anchorage were older than we
+would be inclined at first sight to suppose. No refuse heaps of
+any importance were seen here.</p>
+
+<p>This was the first time that any vessel had lain-to on this
+coast. Our arrival was therefore evidently considered by the
+natives a very remarkable occurrence, and the report of it
+appears to have spread very rapidly. For though there were
+no tents in the neighbourhood, we had many visitors. I still
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page439" id="v1page439"></a>[pg 439]</span>
+availed myself of the opportunity of procuring by barter a
+large number of articles distinctive of the Chukches' mode of
+life. Eight years before I had collected and purchased a large
+number of ethnographical articles, and I was now surprised at
+the close correspondence there was between the household
+articles purchased from the Chukches, and those found in
+Greenland in old Eskimo graves.</p>
+
+<p>My traffic with the natives was on this occasion attended with
+great difficulty. For I suffered from a sensible want of the first
+condition for the successful prosecution of a commercial undertaking,
+goods in demand. Because, during the expeditions of
+1875 and 1876, I found myself unable to make use of the
+small wares I carried with me for barter with the natives, and
+found that Russian paper-money was readily taken. I had, at
+the departure of the <i>Vega</i> from Sweden, taken with me only
+money, not wares intended for barter. But money was of little
+use here. A twenty-five rouble note was less valued by the
+Chukches than a showy soap-box, and a gold or silver coin less
+than tin or brass buttons. I could, indeed, get rid of a few
+fifty-&ouml;re pieces, but only after I had first adapted them by
+boring to take the place of earrings.</p>
+
+<p>The only proper wares for barter I now had were tobacco and
+Dutch clay pipes. Of tobacco I had only some dozen bundles,
+taken from a parcel which Mr. Sibiriakoff intended to import into
+Siberia by the Yenisej. Certain as I was of reaching the Pacific
+this autumn, I scattered my stock of tobacco around me with
+so liberal a hand that it was soon exhausted, and my Chukch
+friends' wants satisfied for several weeks. I therefore, as far as
+this currency was concerned, already when-the <i>Vega</i> was beset,
+suffered the prodigal's fate of being soon left with an empty
+purse. Dutch clay pipes, again, I had in great abundance, from
+the accident that two boxes of these pipes, which were to have
+been imported into Siberia with the expedition of 1876, did not
+reach Trondhjem until the <i>Ymer</i> had sailed from that town.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page440" id="v1page440"></a>[pg 440]</span>
+They were instead taken on the <i>Vega</i>, and now, though quite
+too fragile for the hard fingers of Chukches, answered well for
+smaller bargains, as gifts of welcome to a large number of
+natives collected at the vessel, and as gifts to children in order
+to gain the favour of their parents. I besides distributed a large
+quantity of silver coin with King Oscar's effigy, in order, if any
+misfortune overtook us, to afford a means of ascertaining the
+places we had visited.</p>
+
+<p>For the benefit of future travellers I may state that the wares
+most in demand are large sewing and darning needles, pots,
+knives (preferably large), axes, saws, boring tools and other iron
+tools, linen and woollen shirts (preferably of bright colours, but
+also white), neckerchiefs, tobacco and sugar. To these may be
+added the spirits which are in so great request among all savages;
+a currency of which, indeed, there was great abundance on the
+<i>Vega</i>, but which I considered myself prevented from making
+use of. In exchange for this it is possible to obtain, in short,
+anything whatever from many of the natives, but by no means
+from all, for even here there are men who will not taste spirits,
+but with a gesture of disdain refuse the glass that is offered
+them. The Chukches are otherwise shrewd and calculating
+men of business, accustomed to study their own advantage.
+They have been brought up to this from childhood through the
+barter which they carry on between America and Siberia.
+Many a beaver-skin that comes to the market at Irbit belongs to
+an animal that has been caught in America, whose skin has passed
+from hand to hand among the wild men of America and Siberia,
+until it finally reaches the Russian merchant. For this barter a
+sort of market is held on an island in Behring's Straits. At
+the most remote markets in Polar America, a beaver-skin is
+said some years ago to have been occasionally exchanged for a
+leaf of tobacco.<A HREF="#v1fn238" NAME="v1rn238">[238]</A> An exceedingly beautiful black fox-skin was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page441" id="v1page441"></a>[pg 441]</span>
+offered to me by a Chukch for a pot. Unfortunately I had
+none that I could dispense with. Here, too, prices have risen.
+When the Russians first came to Kamchatka, they got eight
+sable-skins for a knife, and eighteen for an axe, and yet the
+Kamchadales laughed at the credulous foreigners who were
+so easily deceived. At Yakutsk, when the Russians first
+settled there, a pot was even sold for as many sable-skins as
+it could hold.<A HREF="#v1fn239" NAME="v1rn239">[239]</A></p>
+
+<p>During the night before the 10th September, the surface
+of the sea was covered with a very thick sheet of newly-frozen
+ice, which was broken up again in the neighbourhood of the
+vessel by blocks of old ice drifting about. The <i>pack</i> itself
+appeared to have scattered a little. We therefore weighed
+anchor to continue our voyage. At first a <i>d&eacute;tour</i> towards the
+west was necessary to get round a field of drift-ice. Here too,
+however, our way was barred by a belt of old ice, which was
+bound together so firmly by the ice that had been formed in the
+course of the night, that a couple of hours' work with axes and
+ice-hatchets was required to open a channel through it. On the
+other side of this belt of ice we came again into pretty open
+water, but the fog, instead, became so dense that we had again
+to lie-to at a ground-ice, lying farther out to the sea but more
+to the west than our former resting-place. On the night before
+the 11th there was a violent motion among the ice. Fortunately
+the air cleared in the morning, so that we could hold on
+our course among pretty open ice, until on the approach of night
+we were obliged as usual to lie-to at a ground-ice.</p>
+
+<p>The following day, the 12th September, when we had passed
+Irkaipij, or Cape North, a good way, we fell in with so close ice
+that there was no possibility of penetrating farther. We were
+therefore compelled to return, and were able to make our way
+with great difficulty among the closely packed masses of drift
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page442" id="v1page442"></a>[pg 442]</span>
+ice. Here the vessel was anchored in the lee of a ground-ice,
+which had stranded near the northernmost spur of Irkaipij,
+until a strong tidal current began to carry large pieces of drift-ice
+past the vessel's anchorage. She was now removed and
+anchored anew in a little bay open to the north, which was
+formed by two rocky points jutting out from the mainland.
+Unfortunately we were detained here, waiting for a better state
+of the ice, until the 18th September. It was this involuntary
+delay which must be considered the main cause of our
+wintering.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p454.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p454.png" alt="IRKAIPIJ." ></a>
+IRKAIPIJ.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) </div>
+
+<p>Irkaipij is the northernmost promontory in that part of Asia,
+which was seen by Cook in 1778. It was, therefore, called by
+him Cape North, a name which has since been adopted in most
+maps, although it is apt to lead to confusion from capes similarly
+named being found in most countries. It is also incorrect,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page443" id="v1page443"></a>[pg 443]</span>
+because the cape does not form the northernmost promontory
+either of the whole of Siberia, or of any considerable portion of
+it. For the northernmost point of the mainland of Siberia is
+Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost in the land east of the Lena
+Svjatoinos, the northernmost in the stretch of coast east of
+Chaun Bay, Cape Chelagskoj, and so on. Cape North ought,
+therefore, to be replaced by the original name Irkaipij, which is
+well known to all the natives between Chaun Bay and Behring's
+Straits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p455.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p455.png" alt="REMAINS OF AN ONKILON HOUSE." ></a>
+REMAINS OF AN ONKILON HOUSE.
+<br><i>a</i>. Seen from the side.  <i>b</i>. From above.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) </div>
+
+<p>On the neck of land which connects Irkaipij with the mainland,
+there was at the time of our visit a village consisting of
+sixteen tents. We saw here also <i>ruins</i>, viz. the remains of a large
+number of old house-sites, which belonged to a race called <i>Onkilon</i><A HREF="#v1fn240" NAME="v1rn240">[240]</A>
+who formerly inhabited these regions, and some centuries ago were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page444" id="v1page444"></a>[pg 444]</span>
+driven by the Chukches, according to tradition, to some remote
+islands in the Polar Sea. At these old house-sites Dr. Almquist
+and Lieutenant Nordquist set on foot excavations in order to
+collect contributions to the ethnography of this traditional race.
+The houses appear to have been built, at least partly, of the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p456.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p456.png" alt="IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN THE RUINS OF AN ONKILON HOUSE." ></a>
+IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN THE RUINS OF AN ONKILON HOUSE.
+<br>1. Stone chisel-with bone handle, one-half the natural size. 2., 4. Knives of slate, one-third.
+<br>3., 7. Spear heads of slate, one-third. 5. Spear-head of bone, one-third.
+<br>6. Bone spoon, one-third. </div>
+
+<p>bones of the whale, and half sunk in the earth. The refuse
+heaps in the neighbourhood contained bones of several species
+of the whale, among them the white whale, and of the seal,
+walrus, reindeer, bear, dog, fox, and various kinds of birds.
+Besides these remains of the produce of the chase, there were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page445" id="v1page445"></a>[pg 445]</span>
+found implements of stone and bone, among which were stone
+axes, which, after lying 250 years in the earth, were still fixed
+to their handles of wood or bone. Even the thongs with which
+the axe had been bound fast to, or <i>wedged into</i>, the handle, were
+still remaining. The tusks of the walrus<A HREF="#v1fn241" NAME="v1rn241">[241]</A> had to the former
+inhabitants of the place, as to the Chukches of the present,
+yielded a material which in many cases may be used with
+greater advantage than flint for spear-heads, bird-arrows, fishhooks,
+ice-axes, &amp;c. Walrus tusks, more or less worked, accordingly
+were found in the excavations in great abundance. The
+bones of the whale had also been employed on a great scale, but
+we did not find any large pieces of mammoth tusks, an indication
+that the race was not in any intimate contact with the inhabitants
+of the regions to the westward, so rich in the remains of
+the mammoth.<A HREF="#v1fn242" NAME="v1rn242">[242]</A> At many places the old Onkilon houses were
+used by the Chukches as stores for blubber; and at others,
+excavations had been made in the refuse heaps in search of
+walrus tusks. Our researches were regarded by the Chukches
+with mistrust. An old man who came, as it were by chance,
+from the interior of the country past the place where we worked,
+remained there a while, regarding our labours with apparent
+indifference, until he convinced himself that from simplicity, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page446" id="v1page446"></a>[pg 446]</span>
+some other reason unintelligible to him, we avoided touching the
+blubber-stores, but instead rooted up in search of old fragments
+of bone or stone-flakes.</p>
+
+<p>Remains of old dwellings were found even at the highest
+points among the stone mounds of Irkaipij, and here perhaps was
+the last asylum of the Onkilon race. At many places on the
+mountain slopes were seen large collections of bones, consisting
+partly of a large number (at one place up to fifty) of bears'
+skulls overgrown with lichens, laid in circles, with the nose
+inwards, partly of the skulls of the reindeer, Polar bear,<A HREF="#v1fn243" NAME="v1rn243">[243]</A> and
+walrus, mixed together in a less regular circle, in the midst of
+which reindeer horns were found set up. Along with the
+reindeer horns there was found the coronal bone of an elk with
+portions of the horns still attached. Beside the other bones lay
+innumerable temple-bones of the seal, for the most part fresh
+and not lichen-covered. Other seal bones were almost completely
+absent, which shows that temple-bones were not remains
+of weathered seal skulls, but had been gathered to the place for
+one reason or another in recent times. No portions of human
+skeletons were found in the neighbourhood. These places are
+sacrificial places, which the one race has inherited from the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>Wrangel gives the following account of the tribe which lived
+here in former times:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;As is well known the sea-coast at Anadyr Bay is inhabited
+by a race of men, who, by their bodily formation, dress,
+language, differ manifestly from the Chukches, and call
+themselves Onkilon&mdash;seafolk. In the account of Captain
+Billing's journey through the country of the Chukches,
+he shows the near relationship the language of this coast
+tribe has to that of the Aleutians at Kadyak, who are of
+the same primitive stem as the Greenlanders. Tradition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page447" id="v1page447"></a>[pg 447]</span>
+relates that upwards of two hundred years ago these Onkilon
+occupied the whole of the Chukch coast, from Cape Chelagskoj
+to Behring's Straits, and indeed we still find along the whole of
+this stretch remains of their earth huts, which must have been very
+unlike the present dwellings of the Chukches; they have the
+form of small mounds, are half sunk in the ground and closed
+above with whale ribs, which are covered with a thick layer of
+earth. A violent quarrel between Kr&auml;choj, the chief of these
+North-Asiatic Eskimo, and an <i>errim</i> or chief of the reindeer
+Chukches, broke out into open feud. Kr&auml;choj drew the shorter
+straw, and found himself compelled to fly, and leave the country
+with his people; since then the whole coast has been desolate
+and uninhabited. Of the emigration of these Onkilon, the
+inhabitants of the village Irkaipij, where Kr&auml;choj appears to
+have lived, narrated the following story. He had killed a Ohukch
+<i>errim</i>, and was therefore eagerly pursued by the son of the
+murdered man, whose pursuit he for a considerable time escaped.
+Finally Kr&auml;choj believed that he had found a secure asylum
+on the rock at Irkaipij, where he fortified himself behind a sort
+of natural wall, which can still be seen. But the young Chukch
+<i>errim</i>, driven by desire to avenge his father's death, finds means
+to make his way within the fortification and kills Kr&auml;choj's son.
+Although the blood-revenge was now probably complete according
+to the prevailing ideas, Kr&auml;choj must have feared a further
+pursuit by his unrelenting enemy, for during night he lowers
+himself with thongs from his lofty asylum, nearly overhanging
+the sea, enters a boat, which waits for him at the foot of the cliff,
+and, in order to lead his pursuers astray, steers first towards the
+east, but at nightfall turns to the west, reaches Schalaurov
+Island, and there fortifies himself in an earth hut, whose remains
+we (Wrangel's expedition) have still seen. Here he then collected
+all the members of his tribe, and fled with them in 15 &quot;baydars&quot;
+to the land whose mountains the Chukches assure themselves
+they can in clear sunshine see from Cape Yakan. During the
+following winter a Chukch related to Kr&auml;choj disappeared in
+addition with his family and reindeer, and it is supposed that he
+too betook himself to the land beyond the sea. With this
+another tradition agrees, which was communicated to us by the
+inhabitants of Kolyutschin Island. For an old man informed
+me (Wrangel) that during his grandfather's lifetime a &quot;baydar&quot;
+with seven Chukches, among them a woman, had ventured too
+far out to sea. After they had long been driven hither and
+thither by the wind, they stranded on a country unknown to
+them, whose inhabitants struck the Chukches themselves as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page448" id="v1page448"></a>[pg 448]</span>
+coarse and brutish. The shipwrecked men were all murdered.
+Only the woman was saved, was very well treated, and taken
+round the whole country, and shown to the natives as something
+rare and remarkable. So she came at last to the Kargauts,
+a race living on the American coast at Behring's Straits, whence
+she found means to escape to her own tribe. This woman told
+her countrymen much about her travels and adventures; among
+other things she said that she had been in a great land which
+lay north of Kolyutschin Island, stretched far to the <i>west</i>, and
+was probably connected with America. This land was inhabited
+by several races of men; those living in the west resembled the
+Chukches in every respect, but those living in the east were so
+wild and brutish, that they scarcely deserved to be called men.
+The whole account, both of the woman herself and of the
+narrators of the tradition, is mixed up with so many improbable
+adventures, that it would scarcely be deserving of any attention
+were it not remarkable for its correspondence with the history
+of Kr&auml;choj.&quot;<A HREF="#v1fn244" NAME="v1rn244">[244]</A></p>
+
+<p>When Wrangel wrote that, he did not believe in the existence
+of the land which is to be found set out on his map in 177&deg;E.L.
+and 71&deg; N.L., and which, afterwards discovered by the Englishman
+Kellet, according to the saying, <i>lucus a non lucendo</i>,
+obtained the name of Wrangel Land. Now we know that the
+land spoken of by tradition actually exists, and therefore there
+is much that even tells in favour of its extending as far as to
+the archipelago on the north coast of America.</p>
+
+<p>With this fresh light thrown upon it, the old Chukch woman's
+story ought to furnish a valuable hint for future exploratory
+voyages in the sea north of Behring's Straits, and an important
+contribution towards forming a judgment of the fate which
+has befallen the American <i>Jeannette</i> expedition, of which, while
+this is being written, accounts are still wanting.<A HREF="#v1fn245" NAME="v1rn245">[245]</A>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page449" id="v1page449"></a>[pg 449]</span>
+Between us and the inhabitants of the present Chukch village
+at Irkaipij there soon arose very friendly relations. A somewhat
+stout, well-grown, tall and handsome man named Chepurin, we
+took at first to be chief. He was therefore repeatedly entertained
+in the gunroom, on which occasions small gifts were given him
+to secure his friendship. Chepurin had clearly a weakness for
+gentility and grandeur, and could now, by means of the barter
+he carried on with us and the presents he received, gratify his
+love of show to a degree of which he probably had never
+before dreamed. When during the last days of our stay he paid
+a visit to the <i>Vega</i> he was clad in a red woollen shirt drawn over
+his &quot;pesk,&quot; and from either ear hung a gilt watch-chain, to the
+lower end of which a perforated ten-&ouml;re piece was fastened.
+Already on our arrival he was better clothed than the others, his
+tent was larger and provided with two sleeping apartments, one
+for each of his wives. But notwithstanding all this we soon
+found that we had made a mistake, when, thinking that a society
+could not exist without government, we assigned to him so
+exalted a position. Here, as in all Chukch villages which we
+afterwards visited, absolute anarchy prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time the greatest unanimity reigned in the little
+headless community. Children, healthy and thriving, tenderly
+cared for by the inhabitants, were found in large numbers. A
+good word to them was sufficient to pave the way for a friendly
+reception in the tent. The women were treated as the equals of
+the men, and the wife was always consulted by the husband when a
+more important bargain than usual was to be made; many times
+it was carried through only after the giver of advice had been
+bribed with a neckerchief or a variegated handkerchief. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page450" id="v1page450"></a>[pg 450]</span>
+articles which the man purchased were immediately committed to
+the wife's keeping. One of the children had round his neck a band
+of pearls with a Chinese coin having a square hole in the middle,
+suspended from it; another bore a perforated American cent piece.
+None knew a word of Russian, but here too a youngster could count
+ten in English. They also knew the word &quot;ship.&quot; In all the tents,
+reindeer stomachs were seen with their contents, or sacks stuffed
+full of other green herbs. Several times we were offered in
+return for the bits of sugar and pieces of tobacco which we distributed,
+wrinkled root-bulbs somewhat larger than a hazel nut,
+which had an exceedingly pleasant taste, resembling that of fresh
+nuts. A seal caught in a net among the ice during our visit was
+cut up in the tent by the women. On this occasion they were
+surrounded by a large number of children, who were now and
+then treated to bloody strips of flesh. The youngsters carried
+on the work of cutting up <i>con amore</i>, coquetting a little with
+their bloody arms and faces.</p>
+
+<p>The rock which prevails in this region consists mainly of gabbro,
+which in the interior forms several isolated, black, plateau-formed
+hills, 100 to 150 metres high, between which an even, grassy,
+but treeless plain extends. It probably rests on sedimentary
+strata. For on the western side of Irkaipij the plutonic rock is
+seen to rest on a black slate with traces of fossils, for the most
+part obscure vegetable impressions, probably belonging to the
+Permian Carboniferous formation.</p>
+
+<p>Uneasy at the protracted delay here I made an excursion to
+a hill in the neighbourhood of our anchorage, which, according
+to a barometrical measurement, was 129 metres high, in order,
+from a considerable height, to get a better view of the ice than
+was possible by a boat reconnaisance. The hill was called by
+the Chukches Hammong-Ommang. From it we had an extensive
+view of the sea. It was everywhere covered with closely
+packed drift-ice. Only next the land was seen an open channel,
+which, however, was interrupted in an ominous way by belts of ice.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page451" id="v1page451"></a>[pg 451]</span>
+The plutonic rock, of which the hill was formed, was almost
+everywhere broken up by the action of the frost into angular
+blocks of stone, so that its surface was converted into an enormous
+stone mound. The stones were on the wind side covered
+with a translucent glassy ice-crust, which readily fell away,
+and added considerably to the difficulty of the ascent. I had
+previously observed the formation of such an ice-crust on the
+northernmost mountain summits of Spitzbergen.<A HREF="#v1fn246" NAME="v1rn246">[246]</A> It arises
+undoubtedly from the fall of super-cooled mist, that is to say of
+mist whose vesicles have been cooled considerably below the
+freezing-point without being changed to ice, which first takes
+place when, after falling, they come in contact with ice or snow,
+or some angular hard object. It is such a mist that causes the
+icing down of the rigging of vessels, a very unpleasant phenomenon
+for the navigator, which we experienced during the following
+days, when the tackling of the <i>Vega</i> was covered with pieces of
+ice so large, and layers so thick, that accidents might have
+happened by the falling of the ice on the deck.<A HREF="#v1fn247" NAME="v1rn247">[247]</A></p>
+
+<p>The dredgings here yielded to Dr. Kjellman some alg&aelig;, and
+to Dr. Stuxberg masses of a species of cumacea, <i>Diastylis
+Rathkei</i> Kr., of <i>Acanthostephia Malmgreni</i> Go&euml;s, and <i>Liparis
+gelatinosus</i> Pallas, but little else. On the steep slopes of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page452" id="v1page452"></a>[pg 452]</span>
+north side of Irkaipij a species of cormorant had settled in so
+large numbers that the cliff there might be called a true fowl-fell.
+A large number of seals were visible among the ice, and
+along with the cormorant a few other birds, principally phalaropes.
+Fish were now seen only in exceedingly small numbers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p464.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p464.png" alt="ALGA FROM IRKAIPIJ." ></a>
+ALGA FROM IRKAIPIJ.
+<br><i>Laminaria solidungula</i> (J. G. Ag.). </div>
+
+<p>Even in the summer, fishing here does not appear to be specially
+abundant, to judge from the fact that the Chukches had not
+collected any stock for the winter. We were offered, however,
+a salmon or two of small size.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page453" id="v1page453"></a>[pg 453]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p465.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p465.png" alt="CORMORANT FROM IRKAIPIJ." ></a>
+CORMORANT FROM IRKAIPIJ.
+<br><i>Graculus bicristatus</i> (Pallas). </div>
+
+<p>On the 18th September<A HREF="#v1fn248" NAME="v1rn248">[248]</A> the state of the ice was quite
+unchanged. If a wintering was to be avoided, it was, however,
+not advisable to remain longer here. It had besides appeared
+from the hill-top which I visited the day before that an open
+water channel, only interrupted at two places by ice, was still to
+be found along the coast. The anchor accordingly was weighed,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page454" id="v1page454"></a>[pg 454]</span>
+and the <i>Vega</i> steamed on, but in a depth of only 6 to 8 metres.
+As the <i>Vega's</i> draught is from 4.8 to 5 metres, we had only a
+little water under the keel, and that among ice in quite unknown
+waters. About twenty kilometres from the anchorage, we met
+with a belt of ice through which we could make our way though
+only with great difficulty, thanks to the <i>Vega's</i> strong bow enabling
+her to withstand the violent concussions. Our voyage was
+then continued, often in yet shallower water than before, until
+the vessel, at 8 o'clock in the morning, struck on a ground
+ice foot. The tide was falling, and on that account it was not
+until next morning that we could get off, after a considerable
+portion of the ground-ice, on whose foot the <i>Vega</i> had run up,
+had been hewn away with axes and ice-hatchets. Some attempts
+were made to blast the ice with gunpowder, but they were unsuccessful.
+For this purpose dynamite is much more efficacious,
+and this explosive ought therefore always to form part of the
+equipment in voyages in which belts of ice have to be broken
+through.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th we continued our voyage in the same way as
+before, in still and for the most part shallow water near the
+coast, between high masses of ground-ice, which frequently had
+the most picturesque forms. Later in the day we again fell in
+with very low ice formed in rivers and shut-in inlets of the sea,
+and came into slightly salt water having a temperature above
+the freezing-point.</p>
+
+<p>After having been moored during the night to a large ground-ice,
+the <i>Vega</i> continued her course on the 20th September
+almost exclusively among low, dirty ice, which had not been
+much pressed together during the preceding winter. This ice
+was not so deep in the water as the blue ground-ice, and could
+therefore drift nearer the coast, a great inconvenience for our
+vessel, which drew so much water. We soon came to a place
+where the ice was packed so close to land that an open channel
+only 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 metres deep remained close to the shore. We
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page455" id="v1page455"></a>[pg 455]</span>
+were therefore compelled after some hours' sailing to lie-to at a
+ground-ice to await more favourable circumstances. The wind
+had now gone from west to north and north-west. Notwithstanding
+this the temperature became milder and the weather
+rainy, a sign that great open stretches of water lay to the north
+and north-west of us. During the night before the 21st it
+rained heavily, the wind being N.N.W. and the temperature
++2&deg;. An attempt was made on that day to find some place where
+the belt of drift-ice that was pressed against the land could be
+broken through, but it was unsuccessful, probably in consequence
+of the exceedingly dense fog which prevailed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p467.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p467.png" alt="PIECES OF ICE FROM THE COAST OF THE CHUKCH PENINSULA." ></a>
+PIECES OF ICE FROM THE COAST OF THE CHUKCH PENINSULA.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) </div>
+
+<p>Dredging gave but a scanty yield here, probably because the
+animal life in water so shallow as that in which we were
+anchored, is destroyed by the ground-ices, which drift about
+here for the greater part of the year. Excursions to the neighbouring
+coast on the other hand, notwithstanding the late season
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page456" id="v1page456"></a>[pg 456]</span>
+of the year, afforded to the botanists of the <i>Vega</i> valuable information
+regarding the flora of the region.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22nd I made, along with Captain Palander, an excursion
+in the steam launch to take soundings farther to the east. We
+soon succeeded in discovering a channel of sufficient depth and
+not too much blocked with ice, and on the 23rd the <i>Vega</i> was
+able to resume her voyage among very closely packed drift-ice,
+often so near the land that she had only a fourth of a metre of
+water under her keel. We went forward however, if slowly.</p>
+
+<p>The land here formed a grassy plain, still clear of snow, rising
+inland to gently sloping hills or earthy heights. The beach
+was strewn with a not inconsiderable quantity of driftwood, and
+here and there were seen the remains of old dwelling-places.
+On the evening of the 23rd September we lay-to at a ground-ice
+in a pretty large opening of the ice-field. This opening closed
+in the course of the night, so that on the 24th and 25th we
+could make only very little progress, but on the 26th we
+continued our course, at first with difficulty, but afterwards
+in pretty open water to the headland which on the maps is
+called Cape Onman. The natives too, who came on board here,
+gave the place that name. The ice we met with on that day
+was heavier than before, and bluish-white, not dirty. It was
+accordingly formed farther out at sea.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th we continued our course in somewhat open water
+to Kolyutschin Bay. No large river debouches in the bottom
+of this great fjord, the only one on the north coast of Asia which,
+by its long narrow form, the configuration of the neighbouring
+shores, and its division into two at the bottom, reminds us of the
+Spitzbergen fjords which have been excavated by glaciers. The
+mouth of the bay was filled with very closely packed drift-ice
+that had gathered round the island situated there, which was
+inhabited by a large number of Chukch families. In order to
+avoid this ice the <i>Vega</i> made a considerable <i>d&eacute;tour</i> up the fjord.
+The weather was calm and fine, but new ice was formed everywhere
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page457" id="v1page457"></a>[pg 457]</span>
+among the old drift-ice where it was closely packed.
+Small seals swarmed by hundreds among the ice, following the
+wake of the vessel with curiosity. Birds on the contrary were
+seen in limited numbers. Host of them had evidently already
+migrated to more southerly seas. At 4.45 P.M. the vessel was
+anchored to an ice-floe near the eastern shore of the fjord. It
+could be seen from this point that the ice at the headland, which
+bounded the mouth of the fjord to the east, lay so near land
+that there was a risk that the open water next the shore would
+not be deep enough for the <i>Vega</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Hovgaard was therefore sent with the steam
+launch to take soundings. He returned with the report that
+the water off the headland was sufficiently deep. At the same
+time, accompanied by several of the naturalists, I made an
+excursion on land. In the course of this excursion the hunter
+Johnsen was sent to the top of the range of heights which
+occupied the interior of the promontory, in order to get a view
+of the state of the ice farther to the east. Johnsen too returned
+with the very comforting news that a very broad open channel
+extended beyond the headland along the coast to the south-east.
+I was wandering about along with my comrades on the slopes
+near the beach in order, so far as the falling darkness permitted,
+to examine its natural conditions, when Johnsen came down;
+he informed us that from the top of the height one could hear
+bustle and noise and see fires at an encampment on the other
+side of the headland. He supposed that the natives were
+celebrating some festival. I had a strong inclination to go
+thither in order, as I thought, &quot;to take farewell of the Chukches,&quot;
+for I was quite certain that on some of the following days we
+should sail into the Pacific. But it was already late in the
+evening and dark, and we were not yet sufficiently acquainted
+with the disposition of the Chukches to go by night, without
+any serious occasion, in small numbers and provided only with
+the weapons of the chase, to an encampment with which we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page458" id="v1page458"></a>[pg 458]</span>
+were not acquainted. It was not until afterwards that we
+learned that such a visit was not attended with any danger.
+Instead of going to the encampment, as the vessel in any case
+could not weigh anchor this evening, we remained some hours
+longer on the beach and lighted there an immense log fire of
+drift-wood, round which we were soon all collected, chatting
+merrily about the remaining part of the voyage in seas where
+not cold but heat would trouble us, and where our progress at
+least would not be obstructed by ice, continual fog, and unknown
+shallows. None of us then had any idea that, instead of the
+heat of the tropics, we would for the next ten months be
+experiencing a winter at the pole of cold, frozen in on an
+unprotected road, under almost continual snow-storms, and
+with a temperature which often sank below the freezing-point
+of mercury.</p>
+
+<p>The evening was glorious, the sky clear, and the air so calm
+that the flames and smoke of the log fire rose high against the
+sky. The dark surface of the water, covered as it was with a
+thin film of ice, reflected its light as a fire-way straight as a line,
+bounded far away at the horizon by a belt of ice, whose inequalities
+appeared in the darkness as the summits of a distant
+high mountain chain. The temperature in the quite draught-free
+air was felt to be mild, and the thermometer showed only
+2&deg; under the freezing-point. This slight degree of cold was
+however sufficient to cover the sea in the course of the night
+with a sheet of newly-frozen ice, which, as the following days'
+experience showed, at the opener places could indeed only delay,
+not obstruct the advance of the <i>Vega</i>, but which however bound
+together the fields of drift-ice collected off the coast so firmly
+that a vessel, even with the help of steam, could with difficulty
+force her way through.</p>
+
+<p>When on the following day, the 28th September, we had
+sailed past the headland which bounds Kolyutschin Bay on the
+east, the channel next the coast, clear of drift-ice, but covered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page459" id="v1page459"></a>[pg 459]</span>
+with newly formed ice, became suddenly shallow. The depth
+was too small for the <i>Vega</i>, for which we had now to seek a
+course among the blocks of ground-ice and fields of drift-ice in
+the offing. The night's frost had bound these so firmly together
+that the attempt failed. We were thus compelled to lie-to at a
+ground-ice so much the more certain of getting off with the
+first shift of the wind, and of being able to traverse the few
+miles that separated us from the open water at Behring's Straits,
+as whalers on several occasions had not left this region until the
+middle of October.</p>
+
+<p>As American whalers had during the last decades extended
+their whale-fishing to the North Behring Sea, I applied before
+my departure from home both directly and through the Foreign
+Office to several American scientific men and authorities with a
+request for information as to the state of the ice in that sea. In
+all quarters my request was received with special good-will and
+best wishes for the projected journey. I thus obtained both a
+large quantity of printed matter otherwise difficult of access, and
+maps of the sea between North America and North Asia, and
+oral and written communications from several persons: among
+whom may be mentioned the distinguished naturalist, Prof.
+W. H. DALL of Washington, who lived for a long time in the
+Territory of Alaska and the north part of the Pacific; Admiral
+JOHN RODGERS, who was commander of the American man-of-war,
+<i>Vincennes</i>, when cruising north of Behring's Straits in 1855; and
+WASHBURN MAYNOD, lieutenant in the American Navy. I had
+besides obtained important information from the German sea-captain
+E. DALLMANN, who for several years commanded a
+vessel in these waters for coast traffic with the natives. Space
+does not permit me to insert all these writings here. But to
+show that there were good grounds for not considering the season
+of navigation in the sea between Kolyutschin Bay and Behring's
+Straits closed at the end of September, I shall make some
+extracts from a letter sent to me, through the American Consul-General
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page460" id="v1page460"></a>[pg 460]</span>
+in Stockholm, N. A. ELVING, from Mr. MILLER, the
+president of the Alaska Commercial Company.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The following is an epitome of the information we have
+received regarding the subject of your inquiry.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The bark <i>Massachusetts</i>, Captain O. WILLIAMS, was in 74&deg;
+30' N.L. and 173&deg; W.L. on the 21st Sept. 1807. No ice in
+sight in the north, but to the east saw ice. Saw high peaks
+bearing W.N.W. about 60'. Captain Williams is of opinion that
+Plover Island, so-called by Kellet, is a headland of Wrangel
+Land. Captain Williams says that he is of opinion from his
+observations, that usually after the middle of August there is
+no ice south of 70&deg;&mdash;west of 175&deg;, until the 1st of October.
+There is hardly a year but that you could go as far as Cape
+North (Irkaipij), which is 180&deg;, during the month of September.
+If the winds through July and August have prevailed from the
+S.W., as is usual, the north shore will be found clear of ice.
+The season of 1877 was regarded as an 'icy season,' a good deal
+of ice to southward. 1876 was an open season; as was 1875.
+Our captain, GUSTAV NIEBAUM, states that the east side of
+Behring's Straits is open till November; he passed through
+the Straits as late as October 22nd two different seasons. The
+north shore was clear of all danger within reasonable distance.
+In 1869 the bark <i>Navy</i> anchored under Kolyutschin Island from
+the 8th to the 10th October. On the 10th October of that year
+there was no ice south and east of Wrangel Land.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>These accounts show that I indeed might have reason to be
+uneasy at my ill luck in again losing some days at a place at
+whose bare coast, exposed to the winds of the Polar Sea, there
+was little of scientific interest to employ ourselves with, little at
+least in comparison with what one could do in a few days, for
+instance, at the islands in Behring's Straits or in St. Lawrence
+Bay, lying as it does south of the easternmost promontory of
+Asia and therefore sheltered from the winds of the Arctic Ocean,
+but that there were no grounds for fearing that it would be
+necessary to winter there. I also thought that I could come to
+the same conclusion from the experience gained in my wintering
+on Spitzbergen in 1872-73, when permanent ice was first formed
+in our haven, in the 80th degree of latitude, during the month of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page461" id="v1page461"></a>[pg 461]</span>
+February. Now, however, the case was quite different. The
+fragile ice-sheet, which on the 28th September bound together
+the ground-ices and hindered our progress, increased daily in
+strength under the influence of severer and severer cold until it
+was melted by the summer heat of the following year. Long
+after we were beset, however, there was still open water on the
+coast four or five kilometres from our winter haven, and after our
+return home I was informed that, on the day on which we
+were frozen in, an American whaler was anchored at that
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Whether our sailing along the north coast of Asia to Kolyutschin
+Bay was a fortunate accident or not, the future will show.
+I for my part believe that it was a fortunate accident, which will
+often happen. Certain it is, in any case, that when we had come
+so far as to this point, our being frozen in was a quite accidental
+misfortune brought about by an unusual state of the ice in the
+autumn of 1878 in the North Behring Sea.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn214" NAME="v1fn214">[214]</A> Further information on this point is given by A.J. Malmgren in a
+paper on the occurrence and extent of mammoth-finds, and on the
+conditions of this animal's existence in former times (<i>Finska Vet.-Soc.
+F&ouml;rhandl</i> 1874-5).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn215" NAME="v1fn215">[215]</A> Compare Ph. Avril, <i>Voyage en divers &eacute;tats d'Europe et d'Asie
+entrepris pour d&eacute;couvrir un nouveau chemin &agrave; la Chine</i>, etc., Paris,
+1692, p. 209. Henry H. Howorth, &quot;The Mammoth in Siberia&quot; (<i>Geolog. Mag.</i>
+1880, p. 408).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn216" NAME="v1fn216">[216]</A> As will be stated in detail further on, there were found during
+the <i>Vega</i> expedition very remarkable sub-fossil animal remains, not of
+the mammoth, however, but of various different species of the whale.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn217" NAME="v1fn217">[217]</A> The word <i>mummies</i> is used by Von Middendorff to designate
+carcases of ancient animals found in the frozen soil of Siberia.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn218" NAME="v1fn218">[218]</A> The calculation is probably rather too low than too high. The
+steamer alone, in which I travelled up the Yenisej in 1875, carried over
+a hundred tusks, of which however the most were blackened, and many were
+so decayed that I cannot comprehend how the great expense of transport
+from the <i>tundra</i> of the Yenisej could be covered by the value of this
+article. According to the statement of the ivory dealers the whole
+parcel, good and bad together, was paid for at a common average price.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn219" NAME="v1fn219">[219]</A> Notices of yet other <i>finds</i> of mammoth carcases occur, according
+to Middendorff (<i>Sib. Reise</i>, IV. i. p. 274) in the scarce and to me
+inaccessible first edition of Witsen's <i>Noord en Oost Tartarye</i> (1692,
+Vol. II. p. 473).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn220" NAME="v1fn220">[220]</A> E. Yssbrants Ides, <i>Dreyjarige Reise nach China</i>, etc., Frankfort,
+1707, p. 55. The first edition was published in Amsterdam, in Dutch, in
+1704.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn221" NAME="v1fn221">[221]</A> Strahlenberg in <i>Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und
+Asia</i>, Stockholm, 1730, p. 393, also gives a large number of statements
+regarding the fossil Siberian ivory, and mentions that the distinguished
+Siberian traveller Messerschmidt found a complete skeleton on the river
+Tom.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn222" NAME="v1fn222">[222]</A> Tilesius, <i>De skeleto mammonteo Sibirico (M&eacute;m. de l'Acad. de St.
+P&eacute;tersbourg, T. V. pour l'ann&eacute;e 1812</i>, p. 409). Middendorff, <i>Sib.
+Reise</i>,IV. i. p. 274. Von Olfers, <i>Die &Uuml;berreste vorweltlicher
+Riesenthiere in Beziehung zu Ostasia-tischen Sagen und Chinesischen
+Schriften (Abhandl. der Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin aus dem Jahre
+1839</i>, p 51).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn223" NAME="v1fn223">[223]</A> P. S. Pallas, <i>De reliquiis animalium exoticorum per Asiam
+borealem repertis complementum (Novi commentarii Acad. Sc.
+Petropolitanae</i>, XVII. pro anno 1772, p. 576), and <i>Reise durch
+verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs</i>, Th. III. St. Petersburg,
+1776, p. 97.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn224" NAME="v1fn224">[224]</A> Hedenstr&ouml;m, <i>Otrywki o Sibiri</i>, St. Petersburg, 1830, p. 125.
+Ermann's <i>Archiv</i>, Part 24, p. 140.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn225" NAME="v1fn225">[225]</A> Compare K. E. v. Baer's paper in <i>M&eacute;langes Biologiques</i>, T. V. St.
+P&eacute;tersbourg, 1866, p. 691; Middendorff, IV. i. p. 277; Gavrila
+Sarytschev's <i>Achtj&auml;hrige Reise in nord&ouml;stlichen Sibirien</i>, etc.,
+translated by J. H. Busse, Th. 1, Leipzig, 1806, p. 106.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn226" NAME="v1fn226">[226]</A> Adams' account is inserted at p. 431 in the work of Tilesius
+already quoted. Von Baer gives a detailed account of this and other
+important <i>finds</i> of the same nature in the above-quoted paper in Tome
+V. of <i>M&eacute;langes Biologiques;</i>S t. P&eacute;tersbourg, pp. 645-740.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn227" NAME="v1fn227">[227]</A> Middendorff, IV. 1, p. 272.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn228" NAME="v1fn228">[228]</A> Friedrich Schmidt, <i>Wissenschastliche Resultate der sur Aussuchung
+eines Mammuthcadavers ausgesandten Expedition (M&eacute;m. de l'Acad. de St.
+P&eacute;tersbourg</i>, Ser. VII. T. XVIII. No. 1, 1872).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn229" NAME="v1fn229">[229]</A> Brandt, <i>Berichte der preussischen Akad. der Wissenchasten</i>, 1846,
+p. 224. Von Schmalhausen, <i>Bull de l'Acad. de St. P&eacute;tersbourg</i>, T. XXII.
+p. 291.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn230" NAME="v1fn230">[230]</A> The <i>find</i> is described by Heir Czersky in the Transactions
+published by the East Siberian division of the St. Petersburg
+Geographical Society; and subsequently by Dr. Leopold von Schrenck in
+<i>M&eacute;m. de l'Acad. de St. P&eacute;tersbourg</i>, Ser. VII. T. XXVII. No. 7,1880.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn231" NAME="v1fn231">[231]</A> The mean temperature of the different months is shown in the
+following table:&mdash;</p>
+<pre>
+JAN.   FEB.   MARCH   APRIL   MAY   JUNE
+-48&deg;9  -47&deg;2  -33&deg;9   -14&deg;9   -0&deg;40 +13&deg;4
+                                           Of the Year.
+                                           -16&deg;7
+JULY   AUG.   SEPT.   OCT.    NOV.  DEC.
++15&deg;4  +11&deg;9  +2&deg;3    -13&deg;9   -39&deg;1 -45&deg;7
+</pre>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn232" NAME="v1fn232">[232]</A> Hedenstr&ouml;m, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 128. To find stranded driftwood in an
+upright position is nothing uncommon.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn233" NAME="v1fn233">[233]</A> Martin Sauer, <i>An account of a Geographical and Astronomical
+Expedition the Northern parts of Russia by Commodore Joseph Billings</i>,
+London, 1802, p. 105. The walrus does not occur in the sea between the
+mouth of the Chatanga and Wrangel Land, and large whales are never seen
+at the New Siberian Islands, but during Hedenstr&ouml;m's stay in these
+regions three narwhals were enclosed in the ice near the shore at the
+mouth of the Yana (<i>Otrywki o Sibiri</i>, p. 131).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn234" NAME="v1fn234">[234]</A> Martin Sauer, <i>An account of a Geographical and Astronomical
+Expedition to the Northern parts of Russia by Commodore Joseph
+Billings</i>, London, 1802, p. 103. A. Ermann, <i>Reise um die Erde</i>, Berlin,
+1833-48, D. 1, B. 2, p. 258. Ermann's statement, that the knowledge of
+the existence of these islands was concealed from the government up to
+the year 1806, is clearly incorrect.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn235" NAME="v1fn235">[235]</A> Of course the earth here at an inconsiderable depth under the
+surface is constantly frozen, but I have nowhere seen such alternating
+layers of earth and ice, crossed by veins of ice, as Hedenstr&ouml;m in his
+oft-quoted work (<i>Otrywki o Sibiri</i>, p. 119) says he found at the
+sea-coast. Probably such a peculiar formation arises only at places
+where the spring floods bring down thick layers of mud, which cover the
+beds of ice formed during the winter and protect them for thousands of
+years from melting. I shall have an opportunity of returning to the
+interesting questions relating to this point.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn236" NAME="v1fn236">[236]</A> Since we discovered the Chukches also bury their dead by laying
+them out on the <i>tundra</i>, we have begun to entertain doubts whether the
+collection of bones delineated here was actually a grave. Possibly these
+mounds were only the remains of fireplaces, where the Chukches had used
+as fuel train-drenched bones, and which they bad afterwards for some
+reason or other endeavoured to protect from the action of the
+atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn237" NAME="v1fn237">[237]</A> H. Rink, <i>Gr&ouml;nland geographisk og statistisk beskrevet</i>, Bd. 2,
+Copenhagen, 1857, p. 344.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn238" NAME="v1fn238">[238]</A> C. von Dittmar, <i>Bulletin hist.-philolog, de l'acad. de St.
+P&eacute;tersbourg</i>, XIII. 1856, p. 130.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn239" NAME="v1fn239">[239]</A> Krascheninnikov, <i>Histoire et Description du
+Kamtschatka</i>, Amsterdam 1770, II. p. 95. A. Ennan, <i>Reise urn die
+Erde</i>,D.1, B.2, p. 255.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn240" NAME="v1fn240">[240]</A> <i>Ankali</i> signifies in Chukch dwellers on the coast, and is now
+used to denote the Chukches living on the coast. A similar word,
+Onkilon, was formerly used as the name of the Eskimo tribe that lived on
+the coast of the Polar Sea when the Chukch migration reached that point.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn241" NAME="v1fn241">[241]</A> The walrus now appears to be very rare in the sea north of
+Behring's Straits, but formerly it must have been found there in large
+numbers, and made that region a veritable paradise for every hunting
+tribe. While we during our long stay there saw only a few walruses,
+Cook, in 1778, saw an enormous number, and an interesting drawing of
+walruses is to be found in the account of his third voyage. <i>A Voyage to
+the Pacific Ocean, etc.</i> Vol. III. (by James King), London, 1784, p.
+259, pl. 52.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn242" NAME="v1fn242">[242]</A> The greatest number of mammoth tusks is obtained from the
+stretches of land and the islands between the Chatanga and Chaum Bay.
+Here the walrus is wanting. The inhabitants of North Siberia therefore
+praise the wisdom of the Creator, who lets the walrus live in the
+regions where the mammoth is wanting, and has scattered mammoth ivory in
+the earthy layers of the coasts where the walrus does not occur (A.
+Erman, <i>Reise um die Erde</i>, Berlin, 1833&mdash;48, D.1, B.2, p. 264).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn243" NAME="v1fn243">[243]</A> Among the bears' skulls brought home from this place Lieut.
+Nordquist found after his return home the skull of a sea-lion (<i>Otaria
+Stelleri</i>). It is, however, uncertain whether the animal was captured in
+the region, or whether the cranium was brought hither from Kamchatka.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn244" NAME="v1fn244">[244]</A> Wrangel's <i>Reise</i>, Th. 2, Berlin, 1839, p. 220.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn245" NAME="v1fn245">[245]</A> According to a paper in <i>Deutsche Geografische Bl&auml;tter</i>, B. IV. p.
+54, Captain E. Dallmann, in 1866, as commander of the Havai schooner
+<i>W.C. Talbot</i>, not only saw but landed on Wrangel Land. As Captain
+Dallmann of recent years has been in pretty close contact with a large
+number of geographers, and communications from him have been previously
+inserted in geographical journals, it appears strange that he has now
+for the first time made public this important voyage. At all events,
+Dallmann's statement that the musk-ox occurs on the coast of the Polar
+Sea and on Wrangel Land is erroneous. He has here confused the musk-ox
+with the reindeer.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn246" NAME="v1fn246">[246]</A> Cf. <i>Redog&ouml;relse f&ouml;r den svenska polarexpeditionen &aring;r 1872-73</i>
+(Bihang till Vet Ak. handl. Bd. 2, No. 18, p. 91).</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn247" NAME="v1fn247">[247]</A> A more dangerous kind of icing down threatens the navigator in
+severe weather not only in the Polar Seas but also in the Baltic and the
+North Sea. For it happens at that season that the sea-water at the
+surface is over-cooled, that is, cooled below the freezing-point without
+being frozen. Every wave which strikes the vessel is then converted by
+the concussion into ice-sludge, which increases and freezes together to
+hard ice so speedily that all attempts to remove it from the deck are in
+vain. In a few hours the vessel may be changed into an unmanageable
+floating block of ice which the sailors, exhausted by hard labour, must
+in despair abandon to its fate. Such an icing down, though with a
+fortunate issue, befell the steamer <i>Sofia</i> in the month of October off
+Bear Island, during the Swedish Polar Expedition of 1868.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn248" NAME="v1fn248">[248]</A> Irkaipij lies in 180&deg; long. from Greenwich. To bring our
+day-reckoning into agreement with that of the New World, we ought thus
+to have here lessened our date by one day, and have written the 17th for
+the 18th September. But as, with the exception of the short excursion to
+Port Clarence and St. Edward Island, we always followed the coasts of
+the Old World, and during our stay in the new hemisphere did not visit
+any place inhabited by Europeans, we retained during the whole of our
+voyage our European day-reckoning unaltered. If we had met with an
+American whaler, we would have been before him one day, our 27th
+September would thus have corresponded to his 26th. The same would have
+been the case on our coming to an American port.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page462" id="v1page462"></a>[pg 462]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_X"></a><h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Wintering becomes necessary&mdash;The position of the <i>Vega</i>&mdash;The ice round
+the vessel&mdash;American ship in the neighbourhood of the <i>Vega</i> when
+frozen in&mdash;The nature of the neighbouring country&mdash;The <i>Vega</i> is prepared
+for wintering&mdash;Provision-dep&ocirc;t and observatories established on land&mdash;The
+winter dress&mdash;Temperature on board&mdash;Health and dietary&mdash;Cold,
+wind, and snow&mdash;The Chukches on board&mdash;Menka's visit&mdash;Letters sent
+home&mdash;Nordquist and Hovgaard's excursion to Menka's encampment&mdash;Another
+visit of Menka&mdash;The fate of the letters&mdash;Nordquist's journey
+to Pidlin&mdash;<i>Find</i> of a Chukch grave&mdash;Hunting&mdash;Scientific work&mdash;Life
+on board&mdash;Christmas Eve.</p>
+
+<p>Assured that a few hours' southerly wind would be sufficient
+to break up the belt of ice, scarcely a Swedish mile<A HREF="#v1fn249" NAME="v1rn249">[249]</A> in breadth,
+that barred our way, and rendered confident by the above-quoted
+communications from experts in America concerning the
+state of the ice in the sea north of Behring's Straits, I was not
+at first very uneasy at the delay, of which we took advantage
+by making short excursions on land and holding converse with
+the inhabitants. First, when day after day passed without any
+change taking place, it became clear to me that we must make
+preparations for wintering just on the threshold between the
+Arctic and the Pacific Oceans. It was an unexpected disappointment,
+which it was more difficult to bear with equanimity,
+as it was evident that we would have avoided it if we had come
+some hours earlier to the eastern side of Kolyutschin Bay.
+There were numerous occasions during the preceding part of our
+voyage on which these hours might have been saved: the <i>Vega</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page463" id="v1page463"></a>[pg 463]</span>
+did not require to stay so long at Port Dickson, we might have
+saved a day at Taimur Island, have dredged somewhat less west
+of the New Siberian Islands, and so on; and above all, our long
+stay at Irkaipij waiting for an improvement in the state of the
+ice, was fatal, because at least three days were lost there without
+any change for the better taking place.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the vessel was by no means very secure. For
+the <i>Vega</i>, when frozen in, as appears from the sketch map to be
+found further on, did not lie at anchor in any haven, but was
+only, in the expectation of finding a favourable opportunity to
+steam on, anchored behind a ground-ice, which had stranded
+in a depth of 9-1/2 metres, 1,400 metres from land, in a road
+which was quite open from true N. 74&deg; W. by north to east.
+The vessel had here no other protection against the violent ice-pressure
+which winter storms are wont to cause in the Polar
+seas, than a rock of ice stranded at high water, and therefore
+also at high water not very securely fixed. Fortunately the tide
+just on the occasion of our being frozen in, appears to have been
+higher than at any other time during the course of the winter.
+The ice-rocks, therefore, first floated again far into the summer
+of 1879, when their parts that projected above the water had
+diminished by melting. Little was wanting besides to make
+our winter haven still worse than it was in reality. For the
+<i>Vega</i> was anchored the first time on the 28th September at
+some small ice-blocks which had stranded 200 metres nearer the
+land, but was removed the following day from that place, because
+there were only a few inches of water under her keel. Had the
+vessel remained at her first anchorage, it had gone ill with us.
+For the newly formed ice, during the furious autumn storms,
+especially during the night between the 14th and 15th
+December, was pressed over these ice-blocks. The sheet of ice,
+about half a metre thick, was thereby broken up with loud noise
+into thousands of pieces, which were thrown up on the underlying
+ground-ices so as to form an enormous <i>toross</i>, or rampart of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page464" id="v1page464"></a>[pg 464]</span>
+loose, angular blocks of ice. A vessel anchored there would
+have been buried under pieces of ice, pressed aground, and
+crushed very early in the winter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p476.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p476.png" alt="TOROSS." ></a>
+TOROSS.
+<br>From the neighbourhood of the <i>Vega's</i> winter quarters. </div>
+
+<p>When the <i>Vega</i> was beset, the sea near the coast, as has been
+already stated, was covered with newly formed ice, too thin to
+carry a foot passenger, but thick enough to prevent the passage
+of a boat. In the offing lay, as far as the eye could see, closely
+packed drift-ice, which was bound together so firmly by the
+newly formed ice, that it was vain to endeavour to force a
+passage. Already, by the 2nd October, it was possible, by
+observing the necessary precautions, to walk upon the newly
+formed ice nearest the vessel, and on the 3rd October, the
+Chukches came on board on foot. On the 10th there were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page465" id="v1page465"></a>[pg 465]</span>
+still weak places here and there between the vessel and the
+land, and a blue sky to the eastward indicated that there was
+still open water in that direction. That this &quot;clearing&quot; was at a
+considerable distance from the vessel was seen from an excursion
+which Dr. Almquist undertook in a north-easterly direction on
+the 13th October, when, after walking about twenty kilometres
+over closely packed drift-ice, he was compelled to turn without
+having reached the open water. It was clear that the <i>Vega</i> was
+surrounded by a band, at least thirty kilometres broad, of drift-ice
+fields, united by newly formed ice, which in the course of
+the winter reached a considerable thickness.<A HREF="#v1fn250" NAME="v1rn250">[250]</A></p>
+
+<p>In this immense ice-sheet there often arose in the course of
+the winter cracks of great length. They ran uninterruptedly
+across newly formed ice-fields, and old, high ground-ices. One
+of the largest of these cracks was formed on the night before
+the 15th December right under the bow of the vessel. It was
+nearly a metre broad, and very long. Commonly the cracks were
+only some centimetres broad, but, notwithstanding this, they
+were troublesome enough, because the sea-water forced itself
+up through them to the surface of the ice and drenched the
+snow lying next to it.</p>
+
+<p>The causes of the formation of the cracks were twofold.
+Either they arose from a violent wind disturbing somewhat the
+position of the newly formed ice, or through the contraction of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page466" id="v1page466"></a>[pg 466]</span>
+the ice in severe cold. The formation of the cracks took place
+with a more or less loud report, and, to judge from the number of
+these reports, more frequently than could be observed from the
+appearance of the snow-covered ice. Thus even during severe cold
+the apparently continuous ice-sheet was divided into innumerable
+pieces lying in the close proximity of each other, which either
+were completely loose or bound together only by the weak ice-band
+which was gradually formed under the snow on the surface
+of the water which had forced its way into the crack. Up to
+a distance of about six kilometres from the shore the ice in any
+case lay during the course of the whole winter nearly undisturbed,
+with the exception of the small cracks just mentioned.
+Farther out to sea, on the other hand, it was in constant motion.
+So-called <i>polynias</i> or open places probably occur here all the year
+round, and when the weather was favourable we could therefore
+nearly always see a blue water sky at the horizon from true N.W. to
+E. A southerly wind after some days brought the open water
+channel so near the vessel that it was possible to walk to it in a
+few hours. It then swarmed with seals&mdash;an indication that it was
+in connection with a sea that was constantly open. The neighbourhood
+of such a sea perhaps also accounts for the circumstance
+that we did not see a single seal-hole in the ice-fields that
+surrounded the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>The ground-ice, to which the <i>Vega</i> was moored on the 29th
+September, and under which she lay during the course of the
+winter, was about forty metres long and twenty-five metres
+broad; its highest point lay six metres above the surface of the
+water. It was thus not very large, but gave the vessel good
+shelter. This ground-ice, along with the vessel and the newly
+formed ice-field lying between it and the shore, was indeed
+moved considerably nearer land during the violent autumn
+storms. A groan or two and a knocking sound in the hull of
+the vessel indicated that it did not escape very severe pressure;
+but the <i>Vega</i> did not during the course of the winter suffer any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page467" id="v1page467"></a>[pg 467]</span>
+damage, either from this or from the severe cold, during which
+sharp reports often indicated that some crack in the woodwork
+had widened through the freezing of the water that had
+made its way into the vessel. &quot;Cold so that the walls crack&quot;
+is a well-known expression, with which we inhabitants of the
+North often connect memories from some stormy winter evening,
+passed by the home hearth; but here these reports heard in
+our cabins, especially at night, were unpleasant enough, giving
+rise to fears that the newly formed or widened cracks would
+cause dangerous leaks in the vessel's hull. In consequence of
+iron contracting more than wood under the influence of cold,
+the heads of the iron bolts, with which the ship's timbers
+were fastened together, in the course of the winter sank deep
+into the outside planking. But no serious leak arose in this
+way, perhaps because the cold only acted on that part of the
+vessel which lay above the surface of the water.</p>
+
+<p>Already during the first days of our wintering we interpreted
+various lively accounts of the natives, which they illustrated by
+signs, to mean that a whaler would be found at Serdze Kamen,
+in the neighbourhood of the <i>Vega's</i> winter haven. On this
+account Lieutenant Brusewitz was sent out on the 4th October
+with two men and the little boat, <i>Louise</i>, built in Copenhagen
+for the expedition of 1872-73, and intended for sledge-journeys,
+with instructions to ascertain, if possible, if such was the case.
+He returned late at night the same day without having got
+sight of any vessel. We now supposed that the whole depended
+on our having misunderstood the accounts of the Chukches.
+But a letter which I received after our return, from Mr. &quot;W.
+BARTLETT, dated New Bedford, 6th January, 1880, shows that
+this had not been the case. For he writes, among other
+things:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The writer's son, GIDEON W. BAKTLETT, left San Francisco
+1st June, 1878, in our freighter ship <i>Syren</i>, of 875 tons, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page468" id="v1page468"></a>[pg 468]</span>
+St. Lawrence Bay, arriving there July 8th, and, after loading
+6,100 barrels of oil and 37,000 Ibs. of bone from our whalers,
+she sailed for New Bedford direct, touching at Honolulu to
+land her bone, to come here <i>vi&acirc;</i> San Francisco, and he joined
+our whaler bark, <i>Rainbow</i>, at St. Lawrence Bay, and went on
+a tour of observation and pleasure, visiting Point Barrow and
+going as far east as Lion Reefs, near Camden Bay, and then
+returning to Point Barrow, and going over to Herald Island,
+and while there visiting our different whalers, seeing one &quot;bow-head&quot;
+caught and cut in, and September 25th he came down
+in the schooner <i>W. M. Meyer</i> to San Francisco, arriving there
+October 22nd. By a comparison of dates we find he passed
+near Cape Serdze September 29th, or one day after you anchored
+near Kolyutschin Bay.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The 29th September according to the American day-reckoning
+corresponds to the 30th according to that of the old world, which
+was still followed on board the <i>Vega</i>. The schooner <i>W. M.
+Meyer</i>thus lay at Serdze Kamen two days after we anchored in
+our winter haven. The distance between the two places is only
+about 70 kilometres.</p>
+
+<p>The winter haven was situated in 67&deg; 4' 49&quot; north latitude,
+and 173&deg; 23' 2&quot; longitude west from Greenwich, 1.4 kilometres
+from land. The distance from East Cape was 120',
+and from Point Hope near Cape Lisburn on the American
+side, 180'.</p>
+
+<p>The neighbouring land formed a plain rising gradually from
+the sea, slightly undulating and crossed by river valleys, which
+indeed when the <i>Vega</i> was frozen in was covered with hoarfrost
+and frozen, but still clear of snow, so that our botanists could
+form an idea of the flora of the region, previously quite unknown.
+Next the shore were found close beds of Elymus, alternating
+with carpets of <i>Halianthus peploides</i>, and further up a poor, even,
+gravelly soil, covered with water in spring, on which grew only
+a slate-like lichen, <i>Gyrophora proboscidea</i>, and a few flowering
+plants, of which <i>Armeria sibirica</i> was the most common.
+Within the beach were extensive salt and fresh-water lagoons,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page469" id="v1page469"></a>[pg 469]</span>
+separated by low land, whose banks were covered with a pretty
+luxuriant carpet, formed of mosses, grasses, and Carices. But
+first on the neighbouring high land, where the weathered gneiss
+strata yielded a more fertile soil than the sterile sand thrown
+up out of the sea, did the vegetation assume a more variegated
+stamp. No trace of trees<A HREF="#v1fn251" NAME="v1rn251">[251]</A> was indeed found there, but low
+willow bushes, entensive carpets of <i>Empetrum nigrum</i>and
+<i>Andromeda tetragona</i>were seen, along with large tufts of a
+species of Artemisia. Between these shoot forth in summer, to
+judge partly from the dried and frozen remains of plants which
+Dr. Kjellman collected in autumn, partly from collections made
+in spring, a limited number of flowering plants, some of which
+are well known at home, as the red whortleberry, the cloudberry,
+and the dandelion.</p>
+
+<p>Although experience from preceding Polar journeys and
+specially from the Swedish expedition of 1872-73, showed that
+even at the 80th degree of latitude the sea may suddenly break
+up in the middle of winter, we however soon found, as has
+been already stated, that we must make preparations for
+wintering. The necessary arrangements were accordingly made.
+The snow which collected on deck, and which at first was daily
+swept away, was allowed to remain, so that it finally formed a
+layer 30 centimetres thick, of hard tramped snow or ice, which
+in no inconsiderable degree contributed to increase the resistance
+of the deck to cold, and for the same purpose snowdrifts were
+thrown up along the vessel's sides. A stately ice stair was carried
+up from the ice to the starboard gunwale. A large tent
+made for the purpose at Karlskrona was pitched from the bridge
+to the fore, so that only the poop was open. Aft the tent was
+quite open, the blast and drifting snow having also free entrance
+from the sides and from an incompletely closed opening in the
+fore. The protection it yielded against the cold was indeed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page470" id="v1page470"></a>[pg 470]</span>
+greatly diminished in this way, but instead it did not have the
+least injurious action on the air on the vessel, a circumstance
+specially deserving of attention for its influence on the state of
+health on board. Often under this tent in the dark days of
+winter there blazed a brisk smithy fire, round which the
+Chukches crowded in curious wonder at the skill with which
+the smith fashioned the glowing iron. Here the cook dealt out
+to the Chukches the soup and meat that were left over, and the
+loaves of bread which at every baking were baked for them.
+Here was our reception saloon, where tobacco and sugar were
+distributed to the women and children, and where sometimes, if
+seldom, a frozen hunter or fisherman was treated to a little
+spirits. Here pieces of wood and vertebr&aelig; of the whale were
+valued and purchased, and here tedious negotiations were
+carried on regarding journeys in dog-sledges in different
+directions.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The violent motion which took place in the ice during the
+night before the 15th December, gave us a sharp warning that
+our position in the open road was by no means so secure as was
+desirable, but that there was a possibility that the vessel might
+be nipped suddenly and without any previous warning. If such
+a misfortune had happened, the crew of the <i>Vega</i> would certainly
+have had no difficulty in getting to land over the ice. But the
+yield of hunting appeared to be so scanty, and the Chukches
+were, as almost always, so destitute of all stock of provisions&mdash;
+for they literally obey the command to take no thought for to-morrow
+&mdash;that there was every probability that we, having come
+safe ashore, would die of hunger, if no provisions were saved from
+the vessel. This again, as the principal part of the provisions
+was of course down in the hold, would have been attended with
+great difficulty, if the <i>Vega</i> had been suddenly in the night cut
+into by the ice at the water-line. In order as far as possible to
+secure ourselves against the consequences of such a misfortune,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page472" id="v1page472"></a>[pg 472]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p483.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p483.png" alt="THE &quot;VEGA&quot; IN WINTER QUARTERS." ></a>
+THE &quot;VEGA&quot; IN WINTER QUARTERS.
+<br>(After a photograph, taken in the spring of 1879 by L. Palander.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page473" id="v1page473"></a>[pg 473]</span>
+<p>a dep&ocirc;t of provisions, guns, ammunition, &amp;c., reckoned for 30
+men and 100 days, was formed on land. Fortunately we did not
+require to depend upon it. The stores were laid up on the
+beach without the protection of lock or bolt, covered only with
+sails and oars, and no watch was kept at the place. Notwithstanding
+this, and the want of food which occasionally prevailed
+among the natives, it remained untouched both by the Chukches
+who lived in the neighbourhood, and by those who daily drove
+past the place from distant regions. All however knew very well
+the contents of the sail-covered heap, and they undoubtedly
+supposed that there were to be found there treasures of immense
+value, and provisions enough for the whole population of the
+Chukch peninsula for a whole year.</p>
+
+<p>The Magnetical Observatory was erected, as will be told in
+greater detail further on, upon the beach a kilometre and a
+half from the vessel. To this house the observers had to walk
+to and fro at least four times in the twenty-four hours over an
+ice-field, covered with loose snow, as fine as dust, that was set in
+motion by the least puff of wind, and then in a few moments
+completely obliterated every footprint. When the moon did not
+shine, the winter nights were so dark, that it was impossible to
+distinguish the very nearest objects, and day after day during the
+course of the winter we had, besides, drifting snow so thick that
+the high dark hull of the vessel itself could be distinguished
+only when one was in its immediate neighbourhood! In walking
+from land during the darkness of the night and in drifting
+snow it would have been very difficult to find one's way to the
+vessel without guidance, and he would have been helplessly lost
+who went astray. To prevent such an accident, the precaution
+was taken of running a line over high ice-pillars between the
+Observatory and the vessel. Even with the help of the guideline
+it was often difficult enough to find our way.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to keep open a channel in the ice round the
+vessel during the whole winter had soon to be given up, but two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page474" id="v1page474"></a>[pg 474]</span>
+holes were kept constantly open, one by the side of the vessel in
+case of fire, and the other for the tidal observations which
+Captain Palander set on foot during the winter. The latter
+hole was chosen by a little seal as its haunt for a long time,
+until one day we entertained ourselves by catching him with
+the necessary care, and making him pay an involuntary visit on
+board, where he was offered various delicacies, which however
+were disregarded. The seal was let loose again in his hole, but
+notwithstanding the friendliness we showed him, he never more
+returned.</p>
+
+<p>From the meteorological observations it appears that the winter
+was not so cold as the winters in the Franklin archipelago
+or in the coldest parts of the mainland of Siberia.<A HREF="#v1fn252" NAME="v1rn252">[252]</A> On the
+other hand, it was exceedingly stormy at the <i>Vega's</i> winter
+station, and day after day, night after night, we have gone to
+and from the Observatory in a high wind and a cold of -30&deg;
+to -46&deg; C. In calm weather a cold of -40&deg; is scarcely very
+troublesome, but with only a slight draught a degree of cold of
+for instance -35&deg; is actually dangerous for one who goes against
+the wind, and without the necessary precautions exposes uncovered
+parts of the face, the hands, or the wrists, to the cold current
+of air. Without one's being warned by any severe pain frostbite
+arises, which, if it be not in time thawed by rubbing the injured
+part with the hand, or with melting snow, may readily become
+very serious. Most of those who for the first time took part
+in a wintering in the high north, were, when the first cold
+occurred, more or less frostbitten, on several occasions so that
+there arose high frost-blisters filled with bloody water, several
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page475" id="v1page475"></a>[pg 475]</span>
+square centimetres in extent, but fortunately never to such a
+degree that any serious bad results followed. After we, newcomers
+to the Polar regions, warned by experience, became more
+careful, such frostbites occurred but seldom. Nor did there</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p486.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p486.png" alt="THE WINTER DRESS OF THE &quot;VEGA&quot; MEN." ></a>
+THE WINTER DRESS OF THE &quot;VEGA&quot; MEN.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page476" id="v1page476"></a>[pg 476]</span>
+<p>occur a single case of frostbite in the feet. To this conduced
+our clothing, which was adapted to the climate, and, besides good
+winter clothes of the sort commonly used in Sweden, consisted of
+the following articles of dress brought with us specially for use
+in the high north:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. An abundant stock of good <i>woollen under-clothing</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. A carefully made <i>blouse of sailcloth</i>, provided with many
+pockets, intended to be drawn over the ordinary seaman's dress
+as a protection against wind and drifting snow. This proved to
+be very suitable for the purpose for which it was intended, and
+was much liked by the crew.</p>
+
+<p>3. A Lapp <i>&quot;pesk&quot; with leggings</i> was not so often used, because
+it was so warm that it was only with difficulty one could
+walk with it any considerable distance. On the other hand, in
+the case of winter journeys with dogs or reindeer it was
+indispensable.</p>
+
+<p>4. A pair of very large <i>canvas boots</i> with leather soles. Inside
+these was put hay of <i>Carex  vesicaria</i> L. The foot itself was covered
+with one or two pairs of stockings, above which there was a foot-strip
+of felt. Our boots were thus intermediate between the foot-covering
+introduced by Parry for Arctic journeys, and the hay-filled <i>komager</i>
+of the Lapps. All who used these canvas boots are unanimous
+in thinking that they left nothing to desire. Even in the case
+of extended excursions in wet snow they are to be preferred to
+leather shoes; for the latter become heavy and drenched with
+water, and can with difficulty be dried in the open air in the
+course of a night's rest. Canvas boots and the long hay in them
+on the other hand are easily dried in a single night. They are
+also light when wet, and in that state little prejudicial to health on
+account of the change of air which the hay under the foot renders
+possible. I therefore am of opinion that we are warranted in
+giving such boots the highest recommendation for winter
+journeys and winter hunting excursions, even in our own land.</p>
+
+<p>5. An <i>&Ouml;resund cap</i> and a loose <i>felt hood</i> (baschlik) of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page477" id="v1page477"></a>[pg 477]</span>
+same sort as those which are used in the Russian army. I
+had bought the baschliks in St. Petersburg on account of the
+Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Fingerless gloves</i> of sealskin and chamois, with an inside
+lining of sheepskin and at the wrists bordered with long-haired
+fur. They were commonly carried with a band from the neck,
+as children are wont to carry their gloves. For outside work
+these thick gloves were too inconvenient; then fingerless
+woollen mittens were used.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Coloured spectacles</i>, which were distributed to all the men
+in the beginning of February. One must himself have lived in
+the Polar regions during winter and spring, &quot;after the return of
+the sun,&quot; to understand how indispensable is such a protection
+from the monotonous white light which then surrounds the eye
+in every direction. The inexperienced, though warned, seldom
+observe the necessary precautions, and commonly pay the penalty
+by a more or less complete snowblindness, which indeed is not
+very dangerous, but is always exceedingly painful, and which
+lasts several days.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p class="tb">On board the vessel in our cabins and collection-rooms it was
+besides by no means so cold as many would suppose. The sides
+of the vessel in several places indeed, especially in the cabins,
+were covered with a thick sheet of ice, and so was the skylight in
+the gun-room. But in the inhabited parts of the vessel we had, a
+little from the sides, commonly a temperature of +12&deg; to +17&deg;, that
+is to say about the same as we in the north are wont to have indoors
+in winter, and certainly higher than the temperature of rooms
+during the coldest days of the year in many cities in the south,
+as for instance in Paris and Vienna. By night however the
+temperature in the cabins sank sometimes to +5&deg; and +10&deg;, and
+the boarding at the side of the berth became covered with ice.
+In the work-room 'tweendecks the thermometer generally stood
+about +10&deg;, and even in the underhold, which was not heated,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page478" id="v1page478"></a>[pg 478]</span>
+but lay under the water-line, the temperature was never under,
+commonly 1&deg; or 2&deg; above, the freezing-point.</p>
+
+<p>Much greater inconvenience than from cold did we in the
+cabins suffer from the excessive heat and the fumes, which
+firing in large cast-iron stoves is wont to cause in small close rooms.
+When in the morning after a cold night the watch all too willingly
+obeyed the direction, which sounded from different quarters, to fire
+well, one had often his wish so thoroughly satisfied, that, in half an
+hour after, every man lay bathed in perspiration. There was no
+other help for it than to leave the cabin, take a cold bath and
+a good rub down, dress rapidly, rush on deck for fresh air,
+and cool in the temperature of -30&deg; to -40&deg; prevailing there.
+Other opportunities for bathing were also given both to the officers
+and crew, and the necessary care was taken to secure cleanliness,
+a sanitary measure which ought never to be neglected in Arctic
+winterings.</p>
+
+<p>The state of health on board during the course of the winter
+was exceedingly good. Dr. Almquist's report enumerates only
+a few serious maladies, all successfully cured, among which may
+be mentioned stomach colds and slight cases of inflammation of
+the lungs, but not a single case of that insidious disease, scurvy,
+which formerly raged in such a frightful way among the crews
+in all long voyages, and which is still wont to gather so many
+victims from among Polar travellers.</p>
+
+<p>This good state of health depended in the first place on the
+excellent spirit which inspired the scientific men, the officers
+and the crew of the Expedition, but it ought also to be ascribed
+to the suitable equipment of the <i>Vega</i>, arranged by Captain
+Palander at Karlskrona, and above all to adjustment to the
+climate of our dietary, which was settled on the ground of the
+experience gained in the expedition of 1872-73, and after
+taking the advice of its distinguished physician Dr. Envall.
+The dietary is shown in the following table:&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page479" id="v1page479"></a>[pg 479]</span></p>
+
+<p>No. 1. SUNDAY.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breakfast</i>: butter 6 ort, coffee 10 ort, sugar 7.5 ort.<A HREF="#v1fn253" NAME="v1rn253">[253]</A></p>
+
+<p><i>Dinner</i>: salt pork or dried fish 75 ort, sourkrout 75 ort, preserved
+or fresh potatoes 12 ort, preserved vegetables 5.5 ort,
+extract of meat 1.5 ort, raisins 5 ort, rice 50 ort, brandy or
+rum 2 cubic inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supper</i>: butter 6 ort, tea 1.5 ort, sugar 7.5 ort, barley-groats 10
+cubic inches, cheese 12 ort.</p>
+
+<p>No. 2. MONDAY, WEDNESDAY, and FRIDAY.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breakfast</i> same as No. 1.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dinner</i>: preserved meat or fish 1 portion, preserved potatoes 12
+ort, preserved vegetables 5.5 ort, preserved leeks 1 portion,
+extract of meat 1.5 ort, brandy or rum 2 cubic inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supper</i> same as No. 1 without cheese.</p>
+
+<p>No. 3. THURSDAY.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breakfast</i> same as No. 1.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dinner</i>: salt pork 1 lb., peas 10 cubic inches, extract of meat 1.5
+ort, barley-groats 2 cubic inches, brandy or rum 2 cubic
+inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supper</i> same as No. 2.</p>
+
+<p>No. 4. TUESDAY.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breakfast</i>: butter 6 ort, chocolate 10 ort, sugar 7.5 ort.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dinner</i>: salt meat 1 lb., maccaroni 15 ort (or brown beans 10
+cubic inches or green peas 1 portion), fruit soup 1 portion,
+brandy or rum 2 cubic inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supper</i> same as No. 2.</p>
+
+<p>No. 5. SATURDAY.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breakfast</i> same as No. 4.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dinner</i>: preserved beeksteak or stewed beef 1 portion, preserved
+or fresh, potatoes 12 ort, preserved leeks 1 portion, fruit
+soup 1 portion, brandy or rum 2 cubic inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supper</i> same as No. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Every man besides had served out to him daily 1-1/4 lb. dried
+bread or flour (2/3 wheat and 1/3 rye), 3 ort tobacco and 2 cubic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page480" id="v1page480"></a>[pg 480]</span>
+inches vinegar; and weekly 1 lb. wheat-flour, 30 ort butter, 21 ort
+salt, 7 ort mustard, 3 ort pepper, and two cubic inches vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>Besides what is included in the above list, &quot;multegr&ouml;t&quot;
+(preserved cloudberries), mixed with rum, was served out twice a
+week from the 15th February to the 1st April. I would
+willingly have had a larger quantity of this, according to
+northern experience, excellent antidote to scurvy, but as the
+cloudberry harvest completely failed in 1877, I could not, at any
+price, procure for the Expedition the quantity that was required.
+There was purchased in Finland instead, a large quantity of
+cranberry-juice, which was regularly served out to the crew
+and much liked by them. We carried with us besides a pair of
+living swine, which were slaughtered for the Christmas festivities.<A HREF="#v1fn254" NAME="v1rn254">[254]</A>
+All the men at that time had an opportunity of eating fresh
+pork twice a week, an invaluable interruption to the monotonous
+preserved provisions, which in its proportion conduced, during
+this festival, to which we inhabitants of the North are attached
+by so many memories, to enliven and cheer us.</p>
+
+<p>The produce of hunting was confined during the course
+of the winter to some ptarmigan and hares, and thus did not
+yield any contribution worth mentioning to the provisioning
+of the vessel. On the other hand, I was able by barter with
+the natives to procure fish in considerable abundance, so that at
+certain seasons the quantity was sufficient to allow of fresh
+fish being served out once a week. The kind of fish which was
+principally obtained during the winter, a sort of cod with
+greyish-green vertebr&aelig;, could however at first only be served
+in the gun-room, because the crew, on account of the colour of
+its bones, for a long time had an invincible dislike to it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page481" id="v1page481"></a>[pg 481]</span>
+On many of the ground-ices in the neighbourhood of the
+vessel there were fresh-water collections of considerable depth,
+which indeed were already hard frozen on the surface, but long
+yielded us splendid water for drinking and washing. After the
+14th of December, when all the smaller fresh-water collections
+were almost frozen to the bottom, and salt-water had made its
+way into the largest ones and those on which we most depended,
+it became necessary to procure water by melting ice.</p>
+
+<p>The meteorological observations were made every fourth hour
+up to the 1st November; after that to the 1st April every hour;
+after that again six times in the twenty-four hours. From the
+27th November to the 1st April the thermometers were set up on
+land at the magnetical observatory; before and after that time
+in the immediate neighbourhood of the vessel. During winter
+the charge of the meteorological observations was intrusted to
+Dr. Stuxberg, who at that season, when all around us was
+covered with ice, was compelled to let his own zoological
+researches rest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p492.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p492.png" alt="COD FROM PITLEKAJ." ></a>
+COD FROM PITLEKAJ.
+<br><i>Gadus navaga</i>, Kolreuter one-third the natural size. </div>
+
+<p>The state of the weather of course had a very sensible influence
+on our daily life, and formed the touchstone by which
+our equipment was tested. Space does not permit me to
+give in this work the detailed results of the meteorological
+observations. I shall therefore only state the following facts.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page482" id="v1page482"></a>[pg 482]</span>
+The greatest cold which was observed during the different
+months was in</p>
+
+October the  24th&mdash;20&deg;.8 March the 29th&mdash;39&deg;'8<br>
+November the 30th&mdash;27&deg;.2 April the 15th&mdash;38&deg;.0<br>
+December the 23rd&mdash;37&deg;.1 May the    3rd&mdash;26&deg;.8<br>
+January the  25th&mdash;45&deg;.7 June the   3rd&mdash;14&deg;.3<br>
+February the  2nd&mdash;43&deg;.8 July the    2nd&mdash;1&deg;.0<br>
+<br>
+Twice we had the barometer uncommonly high, viz.:<br>
+<br>
+On the 22nd December 6 A.M. 782.0 (0&deg;) mm.<br>
+On the 17th February 6 A.M. 788.1 (0&deg;) mm.<br>
+
+<p>The lowest atmospheric pressure, 728.8 (0&deg;) mm., occurred on
+the 31st December at two o'clock P.M.</p>
+
+<p>The weather during the winter was very stormy, and the
+direction of the wind nearest the surface of the earth almost
+constantly between north-west and north-north-west. But
+already in atmospheric strata of inconsiderable height there
+prevailed, to judge by the direction of the clouds, a similar uninterrupted
+atmospheric current from the south-east, which when
+it occasionally sank to the surface of the earth brought with it air
+that was warmer and less saturated with moisture. The reason
+of this is easy to see, if we consider that Behring's Straits form
+a gate surrounded by pretty high mountains between the warm
+atmospheric area of the Pacific and the cold one of the Arctic
+Ocean. The winds must be arranged here approximately after the
+same laws as the draught in the door-opening between a warm and
+a cold room, that is to say, the cold current of air must go below
+from the cold room to the warm, the warm above from the warm
+room to the cold. The mountain heights which, according to
+the statement of the natives, are to be found in the interior of
+the Chukch peninsula besides conduce to the heat and dryness
+of the southerly and south-easterly winds. For they confer on
+the sea winds that pass over their summits the properties of
+the <i>f&ouml;hn</i> winds. Our coldest winds have come from S.W. to
+W., that is to say, from the Old World's pole of cold, situated in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page483" id="v1page483"></a>[pg 483]</span>
+the region of Werchojansk. On the existence of two currents
+of air, which at a certain height above the surface of the earth
+contend for the mastery, depends also the surprising rapidity
+with which the vault of heaven in the region of Behring's Straits
+becomes suddenly clouded over and again completely clear.
+Already the famous Behring's Straits' navigator, RODGERS, now
+Admiral in the American Navy, had noticed this circumstance,
+and likened it very strikingly to the drawing up and dropping of
+the curtain of a theatre.</p>
+
+<p>In our notes on the weather a difference was always made
+between <i>sn&ouml;yra</i> (fall of snow in wind) and <i>yrsn&ouml;</i> (snow-storm
+without snow-fall). The fall of snow was not very great, but as
+there was in the course of the winter no thaw of such continuance
+that the snow was at any time covered with a coherent
+melted crust, a considerable portion of the snow that fell remained
+so loose that with the least puff of wind it was whirled
+backwards and forwards. In a storm or strong breeze the snow
+was carried to higher strata of the atmosphere, which was
+speedily filled with so close and fine snow-dust, that objects at
+the distance of a few metres could no longer be distinguished.
+There was no possibility in such weather of keeping the way
+open, and the man that lost his way was helplessly lost, if he
+could not, like the Chukch snowed up in a drift, await the ceasing
+of the storm. But even when the wind was slight and the sky
+clear there ran a stream of snow some centimetres in height
+along the ground in the direction of the wind, and thus
+principally from N.W. to S.E. Even this shallow stream heaped
+snowdrifts everywhere where there was any protection from the
+wind, and buried more certainly, if less rapidly, than the drifting
+snow of the storm, exposed objects and trampled footpaths. The
+quantity of water, which in a frozen form is removed in this
+certainly not deep, but uninterrupted and rapid current over the
+north coast of Siberia to more southerly regions, must be equal
+to the mass of water in the giant rivers of our globe, and play
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page484" id="v1page484"></a>[pg 484]</span>
+a sufficiently great <i>r&ocirc;le</i>, among others as a carrier of cold to
+the most northerly forest regions, to receive the attention of
+meteorologists.</p>
+
+<p>The humidity of the air was observed both by August's
+psychrometer and Saussure's hygrometer. But I do not
+believe that these instruments give trustworthy results at a
+temperature considerably under the freezing-point. Moreover
+the degree of humidity at the place where there can be a
+question of setting up a psychrometer and hygrometer during
+a wintering in the high north, has not the meteorological
+importance which has often been ascribed to it. For the instruments
+are as a rule set up in an isolated louvre case, standing at
+a height above the surface convenient for reading. While the
+snow is drifting almost uninterruptedly it is impossible to keep
+this case clear of snow. Even the air, which was originally
+quite dry, must here be saturated with moisture through evaporation
+from the surrounding layers of snow and from the snow
+dust which whirls about next the surface of the earth. In order
+to determine the true degree of humidity in the air, I would
+accordingly advise future travellers to these regions to weigh
+directly the water which a given measure of air contains by
+absorbing it in tubes with chloride of calcium, calcined sulphate
+of copper, or sulphuric acid. It would be easy to arrange an
+instrument for this purpose so that the whole work could be
+done under deck, the air from any stratum under the mast-top
+being examined at will. If I had had the means to make such
+an examination at the <i>Vega's</i> winter quarters, it would certainly
+have appeared that the relative humidity of the air at a height
+of some few metres above the surface of the earth was for the
+most part exceedingly small.</p>
+
+<p>The sandy neck of land which on the side next the vessel
+divided the lagoons from the sea, was bestrewn with colossal
+bones of the whale, and with the refuse of the Chukches, who
+had lived and wandered about there for centuries, and besides
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page485" id="v1page485"></a>[pg 485]</span>
+with portions of the skeleton of the seal and walrus, with the
+excreta of men, dogs, birds, &amp;c. The region was among the
+most disagreeable I have seen in any of the parts inhabited
+by fishing Lapps, Samoyeds, Chukches, or Eskimo. When
+the <i>Vega</i> was beset there were two Chukch villages on the
+neighbouring beach, of which the one that lay nearest our winter
+haven was called Pitlekaj. It consisted at first of seven tents,
+which in consequence of want of food their inhabitants removed
+gradually in the course of the winter to a region near Behring's
+Straits, where fish were more abundant. At the removal only
+the most indispensable articles were taken along, because there
+was an intention of returning at that season of the year when
+the chase again became more productive. The other encampment,
+Yinretlen, lay nearer the cape towards Kolyutschin Bay,
+and reckoned at the beginning of our wintering likewise seven
+tents, whose inhabitants appeared to be in better circumstances
+than those of Pitlekaj. They had during the autumn made a
+better catch and collected a greater stock. Only some of them
+accordingly removed during winter.</p>
+
+<p>The following encampments lay at a somewhat greater distance
+from our winter quarters, but so near, however, that we
+were often visited by their inhabitants:</p>
+
+<p>Pidlin, on the eastern shore of Kolyutschin Bay, four tents.</p>
+
+<p>Kolyutschin, on the island of the same name, twenty-five tents.
+This village was not visited by any of the members of the <i>Vega</i>
+Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Rirajtinop, situated six kilometres east of Pitlekaj, three tents.</p>
+
+<p>Irgunnuk, seven kilometres east of Pitlekaj, ten tents, of
+which, however, in February only four remained. The inhabitants
+of the others had for the winter sought a better
+fishing place farther eastward.</p>
+
+<p>The number of the persons who belonged to each tent was
+difficult to make out, because the Chukches were constantly
+visiting each other for the purpose of gossip and talk. On an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page486" id="v1page486"></a>[pg 486]</span>
+average it may perhaps be put at five or six persons. Including
+the inhabitants of Kolyutschin Island, there thus lived about
+300 natives in the neighbourhood of our winter quarters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p497.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p497.png" alt="KALTIJKAI, A CHUKCH GIRL FROM IRGUNNUK." ></a>
+KALTIJKAI, A CHUKCH GIRL FROM IRGUNNUK.
+<br>Front face and Profile. (After photographs by L. Palander.) </div>
+
+<p>When we were beset, the ice next the shore, as has been
+already stated, was too weak to carry a foot passenger, and the
+difficulty of reaching the vessel from the land with the means
+which the Chukches had at their disposal was thus very great.
+When the natives observed us, there was in any case immediately
+a great commotion among them. Men, women,
+children, and dogs were seen running up and down the beach
+in eager confusion; some were seen driving in dog-sledges
+on the ice street next the sea. They evidently feared that the
+splendid opportunity which here lay before them of purchasing
+brandy and tobacco, would be lost. From the vessel we could
+see with glasses how several attempts were made to put out
+boats, but they were again given up, until at last a boat was got
+to a lane, clear of ice or only covered with a thin sheet, that ran
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page487" id="v1page487"></a>[pg 487]</span>
+from the shore to the neighbourhood of the vessel. In this a
+large skin boat was put out, which was filled brimful of men
+and women, regardless of the evident danger of navigating such
+a boat, heavily laden, through sharp, newly formed ice. They
+rowed immediately to the vessel, and on reaching it most of
+them climbed without the least hesitation over the gunwale with
+jests and laughter, and the cry <i>anoaj anoaj</i> (good day, good day).
+Our first meeting with the inhabitants of this region, where we
+afterwards passed ten long months, was on both sides very
+hearty, and formed the starting-point of a very friendly relation
+between the Chukches and ourselves, which remained unaltered
+during the whole of our stay.</p>
+
+<p>Regard for cleanliness compelled us to allow the Chukches
+to come below deck only exceptionally, which at first annoyed
+them much, so that one of them even showed a disposition to
+retaliate by keeping us out of the bedchamber in his tent.
+Our firmness on this point, however, combined with friendliness
+and generosity, soon calmed them, and it was not so easy for
+the men to exclude us from the inner tent, for in such visits
+we always had confections and tobacco with us, both for themselves
+and for the women and children. On board the vessel's
+tent-covered deck soon became a veritable reception saloon for
+the whole population of the neighbourhood. Dog-team after
+dog-team stood all day in rows, or more correctly lay snowed up
+before the ice-built flight of steps to the deck of the <i>Vega</i>,
+patiently waiting for the return of the visitors, or for the
+pemmican I now and then from pity ordered to be given to the
+hungered animals. The report of the arrival of the remarkable
+foreigners must besides have spread with great rapidity. For
+we soon had visits even from distant settlements, and the <i>Vega</i>
+finally became a resting-place at which every passer-by stopped
+with his dog-team for some hours in order to satisfy his curiosity,
+or to obtain in exchange for good words or some more acceptable
+wares a little warm food, a bit of tobacco, and sometimes when
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page488" id="v1page488"></a>[pg 488]</span>
+the weather was very stormy, a little drop of spirits, by the
+Chukches called <i>ram</i>, a word whose origin is not to be sought
+for in the Swedish-Norwegian <i>dram</i>, but in the English word
+<i>rum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>All who came on board were allowed to go about without let
+or hindrance on our deck, which was encumbered with a great
+many things. We had not however to lament the loss of the
+merest trifle. Honesty was as much at home here as in the
+huts of the reindeer Lapps. On the other hand, they soon
+became very troublesome by their beggary, which was kept in
+bounds by no feeling of self-respect. Nor did they fail to take
+all possible advantage of what they doubtless considered the
+great inexperience of the Europeans. Small deceptions in this
+way were evidently not looked upon as blameworthy, but as
+meritorious. Sometimes, for instance, they sold us the same
+thing twice over, they were always liberal in promises which
+they never intended to keep, and often gave deceptive accounts
+of articles which were exposed for sale. Thus the carcases of
+foxes were offered, after having been flayed and the head and
+feet cut off, on several occasions as hares, and it was laughable
+to see their astonishment at our immediately discovering the
+fraud. The Chukches' complete want of acquaintance with
+money and our small supply of articles for barter for which they
+had a liking besides compelled even me to hold at least a portion
+of our wares at a high price. Skins and blubber, the common
+products of the Polar lands, to the great surprise of the natives,
+were not purchased on the <i>Vega</i>. On the other hand a complete
+collection of weapons, dresses, and household articles was procured
+by barter. All such purchases were made exclusively
+on account of the Expedition, and in general the collection of
+natural and ethnographical objects for private account was wholly
+forbidden, a regulation which ought to be in force in every
+scientific expedition to remote regions.</p>
+
+<p>As the Chukches began to acquire a taste for our food, they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page489" id="v1page489"></a>[pg 489]</span>
+never neglected, especially during the time when their hunting
+failed, to bring daily on board driftwood and the vertebr&aelig; and
+other bones of the whale. They bartered these for bread. A
+load of five bits of wood, from four to five inches in diameter
+and six feet long, was commonly paid for with two or three ship
+biscuits, that is to say with about 250 gram bread, the vertebra
+of a whale with two ship biscuits, &amp;c. By degrees two young
+natives got into the habit of coming on board daily for the
+purpose of performing, quite at their leisure, the office of
+servant. The cook was their patron, and they obtained from
+him in compensation for their services the larger share of the
+left victuals. So considerable a quantity of food was distributed
+partly as payment for services rendered or for goods purchased,
+partly as gifts, that we contributed in a very great degree to
+mitigate the famine which during midwinter threatened to
+break out among the population.</p>
+
+<p>None of the natives in the neighbourhood of the <i>Vega's</i>
+winter station professed the Christian religion. None of them
+spoke any European language, though one or two knew a couple
+of English words and a Russian word of salutation. This was
+a very unfortunate circumstance, which caused us much trouble.
+But it was soon remedied by Lieut. Nordquist specially devoting
+himself to the study of their language, and that with such zeal
+and success that in a fortnight he could make himself pretty
+well understood. The natives stated to DE LONG in the autumn
+of 1879 that a person on the &quot;man of war&quot; which wintered on
+the north coast, spoke Chukch exceedingly well. The difficulty
+of studying the language was increased, to a not inconsiderable
+degree, by the Chukches in their wish to co-operate with us in
+finding a common speech being so courteous as not to correct,
+but to adopt the mistakes, in the pronunciation or meaning of
+words that were made on the <i>Vega</i>. As a fruit of his studies
+Lieut. Nordquist has drawn up an extensive vocabulary of this
+little known language, and given a sketch of its grammatical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page490" id="v1page490"></a>[pg 490]</span>
+structure.<A HREF="#v1fn255" NAME="v1rn255">[255]</A> The knowledge of the Chukch language, which
+the other members of the Expedition acquired, was confined to
+a larger or smaller number of words; the natives also learned a
+word or two of our language, so that a <i>lingua franca</i> somewhat
+intelligible to both parties gradually arose, in which several
+of the crew soon became very much at home, and with which in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page492" id="v1page492"></a>[pg 492]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p502.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p502.png" alt="CHUKCHES ANGLING." ></a>
+CHUKCHES ANGLING.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page493" id="v1page493"></a>[pg 493]</span>
+<p>case of necessity one could get along very well, although in this
+newly formed dialect all grammatical inflections
+were totally wanting. Besides, I set one of the
+crew, the walrus-hunter Johnsen, free for a consideral
+time from all work on board, in order that
+he might wander about the country daily, partly
+for hunting, partly for conversing with the natives.
+He succeeded in the beginning of winter in killing
+some ptarmigan and hares, got for me a great deal
+of important information regarding the mode of
+life of the Chukches, and procured several valuable
+ethnographical objects. But after a time, for what
+reason I could never make out, he took an invincible
+dislike to visit the Chukch tents more,
+without however having come to any disagreement
+with their inhabitants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v1p503.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p503.png" alt="ICE-SEIVE." ></a>
+ICE-SEIVE.
+<br>One-eighth  of the natural size. </div>
+
+<p class="tb">On the 5th October the openings between the
+drift-ice fields next the vessel were covered with
+splendid skating ice, of which we availed ourselves
+by celebrating a gay and joyous skating festival.
+The Chukch women and children were now seen
+fishing for winter roach along the shore. In this
+sort of fishing a man, who always accompanies the
+fishing women, with an iron-shod lance cuts a
+hole in the ice so near the shore that the distance
+between the under corner of the hole and the
+bottom is only half a metre. Each hole is used
+only by one woman, and that only for a short
+time. Stooping down at the hole, in which the
+surface of the water is kept quite clear of pieces of
+ice by means of an ice-sieve, she endeavours to
+attract the fish by means of a peculiar wonderfully
+clattering cry. First when a fish is seen in seen in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page494" id="v1page494"></a>[pg 494]</span>
+the water an angling line, provided with a hook of bone, iron
+or copper, is thrown down, strips of the entrails of fish being
+employed as bait. A small metre-long staff with a single or
+double crook in the end was also used as a fishing implement.
+With this little leister the men cast up fish on the ice with
+incredible dexterity. When the ice became thicker, this fishing
+was entirely given up, while during the whole winter a species
+of cod and another of grayling were taken in great quantity
+in a lagoon situated nearer Behring's Straits. The coregonus is
+also caught in the inland lakes, although, at least at this season
+of the year, only in limited quantity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p504.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p504.png" alt="SMELT FROM THE CHUKCH PENINSULA." ></a>
+SMELT FROM THE CHUKCH PENINSULA.
+<br><i>Osmerus eperlanus</i>, Lin.
+<br>one-third the natural size. </div>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 6th October, we saw from the vessel
+an extraordinary procession moving forward on the ice. A
+number of Chukches drew a dog-sledge on which lay a man.
+At first we supposed it was a man who was very ill, and who
+came to seek the help of the physician, but when the procession
+reached the vessel's side, the supposed invalid climbed
+very nimbly up the ice-covered rope-ladder (our ice-stair was
+not yet in order), stepped immediately with a confident air,
+giving evidence of high rank, upon the half-deck, crossed himself,
+saluted graciously, and gave us to know in broken Russian that
+he was a man of importance in that part of the country. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page495" id="v1page495"></a>[pg 495]</span>
+now appeared that we were honoured with a visit from the
+representative of the Russian empire, WASSILI MENKA, the
+starost among the reindeer-Chukches. He was a little dark
+man, with a pretty worn appearance, clad in a white variegated
+&quot;pesk&quot; of reindeer skin, under which a blue flannel shirt was
+visible. In order immediately on his arrival to inspire us with
+respect, and perhaps also in order not to expose his precious
+life to the false Ran's treachery, he came to the vessel over the
+yet not quite trustworthy ice, riding in a sledge that was drawn
+not by dogs but by his men. On his arrival he immediately
+showed us credentials of his rank, and various evidences of the
+payment of tribute (or market tolls), consisting of some few red
+and some white fox-skins, reckoning the former at 1 rouble 80
+copecks, the latter at 40 copecks each.
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:60%;"><a href="images/v1p505.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p505.png" alt="WASSILI MENKA." ></a>
+WASSILI MENKA.
+<br>Starost among the Reindeer Chukches.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.) </div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page496" id="v1page496"></a>[pg 496]</span>
+<p>He was immediately invited down to the gunroom, entertained
+after the best of our ability, and bothered with a number
+of questions which he evidently understood with difficulty, and
+answered in very unintelligible Russian. He was in any case
+the first with whom some of us could communicate, at least in a
+way. He could neither read nor write. On the other hand, he
+could quickly comprehend a map which was shown him, and
+point out with great accuracy a number of the more remarkable
+places in north-eastern Siberia. Of the existence of the Russian
+emperor the first official of the region had no idea; on the
+other hand, he knew that a very powerful person had his home
+at Irkutsk. On us he conferred the rank of &quot;Ispravnik&quot; in the
+neighbouring towns. At first he crossed himself with much
+zeal before some photographs and copper-plate engravings in
+the gunroom, but he soon ceased when he observed that we
+did not do likewise. Menka was accompanied by two badly-clad
+natives with very oblique eyes, whom we took at first for
+his servants or slaves. Afterwards we found that they were
+owners of reindeer, who considered themselves quite as good as
+Menka himself, and further on we even heard one of them
+speak of Menka's claim to be a chief with a compassionate
+smile. Now, however, they were exceedingly respectful, and it
+was by them that Menka's gift of welcome, two reindeer roasts,
+was carried forward with a certain stateliness. As a return
+present we gave him a woollen shirt and some parcels of tobacco.
+Menka said that he should travel in a few days to Markova, a
+place inhabited by Russians on the river Anadyr, in the neighbourhood
+of the old Anadyrsk. Although I had not yet given
+up hope of getting free before winter, I wished to endeavour
+to utilize this opportunity of sending home accounts of the
+<i>Vega's</i>position, the state of matters on board, &amp;c. An open
+letter was therefore written in Russian, and addressed to his
+Excellency the Governor-General at Irkutsk, with the request
+that he would communicate its contents to his Majesty, King
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page497" id="v1page497"></a>[pg 497]</span>
+Oscar. This was placed, along with several private sealed
+letters between a couple of pieces of board, and handed over to
+Menka with a request to give them to the Russian authorities
+at Markova. At first it appeared as if Menka understood the
+letter as some sort of farther credentials for himself. For when
+he landed he assembled, in the presence of some of us, a circle
+of Chukches round himself, placed himself with dignity in their
+midst, opened out the paper, but so that he had it upside down,
+and read from it long sentences in Chukch to an attentive
+audience, astonished at his learning. Next forenoon we had
+another visit of the great and learned chief. New presents
+were exchanged, and he was entertained after our best ability.
+Finally he danced to the chamber-organ, both alone and
+together with some of his hosts, to the great entertainment of
+the Europeans and Asiatics present.</p>
+
+<p>As the state of the ice was still unaltered, I did not neglect
+the opportunity that now offered of making acquaintance with
+the interior of the country. With pleasure, accordingly, I gave
+Lieutenants Nordquist and Hovgaard permission to pay a visit
+to Menka's encampment. They started on the morning of the
+8th October. Lieut. Nordquist has given me the following
+account of their excursion:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On Tuesday, the 8th October, at 10 o'clock A.M. Lieut
+Hovgaard and I travelled from Pitlekaj in dog-sledges into
+the interior in a S.S.E. direction. Hovgaard and I had
+each a Chukch as driver. Menka had with him a servant, who
+almost all the time ran before as guide. My comrade's sledge,
+which was heaviest, was drawn by ten dogs, mine by eight, and
+Menka's, which was the smallest and in which he sat alone, by
+five. In general the Chukches appear to reckon four or five
+dogs sufficient for a sledge with one person.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The <i>tundra</i>, with marshes and streams scattered over it,
+was during the first part of our way only gently undulating,
+but the farther we went into the interior of the country the
+more uneven it became, and when, at 8 o'clock next morning,
+we reached the goal of our journey&mdash;Menka's brother's camp&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page498" id="v1page498"></a>[pg 498]</span>
+we found ourselves in a valley, surrounded by hills, some of
+which rose about 300 metres above their bases. A portion of
+the vegetable covering the <i>tundra</i> could still be distinguished
+through the thin layer of snow. The most common plants on
+the drier places were <i>Aira alpina</i> and <i>Poa alpina</i>; on the more
+low-lying places there grew Glyceria, Pedicularis, and <i>Ledum
+palustre;</i> everywhere we found <i>Petasites frigida</i> and a species
+of Salix. The latter grew especially on the slopes in great
+masses, which covered spots having an area of twenty to thirty
+square metres. At some places this bush rose to a height of
+about a metre above the ground. The prevailing rock appeared
+to be granite. The bottoms of the valleys were formed of post-Tertiary
+formations, which most frequently consisted of sand and
+rolled stones, as, for instance, was the case in the great valley
+in which ilenka's brother's camp was pitched.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p508.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p508.png" alt="CHUKCH DOG-SLEDGE." ></a>
+CHUKCH DOG-SLEDGE.</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;When, on the morning of the 9th, we came to the camp
+there met us some of the principal Chukches. They saluted
+Menka in the Russian way, by kissing him first on both cheeks
+and then on the mouth. The Chukches however, appear to
+be very averse to this ceremony, and scarcely ever touched
+each other with the mouth. Us they saluted in the common
+way, by stretching out the hand and bowing themselves. We
+then went into Menka's brother's tent, in front of which the
+whole inhabitants of the encampment were speedily assembled
+to look at us. The camp consisted of eighteen tents, pitched
+on both sides of a river which ran through the valley. The
+tents were inhabited by reindeer-Chukches, who carry on traffic
+between the Russians and a tribe living on the other side of
+Behring's Straits, whom they call <i>Yekargaules</i>. Between the
+tents we saw a great number of sledges, both empty and loaded.
+Some of these were light and low sledges for driving in, with
+runners bent upwards and backwards, others were heavier pack-sledges,
+made of stronger wood, with the runners not bent back.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page499" id="v1page499"></a>[pg 499]</span>
+Some of the light sledges were provided with tilts of splints
+covered with reindeer skins; others were completely covered,
+having an entrance only in front.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The knives, axes, boring tools, &amp;c., which I saw were of
+iron and steel, and had evidently been obtained from Americans
+or Russians. The household articles in Menka's brother's tent
+consisted of some copper coffee-pots, which were used for
+boiling water, a german-silver beaker with an English inscription,
+two teacups with saucers, flat wooden trays, and barrels.
+The dress of the reindeer-Chukches is similar to that of the
+coast-Chukches, only with this difference, that the former use
+reindeer-skins exclusively, while the latter employ seal-skin in
+addition. Some, on our arrival, put on blouses of variegated
+cloth, probably of Russian manufacture. Among ornaments
+may be mentioned glass-beads, strung on sinews, which were worn
+in the ears or on the neck, chiefly by the women. These were
+tattooed in the same way as those of the coast-Chukches. I saw
+here, however, an old woman, who, besides the common tattooing
+of the face, was tattooed on the shoulders, and another, who,
+on the outside of the hands, had two parallel lines running
+along the hand and an oblique line connecting them. The
+men were not tattooed. Two of them carried crosses, with
+Slavonic inscriptions, at the neck, others carried in the same
+way forked pieces of wood. Whether these latter are to be
+considered as their gods or as amulets I know not.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;As we could not obtain here the reindeer that we wished
+to purchase on account of the expedition, we betook ourselves
+with our dogs on the afternoon of the same day along with
+Menka to his son-in-law's encampment, which we reached at
+8 o'clock in the evening. We were received in a very friendly
+way, and remained here over night. All the inhabitants of the
+tent sleep together in the bedchamber of it, which is not
+more than 2 to 2.4 metres long, 1.8 to 2 metres broad, and 1.2
+to 1.5 metres high. Before they lie down they take supper.
+Men and women wear during the night only a <i>cingulum pudiciti&aelig;</i>,
+about fifteen centimetres broad, and are otherwise completely
+naked. In the morning the housewife rose first and
+boiled a little flesh, which was then served in the bedchamber,
+before its inmates had put on their clothes. She cut the meat
+in slices in a tray, and distributed them afterwards. In the
+morning we saw the Chukches catch and slaughter their reindeer.
+Two men go into the herd, and when they have got sight of a
+reindeer which they wish to have, they cast, at a distance of
+nine or ten metres, a running noose over the animal's horns.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page500" id="v1page500"></a>[pg 500]</span>
+It now throws itself backwards and forwards in its attempts to
+escape, and drags after it for some moments the man who holds
+the noose. The other man in the meantime endeavours to
+approach the reindeer, catches the animal by the horns and
+throws it to the ground, killing it afterwards by a knife-stab
+behind the shoulder. The reindeer is then handed over to the
+women, who, by an incision in the side of the belly, take out
+the entrails. The stomach is emptied of its contents, and is
+then used to hold the blood. Finally the skin is taken off.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;About 10 o'clock A.M. we commenced our homeward journey.
+At nightfall we sought to have a roof over our head in a
+wretched Chukch tent on the shore of Lake Utschunutsch. It
+was partly sunk in one of the small mounds which are found
+here along the shore, and which are probably the remains of
+old Onkilon dwellings. The present inhabitants, two old men
+and an old woman, had their habitation arranged in the following
+way:&mdash;In the bottom of a cylindrical pit, one metre deep
+and three and a half to four and a half metres in diameter, a
+vertical pole was erected, against the upper end of which rested
+a number of obliquely placed bars, rising from the edge of the
+pit, which were covered with skins. The enclosure or bedchamber,
+peculiar to the Chukch tent, was not wanting here.
+Otherwise the whole dwelling bore the stamp of poverty and
+dirt. The food of the inmates appeared to be fish. Of this,
+besides the fish we obtained here, the nets hanging in front of
+the tent afforded evidence. Some clothes, an iron pot, two
+wooden vessels, and a Shaman drum were the only things I
+could discover in the tent.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Next morning we continued our journey. On the other
+side of Lake Utschunutsch we saw two dwellings, which
+only consisted of boats turned upside down with some hides
+drawn over them. The rest of the way we came past Najtskaj
+and through Irgunnuk, where we were received in an exceedingly
+friendly fashion. By 7 o'clock in the evening of the 11th
+October we were again on board the <i>Vega</i>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>From Lieutenant Hovgaard's report, which principally relates
+to the topography of the region passed through, we make the
+following extract relating to the endurance which the Chukches
+and their dogs showed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;During our outward journey, which lasted twenty-one and a
+half hours, Menka's attendant, the before-mentioned reindeer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page501" id="v1page501"></a>[pg 501]</span>
+owner, whom we at first took to be Menka's slave or servant,
+ran without interruption before the sledges, and even when we
+rested he was actively searching for the track, looking after the
+dogs, &amp;c. When we came to the camp he did not sleep, and,
+notwithstanding, was as fresh during the following day's journey.
+During the time he got no spirituous liquor, by express order of
+Menka, who said that if he did he would not be able to continue
+to run. Instead he chewed a surprising quantity of tobacco.
+The dogs, during the whole time, were not an instant unyoked;
+in the mornings they lay half snowed up, and slept in front of
+the sledges. We never saw the Chukches give them any food:
+the only food they got was the frozen excrements of the fox and
+other animals, which they themselves snapped up in passing.
+Yet even on the last day no diminution in their power of
+draught was observable.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Nordquist brought with him, among other things, two reindeer,
+bought for a rouble and a half each. They were still
+very serviceable, though badly slaughtered. But the reindeer
+we purchased farther on in the winter were so poor that no one
+on board could persuade himself to eat them.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th October, by which time we believed that Menka
+would be already at Markova, we were again visited by him and
+his son-in-law. He said he had no <i>akmimil</i> (fire-water) to keep
+holiday with, and now came to us to exchange three slaughtered
+reindeer for it. Our miscalculation with respect to the letters,
+which we hoped were long ago on their way to their destination,
+and my dislike to the mode of payment in question&mdash;I offered
+him, without success, half-imperials and metal rouble pieces
+instead of brandy&mdash;made his reception on this occasion less
+hearty, and he therefore left us soon. It was not until the
+9th. February, 1879, that we again got news from Menka by one
+of the Chukches, who had attended him the time before. The
+Chukch said that in ten days he had traversed the way between
+the <i>Vega's</i> winter haven and Markova, which would run to
+about ninety kilometres a day. According to his statement
+Menka had travelled with the letters to Yakutsk. The statement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page502" id="v1page502"></a>[pg 502]</span>
+seemed very suspicious, and appeared afterwards to have
+been partly fabricated, or perhaps to have been misunderstood
+by us. But after our return to the world of newspapers we
+found that Menka had actually executed his commission. He,
+however, did not reach Anadyrsk until the 7th March/23rd February. Thence
+the packet was sent to Irkutsk, arriving there on the 10th May/28th April. The
+news reached Sweden by telegraph six days after, on the 16th
+May, just at a time when concern for the fate of the <i>Vega</i>, was
+beginning to be very great, and the question of relief expeditions
+was seriously entertained.<A HREF="#v1fn256" NAME="v1rn256">[256]</A></p>
+
+<p>In order to relieve the apprehensions of our friends at home,
+it was, however, exceedingly important to give them some
+accounts of the position of the <i>Vega</i> during winter, and I
+therefore offered all the purchasing power which the treasures
+of guns, powder, ball, food, fine shirts, and even spirits, collected
+on board, could exert, in order to induce some natives to convey
+Lieutenants Nordquist and Bove to Markova or Nischni
+Kolymsk. The negotiations seemed at first to go on very well,
+an advance was demanded and given, but when the journey
+should have commenced the Chukches always refused to start
+on some pretext or other&mdash;now it was too cold, now too dark,
+now there was no food for the dogs. The negotiations had thus
+no other result than to make us acquainted with one of the
+few less agreeable sides of the Chukches' disposition, namely
+the complete untrustworthiness of these otherwise excellent
+savages, and their peculiar idea of the binding force of an
+agreement.</p>
+
+<p>The plans of travel just mentioned, however, led to Lieutenant
+Nordquist making an excursion with dog-sledges in order
+to be even with one of the natives, who had received an advance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page503" id="v1page503"></a>[pg 503]</span>
+for driving him to Markova, but had not kept his promise.
+Of this journey Lieutenant Nordquist gives the following
+account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 5th December, at 7.50 A.M., I started with a dog-sledge
+for the village Pidlin, lying on Kolyutschin Bay. I was
+driven by the Chukch Auango from Irgunnuk. He had a small,
+light sledge, provided with runners of whalebone, drawn by six
+dogs, of which the leader was harnessed before the other five,
+which were fastened abreast in front of the sledge, each with its
+draught belt. The dogs were weak and ill managed, and therefore
+went so slowly that I cannot estimate their speed at more
+than two or three English miles an hour. As the journey both
+thither and back lasted eight to nine hours, the distance between
+Pitlekaj and Pidlin may be about twenty-five English miles.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Pidlin and Kolyutschin Island are the only inhabited places
+on Kolyutschin Bay. At the former place there are four tents,
+pitched on the eastern shore of the bay, the number of the
+inhabitants being a little over twenty persons. I was received
+in front of the tents by the population of the village and
+carried to the tent, which was inhabited by Chepcho, who now
+promised to go with me in February to Anadyrsk. My host
+had a wife and three children. At night the children were
+completely undressed; the adults had short trousers on, the
+man of tanned skin, the woman of cloth. In the oppressive
+heat, which was kept up by two train-oil lamps burning the
+whole night, it was difficult to sleep even in the heavy reindeer-skin
+dresses. Yet they covered themselves with reindeer skins.
+Besides the heat there was a fearful stench&mdash;the Chukches
+obeyed the calls of nature within the bedchamber&mdash;which I
+could not stand without going out twice to get fresh air. When
+we got up next morning our hostess served breakfast in a flat
+tray, containing first seals' flesh and fat, with a sort of sourkrout
+of fermented willow-leaves, then seals' liver, and finally
+seals' blood&mdash;all frozen.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Among objects of ethnographical interest I saw, besides the
+Shaman drum which was found in every tent, and was not
+regarded with the superstitious dread which I have often
+observed elsewhere, a bundle of amulets fastened with a small
+thong, a wolf's skull, which was also hung up by a thong, the
+skin together with the whole cartilaginous portion of a wolf's
+nose and a flat stone. The amulets consisted of wooden forks,
+four to five centimetres long, of the sort which we often see the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page504" id="v1page504"></a>[pg 504]</span>
+Chukches wear on the breast. My host said that such an
+amulet worn round the neck was a powerful means of preventing
+disease. The wolf's skull which I had already got, he
+took back, because his four- or five-year-old son would need it
+in making choice of a wife. What part it played in this I did
+not however ascertain.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;While my driver harnessed the dogs for the journey home,
+I had an opportunity of seeing some little girls dance, which
+they did in the same way as that in which I had seen girls
+dance at Pitlekaj and Yinretlen. Two girls then place themselves
+either right opposite to or alongside of each other. In the
+former case they often lay their hands on each other's shoulders,
+bend by turns to either side, sometimes leap with the feet held
+together and wheel round, while they sing or rather grunt
+the measure.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The journey home was commenced at eight o'clock in the
+morning. In the course of it my driver sang Chukch songs.
+These are often only imitations of the cries of animals or
+improvisations without any distinct metre or rhythm, and very
+little variation in the notes; only twice I thought I could distinguish
+a distinct melody. In the afternoon my driver told
+me the Chukch names of several stars. At five o'clock in the
+afternoon I reached the <i>Vega</i>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th October, the new ice at many places in the neighbourhood
+of the vessel was still so weak that it was impossible to
+walk upon it, and blue water-skies at the horizon indicated, that
+there were still considerable stretches of open water in the neighbourhood.
+But the drift-ice round about us lay so rock-fast, that
+I could already take solar altitudes from the deck of the vessel
+with a mercurial horizon. In order to ascertain the actual state
+of the case with reference to the open water, excursions were
+undertaken on the 13th October, in different directions. Dr.
+Kjellman could then, from the rocky promontory at Yinretlen,
+forty-two metres high, see large open spaces in the sea to the
+northward. Dr. Almquist went right out over the ice, following
+the track of Chukches, who had gone to catch seals. He
+travelled about twenty kilometres over closely packed drift-ice
+fields, without reaching open water, and found the newly frozen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page505" id="v1page505"></a>[pg 505]</span>
+ice, with which the pieces of drift-ice were bound together, still
+everywhere unbroken. The Chukches, who visited the vessel
+in dog-sledges on the 28th October, informed us, however, that
+the sea a little to the east of us was still completely open.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th October the hunter Johnsen returned from a
+hunting expedition quite terrified. He informed us that during
+his wanderings on the <i>tundra</i>, he had found a murdered man and
+brought with him, with the idea that, away here in the land of
+the Chukches, similar steps ought to be taken as in those lands
+which are blessed by a well-ordered judiciary, as <i>species facti</i>,
+some implements lying beside the dead man, among which
+was a very beautiful lance, on whose blade traces of having been
+inlaid in gold could still be discovered. Fortunately he had
+come with these things through the Chukch camp unobserved.
+From the description which was given me, however, I was able
+immediately to come to the conclusion that the question here
+was not of any murder, but of a dead man laid out on the
+<i>tundra</i>. I requested Dr. Almquist to visit the place, in order
+that he might make a more detailed examination. He confirmed
+my conjecture. As wolves, foxes, and ravens had already
+torn the corpse to pieces, the doctor considered that he, too,
+might take his share, and therefore brought home with him
+from his excursion, an object carefully wrapped up and concealed
+among the hunting equipment, namely, the Chukch's head. It
+was immediately sunk to the sea-bottom, where it remained for
+a couple of weeks to be skeletonised by the crustacea swarming
+there, and it now has its number in the collections brought
+home by the <i>Vega</i>. This sacrilege was never detected by the
+Chukches, and probably the wolves got the blame of it, as
+nearly every spring it was seen that the corpse, which had been
+laid out during autumn, lost its head during winter. It was,
+perhaps, more difficult to explain the disappearance of the
+lance, but of this, too, the maws of the wolves might well bear
+the blame.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page506" id="v1page506"></a>[pg 506]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p516.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p516.png" alt="CHUKCH BONE-CARVINGS." ></a>
+CHUKCH BONE-CARVINGS.
+<br>(The two largest figures represent bears.) </div>
+
+<p>Our hunters now made hunting excursions in different
+directions, but the supply of game was scanty. The openings
+in the ice probably swarmed with seals, but they were too distant,
+and without a boat it was impossible to carry on any
+hunting there. Not a single Polar bear now appeared to be
+visible in the neighbourhood, although bears' skulls are found at
+several places on the beach, and this animal appears to play a
+great part in the imagination of the natives, to judge of the
+many figures of bears among the bone carvings I purchased
+from the Chukches. The natives often have a small strip of
+bear's skin on the seat of their sledges, but I have not seen
+any whole bear's skin here; perhaps the animal is being exterminated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page507" id="v1page507"></a>[pg 507]</span>
+on the north coast of Siberia. Our wintering, therefore,
+will not enrich Arctic literature with any new bear stories&mdash;a
+very sensible difficulty for the writer himself. Wolves, on the
+other hand, occur on the <i>tundra</i> in sufficient abundance, even if
+one or other of the wolves found in mist and drifting snow,
+and saluted with shot, turned out, on a critical determination of
+species, to be our own dogs. At least, this was the case with the
+&quot;wolf,&quot; that inveigled one of the crew into shooting a ball one
+dark night right through the thermometer case, fortunately
+without injuring the instruments, and with no other result than
+that he had afterwards to bear an endless number of jokes from
+his comrades on account of his wolf-hunt. Foxes, white, red
+and black, also occurred here in great numbers, but they were
+at that season difficult to get at, and besides they had perhaps
+withdrawn from the coast. Hares, on the other hand, maintained
+themselves during the whole winter at Yinretlen, by day partly
+out on the ice partly on the cape, by night in the neighbourhood</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p517.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p517.png" alt="HARES FROM CHUKCH LAND." ></a>
+HARES FROM CHUKCH LAND.</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page508" id="v1page508"></a>[pg 508]</span>
+<p>of the tents. Sweepings and offal from the proceeds of the
+chase had there produced a vegetation, which, though concealed
+by snow, yielded to the hares in winter a more abundant supply
+of food than the barren <i>tundra</i>. It was remarkable that the
+hares were allowed to live between the tents and in their neighbourhood
+without being disturbed by the score of lean and
+hungry dogs belonging to the village. When farther into the
+winter for the sake of facilitating the hare-hunting I had a hut
+erected for Johnsen the hunter, he chose as the place for it
+the immediate neighbourhood of the village, declaring that the
+richest hunting-ground in the whole neighbourhood was just
+there. The shooters stated that part of the hares became
+snow-blind in spring. The hares here are larger than with us,
+and have exceedingly delicious flesh.</p>
+
+<p>On our arrival most of the birds had already left these
+regions, so inhospitable in winter, or were seen high up in the
+air in collected flocks, flying towards the south entrance of
+Behring's Straits. Still on the 19th October an endless procession
+of birds was seen drawing towards this region, but by
+the 3rd November it was noted, as something uncommon, that
+a gull settled on the refuse heaps in the neighbourhood of the
+vessel. It resembled the ivory gull, but had a black head.
+Perhaps it was the rare <i>Larus Sabinii</i>, of which a drawing has
+been given above.<A HREF="#v1fn257" NAME="v1rn257">[257]</A> All the birds which passed us came from
+the north-west, that is, from the north coast of Siberia, the
+New Siberian Islands or Wrangel Land. Only the mountain
+owl, a species of raven and the ptarmigan wintered in the
+region, the last named being occasionally snowed up.</p>
+
+<p>The ptarmigan here is not indeed so plump and good as the
+Spitzbergen ptarmigan during winter, but in any case provided
+us with an always welcome, if scanty change from the tiresome
+preserved meat. When some ptarmigan were shot, they were
+therefore willingly saved up by the cook, along with the hares,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page509" id="v1page509"></a>[pg 509]</span>
+for festivals. For in order to break the monotony on board an
+opportunity was seldom neglected that offered itself for holding
+festivities. Away there on the coast of the Chukch peninsula
+there were thus celebrated with great conscientiousness during
+the winter of 1878-9, not only our own birthdays but also those
+of King Oscar, King Christian and King Humbert, and of the
+Emperor Alexander. Every day a newspaper was distributed,
+for the day indeed, but for a past year. In addition we numbered
+among our diversions constant intercourse with the natives, and
+frequent visits to the neighbouring villages, driving in dog-sledges,
+a sport which would have been very enjoyable if the
+dogs of the natives had not been so exceedingly poor and bad,
+and finally industrious reading and zealous studies, for which I
+had provided the expedition with an extensive library, intended
+both for the scientific men and officers, and for the crew,
+numbering with the private stock of books nearly a thousand
+volumes.</p>
+
+<p>All this time of course the purely scientific work was not
+neglected. In the first rank among these stood the meteorological
+and magnetical observations, which from the 1st November
+were made on land every hour. However fast the ice lay
+around the vessel it was impossible to get on it a sufficiently
+stable base for the magnetical variation instrument. The
+magnetical observatory was therefore erected on land of the
+finest building material any architect has had at his disposal,
+namely, large parallelopipeds of beautiful blue-coloured ice-blocks.
+The building was therefore called by the Chukches
+<i>Tintinyaranga</i> (the ice-house), a name which was soon adopted
+by the <i>Vega</i> men too. As mortar the builder, Palander, used
+snow mixed with water, and the whole was covered with a
+roof of boards. But as after a time it appeared that the storm
+made its way through the joints and that these were gradually
+growing larger in consequence of the evaporation of the ice
+so that the drifting snow could find an entrance, the whole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page510" id="v1page510"></a>[pg 510]</span>
+house had a sail drawn over it. As supports of the three
+variation instruments large blocks of wood were used, whose
+lower ends were sunk in pits, which, with great trouble, were
+excavated in the frozen ground, and then, when the block
+supports were placed, were filled with sand mixed with water.</p>
+
+<p>The ice-house was a spacious observatory, well-fitted for its
+purpose in every respect. It had but one defect, the temperature
+was always at an uncomfortably low point. As no iron
+could be used in the building, and we had no copper-stove with
+us, we could not have any fireplace there. We endeavoured,
+indeed, to use a copper fireplace, that had been intended for
+sledge journeys, for heating, but only with the result that the
+observatory was like to have gone to pieces. We succeeded
+little better when we discovered farther on in the winter, while
+trimming the hold, a forgotten cask of bear's oil. We considered
+this <i>find</i> a clear indication that instead of a stove fired
+with wood we should, according to the custom of the Polar
+races, use oil-lamps to mitigate the severe cold which deprived
+our stay in Tintinyaranga of part of its pleasure. But this mode
+of firing proved altogether impracticable. The fumes of the
+oil smelled worse than those of the charcoal, and the result of
+this experiment was none other than that the splendid crystals
+of ice, with which the roof and walls of the ice-house were
+gradually clothed, were covered with black soot. Firing with
+oil was abandoned, and the oil presented to our friends at
+Yinretlen, who just then were complaining loudly that they
+had no other fuel than wood.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the nine scientific men and officers of the <i>Vega</i>, the
+engineer Nordstr&ouml;m and the seaman Lundgren took part in the
+magnetical and meteorological observations. Every one had his
+watch of six hours, five of which were commonly passed in the
+ice-house. To walk from the vessel to the observatory, distant
+a kilometre and a half, with the temperature under the freezing
+point of mercury, or, what was much worse, during storm, with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page511" id="v1page511"></a>[pg 511]</span>
+the temperature at -36&deg;, remain in the observatory for five
+hours in a temperature of -17&deg;, and then return to the vessel,
+commonly against the wind&mdash;for it came nearly always from the
+north or north-west&mdash;was dismal enough. None of us, however,
+suffered any harm from it. On the contrary, it struck me as
+if this compulsory interruption to our monotonous life on board
+and the long-continued stay in the open air had a refreshing
+influence both on body and soul.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p521.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p521.png" alt="THE OBSERVATORY AT PITLEKAJ." ></a>
+THE OBSERVATORY AT PITLEKAJ.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.) </div>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of the ice-house the thermometer case
+was erected, and farther on in the winter there were built in the
+surrounding snowdrifts, two other observatories, not however
+of ice, but of snow, in the Greenland snow-building style. Our
+dep&ocirc;t of provisions was also placed in the neighbourhood, and
+at a sufficient distance from the magnetical observatory there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page512" id="v1page512"></a>[pg 512]</span>
+was a large wooden chest, in which the Remington guns, which
+were carried for safety in excursions from the vessel, and other
+iron articles which the observer had with him, were placed before
+he entered the observatory.</p>
+
+<p>The building of Tintinyaranga was followed by the Chukches
+with great interest. When they saw that we did not intend
+to live there, but that rare, glancing metal instruments were
+set up in it, and that a wonderfully abundant flood of light in
+comparison with their tent illumination was constantly maintained
+inside with a kind of light quite unknown to them
+(stearine candles and photogen lamps) a curious uneasiness
+began to prevail among them, which we could not quiet with
+the language of signs mixed with a Chukch word or two, to
+which our communications with the natives were at that time
+confined. Even farther on in the year, when an efficient though
+word-poor international language had gradually been formed
+between us, they made inquiries on this point, yet with considerable
+indifference. All sensible people among them had evidently
+already come to the conclusion that it was profitless trouble
+to seek a reasonable explanation of all the follies which the
+strange foreigners, richly provided with many earthly gifts but
+by no means with practical sense, perpetrated. In any case
+it was with a certain amazement and awe that they, when they
+exceptionally obtained permission, entered one by one through
+the doors in order to see the lamps burn and to peep into
+the tubes. Many times even a dog-team that had come a long
+way stopped for a few moments at the ice-house to satisfy the
+owner's curiosity, and on two occasions in very bad drifting
+weather we were compelled to give shelter to a wanderer who
+had gone astray.</p>
+
+<p>When this ice-house was ready and hourly observations began
+in it, life on board took the stamp which it afterwards retained
+in the course of the winter. In order to give the reader an idea
+of our every-day life, I shall reproduce here the spirited sketch
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page513" id="v1page513"></a>[pg 513]</span>
+of a day on the <i>Vega</i>, which Dr. Kjellman gave in one of his
+home letters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;It is about half-past eight in the morning. He whose watch
+has expired has returned after five hours' stay in the ice-house,
+where the temperature during the night has been about -16&deg;.
+His account of the weather is good enough. There are only
+thirty-two degrees of cold, it is half-clear, and, to be out of the
+ordinary, there is no wind. Breakfast is over. Cigars, cigarettes,
+and pipes are lighted, and the gunroom <i>personnel</i> go up on deck
+for a little exercise and fresh air, for below it is confined and
+close. The eye rests on the desolate, still faintly-lighted landscape,
+which is exactly the same as it was yesterday; a white
+plain in all directions, across which a low, likewise white, chain
+of hillocks or <i>torosses</i> here and there raises itself, and over which
+some ravens, with feeble wing-strokes, fly forward, searching for
+something to support life with. 'Metschinko Orpist,' 'metschinko
+Okerpist,' 'metschinko Kellman,' &amp;c., now sounds everywhere
+on the vessel and from the ice in its neighbourhood.
+'Orpist' represents Nordquist, 'Okerpist' again Stuxberg. It is
+the Chukches' morning salutation to us. To-day the comparatively
+fine weather has drawn out a larger crowd than usual,
+thirty to forty human beings, from tender sucking babes to grey
+old folks, men as well as women; the latter in the word of
+salutation replacing the <i>tsch</i>-sound with an exceedingly soft
+caressing <i>ts</i>-sound. That most of them have come driving is
+shown by the equipages standing in the neighbourhood of the
+vessel. They consist of small, low, narrow, light sledges, drawn
+by four to ten or twelve dogs. The sledges are made of small
+pieces of wood and bits of reindeer-horn, held together by sealskin
+straps. As runner-shoes thin plates of the ribs of the
+whale are used. The dogs, sharp-nosed, long-backed, and excessively
+dirty, have laid themselves to rest, curled together in
+the snow.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The salutation is followed almost immediately to-day as
+on preceding days by some other words: 'Ouinga mouri kauka,'
+which may be translated thus: 'I am so hungry; I have no
+food; give me a little bread!' They suffer hunger now, the
+poor beings. Seal flesh, their main food, they cannot with the
+best will procure for the time. The only food they can get
+consists of fish (two kinds of cod), but this is quite too poor diet
+for them, they have fallen off since we first met with them,</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Soon we are all surrounded by our Chukch acquaintances.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page514" id="v1page514"></a>[pg 514]</span>
+The daily market begins. They have various things to offer,
+which they know to be of value to us, as weapons, furs, ornaments,
+playthings, fish, bones of the whale, alg&aelig;, vegetables, &amp;c. For
+all this only 'kauka' is now asked. To-day the supply of
+whales' bones is large, in consequence of our desire, expressed
+on previous days, to obtain them. One has come with two
+vertebr&aelig;, one with a rib or some fragments of it, one with
+a shoulder-blade. They are not shy in laying heavy loads on
+their dogs.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After the close of the promenade and the traffic with the
+natives, the gunroom <i>personnel</i> have begun their labours. Some
+keep in their cabins, others in the gunroom itself. The magnetical
+and meteorological observations made the day before are transcribed
+and subjected to a preliminary working-out, the natural
+history collections are examined and looked over, studies and
+authorship are prosecuted. The work is now and then interrupted
+by conversation partly serious, partly jocular. From the
+engine-room in the neighbourhood we hear the blows of hammers
+and the rasping of files. In the 'tweendecks, pretty well
+heated, but not very well lighted, some of the crew are employed
+at ordinary ship's work; and in the region of the kitchen the
+cook is just in the midst of his preparations for dinner. He
+is in good humour as usual, but perhaps grumbles a little at the
+'mosucks' (a common name on board for the Chukches), who will
+not give him any peace by their continual cries for 'mimil' (water.)</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The forenoon passes in all quietness and stillness. Immediately
+after noon nearly all the gunroom people are again on deck,
+promenading backwards and forwards. It is now very lively.
+It is the crew's meal-time. The whole crowd of Chukches are
+collected at the descent to their apartment, the lower deck.
+One soup basin after the other comes up; they are immediately
+emptied of their contents by those who in the crowd and
+confusion are fortunate enough to get at them. Bread and
+pieces of meat and bits of sugar are distributed assiduously,
+and disappear with equal speed. Finally, the cook himself
+appears with a large kettle, containing a very large quantity
+of meat soup, which the Chukches like starving animals throw
+themselves upon, baling into them with spoons, empty preserve
+tins, and above all with the hands. Notwithstanding
+the exceedingly severe cold a woman here and there has uncovered
+one arm and half her breast in order not to be embarrassed
+by the wide reindeer-skin sleeve in her attempts to get at
+the contents of the kettle. The spectacle is by no means a
+pleasant one.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page515" id="v1page515"></a>[pg 515]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v1p525.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p525.png" alt="AN EVENING IN THE GUNROOM OF THE &quot;VEGA&quot; DURING THE WINTERING." ></a>
+AN EVENING IN THE GUNROOM OF THE &quot;VEGA&quot; DURING THE WINTERING.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page517" id="v1page517"></a>[pg 517]</span>
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;By three o'clock it begins to grow dark, and one after the
+other of our guests depart, to return, the most of them, in the
+morning. Now it is quiet and still. About six the crew have
+finished their labours and dispose of the rest of the day as they
+please. Most of them are occupied with reading during the
+evening hours. When supper has been served at half-past seven
+in the gunroom, he who has the watch in the ice-house from
+nine to two next morning prepares for the performance of his
+disagreeable duty; the rest of the gunroom <i>personnel</i> are
+assembled there, and pass the evening in conversation, play,
+light reading, &amp;c. At ten every one retires, and the lamps are
+extinguished. In many cabins, however, lights burn till after
+midnight.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Such was in general our life on the <i>Vega</i>. One day was very
+like another. When the storm howled, the snow drifted, and the
+cold became too severe, we kept more below deck; when the
+weather was finer we lived more in the open air, often paying
+visits to the observatory in the ice-house, and among the Chukches
+living in the neighbourhood, or wandering about to come upon,
+if possible, some game.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The snow which fell during winter consisted more generally
+of small simple snow-crystals or ice-needles, than of the
+beautiful snow-flakes whose grand kaleidoscopic forms the
+inhabitants of the north so often have an opportunity of
+admiring. Already with a gentle wind and with a pretty clear
+atmosphere the lower strata of the atmosphere were full of these
+regular ice-needles, which refracted the rays of the sun, so as to
+produce parhelia and halos. Unfortunately however these were
+never so completely developed as the halos which I saw in 1873
+during the sledge-journey round North-east Land on Spitzbergen;
+but I believed that even now I could confirm the correctness of
+the observation I then made, that the representation which is
+generally given of this beautiful phenomenon, in which the halo
+is delineated as a collection of regular circles, is not correct,
+but that it forms a very involved system of lines, extended
+over the whole vault of heaven, for the most part coloured on
+the sun-side and uncoloured on the opposite side, of the sort
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page518" id="v1page518"></a>[pg 518]</span>
+shown in the accompanying drawings taken from the account of
+the Spitzbergen Expedition of 1872-73.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p527.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p527.png" alt="REFRACTION-HALO." ></a>
+REFRACTION-HALO.
+<br>Seen on Spitzbergen in May 1873, simultaneously with the Reflection-halo delineated on the
+following page. </div>
+
+<p>Another very beautiful phenomenon, produced by the refraction
+of the solar rays by the ice-needles, which during winter
+were constantly mixed with the atmospheric strata lying
+nearest the surface of the earth, was that the mountain
+heights to the south of the <i>Vega</i> in a certain light appeared
+as if feathered with fire-clouds. In clear sunshine and a high
+wind we frequently saw, as it were, a glowing pillar of vapour
+arise obliquely from the summits of the mountains, giving them
+the appearance of volcanos, which throw out enormous columns
+of smoke, flame-coloured by the reflection from the glowing
+lava streams in the depths of the crater.</p>
+
+<p>A blue water-sky was still visible out to sea, indicating that
+open water was to be found there. I therefore sent Johnsen the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page519" id="v1page519"></a>[pg 519]</span>
+hunter over the ice on the 18th December to see how it was.
+In three-quarters of an hour's walking from the vessel he found
+an extensive opening, recently covered with thin, blue, newly
+frozen ice. A fresh northerly breeze blew at the time, and by it
+the drift-ice fields were forced together with such speed, that
+Johnsen supposed that in a couple of hours the whole lead
+would be completely closed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p528.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p528.png" alt="REFLECTION-HALO." ></a>
+REFLECTION-HALO.
+<br>Seen simultaneously with the Retraction-halo delineated on the preceding page, in the part
+of the sky opposite the sun. </div>
+
+<p>In such openings in Greenland white whales and other small
+whales are often enclosed by hundreds, the natives thus having
+an opportunity of making in a few hours a catch which would
+be sufficient for their support during the whole winter, indeed
+for years, if the idea of <i>saving</i> ever entered into the imagination
+of the savage. But here in a region where the pursuit of the
+whale is more productive than in any other sea, no such occurrence
+has happened. During the whole of our stay on the coast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page520" id="v1page520"></a>[pg 520]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p529.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p529.png" alt="SECTION OF THE BEACH STRATA AT PITLEKAJ." ></a>
+SECTION OF THE BEACH STRATA AT PITLEKAJ.
+<br>1. Hard frozen coarse sand. 2. The sea. 3. Beach of fine dry sand with masses of bones of the
+whale. 4. Coast-lagoon. </div>
+
+<p>of the Chukch country we did not see a single whale. On the
+other hand, masses of whales' bones were found thrown up on
+the beach. At first I did not bestow much attention upon
+them, thinking they were the bones of whales that had been
+killed during the recent whale-fishing period. I soon found
+however that this could not have been the case. For the bones
+had evidently been washed out of the sandy dune running along
+the beach, which had been deposited at a time when the present
+coast lay ten to twenty metres below the surface of the sea,
+thus hundreds or thousands of years ago, undoubtedly before the
+time when the north coast of Asia was first inhabited by man.
+The dune sand is, as recently exposed profiles show, quite free
+from other kitchen-midden remains than those which occur
+upon its surface. The whales' bones in question were thus
+<i>subfossil</i>. Their number was so great, that in the systematic
+examination of the beach in the immediate neighbourhood of
+the vessel, which I undertook during spring with the assistance
+of Dr. Kjellman and half a dozen of the sailors, thirty neck-bones
+and innumerable other bones of the whale were found in
+a stretch of from four to five kilometres. Of course masses of
+bones are still concealed in the sand; and a large number of
+lower jaw-bones, ribs, shoulder-blades, and vertebr&aelig; had been
+used for runner-shoes, tent-frames, spades, picks and other
+implements. A portion, after being exposed for several years to
+the action of the air, had undergone decay. The bones are therefore
+found in greatest number at those places where the sand of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page521" id="v1page521"></a>[pg 521]</span>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v1p530.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v1p530.png" alt="CHRISTMAS EVE ON THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+CHRISTMAS EVE ON THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page523" id="v1page523"></a>[pg 523]</span>
+<p>the dune has been recently carried away by the spring floods or
+by the furious winds which prevail here, and which easily gain
+the ascendency over the dry sand, bound together only by
+widely scattered Elymus-stalks. The largest crania belonged to
+a species nearly allied to the <i>Bal&aelig;na mysticetus</i>. Crania of a
+species of Rachianectes are also found along with some bones of
+smaller varieties of the whale. No complete skeleton however
+has been found, but we brought home with us so large a quantity
+of the loose bones that the collection of whales' bones alone
+would have formed a full cargo for a small vessel. These bones
+will be delineated and described by Professor. A. W. MALM in
+<i>The Scientific Work of the Vega Expedition</i>. Special attention
+was drawn to a skeleton, belonging to the <i>Bal&aelig;na mysticetus</i>, by
+its being still partially covered with skin, and by deep red,
+almost fresh, flesh adhering to those parts of it which were
+frozen fast in the ground. This skeleton lay at a place where
+the dune sand had recently been washed away and the coarse
+underlying sand uncovered, the whale-<i>mummy</i> also I suppose
+coming to light at the same time. That the whale in question
+had not stranded in the memory of man the Chukches assured
+me unanimously. In such a case we have here a proof that
+even portions of the flesh of gigantic sea-animals have been
+protected against putrefaction in the frozen soil of Siberia&mdash;a
+parallel to the mammoth-<i>mummies</i>, though from a considerably
+more recent period.</p>
+
+<p>Christmas Eve was celebrated in the usual northern fashion.
+We had indeed neglected, as in the Expedition of 1872-73, to
+take with us any Christmas tree. But instead of it Dr. Kjellman
+prevailed on our Chukch friends to bring with dog-sledges
+willow-bushes from the valleys lying beyond the mountains to
+the south. By means of these a bare driftwood stem was
+converted into a luxuriant, branchy tree which, to replace the
+verdure, was clothed with variegated strips of paper, and planted
+in the 'tweendecks, which after our enclosure in the ice had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v1page524" id="v1page524"></a>[pg 524]</span>
+been arranged as a working room, and was now set in order for
+the Christmas festivities, and richly and tastefully ornamented
+with flags. A large number of small wax-lights, which we had
+brought with us for the special purpose, were fixed in the
+Christmas tree, together with about two hundred Christmas
+boxes purchased or presented to us before our departure. At
+six o'clock in the afternoon all the officers and crew assembled
+in the 'tweendecks, and the drawing of lots began, now and then
+interrupted by a thundering polka round the peculiar Christmas
+tree. At supper neither Christmas ale nor ham was wanting.
+And later in the evening there made their appearance in the
+'tweendecks five punchbowls, which were emptied with songs
+and toasts for King and Fatherland, for the objects of the
+Expedition, for its officers and men, for the families at home, for
+relatives and friends, and finally for those who decked and
+arranged the Christmas tree, who were the sailors C. Lundgren
+and O. Hansson, and the firemen O. Ingelsson and C. Carlstr&ouml;m.</p>
+
+<p>The other festivals were also celebrated in the best way, and
+at midnight before New Year's Day the new year was shot in
+with sharp explosive-shell firing from the rifled cannon of the
+<i>Vega</i>, and a number of rockets thrown up from the deck.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn249" NAME="v1fn249">[249]</A> Equal to 6.64 English miles.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn250" NAME="v1fn250">[250]</A> When it had become evident that we could make no further advance
+before next year, Lieut Brusewitz occasionally measured the thickness of
+the newly formed ice, with the following results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<pre>
+                   THICKNESS OF THE ICE.
+1 December,  56 centimetres.   1 May. 154 centimetres
+1 January,   92   ,,         15  ,,   162    ,,
+1 February, 108   ,,          1 June, 154    ,,
+15  ,,      120   ,,         15  ,,   151    ,,
+1 March,    123   ,,          1 July, 104    ,,
+1 April,    128   ,,         15        67    ,,(full of holes).
+15  ,,      139   ,,         18 ,,   The ice broke up.
+</pre>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn251" NAME="v1fn251">[251]</A> Low brush is probably to be met with in the interior of the Chukch
+peninsula at places which are protected from the cold north winds.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn252" NAME="v1fn252">[252]</A> According to H. Wild's newly-published large work, &quot;<i>Die
+Temperatur Verh&auml;ltnisse des Russischen Reiches</i>, 2e Halfte, St.
+Petersburg, 1881,&quot; the Old World's cold-pole lies in the neighbourhood
+of the town Werchojansk (67&deg; 34' N.L. 133&deg; 51' E.L. from Greenwich). The
+mean temperature of the different months and of the whole year is given
+in the note at page 411. If the data on which these figures rest are
+correct, the winter at Werchojansk is immensely colder than at the
+<i>Vega's</i> winter station.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn253" NAME="v1fn253">[253]</A> 1 lb.=100 ort=425.05 gram. 1 kanna=100 cubic inches=2.617 litres.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn254" NAME="v1fn254">[254]</A> To carry animals for slaughter on vessels during Polar expeditions
+cannot be sufficiently recommended. Their flesh acts beneficially by
+forming a change from the preserved provisions, which in course of time
+become exceedingly disagreeable, and their care a not less important
+interruption to the monotony of the winter life.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn255" NAME="v1fn255">[255]</A> I give here an extract from the Vocabulary, that the reader may
+form some idea of the language of the north-east point of Asia:&mdash;</p>
+
+<i>Tn&aacute;ergin</i>, heaven.<br>
+<i>Tirkir</i>, the sun.<br>
+<i>Y&eacute;dlin</i>, the moon.<br>
+<i>Ang&aacute;tlingan</i>, a star.<br>
+<i>N&uacute;tatschka</i>, land.<br>
+<i>&Aacute;ngka</i>, sea.<br>
+<i>Lj&eacute;dljenki</i>, winter.<br>
+<i>&Eacute;dljek</i>, summer.<br>
+<i>Edlj&oacute;ngat</i>, day.<br>
+<i>Nekita</i>, night.<br>
+<i>&Aacute;yguon</i>, yesterday.<br>
+<i>&Iacute;etkin</i>, to-day.<br>
+<i>Erg&aacute;tti</i>, to-morrow.<br>
+<i>Gn&uacute;nian</i>, north.<br>
+<i>Emnungku</i>, south.<br>
+<i>Nik&aacute;yan</i>, east.<br>
+<i>Kayradljgin</i>, west.<br>
+<i>Tintin</i>, ice.<br>
+<i>&Aacute;tljatlj</i>, snow.<br>
+<i>Yeetedli</i>, the aurora.<br>
+<i>Yengeen</i>, mist.<br>
+<i>T&eacute;dljgio</i>, storm.<br>
+<i>&Eacute;ek</i>, fire.<br>
+<i>Kljautlj</i>, a man, a human being.<br>
+<i>Or&aacute;edlja</i>, men.<br>
+<i>Ne&aacute;iren</i>, a woman.<br>
+<i>N&eacute;nena</i>, a child.<br>
+<i>Empen&agrave;tschyo</i>, father.<br>
+<i>&Eacute;mpengau</i>, mother.<br>
+<i>Lj&eacute;ut</i>, head.<br>
+<i>Ljeutljka</i>, face.<br>
+<i>Dljedlj&aacute;dlin</i>, eye.<br>
+<i>Lilj&aacute;ptk&oacute;urgin</i>, to see.<br>
+<i>Huedlj&oacute;dlin</i>, ear.<br>
+<i>Huedljokodlj&aacute;urgin</i>, to hear.<br>
+<i>Hu&aacute;dljomerkin</i>, to understand.<br>
+<i>Huedljount&aacute;kurgin</i>, not to understand.<br>
+<i>Yek&aacute;</i>, nose.<br>
+<i>Yekergin</i>, mouth.<br>
+<i>Kametkuaurgin</i>, to eat.<br>
+<i>Yedlinedljourgin</i>, to speak.<br>
+<i>M&aacute;mmah</i>, a woman's breast.<br>
+<i>Mammatk&oacute;urgin</i>, to give suck.<br>
+<i>Y&eacute;et</i>, foot.<br>
+<i>Retschaurgin</i>, to stand.<br>
+<i>Yetkatjergin</i>, to lie.<br>
+<i>Tschipiska</i>, to sleep.<br>
+<i>Kadljetschetuetj&aacute;kurgin</i>, to learn.<br>
+<i>Pintekatk&oacute;urgin</i>, to be born.<br>
+<i>Kaertr&aacute;ljirgin</i>, to die.<br>
+<i>K&aacute;makatan</i>, to be sick.<br>
+<i>K&aacute;mak</i>, the Deity, a guardian Spirit.<br>
+<i>Y&aacute;ranga</i>, tent.<br>
+<i>Etschengeratlin</i>, lamp.<br>
+<i>&Oacute;rguor</i>, sledge.<br>
+<i>Atku&aacute;t</i>, boat.<br>
+<i>Anetljkatlj</i>, f&igrave;shing-hook.<br>
+<i>Anedljourgin</i>, to angle.<br>
+<i>U&aacute;dlin</i>, knife.<br>
+<i>Tsch&uacute;pak</i>, <i>K&aacute;meak</i>, dog.<br>
+<i>&Uacute;mku</i>, Polar bear.<br>
+<i>R&eacute;rka</i>, walrus.<br>
+<i>M&eacute;metlj</i>, seal.<br>
+<i>K&oacute;rang</i>, reindeer.<br>
+<i>G&aacute;tlje</i>, bird.<br>
+<i>Enne</i>, fish.<br>
+<i>G&uacute;rgur</i>, dwarf-birch.<br>
+<i>Kukatkokongadlin</i>, willow-bush.<br>
+<i>Gem</i>, I.<br>
+<i>Gemnin</i>, mine.<br>
+<i>Get</i>, you.<br>
+<i>Genin</i>, yours.<br>
+<i>Enkan</i>, he.<br>
+<i>Muri</i>, we.<br>
+<i>Turi</i>, you.<br>
+<i>M&aacute;yngin</i>, much.<br>
+<i>Plj&uacute;kin</i>, little.<br>
+<i>Konjpong</i>, all.<br>
+<i>I</i>, yes.<br>
+<i>Etlje</i>, no.<br>
+<i>M&eacute;tschinka</i>, thanks.<br>
+<i>&Eacute;nnen</i>, one.<br>
+<i>Nirak</i>, two.<br>
+<i>Nrok</i>, three.<br>
+<i>Nrak</i>, four.<br>
+<i>Metlj&iacute;ngan</i>, five.<br>
+<br>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn256" NAME="v1fn256">[256]</A> The King of Sweden has since ordered a gold medal to be given to
+Wassili Menka in recognition of the fidelity with which he executed the
+commission of carrying our letters to a Russian post station.</p>
+
+<p><A HREF="#v1rn257" NAME="v1fn257">[257]</A> See <a href="#v1page119">page 119.</a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="END_OF_VOL_I"></a><h2>END OF VOL. I.</h2>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagei" id="v2pagei"></a>[ pg i ]</span>
+<p><br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pageii" id="v2pageii"></a>[ pg ii ]</span>
+<h1>
+THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA
+<br>
+ROUND
+<br>
+ASIA AND EUROPE.
+<br>
+VOL II</h1>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pageiii" id="v2pageiii"></a>[ pg iii ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pageiv" id="v2pageiv"></a>[ pg iv ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p004.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p004.png" alt="Adolf Erik Nordenski&ouml;ld and His signature" ></a>
+Adolf Erik Nordenski&ouml;ld
+<br>His signature
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagev" id="v2pagev"></a>[ pg v ]</span>
+<h1>
+THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA
+<br>
+ROUND
+<br>
+ASIA AND EUROPE</h1>
+
+<p class="center">WITH A HISTORICAL REVIEW
+OF PREVIOUS JOURNEYS ALONG THE NORTH COAST OF THE
+OLD WORLD</p>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>A.E. NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD</h2>
+
+<p class="center">TRANSLATED BY ALEXANDER LESLIE</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>WITH FIVE STEEL PORTRAITS, NUMEROUS MAPS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">IN TWO VOLUMES&mdash;VOL II</p>
+
+<p class="center">London<br>
+MACMILLON AND CO.<br>
+1881</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagevi" id="v2pagevi"></a>[ pg vi ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagevii" id="v2pagevii"></a>[ pg vii ]</span><br>
+<h2>CONTENTS OF VOL II</h2>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></p>
+
+<p>Hope of release at the new year&mdash;Bove's excursion to the open water&mdash;Mild
+weather and renewed severe cold&mdash;Mercury frozen&mdash;Popular lectures&mdash;
+Brusewitz's excursion to Najtskaj&mdash;Another despatch of letters home&mdash;The
+natives' accounts of the state of the ice on the coast of Chukch Land&mdash;The
+Chukches carry on traffic between Arctic America and Siberia&mdash;Excursions in
+the neighborhood of winter quarters&mdash;The weather during spring&mdash;The
+melting of the snow&mdash;The aurora&mdash;The arrival of the migratory birds&mdash;The
+animal world of Chukch Land&mdash;Noah Elisej's relief expedition&mdash;A remarkable
+fish&mdash;The country clean of snow&mdash;Release&mdash;The North-East Passage
+achieved</p>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></p>
+
+<p>The history, <i>physique</i>, disposition, and manners of the Chukches</p>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></p>
+
+<p>The development of our knowledge of the north coast of Asia&mdash;Herodotus&mdash;Strabo&mdash;Pliny&mdash;Marco
+Polo&mdash;Herbertstein's map&mdash;The conquest of Siberia
+by the Russians&mdash;Deschnev's voyages&mdash;Coast navigation between the Lena
+and the Kolyma&mdash;Accounts of islands in the Polar Sea and old voyages to
+them&mdash;The discovery of Kamchatka&mdash;The navigation of the Sea of Okotsk is
+opened by Swedish prisoners of war&mdash;The Great Northern Expedition&mdash;
+Behring&mdash;Schalaurov&mdash;Andrejev's Land&mdash;The New Siberian islands&mdash;
+Hedenstr&ouml;m's expeditions&mdash;Anjou and Wrangel&mdash;Voyages from Behring's
+Straits westward&mdash;Fictitious Polar voyages</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pageviii" id="v2pageviii"></a>[ pg viii ]</span>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a></p>
+
+<p>Passage through Behring's Straits&mdash;Arrival at Nunamo&mdash;Scarce species of seal&mdash;Rich
+vegetation&mdash;Passage to America&mdash;State of the ice&mdash;Port Clarence&mdash;The
+Eskimo&mdash;Return to Asia&mdash;Konyam Bay&mdash;Natural conditions there&mdash;The ice
+breaks up in the interior of Konyam Bay&mdash;St. Lawrence Island&mdash;Preceding
+visits to the Island&mdash;Departure to Behring Island </p>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a></p>
+
+<p>The position of Behring Island&mdash;Its inhabitants&mdash;The discovery of the Island by
+Behring&mdash;Behring's death&mdash;Steller&mdash;The former and present fauna of the
+Island: foxes, sea otters, sea cows, sea lions, and sea bears&mdash;Collection of
+bones of the Rhytina&mdash;Visit to a &quot;rookery&quot;&mdash;Torporkoff Island&mdash;Alexander
+Dubovski&mdash;Voyage to Yokohama&mdash;Lightning stroke </p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a></p>
+
+<p>Arrival at Yokohama&mdash;A Telegram sent to Europe&mdash;The stranding of the Steamer
+<i>A.E. Nordenski&ouml;ld&mdash;F&ecirc;tes</i> in Japan&mdash;The Minister of Marine, Kawamura&mdash;Prince
+Kito-Shira Kava&mdash;Audience of the Mikado&mdash;Graves of the Shoguns&mdash;Imperial
+Garden at Tokio&mdash;The Exhibition there&mdash;Visit to Enoshima&mdash;Japanese
+Manners and Customs&mdash;Thunberg and K&auml;mpfer.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a></p>
+
+<p>Excursion to Asamayama&mdash;The Nakasendo road&mdash;Takasaki&mdash;Difficulty of obtaining
+Quarters for the Night&mdash;The Baths at Ikaho&mdash;Massage in Japan&mdash;Swedish
+matches&mdash;Traveling in <i>Kago</i>&mdash;Savavatari&mdash;Criminals&mdash;Kusatsu&mdash;The
+Hot Springs and their healing power&mdash;Rest at Rokurigahara&mdash;The
+Summit of Asamayama&mdash;The Descent&mdash;Journey over Usui-toge&mdash;Japanese
+Actors&mdash;Pictures of Japanese Folk life&mdash;Return to Yokohama</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a></p>
+
+<p>Farewell dinner at Yokohama&mdash;The Chinese in Japan&mdash;Voyage to Kobe&mdash;Purchase
+of Japanese Books&mdash;Journey by sail to Kioto&mdash;Biwa Lake and the Legend of
+its Origin&mdash;Dredging there&mdash;Japanese Dancing Girls&mdash;Kioto&mdash;The Imperial
+Palace&mdash;Temples&mdash;Swords and Sword bearers&mdash;Shintoism and Buddhism&mdash;The
+Porcelain Manufacture&mdash;Japanese Poetry&mdash;Feast in a Buddhist Temple&mdash;Sailing
+across the Inland Sea of Japan&mdash;Landing at Hirosami and Shimonoseki&mdash;Nagasaki&mdash;Excursion
+to Mogi&mdash;Collection of Fossil Plants&mdash;Departure
+from Japan </p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pageix" id="v2pageix"></a>[ pg ix ]</span><br>
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a></p>
+
+<p>Hong Kong and Canton&mdash;Stone polishing Establishments at Canton&mdash;Political
+Relations in an English Colony&mdash;Treatment of the Natives&mdash;Voyage to
+Labuan&mdash;Coal Mines there&mdash;Excursion to the shore of Borneo&mdash;Malay
+Villages&mdash;Singapore&mdash;Voyage to Ceylon&mdash;Point de Galle&mdash;The Gem Mines
+at Ratnapoora&mdash;Visit to a Temple&mdash;Purchase of Manuscripts&mdash;The Population
+of Ceylon&mdash;Dr. Almquist's Excursion to the Interior of the Island</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a></p>
+
+<p>The Journey Home&mdash;Christmas, 1879&mdash;Aden&mdash;Suez&mdash;Cairo&mdash;Excursion to the
+Pyramids and the Mokattam Mountains&mdash;Petrified Tree stems&mdash;The Suez
+Canal&mdash;Landing on Sicily by night&mdash;Naples&mdash;Rome&mdash;The Members of the
+Expedition separate&mdash;Lisbon&mdash;England&mdash;Paris&mdash;Copenhagen&mdash;Festive Entry
+into Stockholm&mdash;<i>F&ecirc;tes</i> there&mdash;Conclusion </p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagex" id="v2pagex"></a>[ pg x ]</span><br>
+<h2>PORTRAITS</h2>
+
+<p>Engraved on Steel by G. J. Stodart, of London.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><a href="#v2pageiii">Adolf Erik Nordenski&ouml;ld</a>    <i>To face Title page</i>
+<p><a href="#v2page68">Louis Palander</a></p>
+
+<h2>LITHOGRAPHED MAPS</h2>
+
+<p><a href="#v2map156">9.  Herbertstern's Map of Russia, 1550 (photo-lithographic facsimile)</a></p>
+
+<p><a href="#v2map464">10. Map of the North Coast of the Old World from Norway to Behring's
+Straits, with the track of the <i>Vega</i>, constructed from old and
+recent sources, and from observations made during the Voyage of
+the <i>Vega</i>, by N. Selander, Captain in the General Staff</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexi" id="v2pagexi"></a>[ pg xi ]</span>
+<h2>LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL II</h2>
+
+<p><i>The Wood-cuts, when not otherwise stated below, were engraved at Herr Wilhelm
+Meyer's Xylographic Institute, in Stockholm</i></p>
+
+<br>
+<p><a href="#v2page1">1. Chukches</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page4">2. The Encampment Pitlekaj abandoned by its Inhabitants on the 18th February, 1879</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page8">3. Notti and Wife Aitanga</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page16">4. Map of the Region round the <i>Vega's</i> Winter Quarters</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page21">5. The Sleeping Chamber in a Chukch Tent</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page22">6. Chukch Lamps</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page23">7. Section of a Chukch Lamp</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page24">8. Chukch Shaman Drum</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page25">9. The Coast between Padljonna and Enjurmi</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page26">10. Bracelet of Copper</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page27">11. The North End of Idlidlja Island</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page37">12. The Common Aurora Arc at the <i>Vega's</i> Winter Quarters</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page38">13. Aurora at the <i>Vega's</i> Winter Quarters, 3rd March, 1879, at 9 PM</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page38">14. Double Aurora-Arcs seen 20th March, 1879, at 9 30 PM</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page38">15. Elliptic Aurora, seen 21st March, 1879, at 2 15 AM</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page38">16. Elliptic Aurora seen 21st March, 1879, at 3 AM</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page41">17. Song Birds in the Rigging of the Vega, June, 1879</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page43">18. Spoon-billed Sand piper from Chukch Land (<i>Eurynorhynchus pygm&aelig;us</i>, L.)</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexiv" id="v2pagexiv"></a>[ pg xiv ]</span>
+<p><a href="#v2page45">19. Marmots from Chukch Land</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page48">20. <i>Stegocephalus Kessleri</i> Stuxb</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page48">21. <i>Sabinea septemcarinata</i>, Sabine</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page49">22. <i>Acanthostephia Malmgreni</i>, Go&euml;s</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page49">23. <i>Ophioglypha nodosa</i>, L&uuml;tken</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page51">24. Noah Elisej</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page55">25. Beetles from Pitlekaj</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page56">26. Phosphorescent Crustacea from Mussel Bay</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page57">27. Reitinacka</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page59">28. Dog Fish from the Chukch Peninsula (<i>Dallia delicatissima</i>, Smith)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page63">29. Crab from the Sea North of Behring's Straits (<i>Chionoecetes opilio</i>, Kr&ouml;yer)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page65">30. Tree from Pitlekaj (<i>Salix Arctica</i>, Pallas)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page83">31. Typical Chukch Faces</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page85">32.  ,, &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ,,</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page89">33. Plan of a Chukch Grave</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page90">34. Tent Frame at Pitlekaj</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page93">35. Chukch Oar</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page96">36. Dog Shoe</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page100">37. Chukch Face Tattooing</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page101">38. Chukch Children</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page102">39. Snow Shoes</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page103">40. An Aino Man skating after a Reindeer</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page104">41. Hunting Cup and Snow scraper</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page105">42. Chukch Weapons and Hunting Implements</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page106">43. Chukch Bow and Quiver</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page107">44. Chukch Arrows</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page112">45. Stone Hammers and Anvil for Crushing Bones</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page117">46. Chukch Implements</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page121">47. Fire Drill</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page123">48. Ice Mattocks</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page127">49. Human Figures</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexv" id="v2pagexv"></a>[ pg xv ]</span>
+
+<p><a href="#v2page130">50. Musical Instruments</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page132">51. Drawings made by the Chukches&mdash;</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page136">52. Chukch Buckles and Hooks of Ivory</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page139">53. Chukch Bone Carvings</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page141">54. Chukch Doll</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page142">55. Chukch Bone Carvings&mdash;</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page145">56. Chukch Bone Carvings of Birds</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page151">57. Map of the World, said to be of the Tenth Century</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page152">58. Map of the World showing Asia to be continuous with Africa</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page155">59. Map of the World after Fra Mauro, from the middle of the Fifteenth Century</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page177">60. Map of Asia from an Atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1737</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page207">61. Peter Feodorovitsch Anjou</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page208">62. Ferdinand von Wrangel</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page219">63. Seal from the Behring Sea, <i>Histriophoca fasciata</i>, Zimm</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page224">64. <i>Draba Alpina</i>, L, from St. Lawrence Bay</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page229">65. Hunting Implements at Port Clarence</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page230">66. Eskimo Family at Port Clarence</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page231">67. Eskimo from Port Clarence</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page232">68. Eskimo from Port Clarence</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page234">69. Eskimo Fishing Implements, &amp;c.</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page237">70. Eskimo Bone Carvings &amp;c.</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page239">71. Eskimo Grave</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page240">72. Animal Figure from an Eskimo Grave</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page241">73. Ethnographical Objects from Port Clarence</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page243">74. Shell from Behring's Straits, <i>Fusus deformis</i>, Reeve</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page244">75. Diagram showing the temperature and depth of the water at Behring's Straits between Port Clarence and Senjavin Sound, by G. Bove</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page247">76. Konyam Bay</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page251">77. Tattooing Patterns from St. Lawrence Island</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page252">78. Tattooed Woman from St. Lawrence Island</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexvi" id="v2pagexvi"></a>[ pg xvi ]</span>
+<p><a href="#v2page259">79. The Colony on Behring Island</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page261">80. The Colony on Copper Island</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page263">81. Natives of Behring Island</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page279">82. Skeleton of Rhytina, shown at the <i>Vega</i> Exhibition at the Royal Palace, Stockholm</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page279">83. Original Drawings of the Rhytina</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page280">84. Reconstructed Form of the Sea-Cow</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page282">85. Sea Bears, Male, Female, and Young</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page285">86. &quot;Seal Rookery&quot; on St. Paul's Island, one of the Pribylov Islands</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page288">87. Slaughter of Sea-Bears</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page289">88. Sea-Bears on their way to &quot;the Rookeries&quot;</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page293">89. Alga from the shore of Behring Island,
+<i>Thalassiophyllum Clathrus</i>, Post. and Rupr.</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page299">90. Fusugama</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page301">91. The steamer <i>A.E. Nordenski&ouml;ld</i> stranded on the East Coast of Yezo</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page302">92. Kawamura Sumiyashi, Japanese Minister of Marine</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page306">93. The First Medal which was struck as a Memorial of the Voyage of the <i>Vega</i></a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page307">94. The First Medal which was struck as a Memorial of the Voyage of the <i>Vega</i></a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page311">95. Stone Lantern and Stone Monument in a Japanese Temple Court</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page312">96. Japanese House in Tokio&nbsp; </a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page314">97. Japanese Lady at her Toilet</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page317">98. A Jinrikisha</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page319">99. Japanese Bedroom </a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page322">100. Tobacco-Smokers, Japanese Drawing</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page324">101. Ito-Keske, a Japanese Editor of Thunberg's Writings</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page325">102. Monument to Thunberg and Kaempfer at Nagasaki</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page337">103. Japanese Kago</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page339">104. Japanese Wrestlers</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page340">105. Japanese Bridge, after a Japanese drawing</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page341">106. Japanese Mountain Landscape, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page344">107. Inn at Kusatsu, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexvii" id="v2pagexvii"></a>[ pg xvii ]</span>
+<p><a href="#v2page347">108. Bath at Kusatsu, Japanese drawing, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page353">109. Japanese Landscape, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page356">110. Burden-bearers on a Japanese Road, Japanese drawing, drawn by O. S&ouml;rling</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page367">111. Japanese Shop, drawn by V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page373">112. Japanese Court Dress, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page374">113. Noble in Antique Dress, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page375">114. Buddhist Priest, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page376">115. A Samurai, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page378">116. Gate across the Road to a Shinto Temple, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page379">117. Buddhist Temple at Kobe, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page383">118. Rio-San's Seal</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page385">119. Burying-Place at Kioto, drawn by Prof. P.D. Holm</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page388">120. Entrance to Nagasaki, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page393">121. Fossil Plants from Mogi&mdash;1, 2, Beech Leaves (<i>Fagus ferruginea</i>, Ait., var. <i>pliocena</i>, Nath.), drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page394">122. Fossil Plant from Mogi&mdash;3, Maple Leaf (<i>Acer Mono</i>, Max., var. <i>pliocena</i>, Nath.)</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page394">123. Fossil Plant from Mogi&mdash;Leaf of <i>Zelkova Keakii</i>, Sieb., var. <i>pliocena</i>, Nath., drawn by M. Westergren</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page417">124. Gem Diggings at Ratnapoora, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page426">125. Statues in a Temple in Ceylon, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page429">126. A Country Place in Ceylon, drawn by V. Andr&eacute;n</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page431">127. Highland View from the Interior of Ceylon, drawn by R. Haglund&nbsp;</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page435">128. The Scientific Men of the <i>Vega</i> </a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page449">129. The Officers of the <i>Vega</i></a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page457">130. The Crew of the <i>Vega</i>, drawn by R. Widing</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page461">131. The Entrance of the <i>Vega</i> into Stockholm on the 24th April, 1880, drawn by R. Haglund</a></p>
+<p><a href="#v2page464">132. The <i>Vega</i> moored off the Royal Palace, Stockholm, drawn by ditto</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexviii" id="v2pagexviii"></a>[ pg xviii ]</span>
+<br>
+
+<br><a name="v2errata">ERRATA</a>  [ Transcriber's note:  these have been applied to the text ]
+<br>
+<br>Page 22, under wood-cut, <i>for &quot;a</i>. Of wood <i>b</i>. Of stone,&quot;
+<i>read &quot;a</i>. Wooden cup to place under the lamp  <i>b</i>. Lamp of burned clay.&quot;
+<br>Page 41, line 6 from foot, <i>for</i> &quot;beginning of May&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;middle of June.&quot;
+<br>Page 41, under wood-cut, <i>for</i> &quot;May,&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;June.&quot;
+<br>Page 44, line 19 <i>for</i> &quot;mountain,&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;Arctic.&quot;
+<br>Page 54, last line <i>for</i> &quot;contracteta&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;contracta.&quot;
+<br>Page 63, last line <i>for</i> &quot;Natural size,&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;Half the natural size.&quot;
+<br>Page 98, lines 9 and 12 from foot, <i>for</i> &quot;moccassin&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;moccasin.&quot;
+<br>Page 100, line 2 from foot, <i>for</i> &quot;moccassin&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;moccasin.&quot;
+<br>Page 227, line 11 from foot, <i>for</i> &quot;American,&quot; <i>read</i> &quot;Asiatic.&quot;
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2pagexix" id="v2pagexix"></a>[ pg xix ]</span></p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p>THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA</p>
+
+<p>ROUND</p>
+
+<p>ASIA AND EUROPE,</p>
+
+<p>VOL II</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page1" id="v2page1"></a>[ pg 1 ]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p001.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p001.png" alt="" ></a>
+</div>
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XI"></a><h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<p>Hope of release at the new year&mdash;Bove's excursion to the open water&mdash;Mild
+weather and renewed severe cold&mdash;Mercury frozen&mdash;Popular
+lectures&mdash;Brusewitz's excursion to Najtskaj&mdash;Another despatch of letters
+home&mdash;The natives' accounts of the state of the ice on the coast of
+Chukch Land&mdash;The Chukches carry on traffic between Arctic America
+and Siberia&mdash;Excursions in the neighbourhood of winter quarters&mdash;The
+weather during spring&mdash;The melting of the snow&mdash;The aurora&mdash;The
+arrival of the migratory birds&mdash;The animal world of Chukch Land&mdash;Noah
+Elisej's relief expedition&mdash;A remarkable fish&mdash;The country
+clear of snow&mdash;Release&mdash;The North-East Passage achieved.</p>
+
+<p>The new year came in with a faint hope of release. For since
+the north and north-west winds that had prevailed almost constantly
+towards the close of December had given place to winds
+from the east and south, considerable &quot;clearings&quot; were again
+formed out at sea, and the Chukches again began to say that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page2" id="v2page2"></a>[ pg 2 ]</span>
+the ice would drift away, so that the vessel would be able
+to continue her voyage; a prediction which they always ended
+with a declaration, expressed both by words and gestures, that
+they would then bitterly lament, which they would also have
+had sufficient reason to do, considering the very friendly way in
+which they were treated by all on board the <i>Vega</i>, both officers
+and men.</p>
+
+<p>On New Year's Day, in order to see the state of the ice farther
+out to sea, Lieut Bove, accompanied by the hunter Johnsen,
+again made an excursion to the open water. Of this he gave
+the following account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;I left the vessel on the forenoon of 1st January and reached
+the open water after four hours' steady walking. The deep
+loose snow made walking very fatiguing, and three rows of
+<i>torosses</i> also contributed to this, mainly in consequence of the
+often snow-covered cracks, which crossed the ice-sheet in their
+neighbourhood. One of the <i>torosses</i> was ten metres high. The
+size of the blocks of ice, which were here heaped on each other,
+showed how powerful the forces were which had caused the
+formation of the <i>torosses</i>. These ice ramparts now afford a
+much needed protection to the <i>Vega's</i> winter haven. About
+halfway between the open water and the vessel the way was
+crossed by cracks running from east to west, and clearly indicating
+that the opening in the ice would have extended to the
+distance of a kilometre from the vessel, if the violent storm in
+December had lasted twelve hours longer. The <i>Vega</i> would
+thereby have been in great danger. The edge of the ice towards
+the open water was evenly cut, as with an immense knife, and
+was so strong that one could walk along it as on a rock. Even
+from the top of a five-metre-high ice-rampart no boundary of
+the open water could be seen to the north-east or north. Partly
+from this, partly from the extension of the water-sky in this
+direction, I draw the conclusion that the breadth of the open
+water was at least thirty-five kilometres. The &quot;clearing&quot; was
+bounded on the east by an ice-rampart running north, which at
+a distance of nine or ten kilometres appeared to bend to the
+east. Possibly farther to the east beyond this ice-rampart there
+was another open water basin. The depth at the edge of the
+ice was twenty-one metres, the temperature of the water 2&deg; C.
+The water ran at a considerable speed right out from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page3" id="v2page3"></a>[ pg 3 ]</span>
+coast (<i>i.e.</i> from S.S.E.) As it ran here nearly in a straight
+line, the current may have been a tidal one. The open
+water swarmed with seals, according to Johnsen both bearded
+and rough. Neither Polar bears, walrusses, nor birds were
+seen.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Lieut. Bove's report confirmed me in my supposition that the
+open water, as towards the end of January 1873 at Mussel Bay,
+might possibly extend as far as our anchorage and open for us
+the way to Behring's Straits, in which case we could not refrain
+from continuing our voyage, however unpleasant and dangerous
+it might be at this season of the year. The Chukches also
+declared repeatedly that the open water in January would
+continue for a considerable time, and in expectation of this got
+their simple fishing implements ready. But both they and we
+were disappointed in our expectation. The <i>Vega's</i> ice-fetters
+remained undisturbed, and the blue border at the horizon grew
+less and again disappeared. This caused so great a want of
+food, and above all of train oil, among the natives, that all the
+inhabitants of Pitlekaj, the village nearest to us, were compelled
+to remove to the eastward, notwithstanding that in order to
+mitigate the scarcity a considerable quantity of food was served
+out daily at the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>It appeals, however, as if an actual experience from the preceding
+year had been the ground of the Chukches' weather
+prediction. For on the 6th February a south-east wind began
+to blow, and the severe cold at once ceased. The temperature
+rose for a few hours to and even above the freezing-point. A
+water-sky was again formed along the horizon of the ice from
+north-east to north, and from the heights at the coast there was
+seen an extensive opening in the ice-fields, which a little east
+of Irgunnuk nearly reached the shore. Some kilometres farther
+east even the shore itself was free of ice, and from the hills our
+sailors thought they saw a heavy sea in the blue water border
+which bounded the circle of vision. If this was not an illusion,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page4" id="v2page4"></a>[ pg 4 ]</span>
+caused by the unequal heating and oscillatory motion of the
+lower stratum of the atmosphere, the open water may have been
+of great extent. Perhaps the statement of the natives was
+correct, that it extended as far as Behring's Straits. But we
+could not now place complete reliance on their statements, since
+we had rewarded with extra treating some predictions, relating
+to ice and weather, that were favourable to us. Even between
+the vessel's anchorage and the land various cracks had been
+formed, through which the sea water had forced its way under
+the snow, and in which some of us got cold feet or leg baths
+during our walks to and from the land.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p018.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p018.png" alt="THE ENCAMPMENT PITLEKAJ ABANDONED BY ITS INHABITANTS ON THE 18TH FEBRUARY, 1879." ></a>
+THE ENCAMPMENT PITLEKAJ ABANDONED BY ITS INHABITANTS ON THE 18TH FEBRUARY, 1879.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.)
+</div>
+
+<p>The Chukches at Irgunnuk were now successful in killing a
+Polar bear and seventy seals, of which some were ostentatiously
+set up in rows, along with frozen slices of blubber, along the
+outer walls of the tents, and others were laid down in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page5" id="v2page5"></a>[ pg 5 ]</span>
+blubber cellars, which were soon filled to overflowing. At
+Yinretlen, the encampment nearer us, the hunters on the other
+hand had obtained only eight seals. Gladness and want of care
+for the morrow at all events prevailed here also, and our skin-clad
+friends availed themselves of the opportunity to exhibit a
+self-satisfied disdain of the simple provisions from the <i>Vega</i>
+which the day before they had begged for with gestures so pitiful,
+and on which they must, in a day or two, again depend. The
+children, who had fallen off during recent weeks, if not in comparison
+with European children, at least with well-fed Chukch
+ones, began speedily to regain their former condition, and likewise
+the older people. Begging ceased for some days, but the vessel's
+deck still formed a favourite rendezvous for crowds of men,
+women, and children. Many passed here the greater part of
+the day, cheerful and gay in a temperature of -40&deg; C, gossiped,
+helped a little, but always only a little, at the work on board
+and so on. The mild weather, the prospect of our getting free,
+and of an abundant fishing for the Chukches, however, soon
+ceased. The temperature again sank below the freezing-point,
+that is <i>of mercury</i>, and the sea froze so far out from the shore
+that the Chukches could no longer carry on any fishing. Instead
+we saw them one morning come marching, like prisoners on an
+Egyptian or Assyrian monument, in goose-march over the ice
+toward the vessel, each with a burden on his shoulder, of whose
+true nature, while they were at a distance, we endeavoured in
+vain to form a guess. It was pieces of ice, not particularly
+large, which they, self-satisfied, cheerful and happy at their new
+bit, handed over to the cook to get from him in return some of
+the <i>kauka</i> (food) they some days before had despised.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p class="tb">The first time the temperature of the air sank under the
+freezing-point of mercury, was in January. It now became
+necessary to use instead of the mercury the spirit thermometers,
+which in expectation of the severe cold had been long ago hung
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page6" id="v2page6"></a>[ pg 6 ]</span>
+up in the thermometer case. When mercury freezes in a
+common thermometer, it contracts so much that the column of
+mercury suddenly sinks in the tube; or if it is short, goes wholly
+into the ball. The position of the column is therefore no
+measure of the actual degree of cold when the freezing takes
+place. The reading of -89&deg;, or even of -150&deg;, which at a
+time when it was not yet known that mercury could at a low
+temperature assume the solid form, was made on a mercurial
+thermometer in the north of Sweden,<a name="v2rn258"></a><a href="#v2fn258">[258]</a> and which at the time
+occasioned various discussions and doubts as to the trustworthiness
+of the observer, was certainly quite correct, and may be
+repeated at any time by cooling mercury under its freezing-point
+in a thermometer of sufficient length divided into degrees under
+0&deg;. The freezing of mercury<a name="v2rn259"></a><a href="#v2fn259">[259]</a> takes place from below upwards,
+the frozen metal as being heavier sinking down in that portion
+which is still fluid. If when it is half frozen the fluid be poured
+away from the frozen portion, we obtain groups of crystals,
+composed of small octohedrons, grouped together by the edges
+of the cube. None of our mercurial thermometers suffered any
+damage, nor was there any alteration of the position of the
+freezing-point in them from the mercury having frozen in them
+and again become fluid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page7" id="v2page7"></a>[ pg 7 ]</span>
+During the severe cold the ice naturally became thicker and
+thicker, and by the continual northerly winds still higher
+<i>torosses</i> were heaped up round the vessel, and larger and larger
+snow masses were collected between it and the land, and on the
+heights along the coast. All hopes or fears of an early release
+were again given up, and a perceptible dullness began to make
+itself felt after the bustle and festrvities of the Christmas
+holidays. Instead there was now arranged a series of popular
+lectures which were held in the lower deck, and treated of the
+history of the North-East Passage, the first circumnavigations of
+the globe, the Austrian-Hungarian Expedition, the changes of
+the earth's surface, the origin of man, the importance of the
+leaf to the plants, &amp;c. It became both for the officers and
+scientific men and the crew a little interruption to the monotony
+of the Arctic winter life, and the lecturer could always be certain
+of finding his little auditory all present and highly interested.
+Some slight attempts at musical evening entertainments were
+also made, but these failed for want of musical instruments and
+musical gifts among the <i>Vega</i> men. We had among us no
+suitable director of theatrical representations after the English-Arctic
+pattern, and even if we had had, I fear that the director
+would have found it very difficult to gather together the
+dramatic talents requisite for his entertainment.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">On the 17th February Lieutenant Brusewitz made an
+excursion to Najtskaj, of which he gives the following
+account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;I and Notti left the vessel in the afternoon, and after two
+hours came to Rirajtinop, Notti's home, where we passed the
+night, together with his three younger brothers and an invalid
+sister, who all lived in the same tent-chamber. Immediately
+after our arrival one of the brothers began to get the dog-harness
+and sleigh ready for the following day's journey, while the rest
+of us went into the interior of the tent, where the invalid sister
+lay with her clothes off, but wrapt in reindeer skins. She took
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page8" id="v2page8"></a>[ pg 8 ]</span>
+charge of two train-oil lumps over which hung two cooking
+vessels, one formerly a preserve tin, and the other a bucket of
+tinned iron. One of the brothers came in with a tray, on
+which was placed a piece of seal blubber, together with frozen
+vegetables, principally willow leaves. The blubber was cut into
+small square pieces about the size of the thumb, after which
+one of the brothers gave the sister a large portion both of the
+blubber and vegetables. The food was thus served out to
+the others. Every piece of blubber was carefully imbedded in
+vegetable before it was eaten. When the vegetables were</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p022.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p022.png" alt="Notti and his wife Aitanga." ></a>
+Notti and his wife Aitanga. (after photographs by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+<p class="blockquote">finished there was still some blubber, which was given to the
+dogs that lay in the outer tent. After this the boiled spare-rib
+of a seal were partaken of, and finally a sort of soup, probably
+made from seal's blood. The sister had a first and special helping
+of these dishes. I also got an offer of every dish, and it did
+not appear to cause any offence that I did not accept the offer.
+After the close of the meal the cooking vessels were set down,
+the &quot;pesks&quot; taken off, and some reindeer skins taken down
+from the roof and spread out. The older brothers lighted their
+pipes, and the younger lay down to sleep. I was shown to one
+of the side places in the tent, evidently Notti's own. One of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page9" id="v2page9"></a>[ pg 9 ]</span>
+lamps was extinguished, after which all slept. During the night
+the girl complained several times, when one of the brothers
+always rose and attended to her. At six in the morning I
+wakened the party and reminded them of our journey. All
+rose immediately. Dressing proceeded slowly, because much
+attention was given to the foot covering. No food was produced,
+but all appeared quite pleased when I gave them of my stock,
+which consisted of bread and some preserved beef-steaks. Immediately
+after breakfast four dogs were harnessed to the sleigh, with
+which Notti and I continued our journey to Najtskaj, I riding
+and he running alongside the sleigh. At Irgunnuk, a Chukch
+village about an English mile east of Rirajtinop, a short
+stay was made in order to try to borrow some dogs, but without
+success. We continued our journey along the shore, and at
+10 o'clock A.M. arrived at Najtskaj, which is from fifteen to eighteen
+kilometres E.S.E. from Irgunnuk. Here we were received
+by most of our former neighbours, the inhabitants of Pitlekaj.
+Of the thirteen tents of the village the five westernmost
+were occupied by the former population of Pitlekaj,
+while the eight lying more to the eastward were inhabited by
+other Chukches. The Pitlekaj people had not pitched their
+common large tents, but such as were of inconsiderable size or
+small ones fastened close together. In all the tents here, as at
+Rirajtinop and Irgunnuk, there was much blubber laid up, we
+saw pieces of seal and whole seals piled up before the tents,
+and on the way to Najtskaj we met several sledges loaded with
+seals, on their way to Pidlin. At Najtskaj I went out hunting
+accompanied by a Chukch. We started eight hares, but did
+not succeed in getting within range of them. A red fox was
+seen at a great distance but neither ptarmigan nor traces of
+them could be discovered. At two in the afternoon I returned
+to Irgunnuk and there got another sleigh drawn by ten dogs,
+with which I soon reached the vessel&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th February three large Chukch sledges laden with
+goods and drawn by sixteen to twenty dogs stopped at the <i>Vega</i>.
+They said they came from the eastward, and were on
+their way to the market in the neighbourhood of Nischni
+Kolymsk. I again by way of experiment sent with them home-letters,
+for which, as they declined to take money, I gave them as
+postage three bottles of rum and abundant entertainment for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page10" id="v2page10"></a>[ pg 10 ]</span>
+men and dogs. In consideration of this payment they bound
+themselves faithfully to execute their commission and promised
+to return in May. And they kept then word. For on the 8th
+and 9th May a large number of sledges heavily laden with reindeer
+skins and drawn by many dogs, passed along the coast from
+west to east. Of course all rested at the <i>Vega</i>, the only house
+of entertainment on the coast of the Asiatic Polar Sea, considering
+it as a matter of indisputable right, that they should in
+return for a little talk and gossip obtain food and &quot;ram.&quot; Very
+eagerly they now informed us that a letter would come with
+another dog train that might be expected in a few hours. This
+was for us a very great piece of news, the importance of which
+none can understand who has never hungered for months for
+news from home, from the home-land and the home-world.
+Eager to know if we had actually to expect <i>a post</i> from Europe,
+we asked them how large the packet was &quot;Very large&quot; was
+the answer, and the &quot;ram&quot; was of course measured accordingly.
+But when at last the letter came it was found to be only an
+exceedingly short note from some of the Russian officials at
+Kolyma, informing me that our letters had reached him on the
+4th April/23rd March and had been immediately sent by express to Yakutsk.
+Thence they were sent on by post, reaching Irkutsk on the 20th/14th
+May, and Sweden on the 2nd August.</p>
+
+<p>During autumn and midwinter the sunshine was not of
+course strong and continuous enough to be painful to the eyes,
+but in February the light from the snow-clouds and the snow-drifts
+began to be troublesome enough. On the 22nd February
+accordingly snow-spectacles were distributed to all the men, an
+indispensable precaution, as I have before stated, in Arctic
+journeys. Many of the Chukches were also attacked with snow-blindness
+somewhat later in the season, and were very desirous
+of obtaining from us blue-coloured spectacles. Johnsen even
+stated that one of the hares he shot was evidently snow-blind.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of the 22th February there burst upon us
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page11" id="v2page11"></a>[ pg 11 ]</span>
+a storm with drifting snow and a cold of -36&deg;. To be out in
+such weather is not good even for a Chukch dog. Of this we
+had confirmation the next day, when a Chukch who had lost his
+way came on board, carrying a dog, frozen stiff, by the backbone,
+like a dead hare. He had with his dog gone astray on the ice
+and lain out, without eating anything, in a snow-drift for the
+night. The master himself had suffered nothing, he was only
+hungry, the dog on the other hand scarcely showed any sign of
+life. Both were naturally treated on board the <i>Vega</i> with great
+commiseration and kindness. They were taken to the 'tweendecks,
+where neither Chukches nor Chukch dogs were otherwise
+admitted, for the man an abundant meal was served of what we
+believed he would relish best, and he was then allowed, probably
+for the first time in his life, to sleep if not under a sooty,
+at least under a wooden roof. The dog was for hours carefully
+subjected to massage, with the result that he came to life again,
+which struck us, and, as it appeared, not least the Chukch
+himself, as something wonderful.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of March there passed us a large number of
+sledges laden with reindeer skins, and drawn by eight to ten
+dogs each. Every sledge had a driver, and as usual the women
+took no part in the journey. These trains were on a commercial
+journey from Irkaipij to P&auml;k at Behring's Straits. We found
+among the foremen many of our acquaintances from the preceding
+autumn, and I need not say that this gave occasion to a
+special entertainment, for the people, bread, a little spirits, soup,
+some sugar, and tobacco, for the dogs, pemmican. Conversation
+during such visits became very lively, and went on with little
+hindrance, since two of us were now somewhat at home in the
+Chukch language. For if I except two men, Menka and Noah
+Elisej, who could talk exceedingly defective Russian, there was
+not one of the reindeer or dog-foremen travelling past who could
+speak any European language, and notwithstanding this they
+all carry on an active commerce with the Russians. But the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page12" id="v2page12"></a>[ pg 12 ]</span>
+Chukch is proud enough to require that his own language shall
+prevail in all international commerce in the north-east of Asia,
+and his neighbours find their advantage in this.</p>
+
+<p>During the course of the winter, Lieutenant Nordquist
+collected from the Chukch foremen coming from a distance who
+travelled past, information regarding the state of the ice between
+Chaun Bay and Behring's Straits at different seasons of the year.
+Considering the immense importance of the question, even in
+a purely practical point of view, I shall quote verbatim the
+statements which he thus collected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Statements regarding the state of the ice on the coast between
+Cape Yakan and Behring's Straits by Chukches living there</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;1. A Chukch from Yekanenmitschikan, near Cape Yakan,
+said that it is usual for open water to be there the whole
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;2. A Chukch from Kinmankau, which lies a little to the west
+of Cape Yakan, said the same.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;3. A Chukch from Yakan stated that the sea there becomes
+free of ice in the end of May or beginning of June. On the other
+hand it is never open in winter.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;4. Tatan from Yakan stated that the sea there is open from
+the end of May or beginning of June to the latter part of
+September or beginning of October, when the ice begins to drift
+towards the land.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;5. Rikkion from Vankarema said that the sea there is covered
+with ice in winter, but open in summer.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;6. A reindeer Chukch, Rotschitlen, who lives about twelve
+English miles from the <i>Vega's</i> winter quarters, said that
+Kolyutschin Bay, by the Chukches called Pidlin, is clear of ice
+the whole summer.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;7. Urtridlin from Kolyutschin said that neither at that island
+nor in Kolyutschin Bay is there any ice in summer.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;8. Ranau, from Yinretlen, also said that Kolyutschin Bay is
+always open in summer.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;9. Ettiu, from the village Nettej, between Irgunnuk and
+Behring's Straits, stated that the sea at Nettej is open in
+summer, independently of the wind, in winter only when the
+wind is southerly.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;10. Vankatte, from Nettej, stated that the sea there becomes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page13" id="v2page13"></a>[ pg 13 ]</span>
+open during the month &quot;Tautinyadlin,&quot; that is, the latter part
+of May and the beginning of June, and is again covered with
+ice during the month &quot;Kutscshkau,&quot; or October and November.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;11. Kepljeplja, from the village Irgunnuk, lying five English
+miles east of the <i>Vega's</i> winter quarters at Pitlekaj, said that
+the sea off these villages is open all summer, except when
+northerly winds prevail. On the other hand, he said that
+farther westward, as at Irkaipij, ice could nearly always be seen
+from the land.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;12. Kapatljin, from Kingetschkun, a village between Irgunnuk
+and Behring's Straits, stated on the 11th January that
+there was then open water at that village. He said further,
+that Behring's Straits in winter are filled with ice when the
+wind is southerly, but open when the wind is northerly. The
+same day a Chukch from Nettej-Kengitschkau, also between
+Irgunnuk and Behring's Straits, stated that ice then lay off
+that village. He confirmed Kapatljin's statement regarding
+Behring's Straits.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;13. Kvano, from Uedlje, near Behring's Straits, said that
+there the sea is always open from May to the end of
+September.&quot;</p>
+
+<p class="tb">On the 13th March we came to know that spirits, too, form
+an article of commerce here. For, without having obtained any
+liquor from the <i>Vega</i>, the Chukches at Yinretlen had the means
+of indulging in a general fuddle, and that even their friendly
+disposition gives way under the effects of the intoxication we
+had a manifest proof, when the day after they came on board
+with blue and yellow eyes, not a little seedy and ashamed. In
+autumn a tall and stout Chukch giantess, who then paid us
+a visit, informed us that her husband had been murdered in a
+drunken quarrel.</p>
+
+<p>Sledges of considerable size, drawn by reindeer, began after
+the middle of March to pass the <i>Vega</i> in pretty large numbers.
+They were laden with reindeer skins and goods bought at the
+Russian market-places, and intended for barter at Behring's
+Straits.</p>
+
+<p>The reindeer Chukches are better clothed, and appear to be
+in better circumstances and more independent than the coast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page14" id="v2page14"></a>[ pg 14 ]</span>
+Chukches, or, as they ought to be called in correspondence with
+the former name, the dog Chukches. As every one owns a
+reindeer herd, all must follow the nomad mode of living, but at
+the same time they carry on traffic between the savages in the
+northernmost parts of America and the Russian fur-dealers in
+Siberia, and many pass their whole lives in commercial journeys.
+The principal market is held annually during the mouth of
+March, on an island in the river Little Anjui, 250 versts from
+Nischni Kolymsk. The barter goes on in accordance with a
+normal price-list, mutually agreed upon by the Russian merchants
+and the oldest of the Chukches. The market is inaugurated
+on the part of the Russians by a mass performed by
+the priest,<a name="v2rn260"></a><a href="#v2fn260">[260]</a> who always accompanies the Russian crown commissioner,
+and in the Chukches' camp with buffoonery by one of
+the Chukch Shamans. At such a market there is said to be
+considerable confusion, to judge by the spirited description which
+Wrangel gives of it (<i>Reise</i>, i. p. 269). We ought, however, to
+remember that this description refers to the customs that prevailed
+sixty years ago. Now, perhaps, there is a great change
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page15" id="v2page15"></a>[ pg 15 ]</span>
+there. In the commercial relations in north-eastern Asia in the
+beginning of this century, we have probably a faithful picture
+of the commerce of the Beormas in former days in north-eastern
+Europe. Even the goods were probably of the same
+sort at both places, perhaps, also, the stand-points of the culture
+of the two races.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the traders, a large number of Chukches from Kolyutschin
+Island and other villages to the west, travelled past us
+with empty sledges, to which were harnessed only a few dogs.
+They returned in the course of a few days with their sledges
+fully laden with fish which they said they had caught in a
+lagoon situated to the eastward. They also sometimes sold a
+delicious variety of the Coregonus taken in a lake in the
+interior some distance from the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Further on in winter a number of excursions were undertaken
+in different directions, partly to find out these fishing
+places, partly to get an idea of the mode of life of the reindeer
+Chukches. I, however, never ventured to give permission for
+any long absence from the vessel, because I was quite convinced
+that the sea round the <i>Vega</i> after a few days' constant southerly
+storm might become open under circumstances which would not
+permit us to remain in the open road where we lay moored,
+my comrades' desire to penetrate far into the Chukch peninsula
+could not on that account be satisfied. But short as these
+excursions were, they give us, however, much information regarding
+our winter life, and our contact with the little-known
+tribe, on the coast of whose homeland the <i>Vega</i> had been beset,
+and on that account, perhaps, there may be reasons for making
+extracts from some of the reports given in to me with reference
+to these journeys.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palander's and Kjellman's excursion to a reindeer Chukch camp
+south-west of Pitlekaj</i>, is sketched by the former thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 17th March, 1879, accompanied by Dr. Kjellman, I
+went out with a sledge and five men, among them a native as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page16" id="v2page16"></a>[ pg 16 ]</span>
+guide, to the reindeer Chukch camp in the neighbourhood of
+Taffelberg (Table Mountain), with a view to obtain fresh reindeer
+flesh. The expedition was fitted out with two days' provisions,
+tent, mattrasses, and <i>pesks</i>. The reindeer Chukches were
+met with eleven English miles from the vessel. On an eminence
+here were found two tents, of which one at the time was uninhabited.
+The other was occupied by the Chukch, Rotschitlen,
+his young wife, and another young pair, the latter, if I understood
+them right, being on a visit, and properly having their
+home at Irgunnuk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p030.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p030.png" alt="MAP OF THE REGION ROUND THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS." ></a>
+MAP OF THE REGION ROUND THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS.
+<br>Mainly after G. Bove.
+<br>1. Rotschitlen's tent 2. Yettugin's tent.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Round the tent, which was considerably smaller than those we
+daily saw at the coast, lay a number of sledges piled up on one
+another. These sledges differed from the common dog-sledges
+in being considerably larger and wider in the gauge. The
+runners were clumsy and axed from large wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page17" id="v2page17"></a>[ pg 17 ]</span></p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Our proposal to purchase reindeer was immediately declined,
+although we offered in exchange bread, tobacco, rum, and even
+guns. As a reason for this refusal they stated that the reindeer
+at this season of the year are too lean to be slaughtered. We
+saw about fifty reindeer pasturing on an eminence at a distance
+of several thousand feet from us.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;In the afternoon Kjellman and I were invited into the tent,
+where we passed an hour in their sleeping chamber. On our
+entrance the lamp, which was filled with seal oil, was lighted,
+a sort of moss (sphagnum) was used as a wick. Our hostess
+endeavoured to make our stay in the tent as agreeable
+as possible, she rolled together reindeer skins for pillows
+and made ready for us a place where, stretched at full length,
+we might enjoy much needed repose. In the outer tent
+the other women prepared supper, which consisted of boiled
+seal's-flesh. We received a friendly invitation to share their
+meal, but as we had no taste for seal's-flesh, we declined their
+offer under the pretext that we had just had dinner. They
+took their meal lying with the body in the inner tent, but with
+the head under the reindeer-skin curtain in the outer, where the
+food was. After the meal was partaken of, their heads were
+drawn within the curtain, our host divested himself of all his
+clothes, the trousers excepted, which were allowed to remain.
+Our hostess let her <i>pesk</i> fall down from her shoulders, so that the
+whole upper part of the body thus became bare. The reindeer-skin
+boots were taken off, and turned outside in, they were
+carefully dried and hung up in the roof over the lamp to dry
+during the night. We treated the women to some sugar, which,
+in consequence of their want of acquaintance with it, they at
+first examined with a certain caution, finding afterwards that it
+tasted exceeding well. After the meal our host appeared to
+become sleepy, we accordingly said good-night, and went to our
+own tent, where it was quite otherwise than warm, the
+temperature during the night being about -11&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After for the most part a sleepless night, we rose at half-past
+six next morning. When we came out of the tent we saw all
+the reindeer advancing in a compact troop. At the head was an
+old reindeer with large horns, that went forward to his master,
+who had in the meantime gone to meet the herd, and bade him
+good-morning by gently rubbing his nose against his master's
+hands. While this was going on the other reindeer stood
+drawn up in well-ordered ranks, like the crew in divisions on
+board a man-of-war. The owner then went forward and saluted
+every reindeer, they were allowed to stroke his hands with their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page18" id="v2page18"></a>[ pg 18 ]</span>
+noses. He on his part took every reindeer by the horn and
+examined it in the most careful way. After the inspection was
+ended at a sign given by the master the whole herd wheeled
+round and returned in closed ranks, with the old reindeer in
+front, to the previous day's pasture.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The whole scene made a very favourable impression on us, it
+was not the grim hard savage showing in a coarse and barbarous
+way his superiority over the animals, but the good master
+treating his inferiors kindly, and having a friendly word for
+each of them. Here good relations prevailed between man and
+the animals. Rotschitlen himself was a stately young man,
+with an intelligent appearance and a supple handsome figure.
+His dress, of exceedingly good cut and of uncommonly fine
+reindeer skin, sat close to his well-grown frame, and gave us an
+opportunity of seeing his graceful and noble bearing, which was
+most observable when he was in motion.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On our repeating our proposal to purchase reindeer we again
+met with a refusal, on which we struck our tent and commenced
+our return journey. We came on board on the 18th March
+at 3 o'clock P.M., after a march of four hours and three-quarters.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The way to the reindeer camp rose and fell gently. The
+snow was hard and even, so that we could go forward rapidly.
+On the way out four foxes and some ravens were seen. At one
+place we found a large number of lemming passages excavated
+through the snow in an oblique direction towards the ground.
+Most of them were scratched up by foxes. The descent to an
+untouched lemming nest was cylindrical, and four and a half
+centimetres in diameter. During both days we had snow, and a
+thick and foggy atmosphere, so that we could see only a short
+distance before us, we did not however go astray, thanks to the
+good eyes and strongly developed sense of locality of our guide,
+the native&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Brusewitz's and Nordquist's Excursion to Nutschoitjin</i></p>
+
+<p>Of this Nordquist gives the following account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 20th March, at 9 o'clock A.M. Lieut Brusewitz,
+boatswain Lustig, the Norwegian hunters Johnsen and Sievertsen,
+the Chukch Notti, and I, left the <i>Vega</i>. Our equipment, which
+consisted of provisions for eight days, cooking apparatus, canvas
+tent, india-rubber mattrasses, reindeer-skin <i>pesks</i>, &amp;c., we drew
+after us on a sledge. At 2.45 P.M. we came to Nutschoitjin
+(Coregonus Lake). During our journey we passed a river
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page19" id="v2page19"></a>[ pg 19 ]</span>
+which flows between Nutschoitjin and the mountain Hotschkeanranga,
+about ten English miles south of this lake and falls
+into the great lagoon south of Prtlekaj. Farther into the
+interior this river, according to Notti's statement, flows through
+several lakes: he also informed us that in summer it abounds
+very much in salmon (<i>lienne</i>). Some sandy hills formed the
+watershed between it and Nutschoitjin. The only animal we
+saw during our outward journey was a fox. On the other hand
+we found traces of hares, ptarmigan, and a couple of lemmings.
+After we had found a suitable camping-place, we began to build
+a snow-house, which, however, we could not get ready till
+next day.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 21st Brusewitz and I went out to view our nearest
+surroundings. On a hill north of the lake, where Potentilla,
+Carex, and Poa stuck up through the snow-covering, we saw a
+large number of traces of the fox, the hare, and the ptarmigan.
+We employed the 22nd in cutting some holes in the ice, which
+was about one and a half metres thick, and in setting a net. For
+I wished to ascertain what species of Coregonus it is which,
+according to Notti's statement, occurs in abundance in this lake.
+At the place where the net was set there was something more
+than a metre of water under the ice The bottom consisted of
+mud. When we cut a hole in the middle of the lake in order to
+get deeper water we found that the ice, one and a half metres
+thick there, reached to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Next morning we got in the net eleven Coregoni, of which
+the largest were about thirty-five centimetres long. Although
+the weather was grey and we could not see very far, we went the
+same day to the hill Hotschkeanranga; partly to determine its
+height, and partly from its summit, which is visible for a great
+distance, to get a view of the appearance of the surrounding
+country. After crossing the river which flows between Nutschoitjin
+and Hotchkeanranga, we began to ascend the long slope
+on whose summit Hotchkanrakenljeut (Hotchkeanranga's head)
+rises with steep sides above the surrounding country. Over the
+slope were scattered loose blocks of stone of an eruptive rock.
+The crest of &quot;the head&quot; was also closely covered with loose
+stones. On the north of wind side these stones were covered
+with a hard beaten crust of snow nearly two feet thick, on the
+south side most of them were bare. According to Brusewitz the
+southern slopes are still steeper than the northern. South of
+the hill he saw a large valley&mdash;probably a lake&mdash;through which
+flows the river which we crossed.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;As on the outward journey I went with Notti, he advised me
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page20" id="v2page20"></a>[ pg 20 ]</span>
+to offer a little food and brandy to the Spirit of the Lake,
+<i>itjaken kamak</i>, in order to get good net fishing. On my inquiring
+what appearance he had, Notti replied &quot;<i>uinga lilapen</i>,&quot; &quot;I have
+never seen him.&quot; Besides this spirit there are in his view others
+also in streams, in the earth, and in some mountains. The
+Chukches also sacrifice to the sun and moon. On the other
+hand they do not appear, as some other races, to pay any sort of
+worship to their departed friends. When I gave him a biscuit
+and bade him offer it, he made with the heel a little depression
+in the snow on Nutschoitjin, crumbled a little bit of the biscuit
+in pieces, and threw the crumbs into the hollow. The rest of
+the biscuit he gave back, declaring that <i>kamak</i> did not require
+more, and that we should now have more fish in the net than
+the first time. Notti said also that the Chukches are wont to
+sacrifice something for every catch. Thus have probably arisen
+all the collections of bear and seal skulls and reindeer horns,
+which we often saw on the Chukch coast, especially on
+eminences.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After we had read off the aneroid, we speedily made our way
+to the snow-house, because during the interval a violent storm of
+drifting snow had arisen, so that we could not see more than
+half a score of paces before us. On the slope below &quot;the head&quot;
+we had already on our way thither seen traces of two wild
+reindeer. Notti said that there are a few of them on the hill
+the whole winter. The greater number, however, draw farther
+southward, and approach the coast only during summer. Johnson
+had wounded an owl (<i>Strix nyctea</i>), which however made its
+escape. On the 24th snow fell and drifted during the whole
+day, so that we could not go out to shoot. On the 25th we
+came on board again.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;According to the aneroid observations made during the
+journey, the highest summit we visited had a height of 197
+metres.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Lieutenant Bove's Account of an Excursion to Najtskaj and
+Tjapka</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 19th April, at 4 o'clock A.M. the hunter Johnsen
+and I started on a short excursion eastward along the coast,
+with a view to pay a visit to the much frequented fishing
+station Najtskaj, where our old friends from Pitlekaj had settled.
+We had a little sledge which we ourselves drew, and which was
+laden with provisions for three days and some meteorological
+and hydrographical instruments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page21" id="v2page21"></a>[ pg 21 ]</span></p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;At 6 o'clock A.M. we reached Rirajtinop, where we found
+Notti, a serviceable, talented, and agreeable youth. The village
+Rirajtinop, which formerly consisted of a great many tents, now
+had only one tent, Notti's, and it was poor enough. It gave the
+inhabitants only a slight protection against wind and cold.
+Among household articles in the tent I noticed a face-mask of
+wood, less shapeless than those which according to Whymper's
+drawings are found among the natives along the river Youcon,
+in the territory of Alaska, and according to Dr. Simpson among
+the West-Eskimo. I learned afterwards that this mask came
+from P&auml;k, Behring's Straits, whither it was probably carried
+from the opposite American shore.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p035.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p035.png" alt="THE SLEEPING CHAMBER IN A CHUKCH TENT." ></a>
+THE SLEEPING CHAMBER IN A CHUKCH TENT.
+<br>(After a drawing by the seaman Hansson.)
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The village Irgunnuk lies from three to four hundred metres
+from Rirajtinop, and consists of five tents, one of which two days
+before had been removed from Yinretlen. The tents are as
+usual placed on earthy eminences, and have if possible the entrance
+a couple of paces from some steep escarpment, manifestly
+in order that the door opening may not be too much obstructed
+with snow. I reckon the population of Irgunnuk at forty persons.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Off this village the ice is broken up even close to the land
+into <i>torosses</i>, five to six metres high, which form a chain which
+closely follows the shore for a distance of five to six hundred
+metres to the eastward. The coast from Irgunnuk to Najtskaj
+runs in a straight line, is low, and only now and then interrupted
+by small earthy eminences, which all bear traces of old dwellings.
+Each of these heights has its special name: first Uelkantinop,
+then Tiumgatti, and lastly Tiungo, two miles west of Najtskaj.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page22" id="v2page22"></a>[ pg 22 ]</span>
+In the neighbourhood of Uelkantinop we were overtaken by a
+reindeer-Chukch, who accompanied us to Najtskaj in order
+there to purchase fish and seal-blubber. At noon we reached
+Najtskaj, where our arrival had been announced by a native,
+who, with his dog-team, had driven past us on the way. Accordingly
+on our entrance we were surrounded by the youth of
+the village, who deafened us with then unceasing cries for
+bread (<i>kauka</i>), tobacco, <i>ram</i>, &amp;c. After some moments the
+begging urchins were joined both by women and full-grown men.
+We entered a tent, which belonged to a friend or perhaps
+relation of Notti. There we were very well received. In the
+same tent the reindeer-Chukch also lodged who had given us his
+company on the way. He went into the sleeping chamber, threw
+himself down there, took part in the family's evening meal, all
+almost without uttering a word to the hostess, and the next morning
+he started without having saluted the host. Hospitality is here
+of a peculiar kind. It may perhaps be expressed thus <i>To-day I
+eat and sleep in your tent, to-morrow you eat and sleep in mine</i>;
+and accordingly, as far as I saw, all, both rich and poor, both those
+who travelled with large sledges, and those who walked on foot,
+were received in the same way. All are sure to find a corner in
+the tent-chamber.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p036.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p036.png" alt="CHUKCH LAMPS." ></a>
+CHUKCH LAMPS.
+<br><i>a</i>. Wooden cup to place under the lamp.  <i>b</i>. Lamp of burned clay.
+<br>One-fifth of the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The tent-chamber, or <i>yaranga</i>, as this part of the tent is
+called by the natives, takes up fully a third-part of the whole
+tent, and is at the same time work-room, dining-room, and
+sleeping chamber. Its form is that of a parallelepiped; and a
+moderately large sleeping chamber has a height of 1.80 metre,
+a length of 3.50, and a breadth of 2.20 metres. The walls are
+formed of reindeer skin with the hair inwards, which are
+supported by a framework of posts and cross-bars. The floor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page23" id="v2page23"></a>[ pg 23 ]</span>
+consists of a layer of grass undermost, on which a walrus skin is
+spread. The grass and the skin do not form a very soft bed,
+yet one on which even a tried European wanderer may find
+rest. The interior of the sleeping-chamber is lighted and
+warmed by lamps, whose number varies according to the size of
+the room. A moderately large chamber has three lamps, the
+largest right opposite the entrance, the two others on the cross
+walls. The lamps are often made of a sort of stone, which is
+called by the natives <i>ukulschi</i>. They have the form of a large
+ladle. The fuel consists of train-oil, and moss is used for the
+wick. These lamps besides require constant attention, because
+half-an-hour's neglect is sufficient to make them smoke or go
+out. The flame is at one corner of the lamp, whose moss wick
+is trimmed with a piece of wood of the shape shown in the
+drawing. The lamp rests on a foot, and it in its turn in a basin.
+In this way every drop of oil that may be possibly spilled is
+collected. If there is anything that this people ought to save, it
+is certainly oil, for this signifies to them both light and heat.
+In the roof of the bedchamber some bars are fixed over the
+lamps on which clothes and shoes are hung to dry. The lamps
+are kept alight the whole day, during night they are commonly
+extinguished, as otherwise they would require continual
+attention. Some clothes and fishing implements, two or three
+reindeer skins to rest upon&mdash;these are the whole furniture of a
+Chukch tent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p037.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p037.png" alt="SECTION OF A CHUKCH LAMP." ></a>
+SECTION OF A CHUKCH LAMP.
+<br>(After a drawing by G. Bove.)
+</div>
+
+<p><i>a</i>. The oil. <i>b</i>. The wick. <i>c</i>. The foot. <i>d</i>. The basin under it.
+<i>e</i>. Stick for trimming the wick.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Every tent is besides provided with some drums (<i>y&aacute;rar</i>).
+These are made of a wooden ring, about seventy centimetres in
+diameter, on which is stretched a skin of seal or walrus gut.
+The drum is beaten with a light stick of whalebone. The
+sound thus produced is melancholy, and is so in a yet higher
+degree when it is accompanied by the natives' monotonous,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page24" id="v2page24"></a>[ pg 24 ]</span>
+commonly rhythmical songs, which appear to me to have a strong
+resemblance to those we hear in Japan and China. A still
+greater resemblance I thought I observed in the dances of these
+peoples. Notti is a splendid <i>y&aacute;rar</i>-player. After some pressing
+he played several of their songs with a feeling for which I had
+not given him credit. The auditors were numerous, and by their
+smiles and merry eyes one could see that they were transported
+by the sounds which Notti knew how to call from the drum.
+Notti was also listened to in deep silence, with an admiration
+like that with which in a large room we listen to a distinguished
+pianist. I saw in the tent no other musical instrument than
+that just mentioned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v2p038.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p038.png" alt="CHUKCH SHAMAN DRUM." ></a>
+CHUKCH SHAMAN DRUM.
+<br>One eighth the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The day we arrived at Najtskaj we
+employed in viewing the neighbourhood
+of the village. We accordingly ascended
+a hill about thirty metres high to the
+south of the village in order to get a
+clear idea of the region. From the
+summit of the hill we had a view of the
+two lagoons west and east of Najtskaj.
+The western appeared, with the exception
+of some earthy heights, to
+embrace the whole stretch of coast
+between Najtskaj, the hill at Yinretlen,
+and the mountains which are visible
+in the south from the Observatory.
+The lagoon east of Najtskaj is separated
+from the sea by a high rampart of sand,
+and extends about thirty kilometres into
+the interior, to the foot of the chain of
+hills which runs along there. To the eastward
+the lagoon extends along the coast
+to the neighbourhood of Serdze Kamen.
+This cape was clearly seen and, according to an estimate which I
+do not think was far from the truth, was situated at a distance of
+from twenty-five to twenty-six kilometres from Najtskaj. It
+sinks terracewise towards the sea, and its sides are covered
+with stone pillars, like those we saw in the neighbourhood of Cape
+Great Baranoff. Serdze Kamen to the south is connected with
+mountain heights which are the higher the farther they are
+from the sea. Some of these have a conical form, others are
+table-shaped, reminding us of the Ambas of Abyssinia. Ten or
+twelve miles into the interior they appear to reach a height of
+six hundred to nine hundred metres.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page25" id="v2page25"></a>[ pg 25 ]</span></p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The fishing in the eastern lagoon takes place mainly in
+the neighbourhood of Najtskaj, at a distance of about five
+kilometres from the village. Hooks are exclusively used, and
+no nets or other fishing implements. In a few minutes I saw
+twenty cod (<i>urokadlin</i>) caught, and about as many small fish,
+called by the natives <i>nukionukio</i>. For the fishing the natives
+make a hole in the ice, a decimetre in diameter. Round the
+hole they build, as a protection against wind and drifting snow,
+a snow wall eighty centimetres high, forming a circle with an
+inner diameter of a metre and a half. The fish-hooks are of
+iron and are not barbed. The line is about five metres long,
+To the west Idlidlja Island, in the background the village Tjapka, to the right the great lagoon.
+(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.)</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">and is fixed to a rod nearly a metre in length. At the end of
+the angling line hangs a weight of bone, and beside it the hook.
+It is generally the women who fish, yet there are generally two
+or three men about to open the holes, build the walls, and keep
+the fishing-places clear. All the holes with their shelter-walls
+lie in an arc, about a kilometre in length, whose convex side is
+turned to the east. The ice in the lagoon was 1.7 metre thick,
+the water 3.2 metres deep, and the thickness of snow on the
+ice 0.3 metre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p039.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p039.png" alt="THE COAST BETWEEN PADLJONNA AND ENJURMI." ></a>
+THE COAST BETWEEN PADLJONNA AND ENJURMI.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The day after our arrival at Najtskaj we visited the village
+Tjapka, which lies at a distance of six kilometres. This village
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page26" id="v2page26"></a>[ pg 26 ]</span>
+contains thirteen tents, some of which are more roomy and
+better built than any Chukch tent I have previously seen.
+We lodged in a tent which belonged to Erere, a friendly man
+with a face that was always cheerful. His sleeping-chamber
+was so large that it could hold more than one family. We
+found the inmates there completely naked, Erere's wife,
+Kedlanga, not excepted. Kedlanga was well formed, her
+bosom full, her stomach somewhat projecting, the thighs poor,
+the legs slender, the feet small. The men appeared to have
+a greater disposition to stoutness than the women. Some of the
+children had disproportionately large stomachs. Both men and
+women wore copper rings on the legs, the wrists, and the upper
+arms. On festivals they decorate themselves with iron rings,
+with which some reminiscence appears to be connected, to judge
+by the fact that they will not part with them.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Erere's family was very numerous, according to the prevailing
+state of matters here. He had five children, whose names,
+according to their age, were, Hatanga, Etughi, Vedlat, Uai, and
+Umonga. In all the tents which
+I visited I have inquired the
+number of children. Only two
+or three wives had more than
+three; the average may be estimated at two.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v2p040.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p040.png" alt="BRACELET OF COPPER." ></a>
+BRACELET OF COPPER.
+<br>Half the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The children are from their
+tenderest years set apart for
+each other, thus Etughi, Erere's second son, who was little
+more than eight, was set apart for Keipteka, a girl of six or
+seven. Etughi and Keipteka slept under the same roof, though
+apart. &quot;When they grow bigger,&quot; said Erere to me, &quot;then
+sleeping-places will be put alongside each other&quot;. At what
+age this takes place I have not ascertained, but I suppose that
+it is very early, as is common with all Oriental races.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Right opposite Tjapka lies a small island, by the natives
+called Idlidlja, which is about 800 metres in circumference. Its
+shores rise perpendicularly on all sides except that which is
+opposite Tjapka, in which direction it sinks with a steep slope.
+On the north end of it we found three or four whales' bones
+and some pieces of driftwood, but nothing to indicate that
+there had been any Onkilon dwellings there. The island
+swarmed with hares, which the inhabitants of Tjapka hunt with
+the bow. For this hunting they are accustomed to build
+circular walls of snow, pierced with loopholes, through which
+they shoot the unsuspecting animals.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote"><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page27" id="v2page27"></a>[ pg 27 ]</span>
+&quot;Regarding life in the tent I have still the following notes.
+The most troublesome work is given to the older women. They
+rise early to light and attend to the lamps, yoke the dogs, and
+go fishing. The young women, on the other hand, sleep far
+into the day. The housewives return at noon, then work is
+then finished, if we do not consider as work the constant motion
+of the tongue in talk and gossip. The younger people have it
+assigned to them to sew clothes, arrange the fishing-lines and
+nets, prepare skins, &amp;c. Sewing-thread is made from the back
+sinews of the reindeer, which they procure by barter from the
+reindeer-Chukches, giving for them fish and seal-blubber.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p041.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p041.png" alt="The north end of Idlidlja Island." ></a>
+The north end of Idlidlja Island.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.)
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;One cannot, without having seen it, form any idea of the
+large quantity of food they can consume. One evening I saw
+eight persons, including one child, eat about 30 lbs. of food.
+The bill of fare was: 1, raw fish; 2, soup; 3, boiled fish;
+4, seal-blubber; 5, seal-flesh. The raw fish commonly consists
+of frozen cod. The soup is made partly of vegetables, partly of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page28" id="v2page28"></a>[ pg 28 ]</span>
+seal-blood; I saw both kinds. Vegetable soup was prepared by
+boiling equal quantities of water and vegetables, till the mixture
+formed a thick pap. The blood soup is cooked by boiling the
+blood together with water, fish, and fat. They are very fond of
+this soup. The seal-blubber they eat by stuffing into the mouth
+the piece which has been served to them, and then cutting a
+suitable mouthful with the knife, which they bring close to the
+lips. In the same way they do with the flesh.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;With the exception of the old women's gossip the greatest
+quietness prevails in the sleeping-chamber. It is not uncommon
+for men to visit each other. Thus the first night we spent
+at Najtskaj the tent where we lodged was full of people, but
+without the least disturbance arising. If one had anything to
+say he talked in quite a low tone, as if he were shy. He was
+listened to attentively, without any interruption. First when he
+had finished another began.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Affection between spouses and parents and children is
+particularly strong. I have seen fathers kiss and caress their
+children before they went to rest, and what I found most
+remarkable was that the children never abused this tender
+treatment. Whatever one gave them, it was their first thought
+to divide it with their parents. In this respect and in many
+others they were far in advance of a large number of European
+children.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><i>Lieutenant Bove's Report on an Excursion along with Dr.
+Almquist to the Interior of the Chukch Peninsula, from the
+13th to the 17th June, 1879</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;We started from the vessel on the morning of the 13th June
+with a view to penetrate as far as possible into the interior of
+the Chukch peninsula. For the journey we had hired, for a
+liberal payment, two sledges drawn by dogs from Rotschitlen, a
+Chukch at Irgunnuk. The dogs and sledges surpassed our
+expectation. In fourteen hours we traversed a distance of
+nearly forty minutes, including bends, which corresponds to a
+speed of three, perhaps four, English miles an hour, if we deduct
+the rests which were caused by the objects of the journey&mdash;scientific
+researches. This speed strikes me as not inconsiderable,
+if we consider the weight which the dogs must draw, and
+the badness and unevenness of the way. For the ground was
+undulating, like a sea agitated by a storm. But pleased as we
+were with our sledges and dogs, we were as dissatisfied with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page29" id="v2page29"></a>[ pg 29 ]</span>
+Rotschitlen, a faint-hearted youth, without activity or experience.
+With another driver we might have been able in a few days to
+penetrate as far as the bottom of Kolyutschin Bay, which differs
+greatly in its form, from that which Russian, English, and
+German maps give to it. It is not improbable that it is almost
+connected by lakes, lagoons, and rivers with St. Lawrence Bay or
+Metschigme Bay, whose inner parts are not yet investigated.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After we left the lagoons at Pitlekaj and Yinretlen, the coast
+began gradually to rise by escarpments, each about five metres
+in height. The plains between the escarpments are full of
+lagoons or marshes. Such a terrain continued until, about five
+hours' way from the vessel, we came to a height of twenty-seven
+metres. From this point the terrace-formations cease, and the
+terrain then consists of a large number of ranges of heights,
+intersected by rivulets, which during the snow-melting season
+must be very much flooded. Seven or eight hours' way from
+the vessel we met with such a rivulet, which farther to the
+S.S.E. unites with another which runs between two rocky
+escarpments twenty metres high. On one of these we pitched
+our tent, in order to draw and examine some hills which were
+already divested of the winter dress they had worn for nine long
+months. On the top of one of the hills we found marks of two
+recently-struck tents, which probably belonged to a reindeer
+Chukch, who had now settled halfway between Pitlekaj and
+Table Mount upon a chain of heights which appears to separate
+the Irgunnuk lagoon from the rocky eastern shore of Kolyutschin
+Bay. At our resting place we found a large number of reindeer
+horns and a heap of broken bones.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After resuming our journey we came in a short time to the
+foot of Table Mount, whose height I reckoned at 180 metres.
+It slopes gently to the west and south (about 10&deg;), but more
+steeply to the east and north (about 15&deg;). The animal world
+there showed great activity. In less than an hour we saw more
+than a dozen foxes that ran up and down the hills and circled
+round us, as if they ran with a line. Fortunately for them they
+kept at a respectful distance from our doctor's sure gun.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the other side of Table Mount the ground sinks regularly
+towards Kolyutschin Bay. Here for a while we sought in vain
+for Yettugin's tent, in which we intended to pass the night, and
+which had been fixed upon as the starting-point of future
+excursions, till at last reindeer traces and afterwards the sight of
+some of these friendly animals brought us to the right way, so
+that about 9 o'clock P.M. we got sight of the longed-for dwelling
+in the middle of a snow-desert. At the word <i>yaranga</i> (tent)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page30" id="v2page30"></a>[ pg 30 ]</span>
+the dogs pointed their ears, uttered a bark of joy, and ran at full
+speed towards the goal. We arrived at 10.30 P.M. In the tent
+we were hospitably received by its mistress, who immediately
+made the necessary preparations for our obtaining food and
+rest. Yettugin himself was not at home, but he soon returned
+with a sledge drawn by reindeer. These animals had scarcely
+been unharnessed when they ran back to the herd, which
+according to Yettugin's statement was six kilometres east of
+the tent.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;I have never seen a family so afflicted with ailments as
+Yettugin's. The sexagenarian father united in himself almost
+all the bodily ailments which could fall to the lot of a mortal.
+He was blind, leprous (?), and had no use of the left hand, the
+right side of the face, and probably of the legs. His body was
+nearly everywhere covered with the scars of old sores from four
+to five centimetres in diameter. As Dr. Almquist and I were
+compelled to pass the night in the same confined sleeping-chamber
+with him, it was therefore not to be wondered at that
+we drew ourselves as much as possible into our corner. The
+sleeping-chamber or inner tent of a reindeer-Chukch is besides
+much more habitable than that of a coast-Chukch, the air, if
+not exactly pure, may at least be breathed, and the thick layer
+of reindeer skins which covers the tent floor may well compare
+in softness with our beds on board. Yettugin, his wife
+Tengaech, and his brother Keuto, slept out of doors in order
+to give us more room and not to disturb us when rising.
+Keuto had inherited no small portion of his father's calamity.
+He was deaf, half idiotic, and on his body there were already
+traces of such spots as on the old man's. Keuto was however an
+obliging youth, who during our stay in the tent did all that he
+could to be of use to us, and constantly wandered about to get
+buds and plants for us. He was a skilful archer; I saw him at a
+distance of twenty or twenty-five paces kill a small bird with a
+blunt arrow, and when I placed myself as a target he hit me right
+in the middle of the breast at a distance of perhaps thirty metres.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The 14th was employed by me in astronomical and
+geodetical observations, and by Dr. Almquist in excursions in
+the neighbourhood of Yettugin's tent in order to investigate the
+fauna and flora of the neighbourhood. About 10 o'clock P.M.
+he returned, quite exhausted after eight hours' walking in deep
+water-drenched snow under a perceptible solar heat. The
+results of the excursion were in all respects exceedingly good,
+not only in consequence of a number of <i>finds</i> in natural history,
+but also through the discovery that the shore of Kolyutschin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page31" id="v2page31"></a>[ pg 31 ]</span>
+Bay runs three-quarters of a mile south-west of Yettugin's tent,
+which was situated in 66&deg; 42' 4&quot; North Lat, and 186&deg; 24' 0&quot;
+Long, east from Greenwich. Dr. Almquist had walked four or five
+miles along the eastern shore of the bay, which at most places is
+perpendicular with a height of fifteen metres. In consequence
+of this discovery we determined to continue our hydrographical
+observations as far as the bottom of the bay, which, according to
+Yettugin's account, was two days' march from the tent. But we
+could not carry out our plan in consequence of our guide's
+laziness, for he declared that on no conditions would he
+accompany us farther. Neither entreaties nor threats availed
+to disturb this his resolution. I endeavoured myself to drive
+the sledges, but the dogs would not move out of the spot,
+though, following Rotschitlen's system, I thrashed them very
+soundly.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The place where Yettugin's tent was pitched offered us a
+view of an extensive snow-plain, which was enclosed on all sides
+by high hills. In the north and north-east Table Mount and
+the Tenen hill keep off the north winds, and to the south the
+encampment is protected by a long and high mountain chain
+from the winds coming from that quarter. I calculated the
+height of some of the mountains at from 1200 to 1500 metres,
+and their azure-blue colour furrowed by dark lines appeals to
+me to indicate the presence of ice on the slopes. One of the
+summits of this mountain chain was easily recognisable. It was
+a truncated cone, perhaps 1500 metres high. Kolyutschin Bay
+lies between these mountains and Yettugin's tent. Its western
+shore also appears to rise perpendicularly from the sea, and it is
+higher than the eastern. The bay, which appears to be much
+larger than it is represented on the maps, was covered with level
+ice, only here and there a piece of ice covered with snow was
+seen sticking up.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;As we were forced to desist from visiting the interior of Kolyutschin
+Bay, we determined to go to the ground where Yettugin's
+reindeer pastured. We therefore left the tent on the evening
+of the 15th and travelled E.N.E. The warmth, which had now
+commenced, began to make travelling over snow fields difficult,
+the dogs sank to the stomach, and not unfrequently we had to
+alight in order to help the poor animals to climb the hills we were
+obliged to ascend. Scarcely however had they come to the
+reindeer tracks before even the most exhausted of them rushed
+along at the top of their speed, which might be pleasant
+enough uphill, but when they were coming down it was very
+dangerous, because the slope nearly always ends with a steep
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page32" id="v2page32"></a>[ pg 32 ]</span>
+escarpment. We came once, without observing it, to the edge of
+such a precipice, and if we had not succeeded in time in slackening
+our speed a nice confused mass of men, dogs, and sledges would
+have tumbled over it. In order to excite their draught animals
+the Chukches avail themselves of their dogs' inclination to run
+after the reindeer, and during their journeys they endeavour to
+spur them on yet more by now and then imitating the reindeer's
+cry. After two or three hours travelling we fell in with the
+first reindeer, and then by degrees with more and more, until
+finally about 11 o'clock P.M. we came to a numerous herd,
+tended by Yettugin. I applied to him, asking him to barter a
+reindeer in good condition for a gun which I had brought along
+with me. After various evasions Yettugin at length promised
+to give us next day the reindeer for the gun. He would not
+however himself, or with his own knife, kill the reindeer, on
+which account I requested Dr. Almquist to give it the <i>coup
+de gr&acirc;ce</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;In consequence of the soft state of the snow we were obliged
+to defer the commencement of our return journey to the evening
+of the 16th. We now travelled over the chain of hills which
+unites Table Mount with Tenen, and descended their northern
+steep slope towards an extensive plain, studded for the most
+part with bogs and marshes. The 17th came in with mist and
+considerable warmth. The mist limited the circle of vision to a
+distance of some few metres, and the high temperature in a
+short time destroyed the crust which had been formed in the
+course of the preceding night on the surface of the snow, and
+melted the layers of snow which still covered the northern slopes
+of these two hills. The southern slopes on the other hand were
+almost quite bare, and the valleys began to be filled with water.
+Four or five days as warm as these and I believe there scarcely
+would be any snow remaining round Kolyutschin Bay. The
+illusions caused by the white fog illuminated by the sunlight were
+very astonishing. Every small spot of ground appeared as an
+extensive snow-free field, every tuft of grass as a bush, and a fox
+in our immediate neighbourhood was for a moment taken for a
+gigantic bear. Besides, during such a fog the action of the sunlight
+on the eyes was exceedingly painful even in the case of those who
+carried preservers. During the return Rotschitlen lost his way in
+consequence of the numerous different tracks. Fortunately I
+had observed how we travelled, and could with the help of
+the compass pilot our two small craft to a good haven. On the
+17th of June at 1.30 P.M. we were again in good condition on
+board the <i>Vega</i>.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page33" id="v2page33"></a>[ pg 33 ]</span>
+In the society on board the prospects of an alteration in the
+constant north winds, the perpetual snow-storms and the unceasing
+cold, and the hope of a speedy release from the fetters of
+the ice, were naturally constantly recurring topics of conversation.
+During this time many lively word-battles were fought
+between the weather prophets in the gunroom, and many bets
+made in jest between the optimists and pessimists. The former
+won a great victory, when at noon on the 8th February the
+temperature lose to +0&deg;.1 C., but with the exception of this
+success fortune always went against them. The north wind, the
+drifting snow and the cold, would never cease. A blue water-sky
+indeed was often visible at the horizon to the north and
+north-east, but the &quot;clearing&quot; first reached our vessel a couple
+of hours before we left our winter haven for ever, and up to the
+15th June the thickness of the ice was almost undiminished (1-1/2
+metre) The sun rose higher and higher, but without forming
+any crust upon the snow, although upon the black hull of the
+<i>Vega</i>, perhaps with the help of the heat in the interior, it had
+by the 14th March melted so much snow that small icicles were
+formed at the gunwale. It was one of the many deceptive
+prognostications of spring which were hailed with delight.
+However, immediately after severe cold recommenced and
+continued during the whole of the month of April, during
+which the temperature of the an never rose above -4&deg;6, the
+mean temperature being -18&deg;9.</p>
+
+<p>May began with a temperature of -20&deg;.1. On the 3rd the
+thermometer showed -26&deg;.8, and in the &quot;flower-month&quot; we
+had only for a few hours mild weather with an air temperature
++1&deg;.8. Even the beginning of June was very cold, on the 3rd
+we had -14&deg;.3, with a mean temperature for the twenty-four
+hours of -9&deg;.4. Still on the 13th the thermometer at midnight
+showed -8&deg;.0, but the same day at noon with a gentle southerly
+wind a sudden change took place, and after that date it was
+only exceptionally that the thermometer in the open air sank
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page34" id="v2page34"></a>[ pg 34 ]</span>
+below the freezing-point. The melting and evaporation of snow
+now began, and went on so rapidly that the land in the end of
+the month was almost free of snow.</p>
+
+<p>Under what circumstances this took place is shown by the
+following abstract of the observations of temperature at Pitlekaj
+from the 13th June to the 18th July, 1879:&mdash;
+
+<pre>
+         Max     Min    Mean          Max    Min    Mean
+June 13 +3.6&deg;   -8.0&deg;  -1.95&deg; July 1 +0.8&deg;  -0.6&deg;  +0.07&deg;
+     14 +2.6    +0.2   +1.47       2 +1.1   -1.0   +0.40
+     15 +3.1    +1.7   +2.28       3 +5.0   +1.0   +2.28
+     16 +1.6    -0.6   +0.90       4 +3.8   +1.4   +2.68
+     17 +3.0    +0.2   +1.22       5 +5.2   +2.0   +3.60
+     18 +2.4    -0.6   +1.23       6 +8.6   +1.0   +2.28
+     19 +3.6    +1.4   +2.43       7 +5.0   +1.4   +2.68
+     20 +3.5    +1.7   +2.50       8 +8.6   +0.6   +4.82
+     21 +2.6    +1.5   +2.07       9 +1.8   +0.4   +0.97
+     22 +3.0    +1.5   +2.28      10 +1.4   +0.5   +0.90
+     23 +4.1    +1.8   +3.00      11 +1.4   +0.6   +1.00
+     24 +6.8    +0.9   +3.18      12 +9.0   +0.5   +4.73
+     25 +4.4    +0.4   +2.30      13 +6.5   +3.7   +5.03
+     26 +3.8    +0.6   +1.77      14 +5.4   +1.8   +3.68
+     27 +1.4    +0.7   +1.02      15 +1.6   +0.6   +1.13
+     28 +2.1    +0.2   +0.92      16 +3.0   +0.6   +1.52
+     29 +0.9    -1.0   +0.12      17 +11.5  +8.8   +7.80
+     30 +1.0    -1.8   -0.27      18 +9.2   +6.2   +7.52
+</pre>
+
+<p>The figures in the maximum column, it will be seen, are by
+no means very high. That the enormous covering of snow,
+which the north winds had heaped on the beach, could disappear
+so rapidly notwithstanding this low temperature probably
+depends on this, that a large portion of the heat which the solar
+rays bring with them acts directly in melting the snow without
+sun-warmed air being used as an intermediate agent or heat-carrier,
+partly also on the circumstance that the winds prevailing
+in spring come from the sea to the southward, and before
+they reach the north coast pass over considerable mountain
+heights in the interior of the country. They have therefore the
+nature of <i>f&ouml;hn</i> winds, that is to say, the whole mass of air, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page35" id="v2page35"></a>[ pg 35 ]</span>
+the wind carries with it, is heated, and its relative humidity is
+slight, because a large portion of the water which it originally
+contained has been condensed in passing over the mountain
+heights. Accordingly when the dry <i>f&ouml;hn</i> winds prevail, a considerable
+evaporation of the snow takes place. The slight
+content of watery vapour in the atmosphere diminishes its
+power of absorbing the solar heat, and instead increases that
+portion of it which is found remaining when the sun's rays
+penetrate to the snowdrifts, and there conduce, not to raise the
+temperature, but to convert the snow into water. <a name="v2rn261"></a><a href="#v2fn261">[261]</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">The aurora is, as is well-known, a phenomenon at the same
+time cosmic and terrestrial, which on the one hand is confined
+within the atmosphere of our globe and stands in close connection
+with terrestrial magnetism, and on the other side is
+dependent on certain changes in the envelope of the sun, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page36" id="v2page36"></a>[ pg 36 ]</span>
+nature of which is as yet little known, and which are indicated
+by the formation of spots on the sun; the distinguished Dutch
+physicist, VON BAUMHAUER, has even placed the occurrence of
+the aurora in connection with cosmic substances which fall in
+the form of dust from the interstellar spaces to the surface of
+the earth. Thus splendid natural phenomenon besides plays,
+though unjustifiably, a great <i>r&ocirc;le</i> in imaginative sketches of
+winter life in the high north, and it is in the popular idea so
+connected with the ice and snow of the Polar lands, that most
+of the readers of sketches of Arctic travel would certainly consider
+it an indefensible omission if the author did not give an
+account of the aurora as seen from his winter station. The
+scientific man indeed knows that this neglect has, in most cases,
+been occasioned by the great infrequency of the strongly luminous
+aurora just in the Franklin archipelago on the north coast
+of America, where most of the Arctic winterings of this century
+have taken place, but scarcely any journey of exploration has at
+all events been undertaken to the uninhabited regions of the
+high north, which has not in its working plan included the
+collection of new contributions towards dealing up the true
+nature of the aurora and its position in the heavens. But the
+scientific results have seldom corresponded to the expectations
+which had been entertained. Of purely Arctic expeditions, so
+far as I know, only two, the Austrian-Hungarian to Franz Josef
+Land (1872-74) and the Swedish to Mussel Bay (1872-73), have
+returned with full and instructive lists of auroras<a name="v2rn262"></a><a href="#v2fn262">[262]</a> Ross, PARRY,
+KANE, McCLINTOCK, HAYES, NARES, and others, have on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page37" id="v2page37"></a>[ pg 37 ]</span>
+other hand only had opportunities of registering single auroras;
+the phenomenon in the case of their winterings has not formed
+any distinctive trait of the Polar winter night. It was the less
+to be expected that the <i>Vega</i> expedition would form an exception
+in this respect, as its voyage happened during one of the
+years of which we knew beforehand that it would be a minimum
+aurora year. It was just this circumstance, however,
+which permitted me to study, in a region admirably suited for
+the purpose, a portion of this natural phenomenon under uncommonly
+favourable circumstances. For the luminous arcs,
+which even in Scandinavia generally form starting-points for the
+radiant auroras, have here exhibited themselves undreamed by
+the more splendid forms of the aurora I have thus, undisturbed
+by subsidiary phenomena, been able to devote myself to the
+collection of contributions towards the ascertaining of the position
+of these luminous arcs, and I believe that I have in this
+way come to some very remarkable conclusions, which have been
+developed in detail in a separate paper printed in <i>The Scientific
+Work of the Vega Expedition</i> (Part I. p. 400). Here
+space permits me only to make the following statement</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the aurora at Behring's Straits in 1878-79
+is shown in the accompanying woodcuts. We never saw here
+the magnificent bands or draperies of rays which we are so
+accustomed to in Scandinavia, but only halo-like luminous arcs,
+which hour after hour, day after day, were unaltered in position.
+When the sky was not clouded over and the faint light of the
+aurora was not dimmed by the rays of the sun or the full moon,
+these arcs commonly began to show themselves between eight
+and nine o'clock P.M., and were then seen without interruption
+during midwinter till six, and farther on in the year to three
+o'clock in the morning. It follows from this that the aurora
+even during a minimum year is a permanent natural
+phenomenon. The nearly unalterable position of the arcs has
+further rendered possible a number of measurements of its</p>
+<br>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p052.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p052.png" alt="THE COMMON AURORA ARC AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS." ></a>
+THE COMMON AURORA ARC AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page38" id="v2page38"></a>[ pg 38 ]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p053.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p053.png" alt="AURORA AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTERER QUARTERS." ></a>
+AURORA AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTERER QUARTERS, 3RD MARCH 1879, AT 9 P.M.
+
+<p>DOUBLE AURORA ARCS SEEN 20TH MARCH 1879, AT 9.30 P.M.</p>
+
+<p>ELLIPTIC AURORA SEEN 21ST MARCH, 1879, AT 2.15 A.M.</p>
+
+<p>ELLIPTIC AURORA SEEN 21ST MARCH, 1879, AT 3 A.M.
+</p>
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page40" id="v2page40"></a>[ pg 40 ]</span>
+<p>height, extent, and position from which I believe I may draw the
+following inferences that our globe even during a minimum
+aurora year is adorned with an almost constant, single, double, or
+multiple luminous crown, whose inner edge is situated at a height
+of about 200 kilometres or 0.03 radius of the earth above its
+surface, whose centre, &quot;the aurora-pole,&quot; lies somewhat under the
+earth's surface, a little north of the magnetic-pole, and which,
+with a diameter of 2,000 kilometres or 0.3 radius of the earth,
+extends in a plane perpendicular to the radius of the earth, which
+touches the centre of the circle.</p>
+
+<p>I have named this luminous crown <i>the aurora glory</i> on account
+of its form and its resemblance to the crown of rays round the
+head of a saint. It stands in the same relation to the ray and
+drapery auroras of Scandinavia as the trade and monsoon winds
+in the south to the irregular winds and storms of the north. The
+light of the crown itself is never distributed into rays, but resembles
+the light which passes through obscured glass. When
+the aurora is stronger, the extent of the light-crown is altered
+double or multiple arcs are seen, generally lying in about the
+same plane and with a common centre, and rays are cast between
+the different arcs. Arcs are seldom seen which lie irregularly to
+or cross each other.</p>
+
+<p>The area in which the common arc is visible is bounded by
+two circles drawn upon the earth's surface, with the aurora-pole
+for a centre and radii of 8&deg; and 28&deg; measured on the circumference
+of the globe. It touches only to a limited extent countries
+inhabited by races of European origin (the northernmost part of
+Scandinavia, Iceland, Danish Greenland), and even in the middle
+of this area there is a belt passing over middle Greenland, South
+Spitzbergen, and Franz Josef Land, where <i>the common arc</i> forms
+only a faint, very widely extended, luminous veil in the zenith,
+which perhaps is only perceptible by the winter darkness being
+there considerably diminished. This belt divides the regions
+where these luminous arcs are seen principally to the south from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page41" id="v2page41"></a>[ pg 41 ]</span>
+those in which they mainly appear on the northern horizon. In
+the area next the aurora-pole only the smaller, in middle
+Scandinavia only the larger, more irregularly formed luminous
+crowns are seen. But in the latter region, as in southern
+British America, aurora storms and ray and drapery auroras are
+instead common, and these appear to be nearer the surface of the
+earth than the arc aurora. Most of the Polar expeditions have
+wintered so near the aurora-pole that <i>the common aurora arc</i>
+there lay under or quite near the horizon, and as the ray aurora
+appears to occur seldom within
+this circle, the reason is easily
+explained why the winter night
+was so seldom illuminated by the
+aurora at the winter quarters of
+these expeditions, and why the
+description of this phenomenon
+plays so small a part in their
+sketches of travel.                          </p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p055.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p055.png" alt="SONG BIRDS IN THE RIGGING OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+SONG BIRDS IN THE RIGGING OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;
+<br>May 1879.
+</div>
+
+<p class="tb">Long before the ground became
+bare and mild weather
+commenced, migratory birds began
+to arrive, first the snow-bunting
+on the 23rd April, then
+large flocks of geese, eiders, long-tailed
+ducks, gulls, and several
+kinds of waders and song-birds.
+First among the latter was the little elegant <i>Sylvia Ewersmanni</i>,
+which in the middle of June settled in great flocks
+on the only dark spot which was yet to be seen in the quarter&mdash;the
+black deck of the <i>Vega</i>. All were evidently much
+exhausted, and the first the poor things did was to look out
+convenient sleeping places, of which there is abundance in the
+rigging of a vessel when small birds are concerned. I need
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page42" id="v2page42"></a>[ pg 42 ]</span>
+scarcely add that our new guests, the forerunners of spring, were
+disturbed on board as little as possible.</p>
+
+<p>We now began industriously to collect material for a knowledge
+of the avi- and mammal-fauna of the region. The
+collections, when this is being written, are not yet worked out,
+and I can therefore only make the following statement on
+this point:</p>
+
+<p>From the acquaintance I had made during my own preceding
+journeys and the study of others', with the bird-world of the high
+north, I had got the erroneous idea that about the same species of
+birds are to be met with everywhere in the Polar lands of Europe,
+Asia, and America. Experience gained during the expedition of
+the <i>Vega</i> shows that this is by no means the case, but that the
+north-eastern promontory of Asia, the Chukch peninsula, forms
+in this respect a complete exception. Birds occur here in much
+fewer numbers, but with a very much greater variety of types
+than on Novaya Zemlya, Spitzbergen, and Greenland, in consequence
+of which the bird-world on the Chukch peninsula has
+in its entirety a character differing wholly from that of the
+Atlantic Polar lands. We indeed meet here with types closely
+allied to the glaucous gull (<i>Larus glaucus</i>, Br&uuml;nn), the ivory gull
+(<i>L. eburneus</i>, Gmel.), the kittiwake (<i>L. tridactylus</i>, L.), the long-tailed
+duck (<i>Harelda glacialis</i>, L.), the king duck (<i>Somateria
+spectabilis</i>, L.),<a name="v2rn263"></a><a href="#v2fn263">[263]</a> the phalarope (<i>Phalaropus fulicarius</i>, Bonap.), the
+purple sandpiper (<i>Tringa maritima</i>, Br&uuml;nn.), &amp;c., of Spitzbergen
+and Novaya Zemlya, but along with these are found here many
+peculiar species, for instance the American eider (<i>Somateria
+V-nigrum</i>, Gray), a swanlike goose, wholly white with black
+wing points (<i>Anser hyperboreus</i>, Pall.), a greyish-brown goose with
+bushy yellowish-white feather-covering on the head (<i>Anser pictus</i>,
+Pall), a species of Fuligula, elegantly coloured on the head in
+velvet-black, white, and green, (<i>Fuligula Stelleri</i>, Pall), the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page43" id="v2page43"></a>[ pg 43 ]</span>
+beautifully marked, scarce <i>Larus Rossii</i>, Richards, of which Dr.
+Almquist on the 1st July, 1879, shot a specimen from the vessel,
+a little brown sandpiper with a spoonlike widened bill-point
+(<i>Eurynorhynchus pygm&aelig;us</i>, L.) and various song-birds not found in
+Sweden, &amp;c. Besides, a number of the Scandinavian types living
+here also, according to Lieutenant Nordquist, are distinguished
+by less considerable differences in colour-marking and size. The
+singular spoon-billed sandpiper was at one time in spring so common
+that it was twice served at the gunroom table, for which after</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p057.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p057.png" alt="Spoon Billed Sandpiper From Church Land." ></a>
+Spoon Billed Sandpiper From Church Land.
+<br><i>Eurynorhynchus pygm&aelig;us</i>, L
+At the side the bird's bill seen from above, of the natural size
+</div>
+
+<p>our return home we had to endure severe reproaches from animal
+collectors. This bird is found only in some few museums. It
+was first described by LINN&AElig;US in <i>Museum Adolphi Friderici,
+Tomi secundi predromus</i>, Holmi&aelig; 1764, and then by C. P.
+THUNBERG in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Swedish Academy of
+Sciences for 1816 (p. 194), where it is stated that the homeland
+of this bird is tropical America. It has since been caught a few
+times in south-eastern Asia. Probably, like <i>Sylvia Ewersmanni</i>,
+it passes the winter in the Philippine group of islands, but in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page44" id="v2page44"></a>[ pg 44 ]</span>
+summer visits the high north. Like several other birds which
+appeared in spring with the first bare spots it disappeared in
+July. Perhaps it retired to the interior to breed in the bush, or,
+which is more probable, went farther north to the islands or
+continents not yet discovered by Europeans, which in all probability
+connect Wrangel Land with the Franklin Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>The higher animal forms which, along with the Polar traveller,
+dare to brave the cold and darkness of the Arctic night, exert
+on him a peculiar attraction. Regarding these, Lieutenant
+Nordquist has given me the following notes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The mammal most common in winter on the north coast of
+the Chukch peninsula is the <i>hare</i>. It differs from the fell hare
+(<i>Lepus borealis</i>, Lillj.) by its larger size, and by the bones of its
+nose not tapering so rapidly. It is generally met with in flocks
+of five or six on the hills in the neighbourhood of the tents,
+which are covered only with a thin layer of snow, notwithstanding
+the large number of hungry dogs which wander about
+there.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The <i>Arctic foxes</i> (<i>Vulpes lagopus</i>, L.) are very numerous.
+The common <i>fox</i> (<i>Vulpes vulgaris</i>, Gray) appears also to be
+common. A red fox, which Lieutenant Brusewitz shot from the
+vessel in October, differed considerably from the common fox,
+and approached the Arctic fox. The food of the fox appears
+in winter to consist of hares, ptarmigan, and lemmings. I have
+twice seen holes in the snow about a metre deep and at the
+mouth not more than thirty centimetres wide, which the
+Chukches said were excavated by foxes searching for lemmings.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Of the <i>lemming</i> I have seen three varieties, viz. <i>Myodes
+obensis, M. torquatus</i>, and <i>Arvicola obscurus</i>. There is found
+here, also, according to the statements of the Chukches, a little
+mouse, in all probability a Sorex. <i>Myodes torquatus</i> were got
+the first time on the 12th January, <i>Myodes obensis</i> on the 13th
+February. Both species were afterwards frequently brought on
+board by Chukches, and during the winter lemmings were seen
+not unfrequently running on the snow. <i>Myodes obensis</i> appeared
+to be more numerous than the other species. It is singular that
+all the nine specimen of <i>Myodes torquatus</i> I obtained during the
+winter were males. Differing from both these species, <i>Arvicola
+obscurus</i> does not appear to show itself above the snow during
+winter. Of the latter I got eight specimens from the village
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page45" id="v2page45"></a>[ pg 45 ]</span>
+Tjapka, lying between Yinretlen and Behring's Straits. I afterwards
+got another from the village Irgunnuk, situated five
+English miles east of Yinretlen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p059.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p059.png" alt="MARMOTS FROM CHUKCH LAND." ></a>
+MARMOTS FROM CHUKCH LAND.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The more uncommon land mammals wintering in these
+regions are the <i>wolf</i> and the <i>wild reindeer</i>. Footprints of the
+latter were seen on the 23nd March, in the mountain region,
+fifteen to twenty miles south of Yinretlen. According to the
+Chukches' account some few reindeer remain on the hills along
+the coast, while the greater number migrate southwards towards
+winter. Besides these, two other mammals live here during
+winter, though they are only seen during summer and autumn,
+because they hibernate the rest of the time. These are the
+<i>land bear</i> and the <i>marmot</i> (<i>Arctomys sp.</i>). We saw no land
+bear, but on the 8th October Lieutenant Hovgaard and I found
+traces of this animal two or three English miles from the coast.
+The Chukches say that the land bear is not uncommon in
+summer. The marmot occurs in large numbers. It was brought
+on board for the first time by a Chukch, and the following day
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page46" id="v2page46"></a>[ pg 46 ]</span>
+I myself saw it sitting on the top of a little hill, where it had
+its dwelling.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Besides the animals enumerated above the natives talked of
+another, which is called by them <i>nennet</i>, and is said to live by
+the banks of rivers. According to their description it appears
+to be the common <i>otter</i>. As at most places where the lemming
+is common the <i>weasel</i> (<i>Mustela vulgaris</i>, Briss.) is also found
+here. I got from the Chukches two skins of this animal.
+Whether the beaver occurs in the part of Chukch Land which
+we visited I cannot say with certainty. It is probable, because
+the Chukches informed me that there was found here a weasel
+which has the point of the tail black.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Only two sea mammals have been seen in this region in the
+course of the winter, viz. the <i>rough</i> or <i>bristled seal</i> and the
+<i>Polar bear</i>. On two occasions traces of the latter have been
+observed in the neighbourhood of land. They appear, however,
+for the most part to keep by openings in the ice farther out to
+sea, where during our stay two of them were killed by Chukches
+from the neighbouring villages. The rough seal is probably the
+only species that occurs near the coast during winter. It is
+caught in great numbers, and forms, along with fish and various
+vegetable substances, the main food of the Chukches.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Of land birds there winter in the region only three species,
+viz. an <i>owl</i> (<i>Strix nyctea</i>, L.), a <i>raven</i> (<i>Corvus sp.</i>), and a <i>ptarmigan</i>
+(<i>Lagopus subalpina</i>, Nilss.); the last-named is the most
+common. On the 14th December, during a sledge journey into
+the country I saw, about ten or twelve English miles from the
+coast, two large coveys of ptarmigan, one of which probably
+numbered over fifty. Nearer the coast, on the other hand, there
+were found, especially during spring, for the most part only single
+birds. The raven is common at the Chukch villages, and builds
+its nest in the neighbouring cliffs. The first egg was got on the
+31st May. The mountain owl was seen for the first time on the
+11th March, but, according to the statements of the Chukches,
+it is to be met with during the whole winter. In April and May
+we also saw some mountain owls, on the 21st May I saw two.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;At open places in the sea there are found here in winter, the
+Chukches say, two swimming birds, the <i>loom</i> (<i>Uria Br&uuml;nnichii</i>,
+Sabine) and the <i>Black guillemot</i> (<i>Uria grylle</i>, L.) Of the
+former we obtained two specimens for the first time on the
+1st May, of the latter on the 19th of the same month.
+Possibly there winter in open places of the sea besides these
+birds a species of Mergulus, one of which came to the winter
+quarters of the <i>Vega</i> on the 3rd November, and a Fuligula, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page47" id="v2page47"></a>[ pg 47 ]</span>
+specimen of which was sold to us on the 9th March by a
+Chukch, who said he had killed it at a clearing off the coast&quot;</p>
+
+<p>After the arrival of the migratory birds hunting excursions
+began to form a welcome interruption in our monotonous winter
+life, and the produce of the hunting a no less agreeable change
+from the preserved provisions. The Chukches besides offered
+us daily a large number of different kinds of birds, especially
+when they observed that we paid a higher price for many rare
+kinds of birds, though small and of little use for food, than for
+a big, fat goose. The Chukches killed small birds either by
+throwing stones, or by shooting them with bow and arrows, in
+connection with which it may be observed that most of them
+were very poor archers. They also caught them with whalebone
+snares set on bare spots on the beach, generally between
+two vertebr&aelig; of the whale. For pebbles are very scarce, but
+the bones of the whale are found, as has been already stated, at
+most places in large numbers on the strand-banks where the
+tents are pitched. In June we began to get eggs of the gull,
+eider, long-tailed duck, goose, and loom, in sufficient number for
+table use. The supply, however, was by no means so abundant
+as during the hatching season on Greenland, Spitzbergen, or
+Novaya Zemlya.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">A little way from the vessel there were formed, in the end of
+May, two &quot;leads,&quot; a few fathoms in breadth. On the 31st May
+I sent some men to dredge at these places. They returned
+with an abundant yield, but unfortunately the openings closed
+again the next day, and when I and Lieutenant Bove visited
+the place there was a large, newly-formed <i>toross</i> thrown up along
+the edge of the former channel. Another &quot;lead&quot; was formed
+some days after, but closed again through a new disturbance of
+the position of the ice, a high ice-rampart, formed of loose
+blocks, heaped one over another, indicating the position of the</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page48" id="v2page48"></a>[ pg 48 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p062.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p062.png" alt="EVERTEBRATES FROM THE SEA AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS." ></a>
+STEGOCEPHALUS KESSLERI (STUXB).
+<br>Natural size.]
+
+<p>SABINEA SEPTEMCARINATA (SABINE).
+<br>Natural size.</p>
+
+<p>EVERTEBRATES FROM THE SEA AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS.</p>
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page49" id="v2page49"></a>[ pg 49 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p063.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p063.png" alt="EVERTEBRATES FROM THE SEA AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS." ></a>
+ACANTHOSTEPHIA MALMGRENI, (GO&Euml;S)
+<br>Magnified twice
+
+<br>OPHIOGLYPHA NODOSA, (L&Uuml;TKEN)
+<br>Magnified twice
+
+<br>EVERTEBRATES FROM THE SEA AT THE &quot;VEGA'S&quot; WINTER QUARTERS
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page50" id="v2page50"></a>[ pg 50 ]</span>
+<p>former opening. Even the strongest vessel would have been
+crushed in such a channel by the forcing together of the ice.
+Of a different sort from both these occasional leads was an
+extensive opening, which showed itself a kilometre or two north
+of the vessel. It is probable that with few interruptions, which,
+however, might have been difficult to pass, it extended as far as
+Behring's Straits, where, according to the statements of the
+Chukches, several whalers had already made their appearance.
+Round the vessel itself, however, the ice still lay fast and
+unbroken. Nor did the Chukches appear to expect that it
+would break up very soon, to judge by the number of vehicles
+drawn by dogs or reindeer which still passed us, both to the
+east and west. One of these travellers must here be specially
+mentioned, as his journey has been talked about as an expedition
+sent to our relief.</p>
+
+<p>It was the 19th June. A large number of Chukches
+travelling past us as usual came on board, partly to receive
+the tribute of hospitality to which they considered themselves
+entitled, partly to satisfy an easily understood curiosity and
+gossip a little about the most important occurrences of the
+preceding day. One of them, a middle-aged man, whom we had
+not seen before, with a friendly and self-satisfied bearing, whose
+face was a mere collection of wrinkles, and over whose <i>pesk</i> was
+drawn an old velvet shirt, presented himself with a certain
+pretentiousness as the chief NOAH ELISEJ. Since the mistake
+with the stately Chepurin, and since even Menka's supposed
+slave declared himself to be at least as good as Menka, we had
+begun to be rather indifferent to the rank of chief among the
+Chukches. Noah Elisej however, notwithstanding he thus
+brought forward his pretensions, was received like a common
+man, at which he appeared to be a little offended. But our
+behaviour soon changed, when Notti, or some other of our daily
+guests, who had become quite familiar with our fancies, tastes
+weaknesses, informed us that Noah Elisej had with him a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page51" id="v2page51"></a>[ pg 51 ]</span>
+large, a very large letter. Old Noah thus carried a mail, perhaps
+a European mail. At once he became in our eyes a man of
+importance. After being stormed for a time with questions, he
+took from a bag which hung from his neck the ordinary pieces
+of board fastened together, which here serve as a postbag. They
+were found however to contain only a letter of a couple of lines
+from a Russian official at Nischm Kolymsk, without any news
+from Europe, but informing us that chief Noah Elisej was sent
+to us to assist us, if necessary. Noah first patted his stomach
+to indicate that he was hungry and wanted food, and hawked
+and pointed with his finger at his throat to let us know that a
+<i>ram</i> would taste well. He then told us something which we did
+not then exactly understand, but which we now have reason to
+interpret as a statement that Noah was the leader of an expedition</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p065.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p065.png" alt="NOAH ELISEJ." ></a>
+NOAH ELISEJ.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page52" id="v2page52"></a>[ pg 52 ]</span>
+sent by the Siberian authorities to our relief, and that he was
+therefore willing in return for suitable compensation to give us
+some reindeer I availed myself of the offer, and purchased three
+animals for sugar, tea, and a little tobacco. Noah besides was
+a friendly and easy-going man, who, Christian though he was,
+travelled about with two wives and a large number of children,
+who all of course would see the vessel and get their treat of
+tobacco, clay pipes, sugar, <i>ram</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>So much flood water had now begun to collect on the ice,
+especially near the land, that it was exceedingly difficult to walk
+from the vessel to the shore and back. Many a proposed land
+excursion was broken off by somebody, immediately after leaving
+the vessel, sinking into some deep hole in the ice and thus getting
+a cold bath. Excursions on land however began to be exceedingly
+interesting to the botanists and zoologists, and therefore to avoid
+the inconveniences mentioned I caused a tent to be pitched by
+the side of the large lagoon between Pitlekaj and Yinretlen, and
+a light boat to be carried thither. The bottom of the lagoon was
+still filled with ice, above which however the water stood so high
+that the boat floated in it. The naturalists settled by turns in
+the tent, and from it made excursions in different directions, as
+I hope with the result that the neighbourhood of Pitlekaj is now
+the best known tract on the north of Asia, which after all is not
+saying much. The first plant in flower (<i>Cochlearia fenestrata</i>,
+R. Br.) was seen on the 23rd June.<a name="v2rn264"></a><a href="#v2fn264">[264]</a> A week after the ground
+began to grow green and flowers of different kinds to show
+themselves in greater and greater numbers.<a name="v2rn265"></a><a href="#v2fn265">[265]</a> Some flies were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page53" id="v2page53"></a>[ pg 53 ]</span>
+seen on a sunshiny day in May (the 27th) in motion on the
+surface of the snow, but it was not until the end of June that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page54" id="v2page54"></a>[ pg 54 ]</span>
+insects began to show themselves in any large numbers, among
+them many Harpalids, two large species of Carabus, and a large
+Curculionid. The insects occurring here however are not very
+numerous either in respect of species or individuals, which is not
+strange when we consider that the earth at a limited depth from
+the surface is constantly frozen. As even the shallow layer,
+which thaws in summer, is hard frozen in winter, all the insects
+which occur here must in one or other phase of their development
+endure being frozen solid for some time. But it may be
+remarked with reason with reference to this, that if life in an
+organism may so to speak be suspended for months by freezing
+stiff without being destroyed, what is there to prevent this
+suspension being extended over years, decades, or centuries?</p>
+
+<p>The common idea, that all animal life ceases, when the interior
+animal heat sinks under the freezing-point of water, is besides
+not quite correct. This is proved by the abundant evertebrate
+life which is found at the bottom of the Polar Sea, even where
+the water all the year round has a temperature of -2&deg; to -2&deg;.7
+C, and by the remarkable observation made during the wintering
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page55" id="v2page55"></a>[ pg 55 ]</span>
+at Mussel Bay in 1872-73, that small Crustacea can live by
+millions in water-drenched snow at a temperature of from -2&deg;
+to -10&deg;.2C. On this point I say in my account of the expedition
+of 1872-73:&mdash;<a name="v2rn266"></a><a href="#v2fn266">[266]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p069.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p069.png" alt="BEETLES FROM PITLEKAJ." ></a>
+BEETLES FROM PITLEKAJ.
+<br>a <i>Carabus truncaticollis</i> ESCHSCHOLTZ. (One and a half the natural size.)
+<br>b <i>Alophus sp.</i> (One find two-thirds the natural size.)
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;If during winter one walks along the beach on the snow
+which at ebb is dry, but at flood tide is more or less drenched
+through by sea-water, there rises at every step one takes, an
+exceedingly intense, beautiful, bluish-white flash of light, which
+in the spectroscope gives a one-coloured labrador-blue spectrum.
+This beautiful flash of light arises from the snow, before completely
+dark, when it is touched. The flash lasts only a few
+moments after the snow is left untouched, and is so intense, that it
+appears as if a sea of fire would open at every step a man takes.
+It produces indeed a peculiar impression on a dark and stormy
+winter day (the temperature of the air was sometimes in the
+neighbourhood of the freezing-point of mercury) to walk along
+in this mixture of snow and flame, which at every step one takes
+splashes about in all directions, shining with a light so intense
+that one is ready to fear that his shoes or clothes will take
+fire.&quot;</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page56" id="v2page56"></a>[ pg 56 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p070.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p070.png" alt="PHOSPHORESCENT CRUSTACEAN FROM MUSSEL BAY." ></a>
+PHOSPHORESCENT CRUSTACEAN FROM MUSSEL BAY.
+<br><i>Metridia armata</i>, A. Boeck.
+<br>1. A male magnified twelve times.  2. A foot of the second pair.
+</div>
+
+<p>On a closer examination it appeared that this light-phenomenon
+proceeded from a minute crustacean, which according to
+the determination of Prof W. LILLJEBORG belongs to the species
+<i>Metridia armata</i>, A. Boeck, and whose proper element appears
+to be snow-sludge drenched with salt water cooled considerably
+under 0&deg; C. First when the temperature sinks below -10&deg;
+does the power of this small animal to emit light appear to cease.
+But as the element in which they live, the surface of the snow
+nearest the beach, is in the course of the winter innumerable
+times cooled twenty degrees more, it appears improbable that
+these minute animals suffer any harm by being exposed to a cold
+of from -20&deg; to -30&deg;, a very remarkable circumstance, as they
+certainly do not possess in their organism any means of raising
+the internal animal heat in any noteworthy degree above the
+temperature of the surrounding medium.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page57" id="v2page57"></a>[ pg 57 ]</span>
+<p>We did not see these animals at Pitlekaj, but a similar phenomenon,
+though on a smaller scale, was observed by Lieut. BELLOT<a name="v2rn267"></a><a href="#v2fn267">[267]</a>
+during a sledge-journey in Polar America. He believed that the
+light arose from decaying organic matter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p071.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p071.png" alt="REITINACKA." ></a>
+REITINACKA.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+
+<p>After the Chukches had told us that an exceedingly delicious
+black fish was to be found in the fresh-water lagoon at Yinretlen,
+which is wholly shut off from the sea and in winter freezes to
+the bottom, we made an excursion thither on the 8th July. Our
+friends at the encampment were immediately ready to help us,
+especially the women, Artanga, and the twelve-year-old, somewhat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page58" id="v2page58"></a>[ pg 58 ]</span>
+spoiled <i>Vega</i>-favourite Reitinacka. They ran hither and thither
+like light-hearted and playful children, to put the net in order
+and procure all that was needed for the fishing. We had carried
+with us from the vessel a net nine metres long and one deep.
+Along its upper border floats were fixed, to the lower was bound
+a long pole, to which were fastened five sticks, by which the pole
+was sunk to the bottom of the lagoon, a little way from the
+shore. Some natives wading in the cold water then pushed
+the net towards the land with sticks and the pole, which glided
+easily forward over the bottom of the lake, overgrown as it was
+with grass. In order to keep the fish from swimming away, the
+women waded at the sides of the net with their <i>pesks</i> much
+tucked up, screaming and making noise, and now and then
+standing in order to indicate by a violent shaking that the water
+was very cold. The catch was abundant. We caught by
+hundreds a sort of fish altogether new to us, of a type which
+we should rather have expected to find in the marshes of the
+Equatorial regions than up here in the north. The fish were
+transported in a dog sledge to the vessel, where part of them was
+placed in spirits for the zoologists and the rest fried, not without
+a protest from our old cook, who thought that the black slimy
+fish looked remarkably nasty and ugly. But the Chukches
+were right it was a veritable delicacy, in taste somewhat
+resembling eel, but finer and more fleshy. These fish were
+besides as tough to kill as eels, for after lying an hour and a
+half in the air they swam, if replaced in the water, about as fast
+as before. How this species of fish passes the winter is still more
+enigmatical than the winter life of the insects. For the lagoon
+has no outlet and appears to freeze completely to the bottom.
+The mass of water which was found in autumn in the lagoon
+therefore still lay there as an unmelted layer of ice not yet
+broken up, which was covered with a stratum of flood water
+several feet deep, by which the neighbouring grassy plains were
+inundated. It was in this flood water that the fishing took place.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page59" id="v2page59"></a>[ pg 59 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>After our return home the Yinretlen fish was examined by
+Professor F.A. SMITT in Stockholm, who stated, in an address
+which he gave on it before the Swedish Academy of Sciences,
+that it belongs to a new species to which Professor Smitt gave
+the name <i>Dallia delicatissima</i>. A closely allied form occurs in
+Alaska, and has been named <i>Dallia pectoralis</i>, Bean. These
+fishes are besides nearly allied to the dog-fish (<i>Umbra Krameri</i>,
+Fitzing), which is found in the Neusidler and Platten Lakes, and
+in grottos and other water-filled subterranean cavities in southern
+Europe. It is remarkable that the European species are considered
+uneatable, and even regarded with such loathing that
+the fishermen throw them away as soon as caught because they
+consider them poisonous, and fear that their other fish would
+be destroyed by contact with it. They also consider it an
+affront if one asks them for dog-fish.<a name="v2rn268"></a><a href="#v2fn268">[268]</a> If we had known
+thus we should not now have been able to certify that <i>Dallia
+delicatissima</i>, SMITT, truly deserves its name.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p073.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p073.png" alt="DOG FISH FROM THE CHUKCH PENINSULA." ></a>
+DOG FISH FROM THE CHUKCH PENINSULA.
+<br><i>Dallia delicatissima</i>, Smitt.
+<br>Half the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<p>In the beginning of July the ground became free of snow,
+and we could now form an idea of how the region looked in
+summer in which we had passed the winter. It was not just
+attractive. Far away in the south the land rose with terrace-formed
+escarpments to a hill, called by us Table Mount, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page60" id="v2page60"></a>[ pg 60 ]</span>
+indeed was pretty high, but did not by any steep or bold cliffs
+yield any contribution to such a picturesque landscape border as
+is seldom wanting on the portions of Spitzbergen, Greenland, and
+the north part of Novaya Zemlya which I have visited, south
+Novaya Zemlya has at least at most places bold picturesque
+shore-cliffs. If I except the rocky promontory at Yinretlen,
+where a cliff inhabited by ravens rises boldly out of the sea,
+and some cliffs situated farther in along the beach of Kolyutschin
+Bay, the shore in the immediate neighbourhood of our
+wintering station consisted everywhere only of a low beach
+formed of coarse sand. Upon this sand, which was always
+frozen, there ran parallel with the shore a broad bank or
+dune, 50 to 100 metres broad, of fine sand, not water-drenched
+in summer, and accordingly not bound together by ice in
+winter. It is upon this dune that the Chukches erect their
+tents. Marks of them are therefore met with nearly everywhere,
+and the dune accordingly is everywhere bestrewed with
+broken implements or refuse from the chase. Indeed it may
+be said without exaggeration that the whole north-eastern
+coast of the Siberian Polar Sea is bordered with a belt of
+sweepings and refuse of various kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The coarse sand which underlies the dune is, as has been
+stated, continually frozen, excepting the shallow layer which
+is thawed in summer. It is here that the &quot;frost formation&quot;
+of Siberia begins, that is to say, the continually frozen layer of
+earth, which, with certain interruptions, extends from the Polar
+Sea far to the south, not only under the treeless <i>tundra</i>, but
+also under splendid forests and cultivated corn-fields.<a name="v2rn269"></a><a href="#v2fn269">[269]</a> To
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page61" id="v2page61"></a>[ pg 61 ]</span>
+speak correctly, however, the frozen earth begins a little from
+the shore <i>under the sea</i>.<a name="v2rn270"></a><a href="#v2fn270">[270]</a> For on the coast the bottom often
+consists of hard frozen sand&mdash;&quot;rock-hard sand,&quot; as the dredgers
+were accustomed to report. The frost formation in Siberia thus
+embraces not only terrestrial but also marine deposits, together
+with pure clear layers of ice, these last being formed in the
+mouths of rivers or small lakes by the ice of the river or lake
+frozen to the bottom being in spring covered with a layer
+of mud sufficiently thick to protect the ice from melting during
+summer. The frozen sea-bottom again appears to have been
+formed by the sand washed down by the rivers having carried
+with it when it sank some adhering water from the warm
+and almost fresh surface strata. At the sea-bottom the sand
+surrounded by <i>fresh</i> water freezing at 0&deg; C thus met a stratum
+of <i>salt</i> water whose temperature was two or three degrees under
+0&deg;, in consequence of which the grains of sand froze fast together.
+That it may go on thus we had a direct proof when
+in spring we sank from the <i>Vega</i> the bodies of animals to be
+skeletonised by the crustacea that swarmed at the sea-bottom.
+If the sack, pierced at several places, in which the skeleton was
+sunk was first allowed to fill with the slightly salt water from
+the surface and then sink rapidly to the bottom, it was found to be
+so filled with ice, when it was taken up a day or two afterwards,
+that the crustacea were prevented from getting at the flesh.
+We had already determined to abandon the convenient cleansing
+process, when I succeeded in finding means to avoid the inconvenience,
+this was attained by drawing the sack, while
+some distance under the surface, violently hither and thither
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page62" id="v2page62"></a>[ pg 62 ]</span>
+so that the surface water carried down with it was got rid of.
+Frozen clay and ooze do not appear to occur at the bottom of
+the Polar Sea. Animal life on the frozen sand was rather
+scanty, but alg&aelig; were met with there though in limited numbers.</p>
+
+<p>From the shore a plain commences, which is studded with
+extensive lagoons and a large number of small lakes. In spring
+this plain is so water-drenched and so crossed by deep rapid
+snow-rivulets, that it is difficult, often impossible, to traverse it.
+Immediately after the disappearance of the snow a large number
+of birds at all events had settled there. The Lapp sparrow had
+chosen a tuft projecting from the marshy ground on which to place
+its beautiful roofed dwelling, the waders in the neighbourhood had
+laid their eggs in most cases directly on the water-drenched moss
+without trace of a nest, and on tufts completely surrounded by
+the spring floods we met with the eggs of the loom, the long-tailed
+duck, the eider and the goose. Already during our stay,
+the water ran away so rapidly, that places, which one day were
+covered with a watery mirror, over which a boat of light draught
+could be rowed forward, were changed the next day to wet
+marshy ground, covered with yellow grass-straws from the preceding
+year. At many places the grassy sward had been torn
+up by the ice and carried away, leaving openings sharply defined
+by right lines in the meadows, resembling a newly worked off
+place in a peat moss.</p>
+
+<p>In summer there must be found here green meadows covered
+with pretty tall grass, but at the time of our departure vegetation
+had not attained any great development, and the flowers that could
+be discovered were few. I presume however that a beautiful
+Arctic flower-world grows up here, although, in consequence of
+the exposure of the coast-country to the north winds, poor in
+comparison with the vegetation in sheltered valleys in the interior
+of the country. There are found there too pretty high bushes,
+but on the other hand trees are represented at Pitlekaj only by
+a low species of willow which creeps along the ground.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page63" id="v2page63"></a>[ pg 63 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p077.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p077.png" alt="CRAB FROM THE SEA NORTH OF BEHRING'S STRAITS." ></a>
+CRAB FROM THE SEA NORTH OF BEHRING'S STRAITS.
+<br><i>Chionoecetes opilio</i> Kr&ouml;yer.
+<br>Half the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page65" id="v2page65"></a>[ pg 65 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:75%;"><a href="images/v2p078.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p078.png" alt="TREE FROM PITLEKAJ." ></a>
+TREE FROM PITLEKAJ.
+<br><i>Salix arctica</i>, PALLAS. (Natural size.)
+</div>
+
+<p>We did not, however, see even this &quot;wood&quot; in full leaf.
+For in order that full summer heat may begin it is necessary,
+even here, that the ice break up, and this longed-for
+moment appeared to be yet far distant. The ice indeed
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page66" id="v2page66"></a>[ pg 66 ]</span>
+became clear of snow in the beginning of July, and thus the
+slush and the flood water were lessened, which during the preceding
+weeks had collected on its surface and made it very
+difficult to walk from the vessel to land. Now, again pretty
+dry-shod and on a hard blue ice-surface, we could make excursions
+in the neighbourhood of the vessel. We had however
+to be cautious. The former cracks had in many places been
+widened to greater or smaller openings by the flood water running
+down, and where a thin black object&mdash;a little gravel, a
+piece of tin from the preserved provision-cases, &amp;c.&mdash;had lain
+on the ice there were formed round holes, resembling the seal-holes
+which I saw in spring laid bare after the melting of the
+snow on the ice in the fjords of Spitzbergen. The strength
+of the ice besides was nearly unaltered, and on the 16th July
+a heavily loaded double sledge could still be driven from the
+vessel to the shore.</p>
+
+<p>On the 17th the &quot;year's ice&quot; next the land at last broke up,
+so that an extensive land clearing arose. But the ground-ices
+were still undisturbed, and between these the &quot;year's ice&quot;
+even lay so fast, that all were agreed that at least fourteen
+days must still pass before there was any prospect of getting
+free.</p>
+
+<p>When on the 16th the reindeer-Chukch Yettugin came on
+board, and, talking of the collection of whale-bones in which
+we had been engaged some days before, informed us that
+there was a mammoth bone at his tent, and that a mammoth
+tusk stuck out at a place where the spring floods had cut into
+the bank of a river which flows from Table Mount to Riraitinop,
+I therefore did not hesitate to undertake an excursion to the
+place. Our absence from the vessel was reckoned at five or six
+days. It was my intention to go up the river in a skin boat
+belonging to Notti to the place where the mammoth tusk was,
+and thence to proceed on foot to Yettugin's tent. Yettugin
+assured us that the river was sufficiently deep for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page67" id="v2page67"></a>[ pg 67 ]</span>
+flat-bottomed boat. But when we had travelled a little way into
+the country it appeared that the river had fallen considerably
+during the day that Yettugin passed on the vessel. So certain
+was I however that the ice-barrier would not yet for a long
+time be broken up, that I immediately after my return from the
+excursion, which had thus been rendered unsuccessful, made
+arrangements for a new journey in order with other means of
+transport to reach the goal.</p>
+
+<p>While we were thus employed the forenoon of the 18th passed.
+We sat down to dinner at the usual time, without any suspicion
+that the time of our release was now at hand. During dinner
+it was suddenly observed that the vessel was moving slightly
+Palander rushed on deck, saw that the ice was in motion, ordered
+the boiler fires to be lighted, the engine having long ago been
+put in order in expectation of this moment, and in two hours, by
+3:30 P.M. on the 18th July, the <i>Vega</i>, decked with flags, was
+under steam and sail again on the way to her destination.</p>
+
+<p>We now found that a quite ice-free &quot;lead&quot; had arisen between
+the vessel and the open water next the shore, the ice-fields
+west of our ground-ices having at the same time drifted farther
+out to sea, so that the clearing along the shore had widened
+enough to give the <i>Vega</i> a sufficient depth of water. The
+course was shaped at first for the N.W. in order to make a
+<i>d&eacute;tour</i> round the drift-ice fields lying nearest us, then along the
+coast for Behring's Straits. On the height at Yinretlen there
+stood as we passed, the men, women, and children of the village
+all assembled, looking out to sea at the fire-horse&mdash;the Chukches
+would perhaps say fire-dog or fire-reindeer&mdash;which carried their
+friends of the long winter months for ever away from their
+cold, bleak shores. Whether they shed tears, as they often said
+they would we could not see from the distance which now
+parted us from them. But it may readily have happened that
+the easily moved disposition of the savage led them to do this.
+Certain it is that in many of us the sadness of separation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page68" id="v2page68"></a>[ pg 68 ]</span>
+mingled with the feelings of tempestuous joy which now rushed
+through the breast of every <i>Vega</i> man.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i> met no more ice-obstacles on her course to the
+Pacific. Serdze Kamen was passed at 1:30 A.M. of the 19th, but
+the fog was so dense that we could not clearly distinguish the
+contours of the land. Above the bank of mist at the horizon
+we could only see that this cape, so famous in the history of the
+navigation of the Siberian Polar Sea, is occupied by high
+mountains, split up, like those east of the Bear Islands, into
+ruin-like gigantic walls or columns. The sea was mirror-bright
+and nearly clear of ice, a walrus or two stuck up his head
+strangely magnified by the fog in our neighbourhood, seals swam
+round us in large numbers, and flocks of birds, which probably
+breed on the steep cliffs of Serdze Kamen, swarmed round the
+vessel. The trawl net repeatedly brought up from the sea bottom
+a very abundant yield of worms, molluscs, crustacea, &amp;c.
+A zoologist would here have had a rich working field.</p>
+
+<p>The fog continued, so that on the other side of Serdze Kamen
+we lost all sight of land, until on the morning of the 20th dark
+heights again began to peep out. These were the mountain
+summits of the easternmost promontory of Asia, East Cape, an
+unsuitable name, for which I have substituted on the map that
+of Cape Deschnev after the gallant Cossack who for the first
+time 230 years ago circumnavigated it.</p>
+
+<p>By 11 A.M. we were in the middle of the sound which unites
+the North Polar Sea with the Pacific, and from this point the
+<i>Vega</i> greeted the old and new worlds by a display of flags and
+the firing of a Swedish salute.</p>
+
+<p>Thus finally was reached the goal towards which so many
+nations had struggled, all along from the time when Sir Hugh
+Willoughby, with the firing of salutes from cannon and with
+hurrahs from the festive-clad seamen, in the presence of an
+innumerable crowd of jubilant men certain of success, ushered
+in the long series of North-East voyages. But, as I have before</p>
+<br>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p082.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p082.png" alt="A.L. PALANDER." ></a>
+A.L. PALANDER.
+</div>
+
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page69" id="v2page69"></a>[ pg 69 ]</span>
+<p>related, then hopes were grimly disappointed. Sir Hugh and all
+his men perished as pioneers of England's navigation and of
+voyages to the ice-encumbered sea which bounds Europe and Asia
+on the north. Innumerable other marine expeditions have since
+then trodden the same path, always without success, and generally
+with the sacrifice of the vessel and of the life and health of
+many brave seamen. Now for the first time, after the lapse of
+336 years, and when most men experienced in sea matters had
+declared the undertaking impossible, was the North-East Passage
+at last achieved. This has taken place, thanks to the discipline,
+zeal, and ability of our man-of-war's-men and their officers,
+without the sacrifice of a single human life, without sickness
+among those who took part in the undertaking, without the
+slightest damage to the vessel, and under circumstances which
+show that the same thing may be done again in most, perhaps
+in all years, in the course of a few weeks. It may be permitted
+us to say, that under such circumstances it was with pride we
+saw the blue-yellow flag rise to the mast-head and heard the
+Swedish salute in the sound where the old and the new worlds
+reach hands to each other. The course along which we sailed
+is indeed no longer required as a commercial route between
+Europe and China. But it has been granted to this and the
+preceding Swedish expeditions to open a sea to navigation, and
+to confer on half a continent the possibility of communicating
+by sea with the oceans of the world.</p>
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn258"></a><a href="#v2rn258">[258]</a> And. Hellant, <i>Anm&auml;rkningar om en helt ovanlig k&ouml;ld i Torne (Remarks
+on a Quite Unusual Cold in Torne</i>), Vet.-akad. Handl. 1759, p. 314, and
+1760, p. 312. In the latter paper Hellant himself shows that the column
+of mercury in a strongly cooled thermometer for a few moments <i>sinks
+farther</i> when the ball is rapidly heated. This is caused by the expansion
+of the glass when it is warmed before the heat has had time to communicate
+itself to the quicksilver in the ball, and therefore of course can
+happen only at a temperature above the freezing-point of mercury.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn259"></a><a href="#v2rn259">[259]</a> That mercury solidifies in cold was discovered by some academicians
+in St. Petersburg on the 25th December, 1759, and caused at the time a
+great sensation, because by this discovery various erroneous ideas were
+rooted out which the chemists had inherited from the alchemists, and
+which were based on the supposed property of mercury of being at the
+same time a metal and a fluid.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn260"></a><a href="#v2rn260">[260]</a> During the market the Russian priest endeavours to make proselytes,
+he succeeds, too, by distributing tobacco to induce one or two to subject
+themselves to the ceremony of baptism. No true conversion, however,
+can scarcely come in question on account of the difference of language.
+As an example of how this goes on, the following story of Wrangel's may
+be quoted. At the market a young Chukch had been prevailed upon, by a
+gift of some pounds of tobacco, to allow himself to be baptised. The ceremony
+began in presence of a number of spectators. The new convert
+stood quiet and pretty decent in his place till he should step down into the
+baptismal font, a large wooden tub filled with ice-cold water. In this,
+according to the baptismal ritual, he ought to dip three times. But to
+this he would consent on no condition. He shook his head constantly, and
+brought forward a large number of reasons against it, which none understood.
+After long exhortations by the interpreter, in which promises of
+tobacco probably again played the principal part, he finally gave way and
+sprang courageously down into the ice-cold water, but immediately jumped
+up again trembling with cold; crying, &quot;My tobacco! my tobacco!&quot; All
+attempts to induce him to renew the bath were fruitless, the ceremony
+was incomplete, and the Chukch only half baptised.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn261"></a><a href="#v2rn261">[261]</a> In Lapland, too, the melting of the snow in spring is brought about in
+no inconsiderable degree by similar causes, <i>i.e.</i> by dry warm winds
+which come from the fells. On this point the governor of Norbotten l&auml;n,
+H. A. Widmark, has sent me the following interesting letter &mdash;
+&quot;However warm easterly and southerly winds may be in the parts of
+Swedish Lapland lying next the Joleen mountains, they are not able in any
+noteworthy degree to melt the masses of snow which fall in those regions
+during the winter months. On the other hand there comes every year, if
+we may rely on the statements of the Lapps, in the end of April or beginning
+of May, from the west (<i>i.e.</i> from the fells), a wind so strong and at the
+same time so warm, that in quite a short time&mdash;six to ten hours&mdash;it breaks
+up the snow-masses, makes them shrink together, forces the mountain sides
+from their snow covering, and changes the snow which lies on the ice of the
+great fell lakes to water. I have myself been out on the fells making
+measurements on two occasions when this wind came. On one occasion I was on
+the Great Lule water in the neighbourhood of the so-called Great Lake Fall.
+The night had been cold but the day became warm. Up to 1 o'clock
+P.M. it was calm, but immediately after the warm westerly wind began
+to blow, and by 6 o'clock P.M. all the snow on the ice was changed to
+water, in which we went wading to the knees. The Lapps in general
+await these warm westerly winds before they go to the fells in
+spring. Until these winds begin there is no pasture there for their reindeer herds.&quot;</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="v2fn262"></a><a href="#v2rn262">[262]</a> I do not include <i>La Recherch&eacute;'s</i> wintering in 1838-39 at Bosekop, in the
+northernmost part of Norway, as it took place in a region which is all the
+year round inhabited by hundreds of Europeans. During this expedition
+very splendid auroras were seen, and the studies of them by LOITIN,
+BRAVAIS, LILLIEH&Ouml;&Ouml;K, and SILJESTR&Ouml;M, are among the most important
+contributions to a knowledge of the aurora we possess, while we have
+to thank the draughtsmen of the expedition for exceedingly faithful and
+masterly representations of the phenomenon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn263"></a><a href="#v2rn263">[263]</a> The common eider (<i>S. mollissima</i>, L.) is absent here, or at least exceedingly rare.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn264"></a><a href="#v2rn264">[264]</a> During the expedition of 1861, when we were shut up by ice in Treurenberg
+Bay on Spitzbergen (79&deg; 57' N. L.) the first flower (<i>Saxifraga oppositifolia</i>,
+L.), was pulled on the 22nd June. After the wintering in 1872-73,
+Palander and I during our journey round North-east Land, saw the first
+flower on the same species of saxifrage as early as the 15th June, in the
+bottom of Wahlenberg Bay (79&deg; 46' N. L.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn265"></a><a href="#v2rn265">[265]</a> For the sake of completeness, I shall here also enumerate the plants
+which Dr. Kjellman found at Pitlekaj. Those marked with an * either
+themselves occur in Scandinavia or are represented by nearly allied forms<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Leucanthemum arcticum (L.) DC.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Artemisia arctica LESS.<br>
+*    ,,    vulgaris L. f. Tilesii LEDEB.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cineraria frigida RICHARDS.<br>
+*    ,,    palustris L. f. congesta HOOK.<br>
+* Antennaria alpina (L.) R. BR. f. Friesiana TRAUTV.<br>
+* Petasites frigida.<br>
+* Saussurea alpina (L.) DC. f. angustifolia (DC.)<br>
+* Taraxacum officinale WEB.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Valeriana capitata PALL.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Gentiana glauca PALL.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Pedicularis sudetica WILLD.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,, &nbsp; &nbsp;  Langsdorffii FISCH.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,, &nbsp; &nbsp;  lanata WILLD. f. leiantha TRAUTV.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,, &nbsp; &nbsp;  capitata ADAMS.<br>
+* Polemonium coeruleum L.<br>
+* Diapensia lapponica L.<br>
+* Armeria sibirica TURCZ.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Primula nivalis PALL. f. pygm&aelig;a LEDEB.&nbsp; <br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,, &nbsp; borealis DUBY.<br>
+* Loiseleuria procumbens (L.) DESV.<br>
+* Ledum palustre L. f. decumbens AIT.<br>
+* Vaccinium vitis id&aelig;a L.<br>
+* Arctostaphylos alpina (L.) SPRENG.<br>
+* Cassiope tetragona (L.) DON.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Hedysarum obscurum L.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Oxytropis nigrescens (PALL.) FISCH. f. pygm&aelig;a CHAM.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,,&nbsp; &nbsp;  species?<br>
+* Rubus Cham&aelig;morus L.<br>
+* Comarum palustre L.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Potentilla fragiformis L. f. parviflora TRAUTV. f. villosa (PALL.)<br>
+* Sibbaldia procumbens L.<br>
+* Dryas octopetala L.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Spir&aelig;a betul&aelig;folia PALL. f. typica MAXIM.<br>
+* Hippuris vulgaris L.<br>
+* Saxifraga stellaris L f. comosa POIR.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;,,&nbsp; &nbsp;  punctata L.<br>
+*    ,,    cernua L.<br>
+*    ,,    rivularis L.<br>
+* Rhodiola rosea L.<br>
+* Empetrum nigrum L.<br>
+* Cardamine bellidifolia L.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cochlearia fenestrata R. BR. f. typica MALMGR. f. prostrata MALMGR.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Ranunculus Pallasii SEHLECHT.<br>
+*    ,,     nivalis L.<br>
+*    ,,     pygm&aelig;us WG.<br>
+*    ,,     hyperboreus ROTTB.<br>
+* Aconitum Napellus L. f. delphinifolia REICHENB.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Claytonia acutifolia WILLD.<br>
+* Wahlbergella apetala (L.) FR.<br>
+* Stellaria longipes GOLDIE. f. humilis FENZL.<br>
+*    ,,    humifusa ROTTB.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Cerastium maximum L.<br>
+*    ,,    alpinum L. f. hirsuta KOCH.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Alsine artica (STEV.) FENZL.<br>
+* Sagina nivalis (LINDBL.) FR.<br>
+* Polygonum Bistorta L.<br>
+*    ,,    viviparum L.<br>
+*     polymorphum L. f. frigida CHAM.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Rumex arcticus TRAUTV.<br>
+* Oxyria digyna (L.) HILL.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Salix boganidensis TRAUTV. f. latifolia.<br>
+*<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Salix Camissonis ANDERS.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;,,&nbsp;  arctica PALL.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;,,&nbsp;  euneata TURCZ.<br>
+*  ,,  reticulata L.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;,,&nbsp;  species?<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Betula glandulosa MICHX. f. rotundifolia REGEL.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Elymus mollis TRIN.<br>
+* Festuca rubra L. f. arenaria OSB.<br>
+* Poa flexuosa WG.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Arctophila effusa J. LGE.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Glyceria vilfoidea (ANDS.) TH. FR.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;,,&nbsp; &nbsp;  vaginata J. LGE. f. contracta J. LGE.<br>
+* Catabrosa algida (SOL.) FR.<br>
+* Colpodium latifolium R. BR. <br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Dupontia Fischeri R. BR.<br>
+* Trisetum subspicatum (L.) P.B.<br>
+* Aira c&aelig;spitosa L. f. borealis TRAUTV.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Alopecurus alpinus SM.<br>
+* Hierochloa alpina (LILJEBL.) ROEM. and SCH.<br>
+* Carex rariflora (WG.) SM.<br>
+*  ,,  aqvatilis f. epijegos LAEST.<br>
+*  ,,  glareosa WG.<br>
+*  ,,  lagopina WG.<br>
+* Eriophorum angustifolium ROTH.<br>
+*    ,,     vaginatum L.<br>
+*    ,,     russeolum FR.<br>
+* Luzula parviflora (EHRH.) DESV.<br>
+*   ,,  Wahlenbergii RUPR.<br>
+*   ,,  arcuata (WG.) SW. f. confusa LINDEB.<br>
+* Juncus biglumis L.<br>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;Lloydia serotina (L.) REICHENB.<br>
+</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn266"></a><a href="#v2rn266">[266]</a> <i>Redog&ouml;relse f&ouml;r den svenska polarexpeditionen &aring;r</i> 1872-73. Bihang till
+Vet.-Akad. Handl. Bd. 2, No. 18, p. 52. </p>
+<p><a name="v2fn267"></a><a href="#v2rn267">[267]</a> <i>Journal d'un Voyage aux Mers Polaires</i>. Paris, 1854. Pp. 177
+and 223.</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn268"></a><a href="#v2rn268">[268]</a> Heckel and Kner, <i>Die S&uuml;sswasserfische Oesterreichs</i>, p. 295.</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn269"></a><a href="#v2rn269">[269]</a> Even pretty far south, in Scandinavia, there occur places with frozen
+earth which seldom thaws. Thus in Egyptinkorpi mosses in Nurmi and
+Pjeli parishes in Finland pinewoods are found growing over layers or
+&quot;tufts&quot; of frozen sand, but also, in other places in Eastern Finland,
+we find layers containing stumps, roots, &amp;c., of different generations of
+trees, alternating with layers of frozen mould, according to a communication
+from the agronomic Axel Asplund. A contribution to the knowledge
+of the way, or one of the ways, in which such formations arise, we
+obtain from the known fact that mines with an opening to the air, so far
+south as the middle of Sweden, are filled in a few years with a coherent
+mass of ice if the opening is allowed to remain open. If it is shut the
+ice melts again, but for this decades are required.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn270"></a><a href="#v2rn270">[270]</a> Middendorff already states that the bottom of the sea of Okotsk is
+frozen (<i>Sibirische Reise</i>, Bd. 4, 1, p. 502).</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page70" id="v2page70"></a>[ pg 70 ]</span>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XII"></a><h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+<p>
+The history, physique, disposition, and manners of the Chukches
+</p><p>
+The north coast of Siberia is now, with the exception of its
+westernmost and easternmost parts, literally a desert. In the
+west there projects between the mouth of the Ob and the
+southern portion of the Kara Sea the peninsula of Yalmal,
+which by its remote position, its grassy plains, and rivers
+abounding in fish, appears to form the earthly paradise of the
+Samoyed of the present day. Some hundred families belonging
+to this race wander about here with their numerous reindeer
+herds. During winter they withdraw to the interior of the
+country or southwards, and the coast is said then to be uninhabited.
+This is the case both summer and winter, not only with
+Beli Ostrov and the farthest portion of the peninsula between
+the Ob and the Yenisej (Mattesol), but also with the long stretch
+of coast between the mouth of the Yenisej and Chaun Bay.
+During the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> in 1878 we did not see a single
+native. No trace of man could be discovered at the places
+where we landed, and though for a long time we sailed quite
+near land, we saw from the sea only a single house on the shore,
+viz, the before-mentioned wooden hut on the east side of
+Chelyuskin peninsula. Russian <i>simovies</i> and native encampments
+are indeed still found on the rivers some distance from
+their mouths, but the former coast population has withdrawn to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page71" id="v2page71"></a>[ pg 71 ]</span>
+the interior of the country or died out,<a name="v2rn271"></a><a href="#v2fn271">[271]</a> and the north coast of
+Asia first begins again to be inhabited at Chaun Bay, namely,
+by the tribe with whom we came in contact during the latter
+part of the coast voyage of the <i>Vega</i> in 1878 and during the
+wintering.
+</p><p>
+I have already, it is true, given an account of various traits
+of the Chukches' disposition and mode of life, but I believe at
+all events that a more exhaustive statement of what the <i>Vega</i>
+men experienced in this region will be interesting to my readers,
+even if in the course of it I am sometimes compelled to return
+to subjects of which I have already treated.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page72" id="v2page72"></a>[ pg 72 ]</span>
+<p>In West-European writings the race, which inhabits the
+north-easternmost portion of Asia, is mentioned for the first
+time, so far as I know, by WITSEN, who in the second edition of
+his work (1705, p. 671) quotes a statement by VOLODOMIR
+ATLASSOV, that the inhabitants of the northernmost portions of
+Siberia are called <i>Tsjuktsi</i>, without, however, giving any detailed
+description of the people themselves. In maps from the end of
+the seventeenth century names are still inscribed on this portion
+of land which were borrowed from the history of High Asia, as
+&quot;Tenduc,&quot; &quot;Quinsai,&quot; &quot;Catacora,&quot; &amp;c., but these are left out in
+VAN KEULEN'S atlas of 1709, and instead there stands here
+<i>Zuczari</i>. From about the same time we fall in with some
+accounts of the Chukches in the narrative of the distinguished
+painter CORNELIS DE BRUIN'S travels in Russia. A Russian
+merchant, MICHAEL OSTATIOF, who passed fourteen years in
+travelling in Siberia, gave de Bruin some information regarding
+the countries he had travelled through; among others he spoke
+of <i>Korakie</i> and <i>Socgtsie</i> The latter were sketched as a godless
+pack, who worship the devil and carry with them then fathers'
+bones to be used in their magical arts. The same Russian who
+made these statements had also come in contact with &quot;stationary&quot;
+(settled) Soegtsi, so called &quot;because they pass the whole winter
+hibernating, lying or sitting in their tents.&quot;<a name="v2rn272"></a><a href="#v2fn272">[272]</a> I have found the
+first somewhat detailed accounts of the race in the note on p.
+110 of the under-quoted work, <i>Histoire g&eacute;n&eacute;alogique des Tartares</i>,
+Leyden, 1726.  They are founded on the statements of Swedish
+prisoners of war in Siberia.
+</p><p>
+The Russians, however, had made a much earlier acquaintance
+with the Chukches; for during their conquest of Siberia they
+came in contact with this race before the middle of the seventeenth
+century. A company of hunters in 1646 sailed down the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page73" id="v2page73"></a>[ pg 73 ]</span>
+Kolyma river to the Polar Sea. East of the Kolyma they fell
+in with the Chukches, with whom they dealt in this way they
+laid down their goods on the beach and then retired, on which
+the Chukches came thither, took the goods, and laid furs, walrus
+tusks, or carvings in walrus ivory, in their place.<a name="v2rn273"></a><a href="#v2fn273">[273]</a> How such
+journeys were repeated and finally led to the circumnavigation
+of the north-easternmost promontory of Asia belongs to a
+following chapter.
+</p><p>
+During these journeys the Russians often came in contact
+with the tribe which inhabited the north-eastern part of Asia, a
+contact which in general was not of a friendly nature. The bold
+hunters who contributed powerfully to the conquest of Siberia,
+and who even at their own hand entered into conflicts with
+whole armies from the heavenly empire, appear not to have
+behaved well when confronted with the warriors of the Chukch
+race. Even the attempts that were made with professional
+soldiers to conquer the land of the Chukches were without
+result, less however, perhaps, on account of the armed opposition
+which the Chukches made than from the nature of the country
+and the impossibility of even a small body of troops supporting
+themselves. The following may be quoted as examples of these
+campaigns which throw light upon the former disposition and
+mode of life of this tribe.
+</p><p>
+In 1701 some Yukagires who were tributary to Russia determined
+to make an attack on the Chukches, and requested from
+the commandant at Anadyrsk assistance against these enemies.
+A body of troops numbering twenty-four Russians and 110
+Yukagires, was accordingly sent on a campaign along the coast
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page74" id="v2page74"></a>[ pg 74 ]</span>
+from Anadyrsk to Chukotskojnos. By the way they fell in with
+thirteen tents, inhabited by Chukches who owned no reindeer.
+The inhabitants were required to submit and pay tribute. This
+the Chukches refused to do, on which the Russians killed most
+of the men and took the women and children prisoners. The
+men who were not cut down killed one another, preferring death
+to the loss of freedom. Some days after there was another fight
+with 300 Chukches, which, however, was so unfortunate for the
+latter that 200 are said to have fallen. The rest fled, but
+returned next day with a force ten times as strong, which finally
+compelled the Russo-Yukagnean troop to return with their
+object unaccomplished.
+</p><p>
+A similar campaign on a small scale was undertaken in 1711,
+but with the same issue. On a demand for tribute the Chukches
+answered: &quot;the Russians have before come to us to demand
+tribute and hostages, but this we have refused to give, and thus
+we also intend to do in future.&quot;<a name="v2rn274"></a><a href="#v2fn274">[274]</a>
+</p><p>
+About fifteen years after this resultless campaign the Cossack
+colonel AFFANASSEJ SCHESTAKOV proposed to the Government
+again to subdue this obstinate race, intending also to go over to
+the American side, yet known only by report, in order to render
+the races living there tributary to the Russians. The proposal
+was accepted. A mate, JACOB HENS, a land-measurer, MICHAEL
+GVOSDEV, an ore-tester, HERDEBOL, and ten sailors were
+ordered by the Admiralty to accompany the expedition. At
+Yekaterinenburg Schestakov was provided with some small
+cannon and mortars with ammunition, and at Tobolsk with 400
+Cossacks. In consequence of a great number of misfortunes,
+among them shipwreck in the sea of Okotsk, there stood however
+but a small portion of this force at his disposal when he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page75" id="v2page75"></a>[ pg 75 ]</span>
+began his campaign by marching into the country from the
+bottom of Penschina Bay. This campaign too was exceedingly
+unfortunate. After only a few days' march he came unexpectedly
+on a large body of Chukches, who themselves had gone to
+war with the Kory&auml;ks. A fight took place on the 25th/14th March,
+1730, in which Schestakov himself fell, hit by an arrow, and his
+followers were killed or put to flight.
+</p><p>
+Among those who were ordered to accompany Schestakov in
+this unfortunate campaign was Captain DMITRI PAULUTSKI.
+Under his command a new campaign was undertaken against
+the Chukches With a force of 215 Russians, 160 Cossacks and
+60 Yukagires, Paulutski left Anadyrsk on the 23rd/12th March, 1731,
+and marched east of the sources of the Anadyr to the Polar Sea,
+which was only reached after two mouths' march. Then he
+went along the coast, partly by land, partly on the ice, to the
+eastward. After fourteen days he fell in with a large Chukch
+army, and having in vain summoned it to surrender, he
+delivered a blow on the 18/7th June, and obtained a complete
+victory over the enemy. During the continuation of the
+campaign along the coast he was compelled to fight on two
+other occasions, one on the 11th July/30th June and the other on the 26/11th July,
+at Chukotskojnos itself, over which promontory he wished to
+march to the mouth of the Anadyr. In both cases the victory
+lay with the Russians, who, according to M&uuml;ller's account based
+on the official documents, in all three engagements lost only
+three Cossacks, one Yukagire and five Kory&auml;ks. But notwithstanding
+all these defeats the Chukches refused to submit and
+pay tribute to the Russians, on which account the only gain of
+the campaign was the honour of avenging Schestakov's defeat
+and of marching in triumph over Chukotskojnos. For this, ten
+days were required. On the promontory, hills of considerable
+height had to be passed. It appears as if Paulutski followed the
+shore of Kolyutschin Bay to the south, and then marched over
+the tongue of land which separates this bay from Anadyr Bay,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page76" id="v2page76"></a>[ pg 76 ]</span>
+or to express it otherwise, which unites the Chukch peninsula
+to the mainland of Siberia.
+</p><p>
+Many mistakes in comprehending the accounts of old travels
+to these regions have arisen from our ignorance of the great
+southern extension of Kolyutschin Bay, and from the same
+name being frequently used to distinguish different places on
+the coasts of Siberia. Thus we find on the map by A. ARROW-SMITH
+annexed to Sauer's account of Billings' travels a Seidze
+Kamen on the south side of Chukch peninsula, and it was
+perhaps just this Seidze Kamen, known and so named by the
+dwellers on the Anadyr, that is mentioned in M&uuml;ller's account
+of Paulutski's campaign.
+</p><p>
+On the 1st Nov./21st Oct. Paulutski returned to Anadyrsk, crowned with
+victory indeed, but without having brought his adversaries to
+lasting submission. No new attempt was made to induce the
+Chukches to submit, perhaps because Paulutski's campaign had
+rendered it evident that it was easier to win victories over the
+Chukches than to subdue them, and that the whole treasures of
+walrus tusks and skins belonging to the tribe would scarcely
+suffice to pay the expenses of the most inconsiderable
+campaign.
+</p><p>
+Perhaps too the accounts of Paulutski's victories may not
+be quite correct, at least the old repute of Chukches as
+a brave and savage race remained undiminished. Thus we
+read in a note already quoted at page 110 of the <i>Histoire
+g&eacute;n&eacute;alogique des Tartares</i> <a name="v2rn275"></a><a href="#v2fn275">[275]</a> &quot;The north-eastern part of Asia is
+inhabited by two allied races, <i>Tzuktzchi</i> and <i>Tzchalatzki</i>, and
+south of them on the Eastern Ocean by a third, called <i>Olutorski</i>.
+They are the most savage tribe in the whole north of Asia, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page77" id="v2page77"></a>[ pg 77 ]</span>
+will have nothing to do with the Russians, whom they inhumanly
+kill when they fall in with them, and when any of them fall
+into the hands of the Russians they kill themselves&quot;. On the
+map of LOTTERUS (1765) the Chukch Peninsula is coloured in a
+way differing from Russian Siberia, and there is the following
+inscription <i>Tjukzchi natio ferocissima et bellicosa Russorum
+inimica, qui capti se invicem interficiunt</i>. In 1777 GEORGIUS
+says in his <i>Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs</i>
+(part ii., p. 350) of the Chukches &quot;They are more savage,
+coarse, proud, refractory, thievish, false, and revengeful, than the
+neighbouring nomads the Kory&auml;ks. They are as bad and
+dangerous as the Tunguses are friendly. Twenty Chukches will
+beat fifty Kory&auml;ks. The <i>Ostrogs</i> (fortified places) lying in the
+neighbourhood of their country are even in continual fear of
+them, and cost so much that the Government has recently
+withdrawn the oldest Russian settlement in those regions,
+Anadyrsk&quot;. Other statements to the same effect might be
+quoted, and even in our day the Chukches are, with or without
+justification, known in Siberia for stubbornness, courage, and
+love of freedom.
+</p><p>
+But what violence could not effect has been completely
+accomplished in a peaceful way.<a name="v2rn276"></a><a href="#v2fn276">[276]</a> The Chukches indeed do not
+pay any other taxes than some small market tolls, but a very
+active traffic is now carried on between them and the Russians,
+and many travellers have without inconvenience traversed their
+country, or have sailed along its pretty thickly inhabited coast.
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page78" id="v2page78"></a>[ pg 78 ]</span>
+Among former travellers on the Chukch peninsula, who visited
+the encampments of the coast Chukches, besides Behring, Cook,
+and other seafarers, the following may be mentioned:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+The Cossack, PETER ILIIN SIN POPOV, was sent in 1711 with
+two interpreters to examine the country of the Chukches, and
+has left some interesting accounts of his observations there
+(M&Uuml;LLER, <i>Sammlung Russischer Geschichten</i>, iii. p. 56).<a name="v2rn277"></a><a href="#v2fn277">[277]</a>
+</p><p>
+BILLINGS, with his companions SAUER, SARYTSCHEV, &amp;c.,
+visited Chukch-land in 1791. Among other things, accompanied
+by Dr. MERK, two interpreters and eight men, he
+made a journey from Metschigme Bay over the interior of
+Chukch-land to Yakutsk. Unfortunately the account we
+have of this remarkable journey is exceedingly incomplete.<a name="v2rn278"></a><a href="#v2fn278">[278]</a>
+</p><p>
+FERDINAND VON WRANGEL during his famous Siberian
+travels was much in contact with the Chukches, and among his
+other journeys travelled in the winter of 1823 in dog sledges
+along the coast of the Polar Sea from the Kolyma to Kolyutschin
+Island (Wrangel, <i>Reise</i>, ii. pp. 176-231). There are besides
+many notices of the Chukches at other places in the same
+work (i. pp. 267-293, ii. pp. 156, 168, &amp;c.).
+</p><p>
+FRIEDRICH VON L&Uuml;TK&Eacute; in the course of his circumnavigation
+of the globe in 1826-29, came in contact with the population
+of the Chukch peninsula, whom he described in detail in
+Erman's <i>Archiv</i> (iii. pp. 446-464). Here it ought to be noted
+that, while the population on the North coast consists of true
+Chukches, the coast population of the region which L&uuml;tk&eacute; visited,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page79" id="v2page79"></a>[ pg 79 ]</span>
+the stretch between the Anadyr and Cape Deschnev consists of
+a tribe, <i>Namollo</i>, which differs from the Chukches, and is
+nearly allied to the Eskimo on the American side of
+Behring's Straits.
+</p><p>
+The English Franklin Expedition in the <i>Plover</i>, commanded
+by Captain MOORE, wintered in 1848-49 at Chukotskojnos, and,
+both at the winter station and in the course of extensive
+excursions with dogs along the coast and to the interior of the
+country, came much into contact with the natives. The observations
+made during the wintering were published in a work
+of great importance for a knowledge of the tribes in question
+by Lieutenant W.H. HOOPER, <i>Ten Months among the Tents of
+the Tuski</i>, London, 1853.
+</p><p>
+C VON DITTMAR<a name="v2rn279"></a><a href="#v2fn279">[279]</a> travelled in 1853 in the north part of
+Kamchatka, and there came in contact with the reindeer
+nomads, especially with the Kory&auml;ks. The information he
+gives us about the Chukches (p. 126) he had obtained from the
+Nischni-Kolymsk merchant, TRIFONOV, who had traded with
+them for twenty-eight years, and had repeatedly travelled in the
+interior of the country.
+</p><p>
+Interesting contributions to a knowledge of the mode of living
+of the reindeer-Chukches were also collected by Baron G. VON
+MAYDELL, who, in 1868 and 1869, along with Dr. CARL VON
+NEUMANN and others, made a journey from Yakutsk by Sredni-Kolymsk
+and Anjui to Kolyutschin Bay. Unfortunately, with
+regard to this expedition, I have only had access to some notices
+in the <i>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society</i> (vol. 21,
+London 1877, p. 213), and <i>Das Ausland</i> (1880, p. 861). The
+proper sketch of the journey is to be found in <i>Isvestija</i>, published
+by the Siberian division of the Russian Geographical Society,
+parts 1 and 2.
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page80" id="v2page80"></a>[ pg 80 ]</span>
+With reference to the other travellers whose writings are
+usually quoted as sources for a knowledge of the Chukches, it
+may be mentioned that STELLER and KRASCHENINNIKOV only
+touch in passing on the true Chukches, but instead give very
+instructive and detailed accounts of the Kory&auml;ks, who are as
+nearly allied to the Chukches as the Spaniards to the Portuguese,
+but yet differ considerably in their mode of life, also that
+a part of these authors' statements regarding the Chukches do
+not at all refer to that tribe, but to the Eskimo. It appears
+indeed that recently, after the former national enmity had
+ceased, mixed races have arisen among these tribes. But it
+ought not to be forgotten that they differ widely in origin,
+although the Chukches as coming at a later date to the coast
+of the Polar Sea have adopted almost completely the hunting
+implements and household furniture of the Eskimo; and the
+Eskimo again, in the districts where they come in contact with
+the Chukches, have adopted various things from their language.
+</p><p>
+Like the Lapps and most other European and Asiatic Polar
+races, the Chukches fall into two divisions speaking the same
+language and belonging to the same race, but differing considerably
+in their mode of life. One division consists of reindeer
+nomads, who, with their often very numerous reindeer herds,
+wander about between Behring's Straits, and the Indigirka
+and the Penschina Bays. They live by tending reindeer and
+by trade, and consider themselves the chief part of the Chukch
+tribe. The other division of the race are the coast Chukches,
+who do not own any reindeer, but live in fixed but easily
+moveable and frequently moved tents along the coast between
+Chaun Bay and Behring's Status. But beyond East Cape there
+is found along the coast of Behring's Sea another tribe, nearly
+allied to the Eskimo. This is Wrangel's <i>Onkilon</i>, L&uuml;tk&eacute;'s
+<i>Namollo</i>. Now, however, Chukches also have settled at several
+points on this line of coast, and a portion of the Eskimo have
+adopted the language of the superior Chukch race. Thus the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page81" id="v2page81"></a>[ pg 81 ]</span>
+inhabitants at St. Lawrence Bay spoke Chukch, with little
+mixture of foreign words, and differed in their mode of life and
+appearance only inconsiderably from the Chukches, whom
+during the course of the winter we learned to know from nearly
+all parts of the Chukch peninsula. The same was the case with
+the natives who came on board the <i>Vega</i> while we sailed past
+East Cape, and with the two families we visited in Konyam Bay.
+But the natives in the north-west part of St. Lawrence Island
+talked an Eskimo dialect, quite different from Chukch. There
+were, however, many Chukch words incorporated with it. At
+Port Clarence on the contrary there lived pure Eskimo. Among
+them we found a Chukch woman who informed us that there
+were Chukch villages also on the American side of Behring's
+Strait, north of Prince of Wales Cape. These cannot, however,
+be very numerous or populous, as they are not mentioned in the
+accounts of the various English expeditions to those regions,
+they die not noticed for instance in Dr. JOHN SIMPSON'S
+instructive memoir on the Eskimo at Behring's Straits.
+</p><p>
+We were unable during the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> to obtain any
+data for estimating the number of the reindeer-Chukches. But
+the number of the coast Chukches may be arrived at in the following
+way. Lieutenant Nordquist collected from the numerous
+foremen who rested at the <i>Vega</i> information as to the names
+of the encampments which are to be found at present on the
+coast between Chaun Bay and Behring's Straits, and the number
+of tents at each village. He thus ascertained that the number
+of the tents in the coast villages amounts to about 400. The
+number of inhabitants in every tent may be, according to our
+experience, averaged at five. The population on the line of coast
+in question may thus amount to about 2,000, at most to 2,500,
+men, women, and children. The number of the reindeer-Chukches
+appears to be about the same. The whole population of Chukch
+Land may thus now amount to 4,000 or 5,000 persons. The
+Cossack Popov already mentioned, reckoned in 1711 that all the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page82" id="v2page82"></a>[ pg 82 ]</span>
+Chukches, both reindeer-owning and those with fixed dwellings,
+numbered 2,000 persons. Thus during the last two centuries,
+if these estimates are correct, this Polar race has doubled its
+numbers.
+</p><p>
+In order to give the reader an idea of the language of the
+Chukches, I have in a preceding chapter given an extract from
+the large vocabulary which Nordquist has collected. There
+appear to be no dialects differing very much from each other.
+Whether foreign words borrowed from other Asiatic languages
+have been adopted in Chukch we have not been able to make
+out. It is certain that no Russian words are used. The language
+strikes me as articulate and euphonious. It is nearly allied to
+the Kory&auml;k, but so different from other, both East-Asiatic and
+American, tongues, that philologists have not yet succeeded in
+clearing up the relationship of the Chukches to other races.
+</p><p>
+Like most other Polar tribes, the Chukches now do not belong
+to any unmixed race. This one is soon convinced of, if he considers
+attentively the inhabitants of a large tent-village. Some
+are tall, with tallowlike, raven-black hair, brown complexion,
+high aquiline nose&mdash;in short, with an exterior that reminds us
+of the descriptions we read of the North American Indians.
+Others again by their dark hair, slight beard, sunk nose or
+rather projecting cheek-bones and oblique eyes, remind us
+distinctly of the Mongolian race, and finally we meet among
+them with very fair faces, with features and complexion which
+lead us to suspect that they are descendants of runaways or
+prisoners of war of purely Russian origin. The most common
+type is&mdash;straight, coarse, black hair of moderate length, the
+brow tapering upwards, the nose finely formed, but with its
+root often flattened eyes by no means small, well-developed
+black eyebrows, projecting cheeks often swollen by frostbite,
+which is specially observable when the face is looked at from the
+side, light, slightly brown complexion, which in the young women
+is often nearly as red and white as in Europeans. The beard is
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page83" id="v2page83"></a>[ pg 83 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p097.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p097.png" alt="TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES." ></a>
+TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES.
+<br>1. Manschetsko a man from Pitlekaj. 2. Young man from Irgunnuk. 3. Chajdodlin a man from
+Irgunnuk. 4. Reindeer Chukch. 5. Old man from Irgunnuk. 6. Man from Yinretlen.
+<br>(After photographs by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page85" id="v2page85"></a>[ pg 85 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p098.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p098.png" alt="TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES." ></a>
+TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES.
+<br>1., 2. Nautsing, a woman from Pitlekaj. 3., 4. Rotschitlen. 5. Young man from Vankarema.
+<br>6. Young man from Irgunnuk.
+<br>(After photographs by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page87" id="v2page87"></a>[ pg 87 ]</span>
+always scanty. Nearly all are stout and well grown, we saw no
+cripples among them. The young women often strike one as
+very pretty if one can rid oneself of the unpleasant impression of
+the dirt, which is never washed away but by the drifting snow of
+winter, and of the nauseous train-oil odour which in winter they
+carry with them from the close tent-chamber. The children
+nearly always make a pleasant impression by their healthy
+appearance, and their friendly and becoming behaviour.
+</p><p>
+The Chukches are a hardy race, but exceedingly indolent
+when want of food does not force them to exertion. The men
+during their hunting excursions pass whole days in a cold of
+-30&deg; to -40&deg; out upon the ice, without protection and without
+carrying with them food or fuel. In such cases they slake their
+thirst with snow, and assuage their hunger, if they have been successful
+in hunting, with the blood and flesh of the animals they
+have killed. Women nearly naked often during severe cold leave
+for a while the inner tent, or tent-chamber, where the train-oil
+lamp maintains a heat that is at times oppressive. A foreigner's
+visit induces the completely naked children to half creep out from
+under the curtain of reindeer skin which separates the sleeping
+chamber from the exterior tent, in which, as it is not heated, the
+temperature is generally little higher than that of the air outside.
+In this temperature the mothers do not hesitate to show their
+naked children, one or two years of age, to visitors for some
+moments.
+</p><p>
+Diseases are notwithstanding uncommon, with the exception
+that in autumn, before the severe cold commences, nearly all
+suffer from a cough and cold. Very bad skin eruptions and
+sores also occur so frequently that a stay in the inner tent is
+thereby commonly rendered disgusting to Europeans. Some of
+the sores however are merely frostbites, which most Chukches
+bring on themselves by the carelessness with which during
+high winds they expose the bare neck, breast and wrists to
+the lowest temperature. When frostbite has happened it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page88" id="v2page88"></a>[ pg 88 ]</span>
+treated, even though of considerable extent, with extreme carelessness.
+They endeavour merely to thaw the frozen place as fast
+as possible partly by chafing, partly by heating. On the other
+hand we never saw anyone who had had a deep frostbite on the
+hands or feet, a circumstance which must be ascribed to the
+serviceable nature of their shoes and gloves. From the beginning
+of October 1878 to the middle of July 1879 no death appears
+to have happened at any of the encampments near us. During
+the same time the number of the inhabitants was increased by
+two or three births. During the wife's pregnancy the husband
+was very affectionate to her, gave her his constant company in
+the tent, kissed and fondled her frequently in the presence of
+strangers, and appeared to take a pride in showing her to
+visitors.
+</p><p>
+We had no opportunity of witnessing any burial or marriage.
+It appears as if the Chukches sometimes burn their dead, sometimes
+expose them on the <i>tundra</i> as food for beasts of prey, with
+weapons, sledges, and household articles. They have perhaps
+begun to abandon the old custom of burning the dead, since the
+hunting has fallen off so that the supply of blubber for burning
+has diminished. I have before described the pits filled with
+burned bones which Dr. Stuxberg found on the 9th September,
+1878, by the bank of a dried-up rivulet. We took them for
+graves, but not having seen any more at our winter station, we
+began to entertain doubts as to the correctness of our observation<a name="v2rn280"></a><a href="#v2fn280">[280]</a>.
+It is at least certain that the inhabitants of Pitlekaj
+exclusively bury their dead by laying them out on the <i>tundra</i>.
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page89" id="v2page89"></a>[ pg 89 ]</span><br>
+<p>
+Regarding the man, buried or exposed in this way, whom
+Johnsen found on the 15th October, Dr. Almquist, who himself
+visited the place the next day, makes the following statement&mdash;
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p101.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p101.png" alt="PLAN OF A CHUKCH GRAVE." ></a>
+PLAN OF A CHUKCH GRAVE.
+<br>(After a drawing by A. Stuxberg.)
+</div>
+<p class="blockquote">
+&quot;The place was situated five to seven kilometres from the
+village Yinretlen, near the bottom of the little valley which
+runs from this village in a southerly direction into the interior.
+The body was exposed on a little low knoll only two fathoms
+across. It was covered with loose snow, and was not frozen very
+hard. When it was loosened there was no proper pit to be seen in
+the underlying snow and ice. The corpse lay from true N.N.W.
+to S.S.E., with the head to the former quarter. Under the head
+lay two black rounded stones, such as the Chukches use in
+housekeeping. Besides these there was no trace of anything
+underlying or covering the corpse. The clothes had been torn
+by beasts of prey from the body, the back was quite untouched,
+but the face and breast were much wasted, and the arms and
+legs almost wholly eaten up. On the knoll evident traces of
+the wolf, the fox, and the raven were visible. Close to the
+right side of the corpse had lain the weapons which Johnson had
+brought home the day before. Near the feet was found a sledge
+completely broken in pieces, evidently new and smashed on the
+spot. Not far off, we found lying on the snow pieces of a <i>pesk</i>
+and of foot-coverings, both new and of the finest quality.
+Beasts of prey had undoubtedly torn them off and pulled them
+about. On the knoll there were found besides five or six other
+graves, distinguished by small stones or a wooden block lying on
+the even ground. Two of the graves were ornamented by a
+collection of reindeer horns. The severe cold prevented me
+from ascertaining whether these stones concealed the remains
+of buried corpses. I considered that I might take the Chukch's
+head, as otherwise the wolves would doubtless have eaten it up.
+It was taken on board and skeletonised.&quot;
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page90" id="v2page90"></a>[ pg 90 ]</span>
+In the spring of 1879, after the snow was melted, we had
+further opportunities of seeing a large number of burying-places,
+or more correctly of places where dead Chukches had
+been laid out. They were marked by stones placed in a peculiar
+way, and were measured and examined in detail by Dr. Stuxberg,
+who gives the following description of them:&mdash;
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p102.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p102.png" alt="TENT FRAME AT PITLEKAJ." ></a>
+TENT FRAME AT PITLEKAJ.
+<br>(After a drawing by G. Bove.)
+</div>
+<p class="blockquote">
+&quot;The Chukch graves on the heights south of Pitlekaj and
+Yinretlen, which were examined by me on the 4th and 7th
+July, 1879, were nearly fifty in number. Every grave consisted
+of an oval formed of large lying stones. At one end there was
+generally a large stone raised on its edge, and from the opposite
+end there went out one or two pieces of wood lying on the
+ground. The area within the stone circle was sometimes over-laid
+with small stones, sometimes free and overgrown with grass.
+At all the graves, at a distance of four to seven paces from the
+stone standing on its edge in the longitudinal axis of the grave
+or a little to the side of it, there was another smaller circle of
+stones inclosing a heap of reindeer horns, commonly containing
+also broken seals' skulls and other fragments of bones. Only
+in one grave were found pieces of human bones. The graves
+were evidently very old, for the bits of wood at the ends were
+generally much decayed and almost wholly covered with earth,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page91" id="v2page91"></a>[ pg 91 ]</span>
+and the stones were completely overgrown with lichens on the
+upper side.  I estimate the age of these graves at about two
+hundred years.&quot;
+</p><p>
+The Chukches do not dwell in snow huts, nor in wooden
+houses, because wood for building is not to be found in the
+country of the coast Chukches, and because wooden houses are
+unsuitable for the reindeer nomad. They live summer and
+winter in tents of a peculiar construction, not used by any other
+race. For in order to afford protection from the cold the tent is
+double, the outer envelope inclosing an inner tent or sleeping
+chamber. This has the form of a parallelopiped, about 3.5
+metres long, 2.2 metres broad, and 1.8 metre high. It is surrounded
+by thick, warm, reindeer skins, and is further covered
+with a layer of grass. The floor consists of a walrus skin
+stretched over a foundation of twigs and straw. At night the
+floor is covered with a, carpet of reindeer skins, which is taken
+away during the day. The rooms at the sides of the inner tent
+are also shut off by curtains, and serve as pantries. The inner tent
+is warmed by three train-oil lamps, which together with the heat
+given off by the numerous human beings packed together in the
+tent, raise the temperature to such a height that the inhabitants
+even during the severest winter cold may be completely naked.
+The work of the women and the cooking are carried on in winter in
+this tent-chamber, very often also the calls of nature are obeyed
+in it. All this conduces to make the atmosphere prevailing there
+unendurable. There are also, however, cleanlier families, in
+whose sleeping chamber the air is not so disgusting.
+</p><p>
+In summer they live during the day, and cook and work, in
+the outer tent. This consists of seal and walrus skins sewed
+together, which however are generally so old, hairless, and full
+of holes, that they appear to have been used by several generations.
+The skins of the outer tent are stretched over wooden
+ribs, which are carefully bound together by thongs of skin.
+The ribs rest partly on posts, partly on tripods of driftwood.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page92" id="v2page92"></a>[ pg 92 ]</span>
+The posts are driven into the ground, and the tripods get the
+necessary steadiness by a heavy stone or a seal-skin sack filled
+with sand being suspended from the middle of them. In order
+further to steady the tent a yet heavier stone is in the same way
+suspended by a strap from the top of the tent-roof, or the summit
+of the roof is made fast to the ground by thick thongs. At
+one place a tackle from a wrecked vessel was used for this
+purpose, being tightened with a block between the top of the
+roof and an iron hook frozen into the ground. The ribs in
+every tent are besides supported by T-formed cross stays.
+</p><p>
+The entrance consists of a low door, which, when necessary,
+may be closed with a reindeer skin. The floor of the outer
+tent consists of the bare ground. This is kept very clean, and
+the few household articles are hung up carefully and in an
+orderly manner along the walls on the inner and outer sides of
+the tent. Near the tent are some posts, as high as a man,
+driven into the ground, with cross pieces on which skin boats,
+oars, javelins, &amp;c., are laid, and from which fishing and seal nets
+are suspended.
+</p><p>
+In the neighbourhood of the dwellings the storehouse is placed.
+It consists of a cellar excavated at some suitable place. The
+sites of old Onkilon dwellings are often used for this purpose.
+The descent is commonly covered with pieces of driftwood which
+are loaded with stones, at one place the door, or rather the
+hatch, of the cellar consisted of a whale's shoulder-blade. In
+consequence of the unlimited confidence which otherwise was
+wont to prevail between the natives and us, we were surprised
+to find them unwilling to give the <i>Vega</i> men admittance to
+their storehouses. Possibly the report of our excavations for
+old implements at the sites of Onkilon dwellings at Irkaipij had
+spread to Kolyutschin, and been interpreted as attempts at
+plunder.
+</p><p>
+The tents were always situated on the sea shore, generally on
+the small neck of land which separates the strand lagoons from
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page93" id="v2page93"></a>[ pg 93 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/v2p105.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p105.png" alt="CHUKCH OAR." ></a>
+CHUKCH OAR.
+<br>One-sixteenth of the natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+the sea. They are erected and taken down in a few hours. A
+Chukch family can therefore easily change its place of residence,
+and does remove very often from one village to another. Sometimes
+it appears to own the wooden frame of a tent at several
+places, and in such cases at removal there are
+taken along only the tent covering, the dogs, and
+the most necessary skin and household articles.
+The others are left without inclosure, lock, or
+watch, at the former dwelling-place, and one is
+certain to find all untouched on his return.
+During short stays at a place there are used,
+even when the temperature of the air is considerably
+under the freezing-point, exceedingly
+defective tents or huts made with the skin
+boats that may happen to be available. Thus a
+young couple who returned in spring to Pitlekaj
+lived happy and content in a single thin and
+ragged tent or conical skin hut which below where
+it was broadest was only two and a half metres
+across. An accurate inventory, which I took
+during the absence of the newly married pair,
+showed that their whole household furniture consisted
+of a bad lamp, a good American axe, some
+reindeer skins, a small piece of mirror, a great
+many empty preserve tins from the <i>Vega</i>, which
+among other things were used for cooking, a fire-drill,
+a comb, leather for a pair of moccassins, some
+sewing implements, and some very incomplete
+and defective tools.
+</p><p>
+The boats are made of walrus skin, sewed together
+and stretched over a light frame-work of wood and pieces of bone.
+The different parts of the frame-work are bound together with
+thongs of skin or strings of whalebone. In form and size the
+Chukches' large boat, <i>atkuat</i>, called by the Russians <i>baydar</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page94" id="v2page94"></a>[ pg 94 ]</span> corresponds completely with the Greenlander's <i>umiak</i> or woman's
+boat. It is so light that four men can take it upon their
+shoulders, and yet so roomy that thirty men can be conveyed
+in it. One seldom sees <i>anatkuat</i>, or boats intended for only one
+man; they are much worse built and uglier than the Greenlander's
+<i>kayak</i>. The large boats are rowed with broad-bladed
+oars, of which every man or woman manages only one. By
+means of these oars a sufficient number of rowers can for a little
+raise the speed of the boat to ten kilometres per hour. Like
+the Greenlanders, however, they often cease rowing in order to
+rest, laugh, and chatter, then row furiously for some minutes
+rest themselves again, row rapidly, and so on. When the sea is
+covered with thin newly formed ice they put two men in the
+fore of the boat with one leg over in order to trample the ice
+in pieces.
+
+During winter the boats are laid up, and instead the dog-sledges
+are put in order. These are of a different construction
+from the Greenland sledges, commonly very light and narrow,
+made of some flexible kind of wood, and shod with plates of
+whales' jawbones, whales' ribs, or whalebone. In order to improve
+the running, the runners before the start are carefully
+covered with a layer of ice from two or three millimetres in
+thickness by repeatedly pouring water over them.<a name="v2rn281"></a><a href="#v2fn281">[281]</a> The different
+parts of the sledge are not fastened together by nails, but
+are bound together by strips of skin or strings of whalebone.
+On the low uncomfortable seat there commonly lies a piece of
+skin, generally of the Polar bear. The number of dogs that are
+harnessed to each sledge is variable. I have seen a Chukch
+riding behind two small lean dogs, who however appeared to
+draw their heavy load over even hard snow without any extraordinary
+exertion. At other sledges I have seen ten or twelve
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page95" id="v2page95"></a>[ pg 95 ]</span>
+
+dogs, and a sledge laden with goods was drawn by a team of
+twenty-eight. The dogs are generally harnessed one pair before
+another to a long line common to all,<a name="v2rn282"></a><a href="#v2fn282">[282]</a> sometimes in the case of
+short excursions more than two abreast, or so irregularly that
+their position in relation to the sledge appears to have depended
+merely on the accidental length of the draught-line and the
+caprice of the driver. The dogs are guided not by reins but by
+continual crying and shouting, accompanied by lashes from a
+long whip. There is, besides, in every properly equipped sledge
+a short and thick staff mounted with iron, with a number
+of iron rings attached to the upper end. When nothing else
+will do, this staff is thrown at the offending animal. The staff
+is so heavy that the animal may readily get its death by such a
+throw. The dogs know this, and in consequence are so afraid of
+this grim implement that the rattling of the rings is sufficient
+to induce them to put forth extreme efforts. During rests the
+team is tied to the staff, which is driven into the snow.
+
+The dog harness is made of inch-wide straps of skin, forming
+a neck or shoulder band, united on both sides by a strap to a
+girth, to one side of which the draught strap is fastened.
+Thanks to the excellent protection against the harness galling
+which the bushy coat of the dogs affords, little attention is
+needed for the harness, and I have never seen a single dog that
+was idle in consequence of sores from the harness. On the
+other hand, their feet are often hurt by the sharp snow. On
+
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page96" id="v2page96"></a>[ pg 96 ]</span>
+this account the equipment of every sledge embraces a number
+of dog shoes of the appearance shown in the accompanying
+woodcut. They are used only in case of need.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:10%;"><a href="images/v2p106.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p106.png" alt="DOG SHOE." ></a>
+DOG SHOE.
+<br>One-third of natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+The Chukch dogs are of the same breed, but smaller, than
+the Eskimo dogs in Danish Greenland. They resemble wolves,
+are long-legged, long-haired, and shaggy. The ears are short,
+commonly upright, their colour very variable, from black or
+white, and black or white spotted, to grey or yellowish-brown.
+For innumerable generations they have been used as draught
+animals, while as watch dogs they have not been required in a
+country where theft or robbery appears never to take place.
+The power of barking they have therefore completely
+lost, or perhaps they never possessed it.
+Even a European may come into the outer
+tent without any of the dogs there informing
+their owners sleeping in the inner tent by a
+sound of the foreigner's arrival.
+</p><p>
+On the other hand, they are good though
+slow draught animals, being capable of long-continued
+exertion. They are as dirty and
+as peaceable as their owners. There are no
+fights made between dog-teams belonging to
+different tents, and they are rare between the
+dogs of an encampment and those of strangers. In Europe
+dogs are the friends of their masters and the enemies of
+each other, here they are the friends of each other and the
+slaves of their masters. In winter they appear in case of
+necessity to get along with very little food, they are then exceedingly
+lean, and for the most part are motionless in some
+snow-drift. They seldom leave the neighbourhood of the tent
+alone, not even to search for food or hunt at their own hand
+and for their own account. This appears to me so much the
+more remarkable, as they are often several days, I am inclined
+to say weeks, in succession without getting any food from their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page97" id="v2page97"></a>[ pg 97 ]</span>
+masters. A piece of a whale, with the skin and part of the
+flesh adhering, washed out of frozen sandy strata thus lay
+untouched some thousand paces from Pitlekaj, and the neighbourhood
+of the tents, where the hungry dogs were constantly
+wandering about, formed, as has been already stated, a favourite
+haunt for ptarmigan and hares during winter. Young dogs
+some months old are already harnessed along with the team in
+order that they may in time become accustomed to the draught
+tackle. During the cold season the dogs are permitted to live
+in the outer tent, the females with their young even in the
+inner. We had two Scotch collies with us on the <i>Vega</i>. They
+at first frightened the natives very much with their bark.
+To the dogs of Chukches they soon took the same superior
+standing as the European claims for himself in relation to the
+savage. The dog was distinctly preferred by the female Chukch
+canine population, and that too without the fights to which
+such favour on the part of the fair commonly gives rise. A
+numerous canine progeny of mixed Scotch-Chukch breed has
+thus arisen at Pitlekaj. The young dogs had a complete
+resemblance to their father, and the natives were quite charmed
+with them.
+</p><p>
+When a dog is to be killed the Chukch stabs it with his
+spear, and then lets it bleed to death. Even when the scarcity
+was so great that the natives at Pitlekaj and Yinretlen lived
+mainly on the food we gave them, they did not eat the dogs
+they killed. On the other hand they had no objection to eating
+a shot crow.
+</p><p>
+When the Chukch goes out on the ice to hunt seals he takes
+his dogs with him, and it is these which take home the catch,
+commonly with the draught-line fastened directly to the head
+of the killed seal, which is then turned on its back and dragged
+over the ice without anything under it. One of the inhabitants
+of Yinretlen returned from the open water off the coast
+after a successful hunting expedition with five seals, of which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page98" id="v2page98"></a>[ pg 98 ]</span>
+the smallest was laid on the sledge, the others being fastened
+one behind the other in a long row. After the last was drawn
+a long pole, which was used in setting the net.
+</p><p>
+The dress of the Chukches is made of reindeer or seal-skin.
+The former, because it is warmer, is preferred as material for
+the winter dress. The men in winter are clad in two <i>pesks</i>,
+that which is worn next the body is of thin skin with the hair
+inwards, the outer is of thick skin with the hair outwards.
+Besides, they wear, when it rains or wet snow falls, a great coat
+of gut or of cotton cloth, which they call <i>calico</i>. On one occasion
+I saw such an overcoat made of a kind of reindeer-chamois
+leather, which was of excellent quality and evidently
+of home manufacture. It had been originally white, but was ornamented
+with broad brown painted borders. Some red and blue
+woollen shirts which we gave them were also worn above the
+skin clothes, and by then showy colours awakened great satisfaction
+in the owners. The Chukch <i>pesk</i> is shorter than the Lapp
+one. It does not reach quite to the knees, and is confined at
+the waist with a belt. Under the <i>pesk</i> are worn two pairs of
+trousers, the inner pair with the hair inwards, and the outer with
+the hair outwards. The trousers are well made, close fitting, and
+terminate above the foot. The foot-covering consists of reindeer
+or seal-skin moccasins, which above the foot are fastened to
+the trousers in the way common among the Lapps. The soles
+are of walrus-skin or bear-skin, and have the hair side inwards.
+On the other parts of the moccasin the hair is outwards. Within
+the shoes are seal-skin stockings and hay. The head covering
+consists of a hood embroidered with beads, over which in severe
+cold is drawn an outer hood bordered with dog-skin. The outer
+hood is often quite close under the chin, and extends in a very
+well-fitting way over the shoulders. To a complete dress there
+also belong a skin neckerchief or boa, and a neck covering of
+multiple reindeer-skins, or of different kinds of skins sewn
+together in chess-board-like squares. In summer and far into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page99" id="v2page99"></a>[ pg 99 ]</span>
+the autumn the men go bareheaded, although they clip the hair
+on the crown of the head close to the root.
+</p><p>
+During the warm season of the year a number of the winter
+wraps are laid off in proportion to the increase of the heat, so
+that the dress finally consists merely of a <i>pesk</i>, an overcoat, and
+a pair of trousers. The summer moccassins are often as long in
+the leg as our sea-boots. In the tent the men wear only short
+trousers reaching to the hip, together with leather belts (health-belts)
+at the waist and on the arms. The man's dress is not
+much ornamented. On the other hand the men often wear
+strings of beads in the ears, or a skin band set with large,
+tastefully arranged beads or a leather band with some large
+beads on the brow. The leather band they will not willingly
+part with, and a woman told us that the beads in it indicate
+the number of enemies the wearer has killed. I am, however,
+quite certain that this was only an empty boast. Probably our
+informant referred to a tradition handed down from former warlike
+periods to the present time, and thus we have here only a
+Chukch form of the boasting about martial feats common even
+among civilised nations.
+</p><p>
+To the dress of the men there belongs further a screen for the
+eyes, which is often beautifully ornamented with beads and
+silver mounting. This screen is worn especially in spring as a
+protection from the strong sunlight reflected from the snow-plains.
+At this season of the year snow-blindness is very
+common, but notwithstanding this snow-spectacles of the kind
+which the Eskimo and even the Samoyeds use are unknown
+here.
+</p><p>
+The men are not tattooed, but have sometimes a black or red
+cross painted on the cheek. They wear the hair cut close to
+the root, with the exception of a short tuft right on the crown
+of the head and a short fringe above the brow. The women
+have long hair, parted right in the middle, and plaited along
+with strings of beads into plaits which hang down by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page100" id="v2page100"></a>[ pg 100 ]</span>
+ears. They are generally tattooed on the face, sometimes also
+on the arms or other parts of the body. The tattooing is done
+by degrees, possibly certain lines are first made at marriage.
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p110.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p110.png" alt="CHUKCH FACE TATTOOING." ></a>
+CHUKCH FACE TATTOOING.
+<br>(After a drawing by A. Stuxberg.)
+</div>
+<p>
+The dress of the women, like that of the men, is double
+during winter. The outer <i>pesk</i>, which is longer and wider than
+the man's, passes downwards into a sort of very wide trousers.
+The sleeves too are exceedingly wide, so that the arm may easily
+be drawn in and stuck out. Under the outer <i>pesk</i> there is an
+inner <i>pesk</i>, or skin-shirt, and under them a pair of very short
+trousers is worn. Where the outer <i>pesk</i> ends the <i>moccassins</i>
+begin. At the neck the <i>pesk</i> is much cut away, so that a part
+of the back is bare. I have seen girls go with the upper part
+of the back exposed in this way even in a cold of -30&deg; or -40&deg;.
+The stockings have the hair inwards, they are bordered with
+dog-skin, and go to the knees. The moccasins, chin-covers,
+hoods, and neckerchiefs differ little from the corresponding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page101" id="v2page101"></a>[ pg 101 ]</span>
+articles of men's dress The woman's dress is in general more
+ornamented than the man's, and the skins used for it appear to
+be more carefully chosen and prepared. In the inner tent the
+women go nearly naked, only with quite short under-trousers of
+skin or <i>calico</i> or a narrow <i>cingulum pudiciti&aelig;</i> On the naked
+body there are worn besides one or two leather bands on one
+arm, a leather band on the throat, another round the waist, and
+some bracelets of iron or less frequently of copper on the wrists.
+The younger women however do not like to show themselves in
+this dress to foreigners, and they therefore hasten at their
+entrance to cover the lower part of the body with the <i>pesk</i>, or
+some other piece of dress that may be at hand.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p111.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p111.png" alt="CHUKCH CHILDREN." ></a>
+CHUKCH CHILDREN.
+<br><i>a</i> Girl from Irgunnuk (After a photograph by L. Palander) <i>b</i> Boy from Pitlekaj, with his
+mother's hood on. (After a drawing by the seaman Hansson.)
+</div>
+<p>When the children are some years old they get the same
+dress as their parents, different for boys and girls. While small
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page102" id="v2page102"></a>[ pg 102 ]</span>
+they are put into a wide skin covering with the legs and arms
+sewed together downwards. Behind there is a four-cornered
+opening through which moss (the white, dead part of
+Sphagnum), intended to absorb the excreta, is put in and
+changed. At the ends of the arms two loops are fastened,
+through which the child's legs are passed when the mother
+wishes to put it away in some corner of the tent. The dress
+itself appears not to be changed until it has become too small.
+In the inner tent the children go completely naked.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p112.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p112.png" alt="SNOW SHOES." ></a>
+SNOW SHOES.
+<br><i>a</i> The common kind. <i>b</i>Intended to be used in the way shown in the drawing on the
+opposite page.
+<br>(One-thirteenth of the natural size.)
+</div>
+<p>
+Both men and women use snow-shoes during winter. Without
+them they will not willingly undertake any long walk in
+loose snow. They consider such a walk so tiresome, that they
+loudly commiserated one of my crew, who had to walk without
+snow-shoes after drifting weather from the village Yinretlen to
+the vessel, about three kilometres distant. Finally a woman's
+compassion went so far that she presented him with a pair, an
+instance of generosity on the part of our Chukch friends which
+otherwise was exceedingly rare. The frame of the snow-shoes
+is made of wood, the cross-pieces are of strong and well-stretched
+thongs. This snow-shoe corresponds completely with that of
+the Indians, and is exceedingly serviceable and easy to get
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page103" id="v2page103"></a>[ pg 103 ]</span>
+accustomed to. Another implement for travelling over snow
+was offered by a Chukch who drove past the vessel in the
+beginning of February. It consisted of a pair of immensely
+wide skates of thin wood, covered with seal-skin, and raised at
+both sides. I had difficulty in understanding how these broad
+shapeless articles could be used with advantage until I learned
+from the accompanying drawing that they may be employed as
+a sort of sledges. The drawing is taken from a Japanese work,
+whose title when translated runs thus: A Journey to the
+north part of Japan (Yezo), 1804 (No. 565 of the Japanese
+library I brought home with me).
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p113.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p113.png" alt="AN AINO MAN SKATING AFTER A REINDEER." ></a>
+AN AINO MAN SKATING AFTER A REINDEER.
+<br>(Japanese drawing.)
+</div>
+<p>
+In consequence of the difficulty which the Chukch has during
+winter in procuring water by melting snow over the train-oil
+lamp, there can be no washing of the body at that season of the
+year. Faces are however whipped clean by the drifting snow,
+but at the same time are generally swollen or sore from frostbite.
+On the whole, the disposition of the Chukches to cleanliness
+is slight, and above all, their ideas of what is clean or
+unclean differs considerably from ours. Thus the women use
+urine as a wash for the face. At a common meal the hand is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page104" id="v2page104"></a>[ pg 104 ]</span>
+often used as a spoon, and after it is finished, a bowl filled with
+newly-passed urine instead of water is handed round the
+company for washing the hands. Change of clothes takes place
+seldom, and even when the outer dress is clean, new and well
+cut, of carefully-chosen beautiful skins, the under-dress is very
+dirty, and vermin numerous enough, though less so than might
+have been expected. Food is often eaten in a way which we
+consider disgusting, a titbit, for instance, is
+passed from mouth to mouth. The vessels
+in which food is served are used in many
+ways and seldom cleaned. On the other
+hand it may be stated that, in order not to
+make a stay in the confined tent-chamber
+too uncomfortable, certain rules are strictly
+observed. Thus, for instance, it is not permitted
+in the interior of the tent to spit on
+the floor, but this must be done into a vessel
+which in case of necessity is used as a night-utensil.
+In every outer tent there lies a
+specially carved reindeer horn, with which
+snow is removed from the clothes, the outer
+<i>pesk</i> is usually put off before one goes into
+the inner tent and the shoes are carefully
+freed from snow. The carpet of walrus-skin,
+which covers the floor of the inner
+tent, is accordingly dry and clean. Even
+the outer tent is swept clean and free from
+loose snow, and the snow is daily shovelled
+away from the tent doors with a spade of whalebone. Every
+article both in the outer and inner tent is laid in its proper
+place, and so on.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v2p114.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p114.png" alt="HUNTING CUP and SNOW SCRAPER." ></a>
+<br><i>a</i> HUNTING CUP. (sucking tube). (One-fourth of the natural size.)
+<br><i>b</i> SNOW SCRAPER. (One-eighth of the natural size.)
+</div>
+<p>
+As ornaments glass beads are principally used, some of them
+being suspended from the neck and ears, others sewed upon
+the hood and other articles of dress, or plaited into the hair
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page105" id="v2page105"></a>[ pg 105 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p115.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p115.png" alt="CHUKCH WEAPONS AND HUNTING IMPLEMENTS." ></a>
+CHUKCH WEAPONS AND HUNTING IMPLEMENTS.
+<br>
+1. Harpoon (one-fifteenth of the natural size). 2. Spear found at a grave (one-fourth). 3. Bird
+sling (one-eighth). 4. Darts with whip sling for casting them (one-seventh). 5. Bird Dart
+with wooden handle for throwing (one-twelfth). 6. Leister of bone (one-fourth). 7. Ivory
+coat of mail (one-ninth).
+</div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page106" id="v2page106"></a>[ pg 106 ]</span>
+Embroidery of very pleasing
+patterns is also employed. In
+order to embellish the <i>pesks</i>
+strips of skin or marmots' and
+squirrels' tails, &amp;c., are sewed
+upon them. Often a variegated
+artificial tail of different
+skins is fixed to the hood behind,
+or the skin of the hood
+is so chosen that the ears of
+the animal project on both
+sides of the head. Along with
+the beads are fixed amulets,
+wooden tongs, small bone heads
+or bone figures, pieces of metal,
+coins, &amp;c. One child had suspended
+from its neck an old
+Chinese coin with a square
+hole in the middle, together
+with a new American five-cent
+piece.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p116.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p116.png" alt="CHUKCH BOW AND QUIVER." ></a>
+CHUKCH BOW AND QUIVER.
+<br>(One-eighth of the natural size.)
+</div>
+<p>
+In former times beautiful
+and good weapons were probably
+highly prized by so warlike
+a people as the Chukches,
+but now weapons are properly
+scarce antiquities, which, however,
+are still regarded with a
+certain respect, and therefore
+are not readily parted with.
+The lance which was found
+beside the corpse (<a href="#v2page105">fig. 2 on
+p. #105</a>) shows by its still partially
+preserved gold decorations
+that it had been forged
+by the hand of an artist.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page107" id="v2page107"></a>[ pg 107 ]</span>
+Probably it has formed part of the booty won long ago in the
+fights with the Cossacks. I procured by barter an ivory coat
+of mail (<a href="#v2page105">fig. 7 on p. 105</a>), and remains of another. The ivory
+plates of the coat of mail are twelve centimetres in length, four
+in breadth, and nearly one in thickness, holes being bored at
+their edges for the leather thongs by which the plates are
+bound together. This binding has been so arranged that the
+whole coat of mail, when not in use, may be rolled together.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p117.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p117.png" alt="CHUKCH ARROWS." ></a>
+CHUKCH ARROWS.
+<br>(One-ninth of the natural size.) <i>a</i> An arrowhead (one-half the natural size).
+</div>
+<p>
+Along with the spear and the coat of mail the old Chukches
+used the bow for martial purposes. Now this weapon is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page108" id="v2page108"></a>[ pg 108 ]</span>
+employed only for hunting, but it appears as if even for this
+purpose it would soon go out of use. Some of the natives,
+however, use the bow with great accuracy of aim. The bows
+which I procured commonly consisted of a badly worked, slightly
+bent, elastic piece of wood, with the ends drawn together by
+a skin thong. Only some old bows had a finer form. They
+were larger, and made with care, for instance, they were covered
+with birch-bark, and strengthened by an artistic plaiting of
+sinews on the outer side. The arrows are of many kinds,
+partly with bone or wooden, and partly with iron, points.
+Feathers are generally wanting. The shaft is a clumsily worked
+piece of wood. Crossbows are occasionally used. We have
+even seen bows for playthings, with carefully made, non-pointed
+arrows. At the encampments near the winter station we found
+a couple of percussion-lock guns, with caps, powder and lead.
+They were evidently little used, and my attempt to induce the
+Chukches to undertake long journeys by promises of a gun
+with the necessary supply of powder and lead completely
+failed. When the Chukch, who carried our letters to Nischni
+Kolymsk, was after his return rewarded with a red shirt, a
+gun, caps, powder and ball, he wished to exchange the gun and
+ammunition for an axe.
+</p><p>
+The principal livelihood of the Chukches is derived from
+hunting and fishing. Both are very abundant at certain seasons
+of the year, but are less productive during the cold season, in
+which case, in consequence of the little forethought of the
+savage, there arises great scarcity both of food and fuel and
+the means of melting snow. Of their hunting and fishing
+implements I cannot give so complete accounts as I should
+wish, because they very carefully avoided taking any of the
+<i>Vega's</i> hunters with them on their hunting excursions.
+</p><p>
+The rough seal is taken with nets, made of strong seal-skin
+thongs. The nets are set in summer among the ground-ices
+along the shore. The animal gets entangled in the net and is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page109" id="v2page109"></a>[ pg 109 ]</span>
+suffocated, as it can no longer come to the surface to breathe.
+In winter the seal is taken partly with nets in &quot;leads&quot; among
+the ice, partly with the harpoon when it crawls out of its hole,
+it is also taken by means of a noose of thongs placed over its
+hole. In order to avoid the loss of the valuable seal-blood,
+which is considered an extraordinary delicacy by the Chukches,
+the animal is never killed by an edged tool, if that can be
+avoided, but by repeated blows on the head. The bear is killed
+by the lance or knife, the latter, according to the statement of a
+Chukch, being the surest weapon, the walrus and the largest
+kind of seals with the harpoon (<a href="#v2page105">fig. 1, p. 105</a>), or a lance
+resembling the Greenlander's. Even the whale is harpooned,
+but with a harpoon considerably larger than the common, and
+to which as many as six inflated seal-skins are fastened. In
+order to kill a whale a great many such harpoons must be
+struck into it.  Birds are taken in snares, or killed with bird-javelins,
+arrows, and slings. The last mentioned (<a href="#v2page105">fig. 3, p. 105</a>)
+consist of a number of round balls of bone fastened to leather
+thongs, which are knotted together. Some feathers are often
+fixed to the knot in order to increase the resistance of the air to
+this part of the sling. When the sling is thrown the bone balls
+are thereby scattered in all directions, and the probability of
+hitting becomes greater. Every man and boy in summer carries
+with him such a sling, often bound round his head, and is
+immediately prepared to cast it at flocks of birds flying past.
+Common slings are also used, consisting of two thongs and a
+piece of skin fastened to them. The bird-dart (<a href="#v2page105">fig. 5, p. 105</a>)
+completely resembles that used by the Eskimo. A kind of
+snare was used by the boys at Yinretlen to catch small birds
+for our zoologist. They were made of whalebone fibres.
+</p><p>
+Fish are caught partly with nets, partly with the hook or with
+a sort of leister (<a href="#v2page105">fig. 6, p. 105</a>). The nets are made of sinew-thread.
+I procured several of these, and was surprised at the
+small value which the natives set upon them, notwithstanding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page110" id="v2page110"></a>[ pg 110 ]</span>
+the hard labour which must have been required for preparing
+the thread and making the net. The nets are also sometimes
+used as drift-nets. The fishing-rod consists of a shaft only
+thirty centimetres long, to which is fixed a short line made of
+sinews. The extreme end of the line passes through a large
+sinker of ivory, to which are attached two or three tufts each
+with its hook of bone only, or of bone and copper, or bone and
+iron. The hook has three or four points projecting in different
+directions. I have before described how the hook is used in
+autumn in fishing for roach, also how the productive fishing
+goes on in the neighbourhood of Tjapka.
+</p><p>
+Even for the coast Chukch reindeer flesh appears to form an
+important article of food. He probably purchases his stock of
+it from the reindeer-Chukches for train-oil, skin straps, walrus
+tusks, and perhaps fish. I suppose that part of the frozen
+reindeer blood, which the inhabitants of the villages at our
+winter station used for soup, had been obtained in the same
+way. Wild reindeer, or reindeer that had run wild, were
+hunted with the lasso. Such animals, however, do not appear
+now to be found in any large numbers on the Chukch peninsula.
+</p><p>
+Besides fish and flesh the Chukches consume immense quantities
+of herbs and other substances from the vegetable kingdom.<a name="v2rn283"></a><a href="#v2fn283">[283]</a>
+The most important of these are the leaves and young branches
+of a great many different plants (for instance Salix, Rhodiola,
+&amp;c.) which are collected and after being cleaned are preserved
+in seal-skin sacks. Intentionally or unintentionally the contents
+of the sacks sour during the course of the summer. In autumn
+they freeze together to a lump of the form of the stretched
+seal-skin. The frozen mass is cut in pieces and used with flesh,
+much in the same way as we eat bread. Occasionally a vegetable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page111" id="v2page111"></a>[ pg 111 ]</span>
+soup is made from the pieces along with water, and is eaten
+warm. In the same way the contents of the reindeer stomach
+is used. Algae and different kinds of roots are also eaten, among
+the latter a kind of wrinkled tubers, which, as already stated
+(<a href="#v1page450">Vol. I., p. 450</a>) have a very agreeable taste.
+</p><p>
+In summer the Chukches eat cloud-berries, red bilberries, and
+other berries, which are said to be found in great abundance in
+the interior of the country. The quantity of vegetable matter
+which is collected for food at that season of the year is very
+considerable, and the natives do not appear to be very particular
+in their choice, if the leaves are only green, juicy, and free from
+any bitter taste. When the inhabitants, in consequence of
+scarcity of food, removed in the beginning of February from
+Pitlekaj, they carried with them several sacks of frozen vegetables,
+and there were still some left in the cellars to be taken
+away as required. In the tents at St. Lawrence Bay there lay
+heaps of leaf-clad willow-twigs and sacks filled with leaves and
+stalks of Rhodiola. The writers who quote the Chukches as
+an example of a race living exclusively on substances derived
+from the animal kingdom thus commit a complete mistake. On
+the contrary, they appear at certain seasons of the year to be more
+&quot;graminivorous&quot; than any other people I know, and with respect
+to this their taste appears to me to give the anthropologist a hint
+of certain traits of the mode of life of the people of the Stone Age
+which have been completely overlooked. To judge from the
+Chukches our primitive ancestors by no means so much resembled
+beasts of prey as they are commonly imagined to have
+done, and it may, perhaps, have been the case that &quot;bellum
+omnium inter omnes&quot; was first brought in with the higher
+culture of the Bronze or Iron Age.
+</p><p>
+The cooking of the Chukches, like that of most wild races,
+is very simple. After a successful catch all the dwellers in the
+tent gormandise on the killed animal, and appear to find a
+special pleasure in making their faces and hands as bloody as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page112" id="v2page112"></a>[ pg 112 ]</span>
+possible. Alternately with the raw flesh are eaten pieces of
+blubber and marrow, and bits of the intestines which have been
+freed from their contents merely by pressing between the fingers.
+Fish is eaten not only in a raw state, but also frozen so hard
+that it can be broken in pieces. When opportunity offers the
+Chukches do not, however, neglect to boil their food, or to roast
+pieces of flesh over the train-oil lamp&mdash;the word <i>roast</i> ought
+however in this case to be exchanged for <i>soot</i>. At a visit which
+Lieutenant Hovgaard made at Najtskaj, the natives in the tent
+where he was a guest ate for supper first seal-flesh soup, then
+boiled fish, and lastly, boiled seal-flesh. They thus observed
+completely the order of eating approved in Europe. The
+Chukches are unacquainted with other forks than their fingers,
+and even the use of the spoon is not common. Many carry
+about with them a spoon of copper, tinned iron, or bone (<a href="#v2page117">fig. 8,
+p. 117</a>). The soup is often drunk directly out of the cooking
+vessel, or sucked up through hollow bones (<a href="#v2page104">see the figure on
+p. 104</a>). Those are used as dunking cups, and like the spoons
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p122.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p122.png" alt="STONE HAMMERS AND ANVIL FOR CRUSHING BONES." ></a>
+STONE HAMMERS AND ANVIL FOR CRUSHING BONES.
+<br>(One-sixth of the natural size.)
+</div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page113" id="v2page113"></a>[ pg 113 ]</span>
+are worn in the belt. As examples of Chukch dishes I may
+further mention, vegetable soup, boiled seal-flesh, boiled fish,
+blood soup, soup of seal-blood and blubber. To these we may
+add soup from finely crushed bones, or from seal-flesh, blubber,
+and bones. For crushing the bones there is in every tent a
+hammer, consisting of an oval stone with a hollow round it for
+a skin thong, with which the stone is fastened to the short shaft
+of wood or bone. The bones which are used for food are finely
+crushed with this implement against a stone anvil or a
+whale's vertebra, and then boiled with water and blood, before
+being eaten. At first we believed that this dish was intended
+for the dogs, but afterwards I had an opportunity of convincing
+myself that the natives themselves ate it, and that long before
+the time when they suffered from scarcity of provisions. The
+hammer is further of interest as forming one of the stone implements
+which are most frequently found in graves from the
+Stone Age. That the hammer was mainly intended for kitchen
+purposes appears from the circumstance that the women alone
+had it at their disposal, and were consulted when it was parted
+with. Along with such hammers there was to be found in every
+tent an anvil, consisting of a whale's vertebra or a large round
+stone with a bowl-formed depression worn or cut out in the
+middle of it.
+</p><p>
+During winter a great portion of the inhabitants of Yinretlen,
+Pitlekaj, and as far as from Irgunnuk, came daily on board to
+beg or buy themselves provisions, and during this period they
+were fed mainly by us. They soon accustomed themselves to
+our food. They appeared specially fond of pea-soup and porridge.
+The latter they generally laid out on a snow-drift to
+freeze, and then took it in the frozen form to the tents.
+Coffee they did not care for unless it was well sugared. Salt
+they did not use, but with sugar they were all highly delighted.
+They also drank tea with pleasure. Otherwise water forms
+their principal drink. They were, however, often compelled in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page114" id="v2page114"></a>[ pg 114 ]</span>
+winter, in consequence of the difficulty of melting over the
+train-oil lamps a sufficient quantity of snow, to quench their
+thirst with snow. On board they often asked for water, and
+drank at once large quantities of it.
+</p><p>
+Spirits, to which they are exceedingly addicted, they call,
+as has been already stated, in conversation with Europeans,
+&quot;ram,&quot; the pronouncing of the word being often accompanied
+by a hawking noise, a happy expression, and a distinctive gesture,
+which consisted in carrying the open right hand from the
+mouth to the waist, or in counterfeiting the unintelligible talk
+of a drunken man. Among themselves they call it fire-water
+(<i>akmimil</i>). The promise of it was the most efficient means of
+getting an obstinate Chukch to comply with one's wishes. In
+case they undertook to drive us with their dog-teams, they were
+never desirous of finding out whether any stock of provisions
+was taken along, but warned by our parsimony in dealing out
+spirituous liquor, they were unwilling to start until they had examined
+the stock of &quot;ram.&quot; That drunkenness, not the satisfying
+of the taste, was in this case the main object, is shown by the
+circumstance that they often fixed, as price for the articles they
+saw we were anxious to have, such a quantity of brandy as
+would make them completely intoxicated. When on one occasion
+I appeared very desirous of purchasing a fire-drill, which
+was found in a tent inhabited by a newly-wedded pair, the
+young and very pretty housewife undertook the negotiation,
+and immediately began by declaring that her husband could not
+part with the fire-producing implement unless I gave him the
+means of getting quite drunk, for which, according to her
+statement, which was illustrated by lively gesticulations representing
+the different degrees of intoxication, eight glasses were
+required. Not until the man had got so many would he be
+content, that is, dead drunk. I have myself observed, however,
+on several occasions that two small glasses are sufficient to make
+them unsteady on the legs. Under the influence of liquor they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page115" id="v2page115"></a>[ pg 115 ]</span>
+are cheerful, merry, and friendly, but troublesome by their excessive
+caressing. When in the company of intoxicated natives,
+one must take good care that he does not unexpectedly get a
+kiss from some old greasy seal-hunter. Even the women readily
+took a glass, though evidently less addicted to intoxicants than
+the men. They however got their share, as did even the
+youngest of the children. When, as happened twice in the
+course of the winter, an encampment was fortunate enough to
+get a large stock of brandy sent it from Behring's Straits, the
+intoxication was general, and, as I have already stated, the
+bluish-yellow eyes the next day showed that quarrelsomeness
+had been called forth even among this peace-loving people by
+their dear <i>akmimil</i>. During our stay at the villages nearer
+Behring's Straits two murders even took place, of which one at
+least was committed by an intoxicated man.
+</p><p>
+However slight the contact the Chukches have with the
+world that has reached the standpoint of the brandy industry is,
+this means of enjoyment, however, appears to be the object of
+regular barter. Many of the Chukches who travelled past us
+were intoxicated, and shook with pride a not quite empty keg
+or seal-skin sack, to let us hear by the dashing that it contained
+liquid. One of the crew, whom I asked to ascertain
+what sort of spirit it was, made friends with the owner, and
+induced him at last to part with about a thimbleful of it, more
+could not be given. According to the sailor's statement it was
+without colour and flavour, clear as crystal, but weak. It was
+thus probably Russian corn brandy, not gin.
+</p><p>
+During a visit which Lieutenants Hovgaard and Nordquist
+made in the autumn of 1878 to the reindeer-Chukches in the
+interior of the country, much diluted American gin was on the
+contrary presented, and the tent-owner showed his guests a
+tin drinking-cup with the inscription, &quot;Capt. Ravens, Brig
+<i>Timandra</i>, 1878&quot;. Some of the natives stated distinctly that
+they could purchase brandy at Behring's Straits all the year
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page116" id="v2page116"></a>[ pg 116 ]</span>
+round. All the men in the tent village, and most of the
+women, but not the children, had at the time got completely
+intoxicated in order to celebrate the arrival of the foreigners, or
+perhaps rather that of the stock of brandy. As there are no
+Europeans settled at Behring's Straits, at least on the Asiatic
+side, we learn from the traffic in brandy that there are actually
+natives abstemious enough to be able to deal in it.
+</p><p>
+Tobacco is in common use, both for smoking and chewing.<a name="v2rn284"></a><a href="#v2fn284">[284]</a>
+Every native carries with him a pipe resembling that of the
+Tunguse, and a tobacco-pouch (<a href="#v2page117">fig 7, p. 117</a>). The tobacco
+is of many kinds, both Russian and American, and when the
+stock of it is finished native substitutes are used. Preference
+is given to the sweet, strong chewing tobacco, which sailors
+generally use. In order to make the tobacco sweet which has
+not before been drenched with molasses, the men are accustomed,
+when they get a piece of sugar, to break it down and
+place it in the tobacco-pouch. The tobacco is often first chewed,
+then dried behind the ear, and kept in a separate pouch suspended
+from the neck, to be afterwards smoked. The pipes are
+so small that, like those of the Japanese, they may be smoked
+out with a few strong whiffs. The smoke is swallowed.
+Even the women and children smoke and chew, and they begin
+to do so at so tender an age that we have seen a child, who
+could indeed walk, but still sucked his mother, both chew
+tobacco, smoke, and take a &quot;ram&quot;.
+</p><p>
+Some bundles of Ukraine tobacco, which I took with me for
+barter with the natives, put it into my power to procure a large
+number of contributions to the ethnological collection, which
+in the absence of other wares for barter I would otherwise have
+been unable to obtain. For the Chukches do not understand
+money. This is so much the more remarkable as they carry on
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page117" id="v2page117"></a>[ pg 117 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p127.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p127.png" alt="CHUKCH IMPLEMENTS." ></a>
+CHUKCH IMPLEMENTS.
+</div>
+<p>
+1. Scraper for currying (one-seventh of the natural size). 2. Awls (one-half). 3. Ice-scraper
+intended for decoying the seal from its hole, with bone amulet affixed(one-half). 4. Bone
+knife (one-half). 5, 6. Amulets of bone (natural size). 7. Pipe and tobacco pouch (one-third).
+8. Metal spoons (one-third).
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page118" id="v2page118"></a>[ pg 118 ]</span>
+a very extensive trade, and evidently are good mercantile men.
+According to von Dittmar (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 129) there exists, or still
+existed in 1856, a steady, slow, but regular transport of goods
+along the whole north coast of Asia and America, by which
+Russian goods were conveyed to the innermost parts of Polar
+America, and furs instead found their way to the bazaars of
+Moscow and St. Petersburg. This traffic is carried on at five
+market places, of which three are situated in America, one on
+the islands at Behring's Straits, and one at Anjui near Kolyma
+The last-mentioned is called by the Chukches &quot;the fifth beaver
+market.&quot;<a name="v2rn285"></a><a href="#v2fn285">[285]</a>
+</p><p>
+The Chukches' principal articles of commerce consist of seal-skin,
+train-oil, fox-skins and other furs, walrus tusks, whalebone,
+&amp;c. Instead they purchase tobacco, articles of iron, reindeer
+skin and reindeer flesh, and, when it can be had, spirit. A
+bargain is concluded very cautiously after long-continued consultation
+in a whispering tone between those present. I
+employed spirit as an article for barter only in the last
+necessity, but they soon observed that the desire to become
+owner of an uncommon article of art or antiquity overcame my
+determination, and they soon learned to avail themselves of
+this, especially as in all cases I made full payment for the
+article and gave the fire-water into the bargain.
+</p><p>
+The lamp (see the figures at pp. 22, 23), with which light is
+maintained in the tent, consists of a flat trough of wood, bone
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page119" id="v2page119"></a>[ pg 119 ]</span>
+of the whale, soap-stone or burned clay, broader behind than
+before, and divided by an isolated toothed comb into two
+divisions. In the front division wicks of moss (Sphagnum sp.)
+are laid in a long thin row along the whole edge. Under the
+lamp there is always another vessel intended to receive the
+train-oil which may possibly be spilled.
+</p><p>
+In summer the natives also cook with wood in the open air
+or in the outer tent, in winter only in the greatest necessity in
+the latter. For they find the smoke, which the wood gives off
+in the close tent, unendurable. Although driftwood is to be
+found in great abundance on the beach, scarcity of train-oil
+was evidently considered by the natives as great a misfortune
+as scarcity of food. <i>Uinqa eek</i>, no fuel (properly, no fire), was
+the constant cry even of those who drew loads of driftwood
+on board to earn bread for themselves. The circumstance that
+their fuel does not give off any smoke has the advantage that
+the eyes of the Chukches are not usually nearly so much
+attacked as those of the Lapps.
+</p><p>
+In the tent the women have always a watchful eye over the
+trimming of the lamp and the keeping up of the fire. The
+wooden pins she uses to trim the wick, and which naturally are
+drenched with train-oil, are used when required as a light
+or torch in the outer tent, to light pipes, &amp;c. In the same way
+other pins dipped in train-oil are used.<a name="v2rn286"></a><a href="#v2fn286">[286]</a> Clay lamps are made
+by the Chukches themselves, the clay being well kneaded and
+moistened with urine. The burning is incomplete, and is indeed
+often wholly omitted.
+</p><p>
+Train-oil and other liquid wares are often kept in sacks of
+seal-skin, consisting of whole hides, out of which the body has
+been taken through the opening made by cutting off the head,
+and in which all holes, either natural or caused by the killing of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page120" id="v2page120"></a>[ pg 120 ]</span>
+the animal, have been firmly closed. In one of the forepaws
+there is then inserted with great skill a wooden air- and water-tight
+cock with spigot and faucet. In sacks intended for dry
+wares the paws are also cut off, and the opening through which
+the contents are put in and taken out is made right across the
+breast immediately below the forepaws.
+</p><p>
+Fire is lighted partly in the way common in Sweden some
+decades ago by means of flint and steel, partly by means of a
+drill implement. In the former case the steel generally consists
+of a piece of a file or some other old steel tool, or of pieces of
+iron or steel which have been specially forged for the purpose.
+Commonly the form of this tool indicates a European or
+Russian-Siberian origin, but I also acquired clumsily hammered
+pieces of iron, which appeared to form specimens of native skill
+in forging. A Chukch showed me a large fire-steel of the last
+mentioned kind, provided with a special handle of copper
+beautifully polished by long-continued use. He evidently
+regarded it as a very precious thing, and I could not persuade
+him to part with it. On the supposition that the metal of the
+clumsily hammered pieces of iron might possibly be of meteoric
+origin I purchased as many of them as I could. But the examination,
+to which they were subjected after our return,
+showed that they contain no traces of nickel. The iron was
+thus not meteoric.
+</p><p>
+The flint consists of a beautiful chalcedony or agate, which
+has been formed in cavities in the volcanic rocks which occur so
+abundantly in north-eastern Asia, and which probably are also
+found here and there as pebbles in the beds of the <i>tundra</i>
+rivers. As tinder, are used partly the woolly hair of various
+animals, partly dry fragments of different kinds of plants. The
+steel and a large number of pieces of flint are kept in a skin
+pouch suspended from the neck. Within this pouch there is a
+smaller one, containing the tinder. It is thus kept warm by
+the heat of the body, and protected from wet by its double
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page121" id="v2page121"></a>[ pg 121 ]</span>
+envelope. Along with it the men often carry on their persons
+a sort of match of white, well-dried, and crushed willows, which
+are plaited together and placed in even rolls. This match
+burns slowly, evenly, and well.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p131.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p131.png" alt="FIRE DRILL." ></a>
+FIRE DRILL.
+<br>One-eighth of the natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+The other sort of fire-implement consists of a dry wooden
+pin, which by a common bow-drill is made to rub against a
+block of dry half-blackened wood. The upper part of this pin
+runs in a drill block of wood or bone. In one of the tools
+which I purchased, the astragalus of a reindeer was used for
+this purpose. In the light-stock holes have been made to give
+support to the pin, and perhaps to facilitate the formation of the
+half-carbonised wood-meal which the drilling loosens from the
+light-stock and in which the red heat arises. When fire is to
+be lighted by means of this implement, the lower part of the
+drill pin is daubed over with a little train-oil, one foot holds
+the light-stock firm against the ground, the bowstring is put
+round the drill pin, the left hand presses the pin with the drill
+block against the light-stock, and the bow is carried backwards
+and forwards, not very rapidly, but evenly, steadily, and uninterruptedly,
+until fire appears. A couple of minutes are
+generally required to complete the process The women appear
+to be more accustomed than the men to the use of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page122" id="v2page122"></a>[ pg 122 ]</span>
+implement. An improved form of it consisted of a wooden pin
+on whose lower part a lense-formed and perforated block of wood
+was fixed. This block served as fly-wheel and weight. Across
+the wooden pin ran a perforated cross-bar which was fastened
+with two sinews to its upper end. By carrying this cross-bar
+backwards and forwards the pin could be turned round with
+great rapidity. The implement appears to me the more remarkable
+as it shows a new way of using the stone or brick
+lenses, which are often found in graves or old house-sites from
+the Stone Age.
+</p><p>
+Among the Chukches, as among many other wild races,
+lucifer matches have obtained the honour of being the first
+of the inventions of the civilised races that have been recognised
+as indisputably superior to their own. A request for lucifer
+matches was therefore one of the most common of those with
+which our friends at Behring's Straits tormented us during
+winter, and they were willing for a single box to offer things
+that in comparison were very valuable. Unfortunately we had
+no superfluous supply of this necessary article, or perhaps I
+ought to say fortunately, for if the Chukches for some years
+were able to get a couple of boxes of matches for a walrus tusk,
+I believe that with their usual carelessness they would soon
+completely forget the use of their own fire-implements.
+</p><p>
+Among household articles I may further mention the
+following:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+The <i>hide-scraper</i> (<a href="#v2page117">fig. 1, p. 117</a>) is of stone or iron and fastened
+to a wooden handle. With this tool the moistened hide is
+cleaned very particularly, and is then rubbed, stretched, and
+kneaded so carefully that several days go to the preparation
+of a single reindeer skin. That this is hard work is also shown
+by the woman who is employed at it in the tent dripping with
+perspiration. While thus employed she sits on a part of the
+skin and stretches out the other part with the united help of
+the hands and the bare feet. When the skin has been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page123" id="v2page123"></a>[ pg 123 ]</span>
+sufficiently worked, she fills a vessel with her own urine, mixes
+this with comminuted willow bark, which has been dried over
+the lamp, and rubs the blood-warm liquid into the reindeer
+skin. In order to give this a red colour on one side, the bark
+of a species of Pinus (?) is mixed with the tanning liquid. The
+skins are made very soft by this process, and on the inner side
+almost resemble chamois leather. Sometimes too the reindeer
+skin is tanned to real chamois of very excellent quality.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p133.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p133.png" alt="ICE MATTOCKS." ></a>
+ICE MATTOCKS.
+<br>One-ninth of the natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+Two sorts of <i>ice mattocks</i>, the shaft is of wood, the blade of
+the spade-formed one of whalebone, of the others of a walrus
+tusk, it is fixed to the shaft by skin thongs with great skill
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page124" id="v2page124"></a>[ pg 124 ]</span>
+Sometimes both the shaft and blade are of bone, fastened
+together in a somewhat different way.
+</p><p>
+<i>Hones</i> of native clay-slate. These are often perforated at one
+end and carried along with the knife, the spoon, and the sucking-tube,
+fastened with an ivory tongs in the belt.
+</p><p>
+Home-made <i>vessels of wood, bone of the whale, whalebone, and
+skin</i> of different kinds.
+</p><p>
+<i>Knives, boring tools, axes and pots</i> of European, American, or
+Siberian origin, and in addition casks, pieces of cable, iron
+scrap, preserved-meat tins, glasses, bottles, &amp;c., obtained from
+ships which have anchored along the coast. Vessels have
+regularly visited the sea north of Behring's Straits only during
+the latest decades, and the contact between the sailors and the
+Chukches has not yet exerted any considerable influence on the
+mode of life of the latter. The natives, however, complain that
+the whalers destroy the walrus-hunting, while on the other
+hand they see with pleasure trading vessels occasionally visiting
+their coasts.
+</p><p>
+During our stay off the considerable encampment, Irkaipij,
+we believed, as I have already stated, that we had found a chief
+in a native named Chepurin, who, to judge by his dress, appeared
+to be somewhat better off than the others, had two wives and a
+stately exterior. He was accordingly entertained in the gunroom,
+got the finest presents, and was in many ways the object
+of special attention. Chepurin took his elevation easily, and
+showed himself worthy of it by a grave and serious, perhaps
+somewhat condescending behaviour, which further confirmed our
+supposition and naturally increased the number of our presents.
+Afterwards, however, we were quite convinced that we had
+in this case committed a complete mistake, and that now there
+are to be found among the Chukches living at the coast neither
+any recognised chiefs nor any trace of social organisation.
+During the former martial period of the history of the race the
+state of things here was perhaps different, but now the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page125" id="v2page125"></a>[ pg 125 ]</span>
+most complete anarchy prevails here, if by that word we
+may denote a state of society in which disputes, crimes,
+and punishments are unknown, or at least exceedingly rare. <a name="v2rn287"></a><a href="#v2fn287">[287]</a>
+A sort of chieftainship appears, at all events, to be found among
+the reindeer-Chukches living in the interior of the country.
+At least there are among them men who can show commmissions
+from the Russian authorities. Such a man was the starost
+Menka, of whose visit I have already given an account. Everything,
+however, indicated that his influence was exceedingly
+small. He could neither read, write, nor speak Russian, and he
+had no idea of the existence of a Russian Czar. All the tribute
+he had delivered for several years, according to receipts which he
+showed to us, consisted of some few fox-skins, which he had
+probably received as market-tolls at Anjui and Markova. Menka
+was attended on his visit to the vessel by two ill-clad men with a
+type of face differing considerably from that common among the
+Chukches. Their standing appeared to be so inferior that we
+took them for slaves, although mistakenly, at least with respect
+to one of them &mdash; Yettugin. He afterwards boasted that he
+owned a much larger reindeer-herd than Menka's, and talked
+readily, with a certain scorn, of Menka's chieftain pretensions.
+According to Russian authors there are actual slaves, probably
+the descendants of former prisoners of war, among the Chukches
+in the interior of the country. Among the dwellers on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page126" id="v2page126"></a>[ pg 126 ]</span>
+coast, on the contrary, there is the most complete equality. We
+could never discover the smallest trace of any man exercising
+the least authority beyond his own family or his own tent.
+</p><p>
+The coast Chukches are not only heathens, but are also, so
+far as we could observe, devoid of every conception of higher
+beings. There are, however, superstitions. Thus most of them
+wear round the neck leather straps, to which small wooden tongs,
+of wooden carvings, are fixed. These are not parted with, and
+are not readily shown to foreigners. A boy had a band of beads
+sewed to his hood, and in front there was fastened an ivory
+carving, probably intended to represent a bear's head (fig. 6, on
+p. 117). It was so small, and so inartistically cut, that a
+man could undoubtedly make a dozen of them in a day. I, however,
+offered the father unsuccessfully a clasp-knife and tobacco
+for it, but the boy himself, having heard our bargaining,
+exchanged it soon after for a piece of sugar. When the father
+knew this he laughed good-naturedly, without making any
+attempt to get the bargain undone.
+</p><p>
+To certain tools small wooden images are affixed, as to the
+scraper figured above (<a href="#v2page117">fig. 3, p. 117</a>), and similar images are
+found in large numbers in the lumber-room of the tent, where
+pieces of ivory, bits of agate and scrap iron, are preserved. A
+selection from the large collection of such images which I made
+is here reproduced in woodcuts. If, also, these carvings may, in
+fact, be considered as representations of higher beings, the
+religious ideas which are connected with them, even judged
+from the Shaman standpoint, are exceedingly indistinct, less a
+consciousness, which still lives among the people, than a reminiscence
+from former times. Most of the figures bear an
+evident stamp of the present dress and mode of life of the
+people. It appears to me to be remarkable, that in all the
+bone or wood carvings I have met with, the face has been cut
+flatter than it is in reality in this race of men. Some of the
+carvings appear to remind me of an ancient Buddhist image.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page127" id="v2page127"></a>[ pg 127 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p137.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p137.png" alt="HUMAN FIGURES." ></a>
+HUMAN FIGURES.
+<br>Nos. 1, 3 and 5, represent women with tattooed faces. No. 4 is of wood. No. 6 of wood with eyes of
+tin; the rest are of ivory.
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page128" id="v2page128"></a>[ pg 128 ]</span>
+<p>The drum, or more correctly, tambourine, so common among
+most of the Polar peoples, European, Asiatic, and American,
+among the Lapps, the Samoyeds, the Tunguses, and the Eskimo
+(<a href="#v2page24">see drawing on p. 24</a>), is found in every Chukch tent. A
+certain superstition is also attached to it. They did not willingly
+play it in our presence, and they were unwilling to part with it.
+If time permitted it was concealed on our entrance into the
+tent. The drum consists of the peritoneum of a seal, stretched
+over a narrow wooden ring fixed to a short handle. The drumstick
+consists of a splinter of whalebone 300 to 400 millimetres
+long, which towards the end runs into a point so fine and flexible,
+that it forms a sort of whipcord. When the thicker part of the
+piece of whalebone is struck against the edge of the drum-skin,
+the other end whips against the middle, and the skin is thus struck
+twice at the same time. The drum is commonly played by the
+man, and the playing is accompanied by a very monotonous
+song. We have not seen it accompanied by dancing, twisting of
+the countenance, or any other Shaman trick.
+</p><p>
+We did not see among the Chukches we met with any
+Shamans. They are described by Wrangel, Hooper, and other
+travellers. Wrangel states (vol. i. p. 284) that the Shamans in
+the year 1814, when a severe epidemic broke out among the
+Chukches and their reindeer at Anjui, declared that in order to
+propitiate the spirits they must sacrifice Kotschen, one of the
+most highly esteemed men of the tribe. He was so much
+respected that no one would execute the sentence, but attempts
+were made to get it altered, first by presents to the prophets,
+and then by flogging them. But when this did not succeed,
+as the disease continued to ravage, and no one would execute the
+doom, Kotschen ordered his own son to do it. He was thus
+compelled to stab his own father to death and give up the corpse
+to the Shamans. The whole narrative conflicts absolutely with
+the disposition and manners of the people with whom we
+made acquaintance at Behring's Straits sixty-five years after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page129" id="v2page129"></a>[ pg 129 ]</span>
+this occurrence, and I would be disposed to dispute entirely
+the truthfulness of the statement, had not the history of our
+own part of the world taught us that blood has flowed in
+streams for dogmatic hair-splittings, which no one now troubles
+himself about. Perhaps the breath of indifferentism has reached
+even the ice-deserts of the Polar lands.
+</p><p>
+The drum has besides also another use, which appears to have
+little connection with its property of Shaman psychograph or
+church bell. When the ladies unravel and comb their long
+black hair, this is done carefully over the drum, on whose
+bottom the numerous beings which the comb brings with it
+from the warm hearth of home out into the cold wide world, are
+collected and cracked&mdash;in case they are not eaten up. They
+taste well according to the Chukch opinion, and are exceedingly
+good for the breast. Even <i>gorm</i> (the large, fully developed, fat
+larva of the reindeer fly, <i>Oestrus tarandi</i>) is pressed out of
+the skin of the reindeer and eaten, as well as the full-grown
+reindeer fly.
+</p><p>
+Some more of the superstitious traits which we observed
+among the Chukches may here be stated. After the good
+hunting in February we endeavoured without success to induce
+the Chukches to give us a head or a skull of some of the seals
+they had killed. Even brandy was unsuccessfully offered for it,
+and it was only in the greatest secrecy that Notti, one of our best
+friends from Irgunnuk, dared to give us the foetus of a seal. A
+raven was once shot in the neighbourhood of the ice-house.
+The shot then went to the magnetical observatory, but before he
+entered, laid down the shot bird, the gun, and other articles in
+the before-mentioned implement chest placed in front of the
+observatory. A short time after there was great excitement
+before the tent. Some men, women, and children among the
+natives crowded round the chest screaming and shouting. For
+the Chukches had observed that the raven, having been only
+stunned by the shot, had begun to scream and flutter in the chest,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page130" id="v2page130"></a>[ pg 130 ]</span>
+and they now indicated by word and gesture that a great misfortune
+was about to happen. Pity is not, as is well known, one
+of the good qualities of the savage. It was clear that in this case
+too it was not this feeling, but fear of the evil which the wounded
+crow could bring about, that caused this scene, and when a sailor
+immediately after twisted
+the neck of the bird, the
+Chukches had no objection
+to receive and eat it.
+</p><p>
+The winter of 1878-1879
+appears to have been uncommonly
+severe, and hunting
+less productive than
+usual. This was ascribed to
+our presence. The Chukches
+asked us anxiously several
+times, whether we intended
+to raise the water so high
+that the sea would reach
+their tents. When on the
+11th February, after the
+hunting had failed for a long
+time, they succeeded at last
+in catching a number of
+seals, they threw water in
+their mouths before they
+were carried into the tents.
+This was done, they said, in
+order that the open &quot;leads&quot; in the ice should not close too soon.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p140.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p140.png" alt="MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS." ></a>
+MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
+<br>1. Whistle-pipe, natural size. 2. Whistle-instrument,
+one-eighth of natural size; <i>a</i> mouth-hole.
+</div>
+<p>
+Besides the drum the Chukches also use as a musical instrument
+a piece of wood, cloven into two halves, and again united
+after the crack has been somewhat widened in the middle, with
+a piece of whalebone inserted between the two halves. They
+also during the course of the winter made several attempts to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page131" id="v2page131"></a>[ pg 131 ]</span>
+make violins after patterns seen on board, and actually
+succeeded in making a better sounding-box than could have
+been expected beforehand. On the draught-strap of the dog
+sledge there was often a small bell bought from the Russians,
+and the reindeer-Chukches are said sometimes to wear bells in
+the belt.
+</p><p>
+The dance I saw consisted in two women or children taking
+each other by the shoulders, and then hopping now on the one
+foot now on the other. When many took part in the dance, they
+placed themselves in rows, sang a monotonous, meaningless song,
+hopped in time, turned the eyes out and in, and threw themselves
+with spasmodic movements, clearly denoting pleasure
+and pain, now to the right, now to the left &quot;La saison&quot; for
+dance and song, the time of slaughtering reindeer, however, did
+not happen during our stay, on which account our experience of
+the Chukches' abilities in this way is exceedingly limited.
+</p><p>
+All sport they entered into with special delight, for instance,
+some trial shooting which Palander set on foot on New Year's Day
+afternoon, with a small rifled cannon on the <i>Vega</i>. At first the
+women sat aft with the children, far from the dreadful shooting
+weapon, and indicated their feelings by almost the same gestures
+as on such occasions are wont to distinguish the weaker and
+fairer sex of European race. But soon curiosity took the upper
+hand. They pressed forward where they could see best, and
+broke out in a loud &quot;Ho, ho, ho!&quot; when the shot was fired and
+the shells exploded in the air.
+</p><p>
+Of what sort is the art-sense of the Chukches? As they
+still almost belong to the Stone Age, and as their contact with
+Europeans has been so limited that it has not perhaps conduced to
+alter their taste and skill in art, this question appears to me to
+have a great interest both for the historian of art, who here
+obtains information as to the nature of the seed from which at last
+the skill of the master has been developed in the course of ages and
+millenniums, and for the arch&aelig;ologist, who finds here a starting
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page132" id="v2page132"></a>[ pg 132 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p142.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p142.png" alt="DRAWINGS MADE BY CHUKCHES." ></a>
+DRAWINGS MADE BY CHUKCHES.
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page133" id="v2page133"></a>[ pg 133 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p143.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p143.png" alt="DRAWINGS MADE BY CHUKCHES." ></a>
+DRAWINGS MADE BY CHUKCHES.
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page134" id="v2page134"></a>[ pg 134 ]</span>
+<p>point for forming a judgment both of the Scandinavian rock-etchings
+and the pal&aelig;olithic drawings, which in recent times
+have played so great a part in enabling us to understand
+the oldest history of the human race. We have therefore
+zealously collected all that we could of Chukch carvings,
+drawings, and patterns. The most remarkable of these in one
+respect or another are to be found delineated in the woodcuts on
+the preceding pages.<a name="v2rn288"></a><a href="#v2fn288">[288]</a>
+</p><p>
+Many of the ivory carvings are old and worn, showing that
+they have been long in use, probably as amulets. Various
+of the animal images are the fruit of the imagination, and as
+such may be instructive. In general the carvings are clumsy,
+though showing a distinctive style. If we compare them with
+the Samoyed images we brought home with us, it appears that
+the genius of the Chukches for art has reached an incomparably
+higher development than that of the Polar race which inhabits
+the western portion of the north coast of Asia, on the other hand,
+they are in this respect evidently inferior to the Eskimo at Port
+Clarence. The Chukch drawings too are roughly and clumsily
+executed, but many of them exhibit a certain power of hitting
+off the object. These figures appear to me to show that the
+objections which have been raised to the genuineness of various
+pal&aelig;olithic etchings, just on the ground of the artist's comparatively
+sure hand, are not justified. Even patterns and ivory
+buckles show a certain taste. Embroidery is done commonly on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page135" id="v2page135"></a>[ pg 135 ]</span>
+red-coloured strips of skin partly with white reindeer hair, partly
+with red and black wool, obtained in small quantity by barter
+from Behring's Straits. The supply of colouring material is not
+particularly abundant. It is obtained partly from the mineral
+kingdom (limonite of different colours, and graphite), partly from
+the vegetable kingdom (bark of various trees). The mineral
+colours are ground with water between flat stones. Bark is
+probably treated with urine. Red is the Chukches' favourite
+colour.
+</p><p>
+In order to make a contribution towards an answer to the
+disputed question, in what degree is the colour-sense developed
+among savages, Dr. Almquist during the course of the winter
+instituted comprehensive researches according to the method
+worked out by Professor FR. HOLMGREN. A detailed account
+of these is to be found in <i>The Scientific Work of the Vega
+Expedition</i>, and in various scientific journals. Here I shall only
+state that Dr. Almquist gives the following as the final result
+of his investigation. &quot;That the Chukches in general possess as
+good an organ for distinguishing colours as we Swedes. On the
+other hand, they appear not to be accustomed to observe colours,
+and to distinguish sharply any other colour than red. They
+bring together all reds as something special, but consider that
+green of a moderate brightness corresponds less with a green of
+less brightness than with a blue of the same brightness. In
+order to bring all greens together the Chukches thus require to
+learn a new abstraction&quot;. Of 300 persons who were examined,
+273 had a fully developed colour-sense, nine were completely
+colour-blind, and eighteen incompletely colour-blind, or gave
+uncertain indications.
+</p><p class="tb">
+From what has been stated above it appears that the coast
+Chukches are without noteworthy religion, social organisation,
+or government. Had not experience from the Polar races of
+America taught us differently we should have believed that with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page136" id="v2page136"></a>[ pg 136 ]</span>
+such a literally anarchic and godless crew there would be no
+security for life and property, immorality would be boundless,
+and the weaker without any protection from the violence of the
+stronger sex. This, however, is so far from being the case that
+criminal statistics have been rendered impossible for want of
+crimes, if we except acts of violence committed under the
+influence of liquor.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p146.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p146.png" alt="CHUKCH BUCKLES AND HOOKS OF IVORY." ></a>
+CHUKCH BUCKLES AND HOOKS OF IVORY.
+<br>Half the natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+During the winter the <i>Vega</i> was visited daily, as has been
+stated in the account of the wintering, by the people from the
+neighbouring villages, while our vessel at the same time formed
+a resting-place for all the equipages which travelled from the
+western tent-villages to the islands in Behring's Straits, and <i>vice
+vers&acirc;</i>. Not only our neighbours, but people from a distance
+whom we had never seen before, and probably would not see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page137" id="v2page137"></a>[ pg 137 ]</span>
+again, came and went without hindrance among a great number
+of objects which in their hands would have been precious
+indeed. We had never any cause to regret the confidence we
+placed in them. Even during the very hard time, when hunting
+completely failed, and when most of them lived on the food
+which was served out on board, the large <i>dep&ocirc;t</i> of provisions,
+which we had placed on land without special watch, in case any
+misfortune should befall our vessel, was untouched. On the
+other hand, there were two instances in which they secretly
+repossessed themselves of fish they had already sold, and which
+were kept in a place on deck accessible to them. And with
+the most innocent countenance in the world they then sold
+them over again. This sort of dishonesty they evidently did
+not regard as theft but as a permissible commercial trick.
+</p><p>
+This was not the only proof that the Chukches consider
+deception in trade not only quite justifiable, but almost creditable.
+While their own things were always made with the
+greatest care, all that they did specially for us was done with
+extreme carelessness, and they were seldom pleased with the
+price that was offered, until they became convinced that they
+could not get more. When they saw that we were anxious to
+get ptarmigan, they offered us from their winter stock under
+this name the young of <i>Larus eburneus</i>, which is marked in the
+same way, but of little use as food. When I with delight purchased
+this bird, which in its youthful dress is rare, and therefore
+valuable to the ornithologist, a self-satisfied smile passed
+over the countenance of the seller. He was evidently proud of
+his successful trick. Some prejudice, as has been already stated,
+prevented the Chukches from parting with the heads of the seal,
+though, in order to ascertain the species existing here, we offered
+a high price for them &quot;Irgatti&quot; (to-morrow), or &quot;Isgatti,&quot; if the
+promise was given by a woman, was the usual answer. But the
+promise was never kept. At last a boy came and gave us a
+skull, which he said belonged to a seal. On a more minute
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page138" id="v2page138"></a>[ pg 138 ]</span>
+examination, however, it was found not to have belonged to a
+seal, but to an old dog, whose head it was evidently thought
+might, without any damage to the hunting, be handed over to
+the white magicians. This time it went worse with the counterfeitor
+than in the case of the ptarmigan bargain. For a couple
+of my comrades undertook to make the boy ashamed in the
+presence of the other Chukches, saying with a laugh &quot;that he,
+a Chukch, must have been very stupid to commit such a mistake,&quot;
+and it actually appeared as if the scoff had in this case
+fallen into good ground. Another time, while I was in my
+watch in the ice-house, there came a native to me and informed
+me that he had driven a man from Irgunnuk to the vessel, but
+that the man had not paid him, and asked me on that account
+to give him a box of matches. When I replied that he must
+have been already well paid on the vessel for his drive, he said
+in a whining tone, &quot;only a very little piece of bread.&quot; He was
+not the least embarrassed when I only laughed at the, as I well
+knew, untruthful statement, and did not give him what he
+asked.
+</p><p>
+The Chukches commonly live in monogamy; it is only
+exceptionally that they have two wives, as was the case with
+Chepurin, who has been already mentioned. It appeared as if
+the wives were faithful to their husbands. It was only seldom
+that cases occurred in which women, either in jest or earnest,
+gave out that they wished a white man as a lover. A woman
+not exactly eminent for beauty or cleanliness said, for instance,
+on one occasion, that she had had two children by Chukches,
+and now she wished to have a third by one of the ship's folk.
+The young women were modest, often very pretty, and evidently
+felt the same necessity of attracting attention by small
+coquettish artifices as Eve's daughters of European race. We
+may also understand their peculiar pronunciation of the language
+as an expression of feminine coquetry. For when they
+wish to be attractive they replace the man's <i>r</i>-sound with a soft
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page139" id="v2page139"></a>[ pg 139 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p149.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p149.png" alt="CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS." ></a>
+CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS.
+<br>1. Dog, natural size. 2, 3. Hares, natural size. 4. Woman carrying her child on her shoulders,
+two-thirds. 5. Mollusc from the inland lakes (Branchypus?) natural size. 6. Monster, natural size.
+7. Fox, natural size. 8. Animal with three heads, two-thirds. 9. Asterid, natural size, 10. Fish,
+natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page140" id="v2page140"></a>[ pg 140 ]</span>
+<i>s</i>; thus, <i>k&oacute;rang</i> (reindeer) is pronounced by the women <i>kosang,
+tirkir</i> (the sun) <i>tiskis</i>, and so on.
+</p><p>
+The women work very hard. Not only the management of
+the children, the cooking, the melting of the ice, the putting
+the tent in order, the sewing, and other &quot;woman's work,&quot; lie to
+their hand, but they receive the catch, in winter in the tent, in
+summer at the beach, cut it in pieces, help with the fishing, at
+least when it is in the neighbourhood of the tent, and carry out
+the exceedingly laborious tanning of the hides, and prepare
+thread from sinews. In summer they collect green plants
+in the meadows and hill-slopes in the neighbourhood of the
+tents. They are therefore generally at home, and always busy.
+The men have it for their share to procure for their family food
+from the animal kingdom by hunting and fishing. With this purpose
+in view they are often out on long excursions. In the tent
+the man is for the most part without occupation, sleeps, eats,
+gossips, chats with his children, and so on, if he does not pass
+the time in putting his hunting implements in order in a quite
+leisurely manner.
+</p><p>
+Within the family the most remarkable unanimity prevails,
+so that we never heard a hard word exchanged, either between
+man and wife, parents and children, or between the married
+pair who own the tent and the unmarried who occasionally live in
+it. The power of the woman appears to be very great. In
+making the more important bargains, even about weapons and
+hunting implements, she is, as a rule, consulted, and her advice
+is taken. A number of things which form women's tools she
+can barter away on her own responsibility, or in any other
+way employ as she pleases. When the man has by barter procured
+a piece of cloth, tobacco, sugar, or such like, he generally
+hands it over to his wife to keep.
+</p><p>
+The children are neither chastised nor scolded, they are,
+however, the best behaved I have ever seen. Their behaviour
+in the tent is equal to that of the best-brought-up European
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page141" id="v2page141"></a>[ pg 141 ]</span>
+children in the parlour. They are not, perhaps, so wild as ours,
+but are addicted to games which closely resemble those common
+among us in the country. Playthings are also in use, for
+instance, dolls, bows, windmills with two sails, &amp;c. If the
+parents get any delicacy they always give each of their children
+a bit, and there is never any quarrel as to the size of each
+child's portion. If a piece of sugar is given to one of the
+children in a crowd it goes from mouth to mouth round the
+whole company. In the same way the child offers its father and
+mother a taste of the bit of sugar or
+piece of bread it has got. Even in
+childhood the Chukches are exceedingly
+patient. A girl who fell down
+from the ship's stair, head foremost,
+and thus got so violent a blow that
+she was almost deprived of hearing,
+scarcely uttered a cry. A boy, three
+or four years of age, much rolled up
+in furs, who fell down into a ditch
+cut in the ice on the ship's deck,
+and in consequence of his inconvenient
+dress could not get up, lay quietly still
+until he was observed and helped up
+by one of the crew.
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v2p151.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p151.png" alt="CHUKCH DOLL." ></a>
+CHUKCH DOLL.
+<br>One-eighth of the natural size.
+</div>
+<p>
+The Chukches' most troublesome fault is a disposition to
+begging that is limited by no feeling of self-respect. This is
+probably counterbalanced by their unbounded hospitality and
+great kindness to each other, and is, perhaps, often caused by
+actual necessity. But they thus became veritable torments,
+putting to a hard test the patience, not only of the scientific
+men and officers, but also of the crew. The good nature with
+which our sailors met their demands was above all praise.
+</p><p>
+There was never any trace of disagreement between the
+natives and us, and I have every reason to suppose that our</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page142" id="v2page142"></a>[ pg 142 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p152.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p152.png" alt="CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS." ></a>
+CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS.
+<br>Seals, walrusses, a sea-bear (the lowest figure to the left). The four lowest are of the
+natural size,
+the others two-thirds of the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page143" id="v2page143"></a>[ pg 143 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p153.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p153.png" alt="CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS." ></a>
+CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS.
+<br>Fishes, larv&aelig; of flies (<i>gorm</i>), molluscs and whales. Nos. 1 to 9 and 14, natural size. Nos. 10 to 13,
+two-thirds of the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page144" id="v2page144"></a>[ pg 144 ]</span>
+<p>wintering will long be held in grateful remembrance by them,
+especially as, in order not to spoil their seal-hunting, I strictly
+forbade all unnecessary interference with it.
+</p><p>
+It is probably impossible for a Chukch to take the place of a
+European workman. It has, however, happened that Chukches
+have gone with whalers to the Sandwich Islands, and have
+become serviceable seamen. During our wintering two young
+men got accustomed to come on board and there to take a hand,
+in quite a leisurely way, at work of various kinds, as sawing
+wood, shovelling snow, getting ice on board, &amp;c. In return they
+got food that had been left over, and thus, for the most part,
+maintained not only themselves, but also their families, during
+the time we remained in their neighbourhood.
+</p><p>
+If what I have here stated be compared with Sir EDWARD
+PARRY'S masterly sketches of the Eskimo at Winter Island and
+Iglolik, and Dr. SIMPSON'S of the Eskimo in North-western
+America, or with the numerous accounts we possess of the
+Eskimo in Danish Greenland, a great resemblance will be
+found to exist between the natural disposition, mode of life,
+failings and good qualities of the Chukches, the savage Eskimo,
+and the Greenlanders. This resemblance is so much more
+striking, as the Chukch and the Eskimo belong to different
+races, and speak quite different languages, and, as the former, to
+judge by old accounts of this people, did not, until the most
+recent generations, sink to the unwarlike, peace-loving, harmless,
+anarchic, and non-religious standpoint which they have now
+reached. It ought to be observed, however, that in the Eskimo
+of Danish Greenland no considerable alteration has been brought
+about by them all having learned to read and write and profess
+the Christian religion&mdash;although with an indifference to the
+consequences of original sin, the mysteries of redemption, and
+the punishments of hell, which all imaginable missionary zeal
+has not succeeded in overcoming. Their innocent natural state
+has not been altered in any considerable degree by being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page145" id="v2page145"></a>[ pg 145 ]</span>
+subjected to these conditions of culture. It is certain besides,
+that the blood which flows in the veins of the Greenlander is
+not pure Eskimo blood, but is mingled with the blood of some of
+the proudest martial races in the world. When we consider how
+rapidly, even now, when Greenland is in constant communication
+with the European mother-country, all descendants of
+mixed blood become complete Eskimo in language and mode of
+life, how difficult it often is, even for parents of pure European
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p155.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p155.png" alt="CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS OF BIRDS." ></a>
+CHUKCH BONE CARVINGS OF BIRDS.
+<br>Size of the originals.
+</div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page146" id="v2page146"></a>[ pg 146 ]</span>
+descent, to get their children to speak any other language than
+that of the natives, and how they, on their part, seldom borrow
+a word from the Europeans, how common mixed marriages and
+natives of mixed blood are even now&mdash;in view of all this it
+appears to me much more probable that Erik the Red's
+colonists were quietly and peacefully converted into Eskimo,
+than that they were killed by the Eskimo. A single century's
+complete separation from Europe would be sufficient to
+carry out thoroughly this alteration of the present European
+population of Greenland, and by the end of that period the
+traditions of Danish rule would be very obscure in that land.
+Perhaps some trifling quarrel between a ruler of the colony and
+a native would take the foremost place among the surviving
+traditions, and be interpreted as a reminiscence from a war of
+extermination.
+</p><p>
+Even the present Chukches form, without doubt, a mixture of
+several races, formerly savage and warlike, who have been
+driven by foreign invaders from south to north, where they have
+adopted a common language, and on whom the food-conditions
+of the shore of the Polar Sea, the cold, snow, and darkness of
+the Arctic night, the pure, light atmosphere of the Polar
+summer, have impressed their ineffaceable stamp, a stamp which
+meets us with little variation, not only among the people now
+in question, but also&mdash;with the necessary allowance for the
+changes, not always favourable, caused by constant intercourse
+with Europeans&mdash;among the Lapps of Scandinavia and the
+Samoyeds of Russia.
+</p><p>
+It would be of great psychological interest to ascertain
+whether the change which has taken place in a peaceful
+direction is progress or decadence. Notwithstanding all the
+interest which the honesty, peaceableness, and innocent friendliness
+of the Polar tribes have for us, it is my belief that the
+answer must be&mdash;<i>decadence</i>. For it strikes us as if we witness
+here the conversion of a savage, coarse, and cruel man into a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page147" id="v2page147"></a>[ pg 147 ]</span>
+being, nobler, indeed, but one in whom just those qualities
+which distinguish man from the animals, and to which at once
+the great deeds and the crimes of humanity have been due,
+have been more and more effaced, and who, if special protection
+or specially favourable circumstances be absent, will not be able
+to maintain the struggle for existence with new races that may
+seek to force their way into the country.
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn271"></a><a href="#v2rn271">[271]</a> The north coast of America still forms the haunt of a not inconsiderable
+Eskimo population which, for a couple of centuries, has extended
+to the 80th degree of latitude. As the climate in the north part of the
+Old World differs little from that which prevails in corresponding regions
+of the New, as at both places there is an abundant supply of fish, and as the
+seal and walrus hunting&mdash;at least between the Yenisej and the Chatanga&mdash;ought
+to be as productive as on the north coast of America, this difference,
+which has arisen only recently, is very striking. It appears to me to be
+capable of explanation in the following way. Down to our days a large
+number of small savage tribes in America have carried on war with each
+other, the weaker, to escape extermination by the more powerful races,
+being compelled to flee to the ice deserts of the north, deeming themselves
+fortunate if they could there, in peace from their enemies, earn a living by
+adopting the mode of life of the Polar races, suitable as it is to the climate
+and resources of the land. The case was once the same in Siberia, and
+there are many indications that fragments of conquered tribes have
+been in former times driven up from the south, not only to the
+north coast of the mainland, but also beyond it to the islands lying
+off it. In Siberia, however, for the last 250 years, the case has
+been completely changed by the Russian conquest of the country.
+The pressure of the new government has, notwithstanding many single
+acts of violence, been on the whole less destructive to the original population
+than the influence which the Europeans have exerted in America.
+The Russian power has at least held a wholly beneficial influence, inasmuch
+as it has prevented the continual feuds between the native races. The
+tribes driven to the inhospitable North have been enabled to return to
+milder regions, and where this has not taken place they have, in the
+absence of new migrations from the South, succumbed in the fight with cold,
+hunger, and small-pox, or other diseases introduced by their new masters.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn272"></a><a href="#v2rn272">[272]</a> Cornelis de Bruin, <i>Reizen over Moskovie, door Persie en Indie</i>, &amp;c.,
+Amsterdam, 1711, p. 12. The author's name is also written De Bruyn
+and Le Brun.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn273"></a><a href="#v2rn273">[273]</a> Herodotus already states in book iv. chapter 196, that the Carthagenians
+bartered goods in the same way with a tribe living on the coast of
+Africa beyond the Gates of Hercules. The same mode of barter was still
+in use nearly two thousand years later, when the west coast of Africa
+was visited by the Venetian Cadamosto, in 1454 (<i>Ramusio</i>, i., 1588,
+leaf 100).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn274"></a><a href="#v2rn274">[274]</a> As security for the subjection of the conquered races, the Russians
+were accustomed to take a number of men and women from their principal
+families as hostages. These persons were called <i>amanates</i>, and were
+kept in a sort of slavery at the fixed winter dwellings of the Russians.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn275"></a><a href="#v2rn275">[275]</a> The work is a translation made at Tobolsk by Swedish officers,
+prisoners of war from the battle of Pultava, from a Tartan manuscript by
+Abulgasi Bayadur Chan. The original manuscript (?) is in the library at
+Upsala, to which it was presented in 1722 by Lieutenant-Colonel Sch&ouml;nstr&ouml;m.
+The translation has notes by Bentinck, a Dutchman by birth, who
+was also taken prisoner in the Swedish service at Pultava.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn276"></a><a href="#v2rn276">[276]</a>  L&uuml;tk&eacute; says (Erman's <i>Archiv</i>, iii. p. 464) that the peaceful relations
+with the Chukches begin after the conclusion of a peace which was
+brought about ten years after the abandonment of Anadyrsk, where for
+thirty-six years there had been a garrison of 600 men, costing over a
+million roubles. This peace this formerly so quarrelsome people has
+kept conscientiously down to our days with the exception of some market
+brawls, which induced Treskin, Governor-General of Eastern Siberia,
+to conclude with them, in 1817, a commercial treaty which appears to have
+been faithfully adhered to, to the satisfaction and advantage of both
+parties (<i>Dittmar</i>, p. 128).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn277"></a><a href="#v2rn277">[277]</a> M&uuml;ller has likewise saved from oblivion some other accounts regarding
+the Chukches, collected soon after at Anadyrsk. When we now read these
+accounts, we find not only that the Chukches knew the Eskimo on the
+American side, but also stories regarding the Indians of Western America
+penetrated to them, and further, through the authorities in Siberia, came
+to Europe, a circumstance which deserves to be kept in mind in judging of
+the writings of Herodotus and Marco Polo.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn278"></a><a href="#v2rn278">[278]</a> Sauer, <i>An Account</i>, &amp;c., pp. 255 and 319. Sarytschev, <i>Reise, &uuml;bersetzt
+von Busse</i>, ii. p. 102.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn279"></a><a href="#v2rn279">[279]</a> <i>&Uuml;ber die Kori&auml;ken und die ihnen sehr nahe verwandten Tschuktschen</i>
+(Bulletin historico-philologique de l'Acad&eacute;mie de St. P&eacute;tersbourg, t. xiii.,
+1856, p. 126.)</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn280"></a><a href="#v2rn280">[280]</a> That the Chukches burn their dead with various ceremonies is stated
+by Sarytschev on the ground of communications by the interpreter Daurkin,
+who lived among the reindeer-Chukches from 1787 to 1791, in order to
+learn their language and customs, and to announce the arrival of Billings'
+expedition (Sarytschev's <i>Reise</i>, ii. p. 108). The statement is thus certainly
+quite trustworthy. The coast population with whom Hooper came in
+contact, on the other hand, laid out their dead on special stages, where
+the corpses were allowed to be eaten up by ravens or to decay (<i>loc. cit.</i><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">p. 88).</span><br>
+</p><p>
+<a name="v2fn281"></a><a href="#v2rn281">[281]</a>If the runners are not shod with ice in this way the friction between
+them and the hard snow is very great during severe cold, and the draught
+accordingly exceedingly heavy.
+</p><p>
+<a name="v2fn282"></a><a href="#v2rn282">[282]</a>
+Nearly all the travellers from a great distance who passed the <i>Vega</i>
+had their dogs harnessed in this way. On the other hand, Sarytschev says
+that at St. Lawrence Bay all the dogs were harnessed abreast, and that this
+was the practice at Moore's winter quarters at Chukotskojnos is shown by
+the drawing at p. 71 of Hooper's work, already quoted. We ought to
+remember that at both these places the population were Eskimos who
+had adopted the Chukch language. The Greenland Eskimo have their
+dogs harnessed abreast, the Kamchadales in a long row. Naturally dogs
+harnessed abreast are unsuitable for wooded regions. The different
+methods of harnessing dogs mentioned here, therefore, indicate that the
+Eskimo have lived longer than the Chukches north of the limit of trees.
+</p><p>
+<a name="v2fn283"></a><a href="#v2rn283">[283]</a> An exhaustive treatise on the food-substances which the Chukches
+gather from the vegetable kingdom, written by Dr. Kjellman, is to be
+found in <i>The Scientific Work of the Vega Expedition</i>. Popov already states
+that the Chukches eat many berries, roots, and herbs (<i>M&uuml;ller</i>, iii. p. 59).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn284"></a><a href="#v2rn284">[284]</a> Already, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, all the Siberian
+tribes, men and women, old and young, smoked passionately (<i>Hist.
+G&eacute;n&eacute;alog. des Tartares</i>, p. 66).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn285"></a><a href="#v2rn285">[285]</a> Dr. John Simpson gives good information regarding the American
+markets in his <i>Observations on the Western Esquimaux</i>. He enumerates
+three market places in America besides that at Behring's Straits. At the
+markets people are occupied also with dancing and games, which are
+carried on in such a lively manner that the market people scarcely sleep
+during the whole time. Matiuschin gives a very lively sketch of the
+market at Anjui, to which, in 1821, the Chukches still went fully armed
+with spears, bows, and arrows (Wrangel's <i>Reise</i>, i. p. 270), and a visit to it
+in 1868 is described by C. von Neumann, who took part as Astronomer in
+von Maydell's expedition to Chukch Land (<i>Eine Messe im Hochnorden;
+Das Ausland</i> 1880, p. 861).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn286"></a><a href="#v2rn286">[286]</a> I have seen such pins, also oblong stones, sooty at one end, which,
+after having been dipped in train-oil, have been used as torches, laid by the
+side of corpses in old Eskimo graves in north-western Greenland.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn287"></a><a href="#v2rn287">[287]</a> In the accounts which were collected regarding the Chukches at
+Anadyrsk in the beginning of the eighteenth century, it is also stated that
+they lived without any government On the contrary, in M. von Krusenstern's
+<i>Voyage autour du monde, 1803-1806</i> (Paris, 1821, ii. p. 151), a report
+of Governor Koscheleff is given on some negotiations which he had with
+a &quot;chief of the whole Chukch nation&quot;. I take it for granted that the
+chiefship was of little account, and Koscheleff's whole sketch of his
+meeting with the supposed chief bears an altogether too lively European
+romantic stamp to be in any degree true to nature. At the same place it is
+also said that a brother of Governor Koscheleff, in the winter of 1805-1806,
+made a journey among the Chukches, on which, after his return, he sent a
+report, accompanied by a Chukch vocabulary, to von Krusenstern </p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn288"></a><a href="#v2rn288">[288]</a> The originals of the drawings reproduced in the woodcuts are made on
+paper, part with the lead pencil, part with red ochre. The different groups
+represent <i>on the first page</i>&mdash;1, a dog-team; 2, 3, whales; 4, hunting the
+Polar bear and the walrus; 5, bullhead and cod; 6, man fishing; 7, hare-hunting;
+8, birds; 9, wood-chopper; 10, man leading a reindeer; 11,
+walrus hunt&mdash;7 and 9 represent Europeans. <i>On the second page</i>&mdash;1, a reindeer
+train; 2, a reindeer taken with a lasso by two men; 3, a man throwing
+a harpoon; 4, seal hunt from boat; 5, bear hunt; 6, the man in the
+moon; 7, man leading a reindeer; 8, reindeer; 9, Chukch with staff and
+an archer; 10, reindeer with herd; 11, reindeer; 12, two tents, man riding
+on a dog sledge, &amp;c.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page148" id="v2page148"></a>[ pg 148 ]</span>
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIII"></a><h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+<p>
+The development of our knowledge of the north coast of
+Asia&mdash;Herodotus&mdash;Strabo&mdash;Pliny&mdash;Marco Polo&mdash;Herberstein's map&mdash;The conquest
+of Siberia by the Russians&mdash;Deschnev's voyages&mdash;Coast navigation
+between the Lena and the Kolyma&mdash;Accounts of islands in the Polar
+Sea and old voyages to them&mdash;The discovery of Kamchatka&mdash;The
+navigation of the Sea of Okotsk is opened by Swedish prisoners-of-war&mdash;The
+Great Northern Expedition&mdash;Behring&mdash;Schalaurov&mdash;Andrejev's
+Land&mdash;The New Siberian islands&mdash;Hedenstr&ouml;m's expeditions&mdash;Anjou
+and Wrangel&mdash;Voyages from Behring's Straits westward&mdash;Fictitious
+Polar voyages.
+</p><p>
+Now that the north-eastern promontory of Asia has been at last
+circumnavigated, and vessels have thus sailed along all the
+coasts of the old world, I shall, before proceeding farther in my
+sketch of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>, give a short account of the
+development of our knowledge of the north coast of Asia.
+</p><p>
+Already in primitive times the Greeks assumed that all the
+countries of the earth were surrounded by the ocean. STRABO,
+in the first century before Christ, after having shown that
+HOMER favoured this view, brings together in the first chapter
+of the First Book of his geography reasons in support of it in the
+following terms:&mdash;
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;In all directions in which man has penetrated to the uttermost
+boundary of the earth, he has met the sea, that is, the
+ocean. He has sailed round the east coast towards India, the
+west coast towards Iberia and Mauritia, and a great part of the
+south and north coast. The remaining portion which has not
+yet been sailed round in consequence of the voyages which have
+been undertaken from both sides not having been connected, is
+inconsiderable. For those who have attempted to circumnavigate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page149" id="v2page149"></a>[ pg 149 ]</span>
+the earth and have turned, declare that their undertaking
+did not fail in consequence of their having met with land, but
+in consequence of want of provisions and of complete timidity.
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+At sea they could always have gone further. This
+view (that the earth is surrounded by water) also accords better
+with the phenomena of the tides, for as the ebb and flow are
+everywhere the same, or at least do not vary much, the cause of
+this motion is to be sought for in a single ocean.&quot;<a name="v2rn289"></a><a href="#v2fn289">[289]</a>
+</p><p>
+But if men were thus agreed that the north coast of Asia and
+Europe was bounded by the sea, there was for sixteen hundred
+years after the birth of Christ no actual knowledge of the nature
+of the Asiatic portion of this line of coast. Obscure statements
+regarding it, however, were current at an early period.
+</p><p>
+While HERODOTUS, in the forty-fifth chapter of his Fourth
+Book, expressly says that no man, so far as was then known, had
+discovered whether the eastern and northern countries of Europe
+are surrounded by the sea, he gives in the twenty-third and
+twenty-fourth chapters of the same book the following account
+of the countries lying to the north-east:&mdash;
+</p><p class="blockquote">
+&quot;As far as the territory of the Scythians all the land which
+we have described is an uninterrupted plain, with cultivable
+soil, but beyond that the ground is stony and rugged. And on
+the other side of this extensive stone-bound tract there live at
+the foot of a high mountain-chain men who are bald from their
+birth, both men and women, they are also flat-nosed and have
+large chins. They speak a peculiar language, wear the Scythian
+dress and live on the fruit of a tree. The tree on which they
+live is called <i>Ponticon</i>, is about as large as the wild fig-tree,
+and bears fruit which resembles a bean, but has a kernel.
+When this fruit is ripe, they strain it through a cloth, and the
+juice which flows from it is thick and black and called <i>aschy</i>.
+This juice they suck or drink mixed with milk, and of the
+pressed fruits they make cakes which they eat, for they have
+not many cattle because the pasture is poor. As far as to these
+bald people the land is now sufficiently well known, also the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page150" id="v2page150"></a>[ pg 150 ]</span>
+races on this side of them, because they are visited by Scythians.
+From them it is not difficult to collect information, which is
+also to be had from the Greeks at the port of the Borysthenes
+and other ports in Pontus. The Scythians who travel thither
+do business with the assistance of seven interpreters in seven
+languages. So far our knowledge extends. But of the land on
+the other side of the bald men none can give any trustworthy
+account because it is shut off by a separating wall of lofty trackless
+mountains, which no man can cross. But these bald men
+say&mdash;which, however, I do not believe&mdash;that men with goat's
+feet live on the mountains, and on the other side of them other
+men who sleep six months at a time. The latter statement,
+however, I cannot at all admit. On the other hand, the land east
+of the bald men, in which the Issedones live, is well known, but
+what is farther to the north, both on the other side of the bald
+men and of the Issedones, is only known by the statements of
+these tribes. Above the Issedones live the one-eyed men,
+and the gold-guarding griffins. This information the Scythians
+have got from the Issedones and we from the Scythians, and we
+call the one-eyed race by the Scythian name Arimaspi, for in the
+Scythian language <i>arima</i> signifies one and <i>spou</i> the eye. The
+whole of the country which I have been speaking of has so hard
+and severe a winter, that there prevails there for eight months
+an altogether insupportable cold, so that if you pour water on
+the ground you will not make mud, but if you light a fire you
+will make mud. Even the sea freezes, and the whole Cimmerian
+Bosphorus, and the Scythians who live within the trench travel
+on the ice and drive over it in waggons. . . . Again, with reference
+to the feathers with which the Scythians say the air is filled,
+and which prevent the whole land lying beyond from being seen
+or travelled through, I entertain the following opinion. In the
+upper parts of this country it snows continually, but, as is natural,
+less in summer than in winter. And whoever has seen snow
+falling thick near him will know what I mean. For snow resembles
+feathers, and on account of the winter being so severe
+the northern parts of this continent cannot be inhabited. I
+believe then that the Scythians and their neighbours called
+snow feathers, on account of the resemblance between them.
+This is what is stated regarding the most remote regions.&quot;
+</p><p>
+These and other similar statements, nowithstanding the
+absurdities mixed up with them, are founded in the first
+instance on the accounts of eye-witnesses, which have passed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page151" id="v2page151"></a>[ pg 151 ]</span>
+from mouth to mouth, from tribe to tribe, before they were
+noted down. Still several centuries after the time of Herodotus,
+when the Roman power had reached its highest point, little
+more was known of the more remote parts of north Asia. While
+Herodotus, in the two hundred and third chapter of his First
+Book, says that &quot;the Caspian is a sea by itself having no
+communication with any other sea,&quot; Strabo, induced by evidence
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p161.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p161.png" alt="MAP OF THE WORLD, SAID TO BE OF THE TENTH CENTURY." ></a>
+MAP OF THE WORLD, SAID TO BE OF THE TENTH CENTURY.
+</div>
+
+Found in a manuscript of the twelfth century in the Library at Turin.
+(From Santarem's Atlas.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page152" id="v2page152"></a>[ pg 152 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p162.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p162.png" alt="MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING ASIA TO BE CONTINUOUS WITH AFRICA." ></a>
+MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING ASIA TO BE CONTINUOUS WITH AFRICA.
+</div>
+<p>
+(From Nicolai Doni's edition of <i>Ptolem&aelig;i Cosmographia</i>, Ulm. 1482)
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page153" id="v2page153"></a>[ pg 153 ]</span>
+<p>furnished by the commander of a Greek fleet in that sea, states
+(Book II. chapters i. and iv.) that the Caspian is a gulf of the
+Northern Ocean, from which it is possible to sail to India
+PLINY THE ELDER (<i>Historia Naturalis</i>, Book VI. chapters xiii.
+and xvii.) states that the north part of Asia is occupied by
+extensive deserts bounded on the north by the Scythian
+Sea, that these deserts run out to a headland, <i>Promontorium
+Scythicum</i>, which is uninhabitable on account of snow. Then
+there is a land inhabited by man-eating Scythians, then deserts,
+then Scythians again, then deserts with wild animals to a
+mountain ridge rising out of the sea, which is called <i>Tabin</i>. The
+first people that are known beyond this are the Seri. PTOLEMY
+and his successors again supposed, though perhaps not ignorant
+of the old statement that Africa had been circumnavigated
+under Pharaoh Necho, that the Indian Ocean was an inland
+sea, everywhere surrounded by land, which united southern
+Africa with the eastern part of Asia, an idea which was first
+completely abandoned by the chartographers of the fifteenth
+century after the circumnavigation of Africa by VASCO DA
+GAMA.
+</p><p>
+The knowledge of the geography of north Asia remained at
+this point until MARCO POLO,<a name="v2rn290"></a><a href="#v2fn290">[290]</a> in the narrative of his remarkable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page154" id="v2page154"></a>[ pg 154 ]</span>
+journeys among the peoples of Middle Asia, gave some information
+regarding the most northerly lands of this quarter
+of the world also. The chapters which treat of this subject
+bear the distinctive titles: &quot;On the land of the Tartars living
+in the north,&quot; &quot;On another region to which merchants only
+travel in waggons drawn by dogs,&quot; and &quot;On the region where
+darkness prevails&quot; (<i>De regione tenebrarum</i>). From the statements
+in these chapters it follows that hunters and traders
+already inhabited or wandered about in the present Siberia, and
+brought thence valuable furs of the black fox, sable, beaver, &amp;c.
+The northernmost living men were said to be handsome, tall and
+stout, but very pale for want of the sun. They obeyed no king
+or chief, but were coarse and uncivilised and lived as beasts<a name="v2rn291"></a><a href="#v2fn291">[291]</a>.
+Among the products of the northern countries white bears are
+mentioned, from which it appears that at that time the hunters
+had already reached the coast of the Polar Sea. But Marco
+Polo nowhere says expressly that Asia is bounded on the north
+by the sea.
+</p><p>
+All the maps of North Asia which have been published down
+to the middle of the sixteenth century, are based to a greater or
+less extent on interpretations of the accounts of Herodotus,
+Pliny, and Marco Polo. When they do not surround the whole
+Indian Ocean with land, they give to Asia a much less extent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page155" id="v2page155"></a>[ pg 155 ]</span>
+in the north and east than it actually possesses, make the land
+in this direction completely bounded by sea, and delineate two
+headlands projecting towards the north from the mainland. To
+these they give the names <i>Promontorium Scythicum</i> and <i>Tabin</i>,
+and they besides place in the neighbourhood of the north coast
+a large island to which they give the name that already occurs
+in Pliny, <i>Insula Tazata</i>, which reminds us, perhaps by an
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p165.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p165.png" alt="MAP OF THE WORLD AFTER FRA MAURO FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY" ></a>
+MAP OF THE WORLD AFTER FRA MAURO FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
+</div>
+<p>
+(From Il mappamondo di Fra Mauro Camaldolese descritto ed illustrato da D. Placido Zurla,
+Venezia, 1806.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page156" id="v2page156"></a>[ pg 156 ]</span>
+accidental resemblance of sound, of the name of the river and
+bay, Tas, between the Ob and the Yenisej. Finally, the borders
+of the maps are often adorned with pictures of wonderfully
+formed men, whose dwellings the hunters placed in those
+regions, the names being at the same time given of a larger
+or smaller number of peoples and cities mentioned by Marco
+Polo.
+</p>
+
+<a name="v2map156"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v2p156.png">
+<img src="images/v2p156th.png" alt="Herbertstern's Map of Russia, 1550 (photo-lithographic facsimile)" ></a>
+<br>Herbertstern's Map of Russia, 1550 (photo-lithographic facsimile).
+</div>
+
+<p>
+On the whole, the voyages of the Portuguese to India and
+the Eastern archipelago, the discovery of America and the
+first circumnavigation of the globe, exerted little influence on the
+current ideas regarding the geography of North Asia. A new
+period in respect of our knowledge of this part of the old world
+first began with the publication of HERBERSTEIN'S <i>Rerum
+Moscoviticarum Commentarii</i>, Vindobon&aelig; 1549<a name="v2rn292"></a><a href="#v2fn292">[292]</a>. This work has
+annexed to it a map with the title &quot;Moscovia Sigismundi
+liberi baronis in Herberstein Neiperg et Gutnhag. Anno
+MDXLIX. Hanc tabulam absolvit AUG. HIRSFOGEL Vienn&aelig;
+Austri&aelig; cum gra. et privi. imp.,&quot;<a name="v2rn293"></a><a href="#v2fn293">[293]</a> which indeed embraces only
+a small part of Siberia, but shows that a knowledge of North
+Russia now began to be based on actual observations. A large
+gulf, marked with the name Mare Glaciale (the present White
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page157" id="v2page157"></a>[ pg 157 ]</span>
+Sea) here projects into the north coast of Russia, from the
+south there falls into it a large river, called the Dwina. On
+the banks of the Dwina there are forts or towns with the
+names Solovoka (Solovets), Pinega, Colmogor, &amp;c.  There are
+to be found on the map besides, the names Mesen, Peczora,
+Oby,<a name="v2rn294"></a><a href="#v2fn294">[294]</a> Tumen, &amp;c. Oby runs out of a large lake named Kythay
+lacus. In the text, mention is made of Irtisch and Papingorod,
+of walruses and white bears<a name="v2rn295"></a><a href="#v2fn295">[295]</a> by the coast of the Polar Sea, of
+the Siberian cedar-tree, of the word Samoyed signifying self-eaters,
+&amp;c.<a name="v2rn296"></a><a href="#v2fn296">[296]</a> The walrus is described in great detail.  It is
+mentioned further that the Russian Grand Duke sent out two
+men, SIMEON THEODOROVITSCH KURBSKI and Knes PIETRO
+UCHATOI, to explore the lands east of the Petchora, &amp;c.
+</p><p>
+Herberstein's work, where the narrative of Istoma's circumnavigation
+of the northern extremity of Europe, which has been
+already quoted, is to be found, was published only a few years
+before the first north-east voyages of the English and the Dutch,
+of which I have before given a detailed account. Through
+these the northernmost part of European Russia and the
+westernmost part of the Asiatic Polar Sea were mapped, but an
+actual knowledge of the north coast of Asia in its entirety
+was obtained through the conquest of Siberia by the Russians.
+It is impossible here to give an account of the campaigns, by
+which the whole of this enormous territory was brought under
+the sceptre of the Czar of Moscow, or of the private journeys for
+sport, trade, and the collecting of tribute, by which this conquest
+was facilitated. But as nearly every step which the Russian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page158" id="v2page158"></a>[ pg 158 ]</span>
+invaders took forward, also extended the knowledge of
+regions previously quite unknown, I shall mention the years in
+which during this conquest the most important occurrences in a
+geographical point of view took place, and give a later more
+detailed account of the exploratory or military expeditions which
+led directly to important results affecting the extension of our
+knowledge of the geography of the region now in question.
+</p><p>
+The way was prepared for the conquest of Siberia through
+peaceful commercial treaties<a name="v2rn297"></a><a href="#v2fn297">[297]</a> which a rich Russian peasant
+ANIKA, ancestor of the STROGANOV family, entered into with
+the wild races settled in Western Siberia, whom he even partially
+induced to pay a yearly tribute to the Czar of Moscow. In connection
+with this he and his sons, in the middle of the sixteenth
+century, obtained large grants of land on the rivers Kama and
+Chusovaja and their tributaries, with the right to build towns
+and forts there, whereby their riches, previously very considerable,
+were much increased. The family's extensive possessions, however,
+were threatened in 1577 by a great danger, when a host of
+Cossack freebooters, six to seven thousand strong, under the
+leadership of YERMAK TIMOFEJEV, took flight to the country
+round Chusovaja in order to avoid the troops which the Czar
+sent to subdue them and punish them for all the depredations
+they had committed on the Don, the Caspian Sea and the Volga.
+In order to get rid of the freebooters, MAXIM STROGANOV,
+Anika's grandson, not only provided Yermak and his men with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page159" id="v2page159"></a>[ pg 159 ]</span>
+the necessary sustenance, but supported in every way the bold
+adventurer's plan of entering on a campaign for the conquest of
+Siberia. This was begun in 1579. In 1580 Yermak passed the
+Ural, and after several engagements marched in particular
+against the Tartars living in Western Siberia, along the rivers
+Tagil and Tura to Tjumen, and thence in 1581 farther along
+the Tobol and Irtisch to Kutschum Khan's residence Sibir,
+situated in the neighbourhood of the present Tobolsk. It was
+this fortress, long since destroyed, which gave its name to the
+whole north part of Asia.
+</p><p>
+From this point the Russians, mainly following the great
+rivers, and passing from one river territory to another at the
+places where the tributaries almost met, spread out rapidly in
+all directions. Yermak himself indeed was drowned on the 16th
+August, 1584, in the river Irtisch, but the adventurers who
+accompanied him overran in a few decades the whole of the
+enormous territory lying north of the deserts of Central Asia
+from Ural to the Pacific, everywhere strengthening their
+dominion by building <i>Ostrogs</i>, or small fortresses, at suitable
+places. It was the noble fur-yielding animals of the extensive
+forests of Siberia which played the same part with the Russian
+<i>promyschleni</i>, as gold with the Spanish adventurers in South
+America.
+</p><p>
+At the close of the sixteenth century the Cossacks had
+already possessed themselves of the greater part of the river
+territory of the Irtisch-Ob, and sable-hunters had already gone
+as far north-east<a name="v2rn298"></a><a href="#v2fn298">[298]</a> as the river Tas, where the sable-hunting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page160" id="v2page160"></a>[ pg 160 ]</span>
+was at one time very productive and occasioned the founding of
+a town, Mangasej, which however was soon abandoned. In 1610
+the Russian fur-hunters went from the river territory of the
+Tas to the Yenisej, where the town Turuchansk was soon after
+founded on the Turuchan, a tributary of the Yenisej. The
+attempt to row down in boats from this point to the Polar Sea,
+with the view of penetrating farther along the sea coast, failed
+in consequence of ice obstacles, but led to the discovery of the
+river Pj&auml;sina and to the levying of tribute from the Samoyeds
+living there. To get farther eastward the tributaries of
+the Yenisej were made use of instead of the sea route.
+Following these the Russians on the upper course of the
+Tunguska met with the mountain ridge which separates the
+river territory of the Yenisej from that of the Lena. This ridge
+was crossed, and on the other side of it a new stream was met
+with, which in the year 1627 led the adventurers to the Lena,
+over whose river territory the Cossacks and fur-hunters, faithful to
+then customs, immediately spread themselves in order to hunt,
+purchase furs, and above all to impose &quot;jassak&quot; upon the tribes
+living thereabouts. But they were not satisfied with this.
+Already in 1636 the Cossack ELISEJ BUSA was sent out with an
+express commission to explore the rivers beyond, falling into the
+Polar Sea, and to render tributary the natives living on their
+banks. He was accompanied by ten Cossacks, to whose
+company forty fur-hunters afterwards attached themselves. In
+1637 he came to the western mouth-arm of the Lena, from
+which he went along the coast to the river Olenek, where he
+passed the winter. Next year he returned by land to the Lena,
+and built there two &quot;kotsches,&quot;<a name="v2rn299"></a><a href="#v2fn299">[299]</a> in which he descended the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page161" id="v2page161"></a>[ pg 161 ]</span>
+river to the Polar Sea. After five days' successful rowing along
+the coast to the eastward he discovered the mouth of the Yana.
+After three days' march up the river he fell in with a Yakut
+tribe, from whom he got a rich booty of sable and other furs.
+Here he passed the winter of 1638-39, here too he built
+himself a new craft, and again starting for the Polar Sea, he
+came to another river falling into the eastern mouth-arm of the
+Yana, where he found a Yukagir tribe, living in earth huts, with
+whom he passed two years more, collecting tribute from the
+tribes living in the neighbourhood.
+</p><p>
+At the same time IVANOV POSTNIK discovered by land the
+river Indigirka.  As usual, tribute was collected from the
+neighbouring Yukagir tribes, yet not without fights, in which
+the natives at first directed their weapons against the horses
+the Cossacks had along with them, thinking that the horses
+were more dangerous than the men. They had not seen
+horses before. A <i>simovie</i> was established, at which sixteen
+Cossacks were left behind. They built boats, sailed down the
+river to the Polar Sea to collect tribute, and discovered the
+river Alasej.
+</p><p>
+Some years after the river Kolyma appears to have been
+discovered, and in 1644 the Cossack, MICHAILO STADUCHIN,
+founded on that river a <i>simovie</i>, which afterwards increased to
+a small town, Nischni Kolymsk. Here Staduchin got three
+pieces of information which exerted considerable influence on
+later exploratory expeditions, for he acquired knowledge of the
+Chukches, at that time a military race, who possessed the part
+of North Asia which lay a little further to the east. Further,
+the natives and the Russian hunters, who swarmed in the
+region before Staduchin, informed him that in the Polar Sea
+off the mouths of the Yana and the Indigirka there was a large
+island, which in clear weather could be seen from land, and
+which the Chukches reached in winter with reindeer sledges in
+one day from Chukotska, a river debouching in the Polar Sea
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page162" id="v2page162"></a>[ pg 162 ]</span>
+east of the Kolyma. They brought home walrus tusks from
+the island, which was of considerable size, and the hunters
+supposed &quot;that it was a continuation of Novaya Zemlya, which
+is visited by people from Mesen.&quot; Wrangel is of opinion that
+this account refers to no other than Krestovski Island, one of
+the Bear Islands. This, however, appears to me to be improbable.
+It is much more likely that it refers partly to the
+New Siberian Islands, partly to Wrangel Land, and perhaps
+even to America. That the Russians themselves had not then
+discovered Ljachoff's, or as it was then also called, Blischni
+Island, which lies so near the mainland, and is so high that it
+is impossible to avoid seeing it when one in clear weather sails
+past Svjatoinos, which lies east of the Yana, is a proof that at
+that time they had not sailed along the coast between the
+mouths of the Yana and the Indigirka. Finally, a great river,
+the Pogytscha, was spoken of, which could be reached in three
+or four days' sailing eastward from the mouth of the Kolyma.
+This was the first account which reached the conquerors of
+Siberia of the great river Anadyr which falls into the Pacific.
+</p><p>
+These accounts were sufficient to incite the Cossacks and
+hunters to new expeditions. The beginning was made by ISAI
+IGNATIEV from Mesen, who, along with several hunters, travelled
+down the Kolyma in 1646 to the Polar Sea, and then
+along the coast eastwards. The sea was full of ice, but next
+the land there was an open channel, in which the explorers
+sailed two days. They then came to a bay, near whose shore
+they anchored. Here the Russians had their first meeting with
+the Chukches, to which reference has already been made.
+Hence Ignatiev returned to the Kolyma, and the booty was
+considered so rich and his account of his journey so promising,
+that preparations were immediately made in order next year
+to send off a new maritime expedition fitted out on a larger
+scale to the coast of the Polar Sea.
+</p><p>
+This time FEODOT ALEXEJEV from Kolmogor was chief of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page163" id="v2page163"></a>[ pg 163 ]</span>
+the expedition, but along with him was sent, at the request of
+the hunters, a Cossack in the Russian service in order to guard
+the rights of the crown. His name was SIMEON IVANOV SIN
+DESCHNEV; in geographical writings he is commonly known
+under the name of DESCHNEV. It was intended to search for
+the mouth of the great river lying towards the east, regarding
+which some information had been obtained from the natives,
+and which was believed to fall into the Polar Sea. The first
+voyage in 1647, with four vessels, was unsuccessful, it is said,
+because the sea was blocked with ice. But that this was not
+the real reason is shown by the fact that a new and larger
+expedition was fitted out the following year with full expectation
+of success. The crews of the four boats had more probably
+been considered too weak a force to venture among the
+Chukches, and the ice had to bear the blame of the retreat.
+What man could not reproach the conquerors of Siberia with,
+was pusillanimity and want of perseverance in carrying out a
+plan which had once been sketched. Resistance always increased
+their power of action; so also now. Seven boats were
+fitted out the following year, 1648, all which were to sail down
+to the Polar Sea, and then along the coast eastwards. The
+object was to examine closely the unknown land and people
+there, and to their own advantage and the extension of the
+Russian power, to collect tribute from the tribes met with
+during the expedition. M&uuml;ller states that every boat was
+manned with about thirty men&mdash;a number which appears to
+me somewhat exaggerated, if we consider the nature of the
+Siberian craft and the difficulty of feeding so large a number
+either with provisions earned along with them or obtained
+by hunting.
+</p><p>
+Four of the boats are not mentioned further in the narrative;
+they appear to have returned at an early period. The three
+others, on the contrary, made a highly remarkable journey.
+The commanders of them were the Cossacks, GERASIM
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page164" id="v2page164"></a>[ pg 164 ]</span>
+ANKUDINOV and SIMEON DESCHNEV, and the hunter FEODOT
+ALEXEJEV. Deschnev entertained such hopes of success that
+before his departure he promised to collect a tribute of seven
+times forty sable skins. The Siberian archives, according to
+Miller, contain the following details<a name="v2rn300"></a><a href="#v2fn300">[300]</a>
+</p><p>
+On 30/20th June, 1648, a start was made from the Kolyma. The
+sea was open, at least the boats came without any adventure
+which Deschnev thought worth the trouble of noting in his
+narrative to Great Chukotskojnos. Of this cape Deschnev
+says that it is quite different from the cape at the river
+Chukotskaja.  For it lies between north and north-east, and
+bends with a rounding towards the Anadyr. On the Russian
+side a rivulet runs into the sea, at which the Chukches had
+raised a heap of whales' bones. Right off the cape lie two
+islands, on which people of Chukch race with perforated lips
+were seen. From this cape it is possible with a favourable
+wind to sail to the Anadyr in three days, and the way is not
+longer by land, because the Anadyr falls into a gulf of the sea.
+At Chukotskojnos or, according to Wrangel at a &quot;holy
+promontory,&quot; Svjatoinos (Serdze Kamen?) previously reached,
+Ankudinov's craft was shipwrecked. The crew were saved,
+and distributed on Deschnev's and Alexejev's boats. On the
+30/20th September the Russians had a fight with the Chukches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page165" id="v2page165"></a>[ pg 165 ]</span>
+living on the coast, in which fight Alexejev was wounded.
+Soon after Deschnev's and Alexejev's &quot;kotsches&quot; were parted
+never to meet again.
+</p><p>
+Deschnev was driven about by storms and head-winds until
+past the beginning of October. Finally his vessel stranded near
+the mouth of the river Olutorsk, in 61&deg; N. L. Hence he marched
+with his twenty-five men to the Anadyr. He had expected
+to meet with some natives in its lower course, but the region
+was uninhabited, which caused the invaders much trouble,
+because they suffered from want of provisions. Although
+Deschnev could not obtain from the natives any augmentation
+of the certainly very small supply of food which he carried
+with him, he succeeded nevertheless in passing the winter in
+that region. First in the course of the following summer did
+he fall in with natives, from whom a large tribute was collected,
+but not without fierce conflicts. A <i>simovie</i> was built at the
+place where afterwards Anadyrski Ostrog was founded. While
+Deschnev remained here, at a loss as to how, when the boats
+were broken up, he would be able to return to the Kolyma,
+or find a way thither by land, there came suddenly on the
+5th May/25th April 1650, a new party of hunters to his winter hut.
+</p><p>
+For the accounts of islands in the Polar Sea, and of the river
+Pogytscha, which was said to fall into the sea three or four days'
+journey beyond the Kolyma, had led to the sending out of another
+expedition under the Cossack STADUCHIN. He started from
+Yakutsk in boats on the 15th/5th June, 1647, wintered on the Yana,
+travelled thence in sledges to Indigirka, and there again built
+boats in which he rowed to the Kolyma. It is to be observed
+that Staduchin, just because he preferred the land-route to the
+sea-route between the Yana and the Indigirka, missed discovering
+the large island in the Polar Sea, of which so much has
+been said. Next summer (1649) Staduchin again sailed down
+the river Kolyma to the sea, and then for seven days along its
+coast eastwards, without finding the mouth of the river sought for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page166" id="v2page166"></a>[ pg 166 ]</span>
+by him. He therefore returned with his object unaccomplished,
+carrying with him a heap of walrus-tusks, which were sent
+to Yakutsk as an appendix to a proposal to send out hunters
+to the Polar Sea to hunt for these animals. In the meantime
+a true idea of the course of the Anadyr had been obtained
+through statements collected from the natives, and a land-route
+had become known between its territory and that of the Kolyma.
+Several Cossacks and hunters now petitioned for the right to
+settle on the Anadyr, and collect tribute from the tribes in that
+neighbourhood. This was granted. Some natives were forced
+to act as guides. The party started under the command of
+SIMEON MOTORA, and came finally to Deschnev's <i>simovie</i> on the
+Anadyr.  Staduchin followed, and traversed the way in seven
+weeks.  He however soon quarrelled with Deschnev and Motora,
+and parting from them on that account, betook himself to the
+river Penschina.  Deschnev and Motora built themselves boats
+on the Anadyr in order to prosecute exploratory voyages, but
+the latter was killed in 1651 in a fight with natives called
+Anauls. They had been the first of all the natives of the
+Pacific coast of North Asia to pay &quot;jassak&quot; to Deschnev, and
+he had already at that time come into collision with them
+and extirpated one of their tribes.
+</p><p>
+In 1652 Deschnev travelled down the Anadyr to the river
+mouth, where he discovered a walrus-bank, whence he brought
+home walrus-tusks.  There afterwards arose a dispute between
+Deschnev and Selivestrov<a name="v2rn301"></a><a href="#v2fn301">[301]</a> regarding the rights founded on the
+discovery of this walrus bank, which came before the authorities
+at Yakutsk, and it was from the documents relating to it that
+M&uuml;ller obtained the information that enabled him to give a
+narrative of Deschnev's expedition. Only in this way have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page167" id="v2page167"></a>[ pg 167 ]</span>
+the particulars of this remarkable voyage been rescued from
+complete oblivion.<a name="v2rn302"></a><a href="#v2fn302">[302]</a>
+</p><p>
+In 1653 Deschnev gave orders to collect wood to build craft
+in which he intended to carry home by sea the tribute he
+had collected to the Kolyma, but he was compelled to desist
+from want of the necessary materials for the building and equipment
+of the boats, comforting himself with the statement of
+the natives that the sea was not always so open as during
+his first voyage. Compelled by necessity, he remained a year
+longer at the Anadyr, and in 1654 undertook a new hunting
+voyage to the walrus-bank, where he met with the before-mentioned
+Selivestrov. He here came in contact with the
+natives (Kory&auml;ks), and found among them a Yakut woman, who
+had belonged to Ankudinov. On asking her where her master
+had gone to, she answered that Feodot and Gerasim (Ankudinov)
+had died of scurvy, and that their companions had been killed
+with the exception of some few, who had saved themselves in
+boats. It appears as if the latter had penetrated along the
+coast as far as to the river Kamchatka. For when Kamchatka
+was conquered by Atlassov in 1697 the natives stated that a
+long time before one FEODOTOV (probably a son of Feodot
+Alexejev) had lived among them along with some companions,
+and had married their women. They were venerated almost
+as gods. They were believed to be invulnerable until they
+struck another, when the Kamchadals saw their mistake and
+killed them.<a name="v2rn303"></a><a href="#v2fn303">[303]</a>
+</p><p>
+By the expeditions of Deschnev, Staduchin, and their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page168" id="v2page168"></a>[ pg 168 ]</span>
+companions, the Russians had by degrees become acquainted
+with the course of the Anadyr and with the tribes living on
+its banks. But it still remained for them to acquire a more
+complete knowledge of the islands which were said to be situated
+in the Polar Sea, and one must be surprised at the extreme
+difficulties which were encountered in attempting the solution
+of this apparently very simple geographical problem. The
+reason indeed was that the Siberian seamen never ventured
+to leave the immediate neighbourhood of the coast, a precaution
+which besides is very easily explained when the bad construction
+of their craft is considered. Along the shore of the Polar Sea
+on the other hand, a very active communication appears to have
+taken place between the Lena and the Kolyma, though of those
+voyages we only know such as in one way or another gave rise
+to actions before the courts or were characterised by specially
+remarkable dangers or losses.
+</p><p>
+In 1650 ANDREJ GORELOJ was sent by sea from Yakutsk
+to impose tribute on the tribes that lived at the sources of
+the Indigirka, and on the Moma, a tributary of the Indigirka.
+He passed Svjatoinos successfully, and reached the mouth of
+the Kroma, but was there beset by ice, with which he drifted
+out to sea. After drifting about ten days he was compelled
+to abandon the vessel, which was soon after nipped, and
+go on foot over the ice to land. On the 22nd/12th November he
+came to the <i>simovie</i> Ujandino, where famine prevailed during
+the winter, <i>because the vessels, that should have brought provisions
+to the place, had either been lost or been compelled to
+turn;</i> a statement which proves that at that time a regular
+navigation took place between certain parts of the coast of the
+Polar Sea.
+</p><p>
+The same year, the Cossack, TIMOFEJ BULDAKOV travelled
+by sea from the Lena to the Kolyma to take over the command
+of the neighbouring region. He reached the Kroma successfully,
+but was beset there and drifted out to sea. He then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page169" id="v2page169"></a>[ pg 169 ]</span>
+determined to endeavour to get to land over the ice. But this
+was no easy matter. The ice, which already was three feet
+thick, went suddenly into a thousand pieces, while the vessel
+drove before a furious gale farther and farther from the shore.
+This was repeated several times. When the sea at last froze
+over, the vessel was abandoned, and the party finally succeeded,
+worn out as they were by hunger, scurvy, work, and cold, in
+reaching land at the mouth of the Indigirka. The narrative of
+Buldakov's voyage is, besides, exceedingly remarkable, because a
+meeting is there spoken of with twelve &quot;kotsches,&quot; filled with
+Cossacks, traders, and hunters, bound partly from the Lena to
+the rivers lying to the eastward, partly from the Kolyma and
+Indigirka to the Lena, a circumstance which shows how active
+the communication then was in the part of the Siberian Polar
+Sea in question. This is further confirmed by a narrative of
+NIKIFOR MALGIN. While Knes IVAN PETROVITSCH BARJATINSKY
+was <i>vojvode</i> at Yakutsk (1667-75), Malgin travelled along
+with a trader, ANDREJ WORIPAJEV, by sea from the Lena to the
+Kolyma. During this voyage the pilot directed the attention of
+all on board to an island, lying far out at sea, west of the mouth
+of the Kolyma. In course of a conversation regarding it, after
+Malgin had succeeded in reaching the Kolyma, another trader,
+JAKOB WI&Auml;TKA, stated that on one occasion when he was sailing
+with nine &quot;kotsches&quot; between the Lena and the Kolyma, three
+of them had been driven by wind to this island, and that
+the men who had been sent ashore there, found traces of
+unknown animals, but no inhabitants.
+</p><p>
+All these narratives, however, do not appear to have met with
+full credence. In the beginning of the eighteenth century,
+accordingly, new explorations and new expeditions were undertaken.
+A Cossack, JAKOB PERMAKOV, stated that during a
+voyage between the Lena and the Kolyma, he had seen off
+Svjatoinos an island, of which he knew not whether it was
+inhabited or not, and likewise, that off the mouth of the Kolyma
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page170" id="v2page170"></a>[ pg 170 ]</span>
+there was an island which could be seen from land. In order to
+make sure of the correctness of this statement, a Cossack,
+MERCUREJ WAGIN, was sent out. He travelled along with
+Permakov, in the month of May, in dog-sledges over the
+ice from Svjatoinos to the island lying off it, that Permakov
+had seen. They landed there, found it uninhabited and treeless,
+and fixed its circumference at nine to twelve days' journey.
+Beyond this island Wagin saw another, which, however, he could
+not reach for want of provisions. He therefore determined to
+turn, in order to undertake the journey the following year in a
+better state of preparation. During the return journey the
+party suffered severely from hunger, and in order to avoid
+a, renewal of the dangerous and difficult journey of exploration,
+the men at last murdered Permakov, Wagin, and his son. The
+crime was discovered, and the knowledge we possess of this
+expedition is founded on the confused information obtained
+during the examination of the murderers. M&uuml;ller even throws
+doubts on the truth of the whole narrative.
+</p><p>
+The attempts which were afterwards made to reach those
+islands, partly by sea in 1712, by WASILEJ STADUCHIN, partly
+by dog-sledges in 1714 by ALEXEJ MARKOV and GRIGOREJ
+KUSAKOV, yielded no result. Ten years afterwards, &quot;the old
+saga&quot; of the islands in the Polar Sea, induced one SIN BAJORSKI
+FEODOT AMOSSOV to undertake an expedition with a view to
+impose tribute on their inhabitants, but he was prevented by
+ice from reaching his goal. On the way he met with a hunter,
+IVAN WILLEGIN, who said, that along with another hunter,
+GRIGOREJ SANKIN, he had travelled over the ice to these islands
+from the mouth of the river Chukotskaja. He had seen neither
+men nor trees, but some abandoned huts &quot;Probably this land extends
+all the way from the mouth of the Yana, past the Indigirka
+and Kolyma to the region which is inhabited by the Schelags, a
+Chukch tribe.&quot; He had learned this from a Schelag named
+Kopai, at whose home he had been the preceding year. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page171" id="v2page171"></a>[ pg 171 ]</span>
+order to reach this land by sea it was necessary to start from
+the coast which the Schelags inhabited, because the sea was less
+covered by ice there.
+</p><p>
+As Amossov could not reach his goal by sea he travelled
+thither the same year, in November, 1724, over the ice, but his
+description of the land differs widely from that of his predecessor,
+and M&uuml;ller appears to entertain great doubts of the
+truthfulness of the narrative<a name="v2rn304"></a><a href="#v2fn304">[304]</a>. On the ground of a map constructed
+by the Cossack, Colonel SCHESTAKOV, who, however, according
+to M&uuml;ller, could neither read nor write, this new land was
+introduced into DELISLE and BUACHE'S map, with the addition
+that the Schelag Kopai lived there, and had there been taken
+prisoner by the Russians. This is so far incorrect, as Kopai did
+not live on any island, but on the mainland, and never was
+prisoner with the Russians, although after having paid tribute
+to them, he tired of doing so, and killed some of Amossov's
+people, after which no more was heard of him. M&uuml;ller complains
+loudly of the incorrect statement regarding Kopai, but
+the learned academician commits a much greater mistake, inasmuch
+as he considers that he ought to leave the numerous
+accounts of hunters and Cossacks about land and islands in the
+Siberian Polar Sea completely out of account. All these lands
+are therefore left out of the map published by the Petersburg
+Academy in the year 1758<a name="v2rn305"></a><a href="#v2fn305">[305]</a>. It is in this respect much more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page172" id="v2page172"></a>[ pg 172 ]</span>
+incomplete than the map which accompanies Strahlenberg's
+book.<a name="v2rn306"></a><a href="#v2fn306">[306]</a>
+</p><p>
+Before I begin to sketch the explorations of the great
+northern expedition, some account remains to be given of the
+discovery of Kamchatka. It appears from the preceding that
+Kamchatka was already reached by some of Deschnev's followers,
+but their important discovery was completely unknown
+in Moscow. Kamchatka is, however, already mentioned in the
+narrative of Evert Ysbrants Ides' embassy to China in 1693-95,<a name="v2rn307"></a><a href="#v2fn307">[307]</a>
+accounts of it had probably been obtained from the Siberian
+natives, who are accustomed to wander far and near. These
+accounts, however, are exceedingly incomplete, and therefore,
+VOLODOMIR ATLASSOV, <i>pi&auml;tides&auml;tnik (i.e.</i>, commander of fifty
+men) at Anadyrsk, is considered the proper discoverer of
+Kamchatka.
+</p><p>
+While Atlassov was commander at Anadyrsk, he sent out in
+1696, the Cossack LUCAS SEMENOV SIN MOROSKO with sixteen
+men to bring the tribe living to the south under tribute. The
+commission was executed, and on his return Morosko stated that
+he not only was among the Kory&auml;ks, but had also penetrated to
+the neighbourhood of the river Kamchatka, and that he took
+a Kamchadal &quot;ostrog,&quot; and found in it some manuscripts in an
+unknown language, which, according to information afterwards
+obtained, had belonged to some Japanese who had stranded on
+the coast of Kamchatka.<a name="v2rn308"></a><a href="#v2fn308">[308]</a> It was the first hint the conquerors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page173" id="v2page173"></a>[ pg 173 ]</span>
+of Siberia obtained of their being in the neighbourhood of
+Japan.
+</p><p>
+The year after Atlassov, with a larger force, followed the way
+which Morosko had opened up, and penetrated to the river
+Kamchatka, where as a sign that he had taken possession of the
+land, he erected a cross with an inscription, which when translated
+runs thus: <i>In the, year</i> 7205 (i.e. 1697) <i>on the 13th July
+this cross was erected by the pi&auml;tides&auml;tnik Volodomir Atlassov and
+his followers</i>, 55 <i>men</i>. Atlassov then built on the Kamchatka
+river a <i>simovie</i>, which was afterwards fortified and named Verchni
+Kamtschatskoj Ostrog. Hence the Russians extended their power
+over the land, yet not without resistance, which was
+first completely broken by the cruel suppression of the rebellion
+of 1730.
+</p><p>
+In 1700 Atlassov travelled to Moscow, carrying with him
+a Japanese, who had been taken prisoner after being shipwrecked
+on the coast of Kamchatka, and the collected tribute
+which consisted of the skins of 3,200 sables, 10 sea-otters,
+7 beavers, 4 otters, 10 grey foxes and 191 red foxes. He was
+received graciously, and sent back as commander of the Cossacks
+in Yakutsk with orders to complete the conquest of Kamchatka.
+An interruption however happened for some time in the path
+of Atlassov as a warrior and discoverer, in consequence of his
+having during his return journey to Yakutsk plundered a
+Russian vessel laden with Chinese goods, an accessory circumstance
+which deserves to be mentioned for the light which it
+throws on the character of this Pizarro of Kamchatka. He
+was not set free until the year 1706, and then recovered his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page174" id="v2page174"></a>[ pg 174 ]</span>
+command in Kamchatka, with strict orders to desist from all
+arbitrary proceedings and acts of violence, and to do his best
+for the discovery of new lands. The first part of this order he
+however complied with only to a limited extent, which gave
+occasion to repeated complaints<a name="v2rn309"></a><a href="#v2fn309">[309]</a> and revolts among the already
+unbridled Cossacks. Finally, in 1711, Atlassov and several
+other officers were murdered by their own countrymen. In
+order to atone for this crime, and perhaps to get a little farther
+from the arm of justice, their murderers, ANZIPHOROV and IVAN
+KOSIREVSKOJ,<a name="v2rn310"></a><a href="#v2fn310">[310]</a> undertook to subdue the not yet conquered part
+of Kamchatka, and the two northernmost of the Kurile
+Islands. Further information about the countries lying farther
+south was obtained from some Japanese who were shipwrecked
+in 1710 on Kamchatka.
+</p><p>
+At first in order to get to Kamchatka the difficult detour by
+Anadyrsk was taken. But in the year 1711 the commander at
+Okotsk, SIN BOJARSKI PETER GUTUROV, was ordered, by the
+energetic promoter of exploratory expeditions in Eastern Siberia,
+the Yakutsk <i>voivode</i>, DOROFEJ TRAUERNICHT, to proceed by sea
+from Okotsk to Kamchatka. But this voyage could not come
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page175" id="v2page175"></a>[ pg 175 ]</span>
+off because at that time there were at Okotsk neither seagoing
+boats, seamen, nor even men accustomed to the use of the compass.
+Some years after the governor Prince GAGARIN sent to
+that town IVAN SOROKAUMOV with twelve Cossacks to make
+arrangements for this voyage. For want of ships and seamen
+however this could not now be undertaken, and after Sorokaumov
+had created great confusion he was imprisoned by the
+authorities of the place, and sent back to the Governor.
+Peter I. now commanded <i>that men acquainted with navigation
+should be sought for among the Swedish prisoners of war
+and sent to Okotsk, that they should build a boat there and,
+provided with a compass, go by sea along with some Cossacks
+to Kamchatka and return<a name="v2rn311"></a><a href="#v2fn311">[311]</a></i>. Thus navigation began on the
+Sea of Okotsk Among the Swedes who opened it, is mentioned
+HENRY BUSCH,<a name="v2rn312"></a><a href="#v2fn312">[312]</a> according to Strahlenberg a Swedish
+corporal, who had previously been a ship-carpenter. According to
+M&uuml;ller, who met with him at Yakutsk as late as 1736, he
+was born at Hoorn in Holland, had served at several places
+as a seaman, and finally among the Swedes as a trooper, until
+he was taken prisoner at Viborg in 1706. He gave M&uuml;ller
+the following account of his first voyage across the Sea of
+Okotsk.
+</p><p>
+After arriving at Okotsk they had built a vessel, resembling
+the <i>lodjas</i> used at Archangel and Mesen for sailing on the White
+Sea and to Novaya Zemlya. The vessel was strong; its length
+was eight and a half fathoms, its breadth three fathoms, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page176" id="v2page176"></a>[ pg 176 ]</span>
+freeboard, when the vessel was loaded, three and a half feet.
+The first voyage took place in June 1716. The voyagers
+began to sail along the coast towards the north-east, but
+an unfavourable wind drove the vessel, almost against the
+will of the seafarers, right across the sea to Kamchatka.
+The first land sighted was a cape which juts out north
+of the river Tigil. Being unacquainted with the coast
+the seafarers hesitated to land. During the delay a change
+of wind took place, whereby the vessel was driven back
+towards the coast of Okotsk. The wind again becoming
+favourable, the vessel was put about and anchored successfully
+in the Tigil. The men who were sent ashore found the
+houses deserted. For the Kamchadales being terrified at the
+large ship had made their escape to the woods. The seafarers
+sailed on along the coast and landed at several places in order
+that they might meet with the inhabitants, but for a long time
+without success, until at last they fell in with a Kamchadal
+girl, who was collecting edible roots. With her as a guide they
+soon found dwellings, and even Cossacks, who had been sent out
+to collect tribute. They wintered at the river Kompakova.
+During the winter the sea cast up a whale, which had in its
+carcase a harpoon of European manufacture and with Latin
+letters. The vessel left the winter haven in the middle of
+May (new style) 1717, but meeting with ice-fields was beset
+in them for five and a half weeks. This occasioned great
+scarcity of provisions. In the end of July the seafarers were
+again back at Okotsk. From this time there has been regular
+communication by sea between this town and Kamchatka.
+The master of the vessel during the first voyage across the
+Sea of Okotsk was the Cossack SOKOLOV.<a name="v2rn313"></a><a href="#v2fn313">[313]</a>
+</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page177" id="v2page177"></a>[ pg 177 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p187.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p187.png" alt="MAP OF ASIA." ></a>
+MAP OF ASIA.
+<br>From on Atlas published, by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1737.
+</div>
+<p>
+From what I have stated it follows that, thanks to the
+fondness of the hunters and Cossacks for adventurous, exploratory
+expeditions, the current ideas regarding the distribution
+of the land and the courses of the rivers in north-eastern Asia
+were in the main correct. But, in consequence of want of
+knowledge of, or of doubts regarding, Deschnev's discoveries,
+there prevailed an uncertainty whether Asia at its north-east
+extremity was connected with America by a small neck of land,
+in the same way as it is with Africa, or as North and South
+America are connected with each other, a view which, in
+consequence of the unscientific necessity of generalising
+inherent in man, and the wish to have an explanation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page178" id="v2page178"></a>[ pg 178 ]</span>
+how the population extended from the old to the new world,
+was long zealously defended<a name="v2rn314"></a><a href="#v2fn314">[314]</a>. No one, either European or
+native, had yet, so far as we know, extended his hunting
+journeys to the northernmost promontory of Asia, in consequence
+of which the position which it was assumed to occupy
+only depended on loose suppositions. It was possible for
+instance that Asia stretched with a cape as far as to the
+neighbourhood of the Pole, or that a broad isthmus between the
+Pj&auml;sina and the Olenek connected the known portion of this
+quarter of the world with an Asiatic Polar continent. Nor had
+geographers a single actual determination of position or
+geographical measurement from the whole of the immense
+stretch between the mouth of the Ob and Japan, and there was
+complete uncertainty as to the relative position of the easternmost
+possessions of the Russians on the one side and of Japan
+on the other.<a name="v2rn315"></a><a href="#v2fn315">[315]</a> It was difficult to get the maps of the Russians
+to correspond with those of the Portuguese and the Dutch, at
+the point where the discoveries of the different nations touched
+each other, which also was exceedingly natural, as at that time
+too limited an extent east and west by 1700 kilometres was
+commonly assigned to Siberia. In order to investigate this
+point, in order to fill up the great blank which still existed in
+the knowledge of the quarter of the world first inhabited by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page179" id="v2page179"></a>[ pg 179 ]</span>
+man, and perhaps above all for the purpose of forming new
+commercial treaties and of discovering new commercial routes,
+Peter the Great during the latest years of his life arranged one
+of the greatest geographical expeditions which the history of
+the world can show. It was not until after his death, however,
+that it was carried out, and then it went on for a series of years
+on so large a scale that whole tribes are said to have been
+impoverished through the severe exactions of transport that
+were on its account imposed on the inhabitants of the Siberian
+deserts. Its many different divisions are now comprehended
+under the name&mdash;<i>the Great Northern Expedition</i>. Through the
+writings of Behring, M&uuml;ller, Gmelin, Steller, Krascheninnikov
+and others, this expedition has acquired an important place for
+all time in the history not only of geography but also of
+ethnography, zoology, and botany, and even now the inquirer,
+when the natural conditions of North Asia are in question,
+must return to these works. I shall therefore, before drawing
+this chapter to a close, give a brief account of its principal
+features.
+</p><p>
+The Great Northern Expedition was ushered in by &quot;the first
+expedition to Kamchatka&quot;. The commander of this expedition
+was the Dane VITUS BEHRING, who was accompanied by
+Lieutenant MORTON SPANGBERG, also a Dane by birth, and
+ALEXEI CHIRIKOV They left St. Petersburg in February 1725,
+and took the land route across Siberia, carrying with them the
+necessary materials with which in Kamchatka to build and
+equip the vessel with which they should make their voyage of
+exploration. More than three years were required for this
+voyage, or rather for this geographico-scientific campaign, in
+which for the transport of the stores and the shipbuilding material
+that had to be taken from Europe the rivers Irtisch, Ob, Ket,
+Yenisej, Tunguska, Ilim, Aldan, Maja, Yudoma, and Urak were
+taken advantage of. It was not until the 15th/4th April that a beginning
+could be made at Nischni Kamchatskoj Ostrog of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page180" id="v2page180"></a>[ pg 180 ]</span>
+building of the vessel, which was launched on the 21st/10th July,
+and on the 31st/20th of the same month Behring began his voyage.
+</p><p>
+He sailed in a north-easterly direction along the coast of
+Kamchatka, which he surveyed. On the 19th/8th August in 64&deg; 30'
+N. L. he fell in with Chukches, who had still a reputation among
+the Russians for invincible courage and ferocity. First one of
+them came to the vessel, swimming on two inflated seal-skins,
+&quot;to inquire what was intended by the vessel's coming thither,&quot;
+after which their skin-boat lay to. Conversation was carried on
+with them by means of a Kory&auml;k interpreter. On the 21st/10th
+August St. Lawrence Islands as discovered, and on the 26th/15th of
+the same month the explorers sailed past the north-eastern
+promontory of Asia in 67&deg; 18' and observed that the coast trends
+to the west from that point, as the Chukches had before informed
+them. Behring on this account considered that he had fulfilled
+his commission to ascertain whether Asia and America were
+separated, and he now determined to turn, &quot;partly because if the
+voyage were continued along the coast ice might be met with,
+from which it might not be so easy to get clear, partly on account
+of the fogs, which had already begun to prevail, and partly
+because it would be impossible, if a longer stay were made
+in these regions, to get back the same summer to Kamchatka.
+There could be no question of passing the winter off the coast
+of the Chukch Peninsula, because that would have been to expose
+the expedition to certain destruction, either by being wrecked on
+the jagged rocks of the open unknown coast, or by perishing from
+want of fuel, or finally by dying under the hands of the fierce
+unconquered Chukches&quot;. On the 1st Oct/20th Sept the vessel returned to
+Nischni Kamchatskoj Ostrog.<a name="v2rn316"></a><a href="#v2fn316">[316]</a> It was during this voyage that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page181" id="v2page181"></a>[ pg 181 ]</span>
+the sound, which has since obtained the name of Behring's
+Straits, is considered to have been discovered. But it is
+now known that this discovery properly belongs to the gallant
+hunter Deschnev, who sailed through these straits eighty years
+before. I suppose therefore that the geographical world will
+with pleasure embrace the proposal to attach the name of
+Deschnev along with that of Behring to this part of our globe;
+which may be done by substituting Cape Deschnev, as the name
+of the easternmost promontory of Asia, for that of East Cape, an
+appellation which is misleading and unsuitable in in many respects.
+Several statements by Kamchadales regarding a great country
+towards the east on the other side of the sea, induced Behring
+the following year to sail away in order to ascertain whether this
+was the case. In consequence of unfavourable weather he did not
+succeed in reaching the coast of America, but returned with his
+object unaccomplished, after which he sailed to Okotsk, where
+he arrived on the 3rd Aug/23rd July 1729. Hence he betook himself
+immediately to St. Petersburg, which he reached after a journey
+of six months and nine days.
+</p><p>
+In maps published during Behring's absence, partly by Swedish
+officers who had returned from imprisonment in Siberia,<a name="v2rn317"></a><a href="#v2fn317">[317]</a> Kamchatka
+had been delineated with so long an extension towards
+the south that this peninsula was connected with Yezo, the
+northernmost of the large Japanese islands. The distance
+between Kamchatka and Japan, rich in wares, would thus have
+been quite inconsiderable. This nearness was believed to be
+further confirmed by another Japanese ship, manned by seventeen
+men and laden with silk, rice, and paper, having stranded
+in July 1729 on Kamchatka, south of Avatscha Bay. In this
+neighbourhood there was, along with a number of natives, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page182" id="v2page182"></a>[ pg 182 ]</span>
+small party of Cossacks under the command of ANDREAS
+SCHTINNIKOV. He at first accepted several presents from the
+shipwrecked men, but afterwards withdrew from the place where
+the wreck took place. When the Japanese on this account
+rowed on in their boats along the coast, Schtinnikov gave orders
+to follow them in a <i>baydar</i> and kill them all but two. The cruel
+deed was carried into execution, on which the malefactors took
+possession of the goods, and broke in pieces the boats in order to
+obtain the iron with which the boards were fastened together.
+The two Japanese who were saved were carried to Nischni
+Kamchatskoj Ostrog. Here Schtinnikov was imprisoned and
+hanged for his crime. The Japanese were sent to St. Petersburg,
+where they learned the Russian language and were converted to
+Christianity, while some Russians in their turn learned Japanese.
+The Japanese died between 1736 and 1739. Both were from
+Satsuma; the elder, SOSA, had been a merchant, and the younger,
+GONSA, was a pilot's son. Their vessel had been bound for
+Osaka, but having been carried out of its course by a storm, had
+drifted about at sea for six months, stranding at last with so
+unfortunate a result for the greater part of the crew.
+</p><p>
+This sad occurrence further reminds us that much still
+remained unaccomplished with respect to the geography of
+north-eastern Asia. Behring's Kamchatka expedition had
+besides yielded no information regarding the position of the
+northern extremity of Asia, or of the part of America lying
+opposite to Kamchatka. A number of grave doubts appear
+besides to have been started as to the correctness of the
+observations during Behring's first voyage. All this induced
+him to make proposals for a continuation of his explorations,
+offering, along with his former companions, Spangberg and
+Chirikov, to take the command of the maritime expedition
+which was to start from Kamchatka to solve the questions
+proposed, both eastwards to ascertain the position of the east
+coast of Asia in relation to the west coast of America, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page183" id="v2page183"></a>[ pg 183 ]</span>
+southwards to connect the areas which the West-Europeans and
+the Russians were exploring.
+</p><p>
+The Russian senate, the Board of Admiralty, and the Academy
+of Sciences were commissioned to develop this plan and to carry
+it into execution. With respect to the way in which the commission
+was executed I may be allowed to refer to M&uuml;ller's oft-quoted
+work, and to a paper by VON BAER; <i>Peters des  Grossen
+Verdienste um die Erweiterung der geographischen Kenntnisse
+(Beitr&auml;ge zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reiches</i>, B. 16, St. Petersburg,
+1872). Here I can only mention that it was principally
+through the untiring interest which KIRILOV, the secretary of
+the senate, took in the undertaking, that it attained such a
+development that it may be said to have been perhaps the
+greatest scientific expedition which has ever been sent out by
+any country. It was determined at the same time not only to
+ascertain the extent of Siberia to the north and east, but also to
+examine its hitherto almost unknown ethnographical and natural
+conditions. For this purpose the Great Northern Expedition was
+divided into the following divisions:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+1. <i>An expedition to start from Archangel for the Ob<a name="v2rn318"></a><a href="#v2fn318">[318]</a></i>&mdash;For this
+expedition two <i>kotsches</i> were employed, the <i>Ob</i> and the <i>Expedition</i>
+52-1/2 feet long, 14 feet broad, and 8 feet deep, each manned with
+20 men. The vessels, which were under the command of
+Lieutenants PAULOV and MURAVJEV, left Archangel on the 15th/4th
+July, 1734. The first summer they only reached Mutnoi Saliv
+in the Kara Sea, whence they returned to the Petchora and
+wintered at Pustosersk. The following year they broke up in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page184" id="v2page184"></a>[ pg 184 ]</span>
+June, but did not penetrate farther than in 1734. The unfavourable
+issue was ascribed to the vessels' unserviceableness for
+voyages in the Polar Sea, in consequence of which the Board
+of Admiralty ordered two other boats, 50 to 60 feet long, to be
+built for the expedition, which were placed under the command
+of SKURATOV and SUCHOTIN, Muravjev being besides replaced
+by MALYGIN who sailed with the old vessels on the 7th June/27th May 1736,
+down the Petchora river, at whose mouth the <i>Expedition</i> was
+wrecked. Without permitting himself to be frightened by this,
+Malygin ordered his men to go on board the other vessel, in
+which with great dangers and difficulties they penetrated through
+the drift-ice to Dolgoi Island. Here on the 18th/7th August they
+fell in with the new vessels sent from Archangel. Suchotin was
+now sent back to Archangel on board the <i>Ob</i>; Malygin and
+Skuratov sailed in the new vessels to the Kara river and
+wintered there. During the winter 1736-1737 the men suffered
+only slightly from scurvy, which was cured by anti-scorbutic
+plants growing in the region. The ice in the Kara river did not
+break up until the 12th/1st June, but so much ice still drifted about
+in the sea that a start could not be made until the 14th/3rd July.
+On the 4th Aug/24th July the vessels anchored in the sound which I have
+named Malygin Sound. Here they were detained by head
+winds 25 days. Then they sailed on round a cape, which the
+Samoyeds call Yalmal, up the Gulf of Ob to the mouth of the
+river, which was reached on the 22nd/11th September, 1737, and then
+up the river to Soswa, where the vessels were laid up in winter
+quarters. The crews were taken to Beresov. Malygin returned
+to Petersburg, after having given Lieut. Skuratov and the second
+mate Golovin a commission to carry the vessels back to the
+Dwina the following year. They did not get back until August
+1739. The return voyage thus also occupied two years, and was
+attended with much difficulty and danger.
+</p><p>
+Six years in all had thus gone to the voyage from Archangel
+to the Ob and back, which now can be accomplished without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page185" id="v2page185"></a>[ pg 185 ]</span>
+difficulty in a single summer. By means of Malygin's and
+Skuratov's voyages, and of a land journey which the land-measurer
+Selifontov undertook during July and August 1736
+with reindeer along the west coast of Yalmal and then by boat
+to Beli Ostrov, Yalmal and the south coast of this large island
+were mapped, it would appear in the main correctly.<a name="v2rn319"></a><a href="#v2fn319">[319]</a>
+</p><p>
+2.<i>An expedition to sail from the Ob to the Yenisej</i>&mdash;For
+this Behring ordered a double sloop, the <i>Tobol</i>, 70 feet long, 15
+feet broad, and 8 feet deep, to be built at Tobolsk. The vessel
+had two masts, was armed with two small cannon, and was
+manned with 53 men, among whom were a land-measurer and a
+priest. The commander was Lieut. OWZYN. They sailed in
+company with some small craft carrying provisions from Tobolsk
+on the 26th/15th May, 1734, and came to the Gulf of Ob through the
+easternmost mouth-arm of the river on the 30th/19th June. There a
+storm damaged the tender-vessels. Of the timber of those
+which had sustained most damage, a storehouse was erected in
+66&deg; 36' N.L., in which the provisions landed from the unserviceable
+craft were placed. When this was done they sailed on, but
+slowly in consequence of unfavourable winds and shallow water,
+so that it was not until the 17th/6th August that they reached 70&deg; 4'
+N.L. Hence they returned to Obdorsk, arriving there on the
+15th/4th September. Seven days afterwards the Ob was covered
+with ice.
+</p><p>
+The following spring the voyage was resumed. On the 17th/6th
+June they came to the dep&ocirc;t formed the preceding year. At
+first ice formed an obstacle, but on the 31st/20th July it broke up, and
+the navigable water became clear. The crew had now begun to
+suffer so severely from scurvy, that of 53 only 17 were in good
+health; Owzyn therefore turned, that he might bring his sick
+men to Tobolsk. He reached this town on the 17th/6th October, and
+the river froze over soon after. Owzyn now travelled to St.
+Petersburg in order to give in, in person, reports of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page186" id="v2page186"></a>[ pg 186 ]</span>
+unsuccessful voyages and to make suggestions as to the measures
+that ought to be taken to ensure better success to next year's
+undertaking. His proposals on this point were mainly in the
+direction of building at Tobolsk a new vessel, which should
+accompany the <i>Tobol</i> during the dangerous voyage, and confer
+upon it greater safety. This was approved by the Board of
+Admiralty, but the vessel could not be got ready till the summer
+of 1736, on which account that year's voyage was undertaken in
+the same way as that of the preceding year, and with the same
+success. The new vessel was not ready until 1737. It came
+with the shipbuilder KOSCHELEV and the mate MININ on the
+16th/5th June to Obdorsk, where Owzyn took command of it, handing
+over the old one to Koschelev, and beginning his fourth voyage
+down the Gulf of Ob. This time he had better success. After
+sailing past Gyda Bay, he came, without meeting with any
+serious obstacles from ice, on the 27th/16th August to Cape Mattesol,
+and on the 12th/1st September to a storehouse erected for the expedition
+by the care of the authorities on the bank of the Yenisej
+in 71&deg; 33' N.L. The Yenisej froze over on the 21st/10th October.
+</p><p>
+Four years had thus gone to the accomplishment of Owzyn's
+purpose, but it can scarcely be doubted that if he had not turned
+so early in the season, and if he had had steam, or a sailing
+vessel of the present day at his disposal he would have been able
+to sail from the Ob to the Yenisej in a few weeks. It is at all
+events Owzyn's perseverance to which we are in great measure
+indebted for the mapping of the Gulf of Ob, and the Bays of Tas
+and Gyda<a name="v2rn320"></a><a href="#v2fn320">[320]</a>.
+</p><p>
+3. <i>Voyages from the Yenisej towards Cape Taimur</i>.&mdash;In the
+winter of 1738 Owzyn and Koschelev were called to St. Petersburg
+to answer for themselves with reference to a complaint
+lodged against them by the men under their command<a name="v2rn321"></a><a href="#v2fn321">[321]</a>. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page187" id="v2page187"></a>[ pg 187 ]</span>
+their room Minin got the command of the expedition which was
+to endeavour to penetrate farther eastwards along the coast of
+the Polar Sea. The two first summers, 1738 and 1739, Minin
+could not get further than to the northernmost <i>sumovies</i> on the
+Yenisej. But in 1740 he succeeded, as it appears in pretty open
+water, in reaching on the west coast of the Taimur Peninsula the
+latitude of 75&deg; 15'. Here he turned on the 1st Sept./21st Aug. on account of
+&quot;impenetrable&quot; ice, but mainly in consequence of the late season
+of the year. The preceding winter Minin had sent his mate
+STERLEGOV in sledges to examine the coast. On the 25th/14th April
+he reached 75&deg; 26' N. L., and there erected a stone cairn on a rock
+jutting out into the sea. Many open places appear to have been
+seen in the offing. Minin and his party returned on account of
+snow-blindness, and during the return voyage rested for a time
+at a <i>sumovie</i> on the river Pj&auml;sina, whose existence there shows
+how far the Russian hunters had extended their journeys<a name="v2rn322"></a><a href="#v2fn322">[322]</a>.
+</p><p>
+4. <i>Voyage from the Lena Westward</i>&mdash;On the 30th July/11th June 1735, two
+expeditions started from Yakutsk, each with its double sloop,
+accompanied by a number of boats carrying provisions. One of
+these double sloops was to go in an easterly direction under the
+command of Lieut. LASSINIUS. I shall give an account of his
+voyage farther on. The other was commanded by Lieut.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page188" id="v2page188"></a>[ pg 188 ]</span>
+PRONTSCHISCHEV, whose object was to go from the Lena westwards,
+if possible, to the Yenisej. The voyage down the river
+was successful and pleasant. The river was from four to nine
+fathoms deep, and on its banks, overgrown with birch and pine,
+there were numerous tents and dwelling-houses whose inhabitants
+were engaged in fishing, which gave the neighbourhood
+of the river a lively and pleasant appearance<a name="v2rn323"></a><a href="#v2fn323">[323]</a>. On the
+13th/2nd August the explorers came to the mouth of the river, which
+here divides into five arms, of which the easternmost was chosen
+for sailing down to the Polar Sea. Here the two seafarers
+were to part. Prontschischev staid at the river-mouth till
+the 25th/14th August. He then sailed in 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 fathoms water
+along the shore of the islands which are formed by the mouth-arms
+of the Lena. On the 6th Sept./26th Aug. he anchored in the mouth
+of the Olenek. A little way up the river some dwelling-houses
+were met with, which hunters had built for use during
+summer. These were put in order for winter, which passed
+happily. On the 2nd July/21st June the ice broke up at the winter quarters,
+but in the sea it lay still until the 14th/3rd August, and it
+was only then that Prontschischev could go to sea. The course
+was shaped for the north-east. The Chatanga was reached on
+the 24th/13th August. On the beach, in 74&deg; 48' N. L., a hut was
+met with in which were found newly baked bread and some
+dogs, and which therefore appeared to belong to some Russian
+hunters absent at the time. While sailing on along the coast
+the explorers, after having passed two bays projecting into
+the land, came to an inlet which they erroneously took for
+the mouth of the Taimur river. Among the reasons for
+this supposition is mentioned the immense number of gulls
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page189" id="v2page189"></a>[ pg 189 ]</span>
+which swarmed round the vessel in that region. The bay was
+covered with fast ice, &quot;which probably never breaks up,&quot; and
+broad ice-fields stretched out to sea from the coast, on which
+Polar bears were seen.
+</p><p>
+On the 31st/20th August, in 77&deg; 29' N. L., the vessel was suddenly
+surrounded with so large masses of ice that it could make no
+further progress, and was every instant in danger of being
+nipped. Prontschischev therefore determined to turn, but this
+at first was rendered impossible by a complete calm, a crust of
+ice being formed at the same time in open places between the
+pieces of drift-ice. If the latitude stated is correct, the turning
+point lay quite close to the northernmost promontory of Asia.
+With a better vessel, and above all with the help of steam,
+Prontschischev would certainly have rounded it. The unbroken
+ice which he mentioned several times in his narrative, ought
+probably to be interpreted as belts of pretty closely packed
+drift-ice. Many times during my Arctic voyages have I sailed
+through belts of ice which, when observed from a boat some
+hundred yards from their borders, have been reported as
+immense unbroken ice-fields. On the 5th Sept./25th Aug. a high north wind
+began to blow which drove the vessel, with the surrounding
+ice-fields, towards the south. The voyagers had doubts as to
+then being saved, but the gusts of wind broke up the ice so
+that the vessel got free and could sail to the mouth of the
+Chatanga, which, however, was already frozen over. The explorers
+were therefore compelled to continue their voyage
+towards the Olenek, whose mouth was reached on the 8th Sept./28th Aug.
+In the neighbourhood of the haven which they intended to
+make, they were driven about by contrary winds and drift-ice
+about six days more, exposed to cold and wet, and worn out by
+exertions and privations of every description. Prontschischev,
+who before had been sick, died of his illness on the 10th Sept./30th Aug.
+to the great sorrow of his men, by whom he was held in great
+regard. The mate, CHELYUSKIN, now took the command. On
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page190" id="v2page190"></a>[ pg 190 ]</span>
+the 14th/3rd Sept. he succeeded in carrying his vessel into the river
+Olenek. On its bank Prontschischev was buried with all the
+solemnities which circumstances permitted. To Prontschischev's
+melancholy fate there attaches an interest which is quite unique
+in the history of the Arctic exploratory voyages. He was
+newly married when he started. His young wife accompanied
+him on his journey, took part in his dangers and sufferings,
+survived him only two days, and now rests by his side in the
+grave on the desolate shore of the Polar Sea.
+</p><p>
+On the 9th Oct./28th Sept. the Olenek was frozen over and the winter
+became very severe for Chelyuskin and his companions. The
+following summer they returned to Yakutsk convinced of the
+impossibility of sailing round the north point of Asia, and as
+Behring was no longer to be found in that town, Chelyuskin
+started for St. Petersburg in order to give an oral account of
+Prontschischev's voyages. The Board of Admiralty, however,
+did not favour Chelyuskin's views, but considered that another
+attempt ought to be made by land, but if this, too, was unsuccessful,
+that the coast should be surveyed by land journeys.
+Lieut. CHARITON LAPTEV was appointed to carry out this last
+attempt to reach the Yenisej by sea from the Lena.
+</p><p>
+Laptev, accompanied by a number of small craft carrying provisions,
+left Yakutsk on the 20th/9th July, 1739, and on the 31st/20th of the
+same month reached the mouth-arm of the Lena called Krestovskoj,
+on which he built, on a point jutting out into the sea, a
+high signal tower, one of the few monuments that are to be
+found on the north coast of Asia, and which is on that account
+mentioned by succeeding travellers in those regions. He sailed
+hence along the coast past the mouth of the Olenek and past a
+large bay to which, for what reason I know not, he gave the
+purely Swedish name of Nordvik. This bay was still covered
+with unbroken ice. After having been beset for several days in
+Chatanga Bay, the voyagers on the 31st/20th August reached Cape
+Thaddeus, where the vessel was anchored the following day in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page191" id="v2page191"></a>[ pg 191 ]</span>
+76&deg; 47' N. L. A signal tower was built on the extremity of the
+cape, and the land-measurer CHEKIN was sent to examine the
+neighbouring territory, and Chelyuskin to search for the mouth
+of the river Taimur. Chekin could carry out no geodetic work
+on account of mist. Chelyuskin again reported that the whole
+bay and the sea in the offing were, as far as the eye could reach,
+covered with unbroken ice This induced Laptev to turn. After
+many difficulties among the ice, he came, on the 7th Sept./27th Aug. to the
+confluence of the river Bludnaya with the Chatanga. Here the
+winter was passed among a tribe of Tunguses Irving on the spot,
+who owned no reindeer, and were therefore settled. They used
+dogs as draught animals, and appear to have carried on a mode
+of life resembling that of the coast Chukches.
+</p><p>
+In spring Chekin was sent to map the coast between the
+Taimur and the Pj&auml;sina. With thirty dog-sledges and accompanied
+by a nomad Tunguse with eighteen reindeer,<a name="v2rn324"></a><a href="#v2fn324">[324]</a> he travelled over
+land to the Taimur river, followed its course to the sea, and then
+the coast towards the west of a distance of 100 versts. Scarcity
+of provisions and food for his dogs compelled him to turn.
+Laptev himself, convinced as he was of the impossibility of
+rounding the north point of Asia, now wished to carry back his
+vessel and the most of his stores to the Lena. After having with
+great danger and difficulty sailed down the river to the Polar Sea,
+reaching it on the 10th Aug./30th July, the vessel on the 24th/13th was beset and
+nipped between pieces of ice, according to a statement on a
+Russian map published in 1876 by the Hydrographical Department
+in St. Petersburg, on the east coast of the Taimur Peninsula
+in 75&deg; 30' N.L. Six days after there was a strong frost, so that
+thin ice was formed between the blocks of drift-ice. Some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page192" id="v2page192"></a>[ pg 192 ]</span>
+foolhardy fellows went over the weakly frozen together pieces of
+ice to land. Three days after Laptev himself and the rest of the
+men could leave the vessel. Several streams, still unfrozen, lying
+between them and their old winter station, however, prevented
+them from going further. They endeavoured to get protection
+from the cold by digging pits in the frozen earth and lying down
+in them by turns one after the other. The men were sent daily
+to the vessel to fetch as much as possible of the provisions left
+behind, but on the 10th Sept./29th Aug. the ice again broke up, and carried the
+abandoned vessel out to sea.
+</p><p>
+By the 2nd Oct./21st Sept. the streams at last had frozen so much that the
+return journey could be begun to the former year's winter
+station distant more than 500 kilometres. The journey through
+the desolate <i>tundra</i>, perhaps never before trodden by the foot
+of man, was attended with extreme difficulties, and it was
+twenty-five days before Laptev and his men could again rest
+in a warmed hut and get hot food. Twelve men perished
+of cold and exhaustion. Laptev now determined to remain here
+during the winter and to go the following spring over the <i>tundra</i>
+to the Yenisej, where he hoped to find dep&ocirc;ts with provisions and
+ammunition. Nor did he now remain inactive. For he did not
+wish to return until the surveys were complete. For want of
+vessels these were to be made by land. Such of the men as
+were not required were therefore sent in spring over the <i>tundra</i>
+to the Yenisej and the rest divided into three parties under
+Laptev himself, Chekin, and Chelyuskin, who were to survey
+each his portion of the coast between the Chatanga and the
+Pj&auml;sina and then meet at the Yenisej. These journeys were
+successfully accomplished, the explorers travelled several times
+without, it would appear, excessive difficulty, over the desolate
+<i>tundra</i> between the Chatanga and the Taimur rivers, discovered
+Lake Taimur, and surveyed considerable stretches of the coast.
+But when they were all again assembled at Dudino, it was found
+that the north point of Asia had not yet been travelled round and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page193" id="v2page193"></a>[ pg 193 ]</span>
+surveyed. This was done in 1742 by Chelyuskin in the
+course of a new sledge journey, of which the particulars
+are only incompletely known, evidently because Chelyuskin's
+statement, that he had reached the northernmost point of
+Asia, was doubted down to the most recent times. After the
+voyage of the <i>Vega</i>, however, there can be no more doubt on
+this point.<a name="v2rn325"></a><a href="#v2fn325">[325]</a>
+</p><p>
+5. <i>Voyages from the Lena Eastward</i>&mdash;During these Lieutenant
+Lassinius and after his death Lieutenant DMITRI LAPTEV had the
+command. A double sloop was built at Yakutsk for the voyage
+of Lassinius. As I have already mentioned, he left this town,
+accompanied by several cargo-boats, at the same time as Prontschischev,
+and both sailed together down the Lena to its mouth.
+Lassinius was able to sail to the eastward as early as the 20th/9th
+August. Four days after he came upon so much drift-ice that
+he was compelled to lie to at the mouth of the river, 120 versts
+to the east of the easternmost mouth-arm of the Lena. Here
+abundance of driftwood was met with, and the stock of provisions
+appears also to have been large, but notwithstanding this,
+scurvy broke out during the winter. Lassinius himself and most
+of his men died. On being informed of this, Behring sent a
+relieving party, consisting of Lieutenant CHERBININ and fourteen
+men to Lassinius' winter quarters. On their arrival on the 15th/4th
+June they found only the priest, the mate, and seven sailors
+alive of the fifty-three men who had started with Lassinius the
+foregoing year from Yakutsk. These too were so ill that some
+of them died during the return journey to Yakutsk. Dmitri
+Laptev and a sufficient number of men, were sent at the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page194" id="v2page194"></a>[ pg 194 ]</span>
+time to take possession of the ship and renew the attempt to sail
+eastwards. He went to sea on the 10th Aug./30th July. At first he had to
+contend with serious obstacles from ice, and when at last he
+reached open water he thought himself compelled to turn on
+account of the advanced season of the year. On the 2nd Sept./22nd Aug. he
+came again to the Bychov mouth-arm of the Lena, up which he
+found it difficult to make his way on account of the many
+unknown shoals. On the 19th/8th September the river was frozen
+over. He wintered a little distance from the mouth, and now
+again scurvy made its appearance, but was cured by constant
+exercise in the open air and by a decoction of cedar cones. In
+a report sent from this place, Dmitri Laptev declared that it was
+quite impossible to round the two projecting promontories
+between the Lena and the Indigirka, Capes Borchaja and
+Svjatoinos, because, according to the unanimous statement of
+several Yakuts living in the region, the ice there never melts or
+even loosens from the beach. With Behring's permission he
+travelled to St. Petersburg to lay the necessary information
+before the Board of Admiralty. The Board determined that
+another attempt should be made by sea, and, if that was
+unsuccessful, that the coast should be surveyed by means of
+land journeys.
+</p><p>
+It is now easy to see what was the cause of the unfortunate
+issue of these two attempts to sail to the eastward. The explorers
+had vessels which were unsuitable for cruising, they turned too
+early in the season, and in consequence of their unwillingness to
+go far from land they sailed into the great bays east of the Lena,
+from which no large river carries away the masses of ice that
+have been formed there during the winter, or that have been
+drifted thither from the sea. Dmitri Laptev and his companions
+besides appear to have had a certain dislike to the commission
+intrusted to them, and, differing from Deschnev, they thus
+wanted the first condition of success&mdash;the fixed conviction of
+the possibility of attaining their object.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page195" id="v2page195"></a>[ pg 195 ]</span>
+</p><p>
+By order of the Board of Admiralty Dmitri Laptev at all
+events began his second voyage, and now falsified his own
+prediction, by rounding the two capes which he believed to be
+always surrounded by unbroken ice. After he had passed them
+his vessel was frozen in on the 20th/9th September. Laptev had no
+idea at what point of the coast he was, or how far he was from
+land. He remained in this unpleasant state for eleven days, at
+the close of which one of the mates who had been sent out from
+the vessel in a boat on the 11th Sept./31st Aug. returned on foot over the ice
+and reported that they were not far from the mouth of the
+Indigirka. Several Yakuts had settled on the neighbouring
+coast, where was also a Russian <i>simovie</i>. Laptev and his men
+wintered there, and examined the surrounding country. The
+surveyor KIND&Auml;KOV was sent out to map the coast to the Kolyma.
+Among other things he observed that the sea here was very
+shallow near the shore, and that driftwood was wanting at the
+mouth of the Indigirka, but was found in large masses in the
+interior, 30 versts from the coast.
+</p><p>
+The following year, 1740, Laptev repaired as well as he could
+his vessel, which had been injured during the voyage of the
+preceding year, and then went again to sea on the 11th Aug./31st July. On
+the 14th/3rd August he passed one of the Bear Islands, fixing its
+latitude at 71&deg; 0'. On the 25th/14th August, when Great Cape
+Baranov was reached, the progress of the vessel was arrested by
+masses of ice that extended as far as the eye could reach.
+Laptev now turned and sought for winter quarters on the
+Kolyma. On the 19th/8th July, 1741, this river became open, and
+Laptev went to sea to continue his voyage eastwards, but did
+not now succeed in rounding Great Cape Baranov. He was now
+fully convinced of the impossibility of reaching the Anadyr by
+sea, on which account he determined to penetrate to that river
+by land in order to survey it. This he did in the years 1741
+and 1742. Thus ended the voyages of Dmitri Laptev, giving evidence
+if not of distinguished seamanship, of great perseverance,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page196" id="v2page196"></a>[ pg 196 ]</span>
+undaunted resolution, and fidelity to the trust committed to
+him.<a name="v2rn326"></a><a href="#v2fn326">[326]</a>
+</p><p>
+6. <i>Voyage for the purpose of exploring and surveying the coast
+of America</i>&mdash;For this purpose Behring fitted out at Okotsk two
+vessels, of which he himself took the command of one, <i>St. Paul</i>,
+while the other, <i>St. Peter</i>,, was placed under CHIRIKOV. They
+left Okotsk in 1740, and being prevented by shoal water from
+entering Bolschaja Reka, they both wintered in Avatscha Bay,
+whose excellent haven was called, from the names of the ships,
+Port Peter-Paul. On the 15th/4th June they left this haven, the
+naturalist GEORG WILHELM STELLER having first gone on board
+Behring's and the astronomer LOUIS DE L'ISLE DE LA CROY&Egrave;RE
+Chirikov's vessel. The course was shaped at first for the S.S.E.,
+but afterwards, when no land could be discovered in this
+direction, for the N.E. and E. During a storm on the 1st July/20th June the
+vessels were separated. On the 29th/18th July Behring reached the
+coast of America in 58&deg; to 59&deg; N.L. A short distance from the
+shore Steller discovered here a splendid volcano, which was
+named St. Elias. The coast was inhabited, but the inhabitants
+fled when the vessel approached. From this point Behring
+wished to sail in a north-westerly direction to that promontory
+of Asia which formed the turning-point of his first voyage. It
+was however only with difficulty that in the almost constant fog
+the peninsula of Alaska could be rounded and the vessel could
+sail forward among the Aleutian island groups. Scurvy now
+broke out among the crew, and the commander himself suffered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page197" id="v2page197"></a>[ pg 197 ]</span>
+severely from it, on which account the command was mainly in
+the hands of Lieut. WAXEL. At an island the explorers came
+into contact with the natives, who at first were quite friendly,
+until one of them was offered brandy. He tasted the liquor, and
+was thereby so terrified that no gifts could calm his uneasiness.
+On this account those of the crew who were on land were
+ordered to come on board, but the savages wished to detain
+their guests. At last the Russians were set free, but a Kory&auml;k
+whom they had taken with them as an interpreter was kept
+behind. In order to get him set at liberty, Waxel ordered two
+musket salvos to be fired over the heads of the natives, with the
+result that they all fell flat down from fright, and the Kory&auml;k
+had an opportunity of making his escape. Now the fire-water
+is a liquor in great request among these savages, and they are
+not frightened at the firing of salvos of musketry.
+</p><p>
+During the following months Behring's vessel drifted about
+without any distinct plan, in the sea between Alaska and Kamchatka,
+in nearly constant fog, and in danger of stranding on
+some of the many unknown rocks and islands which were passed.
+On the 5th November the vessel was anchored at an island
+afterwards called Behring Island. Soon however a great wave
+arose which threw the vessel on land and crushed it against the
+rocky coast of the island. Of the wintering there, which, through
+Steller's taking part in it, became of so great importance for
+natural history, I shall give an account further on in connection
+with the narrative of our visit to Behring Island. Here I shall
+only remind the reader that Behring died of scurvy on the 19th/8th
+December, and that in the course of the voyage great part of his
+crew fell a sacrifice to the same disease. In spring the survivors
+built a new vessel out of the fragments of the old, and on the
+27th/16th of August they sailed away from the island where they had
+undergone so many sufferings, and came eleven days after to a
+haven on Kamchatka.
+</p><p>
+After parting from Behring, Chirikov on the 26th/15th July sighted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page198" id="v2page198"></a>[ pg 198 ]</span>
+the coast of America in 56&deg; N.L. The mate ABRAHAM DEMENTIEV
+was then sent ashore in the longboat, which was armed with
+a cannon and manned by ten well-armed men. When he did not
+return, another boat was sent after him. But this boat too did
+not come back. Probably the boats' crews were taken prisoners
+and killed by the Indians. After making another attempt to
+find his lost men, Chirikov determined to return to Kamchatka.
+He first sailed some distance northwards along the coast of
+America without being able to land, as both the vessel's boats
+were lost. Great scarcity of drinking-water was thus occasioned,
+which was felt the more severely as the return voyage was very
+protracted on account of head-winds and fog. During the voyage
+twenty-one men perished, among them de l'Isle de la Croy&egrave;re,
+who died, as is said often to be the case with scurvy patients, on
+board ship, while he was being carried from his bed up on deck
+to be put on land.<a name="v2rn327"></a><a href="#v2fn327">[327]</a>
+</p><p>
+The voyages of Behring and Chirikov, attended as they were by
+the sacrifice of so many human lives, gave us a knowledge of the
+position of North-western America in relation to that of North-eastern
+Asia, and led to the discovery of the long volcanic chain
+of islands between the Alaska peninsula and Kamchatka.
+</p><p>
+7. <i>Voyages to Japan</i>&mdash;For these Captain SPANGBERG ordered
+a <i>hucker</i>, the <i>Erkeengeln Michael</i>, and a double sloop, the
+<i>Nadeschda</i>, to be built at Okotsk, the old vessel <i>Gabriel</i> being
+at the same time repaired for the same purpose. Spangberg
+himself took command of the <i>Michael</i>, that of the double sloop
+was given to Lieutenant WALTON, and of the <i>Gabriel</i> to Midshipman
+CHELTINGA. Drift-ice prevented a start until midsummer,
+and on that account nothing more could be done the first year
+(1738) than to examine the Kurile Islands to the 46th degree
+of latitude. From this point the vessels returned to Kamchatka,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page199" id="v2page199"></a>[ pg 199 ]</span>
+where they wintered at Bolschaja Reka. On the 2nd June/22nd May, 1739,
+Spangberg with his little fleet again left this haven. All the
+vessels kept together at first, until in a violent storm attended
+with fog Spangberg and Cheltinga were parted from Walton.
+Both made a successful voyage to Japan and landed at several
+places, being always well received by the natives, who appeared
+to be very willing to have dealings with the foreigners. During
+the return voyage Spangberg landed in 43&deg; 50' N.L. on a large
+island north of Nippon. Here he saw the Aino race, enigmatical
+as to its origin, distinguished by an exceedingly abundant growth
+of hair and beard which sometimes extends over the greater part
+of the body. Spangberg returned to Okotsk on the 9th November/20th October.
+Walton sailed along the coast in a southerly direction to 33&deg; 48'
+N.L. Here was a town with 1,500 houses, where the Russian seafarers
+were received in a very friendly way even in private houses.
+Walton subsequently landed at two other places on the coast,
+returning afterwards to Okotsk, where he anchored on the 1st September/21st August.<a name="v2rn328"></a><a href="#v2fn328">[328]</a>
+</p><p>
+The very splendid results of Spangberg's and Walton's voyages
+by no means corresponded with the maps of Asia constructed
+by the men who were at that time leaders of the Petersburg
+Academy. Spangberg therefore during his return journey through
+Siberia got orders to travel again to the same regions in order
+to settle the doubts that had arisen. A new vessel had to
+be built, and with this he started in 1741 from Okotsk to
+his former winter haven in Kamchatka. Hence he sailed in
+1742 in a southerly direction, but he had scarcely passed the
+first of the Kurile Islands when the vessel became so leaky
+that he was compelled to turn. The second expedition of
+Spangberg to Japan was thus completely without result, a
+circumstance evidently brought about by the unjustified and
+offensive doubts which led to it, and the arbitrary way in
+which it was arranged at St. Petersburg.
+</p><p>
+8 <i>Journeys in the interior of Siberia</i> by Gmelin, M&uuml;ller,
+</p><p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page200" id="v2page200"></a>[ pg 200 ]</span>
+Steller, Krascheninnikov, de l'Isle de la Croy&egrave;re, &amp;c.&mdash;The
+voyages of these <i>savants</i> have indeed formed an epoch in our
+knowledge of the ethnography and natural history of North Asia,
+but the north coast itself they did not touch.  An account of
+them therefore lies beyond the limits of the history which I
+have undertaken to relate here.
+</p><p class="tb">
+The Great Northern Expedition by these journeys both by
+sea and land had gained a knowledge of the natural conditions
+of North Asia based on actual researches, had yielded pretty
+complete information regarding the boundary of that quarter
+of the globe towards the north, and of the relative position
+of the east coast of Asia and the west coast of America, had
+discovered the Aleutian Islands, and had connected the Russian
+discoveries in the east with those of the West-Europeans in
+Japan and China<a name="v2rn329"></a><a href="#v2fn329">[329]</a>. The results were thus very grand and
+epoch-making. But these undertakings had also required very
+considerable sacrifices, and long before they were finished they
+were looked upon in no favourable light by the Siberian
+authorities, on account of the heavy burden which the transport
+of provisions and other equipment through desolate regions
+imposed upon the country. Nearly twenty years now elapsed
+before there was a new exploratory expedition in the Siberian
+Polar Sea worthy of being registered in the history of geography.
+This time it was a private person, a Yakutsk merchant,
+SCHALAUROV, who proposed to repeat Deschnev's famous voyage
+and to gain this end sacrificed the whole of his means and
+his life itself. Accompanied by an exiled midshipman, IVAN
+BACHOFF, and with a crew of deserters and deported men, he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page201" id="v2page201"></a>[ pg 201 ]</span>
+sailed in 1760 from the Lena out into the Polar Sea, but
+came the first year only to the Yana, where he wintered.
+On the 9th August/29th July, 1761, he continued his voyage towards the east,
+always keeping near the coast. On the 17th/6th September he
+rounded the dreaded Svjatoinos, sighting on the other side of
+the sound a high-lying land, Ljachoff's Island. At the Bear
+Islands, whither he was carried by a favourable wind over an
+open sea, he first met with drift-ice, although, it appears, not
+in any considerable quantity. But the season was already far
+advanced, and he therefore considered it most advisable to
+seek winter quarters at the mouth of the neigbouring Kolyma
+river. Here he built a spacious winter dwelling, which was
+surrounded by snow ramparts armed with cannon from the
+vessel, probably the whole house was not so large as a peasant's
+cabin at home, but it was at all events the grandest palace
+on the north coast of Asia, often spoken of by later travellers,
+and regarded by the natives with amazed admiration. In the
+neighbourhood there was good reindeer hunting and abundant
+fishing, on which account the winter passed so happily, that
+only one man died of scurvy, an exceedingly favourable state
+of things for that period.
+</p><p>
+The following year Schalaurov started on the 1st August/21st July, but
+calms and constant head-winds prevented him from passing
+Cape Schelagskoj, until he was compelled by the late season
+of the year to seek for winter quarters. For this he considered
+the neighbouring coast unsuitable on account of the scarcity
+of forests and driftwood, he therefore sailed back to the westward
+until after a great many mishaps he came again at last
+on the 23rd/12th September to the house which he had built the
+year before on the Kolyma.
+</p><p>
+He proposed immediately to make a renewed attempt the
+following spring to reach his goal. But now his stores were
+exhausted, and the wearied crew refused to accompany him.
+In order to obtain funds for a new voyage he travelled to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page202" id="v2page202"></a>[ pg 202 ]</span>
+Moscow, and by means of the assistance he succeeded in
+procuring there, he commenced in 1766 a voyage from which
+neither he nor any of his followers returned. COXE mentions
+several things which tell in favour of his having actually rounded
+Cape Deschnev and reached the Anadyr. But Wrangel believes
+that he perished in the neighbourhood of Cape Schelagskoj.
+For in 1823 the inhabitants of that cape showed Wrangel's
+companion Matiuschkin a little ruinous house, built east of the
+river Werkon on the coast of the Polar Sea. For many years
+back the Chukches travelling past had found there human bones
+gnawed by beasts of prey, and various household articles, which
+indicated that shipwrecked men had wintered there, and Wrangel
+accordingly supposes that it was there that Schalaurov perished
+a sacrifice to the determination with which he prosecuted his
+self-imposed task of sailing round the north-eastern promontory
+of Asia.<a name="v2rn330"></a><a href="#v2fn330">[330]</a>
+</p><p class="tb">
+In order to ascertain whether any truth lay at the bottom
+of the view, generally adopted in Siberia, that the continent of
+America extended along the north coast of Asia to the neighbourhood
+of the islands situated there, CHICHERIN, Governor of
+Siberia, in the winter of 1763 sent a sergeant, ANDREJEV with
+dog-sledges on an ice journey towards the north. He succeeded
+in reaching some islands of considerable extent, which Wrangel,
+who always shows himself very sceptical with respect to the
+existence of new lands and islands in the Polar Sea, considers to
+have been the Bear Islands. Now it appears to be pretty certain
+that Andrejev visited a south-westerly continuation of the land
+named on recent maps &quot;Wrangel Land,&quot; which in that case, like
+the corresponding part of America, forms a collection of many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page203" id="v2page203"></a>[ pg 203 ]</span>
+large and small islands. Andrejev found everywhere numerous
+proofs that the islands which he visited had been formerly
+inhabited. Among other things he saw a large hut built of
+wood without the help of iron tools. The logs were as it were
+gnawed with teeth (hewed with stone axes), and bound together
+with thongs<a name="v2rn331"></a><a href="#v2fn331">[331]</a>. Its position and construction indicated that the
+house had been built for defence, it had thus been found impossible
+in the desolate legions of the Polar Sea to avoid the
+discord and the strife which prevail in more southerly lands.
+To the east and north-east Andrejev thought he saw a distant
+land, he is also clearly the true European discoverer of Wrangel
+Land, provided we do not consider that even he had a predecessor
+in the Cossack, FEODOR TATARINOV, who according to
+the concluding words of Andrejev's journal appears to have
+previously visited the same islands. It is highly desirable that
+this journal, if still in existence, be published <i>in a completely
+unaltered form</i>. How important this is appears from the following
+paragraph in the instructions given to Billings&mdash;&quot;One
+Sergeant Andrejev saw from the last of the Bear Islands a large
+island to which they (Andrejev and his companions) travelled in
+dog-sledges. But they turned when they had gone twenty
+versts from the coast, because they saw fresh traces of a large
+number of men, who had travelled in sledges drawn by reindeer.&quot;<a name="v2rn332"></a><a href="#v2fn332">[332]</a>
+</p><p>
+In order to visit the large land in the north-east seen by
+Andrejev, there was sent out in the years 1769, 1770, and 1771
+another expedition, consisting of the three surveyors, LEONTIEV,
+LUSSOV, and PUSCHKAREV, with dog-sledges over the ice to the
+north-east, but they succeeded neither in reaching the land in
+question, nor even ascertaining with certainty whether it actually
+existed or not. Among the natives, however, the belief in it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page204" id="v2page204"></a>[ pg 204 ]</span>
+was maintained very persistently, and they even knew how to
+give names to the tribes inhabiting it.
+</p><p>
+The New Siberian Islands, which previously had often been
+seen by travellers along the coast, were visited the first time in
+1770 by LJACHOFF, who besides Ljachoff's island lying nearest
+the coast, also discovered the islands Maloj and Kotelnoj. On
+this account he obtained an exclusive right to collect mammoth
+tusks there, a branch of industry which since that time appears
+to have been earned on in these remote regions with no inconsiderable
+profit. The importance of the discovery led the
+government some years after to send thither a land surveyor,
+CHVOINOV,<a name="v2rn333"></a><a href="#v2fn333">[333]</a> by whom the islands were surveyed, and some
+further information obtained regarding the remarkable natural
+conditions in that region. According to Chvoinov the ground
+there consists at many places of a mixture of ice and sand
+with mammoth tusks, bones of a fossil species of ox, of the
+rhinoceros, &amp;c. At many places one can literally roll off the
+carpet-like bed of moss from the ground, when it is found that
+the close, green vegetable covering has clear ice underlying
+it, a circumstance which I have also observed at several places
+in the Polar regions. The new islands were rich not only in
+ivory, but also in foxes with valuable skins, and other spoils of
+the chase of various kinds. They therefore formed for a time
+the goal of various hunters' expeditions. Among these hunters
+may be named SANNIKOV, who in 1805 discovered the islands
+Stolbovoj and Faddejev, SIROVATSKOJ, who in 1806 discovered
+Novaya Sibir, and BJELKOV, who in 1808 discovered the small
+islands named after him. In the meantime disputes arose about
+the hunting monopoly, especially after Bjelkov and others
+petitioned for permission to establish on Kotelnoj Island <i>a
+hunting and trading station</i>. (?)<a name="v2rn334"></a><a href="#v2fn334">[334]</a> This induced ROMANZOV, then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page205" id="v2page205"></a>[ pg 205 ]</span>
+Chancellor of Russia, to order once more these distant territories
+to be explored by HEDENSTR&Ouml;M,<a name="v2rn335"></a><a href="#v2fn335">[335]</a> a Siberian exile, who had
+formerly been secretary to some eminent man in St. Petersburg.
+He started in dog-sledges on the 19th/7th March, 1809, from Ustjansk
+going over the ice to Ljachoff's Island, and thence to Faddejev
+Island, where the expedition was divided into two parts.
+Hedenstr&ouml;m continued his course to Novaya Sibir, the south
+coast of which he surveyed. Here he discovered among other
+things the remarkable &quot;tree mountain,&quot; which I have before
+mentioned. His companions KOSCHEVIN and SANNIKOV explored
+Faddejev, Maloj and Ljachoff's Islands. On Faddejev,
+Sannikov found a Yukagir sledge, stone skin-scrapers, and an
+axe made of mammoth ivory, whence he drew the conclusion
+that the island was inhabited before the Russians introduced
+iron among the savage tribes of Siberia.
+</p><p>
+The explorations thus commenced were continued in 1810.
+The explorers started on the 14th/2nd March from the mouth of the
+Indigirka, and after eleven days' journey came to Novaya Sibir.
+It had been Hedenstr&ouml;m's original intention to employ reindeer
+and horses in exploring the islands, but he afterwards abandoned
+this plan, fearing that he would not find pasture for his draught
+animals. Both Hedenstr&ouml;m and Sannikov believed that they
+saw from the north coast of the island bluish mountains on the
+horizon in the north-east. In order to reach this new land the
+former undertook a journey over the ice. It was so uneven,
+however, that in four days he could only penetrate about seventy
+versts. Here on the 9th April/28th March, he met with quite open water,
+which appeared to extend to the Bear Islands, <i>i.e.</i> for a distance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page206" id="v2page206"></a>[ pg 206 ]</span>
+of about 500 versts. He therefore turned southward, and
+reached the mainland after forty-three days' very difficult
+travelling over the ice. During the journey Hedenstr&ouml;m was
+saved from famine by his success in killing eleven Polar bears.
+A new attempt, which he made the same spring to reach with
+dog-sledges the unknown land in the north-east, was also without
+result in consequence of his meeting with broad, impassable
+&quot;leads&quot; and openings in the ice, but even on this occasion he
+believed that he found many indications of the existence of
+an extensive land in the direction named. It was only with
+great difficulty that on the 20th/8th May he succeeded in reaching
+the mainland at Cape Baranov over very weak ice.
+</p><p>
+The same year Sannikov explored Kotelnoj Island, where he
+fell in with Bjelkov and several hunters, who had settled for the
+summer on the west coast of the island to collect mammoth tusks
+and hunt foxes there. He found also a Greek cross erected on
+the beach and the remains of a vessel, which, to judge from its
+construction and the hunting implements scattered about in the
+neighbourhood, appeared to have belonged to an Archangel
+hunter, who had been driven by wind or ice from Spitzbergen
+or Novaya Zemlya.
+</p><p>
+Next summer &quot;the Hedenstr&ouml;m expeditions&quot; were concluded
+with the survey of the north coast of Novaya Sibir by CHENIZYN,
+and by a repetition of the attempt to penetrate from Cape
+Kamennoj over the ice in a north-easterly direction, this time
+carried out by the Cossack TATARINOV, and finally by a renewed
+exploration of Faddejev Island by Sannikov. Tatarinov found
+the ice, probably in the end of March, so thin, that he did not
+dare to proceed farther, and beyond the thin ice the sea was seen
+to be quite open. Sannikov first explored Faddejev Island. He
+thought he saw from the hills of the island a high land in the
+north-east, but when he attempted to reach it over the ice, he
+came upon open water twenty-five versts from land. He therefore
+returned the same spring to Ustjansk in order there to</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page207" id="v2page207"></a>[ pg 207 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p217.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p217.png" alt="PETER FEODOROVITSCH ANJOU." ></a>
+PETER FEODOROVITSCH ANJOU.
+<br>Born in 1798 in Russia, died in 1869 in St. Petersburg.
+</div>
+<p>
+equip a caravan consisting of twenty-three reindeer, which
+started on the 14th/2nd May to go over the ice to Kotelnoj Island,
+which could be reached only with great difficulty in consequence
+of &quot;leads&quot; in the ice and the large quantity of salt water which
+had accumulated upon it. The reindeer were exceedingly
+enfeebled, but recovered rapidly on reaching land, so that
+Sannikov was able under specially favourable circumstances to
+make a large number of interesting excursions, among others one
+across the island. He stated that on the heights in the interior
+of it there were found skulls and bones of horses, oxen,
+&quot;buffaloes&quot; (Ovibos?) and sheep in so large numbers, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page208" id="v2page208"></a>[ pg 208 ]</span>
+it was evident that whole herds of gramimvora had lived there
+in former times. Mammoth bones were also found everywhere
+on the island, whence Sannikov drew the conclusions, that all
+these animals had lived at the same time, and that since then the
+climate had considerably deteriorated. These suppositions he
+considered to be further confirmed by the fact that large,
+partially petrified tree-stems were found scattered about on the
+island in still greater numbers than on Novaya Sibir<a name="v2rn336"></a><a href="#v2fn336">[336]</a>. Besides
+</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p218.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p218.png" alt="FERDINAND VON WRANGEL." ></a>
+FERDINAND VON WRANGEL.
+<br>Born in 1790 at Pskov, died in 1870 at Dorpat.
+</div>
+<p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page209" id="v2page209"></a>[ pg 209 ]</span>
+he found here everywhere remains of old &quot;Yukagir dwellings&quot;;
+the island had thus once been inhabited. After Sannikov had
+fetched Chenitzyn from Faddejev Island, where he had passed
+the summer in great want of provisions, and ordered him, who
+was probably a greater adept at the pen, to draw up a report of
+his own interesting researches, he commenced his return journey
+on the 8th Nov./27th Oct. and arrived at Ustjansk on the 24th/12th November.
+</p><p>
+It may be said that through Hedenstr&ouml;m's and Sannikov's
+exceedingly remarkable Polar journeys, the titles have been
+written of many important chapters in the history of the
+former and recent condition of our globe. But the inquirer
+has hitherto waited in vain for these chapters being completed
+through new researches carried out with improved appliances.
+For since then the New Siberian Islands have not been visited
+by any scientific expedition. Only in 1823 ANJOU, lieutenant
+in the Russian Navy, with the surgeon FIGURIN, and the mate
+ILGIN, made a new attempt to penetrate over the ice to the
+supposed lands in the north and north-east, but without success.
+Similar attempts were made at the same time from the Siberian
+mainland by another Russian naval officer, FERDINAND VON
+WRANGEL, accompanied by Dr. K&Uuml;BER, midshipman MATIUSCHKIN,
+and mate KOSMIN. They too were unsuccessful in penetrating
+over the ice far from the coast. Wrangel returned fully convinced
+that all the accounts which were current in Siberia of the land
+he wished to visit, and which now bears the name of Wrangel
+Land, were based on legends, mistake, and intentional untruths.
+But Anjou and Wrangel did an important service to Polar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page210" id="v2page210"></a>[ pg 210 ]</span>
+research by showing that the sea, even in the neighbourhood of
+the Pole of cold, is not covered with any strong and continuous
+sheet of ice, even at that season of the year when cold reaches
+its maximum. By the attempts made nearly at the same time
+by Wrangel and Parry to penetrate farther northwards, the one
+from the north coasts of Siberia, and the other from those of
+Spitzbergen, Polar travellers for the first time got a correct idea
+how uneven and impassable ice is on a frozen sea, how little the
+way over such a sea resembles the even polished surface of a
+frozen lake, over which we dwellers in the north are accustomed
+to speed along almost with the velocity of the wind. Wrangel's
+narrative at the same time forms an important source of knowledge
+both of preceding journeys and of the recent natural
+conditions on the north coast of Asia, as is only too evident from
+the frequent occasions on which I have quoted his work in my
+sketch of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>.
+</p><p>
+It remains for me now to enumerate some voyages from
+Behring's Straits westward into the Siberian Polar Sea.
+</p><p>
+1778 <i>and</i> 1779&mdash;During the third of his famous circumnavigations
+of the globe JAMES COOK penetrated through
+Behring's Straits into the Polar Sea, and then along the north-east
+coast of Asia westwards to Irkaipij, called by him Cape
+North. Thus the honour of having carried the first seagoing
+vessel to this sea also belongs to the great navigator. He
+besides confirmed Behring's determination of the position of
+the East Cape of Asia, and himself determined the position
+of the opposite coast of America.<a name="v2rn337"></a><a href="#v2fn337">[337]</a> The same voyage was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page211" id="v2page211"></a>[ pg 211 ]</span>
+approximately repeated the year after Cook's death by his
+successor CHARLES CLARKE, but without any new discoveries
+being made in the region in question.
+</p><p>
+1785-94.&mdash;The success which attended Cook in his exploratory
+voyages and the information, unlooked for even by the Russian
+government, which Coxe's work gave concerning the voyages of
+the Russian hunters in the North Pacific, led to the equipment
+of a grand new expedition, having for its object the further
+exploration of the sea which bounds the great Russian Empire
+on the north and east. The plan was drawn up by Pallas and
+Coxe, and the carrying out of it was entrusted to an English
+naval officer in the Russian service, J. BILLINGS, who had taken
+part in Cook's last voyage. Among the many others who were
+members of the expedition, may be mentioned Dr. MERK,
+Dr. ROBECK, the secretary MARTIN SAUER, and the Captains
+HALL, SARYTCHEV, and BEHRING the younger, in all more
+than a hundred persons. The expedition was fitted out on a
+very large scale, but in consequence of Billings' unfitness for
+having the command of such an expedition the result by no
+means corresponded to what might reasonably have been expected.
+The expedition made an inconsiderable excursion into the Polar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page212" id="v2page212"></a>[ pg 212 ]</span>
+Sea from the 30th/19th June to the 9th Aug/29th July 1787, and in 1791 Billings
+sailed up to St. Lawrence Bay, from which he went over land
+with eleven men to Yakutsk. The rest of this lengthened
+expedition does not concern the regions now in question.<a name="v2rn338"></a><a href="#v2fn338">[338]</a>
+</p><p>
+Among voyages during the century it remains to give account
+of those which have been made by OTTO VON KOTZEBUE, who
+during his famous circumnavigation of the globe in 1815-18,
+among other things also passed through Behring's Straits and
+discovered the strata, remarkable in a geological point of view,
+at Eschscholz Bay; L&Uuml;TK&Eacute;, who during his circumnavigation of
+the globe in 1826-29, visited the islands and sound in the
+neighbourhood of Chukotskoj-nos; MOORE, who wintered at
+Chukotskoj-nos in 1848-49, and gave us much interesting
+information as to the mode of life of the Namollos and
+Chukches; KELLET, who in 1849 discovered Kellet Land and
+Herald Island on the coast of Wrangel Land; JOHN RODGERS,
+who in 1855 carried out for the American government much
+important hydrographical work in the seas on both sides of
+Behring's Straits; DALLMANN, who during a trading voyage in
+the Behring Sea landed at various points on Wrangel Land; LONG,
+who in 1867, as captain of the whaling barque <i>Nile</i>, discovered the
+sound between Wrangel Land and the mainland (Long Sound)
+and penetrated from Behring's Straits westwards farther than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page213" id="v2page213"></a>[ pg 213 ]</span>
+any of his predecessors, DALL, who, at the same time that we
+are indebted to him for many important contributions to the
+knowledge of the natural conditions of the Behring Sea, also
+anew examined the ice-strata at Eschscholz Bay, and many
+others&mdash;but as the historical part of the sketch of the voyage of
+the <i>Vega</i> has already occupied more space than was calculated
+upon, I consider myself compelled with respect to the voyages
+of these explorers to refer to the numerous and for the most
+part accessible writings which have already been published
+regarding them.<a name="v2rn339"></a><a href="#v2fn339">[339]</a>
+</p><p class="tb">
+Was the <i>Vega</i> actually the first, and is she at the moment
+when this is being written, the only vessel that has sailed from
+the Atlantic by the north to the Pacific? As follows from the
+above narrative, this question may perhaps be answered with
+considerable certainty in the affirmative, as it may also with
+truth be maintained that no vessel has gone the opposite way
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page214" id="v2page214"></a>[ pg 214 ]</span>
+from the Pacific to the Atlantic.<a name="v2rn340"></a><a href="#v2fn340">[340]</a> But the fictitious literature
+of geography at all events comprehends accounts of various
+voyages between those seas by the north passage, and I consider
+myself obliged briefly to enumerate them.
+</p><p>
+The first is said to have been made as early as 1555 by a
+Portuguese, MARTIN CHACKE, who affirmed that he had been
+parted from his companions by a west wind, and had been driven
+forward between various islands to the entrance of a sound
+which ran north of America in 59&deg; N. L.; finally that he had
+come S. W. of Iceland, and thence sailed to Lisbon, arriving
+there before his companions, who took the &quot;common way,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>
+south of Africa. In 1579 an English pilot certified that he had
+read in Lisbon in 1567 a printed account of this voyage, which
+however he could not procure afterwards because all the copies
+had been destroyed by order of the king, who considered that
+such a discovery would have an injurious effect on the Indian
+trade of Portugal (<i>Purchas</i>, iii. p. 849). We now know that
+there is land where Chacke's channel was said to be situated,
+and it is also certain that the sound between the continent of
+America and the Franklin archipelago lying much farther to the
+north was already in the sixteenth century too much filled with
+ice for its being possible that an account of meeting with ice
+could be omitted from a true sketch of a voyage along the north
+coast of America.
+</p><p>
+In 1588 a still more remarkable voyage was said to have been
+made by the Portuguese, LORENZO FERRER MALDONADO. He is
+believed to have been a cosomographer who among other tilings
+concerned himself with the still unsolved problem, of making a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page215" id="v2page215"></a>[ pg 215 ]</span>
+compass free from variation, and with the question, very difficult
+in his time, of finding a method of determining the longitude
+at sea (see the work of AMORETTI quoted below, p. 38). Of his
+imaginary voyage he has written a long narrative, of which a
+<i>Spanish</i> copy with some drawings and maps was found in a
+library at Milan. The narrative was published in Italian and
+French translations by the superintendent of the library, Chevalier
+CARLO AMORETTI,<a name="v2rn341"></a><a href="#v2fn341">[341]</a> who besides added to the work a number of
+his own learned notes, which however do not give evidence of
+experience in Arctic waters. The same narrative has since been
+published in English by J. BARROW (<i>A Cronological History of
+Voyages into the Arctic Regions</i>, &amp;c., London, 1818 App. p. 24.)
+The greater part of Maldonado's report consists of a detailed
+plan as to the way in which the new sea route would be used and
+fortified by the Spanish-Portuguese government.<a name="v2rn342"></a><a href="#v2fn342">[342]</a> The voyage
+itself is referred to merely in passing. Maldonado says that, in
+the beginning of March he sailed from Newfoundland along the
+north coast of America in a westward direction. Cold, storm,
+and darkness, were at first very inconvenient for navigation, but
+at all events he reached without difficulty &quot;Anian Sound,&quot; which
+separates Asia from America. This is described in detail. Here
+various ships were met with prepared to sail through the sound,
+laden with Chinese goods. The crews appeared to be Russian
+or Hanseatic. Conversation was carried on with them in Latin.
+They stated that they came from a very large town, situated a
+little more than a hundred leagues from the sound. In the
+middle of June Maldonado returned by the way he came to the
+Atlantic, and on this occasion too the voyage was performed
+without the least difficulty. The heat at sea during the return
+journey was as great as when it was greatest in Spain, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page216" id="v2page216"></a>[ pg 216 ]</span>
+meeting with ice is not mentioned. The banks of the river
+which falls into the haven at Anian Sound (according to
+Amoretti, identical with Behring's Straits) were overgrown with
+very large trees, bearing fruit all the year round among the
+animals met with in the regions seals are mentioned, but also
+two kinds of swine, buffaloes, &amp;c. All these absurdities show
+that the whole narrative of the voyage was fictitious, having
+been probably written with the view of thereby giving more
+weight to the proposal to send out a north-west expedition from
+Portugal, and in the full belief that the supposed sound actually
+existed, and that the voyage along the north coast of America
+would be as easy of accomplishment as one across the North
+Sea.<a name="v2rn343"></a><a href="#v2fn343">[343]</a> The way in which the icing down of a vessel is described
+indicates that the narrator himself or his informant had been
+exposed to a winter storm in some northern sea, probably at
+Newfoundland, and the spirited sketch of the sound appears to
+have been borrowed from some East Indian traveller, who had
+been driven by storm to northern Japan, and who in a channel
+between the islands in that region believed that he had discovered
+the fabulous Anian Sound.
+</p><p>
+Of a third voyage in 1660 a naval officer named DE LA
+MADEL&Egrave;NE gave in 1701 the following short account, probably
+picked up in Holland or Portugal, to Count DE PONTCHARTRIN:
+&quot;The Portuguese, DAVID MELGUER, started from Japan on the
+14th March, 1660, with the vessel <i>le P&egrave;re &eacute;ternel</i>, and following
+the coast of Tartary, <i>i.e.</i> the east coast of Asia, he first sailed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page217" id="v2page217"></a>[ pg 217 ]</span>
+north to 84&deg; N.L. Thence he shaped his course between
+Spitzbergen and Greenland, and passing west of Scotland and
+Ireland came again to Oporto in Portugal.&quot; M. de la Madel&egrave;ne's
+narrative is to be found reproduced in M. BUACHE'S excellent
+geographical paper &quot;Sui les diff&eacute;rentes id&eacute;es q&uacute;'on a eues de la
+travers&eacute;e de la M&egrave;re Glaciale arctique et sur les communications
+ou jonctions q&uacute;'on a suppos&eacute;es entre diverses rivi&egrave;res.&quot; (<i>Historie
+de l'Acad&eacute;mie, Ann&eacute;e 1754</i>, Paris, 1759, <i>M&eacute;moires</i>, p. 12) The
+paper is accompanied by a Polar map constructed by Buache
+himself, which, though the voyage which led to its construction
+was clearly fictitious, and though it also contains many
+other errors&mdash;for instance, the statement that the Dutch
+penetrated in 1670 to the north part of Taimur Land&mdash;is yet
+very valuable and interesting as a specimen of what a learned
+and critical geographer knew in 1754 about the Polar regions.
+That Melguer's voyage is fictitious is shown partly by the ease
+with which he is said to have gone from the one sea to the
+other, partly by the fact that <i>the only detail</i> which is to be
+found in his narrative, viz. the statement that the coast of
+Tartary extends to 84&deg; N.L., is incorrect.
+</p><p>
+All these and various other similar accounts of north-east,
+north-west, or Polar passages achieved by vessels in former times
+have this in common, that navigation from the one ocean to the
+other across the Polar Sea is said to have gone on as easily as
+drawing a line on the map, that meeting with ice and northern
+animals of the chase is never spoken of, and finally that every
+particular which is noted is in conflict with the known geographical,
+climatal, and natural conditions of the Arctic seas. All
+these narratives therefore can be proved to be fictitious, and to
+have been invented by persons who never made any voyages in
+the true Polar Seas.
+</p><p>
+The <i>Vega</i> is thus the first vessel that has penetrated by the
+north from one of the great world-oceans to the other.
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn289"></a><a href="#v2rn289">[289]</a> I quote this because the movement of the tides is still, in our own time,
+made use of to determine whether certain parts of the Polar seas are connected
+with each other or not.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn290"></a><a href="#v2rn290">[290]</a> Marco Polo, in 1271, at the age of seventeen or eighteen, accompanied
+his father Nicol&ograve;, and his uncle Maffeo Polo, to High Asia. He remained
+there until 1295 and during that time came into great favor with Kubla
+Khan, who employed him, among other things, in a great number of
+important public commissions, whereby he became well acquainted with
+the widely extended lands which lay under the sceptre of that ruler. After
+his return home he caused a great sensation by the riches he brought with
+him, which procured him the name <i>il Millione</i>, a name however which,
+according to others, was an expression of the doubts that were long entertained
+regarding the truthfulness of his, as we now know, mainly true
+accounts of the number of the people and the abundance of wealth in
+Kublai Khan's lands. &quot;Il Millione,&quot; in the meantime, became a popular
+carnival character, whose cue was to relate as many and as wonderful
+&quot;yarns&quot; as possible, and in his narratives to deal preferably with millions.
+It is possible that the predecessor of Columbus might have descended to
+posterity merely as the original of this character if he had not, soon after
+his return home, taken part in a war against Genoa, in the course of which
+he was taken prisoner, and, during his imprisonment, related his recollections
+of his travels to a fellow-prisoner, who committed them to writing,
+in what language is still uncertain. The work attracted great attention and
+was soon spread, first in written copies, then by the press in a large number
+of different languages. It has not been translated into Swedish, but in the
+Royal Library in Stockholm there is a very important and hitherto little
+known manuscript of it from the middle of the fourteenth century, of
+which an edition is in course of publication in photo-lithographic facsimile.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn291"></a><a href="#v2rn291">[291]</a> Homines illius regionis sunt pulchri, magni, et corpulenti, sed sunt multum
+pallidi. . . . et sunt homines inculti, et immorigerati et bestialiter
+viventes.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn292"></a><a href="#v2rn292">[292]</a> See note at <a href="#v1fn33">page 54, vol i.,</a> for an account of von Herberstein and his
+works.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn293"></a><a href="#v2rn293">[293]</a> As the copy of the original map to which I have had access, being
+coloured, is unsuitable for photo-lithographing, I give here instead a photo-lithographic
+reproduction of the map in the Italian edition printed in 1550.
+The map itself is unchanged in any essential particular, but the drawing
+and engraving are better. There is, besides, a still older map of Russia in
+the first edition of Sebastian Munster's <i>Cosmographia Universalis</i>. I have
+not had access to this edition, but have had to the third edition of the same
+work printed at Basel in 1550. A very incomplete map of Russia engraved
+on wood, on which, however, the Obi and the &quot;Sybir&quot; are to be found, is
+inserted in this work at page 910. The Dwina here falls not into the White
+Sea but into the Gulf of Finland, through a lake to which the name Ladoga
+is now given; places like Astracan, Asof, Viborg, Calmahori (Kolmogor),
+Solowki (Solovets), &amp;c., are indicated pretty correctly, and in the White Sea
+there is to be seen a very faithful representation of a walrus swimming.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn294"></a><a href="#v2rn294">[294]</a> The river Ob is mentioned the first time in 1492, in the negotiations
+which the Austrian ambassador, Michael Snups, carried on in Moscow in
+order to obtain permission to travel in the interior of Russia (Adelung,
+<i>Uebersicht der Reisenden in Russland</i>, p. 157).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn295"></a><a href="#v2rn295">[295]</a> As before stated, Marco Polo mentions Polar bears but not walruses.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn296"></a><a href="#v2rn296">[296]</a> Herodotus places Andropagi in nearly the same regions which are
+now inhabited by the Samoyeds. Pliny also speaks of man-eating
+Scythians.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn297"></a><a href="#v2rn297">[297]</a> Arctic literature contains a nearly contemporaneous sketch of the first
+Russian-Siberian commercial undertakings, <i>Beschryvinghe vander Samoyeden
+Landt in Tartarien, nieulijcks onder't ghebiedt der Moscoviten gebracht. Wt
+de Russche tale overgheset</i>, Anno 1609. Amsterdam, Hessel Gerritsz, 1612;
+inserted in Latin, in 1613, in the same publisher's <i>Descriptio ac Delineatio
+Geographica Detectionis Freti</i> (Photo-lithographic reproduction, by Frederick
+M&uuml;ller, Amsterdam, 1878). The same work, or more correctly,
+collection of small geographical pamphlets, contains also Isak Massa's
+map of the coast of the Polar Sea between the Kola peninsula and the
+Pj&auml;sina, which I have reproduced.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn298"></a><a href="#v2rn298">[298]</a> It is a peculiar circumstance that the vanguard of the Russian stream
+of emigration which spread over Siberia, advanced along the northernmost
+part of the country by the Tas, Turuchansk, Yakutsk, Kolyma, and Anadyrsk.
+This depended in the first place upon the races living there
+having less power of resistance against the invaders, who were often very
+few in number, than the tribes in the south, but also on the fact that the most
+precious and most transportable treasures of Siberia&mdash;sable, beaver, and fox-skins&mdash;were
+obtained in greatest quantity from these northern regions.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn299"></a><a href="#v2rn299">[299]</a> Flat-bottomed, half-decked boats, twelve fathoms in length. The
+planks were fastened by wooden pins, the anchors were pieces of wood
+with large stones bound to them, the rigging of thongs, and the sails often
+of tanned reindeer hides (J.E. Fischer, <i>Sibirische Geschichte</i>, St. Petersburg,
+1768, i. p. 517).</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn300"></a><a href="#v2rn300">[300]</a> G. P. M&uuml;ller, <i>Sammlung Russischer Geschichte</i>, St. Petersburg, 1758. M&uuml;ller
+asserts in this work that it was he who, in 1736, first drew from the repositories
+of the Yakutsk archives the account of Deschnev's voyage, which before
+that time was known neither at the court of the Czar nor in the remotest
+parts of Siberia. This, however, is not quite correct, for long before
+M&uuml;ller, the Swedish prisoner-of-war, Strahlenberg, knew that the Russians
+travelled by sea from the Kolyma to Kamchatka, which appears from his
+map of Asia, constructed during his stay in Siberia, and published in <i>Das
+Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia</i>, Stockholm, 1730. On this
+map there is the following inscription in the sea north of the Kolyma&mdash;&quot;Hie
+Rutheni ab initio per Moles glaciales, qu&aelig; flante Borea ad Littora,
+flanteque Anstro versus Mare iterum pulsantur, magno Labore et Vit&aelig;
+Discrimine transvecti sunt ad Regionem Kamtszatkam.&quot; </p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn301"></a><a href="#v2rn301">[301]</a> Selivestrov had accompanied Staduchin during his Polar Sea voyage,
+and had, at his instance, been sent out to collect walrus tusks on account of
+the State.  He appears to have come to the Anadyr by land.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn302"></a><a href="#v2rn302">[302]</a> Strahlenberg must have collected the main details of this voyage by
+oral communications from Russian hunters and traders.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn303"></a><a href="#v2rn303">[303]</a> According to M&uuml;ller Krascheninnikov (<i>Histoire et description du
+Kamtschatka</i>, Amsterdam, 1770, ii. p. 292) states, evidently from information
+obtained in Kamchatka, that the river Nikul is called Feodotovchina
+after Feodot Alexejev, who not only penetrated thither, but also
+sailed round the southern promontory of Kamchatka to the River Tigil
+where he and his followers perished in the way described by M&uuml;ller.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn304"></a><a href="#v2rn304">[304]</a> But we ought to remember that the oldest accounts of islands in the
+Polar Sea relate to no fewer than four different lands, viz, 1. The New
+Siberian Islands lying off the mouth of the Lena and Svjatoinos; 2.
+The Bear Islands; 3. Wrangel Land; 4. The north-western part of
+America. Contradictions in accounts of the islands in the Polar Sea
+probably depend on the uninhabited and treeless New Siberian islands
+being confused with America, which, in comparison with North Siberia, is
+thickly peopled and well wooded, with the small Bear Islands, with
+Wrangel Land, &amp;c.</p>
+<p>
+<a name="v2fn305"></a><a href="#v2rn305">[305]</a> <i>Nouvelle carte des d&eacute;couvertes faites par des vaisseaux russiens aux
+cotes inconnues de l'Am&eacute;rique, Septentrionale avec les pais adiacentes, dress&eacute;e
+sur des m&eacute;moires authentiques des ceux qui ont assist&eacute; a ces d&eacute;couvertes
+et sur d'autres connoissances dont on rend raison dans un m&eacute;moire s&eacute;par&eacute;</i>
+St. P&eacute;tersbourg, l'Acad&eacute;mie Imp&eacute;riale des Sciences, 1758.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn306"></a><a href="#v2rn306">[306]</a> In this sketch of the discovery and conquest of Siberia I have followed
+J. E. Fischer, <i>Sibirische Geschichte</i>, St. Petersburg, 1768, and G. P. M&uuml;ller,
+<i>Sammlung Russischer Geschichte</i>, St. Petersburg, 1758.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn307"></a><a href="#v2rn307">[307]</a> In the twentieth chapter of <i>Dreyj&auml;hrige Reise nach China, &amp;c.</i>, Frankfort,
+1707. The first edition came out at Hamburg in 1698.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn308"></a><a href="#v2rn308">[308]</a> M&uuml;ller, iii. p. 19. An account of Atlassov's conquest of Kamchatka
+(<i>Bericht gedaen door zeker Moskovisch krygs-bediende Wolodimer Otlasofd,
+hoofl-man over vyftig, &amp;c.</i>) is besides to be found in Witsen (1705, <i>Nieuwe
+uitguaf</i>, 1785, p. 670) An account, written from oral communication by
+Atlassov himself, is to be found inserted in Strahlenberg's <i>Travels</i>, p. 431.
+Strahlenberg considers Kamchatka and Yezo to be the same land. A
+history of the conquest of Kamchatka, evidently written according to
+traditions current in the country, is to be found in <i>Krascheninnikov</i> (French
+edition of 1770, ii. p. 291). In this account 1698 and 1699 are given as the
+years of Morosko's and Atlassov's expeditions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn309"></a><a href="#v2rn309">[309]</a> Complaints were made, among other things, that in order to obtain
+metal for making a still, he ordered all the copper belonging to the crown
+which he carried with him, to be melted down. When the Cossacks first
+came to Kamchatka and were almost without a contest, acknowledged as
+masters of the country, they found life there singularly agreeable, with one
+drawback&mdash;there were no means of getting drunk. Finally, necessity
+compelled the wild adventurers to betake themselves to what we should
+now call chemico-technical experiments, which are described in considerable
+detail by Krascheninnikov (<i>loc. cit.</i> ii. p. 369). After many
+failures they finally succeeded in distilling spirits from a sugar-bearing
+plant growing in the country, and from that time this drink, or <i>raka</i>,
+as they themselves call it, has been found in great abundance in that
+country.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn310"></a><a href="#v2rn310">[310]</a>  He afterwards became a monk under the name of Ignatiev, came to
+St. Petersburg in 1730, and himself wrote a narrative of his adventures,
+discoveries, and services, which was printed first in the St. Petersburg
+journals of the 26th March, 1730, and likewise abroad (<i>M&uuml;ller</i>, iii. p. 82)</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn311"></a><a href="#v2rn311">[311]</a> Von Baer, <i>Beitr&auml;ge zur Kentniss des Russischen Reiches</i>, xvi. p. 33.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn312"></a><a href="#v2rn312">[312]</a>  Ambj&ouml;rn Molin, lieutenant in the Scanian cavalry regiment, who was
+taken prisoner at the Dnieper in 1709, also took part in these journeys.
+Compare <i>Ber&auml;ttelse om de i Stora Tartariet boende tartarer, som tr&auml;ffats
+l&auml;ngst nordost i Asien, p&aring; &auml;rkebiskop E. Benzelii beg&auml;ran upsatt af Ambj&ouml;rn
+Molin (Account of the Tartars dwelling in Great Tartary who were met with
+at the north east extremity of Asia, written at the request of Archbishop
+E. Benzelius by Ambj&ouml;rn Molin</i>), published in Stockholm in 1880 by Aug.
+Strindberg, after a manuscript in the Link&ouml;ping library.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn313"></a><a href="#v2rn313">[313]</a> M&uuml;ller, iii. p. 102. According to an oral communication by Busch,
+Strahlenberg's account (p. 17) of this voyage appears to contain several
+mistakes. The year is stated as 1713, the return voyage is said to have
+occupied six days.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn314"></a><a href="#v2rn314">[314]</a> As late as 1819, James Burney, first lieutenant on one of Captain
+Cook's vessels during his voyage north of Behring's Straits, afterwards
+captain and member of the Royal Society, considered it not proved that
+Asia and America are separated by a sound. For he doubted the correctness
+of the accounts of Deschnev's voyage. Compare James Burney, <i>A
+Chronological History of North eastern Voyages of Discovery</i> London, 1819,
+p. 298; and a paper by Burney in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Royal Society,
+1817. Burney was violently attacked for the views there expressed by
+Captain John Dundas Cochrane. <i>Narrative of a Pedestrian Journey through
+Russia and Siberian Tartary</i>, 2nd ed. London, 1824, Appendix.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn315"></a><a href="#v2rn315">[315]</a> The first astronomical determinations of position in Siberia were, perhaps,
+made by Swedish prisoners of war; the first in China by Jesuits
+(Cf. <i>Strahlenberg</i>, p. 14).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn316"></a><a href="#v2rn316">[316]</a> A short, but instructive account of Behring's first voyage, based on an
+official communication from the Russian Government to the King of Poland,
+is inserted in t. iv. p. 561 of <i>Description g&eacute;ographique de l'Empire de la
+Chine, par le P. J. B. Du Halde</i>, La Haye, 1736. The same official report
+was probably the source of M&uuml;ller's brief sketch of the voyage (<i>M&uuml;ller</i>,
+iii. p. 112). A map of it is inserted in the 1735 Paris edition of Du Halde's
+work, and in <i>Nouvel Atlas de la Chine, par M. D'Anville</i>, La Haye, 1737.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn317"></a><a href="#v2rn317">[317]</a> <i>Histoire g&eacute;n&eacute;alogique des Tartares</i> (note, p. 107), and Strahlenberg's
+oft-quoted work (map, text, pp. 31 and 384).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn318"></a><a href="#v2rn318">[318]</a> This expedition was under the command of the Admiralty; the others
+under that of Behring. In my account I have followed partly M&uuml;ller and
+partly Wrangel, of whom the latter, in his book of travels, gives a historical
+review of previous voyages along the coasts of the Asiatic Polar
+Sea. The accounts of the voyages between the White Sea and the Yenisej
+properly belong to a foregoing chapter in this work, but I quote them first
+here in order that I may treat of the different divisions of the Great
+Northern Expedition in the same connection. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn319"></a><a href="#v2rn319">[319]</a> Wrangel, i. p. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn320"></a><a href="#v2rn320">[320]</a> Wrangel, i. p. 38.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn321"></a><a href="#v2rn321">[321]</a> According to P. von Haven (<i>Nye og forbedrede Efterretningar om det
+Russiske Rige</i>, Kj&ouml;benhavn, 1747, ii. p. 20), &quot;it was the custom in Petersburg
+to send away those whose presence was inconvenient to help Behring
+to make new discoveries&quot;. It also went very ill with many of the gallant
+Russian Polar travellers, and many of them were repaid with ingratitude.
+Behring was received on his return from his first voyage, so rich in results,
+with unjustified mistrust. Steller was exposed to continual trouble, was
+long prevented from returning from Siberia, and finally perished during
+his journey home, broken down in body and soul. Prontschischev and
+Lassinius succumbed to hardships and sufferings during their voyages in
+the Polar Sea. Owzyn was degraded, among other things, because he used
+to be too intimate at Obdorsk with exiles formerly of distinction. A few
+years before the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>, Chelyuskin's trustworthiness was still
+doubted. All the accounts of discoveries of islands and land in the Polar
+Sea by persons connected with Siberia, have till the most recent times, been
+considered more or less fictitious, yet they are clearly in the main true.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn322"></a><a href="#v2rn322">[322]</a>  Wrangel, i. p. 46.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn323"></a><a href="#v2rn323">[323]</a> According to Wrangel (i., note at p. 38 and 48), probably after a quotation
+from Prontschischev's journal. The Lena must be a splendid river, for
+it has since made the same powerful impression, as on the seamen of the
+Great Northern Expedition, on all others who have traversed its forest-crowned
+river channel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn324"></a><a href="#v2rn324">[324]</a> These all perished &quot;for want of fodder.&quot; This, however, is
+improbable. For, in 1878, we saw numerous traces of these animals as far to
+the northward as Cape Chelyuskin, and very fat reindeer were shot both in
+1861 and 1873, on the Seven Islands, the northernmost of all the islands of
+the Old World, where vegetation is much poorer than in the regions now
+in question.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn325"></a><a href="#v2rn325">[325]</a> Wrangel, i. pp. 48 and 72. Of the journey round the northernmost
+point of Asia, Wrangel says&mdash;&quot;Von der Tajmur-M&uuml;ndung bis an das Kap
+des heiligen Faddej konnte die K&uuml;ste nicht beschifft werden, und die
+Aufnahme, die der Steuermann Tschemokssin (Chelyuskin) auf dem Eise
+in Narten vornahm, ist so oberfl&auml;chlich und unbestimmt, dass die eigentliche
+Lage des nord&ouml;stlichen oder Tajmur-Kaps, welches die n&ouml;rdlichste
+Spitse Asiens ausmacht, noch gar nicht ausgemittelt ist.&quot;</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn326"></a><a href="#v2rn326">[326]</a> Wrangel, i, p. 62. I have sketched the voyages between the White Sea
+and the Kolyma, principally after Engelhardt's German translation of Wrangel's
+Travels. It is, unfortunately, in many respects defective and confused,
+especially with respect to the sketch of Chariton Laptev and his followers,
+sledge journeys, undertaken in order to survey the coast between the
+Chatanga and the Pj&auml;sina. M&uuml;ller mentions these journeys only in passing.
+Wrangel gives as sources for his sketch (i. note at p. 38) <i>Memoirs of the
+Russian Admiralty</i>, also the original journals of the journeys. Chelyuskin
+he calls Chemokssin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn327"></a><a href="#v2rn327">[327]</a> In this account of Behring's and Chirikov's voyages, I have followed
+M&uuml;ller (iii. pp. 187-268). More complete original accounts of Behring's
+voyage are quoted further on in the sketch of our visit to Behring Island. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn328"></a><a href="#v2rn328">[328]</a> M&uuml;ller, iii. p. 164. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn329"></a><a href="#v2rn329">[329]</a> It deserves to be noted as a literary curiosity that the famous French
+<i>savant</i> and geographer, Vivien do Saint Martin, in his work, <i>Histoire de la
+G&eacute;ographie et des D&eacute;couvertes g&eacute;ographiques</i>, Paris, 1873, does not say a single
+word regarding all those expeditions which form an epoch in our knowledge
+of the Old World. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn330"></a><a href="#v2rn330">[330]</a> An account of Schalaurov is given by COXE (<i>Russian Discoveries</i>, &amp;c.,
+1780, p. 323) and Wrangel (i. p. 73). That the hut seen by Matiuschkin
+actually belonged to Schalaurov appears to me highly improbable, for
+the traditions of the Siberian savages seldom extend sixty years back.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn331"></a><a href="#v2rn331">[331]</a> Wrangel, i. p. 79.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn332"></a><a href="#v2rn332">[332]</a> Sauer, <i>An Account, &amp;c.</i>, Appendix, p. 48.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn333"></a><a href="#v2rn333">[333]</a> Sauer, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 103, according to an oral communication by Ljachoff's
+follower Protodiakonov.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn334"></a><a href="#v2rn334">[334]</a> Compare Wrangel, i. p. 98.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn335"></a><a href="#v2rn335">[335]</a> Matthias Hedenstr&ouml;m, Aulic Councillor, whose name indicates that he
+was of Swedish birth, died at the village Hajdukovo, seven versts from
+Tomsk, on the 2nd October (20th September), 1845, at the age of sixty-five.
+Biographical notes regarding Hedenstr&ouml;m are to be found in the Calendar
+for the Irkutsh government for the year 1865, pp. 57-60; I have not,
+however, succeeded in procuring this work, or in finding any other notices
+of Hedenstr&ouml;m's birthplace and life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn336"></a><a href="#v2rn336">[336]</a> A very remarkable geological fact is the number of tree-stems in all
+stages of decay and petrifaction, which are embedded in the rocks and
+earthy strata of Siberia, having their origin all along from the Jurassic
+age till now. It appears as if Siberia, during the whole of this immense
+period of time, has not been subjected to any great changes in a purely
+geographical respect, whereas in Europe there have been innumerable
+alternations of sea and land, and alps have been formed and disappeared.
+The Siberians call the tree-stems found on the <i>tundra</i> far from the sea
+and rivers <i>Adam's wood</i>, to distinguish them from more recent sub fossil
+trees, which they call <i>Noah's wood</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn337"></a><a href="#v2rn337">[337]</a> The first European who visited the part of America lying right opposite
+to Asia was Schestakov's companion, the surveyor Gvosdev. He crossed
+Behring's Straits to the American side as early as 1730 (<i>M&uuml;ller</i>, iii. p. 131),
+and therefore ought properly to be considered as the discoverer of this
+sound. The north-westernmost part of America, Behring's Straits and the
+islands situated in it, are besides shown in Strahlenberg's map, which was
+made at least a decade before Gvosdev's voyage. There north-western
+America is delineated as a large island, inhabited by a tribe, the <i>Pucho-chotski</i>,
+who lived in a constant state of warfare with the <i>Giuchieghi</i>, who
+inhabited the islands in the sound. Wrangel Land is also shown in this
+remarkable map. In 1767, eleven years before Cook's voyage in the Polar
+Sea, the American side of Behring's Straits was also visited by Lieut. SYND
+with a Russian expedition, that started from Okotsk in 1764. In the short
+account of the voyage which is to be found in William Coxe's, <i>Account of
+the Russian Discoveries, &amp;c.</i>, London, 1780, p. 300, it is said expressly that
+Synd considered the coast on which he landed to belong to America. On
+Synd's map, published by Coxe, the north part of the Behring Sea is
+enriched with a number of fictitious islands (St. Agaphonis, St. Myronis,
+St. Titi, St. Samuels, and St. Andre&aelig;). As Synd, according to Sarytchev
+in the work quoted below, p. 11, made the voyage in a boat, it is probable
+that by these names islands were indicated which lay quite close to the
+coast and were not so far from land as shown in the map, besides, the
+mountain-summits on St. Lawrence Island, which are separated by extensive
+low lands, may perhaps have been taken for separate islands.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn338"></a><a href="#v2rn338">[338]</a> Billings' voyage is described in Martin Sauer's <i>Account of a Geographical
+and Astronomical Expedition to the Northern Parts of Asia, &amp;c., by
+Commodore Joseph Billings</i>, London, 1802, and Gavrila Sarychev's
+<i>Achtj&auml;hrige Reise im n&ouml;rdlichen Siberien, auf dem Eismeere und dem nord&ouml;stlichen
+Ocean. Aus dem Russischen &uuml;bersetzt von J. H. Busse</i>, Leipzig,
+1805-1806. As interesting to our Swedish readers it may be mentioned
+that the Russian hunter Prybilov informed Sauer that a Swedish brigantine,
+<i>Merkur</i>, coppered, carrying sixteen cannon, commanded by J. H. Coxe, in
+1788, cruised in the Behring Sea in order to destroy the Russian settlements
+there. They however, according to Prybilov's statement to Sauer, &quot;did
+no damage, because they saw that we had nothing worth taking away.
+They instead gave us gifts, because they were ashamed to offer violence
+to such poor fellows as we&quot; (Sauer, p. 213).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn339"></a><a href="#v2rn339">[339]</a> Otto von Kotzebue, <i>Entdeckungs-Reise in die Sud-See und nach der
+Behrings Strasse</i>, Weimar, 1821 (Part III., Contributions in Natural
+History, by Adelbert von Chamisso)&mdash;Louis Choris, <i>Voyage pittoresque
+autour du monde</i>, Paris, 1822.
+</p><p>
+Fr&eacute;d&eacute;rik L&uuml;tk&eacute;, <i>Voyage autour du monde</i>, Paris, 1835-36.&mdash;F. H. von
+Kittlitz, <i>Denku&uuml;rdigkeiten einer Reise nach dem russischen Amerika, nach
+Mikronesien und durch Kamtschatka</i>, Gotha, 1858.
+</p><p>
+Kellet, <i>Voyage of H. M. S. &quot;Herald,&quot;</i> 1845-51, London, 1853 (Discovery
+of Herald Island and the east coast of Wrangel Land).
+</p><p>
+W H Hooper, <i>Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski</i>, London, 1853
+(Moore's wintering at Chukotskoj-nos).
+</p><p>
+John Rodgers, Behring's Sea and Arctic Ocean, from Surveys of the
+North Pacific Surveying Expedition, 1855 (only charts).&mdash;W. Heine, <i>Die
+Expedition in die Seen von China, Japan und Ochotsk, unter Commando von
+Commodore Colin Ringgold und Commodore John Rodgers</i>, Leipzig, 1858
+(the expedition arrived at the result that Wrangel Land did not exist).
+</p><p>
+(Lindemann) <i>Wrangels Land im Jahre</i> 1866, <i>durch Kapiten Dallmann
+besucht (Deutsche Geograph. Bl&auml;tter</i>, B. iv. p. 54, 1881).
+</p><p>
+Petermann, <i>Entdeckung eines neuen Polar-Landes durch den amerikan,
+Capt Long</i>, 1867 (Mittheil. 1868, p. 1).&mdash;<i>Das neu-entdeckte Polar-Land,
+</i> &amp;c. (Mittheil 1869, p. 26).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn340"></a><a href="#v2rn340">[340]</a> It ought to be remembered that the voyage of the distinguished Arctic
+explorer, McClure, carried out with so much gallantry and admirable perseverance,
+from the Pacific to the Atlantic along the north coast of
+America, took place to no inconsiderable extent <i>by sled journeys over the
+ice</i>, and that no English vessel has ever sailed by this route from the one
+sea to the other. The North-west Passage has thus never been accomplished
+by a vessel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn341"></a><a href="#v2rn341">[341]</a> Amoretti, <i>Viaggio del mare Atlantico al Pasifico per la via del Nord-Ovest,
+&amp;c. Fatto del capitano Lorenzo Ferrer Maldonado, l'anno MDLXXXVIII</i>.
+Milano, 1811. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn342"></a><a href="#v2rn342">[342]</a> At the date of Maldonado's voyage Spain and Portugal were united. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn343"></a><a href="#v2rn343">[343]</a> The narratives of the Russian voyagers in the Polar Seas bear a quite
+different stamp. Details are seldom wanting in these, and they correspond
+with known facts, and the discoveries made are of reasonably modest
+dimensions. I therefore consider, as I have said already, that the doubts
+of the trustworthiness of Deschnev, Chelyuskin, Andrejev, Hedenstr&ouml;m,
+Sannikov, &amp;c., are completely unfounded, and it is highly desirable that
+all journals of Russian explorers in the Polar Sea yet in existence be
+published as soon as possible, and not in a mutilated shape, but in a
+complete and unaltered form.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page218" id="v2page218"></a>[ pg 218 ]</span>
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIV"></a><h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<p>Passage through Behring's Straits&mdash;Arrival at Nunamo&mdash;Scarce species of
+seal&mdash;Rich vegetation&mdash;Passage to America&mdash;State of the ice&mdash;Port
+Clarence&mdash;The Eskimo&mdash;Return to Asia&mdash;Konyam Bay&mdash;Natural conditions
+there&mdash;The ice breaks up in the interior of Konyam Bay&mdash;St.
+Lawrence Island&mdash;Preceding visits to the Island&mdash;Departure to Behring
+Island.</p>
+
+<p>After we had passed the easternmost promontory of Asia,
+the course was shaped first to St. Lawrence Bay, a not inconsiderable
+fjord, which indents the Chukch peninsula, a little
+south of the smallest part of Behring's Straits. It was my
+intention to anchor in this fjord as long as possible, in order
+to give the naturalists of the <i>Vega</i> expedition an opportunity
+of making acquaintance with the natural conditions of a part
+of Chukch Land which is more favoured by nature than the
+bare stretch of coast completely open to the winds of the Polar
+Sea, which we hitherto had visited. I would willingly have
+stayed first for some hours at Diomede Island, the market-place
+famed among the Polar tribes, situated in the narrowest part of
+the Straits, nearly half-way between Asia and America, and
+probably before the time of Columbus a station for traffic between
+the Old and the New Worlds. But such a delay would
+have been attended with too great difficulty and loss of time in
+consequence of the dense fog which prevailed here on the
+boundary between the warm sea free from drift-ice and the cold
+sea filled with drift-ice.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page219" id="v2page219"></a>[ pg 219 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p229.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p229.png" alt="SEAL FROM THE BEHRING SEA." ></a>
+SEAL FROM THE BEHRING SEA.
+<br><i>Histriophoca fasciata</i>, Zimm.
+</div>
+
+<p>Even the high mountains on the Asiatic shore were still
+wrapped in a thick mist, from which only single mountain-summits
+now and then appeared. Next the vessel large
+fields of drift-ice were visible, on which here and there flocks
+of a beautifully marked species of seal (<i>Histriophoca fasciata</i>,
+Zimm) had settled. Between the pieces of ice sea-birds
+swarmed, mostly belonging to other species than those which
+are met with in the European Polar seas. The ice was fortunately
+so broken up that the <i>Vega</i> could steam forward at full
+speed to the neighbourhood of St. Lawrence Bay, where the
+coast was surrounded by some more compact belts of ice, which
+however were broken through with ease. First, in the mouth
+of the fjord itself impenetrable ice was met with, completely
+blocking the splendid haven of St. Lawrence Bay. The <i>Vega</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page220" id="v2page220"></a>[ pg 220 ]</span>
+was, therefore, compelled to anchor in the open road off the
+village Nunamo. But even here extensive ice-fields, though
+thin and rotten, drifted about; and long, but narrow, belts of
+ice passed the vessel in so large masses that it was not advisable
+to remain longer at the place. Our stay there was therefore
+confined to a few hours.</p>
+
+<p>During the course of the winter Lieutenant Nordquist endeavoured
+to collect from the Chukches travelling past as
+complete information as possible regarding the Chukch villages
+or encampments which are found along the coast between
+Chaun Bay and Behring's Straits. His informants always
+finished their list with the village Ertryn, situated west of
+Cape Deschnev, explaining that farther east and south there
+lived another tribe, with whom they indeed did not stand in
+open enmity, but who, however, were not to be fully depended
+upon, and to whose villages they therefore did not dare to
+accompany any of us.<a name="v2rn344"></a><a href="#v2fn344">[344]</a> This statement also corresponds, as
+perhaps follows from what I have pointed out in the preceding
+chapter, with the accounts commonly found in books on the
+ethnography of this region. While we steamed forward
+cautiously in a dense fog in the neighbourhood of Cape
+Deschnev, twenty to thirty natives came rowing in a large
+skin boat to the vessel. Eager to make acquaintance with
+a tribe new to us, we received them with pleasure. But when
+they climbed over the side we found that they were pure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page221" id="v2page221"></a>[ pg 221 ]</span>
+Chukches, some of them old acquaintances, who during winter
+had been guests on board the <i>Vega</i>. &quot;Ankali&quot; said they, with
+evident contempt, are first met with farther beyond St. Lawrence
+Bay. When we anchored next day at the mouth of this bay
+we were immediately, as usual, visited by a large number of
+natives, and ourselves visited their tents on land. They still
+talked Chukch with a limited mixture of foreign words, lived
+in tents of a construction differing somewhat from the Chukches',
+and appeared to have a somewhat different cast of countenance.
+They themselves would not allow that there was any national
+difference between them and the old warrior and conqueror
+tribe on the north coast, but stated that the race about
+which we inquired were settled immediately to the south.
+Some days after we anchored in Konyam Bay (64&deg; 49' N. L.,
+172&deg; 53' W.L. from Greenwich). We found there only pure
+reindeer-owning Chukches; there was no coast population
+living by hunting and fishing.  On the other hand, the
+inhabitants near our anchorage off St. Lawrence Island
+consisted of Eskimo and Namollo. It thus appears as if
+a great part of the Eskimo who inhabit the Asiatic side
+of Behring's Straits, had during recent times lost their own
+nationality and become fused with the Chukches. For it is
+certain that no violent expulsion has recently taken place
+here. It ought besides to be remarked that the name <i>Onkilon</i>
+which Wrangel heard given to the old coast population driven
+out by the Chukches is evidently nearly allied to the word
+<i>Ankali</i>, with which the reindeer-Chukch at present distinguishes
+the coast-Chukch, also that, in the oldest Russian
+accounts of Schestakov's and Paulutski's campaigns in these
+regions, there never is any mention of two different tribes
+living here. It is indeed mentioned in these accounts that
+among the slain Chukches there were found some men with
+perforated lips, but probably these were Eskimo from the
+other side of Behring's Straits, previously taken prisoners by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page222" id="v2page222"></a>[ pg 222 ]</span>
+the Chukches, or perhaps merely Eskimo who had been
+paying a friendly visit to the Chukches and who had taken
+part as volunteers in their war of freedom. It therefore
+appears to me to be on the whole more probable that the
+Eskimo have migrated from America to Asia, than that, as
+some authors have supposed, this tribe has entered America
+from the west by Behring's Straits or Wrangel Land.</p>
+
+<p>The tent-village Nunamo, or, as Hooper writes, &quot;Noonahmone,&quot;
+does not lie low, like the Chukch villages we had
+formerly seen, on the sea-shore, but pretty high up on a
+cape between the sea and a river which debouches immediately
+to the south-west of the village, and now during the snow-melting
+season was much flooded. At a short distance from
+the coast the land was occupied by a very high chain of
+mountains, which was split up into a number of summits and
+whose sides were formed of immense stone mounds distributed
+in terraces. Here a large number of marmots and lagomys
+had their haunt. The lagomys, a species of rodent that
+does not occur in Sweden, of the size of a large rat, is remarkable
+for the care with which in summer it collects great stores
+for the winter. The village consisted of ten tents built without
+order on the first high strand bank. The tents differed somewhat
+in construction from the common Chukch tents, and as
+drift-wood appears to be met with on the beach only in limited
+quantity, whale-bones had been used on a very large scale in
+the frame of the tent. Thus, for instance, the tent-covering
+of seal-skin was stretched downwards over the ribs or lower
+jawbones of the whale which were fixed in the ground like
+poles. These were united above with slips of whale-bones,
+from which other slips of the same sort of bones or of whalebone
+rose to the summit of the tent, and finally, to prevent
+the blast from raising the tent-covering from the ground, its
+border was loaded with masses of large heavy bones. Eleven
+shoulder-blades of the whale were thus used round a single
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page223" id="v2page223"></a>[ pg 223 ]</span>
+tent. In the absence of drift-wood, whale and seal bones
+drenched in train-oil are also used as fuel in cooking in the
+open air during summer; a large curved whale rib was placed
+over the fire-place to serve as a pot-holder; the vertebr&aelig; of
+the whale were used as mortars; the entrances to the blubber-cellars
+were closed with shoulder-blades of the whale; hollowed
+whale-bones were used as lamps; shoes of whale-bone or pieces
+of the under-jaw and the straighter ribs were used for shoeing
+the sledges, for spades and ice-mattocks, the different parts
+of the implement being bound together with whale-bone
+fibres, &amp;c. <a name="v2rn345"></a><a href="#v2fn345">[345]</a></p>
+
+<p>Masses of black seal-flesh, and long, white, fluttering strings
+of inflated intestines, were hung up between the tents, and in
+their interior there were everywhere to be seen bloody pieces
+of flesh, prepared in a disgusting way or lying scattered about,
+whereby both the dwellings and their inhabitants, who were
+occupied with hunting, had a more than usually disagreeble
+appearance. A pleasant interruption was formed by the heaps
+of green willow branches which were placed at the entrance
+of nearly every tent, commonly surrounded by women and
+children, who ate the leaves with delight. At some places
+whole sacks of Rhodiola and various other plants had been
+collected for food during winter. As distinctive of the Chukches
+here it may be mentioned in the last place that they were
+abundantly provided with European household articles, among
+them <i>Remington guns</i>, and that none of them asked for
+spirits.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the seals which were seen in the tents were the common
+<i>Phoca hispida</i>, but along with them we found several skins of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page224" id="v2page224"></a>[ pg 224 ]</span>
+<i>Histriophoca fasciata</i>, Zimm., and I even succeeded, though with
+great difficulty, in inducing the Chukches to part with the
+skin and skull of this uncommon species, distinguished by
+its peculiar marking. The natives appeared to set a special
+value on its skin, and parted with it unwillingly. We had
+ourselves, as I have already stated, seen during our passage
+from Behring's Straits a number of these seals on the ice-floes
+drifting south, but the limited time at our disposal did
+not permit us to hunt them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p234.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p234.png" alt="DRABA ALPINA L., FROM ST. LAWRENCE BAY." ></a>
+DRABA ALPINA L., FROM ST. LAWRENCE BAY.
+<br>Natural size.
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page225" id="v2page225"></a>[ pg 225 ]</span>
+When we left Pitlekaj, vegetation there was still far from
+having reached its full development, but at Nunamo the strand-bank
+was gay with an exceedingly rich magnificence of colour.
+On an area of a few acres Dr. Kjellman collected here more than
+a hundred species of flowering plants, among which were a considerable
+number that he had not before seen on the Chukch
+Peninsula. Space does not permit me to give another list of
+plants, but in order that the reader may have an idea of the
+great difference in the mode of growth which the same species
+may exhibit under the influence of different climatal conditions, I
+give here a drawing of the Alpine whitlow grass (<i>Draba alpina</i>,
+L.) from St. Lawrence Bay. It would not, perhaps, be easy to
+recognise in this drawing the species delineated on page 341 of
+vol. i,; the globular form which the plant assumed on the
+shore of Cape Chelyuskin exposed to the winds of the Polar
+Sea, has here, in a region protected from them, completely
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>At the rocky headlands there were still, however, considerable
+snowdrifts, and from the heights we could see that considerable
+masses of ice were still drifting along the Asiatic side of
+Behring's Straits. During an excursion to the top of one of the
+neighbouring mountains, Dr. Stuxberg found the corpse of a
+native laid out on a stone-setting of the form common among
+the Chukches. Alongside the dead man lay a broken percussion
+gun, spear, arrows, tinder-box, pipe, snow-shade, ice-sieve, and
+various other things which the departed was considered to be in
+want of in the part of the Elysian fields set apart for Chukches.
+The corpse had lain on the place at least since the preceding
+summer, but the pipe was one of the clay pipes that I had
+caused to be distributed among the natives. It had thus been
+placed there long after the proper burial.</p>
+
+<p>Anxious as I was to send off soon from a telegraph station
+some re-assuring lines to the home-land, because I feared that
+a general uneasiness had already begun to be felt for the fate of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page226" id="v2page226"></a>[ pg 226 ]</span>
+the <i>Vega</i>, I would willingly have remained at this place, so
+important and interesting in a scientific point of view, at least for
+some days, had not the ice-belts and ice-fields drifting about in
+the offing been so considerable that if a wind blowing on land
+had risen unexpectedly, they might readily have been dangerous
+to our vessel, which even now was anchored in a completely
+open road, for the splendid haven situated farther in in
+St. Lawrence Bay was still covered with ice, and consequently
+inaccessible. On the afternoon of 21st July, accordingly, when
+all were assembled on board pleased and delighted with the
+results of the morning visit to land, I ordered the anchor to
+be weighed that the <i>Vega</i> might steam across to the American
+side of Behring's Straits. As in all the Polar seas of the
+northern hemisphere, so also here, the eastern side of the Straits
+was ice-bestrewn, the western, on the other hand, clear of ice.
+The passage was at all events a rapid one, so that by the afternoon
+of the 21st July we were able to anchor in Port Clarence,
+an excellent haven south of the westernmost promontory of Asia,
+Cape Prince of Wales. <i>It was the first time the Vega anchored
+in a proper haven, since on the 18th August 1878 she left Actinia,
+Haven on Taimur Island</i>. During the intermediate time
+she had been constantly anchored or moored in open roads
+without the least land shelter from sea, wind, and drift-ice. The
+vessel was, however, thanks to Captain Palander's judgment and
+thoughtfulness, and the ability of the officers and crew, still not
+only quite free from damage, but even as seaworthy as when she
+left the dock at Karlskrona, and we had still on board provisions
+for nearly a year, and about 4,000 cubic feet of coal.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the sea Port Clarence is protected by a long low
+sandy reef, between the north end of which and the land there
+is a convenient and deep entrance. There a considerable river
+falls into the interior of the harbour, the mouth of which widens
+to a lake, which is separated from the outer harbour by a sandy
+neck of land. This lake also forms a good and spacious harbour,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page227" id="v2page227"></a>[ pg 227 ]</span>
+but its entrance is too shallow for vessels of any considerable
+draught. The river itself, on the contrary, is deep, and about
+eighteen kilometres from its mouth flows through another lake,
+from the eastern shore of which rugged and shattered mountains
+rise to a height which I estimate at 800 to 1000 metres; but it
+is quite possible that their height is twice as great, for in making
+such estimates one is liable to fall into error. South of the river
+and the harbour the land rises abruptly from the river bank,
+which is from ten to twenty metres high. On the north side, on
+the other hand, the bank is for the most part low, but farther
+into the interior the ground rises rapidly to rounded hills from
+300 to 400 metres high. Only in the valleys and at other places
+where very large masses of snow had collected during the winter,
+were snow-drifts still to be seen. On the other hand, we saw no
+glaciers, though we might have expected to find them on the
+sides of the high mountains which bound the inner lake on the
+east. It was also clear that during the recent ages no widely
+extended ice-sheet was to be found here, for in the many
+excursions we made in different directions, among others up the
+river to the lake just mentioned, we saw nowhere any moraines,
+erratic blocks, striated rock-surfaces, or other traces of a past
+ice-age. Many signs, on the other hand, indicate that during
+a not very remote geological period glaciers covered considerable
+areas of the opposite Asiatic shore, and contributed to
+excavate the fjords there&mdash;Kolyutschin Bay, St. Lawrence Bay,
+Metschigme Bay, Konyam Bay, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>When we approached the American side we could see that the
+shore cliffs were formed of stratified rocks. I therefore hoped
+to be able, at last, to make a rich collection of fossils, something
+that I had no opportunity of doing during the preceding part of
+the voyage. But I found, on reaching them, that the stratified
+rocks only consisted of crystalline schists without any traces of
+animal or vegetable remains. Nor did we find on the shore
+any whale-bones or any of the remarkable mammoth-bearing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page228" id="v2page228"></a>[ pg 228 ]</span>
+ice-strata which were discovered in the bay situated immediately
+north of Behring's Straits, which was named after Dr. Eschscholz,
+medical officer during Kotzebue's famous voyage.<a name="v2rn346"></a><a href="#v2fn346">[346]</a></p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the anchor fell we were visited by several
+very large skin boats and a large number of <i>kayaks</i>. The
+latter were larger than the Greenlanders', being commonly intended
+for two persons, who sat back to back in the middle of
+the craft. We even saw boats from which, when the two
+rowers had stepped out, a third person crept who had lain
+almost hermetically sealed in the interior of the <i>kayak</i>,
+stretched on the bottom without the possibility of moving his
+limbs, or saving himself if any accident should happen. It
+appeared to be specially common for children to accompany
+their elders in <i>kayak</i> voyages in this inconvenient way.</p>
+
+<p>After the natives came on board a lively traffic commenced,
+whereby I acquired some arrow-points and stone fishing-hooks.
+Anxious to procure as abundant material as possible for</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page229" id="v2page229"></a>[ pg 229 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p239.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p239.png" alt="HUNTING IMPLEMENTS AT PORT CLARENCE." ></a>
+HUNTING IMPLEMENTS AT PORT CLARENCE.
+<br>1. Bird dart with wooden handle for throwing, one-ninth of the natural size. 2. Whale harpoon with
+flint point, one-twelfth. 3. Harpoon-point of bone and nephrite, one-half. 4 Bone leister, one-third.
+5. Awl, one-half. 6. Harpoon, one-twelfth. 7. Flint dart-point, one-half. 8. Arrows or harpoon-ends
+with points of iron, stone or glass, one-eighth. 9. Quiver, one-eighth.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page230" id="v2page230"></a>[ pg 230 ]</span>
+instituting a comparison between the household articles of
+the Eskimo and the Chukches, I examined carefully the skin-bags
+which the natives had with them. In doing so I picked
+out one thing after the other, while they did not object to me
+making an inventory. One of them, however, showed great
+unwillingness to allow me to get to the bottom of the sack, but
+this just made me curious to ascertain what precious thing was
+concealed there. I was urgent, and went through the bag half
+with violence, until at last, in the bottom, I got a solution of
+the riddle&mdash;a loaded revolver. Several of the natives had also
+breechloaders. The oldest age with stone implements, and the
+most recent period with breechloaders, thus here reach hands
+one to the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p240.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p240.png" alt="ESKIMO FAMILY AT PORT CLARENCE." ></a>
+ESKIMO FAMILY AT PORT CLARENCE.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page231" id="v2page231"></a>[ pg 231 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p241.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p241.png" alt="ESKIMO AT PORT CLARENCE." ></a>
+ESKIMO AT PORT CLARENCE.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+
+<p>Many natives were evidently migrating to more northerly
+hunting-grounds and fishing places, perhaps also to the markets
+and play-booths, which Dr. John Simpson describes in his well-known
+paper on the West Eskimo.<a name="v2rn347"></a><a href="#v2fn347">[347]</a> Others had already pitched
+their summer tents on the banks of the inner harbour, or of the
+river before mentioned. On the other hand, there was found in
+the region only a small number of winter dwellings abandoned
+during the warm season of the year. The population consisted,
+as has been said, of Eskimo. They did not understand a word
+of Chukch. Among them, however, we found a Chukch woman,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page232" id="v2page232"></a>[ pg 232 ]</span>
+who stated that true Chukches were found also on the American
+side, north of Behring's Straits. Two of the men spoke a little
+English, one had even been at San Francisco, another at
+Honolulu. Many of their household articles reminded us of
+contact with American whalers, and justice demands the
+recognition of the fact that in opposition to what we commonly
+see stated, contact with men of civilised race appears to have
+been to the advantage and improvement of the savage in an
+economical and moral point of view. Most of them now lived
+in summer-tents of thin cotton cloth, many wore European
+clothes, others were clad in trousers of seal or reindeer-skin and
+a light, soft, often beautifully ornamented <i>pesk</i> of marmot skin,
+over which in rainy weather was worn an overcoat made of
+pieces of gut sewn together. The arrangement of the hair
+resembled that of the Chukches. The women were tattooed with
+some lines on the chin. Many of the men wore small
+moustaches, some even a scanty beard, while others had
+attempted the American goatee. Most of them, but not all,
+had two holes from six to seven millimetres in length, cut in the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p242.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p242.png" alt="ESKIMO AT PORT CLARENCE." ></a>
+ESKIMO AT PORT CLARENCE.
+<br>(After photographs by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page233" id="v2page233"></a>[ pg 233 ]</span>
+<p>lips below the corners of the mouth. In these holes were worn
+large pieces of bone, glass, or stone (figure 9, page 237). But
+these ornaments were often removed, and then the edges of the
+large holes closed so much that the face was not much disfigured.
+Many had in addition a similar hole forward in the
+lip. It struck me, however, that this strange custom was about
+to disappear completely, or at least to be Europeanised by the
+exchange of holes in the ears for holes in the mouth. An
+almost full-grown young woman had a large blue glass bead
+hanging from the nose, in whose partition a hole had been
+made for its suspension, but she was very much embarrassed and
+hid her head in a fold of mama's <i>pesk</i>, when this piece of grandeur
+attracted general attention. All the women had long strings of
+beads in the ears. They wore bracelets of iron or copper, resembling
+those of the Chukches. The colour of the skin was not very
+dark, with perceptible redness on the cheeks, the hair black
+and tallow-like, the eyes small, brown, slightly oblique, the
+face flat, the nose small and depressed at the root. Most of
+the natives were of average height, appeared to be healthy and
+in good condition, and were marked neither by striking thinness
+nor corpulence. The feet and the hands were small.</p>
+
+<p>A certain elegance and order prevailed in their small tents,
+the floor of which was covered with mats of plaited plants. In
+many places vessels formed of cocoa-nut shells were to be seen,
+brought thither, like some of the mats, by whalers from the
+South Sea Islands. For the most part their household and
+hunting implements, axes, knives, saws, breechloaders, revolvers,
+&amp;c., were of American origin, but they still used or preserved in
+the lumber repositories of the tent, bows and arrows, bird-darts,
+bone boat-hooks, and various stone implements. The fishing
+implements especially were made with extraordinary skill of
+coloured sorts of bone or stone, glass beads, red pieces of the
+feet of certain swimming birds, &amp;c. The different materials
+were bound together by twine made of whalebone in such a</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page234" id="v2page234"></a>[ pg 234 ]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p244.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p244.png" alt="ESKIMO FISHING IMPLEMENTS, ETC." ></a>
+ESKIMO FISHING IMPLEMENTS, ETC.
+<br>1&mdash;6. Salmon hooks of stone of different colours, and bone in the form of beetles, one-half of the
+natural size 7. Fishing rod one-sixth 8. End of rod 9. Bone sinker with tufts and
+fish-hook, one-half. 10. Fish-hook with bone points, one-half. 11. Fish-hook with iron-wire
+points, one-half. 12. Snow spectacles one-third.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page235" id="v2page235"></a>[ pg 235 ]</span>
+manner that they resembled large beetles, being intended for
+use in the same way as salmon-flies at home.</p>
+
+<p>Fire was got partly with steel, flint, and tinder, partly by
+means of the fire-drill. Many also used American lucifers. The
+bow of the fire-drill was often of ivory, richly ornamented with
+hunting figures of different kinds. Their tools were more
+elegant, better carved and more richly coloured with graphite<a name="v2rn348"></a><a href="#v2fn348">[348]</a>
+and red ochre than those of the Chukches; the people were
+better off and owned a larger number of skin-boats, both
+<i>kayaks</i> and <i>umiaks</i>. This undoubtedly depends on the sea
+being here covered with ice for a shorter time and the ice being
+thinner than on the Asiatic side, and the hunting accordingly
+being better. All the old accounts however agree in representing
+that in former times the Chukches were recognised as a
+great power by the other savage tribes in these regions, but
+all recent observations indicate that that time is now past. A
+certain respect for them, however, appears still to prevail among
+their neighbours.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page236" id="v2page236"></a>[ pg 236 ]</span>
+The natives, after the first mistrust had disappeared, were
+friendly and accommodating, honourable in their dealings though
+given to begging and to much haggling in making a bargain.
+There appeared to be no chief among them, complete equality
+prevailed, and the position of the woman did not appear to be
+inferior to that of the man. The children were what we would
+call in Europe well brought up, though they got no bringing up
+at all. All were heathens. The liking for spirits appeared to
+be less strong than among the Chukches. We learn besides
+that all selling of spirits to savages is not only forbidden on
+the American side, but forbidden in such a way that the law
+is obeyed.</p>
+
+<p>During our stay among the Chukches my supply of articles
+for barter was very limited, for up to the hour of departure
+uncertainty prevailed as to the time at which we would get
+free, and I was therefore compelled to be sparing of the stores.
+I often found it difficult on that account to induce a Chukch to
+part with things which I wished to acquire. Here on the
+contrary I was a rich man, thanks to the large surplus that
+was over from our abundant winter equipment, which of
+course in warm regions would have been of no use to us. I
+turned my riches to account by making visits like a pedlar in the
+tent villages with sacks full of felt hats, thick clothes, stockings,
+ammunition, &amp;c., for which goods I obtained a beautiful and
+choice collection of ethnographical articles. Among these may
+be mentioned beautiful bone etchings and carvings, and several
+arrow-points and other tools of a species of nephrite,<a name="v2rn349"></a><a href="#v2fn349">[349]</a> which is</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page237" id="v2page237"></a>[ pg 237 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p247.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p247.png" alt="ESKIMO BONE-CARVINGS, ETC." ></a>
+ESKIMO BONE-CARVINGS, ETC.
+<br>1&mdash;5 Buttons to carrying straps, representing heads of the Polar bear, seals &amp;c., carved in
+walrus ivory, one-half of the natural size. 6. Carrying strap with a similar button, carved,
+in the form of a seal, one-third. 7. Stone chisel, one-half. 8. Comb one-third. 9. Buttons
+of bone, glass, or stone, to be placed in holes in the lips, natural size. 10. Ivory diadem,
+two-thirds.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page238" id="v2page238"></a>[ pg 238 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>so puzzlingly like the well-known nephrite from High Asia, that
+I am disposed to believe that it actually comes originally from
+that locality. In such a case the occurrence of nephrite at
+Behring's Straits is important, because it cannot be explained in
+any other way than either by supposing that the tribes living
+here have carried the mineral with them from their original
+home in High Asia, or that during the Stone Age of High Asia
+a like extended commercial intercommunication took place
+between the wild races as now exists, or at least some decades
+ago existed, along the north parts of Asia and America.</p>
+
+<p>On the north side of the harbour we found an old European
+or American train-oil boiling establishment. In the
+neighbourhood of it were two Eskimo graves. The corpses had
+been laid on the ground fully clothed, without the protection
+of any coffin, but surrounded by a close fence consisting of a
+number of tent poles driven crosswise into the ground. Alongside
+one of the corpses lay a <i>kayak</i> with oars, a loaded double-barrelled
+gun with locks at half-cock and caps on, various other
+weapons, clothes, tinderbox, snow-shoes, drinking-vessels, two
+masks carved in wood and smeared with blood (figures 1 and
+2, page 241), and strangely-shaped animal figures. Such
+were seen also in the tents. Bags of sealskin, intended to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page239" id="v2page239"></a>[ pg 239 ]</span>
+inflated and fastened to harpoons as floats, were sometimes
+ornamented with small faces carved in wood (figure 3, page
+#241). In one of the two amulets of the same kind, which
+I brought home with me, one eye is represented by a piece
+of blue enamel stuck in, and the other by a piece of iron
+pyrites fixed in the same way. Behind two tents were found,
+erected on posts a metre and a half in height, roughly-formed
+wooden images of birds with expanded wings painted red. I
+endeavoured without success to purchase these tent-idols<a name="v2rn350"></a><a href="#v2fn350">[350]</a> for
+a large new felt hat&mdash;an article of exchange for which in other
+cases I could obtain almost anything whatever. A dazzlingly</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p249.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p249.png" alt="ESKIMO GRAVE." ></a>
+ESKIMO GRAVE.
+<br>(After a drawing by O. Nordquist.)
+</div>
+
+<p>white <i>kayak</i> of a very elegant shape, on the other hand,
+I purchased without difficulty for an old felt hat and 500
+Remington cartridges.</p>
+
+<p>As a peculiar proof of the ingenuity of the Americans when
+offering their goods for sale, it may be mentioned in conclusion
+that an Eskimo, who came to the vessel during our stay in the
+harbour, showed us a printed paper, by which a commercial house
+at San Francisco offered to &quot;sporting gentlemen&quot; at Behring's
+Straits (Eskimo?) their stock of excellent hunting shot.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page240" id="v2page240"></a>[ pg 240 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p250.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p250.png" alt="ANIMAL FIGURE FROM AN ESKIMO GRAVE." ></a>
+ANIMAL FIGURE FROM AN ESKIMO GRAVE.
+<br><i>a</i> From above. <i>b</i> From the side
+<br>(One-third of the natural size.)
+</div>
+<p>As the west coast of Europe is washed by the Gulf Stream,
+there also runs along the Pacific coast of America a warm
+current, which gives the land a much milder climate than that
+which prevails on the neighbouring Asiatic side, where, as on
+the east coast of Greenland, there runs a cold northerly current.
+The limit of trees therefore in north-western America goes
+a good way <i>north of</i> Behring's Straits, while on the Chukch
+Peninsula wood appears to be wholly wanting. Even at Port
+Clarence the coast is devoid of trees, but some kilometres
+into the country alder bushes two feet high are met with, and
+behind the coast hills actual forests probably occur. Vegetation
+is besides already luxuriant at the coast, and far away here, on
+the coast of the New World, many species are to be found
+nearly allied to Scandinavian plants, among them the <i>Linn&aelig;a</i>.
+Dr. Kjellman therefore reaped here a rich botanical harvest,
+valuable for the purpose of comparison with the flora of the
+neighbouring portion of Asia and other High Arctic regions.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page241" id="v2page241"></a>[ pg 241 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p251.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p251.png" alt="ETHNOGRAPHICAL OBJECTS FROM PORT CLARENCE." ></a>
+ETHNOGRAPHICAL OBJECTS FROM PORT CLARENCE.
+<br>1&mdash;2 Wooden masks, found at a grave, one-sixth of the natural size. 3. Amulet a face with one eye
+of enamel, the other of pyrites from a harpoon-float of sealskin, one-third. 4. Oars, one-nineteenth.
+5. Boathook, one-twelfth. 6. The hook or carved ivory, one-fourth. 7. Carved knife handle (?) of
+ivory, one-half.
+
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page242" id="v2page242"></a>[ pg 242 ]</span>
+Dr. Almquist in like manner collected very extensive materials
+for investigating the lichen-flora of the region, probably before
+very incompletely known. The harvest of the zoologists, on the
+other hand, was scanty. Notwithstanding the luxuriant vegetation
+land-evertebrates appeared to occur in a much smaller
+number of species than in northern Norway. Of beetles, for
+instance, only from ten to twenty species could be found,
+mainly Harpalids and Staphylinids, and of land and fresh-water
+mollusca only seven or eight species, besides which nearly all
+occurred very sparingly. Among remarkable fishes may be
+mentioned the same black marsh-fish which we caught at
+Yinretlen. The avi-fauna was scanty for a high northern land,
+and of wild mammalia we saw only musk-rats. Even the
+dredgings in the harbour yielded, on account of the unfavourable
+nature of the bottom, only an inconsiderable number of animals
+and alg&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th July, at three o'clock in the afternoon, we
+weighed anchor and steamed back in splendid weather and
+with for the most part a favourable wind to the shore of the
+Old World. In order to determine the salinity and temperature
+at different depths, soundings were made and samples of water
+taken every four hours during the passage across the straits.
+Trawling was besides carried on three times in the twenty-four
+hours, commonly with an extraordinarily abundant yield, among
+other things of large shells, as, for instance, the beautiful <i>Fusus
+deformis</i>, Reeve, with its twist to the left, and some large
+species of crabs. One of the latter (<i>Chionoecetes opilio</i>, Kr&ouml;yer)
+the dredge sometimes brought up in hundreds. We cooked
+and ate them and found them excellent, though not very rich
+in flesh. The taste was somewhat sooty.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Bove constructed the diagram reproduced at
+<a href="#v2page244">page 244</a>, which is based on the soundings and other observations
+made during the passage, from which we see how
+shallow is the sound which in the northernmost part of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page243" id="v2page243"></a>[ pg 243 ]</span>
+Pacific separates the Old World from the New. An elevation
+of the land less than that which has taken place since the
+glacial period at the well-known Chapel Hills at Uddevalla would
+evidently be sufficient to unite the two worlds with each other
+by a broad bridge, and a corresponding depression would have
+been enough to separate them if, as is probable, they were at
+one time continuous. The diagram shows besides that the
+deepest channel is quite close to the coast of the Chukch
+Peninsula, and that that channel contains a mass of cold water,
+which is separated by a ridge from the warmer water on the
+American side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p253.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p253.png" alt="SHELL FROM BEHRING'S STRAITS." ></a>
+SHELL FROM BEHRING'S STRAITS.
+<br><i>Fusus deformis</i>, Reeve.
+</div>
+
+<p>If we examine a map of Siberia we shall find, as I have
+already pointed out, that its coasts at most places are straight,
+and are thus neither indented with deep fjords surrounded with
+high mountains like the west coast of Norway, nor protected
+by an archipelago of islands like the greater part of the coasts
+of Scandinavia and Finland. Certain parts of the Chukch
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page244" id="v2page244"></a>[ pg 244 ]</span>
+Peninsula, especially its south-eastern portion, form the only
+exception to this rule. Several small fjords here cut into
+the coasts, which consist of stratified granitic rocks, and in the
+offing two large and several small rocky islands form an archipelago,
+separated from the mainland by the deep Senjavin
+Sound. The wish to give our naturalists an opportunity of
+once more prosecuting their examination of the natural history</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p254.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p254.png" alt="DIAGRAM." ></a>
+DIAGRAM.
+<br>Showing the Temperature and Depth of the water at Behring's Straits between Port Clarence
+and Senjavin Sound.
+<br>By G. BOVE.
+</div>
+
+<p>of the Chukch Peninsula, and the desire to study one of the
+few parts of the Siberian coast which in all probability were
+formerly covered with inland ice, led me to choose this place
+for the second anchorage of the <i>Vega</i> on the Asiatic side south
+of Behring's Straits. The <i>Vega</i> accordingly anchored here on
+the forenoon of the 28th July, but not, as was at first intended,
+in Glasenapp Harbour, because it was still occupied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page245" id="v2page245"></a>[ pg 245 ]</span>
+unbroken ice, but in the mouth of the most northerly of the
+fjords, Konyam Bay.</p>
+
+<p>This portion of the Chukch Peninsula had been visited before
+us by the corvette <i>Senjavin</i>, commanded by Captain, afterwards
+Admiral, Fr. L&uuml;tk&eacute;, and by an English Franklin Expedition on
+board the <i>Plover</i>, commanded by Captain Moore. L&uuml;tk&eacute; stayed
+here with his companions, the naturalists MERTENS, POSTELS, and
+KITTLITZ, some days in August 1828, during which the harbour
+was surveyed and various observations in ethnography and the
+natural sciences made. Moore wintered at this place in 1848-49.
+I have already stated that we have his companion, Lieut. W. H.
+Hooper, to thank for very valuable information relating to the
+tribes which live in the neighbourhood. The region appears to
+have been then inhabited by a rather dense population. Now
+there lived at the bay where we had anchored only three
+reindeer-Chukch families, and the neighbouring islands must
+at the time have been uninhabited, or perhaps the arrival of
+the <i>Vega</i> may not have been observed, for no natives came on
+board, which otherwise would probably have been the case.</p>
+
+<p>The shore at the south-east part of Konyam Bay, in which
+the <i>Vega</i> now lay at anchor for a couple of days, consists of a
+rather desolate bog, in which a large number of cranes were
+breeding. Farther into the country several mountain summits
+rise to a height of nearly 600 metres. The collections of the
+zoologists and botanists on this shore were very scanty, but on
+the north side of the bay, to which excursions were made with
+the steam-launch, grassy slopes were met with, with pretty high
+bushy thickets and a great variety of flowers, which enriched
+Dr. Kjellman's collection of the higher plants from the north
+coast of Asia with about seventy species. Here were found too
+the first land mollusca (Succinea, Limax, Helix, Pupa, &amp;c.) on
+the Chukch Peninsula.<a name="v2rn351"></a><a href="#v2fn351">[351]</a></p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page246" id="v2page246"></a>[ pg 246 ]</span>
+We also visited the dwellings of the reindeer-Chukch
+families. They resembled the Chukch tents we had seen
+before, and the mode of life of the inhabitants differed little
+from that of the coast-Chukches, with whom we passed the
+winter. They were even clothed in the same way, excepting
+that the men wore a number of small bells in the belt. The
+number of the reindeer which the three families owned was,
+according to an enumeration which I made when the herd had
+with evident pleasure settled down at noon in warm sunshine
+on a snow-field in the neighbourhood of the tents, only about
+400, thus considerably fewer than is required to feed three Lapp
+families. The Chukches have instead a better supply of fish,
+and, above all, better hunting than the Lapps; they also do
+not drink any coffee, and themselves collect a part of their
+food from the vegetable kingdom. The natives received us in
+a, very friendly way, and offered to sell or rather barter three
+reindeer, a transaction which on account of our hasty departure
+was not carried into effect.</p>
+
+<p>The mountains in the neighbourhood of Konyam Bay were
+high and split up into pointed summits with deep valleys still
+partly filled with snow. No glaciers appear to exist there at
+present. Probably however the fjords here and the sounds,
+like St. Lawrence Bay, Kolyutschin Bay, and probably all the
+other deeper bays on the coast of the Chukch Peninsula, have
+been excavated by former glaciers. It may perhaps be uncertain
+whether a true inland-ice covered the whole country;
+it is certain that the ice-cap did not extend over the plains of
+Siberia, where it can be proved that no Ice Age in a Scandinavian
+sense ever existed, and where the state of the land from
+the Jurassic period onwards was indeed subjected to some
+changes, but to none of the thoroughgoing mundane revolutions
+which in former times geologists loved to depict in so bright</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page247" id="v2page247"></a>[ pg 247 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p257.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p257.png" alt="KONYAM BAY." ></a>
+KONYAM BAY.
+<br>(After a photograph by L. Palander.)
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page248" id="v2page248"></a>[ pg 248 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page249" id="v2page249"></a>[ pg 249 ]</span>
+colours. At least the direction of the rivers appears to have
+been unchanged since then. Perhaps even the difference
+between the Siberia where Chikanovski's <i>Ginko</i> woods grew
+and the mammoth roamed about, and that where now at a
+limited depth under the surface constantly frozen ground is to
+be met with, depends merely on the isothermal lines having
+sunk slightly towards the equator.</p>
+
+<p>The neighbourhood of Konyam Bay consists of crystalline
+rocks, granite poor in mica, and mica-schist lowermost, and then
+grey non-fossiliferous carbonate of lime, and last of all magnesian
+schists, porphyry, and quartzites. On the summits of the hills
+the granite has a rough trachytic appearance, but does not
+pass into true trachyte. Here however we are already in the
+neighbourhood of the volcanic hearths of Kamchatka, which for
+instance is shown by the hot spring, which Hooper discovered
+not far from the coast during a sledge journey towards Behring's
+Straits. In the middle of the severe cold of February its waters
+had a temperature of +69&deg; C. Hot steam and drifting snow
+combined had thrown over the spring a lofty vault of dazzling
+whiteness formed of masses of snow converted into ice and
+covered with ice-crystals. The Chukches themselves appear
+to have found the contrast striking between the hot spring
+from the interior of the earth and the cold, snow, and ice on its
+surface. They offered blue glass beads to the spring, and
+showed Hooper, as something remarkable, that it was possible
+to boil fish in it, though the mineral water gave the boiled fish
+a bitter unpleasant taste.<a name="v2rn352"></a><a href="#v2fn352">[352]</a></p>
+
+<p>The interior of Konyam Bay was during our stay there still
+covered by an unbroken sheet of ice. This broke up on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page250" id="v2page250"></a>[ pg 250 ]</span>
+afternoon of the 30th July, and had almost, rotten as it was,
+suddenly brought the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> to a termination by
+pressing her ashore. Fortunately the danger was observed in
+time. Steam was got up, the anchor weighed, and the vessel
+removed to the open part of the fjord. As on this account
+several cubic feet of coal had to be used for getting up steam, as
+our hitherto abundant stock of coal must now be saved, and as,
+in the last place I was still urged forward by the fear that a
+too lengthened delay in sending home despatches might not
+only cause much anxiety but also lead to a heavy expenditure
+of money, I preferred to sail on immediately rather than to
+enter a safer harbour in the neighbourhood from which the
+scientific work might continue to be prosecuted.</p>
+
+<p>The course was now shaped for the north-west point of St.
+Lawrence Island. A little off Senjavin Sound we saw drift-ice
+for the last time. On the whole the quantity of ice which drifts
+down through Behring's Straits into the Pacific is not very
+great, and most of that which is met with in summer on the
+Asiatic side of the Behring Sea, is evidently formed in fjords and
+bays along the coast South of Behring's Straits accordingly I
+saw not a single iceberg nor any large block of glacier-ice, but
+only even and very rotten fields of bay-ice.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i> was anchored on the 31st July in an open bay on
+the north-western side of St. Lawrence Island. This island,
+called by the natives Enguae, is the largest one between the
+Aleutian Islands and Behring's Straits. It lies nearer Asia
+than America, but is considered to belong to the latter, for
+which reason it was handed over along with the Alaska
+Territory by Russia to the United States. The island is inhabited
+by a few Eskimo families, who have commercial relations
+with then Chukch neighbours on the Russian side, and therefore
+have adopted some words from their language. Then dress also
+resembles that of the Chukches, with the exception that, wanting
+reindeer-skin, they use <i>pesks</i> made of the skins of birds and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page251" id="v2page251"></a>[ pg 251 ]</span>
+marmots. Like the Chukches and Eskimo they use overcoats
+of pieces of seal-gut sewed together. On St. Lawrence Island
+their dress is much ornamented, chiefly with tufts of feathers of
+the sea-fowl that breed in innumerable flocks on the island. It
+even appears that gut clothes are made here for sale to other</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p261.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p261.png" alt="TATTOOING PATTERNS, FROM ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND." ></a>
+TATTOOING PATTERNS, FROM ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND.
+<br>1, 2. Face tattooing. 3. Arm tattooing.
+<br>(After drawings by A. Stuxberg.)
+</div>
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page252" id="v2page252"></a>[ pg 252 ]</span>
+tribes; otherwise it would be difficult to explain how Kotzebue's
+sailors could in half an hour purchase at a single encampment
+200 coats of this kind. At the time of our visit all the natives
+went bareheaded, the men with their black tallow-like hair
+clipped to the root, with the exception of the common small
+border above the forehead. The women wore their hair
+plaited and adorned with beads, and were much tattooed, partly
+after very intricate patterns, as is shown by the accompanying
+woodcuts. Like the children they mostly went barefooted and
+barelegged. They were well grown, and many did not look ill,
+but all were merciless beggars, who actually followed our
+naturalists on their excursions on land.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p262.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p262.png" alt="TATTOOED WOMAN FROM ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND." ></a>
+TATTOOED WOMAN FROM ST. LAWRENCE ISLAND.
+<br>(After a drawing by A. Stuxberg.)
+</div>
+
+<p>The summer-tents were irregular, but pretty clean and light
+huts of gut, stretched on a frame of drift-wood and whale-bones.
+The winter dwellings were now abandoned. They appeared
+to consist of holes in the earth, which were covered above, with
+the exception of a square opening, with drift-wood and turf.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page253" id="v2page253"></a>[ pg 253 ]</span>
+During winter a sealskin tent was probably stretched over
+this opening, but it was removed for the time, probably to
+permit the summer heat to penetrate into the hole and melt
+the ice, which had collected during winter on its walls. At
+several tents we found large under-jaws of whales fixed in the
+ground. They were perforated above, and I suppose that the
+winter-tent, in the absence of other framework, was stretched
+over them. Masses of whale-bones lay thrown up along the
+shore, evidently belonging to the same species as those we
+collected at the shore-dunes at Pitlekaj. In the neighbourhood
+of the tents graves were also found. The corpses had been
+placed, unburned, in some cleft among the rocks which are split
+up by the frost, and often converted into immense stone mounds.
+They had afterwards been covered with stones, and skulls of
+the bear and the seal and whale-bones had been offered or
+scattered around the grave.</p>
+
+<p>North-east of the anchorage the shore was formed of low hills
+rising with a steep slope from the sea. Here and there ruinlike
+cliffs projected from the hills, resembling those we saw on the coast
+of Chukch Land. But the rock here consisted of the same sort of
+granite which formed the lowermost stratum at Konyam Bay. It
+was principally at the foot of these slopes that the natives erected
+their dwellings. South-west of the anchorage commenced a very
+extensive plain, which towards the interior of the island was
+marshy, but along the coast formed a firm, even, grassy meadow
+exceedingly rich in flowers. It was gay with the large sunflower-like
+<i>Arnica Pseudo-Arnica</i>, and another species of Senecio (<i>Senecio
+frigidus);</i> the <i>Oxytropis nigrescens</i>, close-tufted and rich in flowers,
+not stunted here as in Chukch Land; several species of Pedicularis
+in their fullest bloom (<i>P. sudetica, P. Langsdorfii, P. Oederi
+</i> and <i>P. capitata</i>); the stately snow auricula (<i>Primula nivalis),
+</i> and the pretty <i>Primula borealis</i>. As characteristic of the
+vegetation at this place may also be mentioned several ranunculi,
+an anemone (<i>Anemone narcissiflora</i>), a species of monkshood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page254" id="v2page254"></a>[ pg 254 ]</span>
+with flowers few indeed, but so much the larger on that account,
+large tufts of <i>Silene acaulis</i> and <i>Alsine macrocarpa</i>, studded with
+flowers, several Saxifrages, two Claytoni&aelig;, the <i>Cl. acutifolia</i>,
+important as a food-plant in the housekeeping of the Chukches,
+and the tender <i>Cl. sarmentosa</i> with its delicate, slightly rose-coloured
+flowers, and, where the ground was stony, long but yet
+flowerless, slightly green tendrils of the favourite plant of our
+homeland, the <i>Linn&aelig;a borealis</i> Dr. Kjellman thus reaped a rich
+harvest of higher plants, and a fine collection of land and marine
+animals, lichens and alg&aelig; was also made here. The ground
+consisted of sand in which lay large granite blocks, which we in
+Sweden would call erratic. They appeared however not to have
+been transported hither, but to be lying <i>in situ</i>, having along with
+the sand probably arisen through the disintegration of the rocks.</p>
+
+<p>In the sea we found not a few alg&aelig; and a true littoral
+evertebrate-fauna, poor in species indeed, something which is
+completely absent in the Polar seas proper. As I walked along
+the coast I saw five pretty large self-coloured greyish-brown seals
+sunning themselves on stones a short distance from land. They
+belonged to a species which I had never seen in the Polar seas.
+As there was no boat at hand, I forbade the hunters that accompanied
+me, though the seals were within range, to test their skill
+as shots upon them. Perhaps they were females of <i>Histriophoca
+fasciata</i>, whose beautifully marked skin (of the male) I had seen
+and described at St. Lawrence Bay. The natives had a few dogs
+but no reindeer, which however might find food on the island in
+thousands. No <i>kayaks</i> were in use, but large <i>baydars</i> of the
+same construction as those of the Chukches.</p>
+
+<p>St. Lawrence Island was discovered during Behring's first
+voyage, but the first who came into contact with the natives was
+Otto von Kotzebue<a name="v2rn353"></a><a href="#v2fn353">[353]</a> (on the 27th June 1816, and the 20th July</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page255" id="v2page255"></a>[ pg 255 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>1817). The inhabitants had not before seen any Europeans, and
+they received the foreigners with a friendliness which exposed
+Kotzebue to severe suffering. Of this he gives the following
+account:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;So long as the naturalists wandered about on the hills I stayed
+with my acquaintances, who, when they found that I was the
+commander, invited me into their tents. Here a dirty skin was
+spread on the floor, on which I had to sit, and then they came in
+one after the other, embraced me, rubbed their noses hard against
+mine, and finished their caresses by spitting in their hands and
+then stroking me several times over the face. Although these
+proofs of friendship gave me very little pleasure, I bore all
+patiently; the only thing I did to lighten their caresses somewhat
+was to distribute tobacco leaves. These the natives received
+with great pleasure, but they wished immediately to renew their
+proofs of friendship. Now I betook myself with speed to knives,
+scissors, and beads, and by distributing some succeeded in averting
+a new attack. But a still greater calamity awaited me when in
+order to refresh me bodily they brought forward a wooden tray
+with whale blubber. Nauseous as this food is to a European
+stomach I boldly attacked the dish. This, along with new presents
+which I distributed, impressed the seal on the friendly relation
+between us. After the meal our hosts made arrangements
+for dancing and singing, which was accompanied on a little
+tambourine.&quot;<a name="v2rn354"></a><a href="#v2fn354">[352]</a></p>
+
+<p>As von Kotzebue two days after sailed past the north point of
+the island he met three <i>baydars</i>. In one of them a man stood
+up, held up a little dog and pierced it through with his knife, as
+Kotzebue believed, as a sacrifice to the foreigners.<a name="v2rn355"></a><a href="#v2fn355">[355]</a></p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page256" id="v2page256"></a>[ pg 256 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>Since 1817 several exploring expeditions have landed on St.
+Lawrence Island, but always only for a few hours. It is very
+dangerous to stay long here with a vessel. For there is no
+known haven on the coast of this large island, which is surrounded
+by an open sea. In consequence of the heavy swell which almost
+constantly prevails here, when the surrounding sea is clear of ice,
+it is difficult to land on the island with a boat, and the vessel
+anchored in the open road is constantly exposed to be thrown by
+a storm rising unexpectedly upon the shore cliffs. This held
+good in fullest measure of the <i>Vega's</i> anchorage, and Captain
+Palander was on this account anxious to leave the place as soon
+as possible. On the 2nd August at three o'clock in the afternoon
+we accordingly resumed our voyage. The course was shaped at
+first for Karaginsk Island on the east coast of Kamchatka, where
+it was my intention to stay some days in order to get an opportunity
+of making a comparison between the natural conditions
+of middle Kamchatka and the Chukch Peninsula. But as
+unfavourable winds delayed our passage longer than I had
+calculated on, I abandoned, though unwillingly, the plan of
+landing there. The Commander's Islands became instead the
+nearest goal of the expedition. Here the <i>Vega</i> anchored on the
+14th August in a very indifferent harbour completely open to
+the west, north-west, and south, lying on the west side of Behring
+Island, between the main island and a small island lying off it.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn344"></a><a href="#v2rn344">[344]</a> The enmity appeared, however, to be of a very passive nature and by
+no means depending on any tribal dislike, but only arising from the inhabitants
+of the villages lying farthest eastward being known to be of a
+quarrelsome disposition and having the same reputation for love of fighting
+as the peasant youths in some villages in Sweden. For Lieut. Hooper,
+who during the winter 1848-9 made a journey in dog-sledges from Chukotskoj-nos
+along the coast towards Behring's Straits says that the inhabitants
+at Cape Deschnev itself enjoyed the same bad reputation among their
+Namollo neighbours to the south as among the Chukches living to the
+westward. &quot;They spoke another language.&quot; Possibly they were pure
+Eskimo.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn345"></a><a href="#v2rn345">[345]</a> There is still in existence a sketch of a tribe, living far to the south on
+the coast of the Indian Sea, who at the time of Alexander the Great used
+the bones of the whale in a similar way. &quot;They build their houses so
+that the richest among them take bones of the whale, which the sea casts
+up, and use them as beams, of the larger bones they make their doors.
+Arrian, <i>Historia Indica</i>, XXIX. and XXX.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn346"></a><a href="#v2rn346">[346]</a> These strata were discovered during Kotzebue's cucumnavigation of
+the globe (<i>Entdeckungs Reise</i>, Weimar, 1821, i. p. 146, and ii. p. 170).
+The strand-bank was covered by an exceedingly luxuriant vegetable
+carpet, and rose to a height of eighty feet above the sea. Here the &quot;rock,&quot;
+if this word can be used for a stratum of ice, was found to consist of pure
+ice, covered with a layer, only six inches thick, of blue clay and turf-earth.
+The ice must have been several hundred thousand years old, for on its
+being melted a large number of bones and tusks of the mammoth appeared,
+from which we may draw the conclusion that the ice-stratum was formed
+during the period in which the mammoth lived in these regions. This
+remarkable observation has been to a certain extent disputed by later
+travellers, but its correctness has recently been fully confirmed by Dall.
+On the other hand, the extent to which the strong odour, which was
+observed at the place and resembled that of burned horns, arose from the
+decaying mammoth remains, is perhaps uncertain. Kotzebue fixed the
+latitude of the place at 66&deg; 15' 36&quot;. During Beechey's voyage in 1827 the
+place was thoroughly examined by Mr. Collie, the medical officer of the
+expedition. He brought home thence a large number of the bones of the
+mammoth, ox, musk-ox, reindeer, and horse, which were described by the
+famous geologist Buckland (F. W. Beechey, <i>Narrative of a Voyage to the
+Pacific and Behring's Straits, 1825-28</i>. London, 1831, ii. Appendix).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn347"></a><a href="#v2rn347">[347]</a> <i>Further Papers relative to the recent Arctic Expedition, etc.</i> Presented
+to both Houses of Parliament. London, 1855, p. 917.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn348"></a><a href="#v2rn348">[348]</a> Graphite must be found in great abundance on the Asiatic side of
+Behring's Straits. I procured during winter a number of pieces, which had
+evidently been rolled in running water. Chamisso mentions in Kotzebue's
+Voyages (iii. p. 169) that he had seen this mineral along with red ochre
+among the inhabitants at St. Lawrence Bay; and Lieut Hooper states in
+his work (p. 139), that graphite and red ochre are found at the village
+Oongwysac between Chukotskoj-nos and Behring's Straits. The latter
+colour was sold at a high price to the inhabitants of distant encampments.
+These minerals have undoubtedly been used in the same way from
+time immemorial, and they are probably, like flint and nephrite, among
+the few kinds of stone which were used by the men of the Stone Age. So
+far as is known, graphite come first into use in Europe during the middle
+ages. A black-lead pencil is mentioned and delineated for the first time
+by Conrad Gessner in 1565. The rich but now exhausted graphite seam
+at Borrowdale, in England, is mentioned for the first time by Dr. Merret
+in 1667, as containing a useful mineral peculiar to England. Very rich
+graphite seams have been found during recent decades, both at the
+mouth of the Yenisej (Sidoroff's graphite quarry) and at a spur of
+the Sayan mountains in the southern part of Siberia (Alibert's graphite
+quarry), and these discoveries have played a certain <i>r&ocirc;le</i> in the recent
+history of the exploration of the country.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn349"></a><a href="#v2rn349">[349]</a> Nephrite is a light green, sometimes grass-green, very hard and compact
+species of amphibolite, which occurs in High Asia, Mexico, and New Zealand.
+At all these places it has been employed for stone implements, vases,
+pipes, &amp;c. The Chinese put an immensely high value upon it, and the
+wish to procure nephite is said often to have determined their politics,
+to have caused wars, and impressed its stamp on treaties of peace concluded
+between millions. I also consider it probable that the precious
+Vasa Murrhina, which was brought to Rome after the campaign against
+Mithridates, and has given rise to so much discussion, was nephrite.
+Nephrite was also perhaps the first of all stones to be used ornamentally.
+For we find axes and chisels of this material among the people of the
+Stone Age both in Europe (where no locality is known where unworked
+nephrite is found) and in Asia, America, and New Zealand. In Asia
+implements of nephrite are found both on the Chukch Peninsula and in old
+graves from the Stone Age in the southern part of the country. They
+have been discovered at Telma, sixty versts from Irkutsk, by Mr. J. N.
+Wilkoffski, conservator of the East Siberian Geographical Society. In
+scientific mineralogy nephrite is first mentioned under the name of <i>Kascholong</i>
+(<i>i.e.</i> a species of stone from the river Kasch). It has been brought
+home under this name by Renat, a prisoner-of-war from Charles XII.'s
+army, from High Asia, and was given by him to Swedish mineralogists,
+who described it very correctly, though kascholong has since been
+erroneously considered a species of quarts.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn350"></a><a href="#v2rn350">[350]</a> The Eskimo however, like the Chukches, do not appear to have any
+proper religion or idea of a life after this.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn351"></a><a href="#v2rn351">[351]</a> We have already found some land mollusca at Port Clarence, but none
+at St. Lawrence Bay. The northernmost <i>find</i> of such animals now known
+was made by Von Middendorff, who found a species of Physa on the
+Taimur Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn352"></a><a href="#v2rn352">[352]</a> That a fire-emitting mountain was to be found in Siberia east of the
+Yenisej is already mentioned in a treatise by Isaak Massa, inserted in
+Hessel Gerritz, <i>Detectio Freti</i>, Amsterdam, 1612. The rumour about the
+volcanos of Kamchatka thus appears to have reached Europe at that early
+date.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn353"></a><a href="#v2rn353">[353]</a> Kotzebue says that he was the first seafarer who visited the island.
+This however is incorrect. Billings landed there on the 1st August (21st
+July), 1791. From the vessel some natives was seen and a <i>baydar</i> which
+was rowed along the coast. The natives however were frightened by some
+gunshots fired as a signal (Sarytchev's <i>Reise</i>, ii. p. 91, Sauer, p. 239).
+Billings says that the place where he landed (the south-east point of the
+island) was nearly covered with bones of sea-animals. It would be important
+to have these thoroughly examined, as it is not impossible that Steller's
+sea-cow (Rhytina) may in former times have occasionally come to this
+coast. At all events important contributions to a knowledge of the species
+of whales in Behring's Straits may be gained here.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn354"></a><a href="#v2rn354">[354]</a> Otto von Kotzebue <i>Entdeckungs-Reise an die Sud-See und nach der
+Behring-Strasse, 1815-18</i> Weimar, 1821, i. p. 135, ii. p. 104, iii. pp. 171
+and 178.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn355"></a><a href="#v2rn355">[355]</a> On the days after our arrival at Pitlekaj several dogs were killed. I
+then believed that this was done because the natives were unwilling to
+feed them during winter, but it is not impossible that they sacrificed them
+to avert the misfortunes which it was feared the arrival of the foreigners
+would bring with it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page257" id="v2page257"></a>[ pg 257 ]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XV"></a><h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>The position of Behring Island&mdash;Its inhabitants&mdash;The discovery of the
+island by Behring&mdash;Behring's death&mdash;Steller&mdash;The former and present
+Fauna on the island: foxes, sea-otters, sea-cows, sea-lions, and
+sea-bears&mdash;Collection of bones of the Rhytina&mdash;Visit to a &quot;rookery&quot;&mdash;Toporkoff
+Island&mdash;Alexander Dubovski&mdash;Voyage to
+Yokohama&mdash;Lightning-stroke.</p>
+
+<p>Behring Island is situated between 54&deg; 40' and 55&deg; 25' N. L. and
+165&deg; 40' and 166&deg; 40' E. L. from Greenwich. It is the westernmost
+and nearest Kamchatka of the islands in the long chain formed
+by volcanic action, which bounds the Behring Sea on the south
+between 51&deg; and 56&deg; N. L. Together with the neighbouring
+Copper Island and some small islands and rocks lying round
+about, it forms a peculiar group of islands separated from the
+Aleutian Islands proper, named, after the rank of the great seafarer
+who perished here, Commander's or Commandirski Islands.
+They belong not to America but to Asia, and are Russian
+territory. Notwithstanding this the American Alaska Company
+has acquired the right of hunting there,<a name="v2rn356"></a><a href="#v2fn356">[356]</a> and maintains on the
+main islands two not inconsiderable commercial stations, which
+supply the inhabitants, several hundreds in number, with provisions
+and manufactured goods, the company buying from them
+instead furs, principally the skin of an eared seal (the sea-cat or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page258" id="v2page258"></a>[ pg 258 ]</span>
+sea-bear), of which from 20,000 to 50,000<a name="v2rn357"></a><a href="#v2fn357">[357]</a> are killed yearly in
+the region. Some Russian authorities are also settled on the
+island to guard the rights of the Russian state and maintain
+order. Half a dozen serviceable wooden houses have been built
+here as dwellings for the officials of the Russian Government and
+the American Company, for storehouses, shops, &amp;c. The natives
+live partly in very roomy and in the inside not uncomfortable
+turf houses, partly in small wooden houses which the company
+endeavours gradually to substitute for the former, by yearly
+ordering some wooden buildings and presenting them to the most
+deserving of the population. Every family has its own house.
+There is also a Greek-Catholic church and a spacious schoolhouse.
+The latter is intended for Aleutian children. The school was
+unfortunately closed at the time of our visit, but, to judge by the
+writing books which lay about in the schoolroom, the education
+here is not to be despised. The specimens of writing at least
+were distinguished by their cleanness, and by an even and
+beautiful style. At &quot;the colony&quot; the houses were collected at
+one place into a village, situated near the sea-shore at a suitable
+distance from the fishing ground in a valley overgrown in summer
+by a rich vegetation, but treeless and surrounded by treeless
+rounded heights. From the sea this village has the look of a
+northern fishing station. There are besides some scattered
+houses here and there on other parts of the island, for instance
+on its north-eastern side, where the potato is said to be cultivated</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page259" id="v2page259"></a>[ pg 259 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p269.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p269.png" alt="THE COLONY ON BEHRING ISLAND." ></a>
+THE COLONY ON BEHRING ISLAND.
+<br>(After a photograph.)
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page260" id="v2page260"></a>[ pg 260 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page261" id="v2page261"></a>[ pg 261 ]</span>
+on a small scale, and at the fishing place on the north side where
+there are two large sheds for skins and a number of very small
+earth-holes used only during the slaughter season.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p271.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p271.png" alt="THE &quot;COLONY&quot; ON COPPER ISLAND." ></a>
+THE &quot;COLONY&quot; ON COPPER ISLAND.
+<br>(After a photograph.)
+</div>
+
+<p>Behring Island, with regard both to geography and natural
+history, is one of the most remarkable islands in the north part
+of the Pacific. It was here that Behring after his last unfortunate
+voyage in the sea which now bears his name, finished his long
+course as an explorer. He was however survived by many of
+his followers, among them by the physician and naturalist Steller,
+to whom we owe a masterpiece seldom surpassed&mdash;a sketch of
+the natural conditions and animal life on the island, never before
+visited by man, where he involuntarily passed the time from the
+middle of November 1741, to the end of August 1742.<a name="v2rn358"></a><a href="#v2fn358">[358]</a></p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page262" id="v2page262"></a>[ pg 262 ]</span>
+It was the desire to procure for our museums the skins or
+skeletons of the many remarkable mammalia occurring here, also
+to compare the present state of the island which for nearly a
+century and a half has been exposed to the unsparing thirst of
+man for sport and plunder, with Steller's spirited and picturesque
+description, which led me to include a visit to the island in the
+plan of the expedition. The accounts I got at Behring Island
+from the American newspapers of the anxiety which our
+wintering had caused in Europe led me indeed to make our
+stay there shorter than I at first intended. Our harvest of
+collections and observations was at all events extraordinarily
+abundant. But before I proceed to give an account of our own
+stay on the island, I must devote a few words to its discovery
+and the first wintering there, which has a quite special interest
+from the island having never before been trodden by the foot of
+man. The abundant animal life, then found there, gives us
+therefore one of the exceedingly few representations we possess
+of the animal world as it was before man, the lord of the creation,
+appeared.</p>
+
+<p>After Behring's vessel had drifted about a considerable time
+at random in the Behring Sea, in consequence of the severe
+scurvy-epidemic, which had spread to nearly all the men on
+board, without any dead reckoning being kept, and finally without
+sail or helmsman, literally at the mercy of wind and waves,
+those on board on the 15th/4th November, 1741, sighted land, off whose
+coast the vessel was anchored the following day at 5 o'clock P. M.
+An hour after the cable gave way, and an enormous sea threw
+the vessel towards the shore-cliffs. All appeared to be already
+lost. But the vessel, instead of being driven ashore by new</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page263" id="v2page263"></a>[ pg 263 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p273.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p273.png" alt="NATIVES OF BEHRING ISLAND." ></a>
+NATIVES OF BEHRING ISLAND.
+<br>(After a photograph.)
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page264" id="v2page264"></a>[ pg 264 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page265" id="v2page265"></a>[ pg 265 ]</span>
+waves, came unexpectedly into a basin 4-1/2 fathoms deep surrounded
+by rocks and with quite still water, being connected
+with the sea only by a single narrow opening. If the unmanageable
+vessel had not drifted just to that place it would certainly
+have gone to pieces, and all on board would have perished</p>
+
+<p>It was only with great difficulty that the sick crew could put
+out a boat in which Lieut. Waxel and Steller landed. They
+found the land uninhabited, devoid of wood, and uninviting. But
+a rivulet with fresh clear water purled yet unfrozen down the
+mountain sides, and in the sand hills along the coast were found
+some deep pits, which when enlarged and covered with sails
+could be used as dwellings. The men who could still stand on
+their legs all joined in this work. On the 19th/8th November the
+sick could be removed to land, but, as often happens, many died
+when they were brought out of the cabin into the fresh air, others
+while they were being carried from the vessel or immediately
+after they came to land. All in whom the scurvy had taken the
+upper hand to that extent that they were already lying in bed
+on board the vessel, died. The survivors had scarcely time or
+strength to bury the dead, and found it difficult to protect the
+corpses from the hungry foxes that swarmed on the island and
+had not yet learned to be afraid of man. On the 20th/9th Behring
+was carried on land; he was already much reduced and dejected,
+and could not be induced to take exercise. He died on the 19th/8th
+December.</p>
+
+<p>VITUS BEHRING was a Dane by birth, and when a young
+man had already made voyages to the East and West Indies.
+In 1707 he was received into the Russian navy as officer,
+and as such took part in all the warlike enterprises of that
+fleet against Sweden. He was in a way buried alive on the
+island that now bears his name, for at last he did not
+permit his men to remove the sand that lolled down upon
+him from the walls of the sand pit in which he rested. For
+he thought that the sand warmed his chilled body. Before
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page266" id="v2page266"></a>[ pg 266 ]</span>
+the corpse could be properly buried it had therefore to be
+dug out of its bed, a circumstance which appears to have
+produced a disagreeable impression on the survivors. The two
+Lieutenants, Waxel and Chitrov, had kept themselves in pretty
+good health at sea, but now fell seriously ill, though they
+recovered. Only the physician of the expedition, Georg
+Wilhelm Steller, was all the time in good health, and that a
+single man of the whole crew escaped with his life was clearly
+clue to the skill of this gifted man, to his invincible energy
+and his cheerful and sanguine disposition. These qualities
+were also abundantly tested during the wintering. On the
+night before the 10th December/29th November, the vessel, on which no watch was
+kept, because all the men were required on land to care for
+the sick, was cast ashore by a violent E.S.E. storm. So great
+a quantity of provisions was thus lost, that the remaining
+stock was not sufficient by itself to yield enough food for all
+the men during a whole winter. Men were therefore sent out
+in all directions to inquire into the state of the land. They
+returned with the information that the vessel had stranded,
+not, as was hoped at first, on the mainland but on an uninhabited,
+woodless island. It was thus clear to the shipwrecked
+men that in order to be saved they could rely only
+on their judgment and strength. At the beginning they
+found that if any provisions were to be reserved for the
+voyage home, it was necessary that they should support themselves
+during winter to a considerable extent by hunting.
+They did not like to use the flesh of the fox for food, and
+at first kept to that of the sea-otter. This animal at present
+is very scarce on Behring Island, but at that time the shore
+was covered with whole herds of it. They had no fear of
+man, came from curiosity straight to the fires, and did not
+run away when any one approached. A dear-bought experience,
+however, soon taught them caution; at all events, from 800
+to 900 head were taken, a splendid catch when we consider
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page267" id="v2page267"></a>[ pg 267 ]</span>
+that the skin of this animal at the Chinese frontier fetched
+from 80 to 100 roubles each. Besides, in the beginning of
+winter two whales stranded on the island. The shipwrecked
+men considered these then provision dep&ocirc;ts, and appear to
+have preferred whale blubber to the flesh of the sea-otter,
+which had an unpleasant taste and was tough as leather.<a name="v2rn359"></a><a href="#v2fn359">[359]</a></p>
+
+<p>In spring the sea-otters disappeared, but now there came to
+the island in their stead other animals in large herds, viz
+sea-bears, seals, and sea-lions. The flesh of the young sea-lion
+was considered a great delicacy.<a name="v2rn360"></a><a href="#v2fn360">[360]</a> When the sea-otters
+became scarcer and more shy and difficult to catch, the shipwrecked
+men found means also to kill sea-cows, whose flesh
+Steller considered equal to beef. Several barrels of their flesh
+were even salted to serve as provisions during the return
+journey. As the land became clear of snow in the middle of
+April, Waxel called together the forty-five men who survived
+to a consultation regarding the steps that ought to be taken
+in order to reach the mainland. Among many different proposals,
+that was adopted of building a new vessel with the materials
+supplied by the stranded one. The three ship-carpenters who
+had been on board were dead. But fortunately there was
+among the survivors a Cossack, SAVA STARODUBZOV, who had
+taken part as a workman in shipbuilding at Okotsk, and
+now undertook to manage the building of the new vessel.
+With necessity for a teacher he also succeeded in executing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page268" id="v2page268"></a>[ pg 268 ]</span>
+his commission, so that a new <i>St. Peter</i> was launched on the
+21st/10th August, 1742. The vessel was forty feet long, thirteen
+feet beam, and six and a half feet deep, and sailed as well
+as if built by an experienced master of his craft, but on the
+other hand leaked seriously in a high sea. The return voyage
+at all events passed successfully. On the 5th September/25th August Kamchatka
+was sighted, and two days after the <i>St. Peter</i> anchored at
+Petropaulovsk, where the shipwrecked men found a storehouse
+with an <i>abundant</i> stock of provisions according to their
+ideas, which probably were not pitched very high. Next year
+they sailed on with their Behring-Island-built vessel to Okotsk.
+On then arrival there, of the seventy-six persons who originally
+took part in the expedition, thirty-two were dead. At Kamchatka
+they had all been considered dead, and the effects they
+left behind them had been scattered and divided. Steller
+voluntarily remained some time longer in Kamchatka in order
+to carry on his researches in natural history. Unfortunately
+he drew upon himself the ill-will of the authorities, in consequence
+of the free way in which he criticised their abuses. This led
+to a trial at the court at Irkutsk. He was, indeed, found
+innocent, and obtained permission to travel home, but at Zolikamsk
+he was overtaken by an express with orders to bring
+him back to Irkutsk. On the way thither he met another
+express with renewed permission to travel to Europe. But the
+powers of the strong and formerly healthy man were exhausted
+by his hunting backwards and forwards across the immeasurable
+deserts of Siberia. He died soon after, on the 23rd/12th November,
+1746, at Tjumen, only thirty-seven years of age, of a fever
+by which he was attacked during the journey.<a name="v2rn361"></a><a href="#v2fn361">[361]</a></p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page269" id="v2page269"></a>[ pg 269 ]</span>
+The immense quantity of valuable furs brought home by
+the survivors of Behring's so unfortunate third voyage affected
+the fur-dealers, Cossacks, and hunters of Siberia much in the
+same way as the rumour about Eldorado or about the riches of the
+Casic Dobaybe did the Spanish discoverers of middle and southern
+America. Numerous expeditions were fitted out to the new
+land rich in furs, where extensive territories previously unknown
+were made tributary to the Czar of Russia. Most of these
+expeditions landed on Behring Island during the voyage out
+and home, and in a short time wrought a complete change in the
+fauna of the island. Thanks to Steller's spirited sketch of the
+animal life he observed there, we have also an opportunity of
+forming an idea of the alteration in the fauna which man brings
+about in a land in which he settles.</p>
+
+<p>Arctic foxes were found in incredible numbers on the island
+during the wintering of the Behring expedition. They not only
+ate up everything that was at all eatable that was left in the open
+air, but forced their way as well by day as by night into the
+houses and carried off all that they could, even such things
+as were of no use whatever to them, as knives, sticks, sacks,
+shoes and stockings. Even if anything had been never so well
+buried and loaded with stones, they not only found the place
+but even pushed away the stones with their shoulders like men.
+Though they could not eat what they found, they carried it
+off and concealed it under stones. In such a case some foxes
+stood on guard, and if a man approached all assisted in speedily
+concealing the stolen article in the sand so that no trace of it
+was left. When any of the men slept out of doors at night
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page270" id="v2page270"></a>[ pg 270 ]</span>
+the foxes carried off their caps and gloves, and made their way
+under the covering. They nosed the noses of the sleepers to
+find out whether they were dead or living, and attempted to
+nibble at any who held their breath. As the female sea-lions
+and sea-bears often suffocate their young during sleep, the foxes
+every morning made an inspection of the place where these
+animals lie down in immense herds, and if they found a dead
+young one they immediately helped each other, like good
+scavengers, to carry away the carcase. When men were employed
+out of doors they had to drive the foxes away with sticks,
+and they became, in consequence of the slyness and cunning
+with which they knew how to carry out their thefts and the
+skill which they showed in combining to gain an end which
+they could not compass as single animals, actually dangerous
+to the shipwrecked men, by whom they were therefore heartily
+hated, pursued, tormented, and killed. Since then thousands
+and thousands of foxes have been killed on Behring Island
+by the fur-hunters. Now they are so scarce that during our
+stay there we did not see one. Those that still survive, besides,
+as the Europeans settled on the island informed me, do not wear
+the precious dark blue dress formerly common but the white,
+which is of little value. On the neighbouring Copper Island,
+however, there are still dark blue foxes in pretty large numbers.<a name="v2rn362"></a><a href="#v2fn362">[362]</a></p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page271" id="v2page271"></a>[ pg 271 ]</span>
+Nine hundred sea-otters were killed here by Steller and his
+companions in 1741-42. The following quotation is taken from
+Steller's description of this animal which is now so shy at the
+sight of man:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;With respect to playfulness it surpasses every other animal
+that lives either in the sea or on the land. When it comes up
+out of the sea it shakes the water from its fur, and dresses it as
+a cat its head with its fore-paws, stretches its body, arranges its
+hair, throws its head this way and that, contemplating itself and
+its beautiful fur with evident satisfaction. The animal is so
+much taken up with this dressing of itself, that while thus
+employed it may easily be approached and killed. If one strikes
+a sea-otter twenty times across the back, it bears it patiently, but
+if its large beautiful tail be struck once it turns its head to its
+pursuer, as if to offer it as a mark for his club in place of the
+tail. If it eludes an attack it makes the most laughable gestures
+to the hunter. It looks at him, placing one foot above the head
+as if to protect it from the sunlight, throws itself on its back, and
+turning to its enemy as if in scorn scratches itself on the belly
+and thighs. The male and female are much attached to each
+other, embrace and kiss each other like men. The female is also
+very fond of its young. When attacked she never leaves it
+in the lurch, and when danger is not near she plays with it in a
+thousand ways, almost like a child-loving mother with her young
+ones, throws it sometimes up in the air and catches it with her
+fore-feet like a ball, swims about with it in her bosom, throws it
+away now and then to let it exercise itself in the art of
+swimming, but takes it to herself with kisses and caresses when
+it is tired.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>According to recent researches the <i>sea-otter</i>, sea-beaver or
+Kamchatka-beaver (<i>Enhydris lutris</i>, Lin.) is a species neither of
+the otter nor the beaver, but belongs to a peculiar genus, allied
+to a certain extent to the walrus. Even this animal, unsurpassed
+in the beauty of its skin, has been long since driven
+away not only from Behring Island but also from most of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page272" id="v2page272"></a>[ pg 272 ]</span>
+hunting-grounds where it was commonly killed by thousands, and
+if an effective law be not soon put in force to keep the hunting
+in bounds, and check the war of extermination which greed now
+carries on against it, no longer with clubs and darts but with
+powder and breechloaders, the sea-otter will meet the same fate
+which has already befallen Steller's sea-cow. Of the sea-lion
+(<i>Eumetopias Stelleri</i>, Lesson), which in Steller's time were found
+in abundance on the shore cliffs of Behring Island, there are now
+only single animals there along with the sea-bears (<i>Otaria
+ursina</i>, Lin.); and finally, the most remarkable of all the old
+mammalia of Behring Island, the great sea-cow, is completely
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p><i>Steller's sea-cow</i> (<i>Rhytina Stelleri</i>, Cuvier) in a way took the
+place of the cloven-footed animals among the marine mammalia.
+The sea-cow was of a dark-brown colour, sometimes varied with
+white spots or streaks. The thick leathery skin was covered with
+hair which grew together so as to form an exterior skin, which was
+full of vermin and resembled the bark of an old oak. The full
+grown animal was from twenty-eight to thirty-five English feet
+in length and weighed about sixty-seven cwt. The head was
+small in proportion to the large thick body, the neck short, the
+body diminishing rapidly behind. The short fore-leg terminated
+abruptly without fingers or nails, but was overgrown with a
+number of short thickly placed brush-hairs, the hind-leg was
+replaced by a tail-fin resembling a whale's. The animal wanted
+teeth, but was instead provided with two masticating plates, one in
+the gum the other in the under jaw. The udders of the female,
+which abounded in milk, were placed between the fore-limbs.
+The flesh and milk resembled those of horned cattle, indeed in
+Steller's opinion surpassed them. The sea-cows were almost
+constantly employed in pasturing on the sea-weed which grew
+luxuriantly on the coast, moving the head and neck while so
+doing much in the same way as an ox. While they pastured
+they showed great voracity, and did not allow themselves to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page273" id="v2page273"></a>[ pg 273 ]</span>
+disturbed in the least by the presence of man. One might even
+touch them without them being frightened or disturbed. They
+entertained great attachment to each other, and when one was
+harpooned the others made incredible attempts to rescue it.</p>
+
+<p>When Steller came to Behring Island, the sea-cows pastured
+along the shore, collected like cattle into herds. The shipwrecked
+men, for want of suitable implements, did not hunt
+them at first. It was only after a thoughtless love of slaughter
+had driven all other animals suitable for food far from their
+winter quarters, that they began to devise means to catch the
+sea-cow also. They endeavoured to harpoon the animal with a
+strong iron hook made for the purpose, and then drag it to land.
+The first attempt was made on the 1st June/21st May 1742, but it was unsuccessful.
+It was not until after many renewed attempts that
+they at last succeeded in killing and catching a number of
+animals, and dragging them at high water so near land that they
+were dry at ebb. They were so heavy that forty men were
+required to do this, we may conclude from these particulars that
+the number of sea-cows killed during the first wintering on
+Behring Island was not very large. For the first one was killed
+only six weeks before the shipwrecked men left the island, and
+the hunting thus fell at a time when they could leave the building
+of the vessel to occupy themselves in that way only in case
+of necessity. Besides, only two animals were required to yield
+flesh-food to all the men for the period in question.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that the sea-cow is so mentioned by later
+travellers only in passing, that this large animal, still hunted by
+Europeans in the time of Linn&aelig;us, would scarcely have been
+registered in the system of the naturalist if Steller had not
+wintered on Behring Island. What Krascheninnikov says of the
+sea-cow is wholly borrowed from Steller, and in the same way
+<i>nearly all</i> the statements of later naturalists as to its occurrence
+and mode of life. That this is actually the case is shown by the
+following abstract, <i>complete</i> as far as I know, of what is said of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page274" id="v2page274"></a>[ pg 274 ]</span>
+the sea-cow in the only original account of the first hunting
+voyages of the Russians to the Aleutian Islands, which was
+published at Hamburg and Leipzig in 1776 with the title, <i>Neue,
+Nachrichten von denen neuentdeckten Insuln in der See zwischen
+Asien und Amerika, aus mitgetheilten Urkunden und Ausz&uuml;gen
+verfasset von J. L. S</i>** (Scherer).<a name="v2rn363"></a><a href="#v2fn363">[363]</a> In this book the sea-cow is
+mentioned at the following places:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Ivan Krassilnikoff's vessel started first in 1754 and arrived
+on the 8th October at Behring Island, where all the vessels fitted
+out for hunting the sea-otter on the remote islands are wont to
+pass the winter, in order to provide themselves with a sufficient
+stock of the flesh of the sea-cow&quot; (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 38).</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The autumn storms, or rather the wish to take on board a
+stock of provisions, compelled them (a number of hunters sent
+out by the merchant Tolstyk under command of the Cossack
+Obeuchov) to touch at Commander's Island (Behring Island)
+where, during the winter up to the 24th/13th June, 1757, they obtained
+nothing else than sea-cows, sea-lions, and large seals. They found
+no sea-otters this year.&quot; (<i>ibid</i> p. 40).</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;They (a Russian hunting vessel under Studenzov in 1758)
+landed on Behring Island to kill sea-cows, as all vessels are
+accustomed to do.&quot; (<i>ibid</i> p. 45).</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After Korovin in 1762 (on Behring Island) had provided
+himself with a sufficient stock of the flesh and hides of the sea-cow
+for his boats.... he sailed on&quot; (<i>ibid</i> p. 82).</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page275" id="v2page275"></a>[ pg 275 ]</span>
+In 1772 DMITRI BRAGIN wintered on Behring Island during
+a hunting voyage. In a journal kept at the request of Pallas, the
+large marine animals occurring on the island are enumerated, but
+not a word is said about the sea-cow (PALLAS, <i>Neue nordische
+Beytr&auml;ge</i>, ii. p. 310).</p>
+
+<p>SCHELECHOV passed the winter 1783-84 on Behring Island,
+but during the whole time he only succeeded in killing some
+white foxes, and in the narrative of the voyage there is not a
+word about the sea-cow (GRIGORI SCHELECHOV <i>russischen
+Kaufmanns erste und zweite Reise</i>, &amp;c., St. Petersburg, 1793).</p>
+
+<p>Some further accounts of the sea-cow have been obtained
+through the mining engineer PET. JAKOVLEV, who visited
+Commander's Islands in 1755 in order to investigate the
+occurrence of copper on Copper Island. In the account of this
+voyage which he gave to Pallas there is not indeed one word
+about the sea-cow, but in 1867 PEKARSKI published in the
+<i>Memoirs</i> of the Petersburg Academy some extracts from
+Jakovlev's journal, from which it appears that the sea-cow
+already in his time was driven away from Copper Island.
+Jakovlev on this account on the 27th November, 1755, laid a
+petition before the authorities on Kamchatka, for having the
+hunting of the sea-cow placed under restraint of law and the
+extermination of the animal thus prevented, a thoughtful act
+honourable to its author, which certainly ought to serve as a
+pattern in our times (J. FR. BRANDT, <i>Symbol&aelig; Sirenologic&aelig;, M&eacute;m.
+de l'Acad. de St. P&eacute;tersbourg</i>, t. xii. No. 1, 1861-68, p. 295).</p>
+
+<p>In his account of Behring's voyage (1785-94) published in
+1802, Sauer says, p. 181: &quot;Sea-cows were very common on
+Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands,<a name="v2rn364"></a><a href="#v2fn364">[364]</a> when they were first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page276" id="v2page276"></a>[ pg 276 ]</span>
+discovered, but the last was killed on Behring Island in 1768,
+and none has been seen since then.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the ground of the writings of which I have given an
+account above, and of various pieces of information collected
+during this century from the Russian authorities in the region,
+by the skilful conservator WOSNESSENSKI, the academicians von
+Baer and Brandt<a name="v2rn365"></a><a href="#v2fn365">[365]</a> came to the conclusion that the sea-cow
+had scarcely been seen by Europeans before the 19th/8th November,
+1741, when Steller, the day after his landing on Behring Island
+for the first time saw some strange animals pasturing with
+their heads under water on the shores of the island; and that
+the animal twenty-seven years afterwards, or in 1768, was completely
+exterminated The latter statement however is undoubtedly
+incorrect; for, in the course of the many inquiries I
+made of the natives, I obtained distinct information that living
+sea-cows had been seen much later. A <i>creole</i> (that is, the
+offspring of a Russian and an Aleutian), who was sixty-seven
+years of age, of intelligent appearance and in the full possession
+of his mental faculties, stated &quot;that his father died in 1847 at
+the age of eighty-eight. He had come from Volhynia, his
+native place, to Behring Island at the age of eighteen, accordingly
+in 1777. The two or three first years of his stay there, <i>i.e.</i> till
+1779 or 1780, sea-cows were still being killed as they pastured
+on sea-weed. The heart only was eaten, and the hide used for
+<i>baydars</i>.<a name="v2rn366"></a><a href="#v2fn366">[366]</a> In consequence of its thickness the hide was split
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page277" id="v2page277"></a>[ pg 277 ]</span>
+in two, and the two pieces thus obtained had gone to make a
+<i>baydar</i> twenty feet long, seven and a half feet broad, and three
+feet deep. After that time no sea-cows had been killed.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>There is evidence, however, that a sea-cow had been seen
+at the island still later. Two <i>creoles</i>, Feodor Mertchenin and
+Stepnoff, stated, that about twenty-five years ago at Tolstoj-mys,
+on the east side of the island, they had seen an animal unknown
+to them which was very thick before, but grew smaller behind,
+had small fore-feet, and appeared with a length of about fifteen
+feet above water, now raising itself up, now lowering itself.
+The animal &quot;blew,&quot; not through blowholes, but through the
+mouth, which was somewhat drawn out. It was brown in
+colour with some lighter spots. A back fin was wanting, but
+when the animal raised itself it was possible, on account of its
+great leanness, to see its backbone projecting. I instituted a
+through examination of both my informants. Their accounts
+agreed completely, and appeared to have claims to be regarded as
+trustworthy. That the animal which they saw was actually a
+sea-cow, is clearly proved both by the description of the animal's
+form and way of pasturing in the water, and by the account
+of the way in which it breathed, its colour, and leanness. In
+<i>A&uuml;sfurliche Beschreibung von sonderbaren Meerthieren</i>, Steller
+says, p. 97, &quot;While they pasture, they raise every fourth or fifth
+minute their nose from the water in order to blow out air and
+a little water;&quot; p. 98, &quot;During winter they are so lean that
+it is possible to count their vertebr&aelig; and ribs;&quot; and p. 54,
+&quot;Some sea-cows have pretty large white spots and streaks,
+so that they have a spotted appearance.&quot; As these natives
+had no knowledge of Steller's description of the animal, it
+is impossible that their statement can be false. The death-year
+of the Rhytina race must therefore be altered at least
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page278" id="v2page278"></a>[ pg 278 ]</span>
+to 1854. With reference to this point it may be remarked
+that many circumstances indicate that the Rhytina herds were
+rather driven away from the rich pastures on Behring Island
+than exterminated there, and that the species became extinct
+because in their new haunt they were unable to maintain the
+struggle for existence. The form of the sea-cow, varying from
+that of most recent animals, besides indicates that, like the long-tailed
+duck on Iceland, the dront on Mauritius, and the large
+ostrich-like birds on New Zealand, it was the last representative
+of an animal group destined to extinction.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. OSCHE, one of the Alaska Company's skin inspectors, a
+native of Liffland and at present settled on Copper Island, informed
+me that the bones of the sea-cow also occurred on the
+western side of that island. On the other hand, such bones
+are said not to be found on the small island described farther on
+lying off the colony on Behring Island, although Rhytina bones
+are common on the neighbouring shores of the main island.</p>
+
+<p>This is the scanty information I have been able to collect
+from the natives and others resident in the quarter regarding
+the animal in question. On the other hand, my endeavours to
+procure Rhytina bones were crowned with greater success, and
+I succeeded in actually bringing together a very large and fine
+collection of skeleton fragments.</p>
+
+<p>When I first made the acquaintance of Europeans on the
+island, they told me that there was little probability of finding
+anything of value in this respect, for the company had offered
+150 roubles for a skeleton without success. But before I had
+been many hours on land, I came to know that large or small
+collections of bones were to be found here and there in the huts
+of the natives. These I purchased, intentionally paying for them
+such a price that the seller was more than satisfied and his neighbours
+were a little envious. A great part of the male population
+now began to search for bones very eagerly, and in this way I
+collected such a quantity that twenty-one casks, large boxes, or</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page279" id="v2page279"></a>[ pg 279 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p289.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p289.png" alt="SKELETON OF RHYTINA SHOWN AT THE 'VEGA' EXHIBITION AT THE ROYAL PALACE STOCKHOLM." ></a>
+SKELETON OF RHYTINA SHOWN AT THE 'VEGA' EXHIBITION AT THE ROYAL PALACE STOCKHOLM.
+<br>(After a photograph.)
+
+<br> ORIGINAL DRAWINGS OF THE RHYTINA
+<br>1. Drawing in an old map of the Behring Sea, found by Middendorff (<i>Sibir. Reise</i> iv. 2 p. 839)
+2. Sketch by Steller, given to Pallas (Pallas, Icones ad zoographiam <i>Rosso-Asiaticam</i>, Fasc. ii.)
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page280" id="v2page280"></a>[ pg 280 ]</span>
+barrels were filled with Rhytina bones; among which were three
+very fine, complete skulls, and others more or less damaged,
+several considerable collections of bones from the same
+skeleton, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The Rhytina bones do not lie at the level of the sea, but upon
+a strand-bank thickly overgrown with luxuriant grass, at a height
+of two or three metres above it. They are commonly covered
+with a layer of earth and gravel from thirty to fifty centimetres
+in thickness. In order to find them, as it would be too troublesome
+to dig the whole of the grassy bank, one must examine
+the ground with a pointed iron rod, a bayonet, or some such
+tool. One soon learns to distinguish, by the resistance and
+nature of the sound, whether the rod stuck into the ground
+has come into contact with a stone, a piece of wood, or a
+fragment of bone. The ribs are used by the natives, on account
+of their hard ivory-like structure, for shoeing the runners of
+the sledges or for carvings. They have accordingly been
+already used up on a large scale, and are more uncommon than
+other bones. The finger-bone, which perhaps originally was
+cartilaginous, appears in most cases to be quite destroyed, as
+well as the outermost vertebr&aelig; of the tail. I could not obtain
+any such bones, though I specially urged the natives to get
+me the smaller bones too and promised to pay a high price
+for them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p290.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p290.png" alt="RECONSTRUCTED FORM OF THE SEA-COW." ></a>
+RECONSTRUCTED FORM OF THE SEA-COW.
+<br>After J. Fr. Brandt (<i>Symbol&aelig; Sirenologic&aelig;</i>, Fasc. iii. p. 282).
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page281" id="v2page281"></a>[ pg 281 ]</span>
+The only large animal which is still found on Behring Island
+in perhaps as large numbers as in Steller's time is the <i>sea-bear</i>.
+Even it had already diminished so that the year's catch was
+inconsiderable,<a name="v2rn367"></a><a href="#v2fn367">[367]</a> when in 1871 a single company obtained for
+a payment to the Russian crown, if I recollect right, of two
+roubles for every animal killed, and exclusive right to the
+hunting, which was accordingly arranged in a more purposelike
+way. At certain times of the year the killing of the sea-bear
+is wholly prohibited. The number of the animals to be killed
+is settled beforehand, quite in the same way as the farmer at
+the time of killing in autumn is wont to do with his herd of
+cattle. Females and young are only killed exceptionally. Even
+the married males, or more correctly the males that can get
+themselves a harem and can defend it, commonly escape being
+killed, if not for any other reason, because the skin is too often
+torn and tattered and the hair pulled out. It is thus the
+bachelors that have to yield up their skins.</p>
+
+<p>That a wild animal may be slaughtered in so orderly a
+way, depends on its peculiar mode of life.<a name="v2rn368"></a><a href="#v2fn368">[368]</a> For the sea-bears
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page282" id="v2page282"></a>[ pg 282 ]</span>
+are found year after year during summer at certain points
+projecting into the sea (rookeries), where, collected in hundreds</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p292.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p292.png" alt="SEA-BEARS." ></a>
+SEA-BEARS.
+<br>Male, Female, and Young.
+<br>(From a water colour painting by H. W. Elliott.)</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page283" id="v2page283"></a>[ pg 283 ]</span>
+<p>
+of thousands, they pass several months without the least food.
+The males (oxen) come first to the place, most of them in the
+month of May or at the beginning of June. Combats of
+excessive violence, often with a deadly issue for one of the
+parties, now arise regarding the space of about a hundred square
+feet, which each seal-ox considers necessary for its home. The
+strongest and most successful in fight retain the best places
+near the shore, the weaker have to crawl farther up on land,
+where the expectation of getting a sufficient number of spouses
+is not particularly great. The fighting goes on with many
+feigned attacks and parades. At first the contest concerns the
+proprietorship of the soil. The attacked therefore never follows
+its opponent beyond the area it has once taken up, but haughtily
+lays itself down, when the enemy has retired, in order in the
+aims of sleep to collect forces for a new combat. The animal
+in such a case grunts with satisfaction, throws itself on its back,
+scratches itself with its fore-feet, looks after its toilet, or cools
+itself by slowly fanning with one of its hind-feet, but it is always
+on the alert and ready for a new fight until it is tired out and
+meets its match, and is driven by it farther up from the beach.
+One of the most peculiar traits of these animals is that
+during their stay on land they unceasingly use their hind-paws
+as fans, and sometimes also as parasols. Such fans may on a
+warm day be in motion at the same time by the hundred
+thousand at a &quot;rookery.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of June the females come up from the sea. At
+the water's edge they are received in a very accommodating way by
+some strong oxen that have succeeded in securing for themselves
+places next the shore, and now are bent by fair means or foul
+on annexing the fair for their harem. But scarcely is the
+female that has come up out of the water established with
+seal-ox No. 1, when this ox rushes towards a new beauty
+on the surface of the water. Seal-ox No. 2 now stretches
+out his neck and without ceremony lays hold of No. 1's spouse,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page284" id="v2page284"></a>[ pg 284 ]</span>
+to be afterwards exposed to a repetition of the trick by
+No. 3. In such cases the females are quite passive, never
+fall out with each other, and bear with patience the severe
+wounds they often get when they are pulled about by the
+combatants, now in one direction, now in another. All the
+females are finally distributed in this way after furious combats
+among the males, those of the latter who are nearest the beach
+getting from twelve to fifteen consorts to their share. Those
+that have been compelled to settle farther from the shore
+must be content with four or five. Soon after the landing of the
+females they bring forth their young, which are treated with
+great indifference and are protected by the adopted father only
+within the boundaries of the harem. Next comes the pairing
+season, and when it has passed there is an end to the arrangement
+and distribution into families at first so strictly maintained.
+The seal-oxen, rendered lean by three months absolute
+fasting, by degrees leave the &quot;rookery,&quot; which is taken possession
+of by the sea-cows, the young, and a number of young males,
+that have not ventured to the place before. In the middle of
+September, when the young have learned to swim, the place is
+quite abandoned, with the exception of single animals that
+have remained behind for one reason or other. In long continued
+heavy rain many of the animals besides seek protection
+in the sea, but return when the rain ceases. Continuous heat
+and sunshine besides exert the same influence, cold, moist air,
+with mist-concealed sun, on the other hand draw them up on
+land by thousands.</p>
+
+<p>Males under six years of age cannot, like the older males,
+possess themselves, by fighting, of spouses and a home of their
+own. They therefore collect, along with young females, in herds
+of several thousand to several hundred thousand, on the shores
+between the rookeries proper, some of them close packed next
+the water's edge, others scattered in small flocks a little farther
+from the shore on the grass, where they by turns play with each</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page285" id="v2page285"></a>[ pg 285 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p295.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p295.png" alt="&quot;SEAL ROOKERY&quot; ON ST. PAUL'S ISLAND, ONE OF THE PRIBYLOV ISLANDS." ></a>
+&quot;SEAL ROOKERY&quot; ON ST. PAUL'S ISLAND, ONE OF THE PRIBYLOV ISLANDS.
+<br>(After a drawing by H.W. Elliott.)
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page286" id="v2page286"></a>[ pg 286 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page287" id="v2page287"></a>[ pg 287 ]</span>
+other with a frolicsomeness like that of young dogs, by turns
+he down to sleep at a common signal in all conceivable
+positions.</p>
+
+<p>It is these unfortunate useless bachelors which at the properly
+managed hunting stations yield the contingent for slaughter.
+For this purpose they are driven by the natives from the shore
+slowly, about a kilometre an hour, and with frequent rests, to
+the place of slaughter, situated a kilometre or two from the
+shore. Then the females and the young ones are driven away,
+as well as the males whose skins are unserviceable. The rest
+are first stunned with a blow on the head, and afterwards
+stabbed with a knife.</p>
+
+<p>While the <i>Vega</i> steamed down towards Behring Island we
+met, already far from land, herds of sea-bears, which followed
+the vessel from curiosity for long stretches. Being unacquainted
+with the sea-bear's mode of life, I believed from this circumstance
+that they had already left their summer haunts, but on
+our arrival at the colony I was informed that this was not the
+case, but that a very great number of animals still remained at
+the rookery on the north-eastern point of the island. Naturally
+one of our first excursions was to this place, situated about
+twenty kilometres from the village. Such a journey cannot now
+be undertaken alone and unattended, because even an involuntary
+want of caution might easily cause much economic loss to the
+natives, and to the company that owns the right of hunting.
+During the journey we were accordingly accompanied by the
+chief of the village, a black-haired stammering Aleutian, and
+&quot;the Cossack,&quot; a young, pleasant, and agreeable fellow, who on
+solemn occasions wore a sabre nearly as long as himself, but
+besides did not in the least correspond to the Cossack type of
+the writers of novels and plays.</p>
+
+<p>The journey was performed in large sledges drawn by ten
+dogs over snow-free rounded hills and hill-plateaus covered
+with a rather scanty vegetation, and through valleys treeless
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page288" id="v2page288"></a>[ pg 288 ]</span>
+as the mountains, but adorned with luxuriant vegetation, rich in
+splendid lilies, syngenesia, umbellifera, &amp;c. The journey was sometimes
+tedious enough, but we now and then went at a whistling
+rate, especially when the dog-team descended the steep mountain
+slopes, or went through the morasses and the clay puddles
+formed in the constantly used way. The driver was bespattered
+from top to toe with a thick layer of mud, an inconvenience
+attending the unusual team, which was foreseen before our
+departure from the colony, in consequence of which our friends
+there urged that, notwithstanding the fine weather, we should
+all take overcoats. The dog-team was kept pretty far from
+the shore in order not to frighten the seals, and then we
+went on foot to the place where the sea-bears were, choosing</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p298.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p298.png" alt="SLAUGHTER OF SEA-BEARS." ></a>
+SLAUGHTER OF SEA-BEARS.
+<br>(After a drawing by H.W. Elliott.)
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page289" id="v2page289"></a>[ pg 289 ]</span>
+<p>our way so that we had the wind in our faces. We could in
+this way, without disturbing them, come very near the animals,
+which, according to the undoubtedly somewhat exaggerated
+statement made to us on the spot, were collected at the time
+to the number of 200,000, on the promontory and the neighbouring
+shores. We obtained permission to creep, accompanied
+by our guide, close to a herd lying a little apart. The
+older animals became at first somewhat uneasy when they</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p299.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p299.png" alt="SEA-BEARS ON THEIR WAY TO THE &quot;ROOKERIES.&quot;" ></a>
+SEA-BEARS ON THEIR WAY TO THE &quot;ROOKERIES.&quot;
+<br>(After a drawing by H. W. Elliott.)
+</div>
+
+<p>observed our approach, but they soon settled down completely,
+and we had now the pleasure of beholding a peculiar spectacle.
+We were the only spectators. The scene consisted of a beach
+covered with stones and washed by foaming breakers, the background
+of the immeasurable ocean, and the actors of thousands
+of wonderfully-formed animals. A number of old males lay
+still and motionless, heedless of what was going on around
+them. Others crept clumsily on their small short legs between
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page290" id="v2page290"></a>[ pg 290 ]</span>
+the stones of the beach, or swam with incredible agility among
+the breakers, played, caressed each other, and quarrelled. At
+one place two old animals fought, uttering a peculiar hissing
+sound, and in such a way as if the attack and defence had
+been carried out in studied attitudes. At another place a
+feigned combat was going on between an old and a young
+animal. It looked as if the latter was being instructed in the
+art of fighting. Everywhere the small black young ones crept
+constantly backwards and forwards among the old sea-bears, now
+and then bleating like lambs calling on their mothers. The
+young ones are often smothered by the old, when the latter,
+frightened in some way, rush out into the sea. After such an
+alarm hundreds of dead young are found on the shore/</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Only&quot; thirteen thousand animals had been killed that year.
+Their flayed carcases lay heaped on the grass by the shore,
+spreading far and wide a disagreeable smell, which, however,
+had not frightened away their comrades lying on the neighbouring
+promontory, because, even among them, a similar smell
+prevailed in consequence of the many animals suffocated or
+killed in fight with their comrades, and left lying on the shore.<a name="v2rn369"></a><a href="#v2fn369">[369]</a>
+Among this great flock of sea-bears sat enthroned on the top of
+a high stone a single sea-lion, the only one of these animals
+we saw during our voyage.</p>
+
+<p>For a payment of forty roubles I induced the chief of the
+village to skeletonise four of the half putrefied carcases of the
+sea-bear left lying on the grass, and I afterwards obtained, by
+the good-will of the Russian authorities, and without any
+payment, six animals, among them two living young, for
+stuffing. Even the latter we were compelled to kill, after
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page291" id="v2page291"></a>[ pg 291 ]</span>
+in vain attempting to induce them to take some food. One of
+them was brought home in spirits for anatomical examination.</p>
+
+<p>The part of Behring Island which we saw forms a high plain
+resting on volcanic rocks,<a name="v2rn370"></a><a href="#v2fn370">[370]</a> which, however, is interrupted at
+many places by deep kettle valleys, the bottoms of which are
+generally occupied by lakes which communicate with the sea
+by large or small rivers. The banks of the lakes and the
+slopes of the hills are covered with a luxuriant vegetation, rich
+in long grass and beautiful flowers, among them an iris cultivated
+in our gardens, the useful dark reddish-brown Sarana
+lily, several orchids, two species of rhododendron with large
+flowers, umbellifera as high as a man, sunflower-like synanthea,
+&amp;c. Quite another nature prevailed on the island lying off
+the haven, regarding which Dr. Kjellman and Dr. Stuxberg
+make the following statements:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Toporkoff Island is formed of an eruptive rock, which
+everywhere rises along the shore some scores of feet from
+high-water mark, in the form of steep cracked walls from five
+to fifteen metres in height, which is different at different places.
+Above these steep rock-walls the surface of the island forms
+an even plain; what lies below them forms a gently sloping
+beach.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;This gently sloping beach consists of two well-marked belts;
+an outer devoid of all vegetation, an inner overgrown with
+<i>Ammadenia peploides, Elymus mollis</i>, and two species of umbellifera,
+<i>Heracleum sibiricum</i>, and <i>Angelica archangelica</i>, the two
+last forming an almost impenetrable thicket fifty metres broad
+and as high as a man, along the slope. The steep rock-walls
+are coloured yellow at some places by lichens, mostly <i>Calopaca
+murorum</i> and <i>Cal. crenulata</i>; at other places they are covered
+pretty closely with <i>Cochlearia fenestrata</i>. The uppermost level
+plain is covered with a close and luxuriant turf, over which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page292" id="v2page292"></a>[ pg 292 ]</span>
+single stalks of the two species of umbellifera named above
+raise themselves here and there. The vegetation on this little
+island unites a very uncommon poverty in species with a high
+degree of luxuriance.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Of the higher animals we saw only four kinds of birds, viz
+<i>Fratercula cirrhata</i>, a black guillemot (<i>Una grylle</i> var. <i>columba</i>),
+a species of cormorant (Phalocrocorax) and a sort of gull
+(Larus). <i>Fratercula cirrhata</i> lived here by millions. They
+haunted the upper plain, where they had everywhere excavated
+short, deep, and uncommonly broad passages to sleep in, provided
+with two openings. From these on our arrival they flew in large
+flocks to the neighbouring sea and back. Their number was
+nearly equal to that of looms in the Arctic loomeries. The
+black guillemots and cormorants kept to the cliffs near the
+shore.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;The number of the evertebrate land animals amounted to
+about thirty species. The most numerous were Machilis,
+Vitrina, Lithobius, Talitrus, some Diptera and beetles. They all
+lived on the inner belt of the shore, where the ground was
+uncommonly damp.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Behring Island might without difficulty feed large herds of
+cattle, perhaps as numerous as the herds of sea-cows that
+formerly pastured on its shores. The sea-cow besides had chosen
+its pasture with discrimination, the sea there being, according to
+Dr. Kjellman, one of the richest in alg&aelig; in the world. The
+sea-bottom is covered at favourably situated places by forests of
+seaweed from twenty to thirty metres high, which are so dense
+that the dredge could with difficulty force its way down into
+them, a circumstance which was much against the dredging.
+Certain of the alg&aelig; are used by the natives as food.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of our journey to the hunting place we had an
+opportunity, during a rest about halfway between it and the
+village, of taking part in a very peculiar sort of fishing. The
+place where we rested was in an even grassy plain, resembling a
+natural meadow at home, crossed by a large number of small
+rivulets. They abounded in several different kinds of fish,
+among them a Coregonus, a small trout, a middle-sized long
+salmon with almost white flesh, though the colour of its skin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page293" id="v2page293"></a>[ pg 293 ]</span>
+was a purplish-red, another salmon of about the same length,
+but thick and hump-backed. These fish were easily caught.
+They were taken with the hand, were harpooned with common
+unshod sticks, were stabbed with knives, caught with the insect</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p303.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p303.png" alt="ALGA FROM THE SHORE OF BEHRING ISLAND." ></a>
+ALGA FROM THE SHORE OF BEHRING ISLAND.
+<br><i>Thalassiophyllum Clathrus</i> Post. and Rupr.
+<br>One-fourth of the natural size.
+</div>
+
+<p>net, &amp;c. Other kinds of salmon with deep red flesh are to be
+found in the large rivers of the island. We obtained here for
+a trifle a welcome change from the preserved provisions of which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page294" id="v2page294"></a>[ pg 294 ]</span>
+we had long ago become quite tired. The Expedition was also
+presented by the Alaska Company with a fine fat ox, milk, and
+various other provisions, and I cannot sufficiently value the
+goodwill shown to us not only by the Russian official, N GREBNITSKI,
+a zealous and skilful naturalist, but also by the officials
+of the Alaska Company and all others living on the island with
+whom we came into contact.</p>
+
+<p>It was my original intention to sail from Behring Island to
+Petiopaulovsk, in order from thence to put a stop to the undertakings
+which were possibly in contemplation for our relief.
+This however became unnecessary, because a steamer, which
+was to start for Petropaulovsk as soon as its cargo was on board,
+had anchored by the side of the <i>Vega</i> two days after our arrival.
+The steamer belonged to the Alaska Company, was named
+the <i>Alexander</i>, was commanded by Captain SANDMAN, and was
+manned almost exclusively by Swedes, Danes, Fins, and
+Norwegians<a name="v2rn371"></a><a href="#v2fn371">[371]</a>. We found on the <i>Alexander</i> two naturalists, Dr.
+BENEDIKT DYBOVSKI and Dr. JULIAN WIEMUT. The former is
+a Pole exiled to Siberia but now pardoned, whose masterly
+zoological works are among the best contributions which have
+been made during recent decades to our knowledge of the
+natural conditions of Siberia. His researches have hitherto
+mainly concerned the Baikal region. Now he wishes to extend
+them to Kamchatka, and has therefore voluntarily taken a
+physician's post at Petropaulovsk. Science has reason to expect
+very rich results from his work and that of his companions in
+one of the most interesting, most mis-known, and least known
+lands of the north.</p>
+
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page295" id="v2page295"></a>[ pg 295 ]</span>
+The <i>Vega</i> left Behring Island on the afternoon of the 19th
+August, and anchored at Yokohama on the evening of the 2nd
+September. The first part of the passage, while we were still
+in the cold northerly Polar Sea current, was favoured by fair
+winds and moderate heat. The surface temperature of the sea
+was from +9&deg; to +10&deg;. On the 25th August in 45&deg; 15' N.L.
+and 156&deg; E.L. from Greenwich the temperature of the sea-water
+began to rise so rapidly that the thermometer in 40&deg; Lat.
+and 147&deg; 41' Long already showed +23&deg;.4 at the surface.
+This indicated that we had come from the cold current favourable
+to us into Kuro-sivo, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific. The
+wind was now at times unfavourable and the heat oppressive,
+notwithstanding the frequent rain showers accompanied by
+lightning and heavy squalls. In such unfavourable weather on
+the 31st August the mainmast of the <i>Vega</i> was struck by
+lightning, the flash and the report being of excessive violence.
+The vane was broken loose and thrown into the sea along with
+some inches of the pole. The pole itself was split pretty far
+down, and all on board felt a more or less violent shaking, the
+man who felt it most standing at the time near the hawse-hole.
+The incident was not attended by any further noteworthy
+unpleasant consequences.</p>
+
+<p>On our arrival at Yokohama we were all in good health and
+the <i>Vega</i> in excellent condition, though, after the long voyage,
+in want of some minor repairs, of docking, and possibly of
+coppering. Naturally among thirty men some mild attacks of
+illness could not be avoided in the course of a year, but no
+disease had been generally prevalent, and our state of health had
+constantly been excellent. Of scurvy we had not seen a trace.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn356"></a><a href="#v2rn356">[356]</a> In February 1871 the right of hunting on these islands was granted
+by the Russian government to Hutchinson, Kohl, Philippeus &amp;c. Co., who
+have made over their rights to the Alaska Commercial Company of San
+Francisco.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn357"></a><a href="#v2rn357">[357]</a> According to a communication made to me by Mr. Henry W. Elliot,
+who, in order to study the fur-bearing seals in the North Behring Sea, lived
+a considerable time at the Seal Islands (Pribylov's Islands, &amp;c.) on the
+American side, and has given an exceedingly interesting account of the
+animal life there in his work, <i>A Report upon the Condition of Affairs in the
+Territory of Alaska</i>, Washington, 1875, the statement in my report to
+Dr. Dickson, founded on oral communications of Europeans whom I met
+with at Behring Island, that from 50,000 to 100,000 animals are killed
+yearly at Behring and Copper Island, is thus probably somewhat exaggerated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn358"></a><a href="#v2rn358">[358]</a> Original accounts of the wintering on Behring Island are to be found
+in M&uuml;ller's <i>Sammlung Russischen Geschichte</i>, St. Petersburg, 1768, iii,
+pp. 228-238 and 242-268, (Steller's) <i>Topographische und physikalische
+Beschreibung der Beringsinsel</i> (Pallas' <i>Neue Nordische Beytr&auml;ge</i>, St. Petersburg
+and Leipzig, 1781-83, ii. p. 225), G.W. Steller's <i>Tagebuch seiner
+Seereise aus dem Petripauls Hafen. . . und seiner Begebenheiten auf der
+R&uuml;ckreise</i> (Pallas' <i>Neueste Nordische Beytr&auml;ge</i>, St. Petersburg and Leipzig,
+1793-96, i. p. 130; ii. p. 1).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn359"></a><a href="#v2rn359">[359]</a> According to M&uuml;ller, whose statements (based on communications by
+Waxel?) often differ from those of Steller. The latter says that the flesh
+of the sea-otter is better than that of the seal, and a good antidote to
+scurvy. The flesh of the young sea-otter might even compete with lamb
+as a delicacy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn360"></a><a href="#v2rn360">[360]</a> To judge by what is stated in Steller's description of Behring Island
+(<i>Neue nord. Beytr</i>., ii, p. 290) no one would have dared to attack &quot;diese
+grimmigen Thiere,&quot; and the only sea-lion eaten during the winter was an
+animal wounded at Kamchatka and thrown up dead on the coast of
+Behring Island. The fin-like feet were the most delicate part of the sea-lion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn361"></a><a href="#v2rn361">[361]</a> According to M&uuml;ller's official report, probably written for the purpose
+of refuting the rumours regarding Steller's fate current in the scientific
+circles of Europe. According to the biography prefixed to Georg Wilhelm
+Steller's <i>Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka, herausgegeben
+von J.B.S.</i> (Scheerer), Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1774, Steller had in 1745 begun
+his return to St. Petersburg, and was already beyond Novgorod, when he
+received orders to appear before the court at Irkutsk. After a year he
+obtained permission to travel to St. Petersburg, but when he came to the
+neighbourhood of Moscow, he received a new order to return, and for
+farther security he was placed under a guard. They had travelled a good
+way into Siberia, when he froze to death while the guard went into a
+public-house to warm themselves and quench their thirst.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn362"></a><a href="#v2rn362">[362]</a> As early as Schelechov's wintering at 1783-84 the foxes on Behring
+Island were principally white. During Steller's wintering, over a third of
+the foxes on the island had a bluish fur (<i>Neue nord. Beytr</i>., ii, p. 277). In
+the year 1747-48 a fur hunter, Cholodilov, caught on Behring Island 1,481
+blue foxes and 350 sea-otters, and the following year another hunter
+returned with over a thousand sea otters and two thousand blue foxes,
+which probably were also caught on Behring and Copper Islands (<i>Neue
+Nachrichten von denen neuentdeckten Insuln</i>, Hamburg u Leipzig, 1766, p.
+20). In the year 1751-53 Jugov caught on the same island 790 sea-otters,
+6,844 black and 200 white foxes, and 2,212 sea-bears (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 22). In
+1752-53 the crew of a vessel belonging to the Irkutsk merchant, Nikifor
+Trapeznikoff, caught on Behring Island 5 sea-otters, 1,222 foxes (colour
+not stated), and 2,500 sea-bears (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 32). It thus appears as if the
+eager hunting had an influence not only on the number of the animals but
+also on their colour, the variety in greatest demand becoming also <i>relatively</i>
+less common than before.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn363"></a><a href="#v2rn363">[363]</a> From this little work, compiled from the original journals (Cf. Coxe,
+<i>Russian Discoveries</i>, 1780, p. vi.) we see that the undaunted courage and
+the resolution which, matched with other qualities not so praiseworthy,
+distinguished the <i>Promyschlenni</i> during their expeditions of exploration,
+tribute-collecting, and plunder from the Ob to Kamchatka, did not fail
+them in the attempt to force their way across the sea to America. It
+happens yearly that a ship's crew save themselves from destruction in
+the most extraordinary craft, for necessity has no law. But it is perhaps
+not so common that an exploring expedition, wrecked on an uninhabited
+treeless island, builds for itself of fragments from its own vessel, indeed
+even of driftwood, a new one in order to sail out on the ocean to discover
+new fishing-grounds or new wild tribes, willing to pay &quot;jassak&quot; to the
+adventurers. This however happened very frequently during the Russian
+voyages of discovery and hunting to the Aleutian Islands from 1745 to
+1770, and it was remarkable that the craft built in this way were used
+for years, even after the return from the first voyage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn364"></a><a href="#v2rn364">[364]</a> The sea-cow does not appear to have ever occurred on the Aleutian
+Islands; on the other hand, according to Steller, dead sea-cows have
+sometimes been cast ashore on Kamchatka, where they even obtained from
+the Russians a peculiar name <i>kapustnik</i>, derived from the large quantity
+of sea-weed found in their stomach. It appears to me that this name,
+specially distinctive of a graminivorous animal, appeals to indicate that on
+the first arrival of the Russians at Kamchatka the sea-cow actually visited
+occasionally the coasts of that peninsula. It is probable that in former
+times the sea-cow was to be met with as far south as the north part of
+Japan. Some scientific men have even conjectured that the animal may
+have occurred north of Behring's Straits. This however is improbable.
+Among the mass of subfossil bones of marine animals which we examined
+at Pitlekaj the bones of the sea-cow did not appear to be present.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn365"></a><a href="#v2rn365">[365]</a> Von Baer's and Brandt's numerous writings on the sea-cow are to be
+found in the publications of the St. Petersburg Academy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn366"></a><a href="#v2rn366">[366]</a> That the hide of the sea-cow was used for <i>baydars</i> is evident from the
+short extract given from Korovin's voyage. On hearing this &quot;creole's&quot;
+account I inquired whether there were not to be found remaining on the
+island any very old sea-cow skins that had been used for <i>baydars</i>, but the
+answer unfortunately was in the negative.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn367"></a><a href="#v2rn367">[367]</a> The number of these animals killed on Behring Island is shown by the
+following statement given me by Mr. Henry. W. Elliot:
+<pre>
+In the Year       In the Year         In the Year
+   1867   27,500     1872   29,318       1877   21,532
+   1868   12,000     1873   30,396       1878   31,340
+   1869   24,000     1874   31,292       1879   42,752
+   1870   24,000     1875   36,274       1880   48,504
+   1871    3,614     1876   26,960
+</pre>
+<p>
+During the eighteen years from 1862 to 1880 there have thus been shipped
+from Behring Island 389,462 skins. The catch on the Pribylov Islands
+has been still larger. These islands were discovered in 1786, but the
+number of animals killed there is not known for the first ten years; it is
+only known that it was enormously large. In the years 1797-1880&mdash;that is
+in eighty-four years&mdash;over three-and-a-half millions of skins have been
+exported from these islands. In recent years the catch has increased so
+that in each of the years from 1872 to 1880, 99,000 animals might have
+been killed without inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn368"></a><a href="#v2rn368">[368]</a> The traits here given of the sea-bear's mode of life are mainly taken
+from Henry W. Elliot's work quoted above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn369"></a><a href="#v2rn369">[369]</a> Elliott (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 150) remarks that not a single self-dead seal is to be
+found in the &quot;rookery,&quot; where there are so many animals that they probably
+die of old age in thousands. This may be explained by the seals,
+when they become sick, withdrawing to the sea, and forms another contribution
+to the question of the finding of self-dead animals to which I
+have already referred (vol. i. p. 322).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn370"></a><a href="#v2rn370">[370]</a> According to a statement by Mr. Giebnitski, tertiary fossils and coal
+seams are also to be found on Behring Island, the former north of the
+colony in the interior, the latter at the beach south of Behring's grave.
+Also in the neighbourhood of the colony the volcanic rock-masses are
+under-stratified by thick sandy beds.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn371"></a><a href="#v2rn371">[371]</a> The first European who welcomed us after the completion of the
+North-east passage was a Fin now settled in California, from Bj&ouml;rkboda
+works in Kimito parish, in which I had lived a great deal when a youth.
+He was sent by the Alaska Company to do some work on Behring Island.
+As we steamed towards the colony he rowed to meet us, and saluted us with
+the cry &quot;ar det Nordenski&ouml;ld?&quot; (&quot;Is it Nordenski&ouml;ld?&quot;) His name was
+Isak Andersson.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page296" id="v2page296"></a>[ pg 296 ]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVI"></a><h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Arrival at Yokohama&mdash;A Telegram sent to Europe&mdash;The stranding of the
+steamer <i>A. E. Nordenski&ouml;ld</i>&mdash;<i>F&ecirc;tes</i> in Japan&mdash;The Minister of Marine,
+Kawamura&mdash;Prince Kito-Shira-Kava&mdash;Audience of the Mikado&mdash;Graves
+of the Shoguns&mdash;Imperial Garden at Tokio&mdash;The Exhibition there&mdash;Visit
+to Enoshima&mdash;Japanese manners and customs&mdash;Thunberg and
+K&auml;mpfer.</p>
+
+<p>Yokohama, the first harbour, telegraph station, and commercial
+town at which the <i>Vega</i> anchored after circumnavigating the
+north coast of Asia, is one of the Japanese coast cities which
+were opened to the commerce of the world after the treaty
+between the United States of America and Japan negotiated by
+Commodore PERRY.<a name="v2rn372"></a><a href="#v2fn372">[372]</a> At this place there was formerly only
+a little fishing village, whose inhabitants had never seen Europeans
+and were forbidden under severe punishments from entering into
+communication or trading with the crews of the foreign vessels
+that might possibly visit the coast. The former village is
+now, twenty years later, changed into a town of nearly 70,000
+inhabitants, and consists not only of Japanese, but also of very
+fine European houses, shops, hotels, &amp;c. It is also the residence
+of the governor of Kanagava <i>Ken</i>. It is in communication
+by rail with the neighbouring capital Tokio, by regular weekly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page297" id="v2page297"></a>[ pg 297 ]</span>
+steamship sailings with San Francisco on the one hand, and
+Hong Kong, India, &amp;c., on the other, and finally by telegraph
+not only with the principal cities of Japan but also with all the
+lands that have got entangled in the threads of the world's
+telegraph net.</p>
+
+<p>The situation of the town on the western shore of the Yedo
+or Tokio Bay, which is perhaps rather large for a haven, is not
+particularly fine. But on sailing in we see in the west, if the
+weather be fine, Fusiyama's snow-clad, incomparably beautiful
+volcanic cone raise itself from a cultivated forest-clad region.
+When one has seen it, he is no longer astonished that the Japanese
+reproduce with such affection on their varnished wares, porcelain,
+cloth, paper, sword-ornaments, &amp;c., the form of their highest,
+stateliest, and also grimmest mountain. For the number of the
+men who have perished by its eruptions is reckoned by hundreds
+of thousands, and if tradition speaks truth the whole mountain
+in a far distant antiquity was formed in a single night. Before
+we enter Yedo Bay we pass a volcano, active during last year,
+situated on the volcanic island Oshima, known in Japanese
+history as the place of exile of several of the heroes in the many
+internal struggles of the country.</p>
+
+<p>While we sailed, or more correctly, steamed&mdash;for we had still
+sufficient coal remaining to permit the engine to be used&mdash;up
+the Bay of Yedo, the coasts were for the most part concealed
+with mist, so that the summit of Fusiyama and the contours of
+the shore only now and then gleamed forth from the fog and
+cloud. The wind besides was against us, on which account it was
+9.30 in the evening of the 2nd September before we could
+anchor in the haven that had been longed-for for such a length
+of time. I immediately hastened on land, along with Captain
+Palander, in order to send home a telegram across Siberia
+about the fortunate issue of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>. At
+the telegraph station I was informed that the Siberian line was
+interrupted by inundations for a space of 600 versts, and that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page298" id="v2page298"></a>[ pg 298 ]</span>
+the telegram must therefore be sent by India, whereby the cost
+was nearly doubled. The telegraph officials also made difficulties
+about taking the foreign gold coin of various kinds which I had
+about me. Fortunately the latter difficulty was immediately
+removed by the accidental presence of the Russian consul, Mr.
+PELIKAN, while I was treating with the telegraph officials. When
+he heard that it concerned the sending home of a telegram from
+the much-talked-of <i>Vega</i> expedition, he immediately offered to
+arrange the affair until I had time to operate on the letter
+of credit I carried with me from Messrs. James Dickson &amp;c. Co.
+of Gothenburg. Soon after I met with the Swedish consul,
+Mr. VAN OORDT, who gave us a large parcel of letters from
+home. It was very gladly received by most of us, as, so far
+as I know, it did not bring the thirty members of the expedition
+a single unexpected sorrowful message. I got, however, soon
+after landing, an unpleasant piece of news, viz that the steamer
+<i>A. E. Nordenski&ouml;ld</i>, which Mr. Sibiriakoff had sent to Behring's
+Straits and the Lena to our relief, had stranded on the east coast
+of Yesso. The shipwreck fortunately had not been attended
+with any loss of human life, and the vessel lay stranded on
+a sandbank in circumstances which made it probable that it
+would be got off without too great cost.</p>
+
+<p>As the report of our arrival spread, I was immediately waited
+upon by various deputations with addresses of welcome, invitations
+to <i>f&ecirc;tes</i>, clubs, &amp;c. A series of entertainments and festivities
+now began, which occupied a great part of the time we remained
+in this splendid and remarkable country. Perhaps a sketch
+of these festivities may yield a picture of Japan during the state
+of transition, which still prevails there, and which in a decade
+or two will undoubtedly belong to a past and to a great extent
+forgotten period, a picture which to future writers may possibly
+form a not unwelcome contribution to the knowledge of the
+Japan that now (1879) is. Such a sketch would however
+carry me too far beyond the subject of this narrative of</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page299" id="v2page299"></a>[ pg 299 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p309.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p309.png" alt="FUSIYAMA." ></a>
+FUSIYAMA.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page300" id="v2page300"></a>[ pg 300 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page301" id="v2page301"></a>[ pg 301 ]</span>
+travel, and require too much space, on which account I must
+confine myself to an enumeration of the festivities at the head
+of which were public authorities, learned societies, or clubs.</p>
+
+<p>On the 10th September a grand dinner was given at the Grand
+Hotel, the principal European hotel&mdash;and very well kept&mdash;of
+Yokohama, by the Dutch minister, Chevalier VAN STOETWEGEN,
+who at the same time represents Sweden and Norway in Japan.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p311.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p311.png" alt="THE STEAMER &quot;A. E. NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD,&quot; STRANDED ON THE EAST COAST OF YEZO." ></a>
+THE STEAMER &quot;A. E. NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD,&quot; STRANDED ON THE EAST COAST OF YEZO.
+<br>(After a Japanese photograph.)
+</div>
+
+<p>The members of the Expedition were here introduced to several
+members of the Japanese Government.</p>
+
+<p>We were invited to a <i>d&eacute;je&ucirc;ner &agrave; la fourchette</i>, at one o'clock
+P.M. on the 11th September, at the Imperial summer palace
+Hamagoten, by Admiral KAWAMURA, minister of marine. At
+this entertainment there were present, besides the scientific men
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page302" id="v2page302"></a>[ pg 302 ]</span>
+and officers of the <i>Vega</i>, and our minister, Herr van Stoetwegen,
+several of the ministers and highest officials of Japan. Some
+of them spoke one or other of the European languages, others
+only Japanese, in which case officials of lower rank acted as
+interpreter these however taking no part in the entertainment
+along with the other guests. It was arranged after the European</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p312.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p312.png" alt="KAWAMURA SUMIYOSHI." ></a>
+KAWAMURA SUMIYOSHI.
+<br>Japanese Minister of Marine.
+</div>
+
+<p>pattern, with abundance of dishes and wines. The palace
+consisted of a one-stoned wooden house in the Japanese style
+of construction. The rooms, to which we were admitted, were
+provided with European furniture, much the same as we would
+expect to find in the summer residence of a well-to-do family
+in Sweden. It was remarkable that the Japanese did not take
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page303" id="v2page303"></a>[ pg 303 ]</span>
+the trouble to ornament the loom or the table to any considerable
+extent with the beautiful native bronzes or porcelain, of
+which there is such abundance in the country. The summer
+palace was surrounded by a garden which the Japanese consider
+something very extraordinary, and also on a very large scale.
+We should call it a small, well and originally kept miniature
+park, with carefully dressed turf, wonderful dwarf trees, miniature
+stone bridges, small ponds and waterfalls. The entertainment was
+very pleasant, and all, from our intelligent host to the Premier,
+Daiyo-daiyin, and the Imperial Prince, SANYO SANITOMI,
+showed us much friendliness. The latter looked a sickly young
+man, some years past twenty. He was, however, much older,
+and had taken a leading part in the most important political
+transactions since the opening of the ports. Our host, Admiral
+Kawamura, had more the appearance of a man of science than
+of a warrior. The modest exterior, however, concealed a great
+and noble man. For Kawamura, as commander of the Mikado's
+troops, had with special distinction brought about the suppression
+of the revolt under the brave Saigo Kichinosuke, who had at the
+restoration of the power of the Mikado been its heart and sword,
+but soon after fell before the government he himself contributed
+to create, and is now, a couple of years after, admired and sung
+by former friends and by former enemies as a national hero. All
+the Japanese present at the <i>d&eacute;je&ucirc;ner</i> were clad in European
+dress&mdash;in black dress coat and white tie. Even the interpreters
+and attendants wore the European dress. The people, the lower
+officials, and the servants in private houses are still clothed in
+the Japanese dress, but do not wear a sword, which is now
+prohibited. Many of the people have even exchanged the old
+troublesome Japanese dressing of the hair for the convenient
+European style.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of conversation after the <i>d&eacute;je&ucirc;ner</i> the ministers
+offered to do all they could to make our stay in the country
+agreeable and instructive. Distinguished foreigners are always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page304" id="v2page304"></a>[ pg 304 ]</span>
+well received in Japan, and we are informed that a special
+committee is appointed to make arrangements for their reception.
+This has given offence in certain quarters, and
+shortly before our arrival a proclamation was issued by a secret
+society, which threatened, if no change were made, to kill one of
+the ministers and one of the foreigners who were entertained
+in this, in the opinion of the secret society, extravagant way.
+One of my Japanese friends promised me a copy of the proclamation,
+but did not keep his promise, probably because it
+was impossible for the uninitiated to get hold of the dangerous
+writing.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th September a grand dinner was arranged for us
+by the German Club, the photographer ANDERSEN being chairman.
+The hall was adorned in a festive manner with flags,
+and with representations of the <i>Vega</i> in various more or less
+dangerous positions among the ice, which had been got up
+for the occasion, the bill of fare had reference to the circumstances
+of our wintering, &amp;c. A number of speeches were
+made, the feeling was cheerful and merry.</p>
+
+<p>On the 15th September there was a grand entertainment in
+Tokio, given by the Tokio Geographical Society, the Asiatic
+Society of Japan, and the German Asiatic Society. It was
+held in the great hall in Koku-Dai-Gaku, a large stone
+building surrounded with beautiful trees, which were lighted up
+for the occasion by a number of variegated paper lanterns.
+Several Japanese ladies dressed in European style took part
+in the entertainment. I sat by the side of the chairman,
+Prince KITA-SHIRA-KAVA, a young member of the imperial
+house, who had served some time in the German army and
+speaks German very well. During the disturbances which were
+caused by the removal of the residence from Kioto to Yedo
+(Tokio), a group of insurgents had seized the prince, then a
+minor, who under the name of RINNOJINO-MIYA was chief
+priest in a temple, and endeavoured to set him up in opposition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page305" id="v2page305"></a>[ pg 305 ]</span>
+to the Emperor. The plan failed, and in consequence of the
+reconciliation at the end of the conflict, which distinguished in
+so honourable a way the many involved and bloody political
+struggles in Japan during recent years, this adventure was
+attended with no other insult for him than that the former
+chief priest was sent to a German military school. He was
+recalled sooner than was intended because he wished to marry
+a European, which was considered below the dignity of the
+family of the Mikado. After his return he was declared nearest
+heir to the throne, in case the Mikado should die without male
+heirs, and his name, KITA-SHIRA-KAVA-NO-MIYA, was changed
+a second time to YOHI HISHA. The former name was at the
+bottom of the speech he made for us at the dinner, and which
+he gave me, and the latter, with the addition, &quot;Prince of Japan,&quot;
+was on his calling card. The dinner was quite European,
+with a large number of speeches, principally in European
+languages, but also in Japanese. Before every guest lay a map,
+of the form of a fan, with the course of the <i>Vega</i> marked upon
+it. As a memorial of the feast I received some days after a
+large medal in silver inlaid in gold, of which a drawing is given
+on pages 306, 307. We were conveyed back to the Tokio
+railway station in European equipages, in the same way as we
+had been brought to the dinner. During dinner musicians
+from the band of the imperial navy played European pieces of
+music with great skill, to the evident satisfaction of the
+Japanese.</p>
+
+<p>On the forenoon of the 17th September we were presented
+at the court of the Mikado in Tokio by the Swedish-Dutch
+minister. We were fetched from the railway station by imperial
+equipages, consisting of simple but ornamental and convenient
+<i>suflett</i> carriages, each drawn by a pair of beautiful black
+horses of no great size. As is common in Japan, a running
+groom, clad in black, accompanied each carriage. The reception
+took place in the imperial palace, a very modest wooden
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page306" id="v2page306"></a>[ pg 306 ]</span>
+building. The rooms we saw were furnished, almost poorly, in
+European fashion. We first assembled in an antechamber, the
+only remarkable ornament of which was a large piece of
+nephrite, which was a little carved and had a Chinese inscription
+on it. Here we were met by some of the ministers and the
+interpreter. After a short conversation, in the course of which
+the interpreter got a sight of the written speech, or more
+correctly the words of salutation, I was to speak, we were
+conducted into an inner apartment where the Emperor, clad
+in a uniform of European style and standing in front of a</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p316.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p316.png" alt="THE FIRST MEDAL WHICH WAS STRUCK AS A MEMORIAL OF THE VOYAGE OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+THE FIRST MEDAL WHICH WAS STRUCK AS A MEMORIAL OF THE VOYAGE OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;
+<br>Size of the original
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page307" id="v2page307"></a>[ pg 307 ]</span>
+throne, received us. The only thing unusual at our reception
+was that we were requested at our departure not to turn our
+backs to the Emperor, and on entering and departing to
+make three bows, one at the door, another when we had
+come forward a little on the floor, and one at the place</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p317.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p317.png" alt="THE FIRST MEDAL WHICH WAS STRUCK AS A MEMORIAL OF THE VOYAGE OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+THE FIRST MEDAL WHICH WAS STRUCK AS A MEMORIAL OF THE VOYAGE OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;
+<br>Size of the original.
+</div>
+
+<p>where we were to stand. After we had been presented
+the Emperor read a speech in Japanese, which was translated
+into French by the interpreter, and of which, before we left
+the place, a beautiful copy was given me, I then read my salutation,
+on which our minister, van Stoetwegen, said a few
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page308" id="v2page308"></a>[ pg 308 ]</span>
+words, and got some words in reply. After leaving the
+imperial chamber, we were entertained in the anteroom with
+Japanese tea and cigars. The two princes who had taken
+part in the entertainment of the 15th came and talked a
+little with us, as did the minister of foreign affairs. The
+Emperor MUTSUHITO, in whose name reforms have been
+carried out in Japan to an extent to which history can
+scarcely show anything equal, was born the 3rd November,
+1850. He is considered the 121st Mikado of the race of
+Jimmu Tenno, the members of which have reigned uninterruptedly
+in Japan for nearly two thousand years, with varying
+fates and with varying power&mdash;now as wise lawgivers and mighty
+warriors, now for long periods as weak and effeminate rulers,
+emperors only in seeming, to whom almost divine homage was
+paid, but who were carefully freed from the burden of government
+and from all actual power. In comparison with this race,
+whose first ancestor lived during the first century after the
+foundation of Rome, all the royal houses now reigning in
+Europe are children of yesterday. Its present representative
+does not look to be very strong. During the whole audience
+he stood so motionless that he might have been taken for a
+wax figure, if he had not himself read his speech. Prince
+Kita-Shira-Kava has the appearance of a young lieutenant of
+hussars. Most of the ministers have sharply marked features,<a name="v2rn373"></a><a href="#v2fn373">[373]</a>
+which remind one of the many furious storms they have survived,
+and the many personal dangers to which they have been
+exposed, partly in honourable conflict, partly through murderers'
+plots. For, unfortunately, a political murder is not yet considered
+in Japan an infamous crime, but the murderer openly
+acknowledges his deed and takes the consequences. Repeated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page309" id="v2page309"></a>[ pg 309 ]</span>
+murderous attempts have been made against the men of the
+new time. In order to protect themselves from these, ministers,
+when they go out, generally have their carriages surrounded by
+an armed guard on horseback.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th September several of the members of the <i>Vega</i>
+expedition were invited to a <i>d&eacute;je&ucirc;ner &agrave; la fourchette</i> by Admiral
+Kawamura, minister of marine. This entertainment had an interest
+for us because we were here for the first time received into
+a Japanese home. I sat at table by the side of Lady Kawamura.
+Even the children were present at the entertainment. Lady
+Kawamura was dressed in the Japanese fashion, tastefully but
+very plainly, if we except a heavy gold chain encircling the
+waist. In other respects the entertainment was arranged according
+to the European mode, with a succession of dishes and
+wines, both in abundance, according to the laws of gastronomy.
+When it was over our host offered us an airing in a carriage,
+during which I rode with the lady and one of the children, a
+little girl about ten years of age, who would have been very
+beautiful if she had not been disfigured, in the eyes of Europeans,
+by the thick white paint that was evenly spread over her
+whole face, and gave it a sickly appearance. Lady Kawamura
+herself was not painted, nor was she disfigured with blackened
+teeth. Most of the married women of Japan are accustomed
+after marriage to blacken their formerly dazzlingly white teeth,
+but it is to be hoped that this unpleasant custom will soon
+disappear, as the women of distinction have begun to abandon
+it. During this excursion we visited, among other places, the
+graves of the Tycoons, the imperial garden, and a very
+remarkable exhibition in the capital.</p>
+
+<p>A number of the Tycoons, or, as they are more correctly
+called, Shoguns, are buried in Tokio. Their place of sepulture
+is one of the most remarkable memorials of Old Japan. The
+graves are in a temple which is divided into several courts,
+surrounded by walls and connected with each other by beautiful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page310" id="v2page310"></a>[ pg 310 ]</span>
+gates. The first of these courts is ornamented with more than
+two hundred stone lanterns, presented to the temple by the
+feudal princes of the country, the name of the giver and the
+date at which it was given being inscribed on each. Some of
+these peculiar memorials are only half-finished, perhaps an
+evidence of the sudden close of the power of the Shoguns
+and the feudal princes in Japan. In another of the temple
+courts are to be seen lanterns of bronze, partly gilt, presented
+by other feudal princes. A third court is occupied by a temple,
+a splendid memorial of the old Japanese architecture, and of
+the antique method of adorning their sanctuaries with wooden
+carvings, gilding, and varnishing. The temple abounds in old
+book-rolls, bells, drums, beautiful old lacquered articles, &amp;c.
+The graves themselves lie within a separate enclosure.</p>
+
+<p>The common Japanese gardens are not beautiful according
+to European taste. They are often so small that they might
+without inconvenience, with trees, grottos, and waterfalls, be
+accommodated in a small State's department in one of the crystal
+palaces of the international exhibitions. All, passages, rocks,
+trees, ponds, yea, even the fishes in the dams, are artificial or
+artificially changed. The trees are, by a special art which has
+been very highly developed in Japan, forced to assume the
+nature of dwarfs, and are besides so pruned that the whole plant
+has the appearance of a dry stem on which some green clumps
+have been hung up here and there. The form of the gold fish
+swimming in the ponds has also been changed, so that they have
+often two or four tail-fins each, and a number of growths not
+known in their natural state. On the walks thick layers of
+pebbles are placed to keep the feet from being dirtied, and at the
+doors of dwelling-houses there is nearly always a block of granite
+with a cauldron-like depression excavated in it, which is kept
+filled with clean water. Upon this stone cauldron is placed
+a simple but clean wooden scoop, with which one can take water
+out of the vessel to wash himself with.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page311" id="v2page311"></a>[ pg 311 ]</span>
+The imperial garden in Tokio is distinguished from these
+miniature gardens by its greater extent, and by the trees, at least
+at most places, bearing fruit. There is here a veritable park,
+with uncommonly large, splendid, and luxuriantly-growing trees.
+The public is generally excluded from the garden. At our visit
+we were entertained in one of the imperial summer-houses with
+Japanese tea, sweetmeats, and cigars.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p321.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p321.png" alt="STONE LANTERN AND STONE MONUMENT." ></a>
+STONE LANTERN AND STONE MONUMENT.
+<br>In a Japanese Temple Court.
+</div>
+
+<p>Last of all we visited the Exhibition. It had been closed for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page312" id="v2page312"></a>[ pg 312 ]</span>
+some time back on account of cholera. We saw here a number
+of beautiful specimens of Japanese art, from the flint tools and
+pottery of the Stone Age to the silks, porcelain, and bronzes
+of the present. In no country is there at this day such a
+love for exhibitions as in Japan. There are small exhibitions
+in most of the large towns. Many were exceedingly instructive;
+in all there were to be seen beautiful lacquered wares, porcelain,
+swords, silk, cloths, &amp;c. In one I saw a collection of the birds and
+fishes of Japan, in another I discovered some vegetable impressions,
+by means of which I became acquainted with the
+remarkable locality for fossil plants at Mogi, of which I shall
+give an account farther on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p322.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p322.png" alt="JAPANESE HOUSE IN TOKIO." ></a>
+JAPANESE HOUSE IN TOKIO.
+</div>
+
+<p>On the evening of the 18th September I was invited by the
+Danish consul, Herr BAVIER, to a boat excursion up the river
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page313" id="v2page313"></a>[ pg 313 ]</span>
+which debouches at Tokio. At its mouth it is very broad and
+deep, and it branches somewhat farther up into several streams
+which are navigable by the shallow boats of the Japanese. With
+the present limited development of roads and railways in Japan,
+this river and its tributaries form the most important channels
+of communication between the capital and the interior of the
+country. During our row we constantly met with boats laden
+with provisions on their way to, or with goods on their way from,
+the town. The pleasant impression of these and of the remarkable
+environs of the river is sometimes disturbed by a bad odour
+coming from a passing boat, and reminding us of the care with
+which the Japanese remove human excreta, the most important
+manure of their well-cultivated land. Along the banks of the
+river there are numerous restaurants and tea-houses. At long
+intervals we see a garden on the banks, which has belonged to
+some of the former Daimio palaces. The restaurants and tea-houses
+are generally intended only for the Japanese; and Europeans,
+although they pay many times more than the natives, are not
+admitted. The reason of this is to be found in our manners, which
+are coarse and uncultivated in the eyes of the natives. &quot;The
+European walks with his dirty boots on the carpets, spits on the
+floor, is uncivil to the girls, &amp;c.&quot; Thanks to the letters of introduction
+from natives acquainted with the restaurant-keepers,
+I have been admitted to their exclusive places, and it must
+be admitted that everything there was so clean, neat, and orderly,
+that even the best European restaurants cannot compare with
+them. When a visitor enters a Japanese restaurant which is
+intended exclusively for the Japanese, he must always take
+off his boots at the stair else he gets immediately into disfavour.
+He is received with bended knee by the host and all the
+attendants, male, but principally female, and then he is almost
+always surrounded by a number of young girls constantly laughing
+and chattering. These girls have commonly sold themselves
+to the restaurant-keeper for a certain time, during which they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page314" id="v2page314"></a>[ pg 314 ]</span>
+carry on a life which, according to European standards of morality,
+is not very commendable. When the time fixed in the agreement
+has passed, they return to their homes and marry, without
+having sunk in any way in the estimation of their relatives.
+But those are unfortunate who, in any of the towns that are not
+yet opened to foreigners, carry on a love intrigue with a European.
+They are then openly pointed out, even in the newspapers, as
+immoral, and their respectability is helplessly gone. Formerly
+they were even in such cases severely punished.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p324.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p324.png" alt="JAPANESE LADY AT HER TOILETTE." ></a>
+JAPANESE LADY AT HER TOILETTE.
+</div>
+
+<p>All women of the lower classes, and even most of the higher,
+wear the Japanese dress. The more distinguished ladies are
+often exceedingly beautiful, they have in particular beautiful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page315" id="v2page315"></a>[ pg 315 ]</span>
+necks. Unfortunately they are often disfigured by paint, for
+which the ladies here appear to have a strong liking. The dress
+of the younger women, even among the poor, is carefully
+attended to; it is not showy but tasteful, and nearly the same
+for all classes. Their manners are very attractive and agreeable.
+The women of the upper classes already begin to take part in
+the social life of the Europeans, and all European gentlemen and
+ladies with whom I have conversed on this point agree in
+stating that there is no difficulty in the way of a Japanese
+woman leaving the narrow circle to which she was formerly
+confined, and entering with pleasure and womanly dignity into
+European society. She appears to be born &quot;a lady.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>On the 20th and 21st September the Governor of Yokohama
+had arranged an excursion for me, Dr. Stuxberg, and Lieut.
+Nordquist, to the sacred island or peninsula Enoshima, situated
+at a short distance from the town. We first travelled some
+English miles along the excellent road Tokaido, one of the few
+highways in Japan passable in carriages. Then we travelled
+in <i>jinrikishas</i> to the famous image of Buddha (Daibutsu) at
+Kamakura<a name="v2rn374"></a><a href="#v2fn374">[374]</a>, and visited the Shinto chief priest living in the
+neighbourhood and his temple.</p>
+
+<p>The priest was fond of antiquities, and had a collection, not
+very large indeed, but composed almost entirely of rarities.
+Among other things he showed us sabres of great value, a
+head ornament consisting of a single piece of nephrite which
+he valued at 500 <i>yen</i>,<a name="v2rn375"></a><a href="#v2fn375">[373]</a> a number of old bronzes, mirrors, &amp;c.
+We were received as usual with Japanese tea and sweetmeats.
+The priest himself took us round his temple. No images were
+to be seen here, but the walls were richly carved and ornamented
+with a number of drawings and gildings. The innermost wall
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page316" id="v2page316"></a>[ pg 316 ]</span>
+of the temple was fenced by heavy doors provided with secure
+locks and bolts, within which &quot;the divine spirit dwelt,&quot; or
+within which &quot;there was nothing else,&quot; as the priest phrased it
+on another occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Enoshima is a little rocky peninsula, which is connected with
+the mainland by a low, sandy neck of land. Occasionally this
+neck of land has been broken through or overflowed, and the
+peninsula has then been converted into an island. It is considered
+sacred, and is studded with Shinto temples. On the side
+of the peninsula next the mainland there is a little village,
+consisting of inns, tea-houses, and shops for pilgrims' and
+tourists' articles, among which are beautiful shells, and the
+fine siliceous skeleton of a sponge, <i>Hyalonema mirabilis</i>, Gray.
+Here I lived for the first time in a Japanese inn of the sort
+to which Europeans in ordinary circumstances are not admitted.
+I was accompanied by two officials from the governor's court at
+Yokohama, and it was on their assurance that I did not belong
+to the common sort of uncultivated and arrogant foreigners that
+the host made no difficulty in receiving us.</p>
+
+<p>After we had at our entrance saluted the people of the inn
+and passed some time in the exchange of civilities, there came a
+girl, and, in a kneeling posture, offered the foreigners Japanese
+tea, which is always handed round in very small cups only half
+full. Then we took off our shoes and went into the guest-chamber.
+Such chambers in the Japanese inns are commonly
+large and dazzlingly clean. Furniture is completely wanting
+but the floor is covered with mats of plaited straw. The walls
+are ornamented with songs suitable for the place, or mottoes, and
+with Japanese paintings. The rooms are separated from each
+other by thin movable panels, which slide in grooves, which can
+be removed or replaced at will. One may, therefore, as once
+happened to me, lay himself down to sleep in a very large room,
+and, if he sleeps sound, awake in the morning in a very small one.
+The room generally looks out on a Japanese garden-inclosure, or</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page317" id="v2page317"></a>[ pg 317 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p327.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p327.png" alt="A JINRIKISHA." ></a>
+A JINRIKISHA.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page318" id="v2page318"></a>[ pg 318 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page319" id="v2page319"></a>[ pg 319 ]</span>
+<p>if it is in the upper story, on a small balcony. Immediately
+outside there is always a vessel filled with water and a scoop.
+Generally on one side of the room there is a wall-press, in which
+the bed-clothes are kept. Those, the only household articles in
+the room, consist of a thick mat, which is spread on the floor,
+a round cushion for the head, or instead of it a wooden support,
+stuffed on the upper side, for the neck during sleep, and a thick
+stuffed night-shirt which serves at covering.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p329.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p329.png" alt="JAPANESE BEDROOM." ></a>
+JAPANESE BEDROOM.
+</div>
+
+<p>As soon as one comes in the female attendants distribute four-cornered
+cushions for sitting on, which are placed on the floor
+round a wooden box, on one corner of which stands a little
+brazier, on the other a high clay vessel of uniform breadth, with
+water in the bottom, which serves as a spittoon and tobacco-ash
+cup. At the same time tea is brought in anew, in the small cups
+previously described, with saucers, not of porcelain, but of metal.
+Pipes are lighted, and a lively conversation commences. Along
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page320" id="v2page320"></a>[ pg 320 ]</span>
+with the tea sweetmeats are brought in, of which, however, some
+cannot be relished by Europeans. The brazier forms the most
+important household article of the Japanese. Braziers are very
+variable in size and shape, but are often made in an exceedingly
+beautiful and tasteful way, of cast-iron or bronze, with gilding
+and raised figures. Often enough, however, they consist only of
+a clay crock. The Japanese are very skilful in keeping up fire
+in them without the least trace of fumes being perceptible in the
+room. The fuel consists of some well-burned pieces of charcoal,
+which lie imbedded in white straw-ashes, with which the fire-pan
+is nearly filled to the brim. When some glowing coals are
+laid in such ashes they retain their heat for hours, until they are
+completely consumed. In every well-furnished house there are
+a number of braziers of different sizes, and there are often four-cornered
+hatches in the floor, which conceal a stone foundation
+intended as a base for the large brazier, over which the food
+is cooked</p>
+
+<p>At meal-times all the dishes are brought in at the same time
+on small lacquered tables, about half a foot high, and with a
+surface of four square feet. The dishes are placed in lacquered
+cups, less frequently in porcelain cups, and carried to the mouth
+with chop-sticks, without the help of knife, fork, or spoon.
+For fear of the fish-oils, which are used instead of butter, I
+never dared to test completely the productions of the Japanese art
+of cookery; but Dr. Almquist and Lieut. Nordquist, who were
+more unprejudiced, said they could put up with them very
+well. The following <i>menu</i> gives an idea of what a Japanese
+inn of the better class has to offer:&mdash;</p>
+
+Vegetable soup.<br>
+Boiled rice, sometimes with minced fowl.<br>
+Boiled fish or raw fish with horse-radish.<br>
+Vegetables with fish-sauce.<br>
+Tea.<br>
+
+<p>Soy is used to the fish. The rice is brought in hot in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page321" id="v2page321"></a>[ pg 321 ]</span>
+wooden vessel with a lid, and is distributed in abundance, but
+the other dishes in extremely small portions. After meals,
+especially in the evening, the Japanese often drink warm <i>saki</i>,
+or rice-brandy, out of peculiar porcelain bottles and small cups
+set apart for that purpose alone.</p>
+
+<p>During the meal one is commonly surrounded by a numerous
+<i>personnel</i> of female attendants, squatted down on the floor, who
+keep up with the guest, if he understands their language, a
+lively conversation, interrupted by salvoes of hearty laughter.
+The girls remain while the man undresses in the evening, and
+permit themselves to make remarks on the difference of the
+<i>physique</i>, of the Europeans and Japanese, which are not only,
+in our way of thinking, unsuitable for young girls, but even
+impertinent towards the guest. The male attendants are seldom
+seen, at least in the inner apartments. In the morning one
+washes himself in the yard or on the balcony, and if he wishes
+to avoid getting into disfavour, the guest will be careful not to
+spill anything or spit on the mat.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese tobacco-pipe now in use resembles that of the
+Chukches, is very small, and is smoked out in a couple of whiffs.
+A Japanese smokes without stopping a score of pipes in succession.
+Tobacco-smoking is now very general among high and
+low of both sexes. It was introduced at the close of the sixteenth
+century, it is uncertain whether from Corea or from the Portuguese
+possessions in Asia, and spread with great rapidity. As
+among us, it here too at first gave occasion to stringent prohibitions,
+and a lively exchange of writings for and against. In
+a work by the learned Japanologist, Mr. E. M. SATOW (&quot;The
+Introduction of Tobacco into Japan,&quot; <i>Transactions of the Asiatic
+Society of Japan</i>, vol vi. part i. p. 68), the following statements
+among others are made on this subject;&mdash;
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;In 1609 there were in the capital two clubs whose main
+delight was to contrive quarrels with peaceful citizens. Upwards
+of fifty of the members of these clubs were suddenly arrested
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page322" id="v2page322"></a>[ pg 322 ]</span>
+and thrown into prison; but justice was satisfied when four or
+five of the leaders were executed, the rest were pardoned. As
+these societies were originally smoking clubs, the tobacco-plant
+came by the bad behaviour of their members into disrepute, and
+its use was prohibited. At that time tobacco was smoked in long
+pipes, which were stuck in the belt like a sword, or carried after
+the smoker by an attendant. In 1612 a proclamation was
+published in which tobacco-smoking and all trade in tobacco
+were prohibited, under penalty of forfeiture of estate. The
+prohibition was repeated several times, with as little success
+as in Europe.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p332.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p332.png" alt="Tobacco Smokers." ></a>
+Tobacco Smokers.
+<br>Japanese drawing.
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Satow further gives the following peculiar extracts</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page323" id="v2page323"></a>[ pg 323 ]</span>
+<p>from a Japanese work, which enumerates the advantages and
+disadvantages that are connected with tobacco-smoking:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<i>A</i>&mdash;ADVANTAGES.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;1. It dispels the vapours and increases the energies.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;2. It is good to produce at the beginning of a feast.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;3. It is a companion in solitude.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;4. It affords an excuse for resting now and then from
+work, as if in order to take breath.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;5. It is a storehouse of reflection, and gives time for the
+fumes of wrath to dispense.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;<i>B</i>&mdash;DISADVANTAGES</p>
+
+<p>&quot;1. There is a natural tendency to hit people over the head
+with one's pipe in a fit of anger.&quot;<a name="v2rn376"></a><a href="#v2fn376">[376]</a></p>
+
+<p>&quot;2. The pipe comes sometimes to be used for arranging the
+burning charcoal in the brazier.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;3. An inveterate smoker has been known to walk about
+among the dishes with his pipe in his mouth.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;4. People knock the ashes out of their pipes while still
+alight and forget to extinguish the fire.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;5. Hence clothing and mats are frequently scorched by
+burning tobacco ash.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;6. Smokers spit indiscriminately in braziers, foot-warmers,
+and kitchen fires.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;7. Also in the crevices between the floor-mats.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;8. They rap the pipe violently on the edge of the brazier.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;9. They forget to have the ash-pot emptied till it is full
+to overflowing.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>&quot;10. They use the ash-pot as nose-paper (<i>i.e.</i> they blow their
+nose into the ash-pot)&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>As during our stay at Enoshima as the governor's guests we were
+constantly attended by two officials from his court, I considered
+it my duty to show myself worthy of the honour by a liberal
+distribution of drink-money. This is not given to the attendants,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page324" id="v2page324"></a>[ pg 324 ]</span>
+but is handed, wrapped up in paper, and accompanied by some
+choice courteous expressions, to the host himself. He on his
+part makes a polite speech with apologies that all had not
+been so well arranged as his honoured guest had a right to
+expect. He accompanies the traveller on his departure a shorter</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p334.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p334.png" alt="ITO-KESKE." ></a>
+ITO-KESKE.
+<br>A Japanese Editor of Thunberg's writings.
+</div>
+
+<p>or longer distance in proportion to the amount of drink-money
+and the way in which his guest has behaved.</p>
+
+<p>It is a specially praiseworthy custom among the Japanese to
+allow the trees in the neighbourhood of the temples to stand
+untouched. Nearly every temple, even the most inconsiderable,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page325" id="v2page325"></a>[ pg 325 ]</span>
+is therefore surrounded by a little grove, formed of the most
+splendid pines, particularly Cryptomeria and Ginko, which often
+wholly conceal the small, decayed, and ill-kept wooden hut which
+is dedicated to some of the deities of Buddha or Shinto.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p335.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p335.png" alt="MONUMENT TO THUNBERG AND KAEMPFER AT NAGASAKI." ></a>
+MONUMENT TO THUNBERG AND KAEMPFER AT NAGASAKI.
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 23rd September the Europeans and Japanese of
+Yokohama gave a dinner and ball for us in the hall of the
+English club. It was beautifully lighted and decorated. Among
+other things there were to be seen on a wall portraits of Berzelius
+and Thunberg, surrounded by garlands of greenery. The latter
+has a high reputation in Japan. His work on the flora of the
+country has lately been published in a Japanese edition with
+a wood-cut portrait, by no means bad, of the famous Swedish
+naturalist,<a name="v2rn377"></a><a href="#v2fn377">[377]</a> engraved in Japan; and a monument to his and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page326" id="v2page326"></a>[ pg 326 ]</span>
+K&auml;mpfer's memory is to be found at Nagasaki, erected there at
+the instance of von Siebold.<a name="v2rn378"></a><a href="#v2fn378">[378]</a> The chairman of the feast was
+Dr. GEERTZ, a Dutchman, who had lived a long time in the
+country and published several valuable works on its natural
+productions.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th September I started for Tokio, in order thence
+to undertake a journey proposed and arranged by the Danish
+consul, Herr Bavier, to Asamayama, a yet active volcano in the
+interior of the country. In consequence of an unexpected
+death among the European consuls at Yokohama, Herr Bavier,
+however, could not join us until the day after that which had
+been fixed for our departure. The 27th accordingly was passed
+in Tokio among other things, in seeing the beautiful collections
+of antiquities made by the <i>attach&eacute;</i> of the Austrian legation,
+Herr H. VON SIEBOLD, son of the famous naturalist of the
+same name. Japan has also, like most other lands, had its
+Stone Age, from which remains are found at several places in
+the country, both on Yezo and on the more southerly islands.
+Implements from this period are now collected assiduously both
+by natives and Europeans, and have been described by H. von
+Siebold in a work accompanied by photographic illustrations.
+In general the implements of the Japanese stone folk have a
+resemblance to the stone tools still in use among the Eskimo,
+and even in this fruitful land the primitive race, as the bone
+remains in the kitchen-middens show, lived at first mainly by
+hunting and fishing.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn372"></a><a href="#v2rn372">[372]</a> The Dutch had permission in former times to send some vessels
+annually to Nagasaki. By Perry's treaty, signed on the 31st March, 1854,
+Shimoda and Hakodate were opened to the Americans. Finally, by new
+treaties with the United States and various European powers, the harbours
+Kanagava (Yokohama), Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, Hiogo, and Osaka,
+were assigned for commerce with foreigners.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn373"></a><a href="#v2rn373">[373]</a> At first it strikes a European as if all the Japanese had about the
+same appearance, but when one has got accustomed to the colour of the
+skin and the traits of the race, the features of the Japanese appear as
+various in form and expression as those of Europeans.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn374"></a><a href="#v2rn374">[374]</a> At the close of the twelfth century this now inconsiderable town was
+the residence of Joritomo, the founder of the Shogun power, and the
+arranger of the Japanese feudal system.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn375"></a><a href="#v2rn375">[375]</a> Five <i>yen</i> are about equal to &pound;1 sterling.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn376"></a><a href="#v2rn376">[376]</a> The Japanese pipes are now so small that no serious results from this
+disadvantage are to be dreaded. In former times the pipes used were long
+and probably heavy. The Dyaks of Borneo still use pipes so heavy that
+they may be used as weapons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn377"></a><a href="#v2rn377">[377]</a> The work bears the title <i>Tai-sei-hon-zo-mei-so</i> (short list of European
+plant-names), by Ito-Keske, 1829, 3 vols.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn378"></a><a href="#v2rn378">[378]</a> Carl Peter Thunberg, born at J&ouml;nk&ouml;ping in 1743, famed for his travels
+in South Africa, Japan, &amp;c., and for a number of important scientific
+works, finally Professor at Upsala, died in 1828. Engelbert K&auml;mpfer, born
+in Westphalia in 1651, was secretary of the embassy that started from
+Sweden to Persia in 1683. K&auml;mpfer, however, did not return with the
+embassy, but continued his travels in the southern and eastern parts of
+Asia, among them, even to Japan, which he visited in 1690-92, he died in
+1716. K&auml;mpfer's and Thunberg's works, together with the great work of
+von Siebold, who erected the monument to them, form the most important
+sources of the knowledge of the Japan that once was.</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page327" id="v2page327"></a>[ pg 327 ]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVII"></a><h2>CHAPTER XVII.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Excursion to Asamayama&mdash;The Nakasendo road&mdash;Takasaki&mdash;Difficulty of
+obtaining quarters for the night&mdash;The Baths at Ikaho&mdash;Massage in
+Japan&mdash;Swedish matches&mdash;Travelling in <i>Kago</i>&mdash;Savavatari&mdash;Criminals
+&mdash;Kusatsu&mdash;The Hot Springs and their healing power&mdash;Rest at Rokuriga-hara&mdash;
+The summit of Asamayama&mdash;The descent&mdash;Journey over
+Usui-toge&mdash;Japanese actors&mdash;Pictures of Japanese folk-life&mdash;Return
+to Yokohama.</p>
+
+<p>On the 28th September, early in the morning, accompanied
+by Lieut. Hovgaard, Herr Bavier, an interpreter, and a Japanese
+cook skilled in European cookery, I started on a journey to
+Asamayama. At first we travelled in two very rattling and
+inconvenient carriages, drawn each by a pair of horses, to the
+town Takasaki, situated on the great road &quot;Nakasendo,&quot; which
+passes through the interior of the country and connects Tokio
+and Kioto. This road is considered something grand by the
+Japanese. In Sweden it would be called an indifferently kept
+district road. On this road <i>jinrikishas</i> are met in thousands,
+and a great many horses, oxen, and men, <i>bearing</i> heavy burdens,
+but with the exception of the posting carriages, by which, for
+some years back, a regular communication between Tokio and
+Takasaki has been kept up, not a single wheeled vehicle drawn
+by horses or oxen, and though the road passes through an
+unbroken series of populous villages, surrounded by well cultivated
+rice fields and small gardens, there is not a single workhorse
+or work-ox to be seen. For all the ground in Japan is
+cultivated by the hand, and there are few cattle.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page328" id="v2page328"></a>[ pg 328 ]</span>
+Most of the roads in the country consist of foot-paths, so
+narrow that two laden horses can pass each other only with
+difficulty. Goods are therefore carried, where there is no canal
+or river, for the most part by men. The plains are extraordinarily
+well cultivated, and we must specially admire the industry
+with which water-courses have been cut and the uneven slopes
+changed into level terraces.</p>
+
+<p>The post-horses on Nakasendo were so poor and wretched
+that in Sweden one would have been liable to punishment for
+cruelty to animals for using them. They went, however, at a
+pretty good speed. There were places for changing horses
+at regular distances of fifteen to twenty kilometres. The
+driver besides halted often on the way at some dwelling-house
+to take a couple of scoopfuls of water out of the water-vessel
+standing before it and throw them into the horses' mouths and
+between their hind-legs. The opportunity was always taken
+advantage of by the girls of the house to come out and offer
+the travellers a small cup of Japanese tea, an act of courtesy
+that was repaid with some friendly words and a copper coin.</p>
+
+<p>When we visited any of the peasants' gardens by the wayside
+we were always received with extreme friendliness, either on
+a special dais in the common room looking to the road, or in an
+inner room whose floor was covered with a mat of dazzling whiteness,
+and on whose walls hung pictures, with songs and mottoes.
+The brazier was brought forward, tea and sweetmeats were
+handed round, all with lively conversation and frequent bows.
+The difference between the palace of the rich (if we may distinguish
+with the name any building in Japan) and the dwelling
+of the less well-to-do is much smaller here than in Europe.
+We did not see any beggars in our journey into the interior of
+the country.<a name="v2rn379"></a><a href="#v2fn379">[379]</a> Nor did the distraction of class appear to be
+so sharp as might be expected in a land where the evils of rank
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page329" id="v2page329"></a>[ pg 329 ]</span>
+had been so great as in Old Japan. We several times saw in
+the inns by the roadside, people of condition who were travelling
+in <i>jinrikishas</i> eat their rice and drink their <i>saki</i> together with
+the coolies who were drawing their vehicles.</p>
+
+<p>To judge by the crowds of children who swarmed everywhere
+along the roads the people must be very prolific. A girl of
+eight or ten years of age was seldom to be seen without
+another young one bound on her back. This burden did not
+appear to trouble the sister or attendant very much. Without
+giving herself any concern about the child or thinking of its
+existence, she took part actively in games, ran errands, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the interior of the country foreigners are received
+with great friendliness. The lower classes in Japan have also
+reason for this, for whatever influence the latest political
+changes may have had on the old <i>kuge, daimio</i>, and <i>samurai</i>
+families of Japan, the position of the cultivator of the soil is now
+much more secure than before, when he was harmed by hundreds
+of small tyrants. His dress is the same as before, with the exception,
+however, that a great proportion of the male population,
+even far into the interior, have laid aside the old troublesome way
+of collecting the hair in a knot over a close shaven spot on the
+crown of the head. Instead, they wear their thick raven-black
+hair cut short in the European style. How distinctive of the
+new period this change is may be seen from the eagerness with
+which the Japanese authorities questioned GOLOVIN about the
+religious and political revolutions which they assumed to have
+been connected with the change in the European mode of
+wearing the hair during the commencement of the nineteenth
+century, for the Russian ambassador LAXMAN, who was highly
+esteemed by the Japanese, had worn a pig-tail and powdered
+hair, while Golovin and his companions had their hair unpowdered
+and cut short.<a name="v2rn380"></a><a href="#v2fn380">[380]</a> When it is warm the workmen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page330" id="v2page330"></a>[ pg 330 ]</span>
+wear only a small, generally light-blue, girdle round the waist
+and between the legs. Otherwise they are naked. They are
+thus seen to be in many cases strongly tattooed over the greater
+part of the body. I have not seen the women working naked.
+They perhaps do so at the warmest season of the year. At
+least they do not refrain from undressing completely while
+bathing right in the midst of a crowd of men known and unknown,
+a state of things which at first, in consequence of the
+power of prejudice, shocks the European, but to which even the
+former prude gets accustomed sooner than one would suppose.
+We even frequently see European ladies drawn in a <i>jinrikisha</i> by
+a youth completely naked with the exception of the blue girdle.
+Many, especially of the younger men, have besides so well-formed
+a body, that the sculptor who could accurately reproduce
+it in marble would at once attain a reputation co-extensive with
+the globe. </p>
+
+<p>Takasaki is the residence of a governor, with a population
+of about 20,000; but, like most of the towns of Japan, it differs
+little from many of the villages we passed through. We arrived
+late in the evening, and there had our first and last experience
+of an inconvenience of which Europeans often complain in travelling
+in Japan, and to which they have themselves given occasion
+by the offensive way in which they not unfrequently behave.
+We knocked at the door of one inn after another without being
+received. At one place &quot;the house was full,&quot; at another &quot;the
+rooms were under repair,&quot; at a third &quot;the inn people were out,&quot;
+&amp;c. At last we had to apply to the police. When we had
+shown them our passport, we succeeded with their help in
+getting a night's lodging with an elderly host, who received us
+with a countenance which clearly indicated that he would rather
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page331" id="v2page331"></a>[ pg 331 ]</span>
+have hewn us in pieces with one of the two swords he had
+formerly as <i>samurai</i> been entitled to wear, than received us
+under his roof. After our entrance he still turned to the police
+official with the cry of lamentation: &quot;Must I then actually
+receive these barbarians?&quot; But we had our revenge in a noble
+way. We took off our boots before we entered the room, were so
+profuse with talk, civilities, and bows, and on the whole behaved
+in such a courteous fashion, that our previously distracted host
+not only bade us welcome back, but also gave us a letter of
+introduction to the innkeepers at an inn where we were to stay
+next, declaring that if we showed this letter we need not fear
+any such disagreeable adventure as that just described.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the houses in the Japanese towns are built of pretty
+thin, carefully joined timbers. But besides these there are to be
+seen here and there small houses with very thick walls, windows
+provided with heavy iron gratings, and doors that could be
+fastened with large locks and bolts. These houses are fire-resisting,
+and are used as storehouses for valuables and household
+articles when there is danger of fire. Fires are so common in
+Japan that it is supposed that a tenth part of every town is
+burned down yearly. The fireman corps is numerous, well
+ordered from old times, its members bold and daring. During
+our stay overnight at Takasaki we were lodged in such a fireproof
+house, in very large clean apartments with the floor partly
+covered with carpets after the European pattern. The walls
+were very thick and of brick, the interior fittings and stairs on
+the other hand of wood.</p>
+
+<p>I have just mentioned that we were compelled to resort to the
+police in order to obtain quarters for the night. Policemen are
+numerous in Japan, both in town and country. For the most
+part they are taken from the former <i>samurai</i> class. They are
+clothed in the European style, and walk, with a long stick in a
+certain position under the arm, quietly and calmly on the streets
+and roads, without, except in cases of necessity, making any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page332" id="v2page332"></a>[ pg 332 ]</span>
+show of their authority. Commonly they are, or appear to be,
+young, and all have a gentlemanlike appearance. In a word, they
+appear to be equal to the best European police of the present
+day, and stand immeasurably above the guardian of the peace, or
+rather the raiser of dispeace, as he appeared some decades ago on
+the European continent. During the latest revolt the police
+were employed by the Government as infantry, and elicited
+general admiration by the fire, the gallantry, and the contempt of
+death with which they went into action with their old favourite
+weapon, the Japanese sword.</p>
+
+<p>A passport is still required for travelling in the interior of the
+country, but this is easily obtained at the request of the consul
+if health or the wish to prosecute researches be given as the
+reason, it being possible perhaps to include common love of
+travelling under the latter head. Commercial travelling is not
+yet permitted in the interior, nor is the right of settling for the purpose
+of carrying on business granted to Europeans. The foreign
+ambassadors have often entered into negotiations in order to bring
+about a change on this point, but hitherto without success, because
+the Government, as a condition for the complete opening
+of the country, require the abrogation of the unreasonable &quot;extraterritorial&quot;
+arrangement which is in force, and by which the
+foreigner is not subject to the common laws and courts of Japan,
+but to the laws of his own country, administered by consular
+courts. An alteration in this point may however be brought
+about in a short time, as Japan will soon be sufficiently powerful
+to be able to abrogate all the injurious paragraphs in her treaties
+with the civilised countries of Europe. Now, besides, the
+ambassadors of the foreign powers, who in former times all acted
+together, have divided into two parties, of which one&mdash;Russia
+and America&mdash;wishes, or at least feigns to wish, gradually to free
+Japan from all tutelage and to place it on an equality with other
+civilised countries, the other again&mdash;England, Germany, Holland,
+and France&mdash;wishes still to retain the guardianship, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page333" id="v2page333"></a>[ pg 333 ]</span>
+was established by violence, and confirmed by treaty several
+years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly before our arrival a quarrel took place between Japan
+and the European powers about, as the Japanese themselves said,
+a breach of international law, which caused much irritation in
+the country. A German vessel coming from Nagasaki, where
+the cholera was raging, on the advice of the German minister
+broke the quarantine prescribed by the Government, and without
+further precautions discharged her cargo in the harbour of
+Yokohama. That the cholera in this town was thereby <i>made worse</i>
+is indeed not only unproved but also undoubtedly incorrect,
+though many Japanese in their irritation positively affirmed that
+this was the case, but the words that were uttered by Japan's
+<i>f&ecirc;ted</i> guest, ex-President General GRANT,<a name="v2rn381"></a><a href="#v2fn381">[381]</a> that the Japanese
+Government had the right without more ado to sink the vessel,
+have left a memory in the minds both of the Government and of
+the people, which may in the future lead them to a perhaps
+unwise but fully justified exertion of their strength were such
+a deed to be repeated.</p>
+
+<p>The first impression of the Japanese, both men and women,
+is exceedingly pleasant, but many Europeans who have lived
+a considerable time in the country say that this impression is not
+maintained, a circumstance which in my belief depends more on
+the Europeans themselves than on the Japanese. For the
+European merchants are said not to find it so easy to cut gold
+here with a case-knife as before, and the ambassadors of the
+Great Powers find it day by day more difficult to maintain their
+old commanding standpoint towards a government which knows
+that a great future is before the country, if inconsiderate ambition
+or unlooked-for misfortune do not unexpectedly hinder its
+development. Another reproach, that the Japanese can imitate
+what another has done, but is unable himself to invent anything
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page334" id="v2page334"></a>[ pg 334 ]</span>
+new, appears on the other hand to be justified in the meantime.
+But it is unreasonable to demand that a nation should not only
+in a few decades pass through a development for which centuries
+have been required in Europe, but also immediately reach the
+summit of the knowledge of our time so as to be at the same
+time creative. But it would be wonderful, if the natural science,
+literature, and art of the nineteenth century, transplanted among
+a gifted people, with a culture so peculiar and so pervasive, and
+with an art-sense so developed as those of Japan, did not in
+time produce new, splendid, and unexpected fruit. The same
+irresistible necessity which now drives the Japanese to learn all
+that the European and the American know, will, when he has
+reached that goal, spur him on to go further up the Nile river
+of research.</p>
+
+<p>A short distance beyond Takasaki the road to the volcano to
+which we were on our way, was no longer along Nakasendo, and
+we could therefore no longer continue our journey in carriages
+drawn by horses, but were compelled to content ourselves with
+<i>jinrikishas</i>. In these, on the 29th of September, we traversed
+in five and a half hours the very hilly road to Ikaho, noted for
+its baths, situated at a height of 700 metres above the sea.
+The landscape here assumes a quite different stamp. The road
+which before ran over an unbroken plain, thickly peopled, and
+cultivated like a garden, now begins to pass between steep uncultivated
+hills, overgrown with tall, uncut, withered grass,
+separated by valleys in which run purling rivulets, nearly concealed
+by exceedingly luxuriant bushy thickets. Ikaho is
+celebrated for the warm, or more correctly hot, springs which
+well up from the volcanic hills which surround the little town,
+which is beautifully situated on a slope. As at the baths of
+Europe, invalids seek here a remedy for their ailments, and the
+town therefore consists almost exclusively of hotels, baths, and
+shops for the visitors. The baths are situated, partly in large
+open wooden sheds, where men and women bathe together
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page335" id="v2page335"></a>[ pg 335 ]</span>
+without distinction, partly in private houses. In every bath
+there is a basin one metre in depth, to which a constant stream
+of water is conducted from some of the hot springs. The spring
+water has of course cooled very much before it is used, but is
+still so hot notwithstanding that I could only with difficulty
+remain in it a couple of seconds.</p>
+
+<p>In the streets of the town we often met blind persons who
+walked about very safely without any attendant, only feeling
+their way with a long bamboo. They blew a short pipe now
+and then to warn passers-by of their presence. I thought
+at first that these unfortunates were trying to regain the sight
+of the eye at the hot springs, but on inquiring whether the
+water was beneficial in that respect, I was informed that they
+were not there as seekers after health, but as &quot;massageurs&quot;
+(shampooers). Massage has been in use in Japan for several
+centuries back, and therefore persons are often to be met with
+in the streets offering their services as massageurs, crying in
+the streets in about the same way as the fruit-sellers in Russia.</p>
+
+<p>The inn where we lodged for the night, consisted as usual of
+a number of very clean rooms covered with mats, without
+furniture, but ornamented with songs and mottoes on the walls.
+One would live here exceedingly well, if like the Japanese he
+could manage to live wholly on the floor and conform carefully
+to the indispensable rules, an observance which besides is
+necessary, because otherwise the inmate is exposed to a very
+unfriendly reception not only from his host but also from the
+attendants. An inconvenience in travelling in Japan is the
+difficulty a European has in accustoming himself to the dietary
+of the Japanese. Bread they do not use, nor meat, but their
+food consists mainly of rice and fish, with fowls, fruit, mushrooms,
+sweetmeats, Japanese tea, &amp;c., in addition. Fish is
+generally eaten raw, and in that case is said to differ little in
+taste from our pickled salmon. The food is not unfrequently
+cooked with fish oils of anything but an agreeable taste. If a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page336" id="v2page336"></a>[ pg 336 ]</span>
+traveller wishes to avoid this dietary, he must have his own
+cook with him on the journey. In this capacity there attended
+us a Japanese, whose name was Senkiti-San, but who was
+commonly called by his companions Kok-San (Mr. Cook). He
+had learned European (French) cooking at Yokohama, and
+during the journey devoted himself with so great zeal to his
+calling, that even in the deserts at the foot of Asamayama he
+gave himself no rest until he could offer us a dinner of five
+dishes, consisting of chicken soup, fowl omelette, fowl-beefsteak,
+fowl <i>fricass&eacute;</i>, and omelette <i>aux confitures</i>, all thus consisting only
+of fowls and hens' eggs, cooked in different ways.</p>
+
+<p>For some years back lucifer matches have been an article of
+necessity in Japan, and it was pleasing to us Swedes to observe
+that the Swedish matches have here a distinct preference over
+those of other countries. In nearly every little shop, even in the
+interior of the country, are to be seen the well-known boxes with
+the inscription &quot;S&auml;kerhets t&auml;ndstickor utan svafvel och fosfor.&quot;
+But if we examine the boxes more carefully, we find upon many
+of them, along with the magic sentence unintelligible to
+the Japanese, an inscription indicating that they have been
+made by some Japanese manufacturer. On other boxes this is
+completely wanting, but the falsification is shown by an unfortunate
+error in the inscription. It thus appears that the
+Swedish matches are not only introduced into Japan on a large
+scale, but are also counterfeited, being made with the Swedish
+inscription on the box and with a cover resembling that used at
+home. The imitation, however, is not nearly so good as the
+original, and my Japanese servant bade me therefore, when I
+purchased a box of matches, observe carefully that I got one
+of the right (Swedish) sort.</p>
+
+<p>Photography also has spread so rapidly in the country that at
+many places in small towns and villages in the interior Japanese
+photographers are to be met with who put out of their hands by
+no means bad work. The Japanese appear to have a great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page337" id="v2page337"></a>[ pg 337 ]</span>
+liking for having their by no means remarkable dwellings photographed.
+On several occasions, when we left a place we received
+from our host as a parting gift a photograph of his house or inn.
+Perhaps this was done with the same view as that which induces
+his European brother-in-trade to advertise at great expense.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p347.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p347.png" alt="JAPANESE KAGO." ></a>
+JAPANESE KAGO.
+</div>
+
+<p>Between Ikaho and Savavatari, our next resting-place, the
+road was so bad that the <i>jinrikisha</i> could no longer be used, we
+accordingly had to use the <i>kago</i>, a Japanese sedan-chair made of
+bamboo, of the appearance of which the accompanying wood-cut
+gives an idea. It is exceedingly inconvenient for Europeans,
+because they cannot like the Japanese sit with their legs crosswise
+under them, and in course of time it becomes tiresome
+to let them dangle without other support by the side of the
+<i>kago</i>. Even for the bearers this sedan chair strikes me as being
+of inconvenient construction, which is shown among other things
+by their halting an instant every two hundred, or in going up a
+hill, every hundred paces, in order to shift the shoulder under the
+bamboo pole. We went up-hill and down-hill with considerable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page338" id="v2page338"></a>[ pg 338 ]</span>
+speed however, so that we traversed the road between Ikaho
+and Savavatari, 6 <i>ri</i> or 23.6 kilometres in length, in ten hours.
+The road, which was exceedingly beautiful, ran along flowery
+banks of rivulets, overgrown with luxuriant bamboo thickets,
+and many different kinds of broad-leaved trees. Only round
+the old temples, mostly small and inconsiderable, were to be
+seen ancient tall Cryptomeria and Ginko trees. The burying
+places were commonly situated, not as at home, in the neighbourhood
+of the larger temples, but near the villages. They
+were not inclosed, but marked out by stone monuments from a
+third of a metre to half a metre in height, on one side of which
+an image of Buddha was sometimes sculptured. The recent
+graves were often adorned with flowers, and at some of them
+small foot-high Shinto shrines had been made of wooden pins.</p>
+
+<p>Savavatari, like Ikaho, is built on the slope of a hill. The
+streets between the houses are almost all stairs or steep ascents.
+Here too there well up from the volcanic rocks acidulous
+springs, at which invalids seek to regain health. The watering-place,
+however, is of less repute than Ikaho or Kusatsu.</p>
+
+<p>While we walked about the village in the evening we saw
+at one place a crowd of people. This was occasioned by a
+competition going on there. Two young men, who wore no
+other clothes than a narrow girdle going round the waist and
+between the legs, wrestled within a circle two or three metres
+across drawn on a sandy area. He was considered the victor
+who threw the other to the ground or forced him beyond the
+circle. A special judge decided in doubtful cases. The beginning
+of the contest was most peculiar, the combatants
+kneeling in the middle of the circle and sharply eying each
+other in order to make the attack at a signal given by the judge,
+when a single push might at once make an end of the contest.
+In this competition there took part about a dozen young men,
+all well grown, who in their turn stepped with some encouraging
+cries or gestures into the circle in order to test their powers.
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page339" id="v2page339"></a>[ pg 339 ]</span>
+The spectators consisted of old men and women, and boys and
+girls of all ages. Most of them were clean and well-dressed, and
+had a very attractive appearance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p349.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p349.png" alt="JAPANESE WRESTLERS." ></a>
+JAPANESE WRESTLERS.
+</div>
+
+<p>Here it was the youth of the village themselves that took
+part in the contest. But there are also in Japan persons who
+carry on these games as their occupation, and exhibit themselves
+for money. They are in general very fat, as appears from the
+accompanying drawing, which represents the beginning of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page340" id="v2page340"></a>[ pg 340 ]</span>
+contest, when both the combatants are still watching to get
+a good hold.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p350.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p350.png" alt="JAPANESE BRIDGE." ></a>
+JAPANESE BRIDGE.
+<br>After a Japanese drawing.
+</div>
+
+<p>Next day, the 1st October, we continued our journey to
+Kusatsu. The road was uphill for a distance of 550 metres,
+downhill for nearly as far, then up again, and ran often without
+any protecting fence past deep abysses, or over high bridges of
+the most dangerous construction. It was, therefore, impossible
+for any wheeled vehicle to traverse it, so that we had to use in
+some cases <i>kagos</i>, in others riding-horses. Unfortunately the
+Japanese high saddle does not suit the European, and if the
+traveller prefers a riding-horse to a <i>kago</i>, he must, if he does not</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page341" id="v2page341"></a>[ pg 341 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p351.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p351.png" alt="JAPANESE MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE." ></a>
+JAPANESE MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page342" id="v2page342"></a>[ pg 342 ]</span>
+<br><br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page343" id="v2page343"></a>[ pg 343 ]</span>
+<p>carry a saddle with him, determine to ride on an unsaddled
+horse, which, with the wretched steeds that are only available
+here, soon becomes so unpleasant that he at last prefers to let
+his legs hang benumbed from the <i>kago</i>. A peculiarity in Japan
+is that the rider seldom himself guides his horse. It is commonly
+led by a halter by a groom running alongside the rider.
+These grooms are very light-footed and enduring, so that even at
+a rapid pace they are not left behind. Running footmen also
+attend the carriages of people of distinction in the towns and the
+mail-coaches on Nakasendo. When there is a crowd before the
+carriage they jump down and drive away the people by a
+dreadful shouting. From the mail-coach they also blow the
+post-horn, not just to the advantage of the ear-drums of the
+travellers.</p>
+
+<p>The scenery by the roadside was exceedingly beautiful. Now
+it consisted of wild valleys, filled with luxuriant vegetation
+which completely concealed the crystal-clear streams purling in
+the bottoms; now of level grassy plains or hill-slopes, thickly
+studded with solitary trees, chiefly chestnuts and oaks. The
+inhabitants were fully occupied with the chestnut harvest.
+Before every hut mats were spread out, on which chestnuts
+lay drying in thick layers. Grain and cotton were being dried
+in the same small way, as it appeared to us Europeans. On the
+plains there stood besides in the neighbourhood of the cabins
+large mortars, by which the grain was reduced to groats. On
+the hills these tramp-stamps are partly replaced by small mills
+of an exceedingly simple construction, introduced by the Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>We passed the 2nd October at Kusatsu, the Aix-la-Chapelle
+of Japan, famed like that place for its hot sulphurous springs.
+Innumerable invalids here seek an alleviation of their pains.
+The town lives upon them, and accordingly consists mainly of
+baths, inns, and shops for the visitors.</p>
+
+<p>The inns are of the sort common in Japan, spacious, airy
+clean, without furniture, but with good braziers, miniature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page344" id="v2page344"></a>[ pg 344 ]</span>
+tea-services, clean matting, screens ornamented with poetical
+mottoes, which even when translated were almost unintelligible to
+us, friendly hosts, and numerous female attendants. If the
+traveller brings his own cook with him, as we did, he can live
+very comfortably, as I have before stated, at such an inn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p354.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p354.png" alt="INN AT KUSATSU." ></a>
+INN AT KUSATSU.
+</div>
+
+<p>The hot springs which have conferred on Kusatsu its importance
+rise at the foot of a pretty high hill of volcanic origin.
+The rocks in the surrounding country consist exclusively of lava
+and volcanic tuffs, and a short distance from the town there is an
+extinct volcano in whose crater there are layers of sulphur.<a name="v2rn382"></a><a href="#v2fn382">[382]</a> In
+the immediate neighbourhood of the place where the main
+spring rises there is a thick solidified lava stream, surrounded
+by tuffs, which near the surface is cleft into a number of large
+vesicular blocks. From this point the hot water is conducted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page345" id="v2page345"></a>[ pg 345 ]</span>
+in long open wooden channels to the bath-house of the town,
+and to several evaporating pools, some by the wayside, others in
+the town, intended for collecting the solid constituents of the
+water, which are then sold in the country as medicine. The
+great evaporation from these pools, from the open channels and the
+hot baths, wraps the town almost constantly in a cloud of watery
+vapour, while a very strong odour of sulphuretted hydrogen
+reminds us that this is one of the constituents of the healing
+waters.</p>
+
+<p>The road between the wells and the town appears to form
+the principal promenade of the place. Along this are to be
+seen innumerable small monuments, from a half to a whole
+metre in height, consisting of pieces of lava heaped upon each
+other. These miniature memorials form by their littleness a
+peculiar contrast to the <i>bauta</i> stones and <i>jettekast</i> of our Swedish
+forefathers, and are one of the many instances of the people's
+fondness for the little and the neat, which are often to be met
+in Japan. They are said to be erected by visitors as thank-offerings
+to some of the deities of Buddha or Shinto.</p>
+
+<p>I received from a Japanese physician the following information
+regarding the wells at Kusatsu and their healing power. In
+and near the town there are twenty-two wells, with water of
+about the same quality, but of different uses in the healing
+of various diseases. In the hottest well the water where it
+rises has a temperature of 162&deg; F (= 72.2&deg; C.). The largest
+number of the sick who seek health at the baths, suffer from
+syphilis. This disease is now cured according to the European
+method, with mercury, iodide of potassium, and baths. The
+cure requires a hundred days, from seventy to eighty per cent. of
+the patients are cured completely, though purple spots remain
+on the skin. The disease does not break out anew. A large
+number of leprous patients also visit the baths. The leprosy is of
+various kinds; that with sores is alleviated by the baths, and is
+cured possibly in two years; that without sores but with the skin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page346" id="v2page346"></a>[ pg 346 ]</span>
+insensible is incurable, but is also checked by frequent bathing.
+All true lepers come from the coast provinces. A similar disease
+is produced also among the hills by the eating of tainted fish
+and fowl. This disease consists in the skin becoming insensible,
+the nerves inactive, and the patient, who otherwise feels well,
+finding it impossible to walk. It is also cured completely in
+very severe cases, by baths, ammonia applied inwardly, castor-oil,
+Peruvian bark, &amp;c. A third type of this ailment is the bone-disease,
+<i>kak'ke'</i>, which is exceedingly common in Japan, and is
+believed to be caused by unvarying food and want of exercise.
+It is very obstinate, but is often cured in two or three years
+with chloride of iron, albumen, change of diet from the common
+Japanese to the European, with red wine, milk, bread, vegetables,
+&amp;c. This disease begins with a swelling in the legs, then the
+skin becomes insensible, first on the legs, next on the stomach,
+the face, and the wrists. Then the swelling falls, fever comes on,
+and death takes place. There are besides, certain wells for
+curing rheumatism, for which from two to three years are
+required; for eye-diseases and for headache, the latter playing an
+important part among the illnesses that are cured at Kusatsu.
+It principally attacks women between twenty and thirty years
+of age. One of the Kusatsu wells acts very beneficially in
+this case. Its water is conducted to a special bathing-shed
+open to the street, intended exclusively for the men and
+women who suffer from this disease.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the baths at Kusatsu are taken so hot that special
+precautions must be adopted before one steps down into the
+water. These consist in winding cotton cloths round those parts
+of the body which are most sensitive, and in causing the body to
+perspire strongly before the bath is taken, which is done by the
+bathers with cries and shouts and with certain movements
+stirring the water in the basin with large heavy boards. They
+then all step down into the bath and up again simultaneously at
+a sign given by the physician sitting at the back of the bathing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page347" id="v2page347"></a>[ pg 347 ]</span>
+shed. Without this arrangement it would perhaps be difficult
+to get the patients to go into the bath, for agreeable it could not
+be, to judge from the grave faces of the bathers and the fire-red
+colour of their bodies when they come out.</p>
+
+<p>The baths are under open sheds. Men and women all bathe
+in common, and in presence of both male and female spectators.
+They make their remarks without reserve on the diseases of the
+patients, even if they are of that sort about which one would
+not speak willingly even to his physician. Often the bath-basin
+is not fenced off in any way, except that it is protected from
+rain and sunshine by a roof resting on four posts. In such cases
+the bathers dress and undress in the street.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p357.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p357.png" alt="BATH AT KUSATSU." ></a>
+BATH AT KUSATSU.
+</div>
+
+<p>In consequence of the situation of Kusatsu at a height of
+1050 metres above the sea, the winter there is very cold and
+windy. The town is then abandoned not only by the visitors to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page348" id="v2page348"></a>[ pg 348 ]</span>
+the baths, but also by most of the other inhabitants. Already,
+at the time of our visit, the number of bathers remaining was
+only inconsiderable. Even these were preparing to depart.
+During the second night that we passed at Kusatsu, our night's
+rest was disturbed by a loud noise from the next room. It was
+a visitor who was to leave the place the following morning, and
+who now celebrated his recovery with <i>saki</i> (rice-brandy) and
+string music.</p>
+
+<p>The environs of Kusatsu are nearly uncultivated, though the
+vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant. It consists partly of bamboo
+thickets, partly of a high rich grass, above which rise solitary
+pines, mixed with a few oaks or chestnuts.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd October we continued our journey to the foot of
+Asamayama. The road was very bad, so that even the <i>kago</i>
+bearers had difficulty in getting along. It first ran across two
+valleys more than 300 feet deep, occupied with close, luxuriant,
+bushy thickets. We then came to an elevated plain of great
+extent covered with unmown grass, studded with beautiful oaks
+and chestnuts. The plain was not turned to any account, though
+thousands of the industrious population could find an abundant
+living there by tending cattle. Farther up the oaks and chestnuts
+were mixed with a few birches, resembling those at home,
+and we came next to complete deserts, where the ground consisted
+of lava blocks and lava gravel, scarcely covered by any grass,
+and yielding nourishment only to solitary pines. This continued
+to the place&mdash;Rokuriga-hara&mdash;where we were to pass the night,
+and from which the next day we were to ascend the summit of
+Asamayama.</p>
+
+<p>Rokuriga-hara is situated at a height of 1270 metres above
+the sea. There was no inn here, nor any place inhabited all the
+year round, but only a large open shed. This was divided into
+two by a passage in the middle. We settled on one side of this,
+making our bed as well as we could on the raised floor, and protecting
+ourselves from the night air with coverings which our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page349" id="v2page349"></a>[ pg 349 ]</span>
+thoughtful host at Kusatsu had lent us. On the other side of
+the passage our <i>kago</i> bearers and guide passed the night crowding
+round a log fire made on a stone foundation in the middle
+of the floor. The <i>kago</i> bearers were protected from the very
+perceptible night cold only by thin cotton blouses. In order to
+warm them I ordered an abundant distribution of <i>saki</i>, a piece
+of generosity that did not cost very much, but which clearly won
+me the undivided admiration of all the coolies. They passed
+the greater part of the night without sleep, with song and jest,
+with their <i>saki</i> bottles and tobacco pipes. We slept well and
+warmly after partaking of an abundant supper of fowl and eggs,
+cooked in different ways by Kok-San with his usual talent and
+his usual variety of dishes.</p>
+
+<p>We had been informed that at this place we would hear a
+constant noise from the neighbouring volcano, and that hurtful
+gases (probably carbonic acid) sometimes accumulated in such
+quantities in the neighbouring woods that men and horses would
+be suffocated if they spent the night there. We listened in vain
+for the noise, and did not observe any trace of such gases. All
+was as peaceful as if the glowing hearth in the interior of the
+earth was hundreds of miles away. But we did not require the
+evidence of the column of smoke which was seen to use from
+the mountain top, which formed the goal of our visit, or of
+the inhabitants who survived the latest eruption, to come
+to the conclusion that we were in the neighbourhood of an
+enormous, still active volcano. Everywhere round our resting-place
+lay heaps of small pieces of lava which had been thrown
+out of the volcano (so-called lapilli), and which had not yet had
+time to weather sufficiently to serve as an under-stratum for
+any vegetation, and a little from the hut there was a solidified
+lava stream of great depth.</p>
+
+<p>Next day, the 4th October, we ascended the summit of the
+mountain. At first we travelled in <i>kago</i> over a valley filled
+with pretty close wood, then the journey was continued on foot
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page350" id="v2page350"></a>[ pg 350 ]</span>
+up the steep volcanic cone, covered with small lava blocks and
+lapilli. The way was staked out with small heaps of stones
+raised at a distance of about 100 metres apart. Near the crater
+we found at one of these cairns a little Shinto shrine, built of
+sticks. Its sides were only half a metre in length. Our guide
+performed his devotions here. One of them had already at a
+stone cairn situated farther down with great seriousness made
+some conjurations with reference to my promise to make an extra
+distribution of red wine, if we got good weather at the top.</p>
+
+<p>As on Vesuvius, we can also on Asamayama distinguish a
+large exterior crater, originating from some old eruption, but
+now almost completely filled up by a new volcanic cone, at
+whose top the present crater opens. This crater has a circumference
+of about two kilometres, the old crater, or what
+the old geologists called the elevation-crater, has been much
+larger. The volcano is still active. For it constantly throws
+out &quot;smoke,&quot; consisting of watery vapour, sulphurous acid, and
+probably also carbonic acid. Occasionally a perceptible smell
+of sulphuretted hydrogen is observed. It is possible without
+difficulty to crawl to the edge of the crater and glance down
+into its interior. It is very deep. The walls are perpendicular,
+and at the bottom of the abyss there are to be seen several
+clefts from which vapours arise. In the same way &quot;smoke&quot;
+forces its way at some places at the edge of the crater through
+small imperceptible cracks in the mountain. Both on the
+border of the crater, on its sides and its bottom there is to be
+seen a yellow efflorescence, which at the places which I got at
+to examine it consisted of sulphur. The edge of the crater is
+solid rock, a little-weathered augiteandesite differing very much in
+its nature at different places. The same or similar rocks also project
+at several places at the old border of the crater, but the
+whole surface of the volcanic cone besides consists of small loose
+pieces of lava, without any trace of vegetation. Only at one
+place the brim of the old crater is covered with an open pine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page351" id="v2page351"></a>[ pg 351 ]</span>
+wood. The volcano has also small side craters, from which
+gases escape. The same coarse fantasy, which still prevails in
+the form of the hell-dogma among several of the world's most
+cultured peoples, has placed the home of those of the followers
+of Buddha who are doomed to eternal punishment in the
+glowing hearths in the interior of the mountain, to which these
+crater-openings lead; and that the heresies of the well-meaning
+Bishop Lindblom have not become generally prevalent in Japan
+is shown among other things by this, that many of these openings
+are said to be entrances to the &quot;children's hell.&quot; Neither
+at the main crater nor at any of the side craters can any true
+lava streams be seen. Evidently the only things thrown out
+from them have been gases, volcanic ashes, and lapilli. On the
+other hand, extensive eruptions of lava have taken place at
+several points on the side of the mountain, though these places
+are now covered with volcanic ashes.</p>
+
+<p>After having eaten our breakfast in a cleft so close to the
+smoking crater that the empty bottles could be thrown directly
+into the bottomless deeps, we commenced our return journey.
+At first we took the same way as during the ascent, but afterwards
+held off to the right, down a much steeper and more
+difficult path than we had traversed before. The mountain side
+had here a slope of nearly forty-five degrees, and consisted of a
+quite loose volcanic sand, not bound together by any vegetable
+carpet. It would therefore have been scarcely possible to ascend
+to the summit of the mountain this way, but we went rapidly
+downwards, often at a dizzy speed, but without other inconvenience
+than that one now and then fell flat and rolled head-foremost
+down the steep slopes, and that our shoes were completely
+torn to tatters by the angular lava gravel. Above the mountaintop
+the sky was clear of clouds, but between it and the surface
+of the earth there spread out a thick layer of cloud which seen
+from above resembled a boundless storm-tossed sea, full of
+foaming breakers. The extensive view we would otherwise have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page352" id="v2page352"></a>[ pg 352 ]</span>
+had of the neighbouring mountain ridges from the top of Asamayama
+was thus concealed. Only here and there an opening
+was formed in the cloud, resembling a sun-spot, through which
+we got a glimpse of the underlying landscape. When we came
+to the foot of the mountain we long followed a ridge, covered
+with greenery, formed of an immense stream of lava, which had
+issued from an opening in the mountain side now refilled. This
+had probably taken place during the tremendous eruption of
+1783, when not only enormous lava-streams destroyed forests and
+villages at the foot of the mountain, but the whole of the neighbouring
+region between Oiwake and Usui-toge, previously fertile,
+was changed by an ash-rain into an extensive waste. Across
+this large plain, infertile and little cultivated, situated at a
+height of 980 metres above the sea, we went without a guide
+to the village Oiwake, where we lodged for the night at an inn
+by the side of the road Nakasendo, one of the cleanest and best
+kept of the many well-kept inns I saw during our journey in
+the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Hence I sent a messenger on foot to Takasaki to order a
+carriage to Tokio. A former <i>samurai</i> undertook for a payment
+of three <i>yen</i>, (about 12<i>s</i>) to carry the message. Oiwake is indeed
+situated on the great road Nakasendo, but it can here only with
+difficulty be traversed by carriages, because between this village
+and Takasaki it is necessary to go over the pass Usui-toge,
+where the road, though lowered considerably of late, rises to a
+height of 1200 metres. We therefore here used <i>jinrikishas</i>, a
+mode of conveyance very agreeable to tourists, which, though
+introduced only recently, has already spread to all parts of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Every one with an open eye for the beauties of nature and
+interest in the life and manners of a foreign people, must find a
+journey in <i>jinrikisha</i> over Usui-toge pleasant in a high degree.
+The landscape here is extraordinarily beautiful, perhaps unmatched
+in the whole world. The road has been made here
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page353" id="v2page353"></a>[ pg 353 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p363.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p363.png" alt="JAPANESE LANDSCAPE." ></a>
+JAPANESE LANDSCAPE.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page355" id="v2page355"></a>[ pg 355 ]</span>
+<p>with great difficulty between wild, black, rocky masses, along
+deep clefts, whose sides are often covered with the most luxuriant
+vegetation. No fence protects the <i>jinrikisha</i> in its rapid progress
+down the mountains from the bottomless abysses by the wayside.
+A man must therefore not be weak in the nerves if he is to derive
+pleasure from the journey. He must rely on the coolie's keen
+eye and sure foot. On all sides one is surrounded by a confused
+mass of lofty shattered mountain tops, and deep down in the
+valleys mountain streams rush along, whose crystal-clear water
+is collected here and there into small lakes confined between
+heights covered with greenery. Now the traveller passes a
+dizzy abyss by a bridge of the most defective construction, now
+he sees a stream of water rushing down from an enormous
+height by the wayside. Thousands of foot-passengers, crowds of
+pilgrims, long rows of coolies, oxen and horses bearing heavy
+burdens meet the traveller, who during frequent rests at the
+foot of the steep slopes has an opportunity of studying the
+variegated life of the people. He is always surrounded by
+cheerful and friendly faces, and the pleasant impression is never
+disturbed by the expressions of coarseness in speech and
+behaviour which so often meet us in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It is not until the traveller has passed the mountain ridge
+and descended to a height of only 300 metres above the sea
+that the road becomes passable for a carriage. While we exchanged,
+not without regret, our clean, elegant <i>jinrikishas</i> for
+two inferior vehicles drawn by horses, I saw two men wandering
+from shop to shop, standing some moments at each place, ringing
+a bell and passing on when they were not attended to. On my
+inquiry as to what sort of people they were, I was informed
+that they were wandering players. For me of course they did
+not ring in vain. For a payment of fifty cents they were ready
+immediately to show in the street itself a specimen of their art.
+One of them put on a well-made mask, representing the head
+of a monster, with a movable jaw and terrible teeth. To the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page356" id="v2page356"></a>[ pg 356 ]</span>
+mask was fastened a cloak, in which the player wrapt himself
+during the representation. He then with great skill and supple
+tasteful gestures, which would have honoured a European
+<i>danseuse</i>, represented the monster now creeping forward fawningly,
+now rushing along to devour its prey. A numerous crowd
+of children collected around us. The small folks followed the
+representation with great glee, and gave life to the play, or
+rather formed its proper background, by the feigned tenor with
+which they fled when the monster approached with open mouth
+and rolling eyes, and the eagerness with which they again
+followed and mocked it when its back was turned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p366.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p366.png" alt="BURDEN BEARERS ON A JAPANESE ROAD." ></a>
+BURDEN BEARERS ON A JAPANESE ROAD.
+<br>Japanese drawing.
+</div>
+
+<p>In few countries are dramatic representations of all kinds so
+much thought of as in Japan. Playhouses are found even in
+small towns. The play is much frequented, and though the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page357" id="v2page357"></a>[ pg 357 ]</span>
+representations last the whole day, they are followed by the
+spectators with the liveliest interest. There are playbills as at
+home, and numerous writings on subjects relating to the theatre.
+Among the Japanese books which I bought, there was for
+instance a thick one, with innumerable woodcuts, devoted to
+showing how the first Japanese artists conceived the principal
+scenes in their <i>r&ocirc;les</i>, two volumes of playbills bound up
+together, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese pieces indeed strike a European as childish and
+monstrous, but one must admire many praiseworthy traits in
+the play itself, for instance the naturalness with which the
+players often declaim monologues lasting for a quarter or half
+an hour. The extravagances which here shock us are perhaps
+on the whole not more absurd than the scenes of the opera of
+to-day, or the buskins, masks, and peculiar dresses, which the
+Greeks considered indispensable in the exhibition of then great
+dramatic masterpieces. When the Japanese have been able to
+appropriate what is good in European culture, the dramatic art
+ought to have a grand future before it among them, if the
+development now going on is carried out cautiously so that the
+peculiarities of the people are not too much effaced. For, in
+many departments, and not least in that of art, there is much to
+be found here which when properly developed will form a new
+and important addition to the culture of the West, of which we
+are so proud.</p>
+
+<p>The large Japanese theatres, besides, often resemble the
+European ones in their interior arrangement. The partition
+between the stage and the space occupied by the spectators is
+the same as among us. Between the acts the former is concealed
+by a curtain. The stage is besides provided with painted
+scenes representing houses, woods, hills, &amp;c., supported on
+wheels, so that a complete change of scene can be effected in
+a few moments. The music has the same place between the
+stage and the spectators as at home. The latter, as at home, are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page358" id="v2page358"></a>[ pg 358 ]</span>
+distributed partly in a gently rising amphitheatre, partly in
+several tiers of boxes rising one above another, the lowest tier
+being considered the principal one. The Japanese do not sit
+in the same way as we do. Neither the amphitheatre nor the
+boxes accordingly are provided with chairs or benches, but are
+divided into square compartments one or two feet deep, each intended
+for about four persons. They sit on cushions, squatting
+cross-legged in the common Japanese fashion. The compartments
+are divided by broad cross beams, which form the passages
+by which the spectators get to their places. During the play
+we saw attendants running about with tea, <i>saki</i>, tobacco pipes,
+and small braziers. For every one smokes during the acts, and
+places himself in his crib as comfortably as possible. The piece
+is followed with great attention, favourite actors and favourite
+passages being saluted with lively applause. Even women and
+children visit the theatre, and I have seen the former give their
+children suck without the least discomposure among thousands
+of spectators. Besides the plays intended for the public, there
+are given also a number of other dramatic representations, as
+society plays, peculiar family plays intended for the homes of the
+old feudal princes, spectacles got up for the Mikado, and some
+which have a half religious significance, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>On the evening of the 5th October we came to Takasaki,
+prepared to start immediately for Tokio. But though the
+messenger we sent had duly executed his commission, horses
+could not be procured before midnight. We passed the evening
+with our former host, who at our first visit received us so unwillingly,
+but now with great friendliness. We would easily
+have reconciled ourselves to the delay, for a Japanese small
+town such as Takasaki has much worth seeing to offer a
+European, but a great part of the time was wasted in fruitless
+attempts to get the horse-hirer to let us have the horses
+a few hours earlier. In spending time in long conversations
+mixed with civilities and bows the Japanese are masters. Of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page359" id="v2page359"></a>[ pg 359 ]</span>
+this bad habit, which still often makes the European desperate,
+it will not perhaps be long necessary to complain, for everything
+indicates that the Japanese too will soon be carried along at the
+endlessly roaring speed of the Steam Age.</p>
+
+<p>When we had at last got horses we continued our journey, first
+in a carriage to Tokio, then by rail to Yokohama, arriving there
+on the afternoon of the 6th October. From this journey I shall
+only relate an incident which may form a little picture throwing
+light on life in Japan.</p>
+
+<p>While we halted for a short time in the morning of the 6th
+October at a large inn by the roadside, we saw half a dozen
+young girls finishing their toilets in the inn-yard. In passing
+we may say, that a Japanese peasant girl, like girls in general,
+may be pretty or the reverse, but that she generally is, what
+cannot always be said of the peasant girls at home, cleanly and
+of attractive manners. They washed themselves at the stream
+of water in the inn-yard, smoothed their artistically dressed hair,
+which, however, had been but little disturbed by the cushions on
+which they had slept, and brushed their dazzlingly white teeth.
+Soap is not used for washing, but a cotton bag filled with bran.
+The teeth were brushed with a wooden pin, one end of which
+was changed by beating into a brush-like collection of wooden
+cords. The tooth-powder consisted of finely powdered shells and
+corals, and was kept in small, neat wooden boxes, which, along
+with tooth-brushes and small square bundles of a very strong
+and cheap paper, all clearly intended for the use of the peasants,
+were sold for a trifle in most of the innumerable shops along
+the road. For such stupid regulations as in former times in
+Europe rendered traffic in the country difficult, and often obliged
+the countryman to betake himself to the nearest town to buy
+some horse-shoes or a roll of wire, appear not to be found in
+Japan, on which account most of the peasants living on a
+country road seek a subsidiary way of making a living by
+trafficking in small articles in request among the country people.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page360" id="v2page360"></a>[ pg 360 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>Incidents of the sort referred to we had seen so many times
+before that on this occasion it would not have attracted any
+further attention on our part, if we had not thereby been
+reminded that we must look after our own exterior, before we
+could make our entrance into the capital of Japan. We therefore
+took from the carriage our basket with linen, shaving
+implements, and towels, settled down around the stream of
+water at which the girls stood, and immediately began to
+wash and shave ourselves. There was now general excitement.
+The girls ceased to go on with their own toilet, and crowded
+round us in a ring in order to see how Europeans behave in
+such cases, and to give us the assistance that might be required.
+Some ran laughing and bustling about, one on the top of another,
+in order immediately to procure us what we wanted, one held
+the mirror, another the shaving-brush, a third the soap, &amp;c.
+Round them gathered other elder women, whose blackened
+teeth indicated that they were married. A little farther off
+stood men of all ages. Chance had here quite unexpectedly
+shown us a picture from folk-life of the most agreeable kind. This
+pleasant temper continued while we immediately after, in the
+presence of all, ate our breakfast in the porch of the ground-floor,
+surrounded by our former ministering spirits, now kneeling
+around us, continually bowing the head to the ground, laughing
+and chattering. The same fun went on when a little after
+I bought some living fresh-water fishes and put them in spirit,
+yet with the difference that the girls now, with some cries, to
+show their fear of handling the living animals&mdash;though fish-cleaning
+was one of their ordinary occupations&mdash;handed over to
+the men the trouble of taking the fishes and putting them into
+the spirit-jars. For a worm placed in spirit they feigned the
+greatest terror, notwithstanding its covering of spirit and
+glass, and ran shrieking away when any one suddenly brought
+the jar with the worm near their faces. It ought to be noted
+to the honour of the Japanese, that although we were by no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page361" id="v2page361"></a>[ pg 361 ]</span>
+means surrounded by any select circle, there was not heard
+during the whole time a single offensive word among the
+closely-packed spectators, a fact which gives us an idea of the
+excellent tone of society which prevails here, even among
+the lowest of the population, and which shows that the
+Japanese, although they have much to learn from the Europeans,
+ought not to imitate them in all. In Japan there is much
+that is good, old, and national to take note of, perhaps more
+than the Japanese at present have any idea of, and undoubtedly
+more than many of the European residents will allow.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn379"></a><a href="#v2rn379">[379]</a> On the contrary, we saw a number of beggars on the country roads in
+the neighbourhood of Yokohama.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn380"></a><a href="#v2rn380">[380]</a> <i>Voyage de M. Golovin</i>, Paris, 1818, i. p. 176. Golovin, who was captain
+in the Russian navy, passed the years 1811-13 in imprisonment in
+Japan.  He and his comrades in misfortune were received with great
+friendliness by the people, and very well treated by the authorities, if we
+except the exceedingly tedious examinations to which they were subjected
+to extract from them the most minute particulars regarding Europe, and
+particularly Russia. </p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn381"></a><a href="#v2rn381">[381]</a> General Grant, as is well known, visited Japan in the autumn of 1879.
+He left Yokohama the day after the <i>Vega</i> anchored in its harbour.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn382"></a><a href="#v2rn382">[382]</a> According to the statement of the inhabitants, I had not time to visit
+the place.</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page362" id="v2page362"></a>[ pg 362 ]</span>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a><h2>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2>
+
+<p>Farewell dinner at Yokohama&mdash;The Chinese in Japan&mdash;Voyage to Kobe&mdash;Purchase
+of Japanese Books&mdash;Journey by rail to Kioto&mdash;Biwa Lake
+and the Legend of its Origin&mdash;Dredging there&mdash;Japanese Dancing-Girls&mdash;Kioto&mdash;The
+Imperial Palace&mdash;Temples&mdash;Swords and Sword-bearers&mdash;Shintoism
+and Buddhism&mdash;The Porcelain Manufacture&mdash;Japanese
+Poetry&mdash;Feast in a Buddhist Temple&mdash;Sailing across the
+Inland Sea of Japan&mdash;Landing at Hirosami and Shimonoseki&mdash;Nagasaki
+&mdash;Excursion to Mogi&mdash;Collection of Fossil Plants&mdash;Departure from
+Japan.</p>
+
+<p>The last days at Yokohama were taken up with farewell visits
+there and at Tokio. An afternoon's leisure during the last day
+I spent in the capital of Japan I employed in making an excursion
+in order to dredge from a Japanese boat in the river
+debouching at the town. The Japanese boats differ from the
+European in being propelled not by rowing but by sculling.
+They have usually a deck above the level of the water, which
+is dazzlingly white and laid with matting, like the rooms in a
+Japanese house. The dredging yielded a great number of
+Anodonta, large Paludina, and some small shells.</p>
+
+<p>During our stay in Japan I requested Lieutenant Nordquist
+to make as complete a collection of the land and fresh-water
+crustacea of the country as the short time permitted. In consequence
+of the unusual poverty of the country in these animal
+forms the result was much smaller than we had hoped. During
+a preceding voyage to the Polar Sea I had assisted in making
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page363" id="v2page363"></a>[ pg 363 ]</span>
+a collection of land crustacea on Renoe, an island north of the
+limit of trees in the outer archipelago of northern Norway. It is
+possible to collect there in a few hours as many annuals of this
+group as in fertile Japan in as many days. There are parts of Japan,
+covered with thick woods and thickets of bushes, where during
+a forenoon's excursion one can scarcely find a single crustacean,
+although the ground is full of deep, shady clefts in which
+masses of dried leaves are collected, and which therefore ought
+to be an exceedingly suitable haunt for land mollusca. The
+reason of this poverty ought perhaps to be sought in the want
+of chalk or basic calcareous rocks, which prevails in the parts of
+Japan which we visited.</p>
+
+<p>After the Swedish-Dutch minister had further given us a
+splendid farewell dinner at the Grand Hotel, to which, as before,
+the Japanese minsters and the representatives of the foreign
+powers in Japan were invited, we at last weighed anchor on the
+11th October to prosecute our voyage. At this dinner we saw
+for the first time the Chinese embassy which at the time visited
+Japan with the view of settling the troublesome Loo-Choo affair
+which threatened to lead to a war between the two great powers
+of Eastern Asia. The Chinese ambassadors were, as usual, two
+in number, being commissioned to watch one over the other.
+One of them laughed immoderately at all that was said during
+dinner, although he did not understand a word. According
+to what I was told by one who had much experience in the
+customs of the heavenly empire, he did this, not because he
+heard or understood anything worth laughing at, but because
+he considered it good manners to laugh.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable was the interest which the Chinese labourers
+settled at Yokohama took in our voyage, about which they
+appeared to have read something in their own or in the
+Japanese newspapers. When I sent one of the sailors ashore
+to execute a commission, and asked him how he could do that
+without any knowledge of the language, he replied, &quot;There is no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page364" id="v2page364"></a>[ pg 364 ]</span>
+fear, I always meet with some Chinaman who speaks English
+and helps me.&quot; The Chinese not only always assisted our
+sailors as interpreters without remuneration, but accompanied
+them for hours, gave them good advice in making purchases,
+and expressed their sympathy with all that they must have
+suffered during our wintering in the high north. They were
+always cleanly, tall, and stately in their figures, and corresponded
+in no particular to the calumnious descriptions we so often read
+of this people in European and American writings.</p>
+
+<p>From Yokohama the course was shaped for Kobe, one of the
+more considerable Japanese ports which have been opened to
+Europeans. Kobe is specially remarkable on account of its
+having railway communication with Osaka, the most important
+manufacturing town of Japan, and with Kioto, the ancient
+capital and seat of the Mikado's court for centuries.</p>
+
+<p>I had already begun at Yokohama to buy Japanese books,
+particularly such as were printed before the opening of the
+ports to Europeans. In order to carry on this traffic with
+greater success, I had procured the assistance of a young
+Japanese very familiar with French, Mr. OKUSCHI, assistant in
+Dr. Geertz' chemico-technical laboratory at Yokohama. But
+because the supply of old books in this town, which a few years
+ago had been of little importance, was very limited, I had at
+first, in order to make purchases on a large scale, repeatedly
+sent Mr. Okuschi to Tokio, the seat of the former Shogun
+dynasty, and from that town, before the departure of the <i>Vega</i>
+from Yokohama, to Kioto, the former seat of learning in Japan.
+The object of the <i>Vega's</i> call at the port of Kobe was to fetch
+the considerable purchases made there by Mr. Okuschi<a name="v2rn383"></a><a href="#v2fn383">[383]</a></p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page365" id="v2page365"></a>[ pg 365 ]</span>
+
+<p>Kobe, or Hiogo, as the old Japanese part of the town is
+called, is a city of about 40,000 inhabitants, beautifully situated
+at the entrance to the Inland Sea of Japan, <i>i.e.</i>, the sound
+which separates the main island from the south islands, Shikoku
+and Kiushiu. Mountain ridges of considerable height here run
+along the sea-shore. Some of the houses of the European
+merchants are built on the lower slopes of these hills, with high,
+beautiful, forest-clad heights as a background, and a splendid
+view of the harbour in front. The Japanese part of the town
+consists, as usual, of small houses which, on the side next the
+street, are occupied mainly with sale or work-shops where the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page366" id="v2page366"></a>[ pg 366 ]</span>
+whole family lives all day. The streets have thus a very lively
+appearance, and offer the foreigner an endless variety of remarkable
+and instructive pictures from the life of the people. The
+European part of the town, on the other hand, is built with
+stately houses, some of which are situated on the street that runs
+along the shore. Here, among others, are to be found splendid
+European hotels, European clubs, counting-houses, shops, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Kobe, and having railway communication with
+it, is Osaka, the largest manufacturing town of Japan, famed for
+its theatres and its dancing-girls. Unfortunately I had not time
+to visit it, for I started for the old capital, Kioto, a few hours
+after the <i>Vega</i> anchored, and after I had waited on the governor
+in order to procure the passport that is still required for travelling
+in the interior. He received me, thanks to a letter of introduction
+I had with me from one of the ministers at Tokio,
+in an exceedingly agreeable way. His reception-room was part
+of a large European stone house, the vestibule of which was
+tastefully fitted up in European style with a Brussels carpet
+gay with variegated colours. At our visit we were offered
+Japanese tea, as is customary everywhere in Japan, both in the
+palace of the Emperor and the cabin of the poor peasant. The
+Governor was, as all the higher officials in Japan now are,
+dressed like a European of distinction, but he could not speak
+any European language. He showed himself, however, to be
+much interested in our voyage, and immediately ordered an
+official in his court, who was well acquainted with English,
+Mr. YANIMOTO, to accompany me to Kioto.</p>
+
+<p>We travelled thither by a railway constructed wholly in the
+European style. At Kioto my companion, at my special request,
+conducted me not to the European hotel there, but to a
+Japanese inn, remarkable as usual for cleanliness, for a
+numerous crowd of talkative female attendants, and for the
+extreme friendliness of the inn people to then guests as soon
+as they indicated, by taking off then boots at the door, that it</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page367" id="v2page367"></a>[ pg 367 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p377.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p377.png" alt="JAPANESE SHOP." ></a>
+JAPANESE SHOP.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page369" id="v2page369"></a>[ pg 369 ]</span>
+<p>was their intention not to break Japanese customs and usages
+in any offensive way. A calling card and a letter from Admiral
+Kawamura, minister of marine, which I sent from the hotel to
+the Governor of Kioto, procured me an adjutant No. 2, a young,
+cheerful, and talkative official, Mr. KOBA-YASCHI, whose eyes
+sparkled with intelligence and merry good humour. One would
+sooner have taken him for a highly-esteemed student president
+at some northern university, than for a Japanese official. It
+was already late in the day, so that before nightfall I had time
+only to take the bath which, at every Japanese inn not of too
+inferior a kind, is always at the traveller's call, and arrange the
+dreding excursion which, along with Lieut. Nordquist, I
+intended to make next day on Lake Biwa.</p>
+
+<p>The road between Kioto and Biwa we travelled the following
+morning in <i>jinrikishas</i>. In a short time there will be communication
+between these two places by a railway constructed
+exclusively by native workmen and native engineers. It will
+be, and is intended to be, an actual Japanese railway. For a
+considerable distance it passes through a tunnel, which, however,
+as some of the Europeans at Kobe stated, might easily
+have been avoided &quot;if the Japanese had not considered it
+desirable that Japan, too, should have a railway tunnel to
+show, as such are found both in Europe and America.&quot; It is
+probable, in any case, that the bends which would have been
+required if the tunnel was to be avoided, would have cost more
+by the additional length than the tunnel, and that therefore the
+procedure of the Japanese was better considered than their
+envious European neighbours would allow. There appears to
+prevail among the European residents in Japan a certain
+jealousy of the facility with which this country, till recently so
+far behind in an industrial respect, assimilates the skill in art
+and industry of the Europeans, and of the rapidity with which
+the people thereby make themselves independent of the wares
+of the foreign merchants.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page370" id="v2page370"></a>[ pg 370 ]</span>
+<p>When we reached Lake Biwa we were conducted by Mr.
+Koba-Yaschi to an inn close by the shore, with a splendid view
+of the southern part of the lake. We were shown into beautiful
+Japanese rooms, which had evidently been arranged for the
+reception of Europeans, and in which accordingly some tables
+and chairs had been placed. On the tables we found, on our
+arrival, bowls, with fruit and confections, Japanese tea, and
+braziers. The walls were formed partly of tastefully gilt paper
+panels ornamented with mottoes, reminding visitors of the
+splendid view.</p>
+
+<p>A whole day of the short time which was allowed me to
+study the remarkable things of Kioto I devoted to Lake Biwa,
+because lakes are exceedingly uncommon in the south, for they
+occur only in the countries which have either been covered with
+glaciers in the most recent geological periods, or, in consequence
+of the action of volcanic forces, have been the scene of violent
+disturbances of the surface of the earth. I believed that Lake
+Biwa would form an exception to this, but I was probably
+mistaken, for tradition relates that this lake was formed in a
+single night at the same time that the high volcanic cone of
+Fusiyama was elevated. This tradition, in its general outline,
+corresponds so closely with the teaching of geology, that scarcely
+any geologist will doubt its truth.</p>
+
+<p>After our arrival at the inn we had to wait a very long time
+for the steamer I had ordered. On this account I thoughtlessly
+enough broke out in reproaches on my excellent Japanese adjutants,
+who, however, received my hard words only with friendly
+smiles, which increased still further my impatience at the loss of
+time which was thus occasioned. It was not until far on in the
+day, when I was already out dredging from a small steamer, that
+I was informed as to the cause of the delay. The Biwa Steamship
+Company had, at the request of the Governor, intended to place
+at my disposal a very large boat well provided with coal, but after
+taking the coal on board it had sunk so deep that it grounded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page371" id="v2page371"></a>[ pg 371 ]</span>
+in the mud of the harbour. We had already got far out with
+the little steamer when the large one at last got off. I was
+now obliged to exchange vessels in order to be received &quot;in a
+more honourable way.&quot; It was not until this took place that
+I was informed that I was guest and not master, on which
+account I was obliged to employ the rest of the afternoon in
+excusing my former violent behaviour, in which, with the help
+of friendly words, beer, and red wine, I succeeded pretty well,
+to judge by the mirth which soon began to prevail among my
+now very numerous Japanese companions.</p>
+
+<p>On the little steamer I had ordered two of my crew whom I
+had brought with me from the <i>Vega</i> to prepare a meal for the
+Japanese and ourselves. In this way the dinner that had been
+arranged for us, without my knowledge, became superfluous.
+I was obliged instead to receive as a gift the provisions and
+liquors purchased for the dinner, consisting of fowls, eggs,
+potatoes, red wine and beer, giving at the same time a receipt
+as a matter of form.</p>
+
+<p>During our excursion on the lake we met with various boats
+laden with sea-weed, which had been taken up from the bottom
+of the lake to be used as manure for the neighbouring cultivated
+fields. Partly among these alg&aelig;, partly by dredging,
+Lieut. Nordquist collected various interesting fresh-water crustacea
+(Paludina, Melania, Unio, Planorbis &amp;c.,) several sorts
+of shrimps (a Hippolyte) small fishes, &amp;c. Lake Biwa abounds
+in fish, and harbours besides a large clumsily-formed species of
+lizard. In order to make further collections of the animal
+forms occurring there, Lieut. Nordquist remained at the lake
+till next day. I, on the other hand, went immediately back to
+Kioto, arriving there in the evening after nightfall.</p>
+
+<p>After having eaten, along with my two Japanese companions,
+an unexceptionable European dinner at the inn of the town,
+kept by Japanese, but arranged in European style, we paid a
+visit to a company of Japanese dancing-girls.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page372" id="v2page372"></a>[ pg 372 ]</span>
+<p>Kioto competes with Osaka for the honour of having the
+prettiest dancing-girls. These form a distinct class of young
+girls, marked by a peculiar variegated dress. They wear besides
+a peculiar hair-ornament, are much painted, and have their lips
+coloured black and gold. At the dancing places of greatest note
+a European is not received, unless he has with him a known
+native who answers for his courteous behaviour. After taking
+off his shoes on entering, the visitor is introduced to a separate
+room with its floor covered with matting and its walls ornamented
+with Japanese drawings and mottoes, but without
+other furniture. A small square cushion is given to each of the
+guests. After they have settled themselves in Japanese fashion,
+that is to say, squatting cross-legged, pipes and tea are brought
+in, on which a whole crowd of young girls come in and, chatting
+pleasantly, settle themselves around the guests, observing all the
+while complete decency even according to the most exacting
+European ideas. There is not to be seen here any trace of the
+effrontery and coarseness which are generally to be found in
+similar places in Europe. One would almost believe that he
+was among a crowd of school-girls who had given the sour moral
+lessons of their governess the slip, and were thinking of nothing
+else than innocently gossiping away some hours. After a while
+the dance begins, accompanied by very monotonous music and
+singing. The slow movements of the legs and arms of the
+dancers remind us of certain slow and demure scenes from
+European ballets. There is nothing indecent in this dance,
+but we learn that there are other dances wilder and less
+decorous.</p>
+
+<p>The dancing-girls are recruited exclusively from the poorer
+classes, pretty young girls, to help their parents or to earn some
+styvers for themselves, selling themselves for a certain time to
+the owners of the dancing-places, and when the time agreed
+upon has come to an end returning to their homes, where notwithstanding
+this they marry without difficulty. All the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page373" id="v2page373"></a>[ pg 373 ]</span>
+dancing-girls therefore are young, many of them pretty even
+according to European ideas, though their appearance is
+destroyed in our eyes by the tasteless way in which they
+paint themselves and colour their lips. Unfortunately I had
+not time to avail myself of the opportunity which Kioto offers
+the foreigner of judging with certainty regarding the Japanese
+taste in female beauty. For here, as at various other Japanese
+towns, there are a number of girls who have been officially
+selected as the most beautiful among the youth of the place.
+The Japanese may visit them for a certain payment, but to
+Europeans they do not show themselves willingly, and only
+for a large sum. When this takes place at any time, it is
+only a dumb show for a few moments, during which no
+words are exchanged.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p383.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p383.png" alt="JAPANESE COURT DRESS." ></a>
+JAPANESE COURT DRESS.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page374" id="v2page374"></a>[ pg 374 ]</span>
+<p>The Governor had promised to carry me round next day
+to see whatever was remarkable in the town. I was not much
+delighted at this, because I feared that the whole day would
+be taken up with inspecting the whole or half-European
+public offices and schools, which had not the slightest interest
+for me. My fear however was quite unjustified. The Governor
+was a man of genius, who,
+according to the statements of
+my companions, was reckoned
+among the first of the contemporary
+poets of Japan. He
+immediately declared that he
+supposed that the new public
+offices and schools would interest
+me much less than the
+old palaces, temples, porcelain
+and <i>fa&iuml;ence</i> manufactories of
+the town, and that he therefore
+intended to employ the
+day I spent under his guidance
+in showing me the latter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p384.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p384.png" alt="NOBLE IN ANTIQUE DRESS." ></a>
+NOBLE IN ANTIQUE DRESS.
+</div>
+
+<p>We made a beginning with the
+old imperial palace Gosho, the
+most splendid dwelling of Old
+Japan. It is not however very
+grand according to European
+ideas. A very extensive space
+of ground is here covered with
+a number of one-story wooden houses, intended for the Emperor,
+the imperial family, and their suite. The buildings are, like all
+Japanese houses, divided by movable panels into a number of
+rooms, richly provided with paintings and gilded ornamentation,
+but otherwise without a trace of furniture. For the palace now
+stands uninhabited since the Mikado overthrew the Shogun
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page375" id="v2page375"></a>[ pg 375 ]</span>
+dynasty and removed to Tokio. It already gives a striking
+picture of the change which has taken place in the land. Only the
+imperial family and the great men of the country were formerly
+permitted to enter the sacred precincts of Gosho. Now it
+stands open to every curious native or foreigner and it has
+even as an exhibition building been already pressed into the
+service of industry. Alongside
+the large buildings there are
+several small ones, of which
+one was intended to protect
+the Emperor-deity during
+earthquakes, the others formed
+play-places for the company of
+grown children who were then
+permitted to govern the country.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p385.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p385.png" alt="BUDDHIST PRIEST." ></a>
+BUDDHIST PRIEST.
+</div>
+
+<p>Much more remarkable and
+instructive than the now deserted
+imperial palace are the
+numerous temples at Kioto, of
+which we visited several. We
+were generally received by the
+priests in a large vestibule,
+whose floor was covered with a
+fine woollen carpet and was provided
+with tables and chairs of
+European patterns. The priests
+first offered us Japanese tea,
+cigars, and sweetmeats, then we
+examined some valuable articles exhibited in the room, consisting
+of bronzes, works in the noble metals, splendid old lacquer work,
+and a number of famous swords dedicated to the temple. These
+were the only things that our freethinking Governor treated with
+reverence, for the rest neither the priests nor their reliques
+seemed to inspire him with any particular respect.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page376" id="v2page376"></a>[ pg 376 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p386.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p386.png" alt="A Samurai." ></a>
+A Samurai.
+</div>
+
+<p>When a valuable Japanese sword is exhibited one touches
+neither the hilt nor the scabbard, and of course still less the
+blade, with the bare hand, but it is taken hold of either with a
+gloved hand, or with the hand with a handkerchief or piece of
+cloth wrapped round it. The blade is only half bared, the
+steel setting is looked at against the light and admired; on the
+often exceedingly valuable
+blades which are not mounted,
+but only provided with
+a wooden case to protect
+them from rust, the maker's
+mark is examined, and so
+on. As among us in former
+times, the swordsmith's is
+the only handicraft which
+in old times was held in
+high esteem in Japan, and
+immense sums were often
+paid for sword-blades forged
+by famous masters of the art.
+Among old Japanese writings
+are to be found many works
+specially treating of the
+making of weapons. But
+since the swordsmen (<i>samurai</i>)
+have now been forbidden
+to show themselves armed,
+old Japanese swords are
+sold in all the towns by hundreds and thousands, often for a
+trifle. During our stay in the country I purchased for a comparatively
+limited sum a fine collection of such weapons. Even
+those who cannot appreciate the artistic forging of the blade,
+the steel-setting, and tempering, must admire the exceedingly
+tasteful casting and embossing of the ornamentation, especially
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page377" id="v2page377"></a>[ pg 377 ]</span>
+of the guard-plates of the sword. They are often veritable
+works of art, unsurpassed in style and execution.</p>
+
+<p>It is not very many years ago since the men who belonged to
+the <i>samurai</i> class never showed themselves abroad without
+being armed with two swords. Even schoolboys went armed to
+the first European schools that were established in the country.
+This gave occasion to several acts of violence during the time
+which succeeded the opening of the ports, for which reason the
+European ambassadors some years after requested that carrying
+the sword in time of peace should be prohibited. To this the
+Japanese government answered that it would make short work
+with the minister who should publish such a prohibition. Soon
+after, however, it gave <i>permission</i> to those who desired it to go
+without weapons, and the carrying of arms soon became so unfashionable
+that one of the authorities did dare at last to issue a
+distinct prohibition of it. During our stay in Japan, accordingly,
+we did not see a single man armed with the two swords formerly
+in use.</p>
+
+<p>After we had seen and admired the treasures in the temple
+vestibule, we visited the temple itself. This is always of wood,
+richly ornamented with carvings and gilding. If it is dedicated
+to Shinto, there are no images in it, and very few ornaments, if
+we except a mirror and a large locked press with the doors
+smashed in, which sometimes occupies the wall opposite the
+entrance, and in which, as I have already stated, the spirit of the
+deity is said to dwell. The Shinto temples are in general poor.
+Many are so inconsiderable as to look almost like dovecotes.
+They are often completely deserted, so that it is difficult to
+discover them among the magnificent trees by which they were
+surrounded. The entrance to the temple is indicated by a gate
+(<i>torryi</i>) of wood, stone, or copper, and here and there are ropes,
+stretched over the way, to which written prayers and vows are
+affixed.</p>
+
+<p>Even those who have long studied Japan and its literature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page378" id="v2page378"></a>[ pg 378 ]</span>
+have very little knowledge of the inner essence of Shintoism.
+This religion is considered by some a pure deism, by others a
+belief with political aims, the followers of which worship the
+departed heroes of the country. Of a developed morality this
+religion is wholly devoid. In the same way it appears to be
+uncertain whether Shintoism is a survival of the original religion
+of the country or whether it has been brought from abroad.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p388.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p388.png" alt="GATE ACROSS THE ROAD TO A SHINTO TEMPLE." ></a>
+GATE ACROSS THE ROAD TO A SHINTO TEMPLE.
+</div>
+
+<p>Buddhism was introduced from China by Corea. Its temples
+are more ornamented than the Shinto temples, and contain images
+of deities, bells, drums, holy books, and a great quantity of altar
+ornaments. The transmigration of souls, and rewards and
+punishments in a life after this, are doctrines of Buddhism.
+Outside the temples proper there are to be found in many places
+large or small images in stone or bronze of the deities of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page379" id="v2page379"></a>[ pg 379 ]</span>
+Buddha. The largest of these consist of colossal statues in
+bronze (<i>Daibutsu</i>), representing Buddha in a sitting position, and
+themselves forming the screen to a temple with smaller images.
+A similar statue is also to be found at Kamakura, another at</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p389.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p389.png" alt="BUDDHIST TEMPLE AT KOBE." ></a>
+BUDDHIST TEMPLE AT KOBE.
+</div>
+
+<p>Tokio, a third at Nara near Kioto, and so on. Some have of
+late years been sold for the value of the metal, one has in this
+way been brought to London, and is now exhibited in the
+Kensington Museum. The metal of the statues consists of an
+alloy of copper with tin and a little gold, the last named
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page380" id="v2page380"></a>[ pg 380 ]</span>
+constituent giving rise to the report that their value is very
+considerable. To give an idea of the size of some <i>Daibutsu</i>
+statues it may be mentioned that the one at Nara is fifty-three
+and a half feet high, and that one can crawl into the head
+through the nose orifices.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the <i>Daibutsu</i> images are made after nearly the
+same design, which has been improved from generation to
+generation until the countenance of the image has received a
+stamp of benevolence, calm, and majesty, which has probably never
+been surpassed by the productions of western art. <i>Daibutsu</i>
+images evidently stand in the same relation to the works of
+private sculptors as folk-poetry to that of individual bards.</p>
+
+<p>As I have before pointed out, the Western taste for the
+gigantic was not prevalent in Old Japan. It was evidently
+elegance and neatness, not grandeur, that formed the object
+towards which the efforts of the artist, the architect, and
+the gardener were directed. Only the <i>Daibutsu</i> images, some
+bells, and other instruments of worship form exceptions to
+this. During our excursion at Kioto we passed an inclosure
+where the walls were built of blocks of stone so colossal, that
+it was difficult to comprehend how it had been possible to
+lift and move them with the means that were at the disposal
+of the Japanese in former times. In the neighbourhood
+of that place there was a grave, probably the only one of its
+kind. It is described in the following way in an account of
+the curiosities of Kioto written by a native:&mdash;</p>
+<br>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Mimisuka, or the grave of the noses and the ears, was
+erected by Hideyoshi Taiko, who lived about A.D. 1590. When
+the military chiefs of this famous man attacked Corea with
+a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers, he gave orders that they
+should bring home and show him all the ears and noses of the
+enemies who were killed in the contest, for it was an old
+practice in Japan to cut off the enemies' heads to show them
+to the king or the commander of the army. But it was now
+impossible to bring the heads of the dead Corean warriors to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page381" id="v2page381"></a>[ pg 381 ]</span>
+Japan, because the distance was too great. Hideyoshi therefore
+gave the above order, and the ears and noses, which were brought
+to Japan, were buried together at that place. The grave is
+730 feet in circumference, and is 30 feet high.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Kioto is one of the principal places for the manufacture of
+<i>fa&iuml;ence</i>, porcelain, and <i>cloisonn&eacute;</i>. The productions of the ceramic
+art are, as is well-known, distinguished by their tasteful forms
+and beautiful colours, and are highly valued by connoisseurs,
+on which account they are exported on a large scale to Europe
+and America. The works are numerous and small, and are
+owned for the most part by families that for a long succession
+of generations have devoted themselves to the same occupation.
+The articles are burned in very small furnaces, and are commonly
+sold in a shop which is close to the place where they are made.
+The making of porcelain in Japan, therefore, bears the stamp
+rather of handicraft than of manufacturing industry. The wares
+gain thereby in respect of art to an almost incredible degree.
+They have the same relation to the productions of the great
+European manufactories that the drawing of an artist has to
+a showily coloured lithograph. But the price is high in proportion,
+and the Japanese porcelain is too dear for every-day use
+even in its own country. Nearly all the large sets of table
+porcelain that I saw in Japan were, therefore, ordered from
+abroad. The cups which the natives themselves use for rice,
+tea, and <i>saki</i> are, however, of native manufacture; but even
+in a well-provided Japanese household there is seldom so much
+porcelain as would be required for a proper coffee-party
+at home.</p>
+
+<p>In the evening the Governor had invited us to a dinner,
+which was given in a hall belonging to a literary society in
+the town. The rooms were partly furnished in European style
+with tables, chairs, Brussels carpets, &amp;c. The dinner was
+European in the arrangement of dishes, wines, and speeches.
+The dishes and wines were abundant and in great variety. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page382" id="v2page382"></a>[ pg 382 ]</span>
+company were very merry, and the host appeared to be greatly
+pleased, when I mentioned that at one of the places which I
+had seen that day I saw a wall adorned by a motto of his
+composition. He immediately promised to write a similar one
+on me with reference to my visit to the town, and when a few
+moments after he had the first line ready, he invited his
+Japanese guests to write the second. They tried for a good
+while with merry jests to hit upon some suitable conclusion,
+but in vain. Early the following morning Mr. Koba-Yaschi
+came to me, bringing with him a broad strip of silk on
+which the following was pencilled in bold, nobly-formed
+characters:</p>
+
+Umi hara-no-hate-made<br>
+Akiva-Sumi-watare,<br>
+
+<p>which when translated runs thus:</p>
+
+&quot;As far as the sea extends<br>
+The autumn moon spreads her beneficent light.&quot;<br>
+
+<p>According to the explanation which I received the piece
+points out that the autumn moon spreads her beneficent rays
+as far as to that place in the high north where we wintered.
+After the above-quoted verse came the following addition in
+Japanese: &quot;Written by Machimura Masanavo, Governor of
+Kioto-Fu, to Professor Nordenski&ouml;ld, on the occasion of a dinner
+given to him during the autumn of 1879.&quot; The whole besides
+was signed with the author's common, as well as his poetical,
+name, and had his seal attached. His poetical name was RIO-SAN,
+which may be literally translated &quot;Dragon-Mountain.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The poetry of the Japanese is so unlike that of the Western
+nations that we find it difficult to comprehend the productions
+of the Japanese poets. Perhaps they ought more correctly to
+be called poetical mottoes. They play a great part in the
+intellectual life of the Japanese. Their authors are highly
+esteemed, and even in the homes of the poorer classes the walls
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page383" id="v2page383"></a>[ pg 383 ]</span>
+are often ornamented with strips of silk or paper on which
+poems are written in large, bold, pencil characters. Among the
+books I brought home with me are many which contain
+collections of the writings of private poets and poetesses, or
+selections from the most famous of the productions of Japanese
+literature in this department. A roll of drawings which turned
+up very often represents the sorrowful fate of a famous poetess.
+First of all she is depicted as a representative Japanese beauty,
+blooming with youth and grace, then she is represented in
+different stages of decay, then as dead, then as a half-decayed</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:30%;"><a href="images/v2p393.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p393.png" alt="RIO SAN'S SEAL." ></a>
+RIO SAN'S SEAL.
+</div>
+
+<p>corpse torn asunder by ravens, and finally as a heap of bones.
+The series ends with a cherry-tree in splendid bloom, into which
+the heroine, after her body had passed through all the stages of
+annihilation, has been changed. The cherry-tree in blossom is
+considered by the Japanese the ideal of beauty in the vegetable
+kingdom, and during the flowering season of this tree excursions
+are often undertaken to famous cherry-groves where hour after
+hour is passed in tranquil admiration of the flower-splendour
+of the tree. Unfortunately I was so late in getting the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page384" id="v2page384"></a>[ pg 384 ]</span>
+explanation of the beautiful poetical idea that ran through
+this series of pictures, some of which were executed with
+execrable truth to nature, that I missed the opportunity of
+purchasing it.</p>
+
+<p>I was obliged to leave Kioto too early in order to be present
+at a <i>f&ecirc;te</i>, which was given to us at Kobe by the Japanese,
+Europeans, and Chinese who were interested in our voyage.
+The entertainment was held in a Buddhist temple without
+the town, and was very pleasant and agreeable. The Japanese
+did not seem at all to consider that their temple was desecrated
+by such an arrangement. In the course of the afternoon for
+instance there came several pilgrims to the temple. I observed
+them carefully, and could not mark in their countenances any
+trace of displeasure at a number of foreigners feasting in the
+beautiful temple grove whither they had come on pilgrimage.
+They appeared rather to consider that they had come to
+the goal of their wanderings at a fortunate moment, and
+therefore gladly accepted the refreshments that were
+offered them.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of the 18th October the <i>Vega</i> again weighed
+anchor, to proceed on her voyage. The course was shaped
+through the Inland Sea of Japan for Nagasaki. When I
+requested of the Governor of Kobe permission to land at two
+places on the way, he not only immediately granted my request,
+but also sent on the <i>Vega</i> the same English-speaking official
+from his court who had before attended me to Kioto. The
+weather was clear and fine, so that we had a good opportunity
+of admiring the magnificent environs of the Inland Sea. They
+resemble much the landscape in a northern archipelago. The
+views here are however more monotonous in consequence of
+their being less variety in the contours of the mountains.
+Here as at Kobe the hills consist mainly of a species of granite
+which is exposed to weathering on so large a scale that the
+hard rocks are nearly everywhere decomposed into a yellow</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page385" id="v2page385"></a>[ pg 385 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p395.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p395.png" alt="BURYING PLACE AT KIOTO." ></a>
+BURYING PLACE AT KIOTO.
+</div>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page386" id="v2page386"></a>[ pg 386 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page387" id="v2page387"></a>[ pg 387 ]</span>
+<p>sand unfavourable for vegetation. The splendid wild granite
+cliffs of the north accordingly are absent here. All the hill-tops
+are evenly rounded, and everywhere, except where there has
+been a sand-slip, covered with a rich vegetation, which in
+consequence of the evenness of height of the trees gives little
+variety to the landscape, which otherwise is among the most
+beautiful on the globe.</p>
+
+<p>We landed at two places, on the first occasion at Hirosami.
+Here some fishermens' cabins and some peasants' houses formed
+a little village at the foot of a high, much-weathered granite
+ridge. The burying-place was situated near one of the houses,
+close to the shore. On an area of some hundred square yards
+there were numerous gravestones, some upright, some fallen.
+Some were ornamented with fresh flowers, at one was a Shinto
+shrine of wooden pins, at another stood a bowl with rice and a
+small <i>saki</i> bottle. Our zoologists here made a pretty rich
+collection of littoral animals, among which may be mentioned a
+cuttle-fish which had crept down amongst the wet sand, an
+animal that is industriously searched for and eaten by the
+natives. Among the cultivated plants we saw here, as many
+times before in the high-lying parts of the country, an old
+acquaintance from home, namely buckwheat.</p>
+
+<p>The second time the <i>Vega</i> anchored at a peasant village right
+opposite Shimonoseki. When we landed there came an official
+on board, courteously declaring that we had no right to land at
+that place. But he was immediately satisfied and made no
+more difficulties when he was informed that we had the
+permission of the Governor, and that instead of the usual passport
+an official from Kobe accompanied the vessel. Shimonoseki
+has a melancholy reputation in European-Japanese history from
+the deeds of violence done here by a united English, French,
+Dutch, and American fleet of seventeen vessels on the 4th
+and 5th September, 1864, in order to compel the Japanese to
+open the sound to foreigners, and the unreasonably heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page388" id="v2page388"></a>[ pg 388 ]</span>
+compensation which after the victory was won they demanded
+from the conquered. Although only fifteen years have passed
+since this occurred, there appears to be no trace of bitter feeling
+towards Europeans among the inhabitants of the region. At
+least we were received at the village in the neighbourhood of
+which we landed with extraordinary kindness. The village was
+situated at the foot of a rocky ridge, and consisted of a number
+of houses arranged in a row along a single street, the fronts of
+the houses being as usual occupied as shops, places for selling
+<i>saki</i>, and workshops for home industry. The only remarkable
+things besides that the village had to offer consisted of a Shinto
+temple surrounded by beautiful trees and a considerable salt-work,
+which consisted of extensive, shallow, well-planned ponds
+now nearly dry, into which the sea-water is admitted in order to</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p398.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p398.png" alt="ENTRANCE TO NAGASAKI." ></a>
+ENTRANCE TO NAGASAKI.
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page389" id="v2page389"></a>[ pg 389 ]</span>
+<p>evaporate, and from which the condensed salt liquid is
+afterwards drawn into salt-pans in order that the evaporation
+may be completed. It was remarkable to observe that
+several crustacea throve exceedingly well in the very
+strong brine.</p>
+
+<p>On the surrounding hills we saw thickets of the Japanese
+wax tree, <i>Rhus succedaneus</i>. The wax is pressed out of the
+berries of this bush with the help of heat. It is used on a
+large scale in making the lights which the natives themselves
+burn, and is exported bleached and refined to Europe, where it
+is sometimes used in the manufacture of lights. Now, however,
+these wax lights are increasingly superseded by American kerosene
+oil. The price has fallen so much that the preparation of
+vegetable wax is now said scarcely to yield a profit.<a name="v2rn384"></a><a href="#v2fn384">[384]</a></p>
+
+<p>We left this place next morning, and on the 21st October the
+<i>Vega</i> anchored in the harbour of Nagasaki. My principal
+intention in visiting this place was to collect fossil plants,
+which I supposed would be found at the Takasima coal-mine,
+or in the neighbourhood of the coal-field. In order to
+find out the locality without delay, I reckoned on the fondness of
+the Japanese for collecting remarkable objects of all kinds from
+the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. I therefore hoped
+to find in some of the shops where old bronzes, porcelain,
+weapons, &amp;c., were offered for sale, fossil plants from the neighbourhood,
+with the locality given. The first day, therefore, I
+ran about to all the dealers in curiosities, but without success.
+At last one of the Japanese with whom I conversed told me
+that an exhibition of the products of nature and art in the
+region was being arranged, and that among the objects exhibited
+I might possibly find what I sought for.</p>
+
+<p>Of course I immediately availed myself of the opportunity to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page390" id="v2page390"></a>[ pg 390 ]</span>
+see one of the many Japanese local exhibitions of which I had
+heard so much. It was yet in disorder, but I was, at all events,
+willingly admitted, and thus had an opportunity of seeing much
+that was instructive to me, especially a collection of rocks from
+the neighbourhood. Among these I discovered at last, to my
+great satisfaction, some beautiful fossil plants from Mogi, a place
+not far from Nagasaki.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately the following morning I started for Mogi, accompanied
+by the Japanese attendant I had with me from Kobe,
+and by another adjutant given me by the very obliging governor
+of Nagasaki. We were to travel across the hills on horseback.
+I was accompanied, besides my Japanese assistants and a
+man from the <i>Vega</i>, all on horseback, by a number of coolies
+carrying provisions and other equipment. The Governor had
+lent me his own horse, which was considered by the Japanese
+something quite grand. It was a yellowish-brown stallion, not
+particularly large, but very fine, resembling a Norwegian horse,
+very gentle and sure-footed. The latter quality was also quite
+necessary, for the journey began with a ride up a hundred
+smooth and not very convenient stone steps. Farther on, too,
+the road, which was exceedingly narrow and often paved with
+smooth stones, went repeatedly up and down such stairs, not very
+suitable for a man on horseback, and close to the edge of precipices
+several hundred feet deep, where a single false step would
+have cost both the horse and its rider their lives. But as has
+been said, our horses were sure-footed and sure-eyed, and the
+riders took care in passing such places not to pull the reins.</p>
+
+<p>None of the mountain regions I have seen in Japan are so well
+cultivated as the environs of Nagasaki. Every place that is somewhat
+level, though only several hundred square yards in extent, is
+used for growing some of the innumerable cultivated plants of
+the country, principally rice but as such easily cultivated places
+occur in only limited numbers, the inhabitants have by industry
+and hard labour changed the steep slopes of the mountains
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page391" id="v2page391"></a>[ pg 391 ]</span>
+into a succession of level terraces rising one above the other, all
+carefully watered by irrigating conduits.</p>
+
+<p>Mogi is a considerable fishing village lying at the seaside
+twenty kilometres south of Nagasaki in a right line, on the
+other side of a peninsula occupied by lava beds and volcanic
+tuffs, which projects from the island Kiushiu, which at that place
+is nearly cut asunder by deep fjords. No European lives at the
+place, and of course there is no European inn there. But we
+got lodgings in the house of one of the principal or richest men
+in the village, a maker and seller <i>of saki</i>, or as we would call
+him in Swedish, a brandy distiller and publican. Here we were
+received in a very friendly manner, in clean and elegant rooms,
+and were waited on by the young and very pretty daughter of
+our host at the head of a number of other female attendants.
+It may be supposed that our place of entertainment had no
+resemblance to a public-house in Sweden. We did not witness
+here the tipsy behaviour of some human wrecks, and as little
+some other incidents which might have reminded us of public-house
+life in Europe. All went on in the distillery and the
+public-house as calmly and quietly as the work in the house of
+a well-to-do country squire in Sweden who does not swear and
+is not quarrelsome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saki</i> is a liquor made by fermenting and distilling rice. It
+is very variable in taste and strength, sometimes resembling
+inferior Rhine wine, sometimes more like weak grain brandy.
+Along with <i>saki</i> our host also manufactured vinegar, which was
+made from rice and <i>saki</i> residues, which with the addition of
+some other vegetable substances were allowed to stand and
+acidify in large jars ranged in rows in the yard.</p>
+
+<p>When my arrival became known I was visited by the principal
+men of the village. We were soon good friends by the
+help of a friendly reception, cigars and red wine. Among
+them the physician of the village was especially of great use to
+me. As soon as he became aware of the occasion of my visit he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page392" id="v2page392"></a>[ pg 392 ]</span>
+stated that such fossils as I was in search of did indeed occur in
+the region, but that they were only accessible at low water. I
+immediately visited the place with the physician and my companions
+from Nagasaki, and soon discovered several strata
+containing the finest fossil plants one could desire. During
+this and the following day I made a rich collection, partly with
+the assistance of a numerous crowd of children who zealously
+helped me in collecting. They were partly boys and partly girls,
+the latter always having a little one on their backs. These little
+children were generally quite bare-headed. Notwithstanding
+this they slept with the crown of the head exposed to the hottest
+sun-bath on the backs of their bustling sisters, who jumped
+lightly and securely over stocks and stones, and never appeared
+to have any idea that the burdens on their backs were at all
+unpleasant or troublesome.</p>
+
+<p>According to Dr. A.G. NATHORST'S examination, the fossil
+plants which I brought home from this place belong to the
+more recent Tertiary formation. Our distinguished and acute
+vegetable paleontologist fixes attention on the point, that we
+would have expected to find here a fossil flora allied to the
+recent South Japanese, which is considered to be derived from
+a Tertiary flora which closely resembles it. There is, however,
+no such correspondence, for impressions of ferns are almost completely
+wanting at Mogi, and even of pines there is only a single
+leaf-bearing variety which closely resembles the Spitzbergen
+form of <i>Sequoia Langsdorfii</i>, Brag. On the other hand, there
+are met with, in great abundance, the leaves of a species of
+beech nearly allied to the red beech of America, <i>Fagus
+ferruginea</i>, Ait., but not resembling the recent Japanese
+varieties of the same family. There were found, besides, leaves
+of Quercus, Juglans, Populus, Myrica, Salix, Zelkova, Liquidambar,
+Acer, Prunus, Tilia, &amp;c., resembling leaves of recent
+types from the forests of Japan, from the forest flora of
+America, or from the temperate flora of the Himalayas. But</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page393" id="v2page393"></a>[ pg 393 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p403.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p403.png" alt="FOSSIL PLANTS FROM MOGI." ></a>
+FOSSIL PLANTS FROM MOGI.
+<br>1, 2. Beech Leaves (<i>Fagus ferruginea</i> Ait., var. <i>pliocena</i>, Nath.). 3. Maple Leaf (<i>Acer Mono</i>,
+Max., var. <i>pliocena</i>, Nath.).
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page394" id="v2page394"></a>[ pg 394 ]</span>
+as the place where they were found is situated at the sea-shore,
+quite close to the southern extremity of Japan, it is singular
+that the tropical or sub-tropical elements of the flora of Japan
+are here wanting. From this Dr. Nathorst draws the conclusion
+that these are not, as has been hitherto supposed, the
+remains of a flora originating in Japan, but that they have since
+migrated thither from a former continent situated further to the
+south, which has since disappeared. Dr. Nathorst's examination
+is not yet completed, but even if this were the case, want of
+space would not permit me to treat of this point at greater
+length. I cannot, however, omit to
+mention that it was highly agreeable
+to be able to connect with the memory
+of the <i>Vega</i> expedition at least
+a small contribution from more
+southerly lands to vegetable pal&aelig;ontology,
+a branch of knowledge to
+which our preceding Arctic expeditions
+yielded new additions of
+such importance through the fossil
+herbaria from luxuriant ancient
+forests which they brought to light
+from the ice-covered cliffs of Spitzbergen
+and from the basalt-covered
+sandstones and schists of the Noui-soak
+Peninsula in Greenland, now
+so bleak.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"><a href="images/v2p404.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p404.png" alt="FOSSIL PLANT FROM MOGI." ></a>
+FOSSIL PLANT FROM MOGI.
+<br>Leaf of <i>Zelkova Keakii</i> Sieb., var.
+<i>pliocena</i>, Nath.
+</div>
+
+<p>After our return from Mogi I made an excursion to the coal-mine
+at Takasami, situated on an island some kilometres from
+the town. Even here I succeeded in bringing together some
+further contributions to the former flora of the region.</p>
+
+<p>After the inhabitants of Nagasaki, too, had given us a grand
+parting feast, at which speeches were spoken in Japanese,
+Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Russian,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page395" id="v2page395"></a>[ pg 395 ]</span>
+Danish, and Swedish, a proof of the mixture of nationalities
+which prevailed there, the <i>Vega</i> again weighed anchor on the
+27th October, in order to continue her voyage. We now left
+Japan to commence in earnest our return, and on our departure
+we were saluted by the crews of two English gun-boats anchored
+in the harbour, the <i>Hornet</i> and the <i>Sylvia</i>, manning the yards
+and bulwarks. It was natural that the hour of departure, after
+fifteen months' absence from home, should be looked forward to
+with joy. But our joy was mixed with a regretful feeling that
+we were so soon compelled to leave&mdash;without the hope of ever
+returning&mdash;the magnificent country and noble people among
+whom a development is now going on which probably will not
+only give a new awakening to the old cultured races of Eastern
+Asia, but will also prepare a new soil for European science,
+industry, and art. It is difficult to foresee what new undreamed-of
+blossoms and fruit this soil will yield. But the Europeans
+are perhaps much mistaken who believe that the question here
+is only that of clothing an Asiatic feudal state in a modern
+European dress. Rather the day appears to me to dawn of a
+time in which the countries round the Mediterranean of eastern
+Asia will come to play a great part in the further development
+of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn383"></a><a href="#v2rn383">[383]</a> The number of the works which the collection of Japanese books
+contains is somewhat over a thousand. The number of volumes amounts
+to five or six thousand, most of the volumes, however, are not larger than
+one of our books of a hundred pages. So far as can be judged by
+the Japanese titles, which are often little distinctive, the works may be
+distributed among the various branches of knowledge in the following
+way:
+</p>
+<pre>
+                                                           Number
+                                                           of Works
+
+History                                                      176
+On Buddhism and Education                                    161
+On Shintoism                                                  38
+On Christianity (printed in 1715)                              1
+Manners and Customs                                           33
+The Drama                                                     13
+Laws                                                           5
+Politics, Political argumentative writings, partly new and
+privately printed against the recent statues                  24
+Poetry and Prose fiction                                     137
+Heraldry, Antiquities, Ceremonies                             27
+The Art of War and the Use of Weapons                         41
+Chess                                                          1
+Coining                                                        4
+Dictionaries, Grammars                                        18
+Geography, Maps                                               76
+Natural History                                               68
+The Science of Medicine                                       13
+Arithmetic, Astronomy, Astrology                              39
+Handicrafts, Agriculture                                      43
+Notebooks                                                     73
+The art of making bouquets (Horticulture?)                    16
+Bibliography                                                   9
+Various                                                       20
+                                                            &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;
+Total                                                       1036
+</pre>
+<p><a name="v2fn384"></a><a href="#v2rn384">[384]</a> Further information on this point is given by Henry Gribble in &quot;The
+Preparation of Vegetable Wax&quot; (<i>Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</i>,
+vol. iii. part. i. p. 94. Yokohama, 1875).</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page396" id="v2page396"></a>[ pg 396 ]</span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XIX"></a><h2>CHAPTER XIX.</h2>
+<br>
+
+<p>Hong Kong and Canton&mdash;Stone-polishing Establishments at Canton&mdash;
+Political Relations in an English Colony&mdash;Treatment of the Natives&mdash;
+Voyage to Labuan&mdash;Coal Mines there&mdash;Excursion to the shore of
+Borneo&mdash;Malay Villages&mdash;Singapore&mdash;Voyage to Ceylon&mdash;Point de
+Galle&mdash;The Gem Mines at Ratnapoora&mdash;Visit to a Temple&mdash;Purchase of
+Manuscripts&mdash;The Population of Ceylon&mdash;Dr. Almquist's Excursion to
+the Interior of the Island.</p>
+
+<p>Some days after our arrival at Yokohama the <i>Vega</i> was
+removed to the dock at Yokosuka, there to be protected by
+coppering against the boring mussels of the warm seas, so
+injurious to the vessel's hull; the opportunity being also taken
+advantage of by me to subject the vessel to some trifling repairs
+and alterations in the fitting up, which were desirable because
+during the remainder of our voyage we were to sail not in a cold
+but in a tropical climate. The work took somewhat longer
+time than was reckoned on, so that it was not until the 21st
+September that the <i>Vega</i> could leave the dock and return to
+Yokohama. It had originally been my intention to remain in
+Japan only so long as was necessary for the finishing of this
+work, during which time opportunity could be given to the
+officers and crew of the <i>Vega</i> to rest after the labours and
+sufferings of the long winter, to receive and answer letters from
+home, and to gather from the newspapers the most important
+occurrences that had taken place during our fourteen months'
+absence from the regions which are affected by what takes place
+in the world. But as appears from the foregoing narrative, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page397" id="v2page397"></a>[ pg 397 ]</span>
+delay was longer than had been intended. This indeed was
+caused in some degree by the difficulty of tearing ourselves
+away after only a few days' stay from a people so remarkable, so
+lovable, and so hospitable as the Japanese, and from a land so
+magnificently endowed by nature. Besides, when the <i>Vega</i> was
+again ready for sea, it was so near the time for the change of
+the monsoon, that it was not advisable, and would not have been
+attended with any saving of time, to sail immediately. For at
+that season furious storms are wont to rage in these seas, and
+the wind then prevailing is so unfavourable for sailing from
+Japan to the southward, that a vessel with the weak steam-power
+of the <i>Vega</i> cruising between Japan and Hong Kong
+in a head-wind might readily have lost the days saved by an
+earner departure. On the other hand, in the end of October
+and the beginning of November we could, during our passage
+to Hong Kong, count on a fresh and always favourable breeze.
+This took place too, so that, leaving Nagasaki on the 27th
+October, we were able to anchor in the harbour of Hong Kong
+as early as the 2nd November.</p>
+
+<p>There was of course no prospect of being able to accomplish
+anything for the benefit of science during a few days' stay in
+a region which had been examined by naturalists innumerable
+times before, but I at all events touched at this harbour that I
+might meet the expressed wish of one of the members of the
+expedition not to leave eastern Asia without having, during the
+voyage of the <i>Vega</i>, seen something of the so much talked of
+&quot;heavenly kingdom&quot; so different from all other lands.</p>
+
+<p>For this purpose, however, Hong Kong is an unsuitable place.
+This rich and flourishing commercial town, which has been
+created by England's Chinese politics and opium trade, is a
+British colony with a European stamp, which has little to show
+of the original Chinese folk-life, although the principal part of
+its population consists of Chinese. But at the distance of a
+few hours by steamer from Hong Kong lies the large old
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page398" id="v2page398"></a>[ pg 398 ]</span>
+commercial city of Canton, which, though it has long been open
+to Europeans, is still purely Chinese, with its peatstack-like
+architecture, its countless population, its temples, prisons,
+flower-junks, mandarins, pig-tailed street-boys, &amp;c. Most of the
+members of the expedition made an excursion thither, and were
+rewarded with innumerable indescribable impressions from
+Chinese city life. We were everywhere received by the
+natives in a friendly way,<a name="v2rn385"></a><a href="#v2fn385">[385]</a> and short as our visit was, it was
+yet sufficient to dissipate the erroneous impressions which a
+number of European authors have been pleased to give of the
+most populous nation. One soon saw that he has to do with
+an earnest and industrious people, who, indeed, apprehend much&mdash;virtue
+and vice, joy and sorrow&mdash;in quite a different way
+from us, but towards whom we, on that account, by no means
+have the right to assume the position of superiority which the
+European is so ready to claim towards coloured races.</p>
+
+<p>The greater portion of my short stay in Canton I employed
+in wandering about, carried in a sedan-chair&mdash;horses cannot be
+used in the city itself&mdash;through the streets, which are partly
+covered and are lined with open shops, forming, undoubtedly, the
+most remarkable of the many remarkable things that are to be
+seen here. The recollection I have of these hours forms, as
+often happens when one sees much that is new at once, a
+variegated confusion in which I can now only with difficulty
+distinguish a connected picture or two. But even if the impressions
+were clearer and sharper it would be out of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page399" id="v2page399"></a>[ pg 399 ]</span>
+question to occupy space with a statement of my own superficial
+observations. If any one wishes to acquire a knowledge
+of Chinese manners and customs, he will not want for books on
+the country, his studies will rather be impeded by their enormous
+number, and often enough by the inferior nature of their contents.
+Here I shall only touch upon a single subject, because
+it especially interested me as a mineralogist, namely, the
+stone-polishing works of Canton.</p>
+
+<p>It is natural that in a country so populous and rich as China,
+in which home and home life play so great a <i>r&ocirc;le</i>, much money
+should be spent on ornaments. We might therefore have
+expected that precious stones cut and polished would be used
+here on a great scale, but from what I saw at Canton, the
+Chinese appear to set much less value on them than either the
+Hindoo or the European. It appears besides as if the Chinese
+still set greater value on stones with old &quot;oriental polishing,&quot;
+<i>i.e.</i> with polished <i>rounded</i> surfaces, than on stones formed according
+to the mode of polishing now common in Europe with
+plane facets. Instead the Chinese have a great liking for peculiar,
+often very well executed, carvings in a great number of
+different kinds of stones, among which they set the greatest
+value on nephrite, or, as they themselves call it, &quot;Yii.&quot; It is
+made into rings, bracelets, ornaments of all kinds, vases, small
+vessels for the table, &amp;c. In Canton there are numerous lapidaries
+and merchants, whose main business is to make and sell
+ornaments of this species of stone, which is often valued higher
+than true precious stones. It was long so important an article
+of commerce that the place where it was found formed the goal
+of special caravan roads which entered China by the Yii gate.
+Amber also appears to have a high value put upon it, especially
+pieces which inclose insects. Amber is not found in China, but
+is brought from Europe, is often fictitious, and contains large
+Chinese beetles with marks of the needles on which they have
+been impaled. Other less valuable minerals, native or foreign,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page400" id="v2page400"></a>[ pg 400 ]</span>
+are also used, among others, compact varieties of talc or soap-stone
+and of pyrophyllite. But works executed in these minerals
+do not fetch a price at all comparable to that of nephrite. In
+the same shop in which I purchased pieces of nephrite carefully
+placed in separate boxes, I found at the bottom of a dusty chest,
+along with pieces of quartz and old refuse of various kinds, large
+crystals, some of which were exceedingly well formed, of translucent
+topaz. They were sold as quartz for a trifle. I bought
+besides two pieces of carved topaz, one of which was a large and
+very fine natural crystal, with a Chinese inscription engraved on
+its terminal surface, which when translated runs thus: &quot;Literary
+studies confer honour and distinction and render a man suitable
+for the court.&quot; The other was a somewhat bluish inch-long
+crystal, at one end of which a human figure, perhaps some
+Buddhist saint, was sculptured. The polishing of stones is
+carried on as a home industry, principally in a special part of
+the town. The workshop is commonly at the side of a small
+sale counter, in a room on the ground-floor, open to the street.
+The cutting and polishing of the stones is done, as at home,
+with metal discs and emery or comminuted corundum, which
+is said to be found in large quantities in the neighbourhood
+of Canton.</p>
+
+<p>Large, commodious, well fitted up, but in their exterior very
+unwieldy river steamers, built after American designs, now run
+between Hong Kong and Canton. They are commanded by
+Europeans. The dietary on board is European, and exceedingly
+good. There are separate saloons for Europeans and Chinese.
+All over the poop and the after-saloon weapons are hung up so
+as to be at hand, in case the vessel should be attacked by
+pirates, or, as happened some years ago, a number of them
+should mix themselves up with the Chinese passengers with
+the intention of plundering the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Hong Kong was ceded to England in consequence of the war
+of 1842. The then inconsiderable fishing village is now one of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page401" id="v2page401"></a>[ pg 401 ]</span>
+the most important commercial cities of the globe. The harbour
+is spacious, affording good anchorage, and is well protected
+by a number of large and small granite islands. The city is
+built on the largest of these on slopes which rise from the
+shore towards the interior of the island. On the highest points
+the wealthiest foreign residents have built their summer houses
+which are surrounded by beautiful gardens. In winter they live
+in the city. We here met with a very gratifying reception both
+from the Governor, Mr. POPE HENNESSY, and from the other inhabitants
+of the town. The former invited Captain Palander and
+me to live in the beautiful Governor's residence, gave a dinner,
+arranged a stately official reception in our honour, and presented
+to the Expedition a fine collection of dried plants from
+the exceedingly well-kept botanical garden of the city, which is
+under the charge of Mr. CHARLES FORD, the latter presented
+me with an address of welcome at a festive meeting in the
+City Hall, specially arranged for the purpose and numerously
+attended by the principal men of the town. The meeting was
+opened by the Chairman, Mr. KESWICK, with a speech of welcome,
+after which Mr. J. B. COUGHTRIE read and presented the
+address, bound in red silk and beautifully illuminated in black;
+gold, and red, with 414 signatures, among which many were by
+Chinese. The address ended with a hearty congratulation to
+us all and a promise of a memorial of our visit to Hong Kong
+which should indicate the way in which the <i>Vega</i> expedition
+was appreciated there. Some time after our return home
+Palander and I received from members of the community of
+Hong Kong a splendid silver vase each.</p>
+
+<p>I here embraced with great interest the opportunity, which
+my coming in contact with the principal men of the place
+afforded, of getting a glance into the political relations which
+prevailed in this vigorous and promising colony. At first sight
+they appeared to be by no means satisfactory. Peace and
+unanimity evidently did not prevail; for dissatisfaction with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page402" id="v2page402"></a>[ pg 402 ]</span>
+the Governor was loudly expressed by many of the Europeans
+settled in Hong Kong. He favoured, they said, the Chinese in
+an exceedingly partial way, and mitigated their punishments to
+such a degree that Hong Kong would soon become a place of
+refuge for all the robbers and thieves of Canton. At the time
+of our visit an instructive parliamentary debate on a small
+scale was proceeding in the Legislative Council of the city.
+The controversy was carried on with a certain bitterness, but
+with a proper observance of the parliamentary procedure customary
+in the mother country. The eloquent leader of the
+opposition had evidently, as is usual in such cases, the general
+feeling of the Europeans on his side. For they appeared to be
+pretty well agreed that the only means of protecting themselves
+against the evil-doers from the great heavenly empire would be
+to punish them in an inhuman way when they were taken in
+the act.</p>
+
+<p>To an outsider it appeared, however, that the Governor not
+only had humanity and justice on his side, but also acted with
+a true insight into the future. When he came to the colony
+the corporal punishments to which the Chinese were condemned
+were exceeding barbarous, although mild in comparison
+with those common in China&mdash;a state of things which the opposition
+brought forward in defence of the severer punishments.
+Prisoners were repeatedly flogged with &quot;the cat,&quot; often with the
+result that they were attacked by incurable consumption,
+they were prepared for the punishment by being subjected for
+some time to a starvation-diet of rice and water; they were
+branded when they left the prison, &amp;c. Proceeding on the view
+that the greatest security for a colony such as Hong Kong lies
+in the affection which is cherished for it by the numerous
+native population, the Governor had sought to protect it from
+unjust attacks by Europeans. Considering that too barbarous
+punishments are likely rather to promote than to deter from
+the commission of crimes, in consequence of the protection the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page403" id="v2page403"></a>[ pg 403 ]</span>
+criminal in such a case may reckon upon from sympathising
+fellow-creatures, and that mild punishments are the first condition
+of a good protective police, the Governor had diminished
+the floggings, forbidden the public infliction of the punishment,
+given a reprimand in cases where &quot;by mistake&quot; or by an
+evasion of the letter of the law extra strokes had been given
+to criminals, exchanged &quot;the regulation cat&quot; for the rattan,
+abolished the preliminary starvation-diet and the branding,
+improved the prisons, &amp;c. All this was now loudly complained
+of by the European merchants, but was approved by the Chinese
+subjects in the colony, who were however dissuaded from making
+any contrary demonstrations.</p>
+
+<p>When we came afterwards to other English possessions, we
+found that the inhabitants were often more or less in conflict
+with the authorities, but nowhere was there anything to prevent
+the opposition from endeavouring to promote their views
+by public meetings, by addresses in newspapers and pamphlets.
+In this way a pretty active political life arises early, and this
+is probably one of the main conditions of the capacity of the
+English colonies for self-government, and of their vigour and
+influence on the surrounding country.</p>
+
+<p>It will in truth be highly interesting to see what influence
+will be exerted on the great neighbouring empire if Mr.
+Hennessy's politics with reference to the Chinese settled in
+Hong Kong be carried out, and they be converted into fellow-citizens
+conscious that they are protected by law in person and
+property, that they do not require to crawl in the dust before
+any authority, and that so long as they keep within the limits
+of the law they are quite safe from the oppressions of all officials,
+and in the enjoyment of all the rights and privileges which the
+English law confers upon the citizen.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Europeans settled at Hong Kong were convinced
+that for another thousand years one would be justified in using
+the expression regarding China: &quot;Thou art what thou wast, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page404" id="v2page404"></a>[ pg 404 ]</span>
+thou wilt be what thou art.&quot; Others again stated that contact
+with Europeans at Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Singapore, and
+the accounts given by the emigrants returning to China in
+thousands from California and Australia are by slow degrees
+changing the aspect of the world in the &quot;heavenly empire,&quot; and
+thereby preparing for a revolution less violent, but as thorough
+as that which has recently taken place in Japan. If this comes
+about, China will be a state that must enter into the calculation
+when the affairs of the world are settled, and whose power will
+weigh very heavy in the scales, at least when the fate of Asia
+is concerned. At Hong Kong and Canton the report was
+current that the far-sighted Chancellor of the German Empire
+had taken this factor into calculation in settling his plans
+for the future.</p>
+
+<p>Already the Chinese took part in the European life. A
+number of Chinese names, as I have already said, were attached
+to the address that was presented to me; at the Governor's
+reception many stout, smiling heads provided with pigtails were
+seen; and Chinese had taken part in the meetings at which
+the Governor's scheme of reform was under discussion. There
+have also existed in the country from time immemorial secret
+societies, which are said only to wait for a favourable opportunity
+to endeavour to link their fates to the new paths.<a name="v2rn386"></a><a href="#v2fn386">[386]</a> The observations
+that I made at Hong Kong and Canton are, however, too
+superficial for me to wish to detain my reader with these
+matters. I accordingly point to the numerous works on these
+cities published by authors who have lived there as many
+months or years as I have days, and proceed to sketch the
+continuation of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Accompanied by the good wishes of many newly acquired
+friends, we left the harbour of Hong Kong on the morning of
+the 9th November. It was my original intention to steer our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page405" id="v2page405"></a>[ pg 405 ]</span>
+course to Manilla, but the loss of time during our long stay in
+Japan compelled me to give up that plan. The course was
+shaped, however, not directly for Singapore, but for Labuan, a
+small English possession on the north side of Borneo. Its
+northern extremity (the coal mine) lies in 5&deg; 33' N. L. and
+115&deg; 12' E.L. England took possession of Labuan on account
+of the coal-seams which are found there, which are of special
+importance on account of the situation of the island nearly
+in the midst of the large, numerous, and fertile islands of
+south-eastern Asia. It was the coal-seams too that attracted
+me to the place. For I wished to see whether I could not,
+in the neighbourhood of the equator itself, collect valuable
+contributions towards ascertaining the nature of the former
+equatorial climate.</p>
+
+<p>We at first made rapid progress, thanks to a fresh and
+favourable monsoon wind. But when we reached the so-called
+belt of calms, the wind ceased completely, and we had now to
+avail ourselves of steam, which, in consequence of the low
+power of the <i>Vega's</i> engine and a strong counter current, carried
+us forward so slowly that it was not until the 17th November
+that we could anchor in the harbour of Labuan.</p>
+
+<p>The largest of the islands belonging to the colony has, with
+a pretty considerable breadth, a length of 10' from N.E. to S. W.
+It is inhabited by some thousands (3,300 in 1863) of Chinese
+and Malays, together with a few Englishmen, who are either
+crown officials or employed at the coal mine. The north part
+of the island has a height of 140 metres above the sea, but
+towards the south the land sinks to an extensive sandy plain,
+closely overgrown with bushy thickets and traversed by low
+marshes. Most of the inhabitants live along the shore of the
+harbour which bears the now, or perhaps only for the present,
+indispensable name for English colonies (which on that account
+conveys little information) of Victoria. The Governor's fine
+residence lies at a little distance from the harbour town in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page406" id="v2page406"></a>[ pg 406 ]</span>
+interior of the island, the coal mine on its north side. At the
+time of our visit the coal company had recently gone into
+liquidation, and work had therefore been stopped at the mine,
+but it was hoped that it would soon be resumed. The sandy
+plain is of little fertility in comparison with the neighbouring
+tropical lands. It had recently been burned, and was therefore
+for the most part covered only with bushes, among which stems
+of high, dried-up, half-burned trees raised themselves, giving to
+the landscape a resemblance to a northern forest devastated by
+an accidental fire. In consequence of the fire which had thus
+passed over the island the plain which, when looked at from a
+distance appeared to be completely even, was seen everywhere
+to be studded with crater-formed depressions in the sand, quite
+similar to the <i>os</i>-pits in the <i>osar</i> of Scandinavia.<a name="v2rn387"></a><a href="#v2fn387">[387]</a> On the north
+side there was sandstone rock rising from the sea with a steep
+slope six to fifteen metres high. Here tropical nature appeared
+in all its luxuriance, principally in the valleys which the small
+streams had excavated in the sandstone strata.</p>
+
+<p>The coal mine is sunk on coal-seams, which come to the surface
+on the north side of the island. The seams, according to the
+information I received on the spot, are four in number, with a
+thickness of 3.3, 0.9, 0.4 and 1.0 metre. They dip at an angle
+of 30&deg; towards the horizon, and are separated from each other by
+strata of clay and hard sandstone, which together have a thickness
+of about fifty metres. Above the uppermost coal-seam there are
+besides very thick strata of black clay-slate, white hard sandstone
+with bands of clay, loose sandstone, sandstone mixed with coal,
+and finally considerable layers of clay-slate and sandstone, which
+contain fossil marine crustacea, resembling those of the present
+time. The strata which lie between or in the immediate
+neighbourhood of the coal seams do not contain any other fossils
+than those vegetable remains, which are to be described farther
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page407" id="v2page407"></a>[ pg 407 ]</span>
+on. Thirty kilometres south of the mine a nearly vertical coal-seam
+comes to the surface near the harbour, probably belonging
+to a much older period than that referred to above; and out in
+the sea, eighteen kilometres from the shore north of the harbour,
+petroleum rises from the sea-bottom. The manager of the mine
+supposed from this that the coal-seams came to the surface again
+at this place. The coal-seams of Labuan are besides, notwithstanding
+their position in the middle of an enormous, circular,
+volcanic chain, remarkably free from faults, which shows that
+the region, during the immense time which has elapsed since
+these strata have been deposited, has been protected from
+earthquakes. Even now, according to Wallace, earthquakes
+are scarcely known in this part of Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been stated above we may conclude that the
+coal, sand, and clay strata were deposited in a valley-depression
+occupied by luxuriant marshy grounds, cut off from the sea, in
+the extensive land which formerly occupied considerable spaces
+of the sea between the Australian Islands and the continent
+of Asia. A similar state of things must besides have prevailed
+over a considerable portion of Borneo. On that island there are
+coal-seams under approximately similar circumstances to those
+on Labuan. So far as I know, however, they have not hitherto
+been closely examined with respect to vegetable pal&aelig;ontology.</p>
+
+<p>At Labuan fossil plants are found, though very sparingly,
+imbedded in balls of clay ironstone from strata above the two
+lowermost coal-seams. The upper coal-seams are besides exceedingly
+rich in resin, which crosses the coal in large veins.
+From the thickness and conversion into a hard sandstone of the
+layers of sand lying between and above the coal-seams we may
+conclude that a very long time, probably hundreds of thousands
+or millions of years have passed since these coal-seams were
+formed. They also belong to a quite recent period, during which
+the vegetation in these regions varied perhaps only to a slight
+extent from that of the present time. It is, however, too early
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page408" id="v2page408"></a>[ pg 408 ]</span>
+to express one's self on this subject, before the fossils which we
+brought home have been examined by Dr. Nathorst.</p>
+
+<p>Coal mining was stopped for the time, but orders were
+expected by every post to resume work. The road between the
+mine and the harbour town was at all events pretty well kept,
+and Mr. COOKE, one of the directors of the company, still lived
+at the place. He showed me all possible hospitality during the
+time I remained on the north side of the island for the purpose
+of collecting fossils. The rest of the time I was the guest of the
+acting Governor, Mr. TREACHER, a young and amiable man, who
+showed me several collections in natural history from Labuan
+and the neighbouring parts of Borneo, and after our return to
+Europe sent me a collection of leaves and fruit of the kinds of
+trees which now grow on the island. I expect that this
+collection will be very instructive in the study of the fossil plants
+we brought home with us.</p>
+
+<p>At the steep shore banks on the north coast very fine sections
+of the sandstone strata, which lie under and above the coal, are
+visible. While I went along the shore in order to examine
+these, I visited some Malay huts built on poles. They were
+surrounded at flood tide by water, at ebb by the dry beach, bare
+of all vegetation. In order to get inside these huts one must
+climb a ladder two to two and a half metres high, standing
+towards the sea. The houses have the same appearance as a
+warehouse by the seaside at home, and are built very slightly.
+The floor consisted of a few rattling bamboo splints lying loose,
+and so thin that I feared they would give way when I stepped
+upon them. The household articles consisted only of some mats
+and a pair of cooking vessels. I saw no fireplace; probably fire
+was lighted on the beach. I could see no reason why this place
+should be chosen as a dwelling in preference to the neighbouring
+shore with its luxuriant vegetation, which at the same time was
+not at all swampy, unless it was for the coolness which arises
+from the any situation on the beach, and the protection which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page409" id="v2page409"></a>[ pg 409 ]</span>
+the poles give from the thousands of crawling animals which
+swarm in the grassy meadows of tropical regions. It is
+probable also that the mosquitos are less troublesome along
+the sea-shore than farther into the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<p>Some of my companions saw similar huts during an excursion,
+which they undertook in the steam launch, to the mouth of
+a large river debouching on the neighbouring coast of Borneo.
+Regarding this exclusion Dr. Stuxberg gives the following
+report:</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the 19th November Palander, Bove, and I, together with
+two men, undertook an excursion in the steam launch of the
+<i>Vega</i> to the river Kalias debouching right opposite to Labuan.
+We started at dawn, a little after six o'clock. The course was
+shaped first north of Pappan Island, then between the many
+shoals that lie between it and the considerably larger Daat
+Island, and finally south of the latter island.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Pappan Island is a small beautiful island, clothed down to
+high-water mark with a dark green primeval forest. On Daat
+Island, on the contrary, the primeval forest on the east side has
+been cut down, and has given place to a new plantation of cocoa-nut
+trees, the work of a former physician on Labuan, which
+yields its present owner a considerable revenue.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;We had no little difficulty in finding a way over the sandy
+bar, which is deposited in front of the river mouth at a distance
+of a nautical mile and a half to three miles from the coast
+of Borneo. After several attempts in the course of an hour
+we at last succeeded in finding the deep channel which leads to
+the river. It runs close to the mainland on the north side, from
+Kalias Point to the river mouth proper. At the bar the depth
+was only a metre, in the deep channel, it varied between 3.5 and
+7 metres, in the river mouth it was fourteen to eighteen metres
+and sometimes more.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;On the south side of the tongue of land, which projects north
+of the mouth of the Kalias, were found two Malay villages,
+whose inhabitants appeared to view our passage up the river
+with curious glances. A crowd of half or wholly naked children
+began a race along the shore, as soon as they set eyes upon the
+fast steam launch, probably in order to keep us in sight as long
+as possible. We now had deep water and steamed up the river
+without delay. The longed-for visit to some of the Malay
+villages we thus reserved till our return.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote"><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page410" id="v2page410"></a>[ pg 410 ]</span>
+&quot;We steamed about ten or twelve English miles up one of the
+many winding river arms, when the limited depth compelled us
+to turn. The vegetation on the mainland, as on the shores of
+the islands lying near the river-mouth, was everywhere so close
+that it was nearly impossible to find a place where we could
+land; everywhere there was the impenetrable primeval forest.
+Next the mouth of the river this consisted of tall, shady broad-leaved
+trees, which all had dark green, lustrous, large leaves.
+Some were in flower, others bore fruit. The greater number
+consisted of fig trees, whose numerous air-roots twining close
+on each other formed an impenetrable fence at the river bank.
+These air-root-bearing trees play an important <i>r&ocirc;le</i> in increasing
+the area of the land and diminishing that of the water. They
+send their strong air-roots from the branches and stem far out
+into the water, and when the roots have reached the bottom,
+and pushed their way into the mud, they make, by the close
+basket-work they form, an excellent binding medium for all the
+new mud which the river carries with it from the higher ground
+in the interior. It has struck me that the air-root-bearing trees
+form one of the most important means for the rapid increase of
+the alluvial land on Borneo. Farther up the river there commenced
+large stretches of a species of palm, which with its
+somewhat lighter green and its long sheath-formed leaves was
+sharply distinguished from the rest of the forest. Sometimes
+the banks on one side were covered with palms only, on the
+other with fig-trees only. The palm jungles were not so
+impenetrable as the fig-tree thickets, the latter preferred the
+more swampy hollows, while the palms on the other hand grew
+on the more sandy and less marshy places. Of herbs and
+underwood there was nowhere any trace.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;During the river voyage we saw now and then single green-coloured
+kingfishers flying about, and a honeysucker or two, but
+they were not nearly so numerous as might have been expected
+in this purely tropical zone. We saw some apes leaping in pairs
+among the trees, and Palander succeeded in shooting a male.
+Alligators from one to one and a half metre in length, frightened
+by the noise of the propeller, throw themselves suddenly into the
+water. Small land lizards with web-feet jumped forward with
+surprising rapidity on the water near the banks. This was all
+we saw of the higher animals.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After a run of two hours, during which we examined the
+banks carefully in order to find a landing place, we lay to at the
+best possible place for seeing what the lower fauna had to offer.
+It was no easy matter to get to land. The ground was so muddy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page411" id="v2page411"></a>[ pg 411 ]</span>
+that we sank to the knees, and could make our way through the
+wood only by walking on an intermediate layer of palm leaves
+and fallen branches. The search for evertebrates did not yield
+very much. A half-score mollusca, among them a very remarkable
+naked leech of quite the same colour-marking and
+raggedness as the bark of tree on which it lived, was all that
+we could find here. It struck me as very peculiar not to find
+a single insect group represented. The remarkable poverty in
+animals must be ascribed, I believe, to the complete absence
+of herbs and underwood. Animal life was as poor as vegetation
+was luxuriant and various in different places. Over the landscape
+a peculiar quietness and stillness rested.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;During our return we visited one of the two Malay villages
+mentioned above. It consisted of ten different houses, which
+were built on tall and stout poles out in the water at the mouth
+of the river, about six to ten metres from the shore. All the
+houses were built on a common large platform of thick bamboo,
+which was about a man's height above the water. At right
+angles to the beach there floated long beams, one end being
+connected with the land, while the other was anchored close to
+the platform. From this anchored end a plank rose at a steep
+angle to the platform. Communication with land was kept up in
+this way. The houses were nearly all quadrangular, and contained
+a single room, had raised, not flat roofs, and were provided at
+one of the shorter sides, near one corner, with a high rectangular
+door opening, which certainly was not intended to be closed, and
+on one of the long sides with a square window-opening. The
+building material was bamboo, from eight to eleven centimetres
+in thickness, mostly whole, but sometimes cleft. The roof had
+a thin layer of palm leaves upon it to keep out the rain. The
+house in its entirety resembled a cage of spills to which the
+least puff of wind had always free entrance. The floor bent
+and yielded much, and at the same time was so weak that one
+could not walk upon it without being afraid of falling through.
+One half, right opposite the door opening, was overlaid with a
+thin mat of some plant; it was evidently the sleeping place of
+the family. Some pieces of cloth was all the clothing we could
+discover. Of household articles there was scarcely any trace.
+Nor were there any weapons, arrows, or bows. The fireplace
+was in one corner of the room; it consisted of an immense ash-heap
+on some low stones. Beside it stood a rather dirty iron
+pot. All refuse from meals, bones and mollusc-shells, had been
+thrown into the water under the floor; there lay now a regular
+culture-layer, a couple of feet higher than the surrounding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page412" id="v2page412"></a>[ pg 412 ]</span>
+sea-bottom, consisting for the most part of mussel shells. The
+floor of the room was very dirty and black; it looked as if it
+had never been in contact with a drop of water. The interior
+of the whole house struck one as being as poor and wretched as
+that of a Chukch tent. Its inhabitants appeared scarcely to own
+more than they stood or walked in, <i>i.e.</i> for every person a large
+piece of cloth round the waist. Small boats lay moored to the
+platform. They were nothing else than tree-stems hollowed
+out, without any separate planks at the sides, at most two to
+two and a half metres long, and capable of carrying only two
+men. We had met such a boat a little way up the river, rowed
+by two youths, and laden with palm-leaves, it was not more
+than five to eight centimetres above the water, and appeared as
+if it would capsize with the least indiscreet movement on the
+part of the boatmen. Some dogs of middle size went about
+loose on the platform; they were at first shy and suspicious
+of us, and growled a little, but soon allowed themselves to be
+caressed.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Of the natives, the Malays, unfortunately we saw at close
+quarters only some middle-aged men. When we approached the
+long floating beams which led to the platform, the women and
+children fled precipitately out of the nearest houses, and by the
+time we got to the platform, they had fortified themselves in a
+distant house, where they sat motionless and cast curious glances
+at us through a hole. The children showed their fear of us by
+loud crying, kept up the whole time. When we attempted to
+approach the fugitives, they hastened farther away. We won
+their favour with some cigarettes, which Palander distributed
+among them, and with which they were evidently delighted.
+They had a serious, reserved, perhaps rather indifferent appearance.
+A physiognomist would perhaps have had difficulty in
+saying whether their countenances expressed ferocity, determination,
+or indifference. It appeared as if it would not be
+easy to bring forth a look of mirth or gladness on their faces.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;At the Malay villages which we visited, some Chinese had a
+sago plantation. With some Malays as workmen in their
+service, they were now employed in loading a vessel of light
+draught with sago meal, of which they appeared to have a large
+quantity in store. Another vessel had just taken on board its
+cargo and was starting. The Chinese here made the same favourable
+impression on me as their countrymen, whom I had seen
+before in Japan and Hong Kong, and whom I was afterwards to
+see at Singapore&mdash;the impression of an exceedingly industrious,
+thriving, contented, and cleanly race.&quot;</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page413" id="v2page413"></a>[ pg 413 ]</span>
+<p>Labuan strikes me as a very suitable starting-point for a
+naturalist who may wish to explore Borneo. Surrounded by
+Europeans, but undisturbed by the distractions of a large city,
+he would have an opportunity of accustoming himself to the
+climate, which, though rather warm for a dweller in the North,
+is by no means unhealthy, to get acquainted with the manners
+and customs of the natives, to acquire a knowledge of the commonest
+forms of the luxuriant nature, which would otherwise be
+apt to overwhelm the northern naturalist, in a word, to make
+such preparations for the journey as are necessary to secure its
+success. This region of Borneo appears to be one of the least
+known parts of the Indian Archipelago, and one need not go
+far from the coast to come to places which are never visited
+by Europeans. Labuan itself and its immediate neighbourhood
+have much that is interesting to offer to the observer, and from
+thence short excursions may be made with ease and without
+excessive cost to the territory of the Sultan of Bruni, who is
+favourable to foreigners, and to the mountain Kini Balu, near the
+northern extremity of Borneo, which is 4,175 metres high, and
+visible from Labuan. When, before our arrival at Japan, I
+arranged the plan of our voyage home, I included in it a visit
+to this mountain, at whose summit a comparatively severe
+climate must prevail, and whose flora and fauna, therefore, notwithstanding
+its equatorial position, must offer many points of
+comparison with those of the lands of the north. But when I
+was told that the excursion would require weeks, I had to give
+it up.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th November, the <i>Vega</i> again weighed anchor to
+continue her voyage by Singapore to Point de Galle in Ceylon.
+Between Labuan and Singapore our progress was but slow, in
+consequence of the calm which, as might have been foreseen,
+prevailed in the sea west of Borneo.</p>
+
+<p>Singapore is situated exactly halfway, when a vessel, starting
+from Sweden, circumnavigates Asia and Europe. We staid here
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page414" id="v2page414"></a>[ pg 414 ]</span>
+from the 28th November to the 4th December, very hospitably
+received by the citizens of the town, both European and Asiatic,
+who seemed to vie with the inhabitants of Hong Kong in
+enthusiasm for the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>. A Babel-like confusion
+of speech prevails in the town from the men of so many different
+nationalities who live here: Chinese, Malays, Klings, Bengalees,
+Parsees, Singhalese, Negroes, Arabs, &amp;c. But our stay was all
+too short for independent studies of the customs and mode of
+life of these different races, or of the rich vegetable and animal
+worlds in the neighbourhood of the town. I must refer those
+who are interested in these subjects to previous descriptions of
+that region, and to the abundant contributions to a knowledge
+of it which have been published by the Straits Branch of
+the Asiatic Society, which was founded here on the 4th
+November, 1877.</p>
+
+<p>We arrived at Galle on the 15th December, having during
+our passage from Singapore had a pretty steady and favourable
+monsoon. While sailing through the Straits of Malacca strong
+ball-lightning was often seen a little after sunset. The electrical
+discharges appeared to go on principally from the mountain
+heights on both sides of the Straits.</p>
+
+<p>I allowed the <i>Vega</i> to remain in the harbour of Point de
+Galle, partly to wait for the mail, partly to give Dr. Almquist
+an opportunity of collecting lichens on some of the high mountain
+summits in the interior of the island, and Dr. Kjellman
+of examining its alg&aelig;, while I myself would have time to
+visit the famous gem-diggings of Ceylon. The return was as
+good as could have been expected considering our short stay
+at the place. Dr. Almquist's collection of lichens from the
+highest mountain of Ceylon, Pedrotalagalla, 2,500 metres high,
+was very large, Kjellman, by the help of a diver, made a not
+inconsiderable collection of alg&aelig; from the neighbourhood of the
+harbour, and from an exclusion which I undertook in company
+with Mr. ALEXANDER C. DIXON, of Colombo, to Ratnapoora,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page415" id="v2page415"></a>[ pg 415 ]</span>
+the town of gems, where we were received with special kindness
+by Mr. COLIN MURRAY, assistant government agent, I brought
+home a fine collection of the minerals of Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>Precious stones occur in Ceylon mainly in sand beds, especially
+at places where streams of water have flowed which have rolled,
+crumbled down, and washed away a large part of the softer
+constituents of the sand, so that a gravel has been left remaining
+which contains considerably more of the harder precious stone
+layer than the original sandy strata, or the rock from which they
+originated. Where this natural washing ends, the gem collector
+begins. He searches for a suitable valley, digs down a greater
+or less depth from the surface to the layer of clay mixed with
+coarse sand resting on the rock, which experience has taught
+him to contain gems<a name="v2rn388"></a><a href="#v2fn388">[388]</a>. At the washings which I saw, the
+clayey gravel was taken out of this layer and laid by the side of
+the hole until three or four cubic metres of it were collected.
+It was then carried, in shallow, bowl-formed baskets from half
+a metre to a metre in diameter, to a neighbouring river, where
+it was washed until all the clay was carried away from the sand.
+The gems were then picked out, a person with a glance of
+the eye examining the wet surface of the sand and collecting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page416" id="v2page416"></a>[ pg 416 ]</span>
+whatever had more or less appearance of a precious stone. He
+then skimmed away with the palm of the hand the upper stratum
+of sand, and went on in the same way with that below it until
+the whole mass was examined. The certainty with which he
+judged in a moment whether there was anything of value among
+the many thousand grains of sand was wonderful. I endeavoured
+in a very considerable heap of the gravel thus hastily examined,
+to find a single small piece of precious stone which had escaped
+the glance of the examiner, but without success.</p>
+
+<p>The yield is very variable, sometimes abundant, sometimes
+very small, and though precious stones found in Ceylon are
+yearly sold for large sums, the industry on the whole is
+unprofitable, although now and then a favourite of fortune has
+been enriched by it. The English authorities, therefore, with
+full justification, consider it demoralising and unfavourable to
+the development of the otherwise abundant natural resources
+of the region. For the numerous loose population devotes itself
+rather to the easy search for precious stones, which is as exciting
+as play, than to the severer but surer labours of agriculture, and
+when at any time a rich <i>find</i> is made, it is speedily squandered,
+without a thought of saving for the times when the yield is
+little or nothing. A large number of the precious stones are
+polished at special polishing places at Ratnapoora, but the work
+is very bad, so that the stones which come into the market are
+often irregular, and have uneven, curved, ill-polished surfaces.
+Most of them perhaps are sold in the Eastern and Western
+Indian peninsulas and other parts of Asia, but many are also
+exported to Europe. The precious stones which are principally
+found at Ratnapoora, consist of sapphires, commonly blue, but
+sometimes yellow or violet, sometimes even completely colourless.
+In the last case they have a lustre resembling that of the
+diamond<a name="v2rn389"></a><a href="#v2fn389">[389]</a>. Rubies I saw here only in limited numbers.</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page417" id="v2page417"></a>[ pg 417 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p427.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p427.png" alt="GEM DIGGINGS AT RATNAPOORA." ></a>
+GEM DIGGINGS AT RATNAPOORA.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page418" id="v2page418"></a>[ pg 418 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page419" id="v2page419"></a>[ pg 419 ]</span>
+The precious stones occur in nearly every river valley which
+runs from the mountain heights in the interior of the island
+down to the low land. According to a statement by
+Mr. Tennent (i. p. 33), the river-sand at many places contains
+so much of the harder minerals that it may be used directly
+for the polishing of other stones. The same writer, or more
+correctly Dr. GYGAX, who appears to have written the rather
+scanty mineralogical contributions to Tennent's famous work,
+states that a more abundant yield ought to be obtained by
+working in the solid rock than by the usual method. This idea
+is completely opposed to the experience of mineralogy. The
+finest gems, the largest gold nuggets, as is well known, are
+never, or almost never, found in solid rock, but in loose earthy
+layers. In such layers in Ceylon the abundance of precious
+stones, that is to say, of minerals which are <i>hard, translucent,
+and strongly lustrous</i>, is very great, and enormous sums would
+be obtained if we could add up the value of the mass of
+precious stones which have been found here for thousands of
+years back. Already Marco Polo says of Ceylon: &quot;In ista
+insula nascuntur boni et nobiles rubini et non nascuntur in
+aliquo loco plus. Et hic nascuntur zafiri et topazii, ametisti,
+et aliqu&aelig; ali&aelig; petr&aelig; pretios&aelig;, et rex istius insul&aelig; habet
+pulcriorem rubinum de mundo&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>But some one perhaps will ask, where is the mother-rock of
+all these treasures in the soil of Ceylon? The question is
+easily answered. All these minerals have once been imbedded
+in the granitic gneiss, which is the principal rock of the region.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of granite or gneiss in southern lands, or at least
+in the southern lands we now visited, I must, in the first place,
+point out that these rocks next the surface of the earth in the
+south have a much greater resemblance to strata of sand, gravel,
+and clay than to our granite or gneiss rocks, the type of what
+is lasting, hard, and unchangeable. The high coast hills, which
+surround the Inland Sea of Japan, resemble, when seen from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page420" id="v2page420"></a>[ pg 420 ]</span>
+the sea, ridges of sand (<i>osar</i>) with sides partly clothed with
+wood, partly sandy slopes of a light yellow colour, covered by
+no vegetation. On a closer examination, however, we find that
+the supposed sandy ridges consist of weathered granitic rocks,
+in which all possible intermediate stages may be seen between
+the solid rock and the loose sand. The sand is not stratified,
+and contains large, loose, rounded blocks <i>in situ</i>, completely
+resembling the erratic blocks in Sweden, although with a more
+rugged surface. The boundary between the unweathered
+granite and that which has been converted into sand is often
+so sharp that a stroke of the hammer separates the crust of
+granitic sand from the granite blocks. They have an almost
+fresh surface, and a couple of millimetres within the boundary
+the rock is quite unaltered. No formation of clay takes place,
+and the alteration to which the rocks are subjected therefore
+consists in a crumbling or formation of sand, and not, or at
+least only to a very small extent, in a chemical change. Even
+at Hong Kong the principal rock consisted of granite. Here
+too the surface of the granite rock was quite altered to a very
+considerable depth, not however to sand, but to a fine, often
+reddish, clay, thus in quite a different way from that on the
+coast of the Inland Sea of Japan. Here too one could at many
+places follow completely the change of the hard granite mass
+to a clay which still lay <i>in situ</i>, but without its being possible
+to draw so sharp a boundary between the primitive rock and
+the newly-formed loose earthy layers as at the first-named
+place. We had opportunities of observing a similar crumbling
+down of the hard granite at every road-section between Galle,
+Colombo, and Ratnapoora, with the difference that the granite
+and gneiss here crumbled down to a coarse sand, which was
+again bound together by newly-formed hydrated peroxide of
+iron to a peculiar porous sandstone, called by the natives
+<i>cabook</i>. This sandstone forms the layer lying next the rock in
+nearly all the hills on that part of the island which we visited.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page421" id="v2page421"></a>[ pg 421 ]</span>
+It evidently belongs to an earlier geological period than the
+Quaternary, for it is older than the recent formation of valleys
+and rivers. The <i>cabook</i> often contains large, rounded, unweathered
+granite blocks, quite resembling the rolled-stone
+blocks in Sweden. In this way there arise at places where the
+<i>cabook</i> stratum has again been broken up and washed away by
+currents of water, formations which are so bewilderingly like
+the ridges (<i>osar</i>) and hills with erratic blocks in Sweden and
+Finland that I was astonished when I saw them. I was compelled
+to resort to the evidence of the palms to convince myself
+that it was not an illusion which unrolled before me the well-known
+contours from the downs of my native land. An accurate
+study of the sandy hills on the Inland Sea of Japan, of the clay
+cliffs of Hong Kong, and the <i>cabook</i> of Ceylon would certainly
+yield very unexpected contributions to an explanation of the
+way in which the sand and rolled-stone <i>osar</i> of Scandinavia
+have first arisen. It would show that much which the Swedish
+geologists still consider to be glacial gravel transported by water
+and ice, is only the product of a process of weathering or, more
+correctly, falling asunder, which has gone on in Sweden also on
+an enormous scale. Even a portion of our Quaternary clays
+have perhaps had a similar origin, and we find here a simple
+explanation of the important circumstance, which is not sufficiently
+attended to by our geologists, that often all the erratic
+blocks at a place are of the same kind, and resemble in their
+nature the underlying or neighbouring rocks</p>
+
+<p>It is this weathering process which has originated the gem
+sand of Ceylon. Precious stones have been found disseminated
+in limited numbers in the granite converted into <i>cabook</i>. In
+weathering, the difficultly decomposable precious stones have
+not been attacked, or attacked only to a limited extent. They
+have therefore retained their original form and hardness.
+When in the course of thousands of years streams of water
+have flowed over the layers of <i>cabook</i>, their soft, already
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page422" id="v2page422"></a>[ pg 422 ]</span>
+half-weathered constituents have been for the most part changed
+into a fine mud, and as such washed away, while the hard gems
+have only been inconsiderably rounded and little diminished in
+size. The current of water therefore has not been able to wash
+them far away from the place where they were originally imbedded
+in the rock, and we now find them collected in the
+gravel-bed, resting for the most part on the fundamental rock
+which the stream has left behind, and which afterwards, when
+the water has changed its course, has been again covered by
+new layers of mud, clay, and sand. It is this gravel-bed which
+the natives call <i>nellan</i>, and from which they chiefly get their
+treasures of precious stones.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the kinds of stones which are used as ornaments there
+are both noble and common varieties, without there being any
+perceptible difference in their chemical composition. The most
+skilful chemist would thus have difficulty in finding in their
+chemical composition the least difference between corundum and
+sapphire or ruby, between common beryl and emerald, between
+the precious and the common topaz, between the hyacinth and
+the common zircon, between precious and common spinel; and
+every mineralogist knows that there are innumerable intermediate
+stages between these minerals which are so dissimilar
+though absolutely identical in composition. This gave the old
+naturalists occasion to speak of ripe and unripe precious stones.
+They said that in order to ripen precious stones the heat of the
+south was required. This transference of well-known circumstances
+from the vegetable to the mineral kingdom is certainly
+without justification. It points however to a remarkable and
+hitherto unexplained circumstance, namely, that the occurrence
+of precious stones is, with few exceptions, confined to southern
+regions<a name="v2rn390"></a><a href="#v2fn390">[390]</a>. Diamonds are found in noteworthy number only in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page423" id="v2page423"></a>[ pg 423 ]</span>
+India, Borneo, Brazil, and the Transvaal. Tropical America is
+the home-land of the emerald, Brazil of the topaz, Ceylon of
+the sapphire and the hyacinth, Pegu of the ruby, and Persia of
+the turquoise. With the exception of the diamond the same
+stones are found also in the north, but in a common form.
+Thus common sapphire (corundum) is found in Gellivare iron
+ore so plentifully that the ore from certain openings is difficult
+to smelt. Common topaz is found in masses by the hundredweight
+in the neighbourhood of Falun; common emerald is
+found in thick crystals several feet in length in felspar quarries,
+in Roslagen, and in Tammela and Kisko parishes in Finland;
+common spinel occurs abundantly in &Aring;ker limestone quarry;
+common zircon at Brevig in Norway, and turquoise-like but
+badly coloured stones at Vestan&aring; in Skane. True precious
+stones, on the other hand, are not found at any of these places.
+Another remarkable fact in connection with precious stones is
+that most of those that come into the market are not found in
+the solid rock, but as loose grains in sand-beds. True jewel
+mines are few, unproductive, and easily exhausted. From this
+one would be inclined to suppose that precious stones actually
+undergo an ennobling process in the warm soil of the south.</p>
+
+<p>During the excursion I undertook from Galle to Ratnapoora, I
+visited a number of temples in order to procure Pali, Singhalese,
+and Sanscrit manuscripts; and I put myself in communication
+with various natives who were supposed to possess such manuscripts.
+They are now very difficult to get at, and the collection
+I made was not very large. The books which the temples
+wished to dispose of have long ago been eagerly brought up
+by private collectors or handed over to public museums, for
+example, to the Ceylon Government Oriental Library established
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page424" id="v2page424"></a>[ pg 424 ]</span>
+at Colombo<a name="v2rn391"></a><a href="#v2fn391">[391]</a>. The collector who remains a considerable
+time in the region, may however be able to reap a rich after-harvest,
+less of the classical works preserved in the temples
+than of the smaller popular writings in the hands of private
+persons.</p>
+
+<p>We see in Ceylon innumerable descendants of the races
+who repeatedly subdued larger or smaller portions of the island,
+or carried on traffic there, as Moormen (Arabs), Hindoos, Jews,
+Portuguese, Dutchmen, Englishmen, &amp;c., but the main body of
+the people at all events varies very little, and still consists of
+the two allied races, Tamils and Singhalese, who for thousands
+of years back have been settled here. The colour of their
+skin is very dark, almost black, their hair is not woolly, their
+features are regular, and their build is exceedingly fine. The
+children especially, who, while they are small, often go completely
+naked, with their regular features, their large eyes, and fresh
+plump bodies, are veritable types of beauty, and the same holds
+true of most of the youths. Instead of buying in one of the
+capitals of Europe the right to draw models, often enough with
+forms which leave much to desire, and which must be used
+without distinction for Greek or Northern divinities, for heroes
+or <i>savants</i> of the present or former times, an artist ought to
+make tours of study to the lands of the south, where man does
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page425" id="v2page425"></a>[ pg 425 ]</span>
+not need to protect himself from the cold with clothes, and
+where accordingly nakedness is the rule, at least among the
+poorer classes. The dress which is worn here is commonly
+convenient and tasteful. Among the Singhalese it consists of a
+piece of cloth wound round the middle, which hangs down to
+the knees. The men, who still prefer the convenient national
+dress to the European, go with the upper part of the body bare.
+The long hair is held together with a comb which goes right
+over the head, and among the rich has a large four-cornered
+projection at the crown. The women protect the upper part
+of the body with a thin cotton jacket. The priests wear a
+yellow piece of cloth diagonally over one shoulder. The naked
+children are ornamented with metal bracelets and with a metal
+chain round the waist, from which a little plate hangs down
+between the legs. This plate is often of silver or gold, and is
+looked upon as an amulet.</p>
+
+<p>The huts of the working men are in general very small, built
+of earth or <i>cabook</i>-bricks, and are rather to be considered as sheds
+for protection from the rain and sunshine than as houses in the
+European sense. The richer Singhalese live in extensive
+&quot;verandas&quot; which are almost open, and are divided into rooms
+by thin panels, resembling in this respect the Japanese houses.
+The Japanese genius for ornament, their excellent taste and
+skill in execution, are however wanting here, but it must also
+be admitted that in these respects the Japanese stand first
+among all the peoples of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the seaport towns the Singhalese are insufferable by their
+begging, their loquacity, and the unpleasant custom they have of
+asking up to ten times as much, while making a bargain, as they
+are pleased to accept in the end. In the interior of the country
+the state of things in this respect is much better.</p>
+
+<p>Among the temples which I visited in order to procure Pali
+books was the so-called &quot;devil's&quot; temple at Ratnapoora, the
+stateliest idol-house I saw in Ceylon. Most of the temples
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page426" id="v2page426"></a>[ pg 426 ]</span>
+were built of wood; all were exceedingly unpretentious, and
+without the least trace of style. The numerous priests and
+temple attendants lived in rather squalid and disorderly dwellings
+in the neighbourhood of the temple. They received me in a
+friendly way and showed me their books, of which they occasionally
+sold some. The negotiation several times ended by the
+priest presenting me with the book I wished to purchase and
+positively refusing to receive compensation in any form. On
+one occasion the priest stated that he himself was prevented by
+the precepts of his religion from receiving the purchase-money
+agreed upon, but said that I might hand it over to some of the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p436.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p436.png" alt="STATUES IN A TEMPLE IN CEYLON." ></a>
+STATUES IN A TEMPLE IN CEYLON.
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page427" id="v2page427"></a>[ pg 427 ]</span>
+<p>persons standing round. At two of the priests' houses there was
+a swarm of school-children, who ran busily about with their
+palm-leaf writing books and writing implements.</p>
+
+<p>The temples were very different in their arrangements, probably
+on account of the dissimilar usages of the various Buddhist
+sects to which they belonged. A temple near Colombo contained
+a large number of wooden images and paintings of gods, or men
+of more than human size. Most of them stood upright like a
+guard round a sitting Buddha. I could not observe any dislike
+on the part of the priests to take the foreigner round their
+temples. The key, however, was sometimes wanting to some
+repository, whose contents they were perhaps unwilling to
+desecrate by showing them to the unbeliever. This was, for
+instance, the case with the press which contained the devil's
+bow and arrows, in the temple at Ratnapoora. The temple
+vessels besides were exceedingly ugly, tasteless, and ill-kept. I
+seldom saw anything that showed any sign of taste, art, and
+orderliness. How different from Japan, where all the swords,
+lacquer work, braziers, teacups, &amp;c., kept in the better temples
+would deserve a place in some of the art museums of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In the sketch of the first voyage from Novaya Zemlya to
+Ceylon, a countryman of Lidner can scarcely avoid giving a
+picture of &quot;Ceylon's burned up vales.&quot; In this respect the
+following extract from a letter from Dr. Almquist, sketching his
+journey to the interior of the island may be instructive:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Three hours after our arrival at Point de Galle I sat properly
+stowed away in the mail-coach <i>en route</i> for Colombo. As
+travelling companions I had a European and two Singhalese.
+As it was already pretty dusk in the evening there was not much
+of the surrounding landscape visible. We went on the whole
+night through a forest of tall coco-nut trees whose dark tops
+were visible far up in the air against the somewhat lighter sky.
+It was peculiar to see the number of fire-flies flying in every
+direction, and at every wing-stroke emiting a bright flash. The
+night air had the warm moistness which is so agreeable in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page428" id="v2page428"></a>[ pg 428 ]</span>
+tropics. Now and then the sound of the sea penetrated to our
+ears. For we followed the west coast in a northerly direction.
+More could not be observed in the course of the night, and all
+the passengers were soon sunk in deep sleep.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;After seven hours' brisk trot we came to a railway station
+and continued our journey by rail to Colombo, the capital of
+Ceylon. As there was nothing special to see or do there, I went
+on without stopping by the railway, which here bends from the
+coast to Kandy and other places. The landscape now soon
+became grander and grander. We had indeed before seen
+tropical vegetation at several places, but of the luxuriance which
+here struck the eye we had no conception. The pity was that
+men had come hither, had cleared and planted.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;In the lowlands I saw some cinnamon plantations. Ceylon
+cinnamon is very dear; in Europe cheaper and inferior sorts
+are used almost exclusively, and most of the plantations in
+Ceylon have been abandoned many years ago. Soon the train
+leaves the lowland and begins to ascend rapidly. The patch of
+coast country, where the coco-nut trees prevail, is exchanged for
+a very mountainous landscape; first hills with large open valleys
+between, then higher continuous mountains with narrow, deep,
+kettle-like valleys, or open hilly plateaus. In the valleys rice is
+principally cultivated. The hills and mountain sides were probably
+originally covered with the most luxuriant primitive forest,
+but now on all the slopes up to the mountain summits it is cut
+down, and they are covered with coffee plantations. The coffee-plant
+is indeed very pretty, but grows at such a distance apart
+that the ground is everywhere visible between, and this is a
+wretched covering for luxuriant Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;At two o'clock in the afternoon we arrived at the station,
+Perideniya, the nearest one to Kandy. The famous botanical
+garden lies in its neighbourhood, and there I had to visit the
+superintendent of the garden, Dr. THWAITES. This elderly, but
+still active and enthusiastic naturalist is exceedingly interested
+in botanical research, and very obliging to all who work in that
+department. He received me in a very friendly manner, and
+it was due to him that the programme of my visit there was
+so full.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;A botanic garden in Ceylon must naturally be something
+extraordinary. Nowhere else can grander or more luxuriant
+vegetation be seen than here. The garden has been especially
+famous for the number of different varieties of trees of immense
+size which it can show. Besides, all possible better known plants
+are to be found here, cultivated in the finest specimens. Spices</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page429" id="v2page429"></a>[ pg 429 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p439.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p439.png" alt="A COUNTRY PLACE IN CEYLON." ></a>
+A COUNTRY PLACE IN CEYLON.
+</div>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page430" id="v2page430"></a>[ pg 430 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page431" id="v2page431"></a>[ pg 431 ]</span>
+<p class="blockquote">and drugs were specially well represented. Here long tendrils of
+the black pepper-plant wound themselves up the thick tree-stems,
+here the cardamon and the ginger flourished, here the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p441.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p441.png" alt="HIGHLAND VIEW IN THE INTERIOR OF CEYLON." ></a>
+HIGHLAND VIEW IN THE INTERIOR OF CEYLON.
+<br>Coffee Plantations; Adam's Peak in the back-ground.
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquote">pretty cinnamon, camphor, cinchona, nutmeg, and cocoa trees
+made a splendid show, here I saw a newly gathered harvest of
+vanilla. The abundance of things to be seen, learned, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page432" id="v2page432"></a>[ pg 432 ]</span>
+enjoyed here was incredible. However, the next day I determined
+on the advice of Dr. Thwaites to make a tour up to the
+mountain localities proper, in order there to get a better sight of
+the lichen flora of Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;I now travelled south partly by rail, partly by coach, until in
+the evening I found myself lodged at a 'rest-house' at Rambodde,
+a thousand metres above the sea, at about the same height
+accordingly as that at which trees cease to grow in southern
+Norway. This tropical mountain land reminds one a little, in
+respect of the contours of the landscape, of the fells of Norway.
+Here too are found league-long deep valleys, surrounded by
+high mountain summits and ranges with outlines sharply
+marked against the horizon. But here they were everywhere
+overgrown with coffee bushes, or possibly with cinchona plants.
+The mountain slopes were so laid bare from the bottom all the
+way up that scarce a tree was left in sight; everywhere so far as
+the eye could reach only coffee.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;Next day, attended by a Singhalese, I went, or to speak more
+correctly, climbed farther up the steep coffee plantations. At a
+height of 1,300 metres above the sea coffee ceases to grow, and
+we now found some not very extensive tea plantations, and above
+these the primitive forest commences. At a height of 1,900
+metres above the sea there is an extensive open plateau. Up
+here there is a not inconsiderable place, Novara Elliya, where
+the governor has a residence, and part of the troops are in
+barracks during the summer heat. One of the mountains
+which surround this plateau is Pedrotalagalla, the loftiest
+mountain of Ceylon, which reaches a height of 2,500 metres
+above the sea.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;I have ascended not so few mountains, but of none has the
+ascent been so easy as of this, for a broad footpath ran all the
+way to the top. Without this path the ascent had been impossible,
+for an hour's time would have been required for every foot
+made good through the jungle, so closely is the ground under
+the lofty trees covered to the top of the mountain with bushes,
+creepers, or the bamboo. In the evening I returned to my
+former night-quarters, where I slept well after a walk of
+thirty-six English miles.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;As I felt myself altogether unable the following day to make
+any further excursion on foot, I travelled back to Peradeniya by
+mail-coach. During this journey I had as my travelling companion
+a Singhalese, whom it was a special pleasure to see at
+close quarters. One of his big toes was ornamented with a
+broad ring of silver, both his ears were pierced above, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page433" id="v2page433"></a>[ pg 433 ]</span>
+provided with some pendulous ornament, and one side of the
+nose was likewise perforated, in order that at that place too might
+he adorn himself with a piece of grandeur. On his head he had,
+like all Singhalese, a comb by which the hair drawn right
+upwards is kept in position, as little girls at home are wont to
+have their hair arranged. As the man did not appear to know
+a word of English, it was impossible to enter into any closer
+acquaintance with him.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquote">&quot;At noon on the following day I found myself compelled, by
+a quite unexpected occurrence, to return precipitately to the
+coast again. Dr. Thwaites and I had been invited to dinner by
+his Excellency the Governor. As I was still limping after my
+long excursion on foot, and besides had not had the forethought
+to take a dress-suit with me, I considered that, vexatious as it
+was to decline, I could not accept this gracious invitation, but
+instead went my way. Thus after six exceedingly pleasant days
+I came back to Point de Galle and the <i>Vega</i>&quot;.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn385"></a><a href="#v2rn385">[385]</a> Yet with one very laughable exception. I wished for zoological purposes
+to get one of the common Chinese rats, and with this object in view
+made inquiries through my interpreter at a shed in the street, where rats
+were said to be cooked for Chinese epicures. But scarcely had the question
+been put, when the old, grave host broke out in a furious storm of abuse,
+especially against the interpreter, who was overwhelmed with bitter
+reproaches for helping a &quot;foreign devil&quot; to make a fool of his own
+countrymen. All my protestations were in vain, and I had to go away
+with my object unaccomplished.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn386"></a><a href="#v2rn386">[386]</a> See on this subject W. A. Pickering, &quot;Chinese Secret Societies&quot; (<i>Journal
+of the Straits Branch of the R. Asiatic Society</i>, 1878, No. 1, pp. 63-84)</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn387"></a><a href="#v2rn387">[387]</a> Concerning their formation and origin see a paper by K. Nordenski&ouml;ld
+in <i>&Ouml;fversigt af Vet.-akad F&ouml;rh</i> 1870, p 29.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn388"></a><a href="#v2rn388">[388]</a> Emerson Tennent says on the subject:&mdash;The gem collectors penetrate
+through the recent strata of gravel to the depth of from ten to twenty
+feet in order to reach a lower deposit, distinguished by the name of <i>Nellan</i>,
+in which the objects of their search are found. This is of so early a
+formation that it underlies the present beds of rivers, and is generally
+separated from them or from the superincumbent gravel by a hard crust
+(called <i>Kadua</i>), a few inches in thickness, and so consolidated as to have
+somewhat the appearance of laterite or sun-burnt brick. The nellan is for
+the most part horizontal, but occasionally it is raised into an incline as it
+approaches the base of the hills. It appears to have been deposited previous
+to the eruption of the basalt, on which in some places it reclines,
+and to have undergone some alteration from the contact. It consists of
+water-worn pebbles firmly imbedded in clay, and occasionally there occur
+large lumps of granite and gneiss, in the hollows under which, as well as
+in &quot;pockets&quot; in the clay (which from their shape the natives denominate
+&quot;elephants' footsteps &quot;), gems are frequently found in groups, as if washed
+in by the current. (E. Tennent, <i>Ceylon</i> London, 1860, i. p. 34.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn389"></a><a href="#v2rn389">[389]</a> Diamonds are wanting in Ceylon. And neither gold nor platinum
+appears to occur in noteworthy quantity in the gem gravel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn390"></a><a href="#v2rn390">[390]</a> The only considerable exceptions from this are two localities for precious
+stones in Southern Siberia and the occurrence of precious opal in
+Hungary. The latter, however, in consequence of defective hardness
+and translucency, can scarcely be reckoned among the true precious
+stones.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn391"></a><a href="#v2rn391">[391]</a> The Catalogue of Pali, Singhalese, and Sanscrit Manuscripts in the
+Ceylon Government Oriental Library, Colombo, 1876, includes:&mdash;
+Ceylon Government Oriental Library, Colombo, 1876, includes:&mdash;<br>
+41 Buddhist canonical books<br>
+71 Other religious writings<br>
+25 Historical works, traditions<br>
+29 Philological works<br>
+16 Literary works<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">6 Works on Medicine, Astronomy, &amp;c.</span><br>
+</p><p>
+According to Emerson Tennent (i. p. 515), the Rev. R. Spence Hardy has
+in the <i>Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Asiatic Society</i> for 1848 given
+the titles of 467 works in Pali, Sanskrit, and Elu, collected by himself
+during his residence in Ceylon. Of these about eighty are in Sanskrit, 150
+in Elu or Singhalese, and the remainder in Pali.</p>
+<br>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page434" id="v2page434"></a>[ pg 434 ]</span></p>
+<br>
+
+
+<a name="CHAPTER_XX"></a><h2>CHAPTER XX.</h2> <br>
+
+<p>The Voyage Home&mdash;Christmas, 1879&mdash;Aden&mdash;Suez&mdash;Cairo&mdash;Excursion to
+the Pyramids and the Mokattam Mountains&mdash;Petrified Tree-stems&mdash;The
+Suez Canal&mdash;Landing on Sicily by night&mdash;Naples&mdash;Rome&mdash;The Members
+of the Expedition separate&mdash;Lisbon&mdash;England&mdash;Paris&mdash;Copenhagen&mdash;Festive
+Entry into Stockholm&mdash;<i>F&ecirc;tes</i> there&mdash;Conclusion</p>
+
+<p>During our stay in Japan and our voyage thence to Ceylon I had
+endeavoured at least in some degree to preserve the character
+of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> as a scientific expedition, an attempt
+which, considering the short time the <i>Vega</i> remained at each
+place, could not yield any very important results, and which
+besides was rendered difficult, though in a way that was
+agreeable and flattering to us, by I may almost say the tempestuous
+hospitality with which the <i>Vega</i> men were everywhere
+received during their visits to the ports of Japan and
+East Asia. It was besides difficult to find any new untouched
+field of research in regions which were the seat of culture and
+civilisation long before the time when the forest began to be
+cut down and seed to be sown in the Scandinavian North,
+and which for centuries have formed the goal of exploratory
+expeditions from all the countries of Europe. I hope however
+that the <i>Vega</i> will leave lasting memorials even of
+this part of her voyage through the contributions of Stuxberg,
+Nordquist, Kjellman, and Almquist to the evertebrate
+fauna and the sea-weed and lichen flora of East Asia, and by
+my collections of Japanese books, of fossil plants from Mogi
+and Labuan, &amp;c.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page435" id="v2page435"></a>[ pg 435 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p445.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p445.png" alt="THE SCIENTIFIC MEN OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+THE SCIENTIFIC MEN OF THE <i>&quot;VEGA.&quot;</i>
+<br>F. R. Kjellman  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A. Stuxberg.
+<br>E. Almquist &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; O. Nordquist.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page436" id="v2page436"></a>[ pg 436 ]</span></p>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page437" id="v2page437"></a>[ pg 437 ]</span>
+<p>With the new overpowering impression which nature and
+people exerted on those of us, who now for the first time
+visited Japan, China, India, Borneo, and Ceylon, it was however
+specially difficult, during a stay of a few days at each place,
+to preserve this side of the <i>Vega</i> expedition. I therefore
+determined after leaving Ceylon to let it drop completely,
+that is, from that point merely to <i>travel home</i>. Regarding
+this part of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i> I would thus have very
+little to say, were it not that an obligation of gratitude compels
+me to express in a few words the thanks of the <i>Vega</i> men for
+all the honours bestowed upon them, and all the goodwill they
+enjoyed during the last part of the voyage. For many of my
+readers this sketch may perhaps be of interest as reminding
+them of some happy days which they themselves have lived
+through, and it may even happen that it will not be unwelcome
+to the friends of geography in a future time to read this
+description of the way in which the first circumnavigators of
+Asia and Europe were <i>f&ecirc;ted</i> in the ports and capitals of the
+civilised countries. In this sketch however I am compelled
+to be as brief as possible, and I must therefore sue for pardon
+if every instance of hospitality shown us cannot be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>We started from Point de Galle on the 22nd December, and
+arrived at Aden on the 7th January. The passage was tedious
+in consequence of light winds or calms. Christmas Eve we
+did not celebrate on this occasion, tired as we were of
+entertainments, in such a festive way as at Pitlekaj, but
+only with a few Christmas-boxes and some extra treating.
+On New Year's Eve, on the other hand, the officers in the gunroom
+were surprised by a deputation from the forecastle
+clad in <i>pesks</i> as Chukches, who came, in good Swedish, mixed
+with a few words of the Pitlekaj <i>lingua franca</i> not yet forgotten,
+to bring us a salutation from our friends among the ice of the
+north, thanks for the past and good wishes for the coming year,
+mixed with Chukch complaints of the great heat hereaway
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page438" id="v2page438"></a>[ pg 438 ]</span>
+in the neighbourhood of the equator, which for fur-clad men
+was said to be altogether unendurable.</p>
+
+<p>We remained at Aden only a couple of days, received in
+a friendly manner by the then acting Swedish-Norwegian
+consul, who took us round to the most remarkable points of
+the desolate environs of this important haven, among others
+to the immense, but then and generally empty water reservoirs
+which the English have made in the neighbourhood of the
+town. No place in the high north, not the granite cliffs of
+the Seven Islands, or the pebble rocks of Low Island on
+Spitzbergen, not the mountain sides on the east coast of
+Novaya Zemlya, or the figure-marked ground at Cape
+Chelyuskin is so bare of vegetation as the environs of Aden
+and the parts of the east coast of the Red Sea which we saw.
+Nor can there be any comparison in respect of the abundance
+of animal life between the equatorial countries and the Polar
+regions we have named. On the whole animal life in the
+coast lands of the highest north, where the mountains are
+high and surrounded by deep water, appears to be richer in
+individuals than in the south, and this depends not only on
+the populousness of the fowl-colonies and the number of large
+animals of the chase that we find there, but also on the
+abundance of evertebrates in the sea. At least the
+dredgings made from the <i>Vega</i> during the voyage between
+Japan and Ceylon gave an exceedingly scanty yield in
+comparison with our dredgings north of Cape Chelyuskin.</p>
+
+<p>Aden is now an important port of call for the vessels which
+pass through the Suez Canal from European waters to the
+Indian Ocean, and also one of the chief places for the export of
+the productions of Yemen or Arabia Felix. In the latter
+respect the harbour was of importance as far back as about
+four hundred years ago, when the Italian, LUDOVICO DE
+VARTHEMA, was for a considerable time kept a prisoner by the
+Arab tribes at the place.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page439" id="v2page439"></a>[ pg 439 ]</span>
+In the harbour of Aden the <i>Vega</i> was saluted by the firing of
+twenty-one guns and the hoisting of the Swedish flag at the maintop
+of an Italian war vessel, the despatch steamer <i>Esploratore</i>
+under the command of Captain AMEZAGA. The <i>Esploratore</i> took
+part in an expedition consisting of three war vessels, charged
+with founding an Italian colony at Assab Bay, which cuts into
+the east coast of Africa, north of Bab-el-Mandeb, on a tract of
+land purchased for the purpose by Rubbattino, an Italian
+commercial company. On board was Professor SAPETTO, an
+elderly man, who had concluded the bargain and had lived at
+the place for forty years. It was settled that he should be the
+administrator of the new colony. On board the <i>Esploratore</i>
+were also the <i>savants</i> BECCARI and the Marquis DORIA, famous
+for their extensive travels in the tropics and their valuable
+scientific labours. The officers of the Italian vessel invited us
+to a dinner which was one of the pleasantest and gayest of
+the many entertainments we were present at during our
+homeward journey. When at the close of it we parted from
+our hosts they lighted up the way by which we rowed forward
+over the tranquil waves of the Bay of Aden with blue lights,
+and the desert mountain sides of the Arabian coast resounded
+with the hurrahs which were exchanged in the clear, calm
+night between the representatives of the south and north
+of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i> left Aden, or more correctly its port-town, Steamer
+Point, on the 9th January, and sailed the following day through
+Bab-el-Mandeb into the Red Sea. The passage of this sea,
+which is narrow, but 2,200 kilometres long, was tedious,
+especially in its northern part, where a strong head wind
+blew. This caused so great a lowering of the temperature that
+a film of ice was formed on the fresh-water pools in Cairo,
+and that we, Polar travellers as we were, had again to put on
+winter clothes in Egypt itself.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vega</i> anchored on the 27th January at the now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page440" id="v2page440"></a>[ pg 440 ]</span>
+inconsiderable port, Suez, situated at the southern entrance to
+the Suez Canal. Most of the scientific men and officers of
+the <i>Vega</i> expedition made an excursion thence to Cairo and the
+Pyramids, and were everywhere received in a very kind way.
+Among other things the Egyptian Geographical Society sent
+a deputation to welcome us under the leadership of the
+President of the Society, the American, STONE PACHA. He
+had in his youth visited Sweden, and appeared to have a
+very pleasant recollection of it. The Geographical Society
+gave a stately banquet in honour of the <i>Vega</i> expedition.
+An excursion was made to the Great Pyramids, and, as far as
+the short time permitted, to other remarkable places in and
+around the heap of ruins of all kinds and from all periods,
+which forms the capital of the Egypt of to-day. During our
+visit to the Pyramids the Swedish-Norwegian consul-general,
+B&Ouml;DTKER, gave us a dinner in the European hotel there, and
+the same evening a ball was given us by the Italian consul-general,
+DE MARTINO. A day was besides devoted by some of
+us, in company with M. GUISEPPE HAIMANN, to a short excursion
+to the Mokattam Mountains, famous for the silicified tree-stems
+found there. I hoped along with the petrified wood to
+find some strata of clay-slate or schist with leaf-impressions.
+I was however unsuccessful in this, but I loaded heavily a
+carriage drawn by a pair of horses with large and small tree-stems
+converted into hard flint. These he spread about in the
+desert in incredible masses, partly broken up into small pieces,
+partly as long fallen stems, without root or branches, but in
+a wonderfully good state of preservation. Probably they had
+originally lain embedded in a layer of sand above the present
+surface of the desert. This layer has afterwards been carried
+away by storms, leaving the heavy masses of stone as a peculiar
+stratum upon the desert sand, which is not covered by any
+grassy sward. No root-stumps were found, and it thus appeared
+as if the stems had been carried by currents of water
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page441" id="v2page441"></a>[ pg 441 ]</span>
+to the place where they were imbedded in the sandy layers
+and silicified. In their exterior all these petrifactions resemble
+each other, and by the microscopical examination which has
+hitherto been made naturalists have only succeeded in distinguishing
+two species belonging to the family Nicolia, and a
+palm, a pine, and a leguminous plant, all now extinct. It is
+possible that among the abundant materials I brought home
+with me some other types may be discovered by polishing
+and microscopical examination. Such at least was my
+expectation in bringing home this large quantity of stones,
+the transport of which to the <i>Vega</i> was attended with a
+heavy expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>From Cairo we returned, on the 2nd February, to Suez, and
+the following day the <i>Vega</i> weighed anchor to steam through the
+Suez Canal into the Mediterranean. This gigantic work, created
+by the genius and perseverance of LESSEPS, which is unsurpassed
+by the many marvels of construction in the land of the
+Pharaohs, has not a very striking appearance, for the famous
+canal runs, like a small river with low banks, through the monotonously
+yellow plain of the desert. There are no sluices. No
+bold rock-blastings stand as monuments of difficulties overcome.
+But proud must every child of our century be when he gazes on
+this proof that private enterprise can in our day accomplish
+what world-empires in former times were unable to carry into
+execution. We touched at Port Said for a few hours on the
+5th February, after which we continued our voyage to Naples,
+the first European port we were to visit.</p>
+
+<p>At Aden and in Egypt I had received several letters and
+telegrams informing me that great preparations were being
+made at Naples for our reception, and that repeated inquiries
+had been addressed to the Swedish consul-general regarding
+the day of our arrival, questions which naturally it was not so
+easy to answer, as our vessel, with its weak steam-power, was
+very dependent on wind and weather. It was hoped that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page442" id="v2page442"></a>[ pg 442 ]</span>
+<i>Vega</i> might be signalled from the Straits of Messina, but we did
+not come to the entrance to the Straits until after sunset. I
+therefore ordered the <i>Vega</i> to lie to there for some hours, while
+Lieut. Bove and I rowed ashore to send off telegrams announcing
+our arrival in Europe to Sweden, Naples, Rome, and other
+places. The shore, however, was farther off than we had calculated,
+and it was quite dark before it was reached. It was not
+without difficulty that in these circumstances we could get to
+land through the breakers in the open road quite unknown to
+us, and then, in coal-black darkness, find our way through
+thickets of prickly bushes to the railway which here runs along
+the coast. We had then to go along the railway for a considerable
+distance before we reached a station from which our
+telegrams could be despatched. Scarcely had we entered the
+station when we were surrounded by suspicious railway and
+coast-guard men, and we considered ourselves fortunate that
+they had not observed us on the way thither, for they would
+certainly have taken us for smugglers, whom the coast-guard
+have the right to salute with sharp shot. Even now we were
+overwhelmed with questions in a loud and commanding tone,
+but when they saw to what high personages our telegrams were
+addressed, and were informed by their countryman Bove, who
+wore his uniform, to what vessel we belonged, they became very
+obliging. One of them accompanied us back to our boat, after
+providing us with excellent torches which spread abundant light
+around our footsteps. They were much needed, for we were
+now compelled to share the astonishment of our guide that in
+the darkness we had succeeded in making our way over the
+rugged hills covered with cactus plants and bushy thickets
+between the railway and the coast, and along a railway viaduct
+which we had passed on our way to the station without having
+any idea of it. It was the last adventure of the voyage of the
+<i>Vega</i>, and my first landing on the glorious soil of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th February, at 1 P.M., the <i>Vega</i> arrived at Naples.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page443" id="v2page443"></a>[ pg 443 ]</span>
+At Capri a flag-ornamented steamer from Sorrento met us;
+somewhat later, another from Naples, both of which accompanied
+us to the harbour. Here the Swedish expedition was
+saluted by an American war-vessel, the <i>Wyoming</i>, with twenty-one
+guns. The harbour swarmed with boats adorned with
+flags. Scarcely had the <i>Vega</i> anchored&mdash;or more correctly
+been moored to a buoy&mdash;when the envoy LINDSTRAND, the
+Swedish-Norwegian consul CLAUSEN, Prince TEANO, president
+of the Geographical Society, Commander MARTIN FRANKLIN,
+Commendatore NEGRI, and others came on board. The last-named,
+who nearly two years before had made a special journey
+to Sweden to be present at the departure of the <i>Vega</i>, now
+came from Turin commissioned by the Italian government, and
+deputed by the municipalities of Florence and Venice, the
+Turin Academy of Sciences, and several Italian and foreign
+geographical societies, to welcome the Expedition, which had
+now brought its labours to a happy issue.</p>
+
+<p>After Herr Lindstrand, as King Oscar's representative, had
+welcomed the Expedition to Europe, and publicly conferred
+Swedish decorations on Palander and me, and two adjutants of
+the Italian Ministry of Marine had likewise distributed Italian
+orders to some of the <i>Vega</i> men, some short speeches were
+exchanged, on which the members of the Expedition, accompanied
+by the persons enumerated above, landed in the
+Admiral's steam-launch under a salute of twenty-one guns
+from the Italian guard-ship. On the landing-quay, where
+a large crowd of the inhabitants of the city was assembled,
+the Swedish seafarers were received by the Syndic of Naples,
+Count GIUSSO, accompanied by a deputation from the municipality,
+&amp;c. Here we were taken, between rows of enthusiastic
+students, in the gala carriages of the municipality, to the Hotel
+Royal des &Eacute;trangeres, where a handsome suite of apartments,
+along with equipages and numerous attendants, was placed at
+our disposal. We were there received by the committee in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page444" id="v2page444"></a>[ pg 444 ]</span>
+charge of the festivities, Prince BELMONTE and Cavalier RICCIO,
+who afterwards, during our stay in the city, in the kindest
+way arranged everything to make our stay there festive and
+agreeable.</p>
+
+<p>On Sunday the 15th several deputations were received,
+among them one from the University. A beautifully-bound
+address was presented by &quot;Ateneo Benjammo Franklin,&quot; and
+a number of official visits were made and received. We dined
+with the Swedish-Norwegian consul, Clausen. On Monday
+the 16th an address was presented from &quot;Scuola d'Applicazione
+per gl'Ingenieri,&quot; and from &quot;Neapolitana Arch&aelig;ologi&aelig;, Litterarum
+et Artium Academia,&quot; a song of welcome in Latin,
+written by Professor ANTONIO MIRABELLI. Then followed a
+grand dinner given by the municipality of the city in a hall of
+the hotel, which was now inaugurated and was named the
+<i>Vega</i> Hall, and was on this occasion ornamented with the
+royal cipher, the Swedish and Italian flags, &amp;c. In the evening
+there was a gala representation at San Carlo, where the
+members of the Expedition scattered among the different boxes
+were saluted with repeated loud cries of &quot;Bravo!&quot;&mdash;On Tuesday
+the 17th the Committee had arranged an excursion to Lake
+Averno, the Temple of Serapis, and other places famous in a
+geological and historical respect, situated to the north-west of
+Naples. Prince URUSOV entertained some of the members of
+the Expedition to dinner. There was an afternoon musical entertainment
+at the &quot;Societ&agrave; Filarmonica,&quot; where there was a
+numerous attendance of persons moving in the first circles in
+the city.&mdash;Wednesday the 18th, excursion along with the Committee
+to Pompeii, where the Swedish guests were received by
+the famous superintendent of the excavations, Director
+RUGGIERI. Breakfast was eaten with merry jests and gay
+speeches in a splendid Roman bath, still in good preservation,
+excavations were undertaken, &amp;c. In the afternoon there was
+a grand dinner, followed by a reception by the admiral in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page445" id="v2page445"></a>[ pg 445 ]</span>
+command, and a festive representation at the Bellini Theatre.&mdash;Thursday
+the 19th, Dr. FRANZ K&Uuml;HN, arrived from Vienna,
+deputed by the Geographical Society there to welcome us.
+Excursion in company with Professor PALMIERI and the Committee
+to Vesuvius, which at the time of our visit was emitting
+thick columns of smoke, was pouring out a stream of lava, and
+casting out masses of glowing stone. We ascended the border
+of the crater, not without inconvenience from the heat of the
+half-solidified lava streams over which we walked, from the
+gases escaping from the crater, and from the red-hot stones
+flung out of it. The new railway, not then ready, was inspected,
+and the observatory visited. We dined with the Committee at
+the hotel&mdash;Friday the 20th, journey to Rome, where the
+members of the Expedition arrived at 2 P.M., and were, in the
+same way as at Naples, received in a festive manner by the
+Syndic of the city, Prince RUSPOLI, president and director of
+the Geographical Society, by members of the University,
+the Scandinavian Union, &amp;c. Carriages met the Swedish
+guests, in which they were taken past the Swedish-Norwegian
+minister's hotel, decked with innumerable flags, to Albergo di
+Roma in the Corso, where a splendid suite of apartments, along
+with equipages, was placed at the disposal of the Expedition.
+In the evening we dined with the Swedish minister, and were
+afterwards received by Prince PALLAVICINI at his magnificent
+palace&mdash;Saturday the 21st, visit to the Chamber of Deputies,
+private excursions, dinner given by the Duke NICOLAS of
+Leuchtenberg, to Nordenski&ouml;ld and Nordquist.&mdash;Sunday the
+22nd, public meeting of the Geographical Society, at which its
+grand gold medal was presented to Nordenski&ouml;ld. In the
+evening a grand dinner, given by the Geographical Society, in
+the Continental Hotel. Among the toasts which were drunk
+may be mentioned one to the King of Sweden and Norway,
+proposed in a very warm and eloquent speech by the Premier,
+CAIROLI; to Nordenski&ouml;ld, by Prince Teano; to Palander, by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page446" id="v2page446"></a>[ pg 446 ]</span>
+the Minister of Marine, Admiral ACTON; to the other members
+of the Expedition, to its munificent patrons, Oscar Dickson
+and Alexander Sibiriakoff, to Bove, the Italian officer, who
+took part in it, &amp;c.&mdash;Monday the 23rd. Audience of the King.
+In the evening a grand reception at the Palazzo Teano, where
+almost all that was distinguished and splendid of Roman
+society appeared to be assembled.&mdash;Tuesday the 24th. Dined
+at the Quirinal with King Humbert. There were present,
+besides the King and his suite, the Swedish minister, the
+members of the <i>Vega</i> expedition, Prince Teano, President of
+the Geographical Society; Commendatore Negri; Cairoli,
+Premier; Acton, Minister of Marine; MALVANO, Secretary of
+the Cabinet; Major BARATIERI, and the Italian naval officer,
+EUGENIO PARENT, a member of the Swedish Polar expedition
+of 1872-3, and others. In the evening, reception by the English
+minister, Sir A. B. PAGET, and a beautifully arranged <i>f&ecirc;te</i> at
+the Scandinavian Union, at which a number of enthusiastic
+speeches were made, and flowers and printed verses were distributed.
+&mdash;Wednesday the 25th. Farewell visits. Some of the
+members of the Expedition travelled north by rail. Captain
+Palander made an excursion to Spezzia to take part in a cruise
+on the large ironclad <i>Duilio</i>. The others remained some days
+longer in Rome in order to see its lions, undisturbed by
+official <i>f&ecirc;tes</i>.</p>
+
+<p>While the <i>Vega</i> lay in the harbour of Naples she was literally
+exposed to storming by visitors. The crew were on several
+occasions invited to the theatres there by the managers. Excursions
+to Pompeii had besides been arranged for them by the
+consul for the united kingdoms, Clausen, who spared no pains to
+make the stay of the expedition at Naples honouring to the
+mother-country and as pleasant as possible to the guests, as well
+as in arranging the more formal details of the visit. We
+had besides the joy of meeting in Italy our comrade from
+the severe wintering of 1872-3, Eugenio Parent, who soon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page447" id="v2page447"></a>[ pg 447 ]</span>
+after had the misfortune to be in the tower of the ironclad
+<i>Duilio</i>, when the large Armstrong cannon placed there burst,
+and the wonderful good fortune to escape with life and without
+being seriously hurt from this dreadful accident. The only
+mishap on board the <i>Vega</i> during the latter part of her long
+voyage home occurred besides in the harbour of Naples, one of
+the sailors who was keeping back an enthusiastic crowd of
+people who stormed the <i>Vega</i>, being thrown down from the
+bulwarks with the result that he broke an arm.<a name="v2rn392"></a><a href="#v2fn392">[392]</a></p>
+
+<p>On the 29th February the <i>Vega</i> left the harbour of Naples,
+but no longer with her staff complete. Doctors Kjellman,
+Almquist, and Stuxberg, and Lieut. Nordquist had preferred
+the land route from Italy to Stockholm to the long <i>d&eacute;tour</i> by
+sea, and Lieut. Bove was obliged, by family circumstances, to
+leave the <i>Vega</i> at Naples. We, however, all met again at
+Stockholm. At our departure from Naples the gunroom <i>personnel</i>
+thus consisted only of me, Captain Palander, and Lieuts.
+Brusewitz and Hovgaard.</p>
+
+<p>Through M. A. RABAUT, President of the young, but already
+so well known Geographical Society of Marseilles, I had received
+repeated invitations to visit along with my companions
+the birthplace of Pytheas, the first Polar explorer and the
+discoverer of the Scandinavian Peninsula. With great reluctance
+I was compelled to decline this invitation. We had to
+hasten home, and I wished to save some days for a visit to the
+fatherland of HENRY the Navigator and VASCO DA GAMA.</p>
+
+<p>We sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar on the 9th March,
+and anchored in the harbour of Lisbon on the 11th March at
+2 P.M. The following day we made an excursion to the
+beautiful palace of Cintra, situated about five Portuguese miles
+from the capital. On Saturday we were received in audience
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page448" id="v2page448"></a>[ pg 448 ]</span>
+by the King, Dom Luiz, of Portugal, who, a seaman himself,
+appeared to take a great interest in the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>.
+Later in the day the Swedish minister in Lisbon gave a
+dinner, to which were invited the President of the Portuguese
+Council, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the members of the
+Diplomatic Corps, and others, ending in the evening with a
+grand reception. On Monday the 15th we were present by
+special invitation at a meeting of the Geographical Society, at
+which the newly-returned African travellers, BRITO-CAPELLO
+and IVEN, gave addresses. Here I had besides the great pleasure
+of meeting the famous African traveller, Major SERPA PINTO.
+The King at the same time honoured us with decorations, and
+at its meeting on the 10th March the Portuguese Chamber of
+Deputies resolved, on the motion of the Deputies ENNES
+and ALFREDO, to express its welcome and good wishes in a
+congratulatory address to the <i>Vega</i> men.</p>
+
+<p>We weighed anchor again on the 15th March. We were
+favoured at first with a fresh breeze and made rapid progress,
+but at the entrance to the Channel we met with a steady head-wind,
+so that it was not until the evening of the 25th March,
+considerably later than we had counted on, that we could
+anchor in the harbour of Falmouth, not, as was first intended,
+in that of Portsmouth. We thus missed some preparations
+which had been made at the latter place to welcome us to the
+land which stands first in the line of those that have sent
+out explorers to the Polar Seas. We besides missed a banquet
+which the Royal Geographical Society had arranged in honour
+of the <i>Vega</i> expedition, at which the Prince of Wales was to
+have presided, and which now, in the midst of the Easter
+holidays and a keenly-contested parliamentary election, could
+not be held.<a name="v2rn393"></a><a href="#v2fn393">[393]</a> Our stay in England, at all events, was exceedingly</p>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page449" id="v2page449"></a>[ pg 449 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;"><a href="images/v2p459.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p459.png" alt="THE OFFICERS OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+THE OFFICERS OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;
+<br>E. Bruzewitz.
+<br>G. Bove. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; A. Hovgaard.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page450" id="v2page450"></a>[ pg 450 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page451" id="v2page451"></a>[ pg 451 ]</span>
+pleasant. Palander and I travelled on the night before
+Good Friday to London, where we were received at the railway
+station by the Swedish minister, Count PIPER, and a large
+number of our countrymen living in London. Count Piper
+carried me to my future host, the distinguished Secretary of
+the Geographical Society and famous Arctician and geographical
+writer, CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, who did everything to make
+my stay in London as pleasant and instructive as possible.
+Saturday was spent in paying visits. On Easter Sunday Consul-General
+RICHTER gave a lunch in the Continental Hotel, to
+which a considerable number of Scandinavians and Englishmen
+were invited. The same evening we dined with the famous
+Arctic traveller, Sir ALLEN YOUNG. On Monday we were
+invited by the Earl of NORTHBROOK, President of the
+Geographical Society,<a name="v2rn394"></a><a href="#v2fn394">[394]</a> to his country seat, Stratton, near Winchester.
+Here we saw the way&mdash;an exceedingly quiet one&mdash;in
+which an English parliamentary election goes on. The same
+day we paid a visit to Mr. SPOTTISWOODE, the President of the
+Royal Society, at his magnificent country seat, in the neighbourhood
+of London. Here I saw several instructive experiments
+with very large machines for the production of light by
+electric discharges in highly rarified air. Wednesday the 31st,
+grand dinner at the Swedish minister's, and in the evening of the
+same day a Scandinavian <i>f&ecirc;te</i> in the Freemasons' Hall, at which
+there were great rejoicings according to old northern usages.</p>
+
+<p>We started for Paris on the night before the 1st April. We
+went by Boulogne-sur-Mer, whose Chamber of Commerce had
+invited us to a <i>f&ecirc;te</i> to celebrate the first landing of the <i>Vega</i>
+men on the soil of France after the North-east Passage was
+achieved. Several of the authorities of the town and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page452" id="v2page452"></a>[ pg 452 ]</span>
+Dr. HAMY, a delegate from the Geographical Society of Paris
+met us in the waiting-room at the station. Here a breakfast
+had been arranged, in the course of which we were
+presented to a number of eminent persons of the place, with
+whom we afterwards passed the greater part of the day in the
+most agreeable way. After making several excursions in the
+neighbourhood of the town and paying the necessary official
+visits, we partook of a festive dinner arranged by the municipality.
+From Boulogne we travelled by night to Paris, arriving
+there on the 2nd April at 7 A. M.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the early morning hour we were received
+here at the station in a festive way by the Swedish-Norwegian
+minister and the <i>personnel</i> of the Legation, a deputation from
+the Geographical Society of Paris, and a considerable number
+of the members of the Scandinavian colony in the capital of
+France. The famous Madagascar traveller, GRANDIDIER, President
+of the Geographical Society's Central Committee,
+welcomed us, with lively expressions of assent from the surrounding
+crowd. We were invited during our stay in the
+city to live with our countryman, A. NOBEL, in a very
+comfortable villa belonging to him, Rue Malakoff, No. 53, and
+I cannot sufficiently commend the liberal way in which he here
+discharged the duties of a host and assisted us during our stay
+in Paris, which, though very agreeable and honouring to us,
+demanded an extraordinary amount of exertion.</p>
+
+<p>Our reception in Paris was magnificent, and it appeared as
+if the metropolis of the world wished to show by the way in
+which she honoured a feat of navigation that it is not without
+reason that she bears on her shield a vessel surrounded by
+swelling billows. It is a pleasant duty for me here to offer
+my thanks for all the goodwill we, during those memorable
+days, enjoyed on the part of the President of the Republic, of
+Admiral LA RONCI&Egrave;RE LE NOURY, President of the Geographical
+Society, his colleague, M. HECHT, M. MAUNOIR, the Secretary of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page453" id="v2page453"></a>[ pg 453 ]</span>
+the Society, M. QUATREFAGE, and M. DAUBR&Eacute;E, members of the
+Institute, not to forget many other Frenchmen and Scandinavians.
+Among the <i>f&ecirc;tes</i> of Paris I must confine myself to
+an enumeration of the principal ones.</p>
+
+<p>Friday, the 2nd April. Public <i>s&eacute;ance de r&eacute;ception</i> by the
+Geographical Society in the Cirque des Champs Elys&eacute;e in the
+presence of a very large and select audience. Admiral La
+Ronci&egrave;re delivered the speech on this occasion, which I
+replied to by giving a pretty full account of the Swedish
+Arctic expeditions, on which the President handed me the
+large gold medal of the Society &quot;as a proof of the interest
+which the public and the geographers of France take in the
+voyage of the <i>Vega</i>.&quot; Dined the same day with the Swedish-Norwegian
+minister, SIBBERN.&mdash;Saturday the 3rd. Invitation
+to a festive meeting of delegates from twenty-eight learned
+societies in France in the amphitheatre of the Sorbonne.<a name="v2rn395"></a><a href="#v2fn395">[395]</a> We
+were greeted by the Minister of Education in a masterly and
+eloquent speech, after which he conferred upon us, on the part
+of the Republic, Commander's and Officer's Insignia of the
+French Legion of Honour. &quot;A reward,&quot; as the Minister of the
+<i>Republic</i> expressed himself, &quot;for the blood of the brave and
+the sleepless nights of the learned.&quot; After that an official
+dinner and reception by M. Jules Ferry.&mdash;On Sunday the 4th,
+an address was presented from the Scandinavian Union, under
+the presidency of Herr Fortmeijer. In the evening a brilliant
+entertainment on a large scale given by the Scandinavian
+Union in the Hotel Continental. Among those present may
+be mentioned Prince OSCAR of Sweden, the President of the
+<i>F&ecirc;te</i> Committee, Herr JENSEN, Fru KRISTINA NILSON-ROUZEAUD
+the Danish minister, the Swedish embassy, members of the
+Russian embassy, a large number of Scandinavian artists, many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page454" id="v2page454"></a>[ pg 454 ]</span>
+of the principal representatives of the French and foreign
+press, and lastly, what ought perhaps to have been mentioned
+first, a flower-garden of ladies, of which every dweller in the
+north might feel proud.&mdash;Monday the 5th. Meeting of the
+Institute in its well-known hall, with speeches of welcome.
+Hence we were conducted to a grand festive reception, arranged
+beforehand to the minutest details by the Municipal Council,
+in &quot;la Salle des &Eacute;tats,&quot; situated in that part of the Tuileries
+where the Geographical Congress was held in 1878. The hall
+and the ascent to it were richly ornamented with French tri-colours
+and Swedish flags, beautiful Gobelins, and living plants.
+A number of speeches were made, after which the President of
+the Municipal Council, on the part of the City of Paris, presented
+to me a large, artistically executed medal as a memorial
+of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i><a name="v2rn396"></a><a href="#v2fn396">[396]</a>. In the evening a grand dinner
+was given by the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de G&eacute;ographie, with several eloquent
+speeches for King Oscar (General Pittie), for President Gr&eacute;vy,
+for the prosperity of France (Prince Oscar), for the <i>Vega</i> expedition
+(M. Quatrefage), and so on.&mdash;Tuesday the 6th. Dinner
+given by the President of the Republic, M. Gr&eacute;vy, to Prince
+Oscar and the <i>Vega</i> men then in Paris.&mdash;Wednesday the 7th.
+Dinner given to a numerous and select company of French
+<i>savants</i> by the then President of the Geographical Society and
+of the Institute, M. A. Daubr&eacute;e.&mdash;Thursday the 8th. Dinner
+to a small circle at Victor Hugo's house, where the elderly poet
+and youthful-minded enthusiast in very warm, and I need not
+say eloquent, words congratulated me on the accomplishment of
+my task. Reception there the same evening.</p>
+
+<p>Here ended our visit to the capital of France. Thoroughly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page455" id="v2page455"></a>[ pg 455 ]</span>
+exhausted, but bringing with us memories which shall never
+pass away, we travelled the following day to Vlissingen, whither
+the <i>Vega</i> had gone from Falmouth, under the command of
+Brusewitz. We had been compelled to decline warm and
+hearty invitations to Holland and Belgium from want of time
+and strength to take part in any more festivities. The anchor
+was weighed immediately after we came on board, and the
+course shaped for Copenhagen. At noon on the 15th we passed
+Helsingborg, which was richly ornamented with flags for the
+occasion. Already at Kullaberg we had been met by the
+steamer <i>H. P. Prior</i>, with Lund students on board, and eight
+other steamers with deputations of welcome and enthusiasts for
+the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>, from Copenhagen, Malm&ouml;, Helsingborg,
+and Elsinore. The number of passengers was stated to be 1,500,
+including a number of ladies. Songs were sung, speeches made,
+fireworks let off, &amp;c. At night we lay at anchor in the outer
+road of Copenhagen, so that it was not until the following forenoon
+that we steamed into the harbour, saluting the fort with
+nine shots of our little cannon, and saluted in turn by as many.
+While the <i>Vega</i> was sailing into the harbour, and after she had
+anchored, there came on board the Swedish Minister, Baron
+BECK-FRIIS, the Swedish consul-general EVERL&Ouml;F, the representatives
+of the University, of the merchants, and of the
+Geographical Society under the presidency of the former President
+of the Council, Count HOLSTEIN-HOLSTEINBORG, to bring us a
+welcome from the corporations they represented, and accompany
+us to the Toldbod, where we were received by the President-in-chief,
+the Presidents of the Communal Authority, and the Bourse,
+and the Swedish Unions of Copenhagen. We then drove through
+the festively ornamented city, saluted by resounding hurrahs,
+from a countless throng of human beings, to the H&ocirc;tel
+d'Angleterre, where apartments had been prepared for us. On
+the 17th a <i>f&ecirc;te</i> was given by the Geographical Society in the
+Casino Hall, which was attended by the King, the Crown Prince,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page456" id="v2page456"></a>[ pg 456 ]</span>
+and Prince John of Gl&uuml;cksborg, and nearly all the distinguished
+men of Copenhagen in the fields of science, business, and politics.
+The speech of the <i>f&ecirc;te</i> was delivered by Professor ERSLEV.
+Thereafter a gay and lively banquet was given, at which the
+Crown Prince of Denmark presided.</p>
+
+<p>The 18th April. Grand entertainment given by the King.&mdash;The
+19th April. Magnificent banquet given by the Society of
+Merchants to the members of the <i>Vega</i> expedition at the Bourse,
+the rooms being richly ornamented with flowers and flags, and
+with busts and paintings executed for the occasion by eminent
+artists. Councillor of state MELCHIOR presided, and amongst
+those present, were observed the Crown Prince, the ministers,
+the speakers and vice-speakers of the <i>folke-</i> and
+<i>lands-ting</i>, and
+a number of the principal scientific and military men and
+officials. Speeches were delivered by the Crown Prince,
+State-councillor TEITGEN, Manager of the Great Northern Telegraph
+Company, Admiral BILLE, Professor MADVIG, State-councillor
+Melchior, &amp;c. At another place, an entertainment was given at
+the same time to the crew. In the evening, <i>f&ecirc;te</i> of the Students'
+Union, the Swedish National Union, and the Norwegian Union.</p>
+
+<p>I was obliged to decline an invitation to Lund, because his
+Majesty, King Oscar, had expressed the wish that we should first
+set foot on Swedish ground at the Palace of Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>It was settled that our entry into Stockholm should take place
+in the evening of the 24th April, but we started from Copenhagen
+as early as the night before the 20th in order to be sure
+that we would not, in consequence of head winds or other
+unforeseen hindrances, arrive too late for the festivities in the
+capital of Sweden. In consequence of this precaution we
+arrived at the archipelago of Stockholm as early as the 23rd, so
+that we were compelled during the night between the 23rd and
+24th to lie still at Dalar&ouml;. Here we were met by Commander
+LAGERCRANTZ, who by the King's orders brought our families on
+the steamer <i>Sk&ouml;ldm&ouml;n</i> to meet us.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page457" id="v2page457"></a>[ pg 457 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p467.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p467.png" alt="THE CREW OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;" ></a>
+THE CREW OF THE &quot;VEGA.&quot;
+<br>After a photograph taken at Naples.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page458" id="v2page458"></a>[ pg 458 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page459" id="v2page459"></a>[ pg 459 ]</span>
+On the 24th at 8 A.M. the <i>Vega</i> again weighed anchor in
+order to steam on slowly, past Vaxholm into Stockholm. We
+met innumerable flag-decked steamers by the way, fully laden
+with friends, known and unknown, who with shouts of rejoicing
+welcomed the <i>Vega</i> men home. The nearer we came to
+Stockholm, the greater became the number of steamers, that,
+arranged in a double line and headed by the <i>Vega</i>, slowly
+approached the harbour. Lanterns in variegated colours were
+lighted on the vessels, fireworks were let off, and the roar of
+cannon mingled with the loud hurrahs of thousands of spectators.
+After being greeted at Kastelholmen with one salute more the
+<i>Vega</i> anchored in the stream in Stockholm at 10 P.M.</p>
+
+<p>The queen of the M&auml;lar had clothed herself for the occasion
+in a festive dress of incomparable splendour. The city was
+illuminated, the buildings round the harbour being in the first
+rank. Specially had the King done everything to make the
+reception of the <i>Vega</i> expedition, which he had so warmly
+cherished from the first moment, as magnificent as possible.
+The whole of the Royal Palace was radiant with a sea of lights
+and flames, and was ornamented with symbols and ciphers in
+which the name of the youngest sailor on the <i>Vega</i> was not
+omitted.</p>
+
+<p>An estrade had been erected from Logaorden to the landing-place.
+Here we were received by the town councillors,
+whose president, the Governor, welcomed us in a short speech,
+we were then conducted to the Palace, where, in the presence
+of her Majesty the Queen of Sweden, the members of the
+Royal House, the highest officials of the State and Court, &amp;c.,
+we were in the grandest manner welcomed in the name of the
+fatherland by the King of Sweden, who at the same time conferred
+upon us further marks of his favour and goodwill<a name="v2rn397"></a><a href="#v2fn397">[397]</a>. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page460" id="v2page460"></a>[ pg 460 ]</span>
+was also at the Royal Palace that the series of festivities commenced
+with a grand gala dinner, on the 25th of April, at
+which the King in a few magnanimous words praised the
+exploit of the <i>Vega</i>. Then <i>f&ecirc;te</i> followed <i>f&ecirc;te</i> for several
+weeks.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th the Swedish Yacht Club gave an entertainment
+in the Grand Hotel under the presidency of Admiral Lagercrantz.
+Among those who were present may be mentioned
+his Majesty the King, the Crown Prince, Prince Oscar, Oscar
+Dickson, and Baron von Otter, Minister of Marine. On the
+evening of the same day there was a torchlight procession by
+pupils of the Technical High School. On the 27th there was a
+gala-play, to which all the <i>Vega</i> men were invited. On the 28th
+at a festive meeting of the Academy of the Sciences, a medal
+struck on account of the <i>Vega</i> expedition was distributed,
+the meeting being followed by a dinner given at the Hotel
+Phoenix by the Academy under the presidency of the Crown
+Prince. On the 30th April and 5th May banquets were
+given by the Publicist Club, and by the Idun Society, by
+the Naval Officers' Society to the officers of the <i>Vega</i>, and
+by the Stockholm Workman's Union to the crew. On the 7th
+and 8th May there were festivities at Upsala, the principal
+attraction of which consisted of gay, lively, and ingenious
+carnival representations, in which we received jocular addresses
+and homage from fantastically dressed representatives of the
+peoples of different countries and periods.</p>
+
+<p>During this time there were daily received deputations</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page461" id="v2page461"></a>[ pg 461 ]</span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;"><a href="images/v2p471.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p471.png" alt="THE ENTRANCE OF THE &quot;VEGA&quot; INTO STOCKHOLM ON THE 24TH APRIL, 1880." ></a>
+THE ENTRANCE OF THE &quot;VEGA&quot; INTO STOCKHOLM ON THE 24TH APRIL, 1880.
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page462" id="v2page462"></a>[ pg 462 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page463" id="v2page463"></a>[ pg 463 ]</span>
+addresses, and telegrams of welcome, among others from the
+<i>riksdag</i> of Sweden, the <i>storting</i> of Norway, and the principal
+towns of Norway and Finland, from the student corps at Upsala
+and Helsingborg, from the St. Petersburg Geographical Society,
+from women in Northern Russia (the address accompanied by
+a laurel wreath in silver), &amp;c. In a word, the Stockholm
+<i>f&ecirc;tes</i> formed the climax of the remarkable triumphal procession
+from Japan to Stockholm, which stands unique in the
+history of festivities. Even after the Expedition was broken
+up in Stockholm, and the <i>Vega</i> had sailed on the 9th May for
+Karlskrona and Gothenburg, where she was again taken over by
+the whaling company that previously owned her, the <i>f&ecirc;tes</i> were
+repeated at these towns. They commenced anew when the
+<i>Vega</i> exhibition was opened with appropriate solemnities by
+His Majesty the King in one of the wings of the Royal Palace,
+and when some months after I visited Berlin, St. Petersburg,
+and my old dear fatherland, Finland.</p>
+
+<p>But I may not weary my reader with more notes of festivities.
+It is my wish yet once again to offer my comrades' and my
+own thanks for all the honours conferred upon us both in
+foreign lands and in the Scandinavian North. And in conclusion
+I wish to express the hope that the way in which the accounts
+of the successful voyage of the <i>Vega</i> have been received in all
+countries will give encouragement to new campaigns in the
+service of research, until the natural history of the Siberian
+Polar Sea be completely investigated and till the veil that
+still conceals the enormous areas of land and sea at the
+north and south poles be completely removed, until man at
+last knows at least the main features of the whole of the
+planet which has been assigned him as a dwelling-place in
+the depths of the universe.</p>
+
+<p>Hearty thanks last of all to my companions during the
+voyage of the <i>Vega;</i> to her distinguished commander Louis</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page464" id="v2page464"></a>[ pg 464 ]</span>
+Palander, her scientific men and officers, her petty officers and
+crew. Without their courage and the devotion they showed to
+the task that lay before us, the problem of the North-East
+Passage would perhaps still be waiting for its solution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:40%;"><a href="images/v2p474.png">
+<img width="100%" src="images/v2p474.png" alt="" ></a>
+</div>
+
+<a name="v2map464"></a><div class="figcenter"><a href="images/v2p464.jpg">
+<img src="images/v2p464th.jpg" alt="Map of the North Coast of the Old World from Norway to Behring's
+    Straits," ></a>
+<p>Map of the North Coast of the Old World from Norway to Behring's
+    Straits, with the track of the <i>Vega</i>, constructed from old and
+    recent sources, and from observations made during the Voyage of
+    the <i>Vega</i>, by N. Selander, Captain in the General Staff
+</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page465" id="v2page465"></a>[ pg 465 ]</span>
+ABSTRACT OF THE VOYAGE OF THE VEGA</p>
+<pre>
+                                                    Distance traversed
+                                                         English
+                                           1878     geographical miles
+Karlskrona&mdash;Copenhagen                      June 22&mdash;24        144
+Copenhagen&mdash;Gothenburg                       ,,  26, 27       134
+Gothenburg&mdash;Tromsoe                         July  4&mdash;17      1,040
+Tromsoe&mdash;Chabarova                           ,,  21&mdash;30        930
+Chabarova&mdash;Port Dickson                      Aug  1&mdash;6         580
+Port Dickson&mdash;Cape Chelyuskin                ,,  10&mdash;19        510
+Cape Chelyuskin&mdash;Preobraschenie Island       ,,  20&mdash;24        385
+Preobraschenie Island&mdash;the Mouth of the Lena ,,  24&mdash;27        380
+The Mouth of the Lena&mdash;Irkaipij             Aug 27&mdash;Sept 12  1,260
+Irkaipij&mdash;Pitlekaj                          Sept 18&mdash;28        235
+<i>The Wintering</i>                              Sept 28, 1878&mdash;
+                                           July 18, 1879
+
+                                           1879
+Pitlekaj&mdash;St. Lawrence Bay                  July 18&mdash;20        190
+St. Lawrence Bay&mdash;Port Clarence              ,,  21, 22       120
+Port Clarence&mdash;Konyam Bay                    ,,  26&mdash;28        160
+Konyam Bay&mdash;St. Lawrence Island              ,,  30, 31        90
+St. Lawrence Island&mdash;Behring Island         Aug  2&mdash;14         900
+Behring Island&mdash;Yokohama                    Aug. 19&mdash;Sept 2  1,715
+Yokohama&mdash;Kobe                              Oct. 11&mdash;13        360
+Kobe&mdash;Nagasaki                               ,,  18&mdash;21        410
+Nagasaki&mdash;Hong Kong                          Oct. 27&mdash;Nov 2  1,080
+Hong Kong&mdash;Labuan                            Nov.  9&mdash;17     1,040
+Labuan&mdash;Singapore                            ,,  21&mdash;28        750
+Singapore&mdash;Point de Galle                    Dec.  4&mdash;15     1,510
+Point de Galle&mdash;Aden                  Dec. 22&mdash;Jan. 7, 1880  2,200
+
+                                           1880
+Aden&mdash;Suez                                   Jan. 9&mdash;27      1,320
+Suez&mdash;Naples                                 Feb. 3&mdash;14      1,200
+Naples&mdash;Lisbon                            Feb. 29&mdash;March 11  1,420
+Lisbon&mdash;Falmouth                           March 16&mdash;25        745
+Falmouth&mdash;Vlissingen                       April  5&mdash;8         345
+Vlissingen&mdash;Copenhagen                      ,,   10&mdash;16        632
+Copenhagen&mdash;Stockholm                       ,,   20&mdash;24        404
+                                                          &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;
+                                               Total      22,189
+</pre>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTES:</p>
+<p><a name="v2fn392"></a><a href="#v2rn392">[392]</a> An accident also happened during the first half of the expedition, the
+steersman, in backing among drift-ice, having been thrown over the wheel
+and hurt very seriously.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn393"></a><a href="#v2rn393">[393]</a> Further particulars on this point are given in the Annual Address on
+the Progress of Geography by the Right Hon. the Earl of Northbrook
+(<i>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society</i>, 1880, p. 401).</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn394"></a><a href="#v2rn394">[394]</a> During our visit to London we had no opportunity of taking part in
+any of the meetings of the Society, but some time after the Society gave
+Palander the Founders Gold Medal (I had in 1869 obtained the same
+distinction) and elected me an Honorary Corresponding Member.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn395"></a><a href="#v2rn395">[395]</a> These are enumerated in the <i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de G&eacute;ographie</i>, Mai,
+1880, p. 463. In the same part (p. 450) there is also a report of the
+speeches made at the <i>s&eacute;ance de r&eacute;ception</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn396"></a><a href="#v2rn396">[396]</a> The medal was accompanied by an &quot;extrait du registre de proc&egrave;s-verbaux
+du conseil municipal de la ville de Paris,&quot; a caligraphic masterpiece
+illuminated in various colours and gold. The <i>Conseil municipal</i> also
+ordered a detailed description of the <i>f&ecirc;te</i> to be printed, with the title
+<i>Relation officielle de le r&eacute;ception de M. le Professeur Nordenski&ouml;ld par le
+conseil municipal de Paris le lundi 5 Avril</i> 1880.</p>
+
+<p><a name="v2fn397"></a><a href="#v2rn397">[397]</a> Among others to all who took part in the Expedition a <i>Vega</i> medal,
+specially struck, to be worn on a blue-yellow riband on the breast. It may
+perhaps be of interest for numismatists to know that the medals distributed
+on account of the <i>Vega</i> expedition are to be found delineated in the eighth
+and ninth parts of the Swedish Family Journal for 1880. To those that
+are there delineated there have since been added a medal struck by the
+Finnish Society of Sciences, and the Anthropological-Geographical Society's
+medal.</p>
+
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page466" id="v2page466"></a>[ pg 466 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page467" id="v2page467"></a>[ pg 467 ]</span>
+INDEX.
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page468" id="v2page468"></a>[ pg 468 ]</span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page469" id="v2page469"></a>[ pg 469 ]</span>
+
+<br>
+
+<br>
+INDEX.
+<br>
+(<i>n</i> after the number of a page signifies note)
+<br>
+A
+<br>
+<br>
+Aagaard, Aage, i. <a href="#v1fn181">302<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+<i>Acanthostephia Malmgreni</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page49">49</a>
+<br>
+Actinia Bay, i. <a href="#v1page331">331</a>
+<br>
+Acton, Admiral, ii. <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Adam's mammoth <i>find</i>, i. <a href="#v1page408">408</a>
+<br>
+Adam's Peak, ii. <a href="#v2page431">431</a>
+<br>
+Adam's wood, ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>
+<br>
+Aden, ii. <a href="#v2page437">437</a>
+<br>
+Ahlquist, A. E., i. <a href="#v1page103">103</a>
+<br>
+Aino race, the, ii. <a href="#v2page199">199</a>
+<br>
+Aitanga, Chukch woman, ii. <a href="#v2page57">57</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page8">8</a></span>
+<br>
+Akja, Lapp sledge, i. <a href="#v1page83">83</a>
+<br>
+Alasej, the river, discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page161">161</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">mammoth <i>find</i> at, i. <a href="#v1page408">408</a></span>
+<br>
+Alaska, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a>
+<br>
+Alaska Commercial Company, ii. <a href="#v2page257">257</a>
+<br>
+<i>Alauda alpestris</i>, i. <a href="#v1fn64">129<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Albertus Magnus, i. <a href="#v1page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Alecto, <i>see</i> <a href="#Antedon">Antedon</a>
+<br>
+Aleutian Islands, the, i. <a href="#v1fn84">161<i>n</i></a>, ii. <a href="#v2fn363">274<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2fn364">275<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a></span>
+<br>
+Alexejev, Feodot, ii. <a href="#v2page162">162</a>, <a href="#v2page164">164</a>, <a href="#v2page167">167</a>
+<br>
+Alfred the Great, i. <a href="#v1page46">46</a>, <a href="#v1page47">47</a>, <a href="#v1page215">215</a>
+<br>
+Alg&aelig;, on the inland-ice of Greenland, i. <a href="#v1page178">178</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">in the Kara Sea, i. <a href="#v1page185">185</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Behring Island, ii. <a href="#v2page292">292</a></span>
+<br>
+Alibert's graphite quarry, ii. <a href="#v2page235">235</a>
+<br>
+Alkhornet, i. <a href="#v1page112">112</a>
+<br>
+Almquist, E., i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>, <a href="#v1page37">37</a>, <a href="#v1page38">38</a>, <a href="#v1page93">93</a>, <a href="#v1page187">187</a>, <a href="#v1page208">208</a>, <a href="#v1page319">319</a>, <a href="#v1page320">320</a>, <a href="#v1page340">340</a>, <a href="#v1page436">436</a>, <a href="#v1page444">444</a>, <a href="#v1page465">465</a>, <a href="#v1page478">478</a>, <a href="#v1page504">504</a>, <a href="#v1page505">505</a>;
+  ii. <a href="#v2page32">32</a>, <a href="#v2page242">242</a>, <a href="#v2page414">414</a>, <a href="#v2page434">434</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to Beli Ostrov, i. <a href="#v1page200">200</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">report on a dead man laid out on the tundra, ii. <a href="#v2page89">89</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">on the colour-sense of the Chukches, ii. <a href="#v2page135">135</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion in Ceylon, ii. <a href="#v2page427">427</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page435">435.</a></span>
+<br>
+Alophus (beetle), ii. <a href="#v2page55">55</a>
+<br>
+Altaic races, i. <a href="#v1page103">103</a>
+<br>
+Amber in China, ii. <a href="#v2page399">399</a>
+<br>
+America, the north-west coast of, first visited by Europeans, ii. <a href="#v2fn337">210<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian voyages to, ii, <a href="#v2page196">196.</a></span>
+<br>
+American whaler, near the <i>Vega's</i> winter-quarters, i. <a href="#v1page467">467</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyages in the Siberian Polar sea, i. <a href="#v1page27">27</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">accounts of the state of the ice north of Behring's Straits, i. <a href="#v1page459">459</a></span>
+<br>
+Amezaga, Captain, ii. <a href="#v2page439">439</a>
+<br>
+Ammonites with gold lustre, i. <a href="#v1page273">273</a>
+<br>
+Amossov, Feodot, ii. <a href="#v2page170">170</a>, <a href="#v2page171">171</a>
+<br>
+Amoretti, Carlo, ii. <a href="#v2page215">215</a>
+<br>
+Amulets, Chukch, i. <a href="#v1page503">503</a>, ii. <a href="#v2page126">126</a>, <a href="#v2page134">134</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Eskimo, ii. <a href="#v2page239">239</a></span>
+<br>
+Anadyr, the river, i. <a href="#v1page22">22</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page75">75</a>, <a href="#v2page76">76</a>, <a href="#v2page164">164,</a>, <a href="#v2page165">165</a>, <a href="#v2page167">167</a>, <a href="#v2page195">195</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">is discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page162">162</a></span>
+<br>
+Anadyrsk, ii. <a href="#v2page165">165</a>, <a href="#v2page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Anauls, ii. <a href="#v2page166">166</a>
+<br>
+Andersen, the photographer, ii. <a href="#v2page304">304</a>
+<br>
+Andrejev Land, ii. <a href="#v2page202">202</a>
+<br>
+Andrejev, Sergeant, ii. <a href="#v2page202">202</a>, <a href="#v2page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Androphagi, i. <a href="#v1fn54">77<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn296">157<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Angara river, the, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>
+<br>
+Anian Sound, the, ii. <a href="#v2page215">215.</a>
+<br>
+Anika, Russian peasant, ii. <a href="#v2page158">158</a>
+<br>
+Anjou, Peter Feodorovitsch, i. <a href="#v1page23">23</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">journey, ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page207">207</a></span>
+<br>
+Anjui river, market at the, ii. <a href="#v2page14">14</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+Ankudinov, Gerasim, i. <a href="#v1page22">22</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page163">163</a>, <a href="#v2fn302">167<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+<a name="Anser">
+<i>Anser bernicla</i>,</a> i. <a href="#v1page118">118</a>, <a href="#v1page119">119</a>, <a href="#v1fn139">247<i>n</i></a>;
+  seen during the expedition, i. <a href="#v1page321">321</a>, <a href="#v1page334">334</a>, <a href="#v1page343">343</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>brachyrhynchus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page126">126</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>hyperboreus</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page42">42</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>leucopsis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page126">126</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>pictus</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page42">42</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>segetum</i>, i. <a href="#v1page126">126</a>
+<br>
+<a name="Antedon">
+<i>Antedon Eschrichtii</i>,</a> i. <a href="#v1page324">324</a>, <a href="#v1page325">325</a>
+<br>
+Anziphorov, the Cossack, ii. <a href="#v2page174">174</a>
+<br>
+Arachnids on Novaya Zemlya, i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Archangel, i <a href="#v1page167">167</a>
+<br>
+Arimaspi, Herodotus' statement regarding, i. <a href="#v1page407">407</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page150">150</a>
+<br>
+Arnell, Dr., i. <a href="#v1page383">383</a>
+<br>
+<i>Arvicola obscurus</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page470" id="v2page470"></a>[ pg 470 ]</span>
+<br>
+Arzina, the situation of, i. <a href="#v1page66">66</a>
+<br>
+Asamayama, ascent of, ii. <a href="#v2page349">349</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">descent of, ii. <a href="#v2page351">351</a></span>
+<br>
+Asia, views regarding its geography in the beginning of the 18th century, ii. <a href="#v2page177">177</a>
+<br>
+Astronomical determinations of position, the first in Siberia, ii. <a href="#v2fn315">178<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Atlassov, Volodimir, ii. <a href="#v2page72">72</a>, <a href="#v2page167">167</a>, <a href="#v2page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Aurora, the, at the <i>Vega's</i> winter quarters, ii. <a href="#v2page35">35</a>
+<br>
+Austrian Arctic Expedition, i. <a href="#v1page266">266</a>, <a href="#v1page300">300</a>
+<br>
+Avatscha Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page181">181</a>, <a href="#v2page196">196</a>
+<br>
+Avril, Ph., i. <a href="#v1page400">400</a>
+<br>
+<br>
+               B
+<br><br>
+BACHOFF, Ivan, ii. <a href="#v2page200">200</a>
+<br>
+Baer, K. E. von, i. 158; ii. <a href="#v2page183">183</a>, <a href="#v2page276">276</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyage to Novaya Zemlya, i. <a href="#v1page282">282</a></span>
+<br>
+Baikal Lake, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>
+<br>
+<i>Bal&aelig;na Mysticetus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page151">151</a>, <a href="#v1page169">169</a>
+<br>
+<i>Bal&aelig;noptera Sibbaldii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Baratieri, Major, ii. <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Barents, i. <a href="#v1page101">101</a>, <a href="#v1fn61">108<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page422">422</a>, <a href="#v1page423">423</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyages, i. <a href="#v1page232">232</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">wintering, i. <a href="#v1page249">249</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">death, i. <a href="#v1page253">253</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">discovery of relics from his wintering, i. <a href="#v1page300">300</a></span>
+<br>
+Barjatinsky, Ivan Petrovitsch, ii. <a href="#v2page169">169</a>
+<br>
+Barnacle Goose, see <a href="#Anser"><i>Anser bernicla</i></a>
+<br>
+Barrington, D., i. <a href="#v1page265">265</a>
+<br>
+Barrow, J., i. <a href="#v1page230">230</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page215">215</a>
+<br>
+Bartlett, W., i. <a href="#v1page467">467</a>
+<br>
+Bassendine, James, i. <a href="#v1page229">229</a>
+<br>
+Baths in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page345">345</a>
+<br>
+Baumhauer, ii. <a href="#v2page36">36</a>
+<br>
+Bavier, Consul, ii. <a href="#v2page312">312</a>, <a href="#v2page326">326</a>, <a href="#v2page327">327</a>
+<br>
+Bay-ice, i. <a href="#v1page424">424</a>
+<br>
+Beaker sponges, i. <a href="#v1page426">426</a>, <a href="#v1page427">427</a>
+<br>
+Bear Island, i. <a href="#v1page12">12</a>, <a href="#v1page108">108</a>, <a href="#v1page115">115</a>, <a href="#v1page152">152</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">discovery of, i. <a href="#v1page247">247</a></span>
+<br>
+Bear Islands, the, ii. <a href="#v2fn304">171<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page195">195</a>, <a href="#v2page201">201</a>, <a href="#v2page202">202</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">the <i>Vega</i> arrives at, i. <a href="#v1page421">421</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">geological formation, i. <a href="#v1page428">428</a></span>
+<br>
+Bear, land, ii. <a href="#v2page45">45</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2"><i>see</i> <a href="#Polarbear">Polar bear</a></span>
+<br>
+Beccari, ii. <a href="#v2page439">439</a>
+<br>
+Beck Friis, Baron, ii. <a href="#v2page455">455</a>
+<br>
+Beechey, F. W., i. <a href="#v1page28">28</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn346">228<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Behemoth, i. <a href="#v1page400">400</a>
+<br>
+Behring, Vitus, i. <a href="#v1page25">25</a>, <a href="#v1page28">28</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn318">183<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page193">193</a>, <a href="#v2page265">265</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">first voyage, ii. <a href="#v2page179">179</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">second voyage, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">stay on Behring Island, ii. <a href="#v2page265">265</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">death, ii. <a href="#v2page265">265</a></span>
+<br>
+Behring the younger, Captain, ii. <a href="#v2page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Behring Island, ii. <a href="#v2page257">257</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page197">197</a>, <a href="#v2page262">262</a></span>
+<br>
+Behring's Straits, ii. <a href="#v2page218">218</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">its hydrography, ii. <a href="#v2page242">242</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">is discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page180">180</a>, <a href="#v2page181">181</a></span>
+<br>
+<a name="BeliOstrov">
+Beli, Ostrov,</a> i. <a href="#v1page187">187</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to, i. <a href="#v1page200">200</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">description of, i. <a href="#v1page201">201</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">former visit to, i. <a href="#v1page205">205</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">mapping of, ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a></span>
+<br>
+Bellot, J. R., ii. <a href="#v2page57">57</a>
+<br>
+Belmonte, Prince, ii. <a href="#v2page444">444</a>
+<br>
+Bell Sound, i. <a href="#v1page112">112</a>, <a href="#v1page122">122</a>, <a href="#v1page125">125</a>, <a href="#v1page129">129</a>, <a href="#v1page137">137</a>, <a href="#v1page183">183</a>
+<br>
+Beluga, <i>see</i> <a href="#whitewhale">White whale</a>
+<br>
+Beluga Bay, i. <a href="#v1page361">361</a>
+<br>
+Bennet, Stephen, i. <a href="#v1page152">152</a>, <a href="#v1page158">158</a>, <a href="#v1page291">291</a>
+<br>
+Bentinck, Swedish officer, ii. <a href="#v2fn275">76<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Beormas, i. <a href="#v1page48">48</a>, <a href="#v1page51">51</a>
+<br>
+Beresov, ii. <a href="#v2page184">184</a>
+<br>
+Berggren, Sven, i. <a href="#v1page176">176</a>
+<br>
+Beryl, ii. <a href="#v2page422">422</a>
+<br>
+Berzelius, ii. <a href="#v2page325">325</a>
+<br>
+Besimannaja Bay, i. <a href="#v1page73">73</a>, <a href="#v1page112">112</a>, <a href="#v1page344">344</a>
+<br>
+Busk, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>
+<br>
+Bille, Admiral, ii. <a href="#v2page456">456</a>
+<br>
+Billings, J., ii. <a href="#v2page78">78</a>, <a href="#v2page203">203</a>, <a href="#v2fn353">254<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Biwa Lake, ii. <a href="#v2page370">370</a>
+<br>
+Bjelkov, hunter, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>, <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Black-lead pencil first mentioned, ii. <a href="#v2fn348">235<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Blischni Island, <i>see</i> <a href="#Ljachoff">Ljachoff's Island</a>
+<br>
+Bludnaya river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page191">191</a>
+<br>
+B&ouml;dtker, Consul-general, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br>
+Bog iron ore formations in the Kara Sea, i. <a href="#v1page185">185</a>, <a href="#v1page186">186</a>
+<br>
+Bolschaja Reka, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a>, <a href="#v2page199">199</a>
+<br>
+Bolschoj, Kamen, i. <a href="#v1page173">173</a>
+<br>
+Bolvan worship, Samoyed, i. <a href="#v1page79">79</a>, <a href="#v1page87">87</a>, <a href="#v1page95">95</a>
+<br>
+<i>Bona Confidentia</i> (vessel), i. <a href="#v1page59">59</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">its fate, i. <a href="#v1page225">225</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Bona Esperanza</i>,(vessel), i. <a href="#v1page59">59</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">its fate,  i. <a href="#v1page225">225</a></span>
+<br>
+Books, purchase of Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page364">364</a>
+<br>
+B&ouml;rgen, Dr., i. <a href="#v1page143">143</a>
+<br>
+Borgm&auml;stareport, i. <a href="#v1page115">115</a>
+<br>
+Borneo, ii. <a href="#v2page407">407</a>, <a href="#v2page413">413</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to the interior of, ii. <a href="#v2page409">409</a></span>
+<br>
+Borrowdale, graphite deposit at, ii. <a href="#v2page235">235</a>
+<br>
+Bosman, Cornelis, i. <a href="#v1page257">257</a>
+<br>
+Boulogne-sur-mer, arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Bove, G., i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>, <a href="#v1page39">39</a>, <a href="#v1page190">190</a>, <a href="#v1page318">318</a>, <a href="#v1page502">502</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page2">2</a>, <a href="#v2page47">47</a>, <a href="#v2page242">242</a>, <a href="#v2page409">409</a>, <a href="#v2page447">447</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to Najtskaj, ii. <a href="#v2page20">20</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">to the interior of the Chukch Peninsula, ii. <a href="#v2page28">28</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page449">449</a></span>
+<br>
+Bragin, Dmitri, ii. <a href="#v2page275">275</a>
+<br>
+Brandt, J. F., ii. <a href="#v2page275">275</a>, <a href="#v2page276">276</a>
+<br>
+Brandt, W., i. <a href="#v1page279">279</a>
+<br>
+Brandy, i. 440; ii. <a href="#v2page116">116</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+Brandywine Bay, i. <a href="#v1page108">108</a>
+<br>
+Briochov Islands, i. <a href="#v1page210">210</a>, <a href="#v1page359">359</a>, <a href="#v1page381">381</a>
+<br>
+Brown, Richard, i. <a href="#v1fn124">229<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Bruin, Cornelis de, ii. <a href="#v2page72">72</a>
+<br>
+Brun, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Brunel, Oliver, i. <a href="#v1page234">234</a>
+<br>
+Bruzewitz, E., i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>, <a href="#v1page39">39,</a>, <a href="#v1page339">339</a>, <a href="#v1page353">353</a>; ii. 18, 44, 447, 455;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his measurements of the thickness of the ice, i. <a href="#v1page465">465</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to Najtskaj, ii. <a href="#v2page7">7</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page449">449</a></span>
+<br>
+Buache, ii. <a href="#v2page171">171</a>
+<br>
+Buckland, John, i. <a href="#v1page225">225</a>
+<br>
+Buckland, William, ii. <a href="#v2fn346">228<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Buddhism in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page378">378</a>
+<br>
+Buldakov, Timofej, ii. <a href="#v2page163">163</a>
+<br>
+Bulun, i. <a href="#v1page362">362</a>, <a href="#v1page368">368</a>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page471" id="v2page471"></a>[ pg 471 ]</span>
+Burgomaster, i. <a href="#v1page114">114</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">met with during the voyage, i. <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page352">352</a>; ii. 42</span>
+<br>
+Burney, James, ii. <a href="#v2page178">178</a>
+<br>
+Burrough, Stephen, i. <a href="#v1page60">60</a>, <a href="#v1page100">100</a>, <a href="#v1page169">169</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his voyage, i. <a href="#v1page217">217</a></span>
+<br>
+Busa, Elisej, ii. <a href="#v2page160">160</a>
+<br>
+Busch, Henry, ii. <a href="#v2page175">175</a>
+<br>
+Buys, N., ii. <a href="#v2page243">243</a>
+<br>
+Bychov mouth of the Lena, the, i. <a href="#v1page367">367</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page194">194</a>
+<br><br>
+
+C
+<br><br>
+CABOOK, ii. <a href="#v2page420">420</a>, <a href="#v2page421">421</a>
+<br>
+Cabot, Sebastian, i. <a href="#v1page56">56</a>, <a href="#v1page58">58</a>, <a href="#v1page217">217</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, i. <a href="#v1page59">59</a></span>
+<br>
+Cadamosto, ii. <a href="#v2fn273">73<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Cairo, stay in, ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>
+<br>
+Cairoli, premier, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>, <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Cannibals in the North, i. <a href="#v1fn54">77<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn296">157<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Canton, ii. <a href="#v2page398">398</a>
+<br>
+Cape Baranov, i. <a href="#v1page25">25</a>, <a href="#v1page428">428</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page195">195</a>, <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Cape Borchaja, ii. <a href="#v2page194">194</a>
+<br>
+Cape Chelyuskin, i. <a href="#v1page13">13</a>, <a href="#v1page19">19</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">arrival at, i. <a href="#v1page336">336</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">reindeer there, i. <a href="#v1page344">344</a>, ii. <a href="#v2fn324">192<i>n</i></a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">flora, i. <a href="#v1page340">340</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">is discovered, i. <a href="#v1page17">17</a>, <a href="#v1page20">20</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page193">193</a></span>
+<br>
+Cape Deschnev, ii. <a href="#v2page68">68</a>, <a href="#v2page181">181</a>
+<br>
+Cape Kammennoj, ii. <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Cape Mattesol, ii. <a href="#v2page186">186</a>
+<br>
+Cape Medinski Savorot, ii. <a href="#v2fn345">223<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Cape Nassau, ii. <a href="#v2page234">234</a>
+<br>
+Cape North, i. <a href="#v1page442">442</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page210">210</a>
+<br>
+Cape Olenek, i. <a href="#v1page363">363</a>
+<br>
+Cape Onman, i. <a href="#v1page456">456</a>
+<br>
+Cape Prince of Wales, ii. <a href="#v2page226">226</a>
+<br>
+Cape Ruski Savorot, i. <a href="#v1page223">223</a>
+<br>
+Cape Schaitanskoj, i. <a href="#v1page381">381</a>
+<br>
+Cape Schelagskoj, i. <a href="#v1page426">426</a>, <a href="#v1page447">447</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page201">201</a>, <a href="#v2page202">202</a>
+<br>
+Cape St. John, i. <a href="#v1page221">221</a>, <a href="#v1page222">222</a>
+<br>
+Cape Thaddeus, i. <a href="#v1page20">20</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page190">190</a>
+<br>
+Cape Voronov, i. <a href="#v1fn108">219<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Cape Yakan, i. <a href="#v1page27">27</a>, <a href="#v1page447">447</a>
+<br>
+Capello, Brito, ii. <a href="#v2page453">453</a>
+<br>
+<i>Carabus truncaticollis</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page55">55</a>
+<br>
+Carlsen, Elling, ii. <a href="#v2page294">294</a>, <a href="#v2page300">300</a>
+<br>
+Carska Bay, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Carthaginians' traffic with African races, ii. <a href="#v2page73">73</a>
+<br>
+Caspian Sea, former views regarding, ii. <a href="#v2page151">151</a>
+<br>
+Castr&eacute;n's Island, i. <a href="#v1page133">133</a>
+<br>
+Ceylon, stay at, ii. <a href="#v2page414">414</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">natives, ii. <a href="#v2page424">424</a></span>
+<br>
+Chabarova, i. <a href="#v1page75">75</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">church of, i. <a href="#v1page76">76</a></span>
+<br>
+Chacke, Martin, ii. <a href="#v2page214">214</a>
+<br>
+Chamisso, A. von, ii. <a href="#v2fn348">235<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Chancelor, Richard, i. <a href="#v1page13">13</a>, <a href="#v1page60">60</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his voyage, i. <a href="#v1page67">67</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">his death, i. <a href="#v1fn124">226<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+Chatanga Bay, i. <a href="#v1page20">20</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page189">189</a>, <a href="#v2page190">190</a>
+<br>
+Chatanga river, the, i. <a href="#v1page354">354</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page188">188</a>, <a href="#v2page192">192</a>
+<br>
+Cheltinga, midshipman, ii. <a href="#v2page198">198</a>
+<br>
+Chenizyn, ii. <a href="#v2page206">206</a>, <a href="#v2page209">209</a>
+<br>
+China, stay in, ii. <a href="#v2page396">396</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">communication with Europe, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its future, ii. <a href="#v2page403">403</a></span>
+<br>
+Chinese in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page363">363</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">at Hong Kong, their treatment, ii. <a href="#v2page402">402</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">in Borneo, ii. <a href="#v2page412">412</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Chionoecetes opilio</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page63">63</a>, <a href="#v2page242">242</a>
+<br>
+Cholodilov, ii. <a href="#v2fn362">270<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Chukches, the, compared with other Polar races, i. <a href="#v1page92">92</a>, <a href="#v1page146">146</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">first meeting with, i. <a href="#v1page430">430</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Cape Yakan, i. <a href="#v1page433">433</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">barter with the, i. <a href="#v1page439">439</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Irkaipij, i. <a href="#v1page449">449</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">visit the <i>Vega</i>, i. <a href="#v1page486">486</a>, <a href="#v1page513">513</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Cape Deschnev, ii. <a href="#v2page220">220</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Konyam Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page221">221</a>, <a href="#v2page245">245</a>, <a href="#v2page246">246</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">on the American side of Behring's Straits, ii. <a href="#v2page81">81</a>, <a href="#v2page232">232</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">divided into reindeer and coast Chukches, ii. <a href="#v2page81">81</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">number of, ii. <a href="#v2page81">81</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">removals, ii. <a href="#v2page93">93</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">carry on traffic between America and Siberia, ii. <a href="#v2page14">14</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">language, i. <a href="#v1page489">489</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page82">82</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">diseases, ii. <a href="#v2page87">87</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">position of the women, ii. <a href="#v2page138">138</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">their history, <i>physique</i>, disposition, and manners, ii. <a href="#v2page70">70</a></span>
+<br>
+Chukotskojnos, i. <a href="#v1page22">22</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>, <a href="#v2page164">164</a>, <a href="#v2page212">212</a>
+<br>
+Chvoinoff, landmeasurer, i. <a href="#v1page418">418</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>
+<br>
+Chydenius, Carl, i. <a href="#v1page142">142</a>
+<br>
+Clarke, Charles, ii. <a href="#v2page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Clausen, Consul, ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>, <a href="#v2page444">444</a>, <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Clothing, i. <a href="#v1page37">37</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">of the <i>Vega</i> men, i. <a href="#v1page476">476</a></span>
+<br>
+Cloudberries, a powerful antiscorbutic, i. <a href="#v1page42">42</a>, <a href="#v1page44">44</a>
+<br>
+Cochrane, John Dundas, ii. <a href="#v2page178">178</a>
+<br>
+Coffee plantations, ii. <a href="#v2page432">432</a>
+<br>
+Coleoptera in Novaya Zemlya, i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">in North Siberia, i. <a href="#v1page321">321</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Port Clarence, ii. <a href="#v2page242">242</a></span>
+<br>
+Collie, Dr., ii. <a href="#v2fn346">228<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Colmogro, i, <a href="#v1page225">225</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page156">156</a>
+<br>
+Colombo (Ceylon), ii. <a href="#v2page427">427</a>
+<br>
+Colour-blindness, ii. <a href="#v2page135">135</a>
+<br>
+Colours, Chukch, ii. <a href="#v2page135">135</a>
+<br>
+Commander's Islands, ii. <a href="#v2page257">257</a>
+<br>
+Cook, James, i. <a href="#v1page13">13</a>, <a href="#v1page25">25</a>, <a href="#v1page28">28</a>, <a href="#v1page442">442</a>, <a href="#v1fn241">445<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2page210">210</a>
+<br>
+Cooke, Mr, ii. <a href="#v2page408">408</a>
+<br>
+Copenhagen, the <i>Vega</i> calls at, i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">reception at, ii. <a href="#v2page455">455</a></span>
+<br>
+Copper Island, ii. <a href="#v2page257">257</a>, <a href="#v2page261">261</a>, <a href="#v2page270">270</a>, <a href="#v2page275">275</a>
+<br>
+Corea, whales with European harpoons caught at, i. <a href="#v1page264">264</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Japanese campaign to, ii. <a href="#v2page380">380</a></span>
+<br>
+Coregonus caught by the Chukches, i. <a href="#v1page494">494</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page18">18</a>, <a href="#v2page19">19</a>
+<br>
+Corpse found in Chukch Land, i. <a href="#v1page505">505</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page89">89</a>
+<br>
+Corundum, ii. <a href="#v2page400">400</a>, <a href="#v2page423">423</a>
+<br>
+Cosmic dust, i. <a href="#v1page329">329</a>
+<br>
+Coughtrie, J.B., ii. <a href="#v2page401">401</a>
+<br>
+Coxe, J.H., ii. <a href="#v2page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Croy&egrave;re, L'Isle de la, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a>, <a href="#v2page198">198</a>, <a href="#v2page200">200</a>
+<br>
+Crustacea, phosphorescent, ii. <a href="#v2page55">55</a>, <a href="#v2page56">56</a>
+<br>
+Cruys Eiland, i. <a href="#v1page234">234</a>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page472" id="v2page472"></a>[ pg 472 ]</span>
+Crystals found on the ice, i. <a href="#v1page327">327</a>
+<br>
+Currents in the Siberian Polar Sea, i. <a href="#v1page18">18</a>
+<br>
+<i>Cyqnus Bewickii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page127">127</a>
+<br>
+<i>Cystophora cristata</i>, i. <a href="#v1page165">165</a>
+<br><br>
+
+D
+<br><br>
+Daat Island, i. <a href="#v1page409">409</a>
+<br>
+Dahl, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page314">314</a>
+<br>
+Daibutsu statues, ii. <a href="#v2page379">379</a>
+<br>
+Dale, Fr. de la, i. <a href="#v1page237">237</a>, <a href="#v1page243">243</a>
+<br>
+Dall, W.H. i. <a href="#v1page459">459</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page213">213</a>, <a href="#v2fn346">228<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+<i>Dallia delicatissima</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page59">59</a>, <a href="#v2page242">242</a>
+<br>
+Dallmann, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page313">313</a>, <a href="#v1page360">360</a>, <a href="#v1page459">459</a>
+<br>
+Daubr&eacute;e, A., ii. <a href="#v2page454">454</a>
+<br>
+David, Russian ambassador, i. <a href="#v1page54">54</a>
+<br>
+<i>Dawn</i> (vessel), the, i. <a href="#v1page317">317</a>
+<br>
+Day-reckoning on board the <i>Vega</i>, i. <a href="#v1fn248">453<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Delisle, i. <a href="#v1page171">171</a>
+<br>
+De Long, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page489">489</a>
+<br>
+Dementiev, ii. <a href="#v2page198">198</a>
+<br>
+Deschnev Simeon, i. <a href="#v1page20">20</a>, <a href="#v1page21">21</a>, <a href="#v1page25">25</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page181">181</a>, <a href="#v2page194">194</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyages of, ii. <a href="#v2page164">164</a></span>
+<br>
+Devil's Temple at Ratnapoora, ii. <a href="#v2page427">427</a>
+<br>
+Diamonds, ii. <a href="#v2page416">416</a>,<a href="#v2page422">422</a>
+<br>
+<i>Diastylis Rathkei</i>, i. <a href="#v1page198">198</a>, <a href="#v1page199">199</a>
+<br>
+Diatoms, fresh-water, on sea ice, i. <a href="#v1page189">189</a>
+<br>
+Dickson Island, i. <a href="#v1page191">191</a>
+<br>
+Dietary of the expedition, i. <a href="#v1page478">478</a>
+<br>
+Diomede Island, ii. <a href="#v2page218">218</a>
+<br>
+Disco Island, i. <a href="#v1fn75">147<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Dittmar, C. von, ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+Dixon, Alexander C., ii. <a href="#v2page414">414</a>
+<br>
+Dog-fish, ii. <a href="#v2page59">59</a>
+<br>
+Dogs, Samoyed, i. <a href="#v1page83">83</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">tow boats on the Yenisej, i. <a href="#v1page385">385</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Chukch, i. <a href="#v1page501">501</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page94">94</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">sacrificed, ii. <a href="#v2page255">255</a></span>
+<br>
+Dolgans, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>
+<br>
+Dolgoi Island, i. <a href="#v1page223">223</a>, <a href="#v1page236">236</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page184">184</a>
+<br>
+Donis, Nic, i. <a href="#v1page51">51</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page152">152</a>
+<br>
+Doria, Marquis, ii. <a href="#v2page439">439</a>
+<br>
+D&ouml;rma, hunter, i. <a href="#v1page300">300</a>
+<br>
+<i>Draba alpina</i>, i. <a href="#v1page340">340</a>, <a href="#v1page341">341</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page224">224</a>
+<br>
+Dredgings, zoological, i. <a href="#v1page174">174</a>, <a href="#v1page198">198</a>, <a href="#v1page324">324</a>, <a href="#v1page345">345</a>, <a href="#v1page350">350</a>, <a href="#v1page420">420</a>, <a href="#v1page426">426</a>, <a href="#v1page432">432</a>, <a href="#v1page451">451</a>, <a href="#v1page455">455</a>;
+  ii. <a href="#v2page47">47</a>, <a href="#v2page68">68</a>, <a href="#v2page242">242</a>, <a href="#v2page362">362</a>, <a href="#v2page438">438</a>
+<br>
+Driftwood, at Port Dickson, i. <a href="#v1page198">198</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">at Beli Ostrov. i. <a href="#v1page201">201</a></span>
+<br>
+Drums, Shaman, ii. <a href="#v2page24">24</a>, <a href="#v2page129">129</a>
+<br>
+Dsungaria, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>
+<br>
+Dudino, i. <a href="#v1page359">359</a>; ii <a href="#v2page192">192</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">thanksgiving service at, i. <a href="#v1page369">369</a></span>
+<br>
+Du Halde J.B., ii. <a href="#v2fn316">180<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Durfoorth, Cornelius, i. <a href="#v1page60">60</a>
+<br>
+Dutch, first voyage of the, i. <a href="#v1page231">231</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">second voyage, i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">third voyage, i. <a href="#v1page245">245</a></span>
+<br>
+Dwina, the river, i. <a href="#v1page54">54</a>, <a href="#v1page56">56</a>, <a href="#v1page67">67</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br>
+Dyaks, ii. <a href="#v2page323">323</a>
+<br>
+Dybovski, Benedikt, ii. <a href="#v2page294">294</a>
+<br><br>
+
+E
+<br><br>
+Earth, changes of the surface of the,
+  in the arctic regions, i. <a href="#v1page438">438</a>
+<br>
+East Cape, ii. <a href="#v2page63">63</a>,<a href="#v2page181">181</a>
+<br>
+Edge, Thomas, i. <a href="#v1fn48">62<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Edward VI. of England, i. <a href="#v1page58">58</a>
+<br>
+<i>Edward Bonaventure</i> (vessel) i. <a href="#v1page60">60</a>, <a href="#v1page66">66</a>, <a href="#v1page218">218</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">its fate i. <a href="#v1fn119">225<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+Egypt, stay in, ii. <a href="#v2page432">432</a>
+<br>
+Ehlertz, Russian official, i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Eider, i. <a href="#v1page123">123</a>, <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page208">208</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">import of down, i. 125<i>n</i></span>
+<br>
+Eisen, G., i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Elfving N. A., i. <a href="#v1page460">460</a>
+<br>
+Elliott, H. W., i. <a href="#v1page162">162</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page258">258</a>, <a href="#v2fn367">281<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page282">282</a>
+<br>
+<i>Elpidia glacialis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page184">184</a>, <a href="#v1page186">186</a>
+<br>
+<a name="EmberizaLapponica">
+<i>Emberiza lapponica</i>,</a> i. <a href="#v1fn64">129<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2page62">62</a>
+<br>
+<i>Emberiza nivalis</i>, i. <a href="#v1fn64">129<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page320">320</a>, <a href="#v1page334">334</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page41">41</a>
+<br>
+Emeralds, ii. <a href="#v2page422">422</a>
+<br>
+England, stay in, ii. <a href="#v2page448">448</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">development of its navigation, i. <a href="#v1page58">58</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">north-east voyages from, i. <a href="#v1page60">60</a>, <a href="#v1page215">215</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Enhydris lutris</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page266">266</a>, <a href="#v2page271">271</a>
+<br>
+Enontekis, the climate of, i. <a href="#v1page45">45</a>
+<br>
+Enoshima, excursion to, ii. <a href="#v2page315">315</a>
+<br>
+Ensamheten (island), i. <a href="#v1page175">175</a>, <a href="#v1page335">335</a>
+<br>
+Envall, A., i. <a href="#v1page11">11</a>
+<br>
+Erik the Red, ii. <a href="#v2page146">146</a>
+<br>
+Eschscholz Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>, <a href="#v2page228">228</a>
+<br>
+Eskimo in North America, i. <a href="#v1page90">90</a>, ii. <a href="#v2fn277">78<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page145">145</a>
+<br>
+Eskimo at Port Clarence, banter with, ii. <a href="#v2page228">228</a>, <a href="#v2page236">236</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">dress, ii. <a href="#v2page232">232</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">implements ii. <a href="#v2page229">229</a>,<a href="#v2page233">233</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">boats, ii. <a href="#v2page228">228</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">carvings, ii. <a href="#v2page237">237</a>, <a href="#v2page240">240</a>, <a href="#v2page241">241</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">artistic skill, ii. <a href="#v2page134">134</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">graves, ii. <a href="#v2page239">239</a>, <a href="#v2page240">240</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">religion, ii. <a href="#v2fn350">239<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+Eskimo in Asia, ii. <a href="#v2page221">221</a>
+<br>
+Eskimo on St. Lawrence Island, ii. <a href="#v2page250">250</a>
+<br>
+<i>Eumetopias Stelleri</i>, i. <a href="#v1fn243">446<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2page272">272</a>, <a href="#v2page274">274</a>, <a href="#v2page290">290</a>
+<br>
+Europ&aelig;us, E. D., i. <a href="#v1page203">203</a>
+<br>
+<i>Eurynorhynchus pygm&aelig;us</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page43">43</a>
+<br>
+Everl&ouml;f, Consul-general, ii. <a href="#v2page455">455</a>
+<br>
+Evertebrates living by turns in fresh and salt water, i. <a href="#v1page198">198</a>
+<br>
+Exhibitions, Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page311">311</a>, <a href="#v2page390">390</a>
+<br>
+Exiles, Siberian, i. <a href="#v1page387">387</a>
+<br>
+<i>Express</i> (ship), i. <a href="#v1page9">9</a>, <a href="#v1page74">74</a>, <a href="#v1page174">174</a>, <a href="#v1page189">189</a>, <a href="#v1page200">200</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyage of, i. <a href="#v1page357">357</a></span>
+<br><br>
+
+F
+<br><br>
+Faddeyev Island, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>, <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Falcons on Yalmal i. <a href="#v1page208">208</a>
+<br>
+Falmouth, arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page448">448</a>
+<br>
+Feodor, the Cossack, i. <a href="#v1page195">195</a>, <a href="#v1page358">358</a>
+<br>
+Ferry, Jules, i. <a href="#v1page453">453</a>
+<br>
+Figurin, the surgeon, ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>
+<br>
+Finmark, the settlement of, i. <a href="#v1page51">51</a>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page473" id="v2page473"></a>[ pg 473 ]</span>
+Fins carry on navigation in the Murman Sea, i. <a href="#v1page219">219</a>, <a href="#v1page239">239</a>
+<br>
+Finsch, Richard, i. <a href="#v1fn53">76<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Finsch, O., i. <a href="#v1page205">205</a>
+<br>
+Fire-drill, Chukch, ii. <a href="#v2page121">121</a>
+<br>
+Fixed dwellings, i. <a href="#v1fn94">193<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Flawes, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page260">260</a>
+<br>
+Fletcher, Giles, i. <a href="#v1page101">101</a>
+<br>
+F&ouml;hn wind, the, i. <a href="#v1page276">276</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page35">35</a>
+<br>
+Fomin, the Yakut, i. <a href="#v1page17">17</a>
+<br>
+Food-plants, Chukch, ii. <a href="#v2page110">110</a>
+<br>
+Ford, Charles, ii. <a href="#v2page401">401</a>
+<br>
+Foreland Sound, the, i. <a href="#v1page137">137</a>
+<br>
+Fossil plants at Mogi, ii. <a href="#v2page392">392</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">at Labaan, ii. <a href="#v2page407">407</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">in Egypt, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a></span>
+<br>
+Foal Bay, i. <a href="#v1page106">106</a>, <a href="#v1page180">180</a>
+<br>
+<a name="Fox">
+Fox, the Arctic (or mountain)</a>, i. <a href="#v1page146">146</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a>, <a href="#v2page269">269</a>, <a href="#v2page270">270</a>;
+ common <i>ib.</i>
+<br>
+F&ouml;yn, Svend, i. <a href="#v1page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Fra Mauro's map, ii. <a href="#v2page155">155</a>
+<br>
+Franklin, Martin, ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>
+<br>
+Franz Josef Land, i. <a href="#v1fn89">182<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page266">266</a>, <a href="#v1page302">302</a>, <a href="#v1page422">422</a>
+<br>
+<i>Fraser</i> (steamer), i. <a href="#v1page9">9</a>, <a href="#v1page74">74</a>, <a href="#v1page174">174</a>, <a href="#v1page187">187</a>, <a href="#v1page189">189</a>, <a href="#v1page318">318</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyage, i. <a href="#v1page357">357</a></span>
+<br>
+Fretum Nassovicum (Yugor Schar), i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>, <a href="#v1page172">172</a>, <a href="#v1page242">242</a>
+<br>
+Frost-bite, i. <a href="#v1page474">474</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page87">87</a>
+<br>
+Frost-formation, the Siberian, ii. <a href="#v2page60">60</a>
+<br>
+Frozen ground in Finland, ii. <a href="#v2fn269">60<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Fruholm, the climate of, i. <a href="#v1fn21">45<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+<i>Fuligula glacialis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page126">126</a>, <a href="#v1page208">208</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">found during the expedition, i. <a href="#v1page334">334</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page46">46</a></span>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>Stelleri</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page46">46</a>
+<br>
+Fusiyama, ii. <a href="#v2page299">299</a>, <a href="#v2page370">370</a>
+<br>
+<i>Fusus deformis</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page243">243</a>
+<br><br>
+
+G
+<br><br>
+<i>Gadus navaga</i>, i. <a href="#v1page481">481</a>
+<br>
+Gagarin, Prince, ii. <a href="#v2page175">175</a>
+<br>
+Gama, Vasco da, ii. <a href="#v2page153">153</a>
+<br>
+Gardiner, Charles, i. <a href="#v1page208">301</a>
+<br>
+Geertz, Dr., ii. <a href="#v2page326">326</a>, <a href="#v2page364">364</a>
+<br>
+Gefferson, William, i. <a href="#v1page60">60</a>
+<br>
+Gessner, Conrad, ii. <a href="#v2fn348">235<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Gillissy (Yenisej), i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>, <a href="#v1page244">244</a>
+<br>
+Giusso, Count, ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>
+<br>
+Glacier-iceblocks in the Polar seas, ii. <a href="#v2page422">422</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">burst asunder, i. <a href="#v1page424">424</a></span>
+<br>
+Glaciers, various kinds of, i. <a href="#v1page181">181</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">formerly in North-Eastern Asia, ii. <a href="#v2page227">227</a>, <a href="#v2page246">246</a></span>
+<br>
+Gmelin, ii. <a href="#v2page199">199</a>
+<br>
+Gold lustre, stones with, on Novaya Zemlya, i. <a href="#v1page273">273</a>, <a href="#v1page277">277</a>
+<br>
+Gold diggings, Siberian, i. <a href="#v1page393">393</a>
+<br>
+Golovin, second mate, ii. <a href="#v2page184">184</a>
+<br>
+Golovin, Captain, ii. <a href="#v2page329">329</a>
+<br>
+Goltschicha, i. <a href="#v1page193">193</a>, <a href="#v1page194">194</a>, <a href="#v1page313">313</a>
+<br>
+<a name="Gooseland">
+Gooseland, i.</a> <a href="#v1page72">72</a>, <a href="#v1page216">216</a>
+<br>
+Goreloj, Andrej, ii. <a href="#v2page168">168</a>
+<br>
+<i>Gorm</i> (larva of <i>Oestrus tarandi</i>), i. <a href="#v1page137">137</a>;
+  ii. <a href="#v2page129">129</a>, <a href="#v2page143">143</a>
+<br>
+Gosho, palace in Kioto, ii. <a href="#v2page374">374</a>
+<br>
+Gothenburg, i. <a href="#v1page34">34</a>
+<br>
+Goulden, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page264">264</a>
+<br>
+Gourdon, William, i. <a href="#v1page256">256</a>
+<br>
+<i>Graculus bicristatus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page453">453</a>
+<br>
+Grandidier, ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>
+<br>
+Granite, weathered, ii. <a href="#v2page419">419</a>
+<br>
+Grant, U. S., General, ii. <a href="#v2page333">333</a>
+<br>
+Graphite, ii. <a href="#v2page235">235</a>
+<br>
+Graves, Siberian, i. <a href="#v1page393">393</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Chukch, i. <a href="#v1page437">437</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page89">89</a>, <a href="#v2page225">225</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Eskimo, ii. <a href="#v2page238">238</a></span>
+<br>
+Grebnitski, ii. <a href="#v2fn370">291<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page294">294</a>
+<br>
+Greeks, geographical ideas of the, ii. <a href="#v2page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Green Harbour, i. <a href="#v1page136">136</a>
+<br>
+Greenland said to be continuous with Norway, i. <a href="#v1page51">51</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Inland-ice, i. <a href="#v1page176">176</a></span>
+<br>
+Greenland seal, i. <a href="#v1page164">164</a>, <a href="#v1page165">165</a>
+<br>
+Greenlander's dress, i. <a href="#v1page41">41</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">compared with other Polar races, i. <a href="#v1page90">90</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page144">144</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">are descended from Norse colonists, ii. <a href="#v2page145">145</a></span>
+<br>
+Gr&eacute;vy, President, ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>, <a href="#v2page454">454</a>
+<br>
+"Grip-claws" found in Siberia, ii. <a href="#v2page408">408</a>
+<br>
+Gubin, mate, i. <a href="#v1page274">274</a>
+<br>
+Gundersen, captain of the <i>Express</i>, i. <a href="#v1page9">9</a>
+<br>
+Gundersen, M., i. <a href="#v1page301">301</a>
+<br>
+Gusinnaya Semlya, <i>see</i> <a href="#Gooseland">Gooseland</a>
+<br>
+Gustaf Vasa's plan of a north-east passage, i. <a href="#v1page57">57</a>
+<br>
+Guturov, Peter, ii. <a href="#v2page174">174</a>
+<br>
+Gvosdarev, mate, i. <a href="#v1page279">279</a>
+<br>
+Gvosdev, Michael, ii. <a href="#v2page74">74</a>, <a href="#v2fn337">210<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Gyda Bay surveyed, ii. <a href="#v2page186">186</a>
+<br>
+Gygax, Dr, ii. <a href="#v2page419">419</a>
+<br><br>
+
+H
+<br><br>
+Haga dust, the, i. <a href="#v1page330">330</a>
+<br>
+Haimann, Guiseppe, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br>
+Hakluyt, Richard, i. <a href="#v1fn44">60<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Hall, Captain, ii. <a href="#v2page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Halos, i. <a href="#v1page246">246</a>, <a href="#v1page518">518</a>
+<br>
+Hamy, Dr., ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>
+<br>
+Hardy, R. Spence, ii. <a href="#v2page404">404</a>
+<br>
+Hares, i. <a href="#v1page507">507</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">snow-blind, i. <a href="#v1page508">508</a>.</span>
+<br>
+Hartman, Hendrik, i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>
+<br>
+Haven, P. von, ii. <a href="#v2fn321">186<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Health, state of, during the wintering, i. <a href="#v1page478">478</a>
+<br>
+Hecht, ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>
+<br>
+Hedenstr&ouml;m, i. <a href="#v1page23">23</a>, <a href="#v1page143">143</a>, <a href="#v1page408">408</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">travels, ii. <a href="#v2page205">205</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">life, ii. <a href="#v2page203">203<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+Heemskerk, i. <a href="#v1page254">254</a>
+<br>
+Hellant, A., ii. <a href="#v2fn258">6<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Hennessy, Pope, ii. <a href="#v2page401">401</a>, <a href="#v2page403">403</a>
+<br>
+Hens, Jacob, ii. <a href="#v2page74">74</a>
+<br>
+Herald Island, ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>
+<br>
+Herbertsten, Sigismund von, i. <a href="#v1page54">54</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page156">156</a>
+<br>
+Herdebol, ore-tester, ii. <a href="#v2page74">74</a>
+<br>
+Herodotus on the geography of Asia, ii. <a href="#v2page149">149</a>, <a href="#v2page154">154</a>;
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page474" id="v2page474"></a>[ pg 474 ]</span>
+ on Androphagi, i. <a href="#v1fn54">77<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn296">157<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Heuglin, Baron von, i. <a href="#v1fn181">302<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Hideyoshi, Taiko, ii. <a href="#v2page380">380</a>
+<br>
+Hinloopen Strait, i. <a href="#v1page110">110</a>, <a href="#v1page112">112</a>, <a href="#v1page137">137</a>
+<br>
+Hirosami, ii. <a href="#v2page387">387</a>
+<br>
+<i>Histriophoca fasciata</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page219">219</a>, <a href="#v2page224">224</a>, <a href="#v2page254">254</a>
+<br>
+Holland, development of its navigation, i. <a href="#v1page231">231</a>
+<br>
+Holmgren, A.E., i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Holmgren, Fr., ii. <a href="#v2page135">135</a>
+<br>
+Holstein-Holsteinborg, Count, ii. <a href="#v2page455">455</a>
+<br>
+Homer, ii. <a href="#v2page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Hong Kong, ii. <a href="#v2page398">398</a>;
+ rocks at, ii. <a href="#v2page420">420</a>
+<br>
+Hooper, ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>, <a href="#v2page128">128</a>, <a href="#v2fn344">220<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page222">222</a>, <a href="#v2fn348">235<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page245">245</a>, <a href="#v2page249">249</a>
+<br>
+Hoorn, Jan Cornelisz van, i. <a href="#v1page257">257</a>
+<br>
+Hope Island, i. <a href="#v1page165">165</a>
+<br>
+Horn Sound, i. <a href="#v1page109">109</a>, <a href="#v1page110">110</a>, <a href="#v1page124">124</a>, <a href="#v1page137">137</a>, <a href="#v1page291">291</a>
+<br>
+Hovgaard, A., i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>, <a href="#v1page39">39</a>, <a href="#v1page93">93</a>, <a href="#v1page187">187</a>, <a href="#v1page200">200</a>, <a href="#v1page202">202</a>, <a href="#v1page208">208</a>, <a href="#v1page457">457</a>, <a href="#v1page497">497</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page45">45</a>, <a href="#v2page112">112</a>, <a href="#v2page115">115</a>, <a href="#v2page327">327</a>, <a href="#v2page447">447</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Excursion to Menka's home, i. <a href="#v1page500">500</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page449">449</a></span>
+<br>
+Hudson, Henry, i. <a href="#v1page255">255</a>
+<br>
+Hugo, Victor, ii. <a href="#v2page454">454</a>
+<br>
+Humbert, King, ii. <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Hyacinth (precious stone), ii. <a href="#v2page423">423</a>
+<br><br>
+
+I
+<br><br>
+Ice, different kinds of, in the Polar Seas, i. <a href="#v1page422">422</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">action on the sea-bottom, i. <a href="#v1page188">188</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">thickness during the wintering, i. <a href="#v1page465">465</a></span>
+<br>
+Icebergs, i. <a href="#v1page182">182</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">size of, i. <a href="#v1page422">422</a></span>
+<br>
+Ice Fjord, i. <a href="#v1page112">112</a>, <a href="#v1page137">137</a>, <a href="#v1page344">344</a>
+<br>
+Icing up, i. <a href="#v1page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Ides, Evert Yssbrants, i. <a href="#v1page404">404</a>
+<br>
+Idlidlja (island), ii. <a href="#v2page27">27</a>
+<br>
+<i>Idothea entomon</i>, i. <a href="#v1page198">198</a>, <a href="#v1page415">415</a>, <a href="#v1page416">416</a>, <a href="#v1page420">420</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>Sabinei</i>, i. <a href="#v1page198">198</a>, <a href="#v1page415">415</a>, <a href="#v1page417">417</a>
+<br>
+Ignatiev, ii. <a href="#v2page163">163</a>
+<br>
+Ikaho, ii. <a href="#v2page334">334</a>
+<br>
+Ilgin, mate, ii. <a href="#v2page290">209</a>
+<br>
+Illusions caused by mist, i. <a href="#v1page347">347</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page32">32</a>
+<br>
+Indians, driven, i. <a href="#v1page52">52</a>
+<br>
+Indigirka, ii. <a href="#v2page195">195</a>
+<br>
+Ing&ouml;n, i. <a href="#v1page42">42</a>
+<br>
+Inland-ice, i. <a href="#v1page176">176</a>, <a href="#v1page182">182</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page246">246</a>
+<br>
+Inland Sea, of Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page384">384</a>, <a href="#v2page421">421</a>
+<br>
+Inn, Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page313">313</a>, <a href="#v2page316">316</a>
+<br>
+Insects, i. <a href="#v1page147">147</a>, <a href="#v1page202">202</a>, <a href="#v1page343">343</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page54">54</a>, <a href="#v2page242">242</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">frozen stiff, i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page54">54</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">in a bird's nest, i. <a href="#v1page118">118</a></span>
+<br>
+Insula Tazata, ii. <a href="#v2page155">155</a>
+<br>
+Irbit, i. <a href="#v1page179">179</a>
+<br>
+Irgunnuk, i. <a href="#v1page485">485</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page21">21</a>
+<br>
+Irkaipij, i. <a href="#v1page441">441</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page210">210</a>
+<br>
+Irtisch, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>, <a href="#v1page374">374</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Islands in the Siberian Sea, accounts of, i. <a href="#v1page22">22</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page169">169</a>, <a href="#v2page170">170</a>, <a href="#v2fn304">171<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Isleif, i. <a href="#v1page144">144</a>
+<br>
+Istoma, Gregory, i. <a href="#v1page54">54</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br>
+Italy, ii. <a href="#v2page442">442</a>
+<br>
+Ito-Keske, ii. <a href="#v2page324">324</a>
+<br>
+Ivanov, mate, i. <a href="#v1page279">279</a>
+<br>
+Ivanov, Rodivan, i. <a href="#v1page269">269</a>
+<br>
+Ivens, ii. <a href="#v2page448">448</a>
+<br>
+Ivory coat of mail, ii. <a href="#v2page104">104</a>
+<br><br>
+J
+<br><br>
+Jackman's voyages, i. <a href="#v1page227">227</a>, <a href="#v1fn124">229<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Jakovlev, Peter, ii. <a href="#v2page275">275</a>
+<br>
+Jauszoon, Harman, i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>
+<br>
+Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page395">395</a>
+<br>
+Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page173">173</a>, <a href="#v2page174">174</a>, <a href="#v2page181">181</a>
+<br>
+Japanese voyage round the world, i. <a href="#v1fn84">161<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+<i>Jeanette</i>, the expedition of the, i. <a href="#v1page448">448</a>
+<br>
+Jinrikisha, ii. <a href="#v2page317">317</a>
+<br>
+Johannes de Plano Carpini, i. <a href="#v1fn59">102<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Johannesen, Chr., i. <a href="#v1page9">9</a>, <a href="#v1page300">300</a>, <a href="#v1page353">353</a>, <a href="#v1page358">358</a>, <a href="#v1page365">365</a>, <a href="#v1page366">366</a>
+<br>
+Johannesen, Edward, i. <a href="#v1page185">185</a>, <a href="#v1page295">295</a>
+<br>
+Johannesen, S&ouml;ren, i. <a href="#v1page300">300</a>
+<br>
+Jovius, Paulus, i. <a href="#v1fn39">57<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Jugaria, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Juschkov, i. <a href="#v1page273">273</a>
+<br><br>
+
+K
+<br><br>
+Kalias river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page409">409</a>
+<br>
+Kamakura, ii. <a href="#v2page315">315</a>
+<br>
+Kamchatka discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page172">172</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">subjugated, ii. <a href="#v2page167">167</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">first voyage to, ii. <a href="#v2page176">176</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its extent towards the south in old maps, ii. <a href="#v2page181">181</a></span>
+<br>
+Kamchatka river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Kamenni Ostrova, i. <a href="#v1page318">318</a>
+<br>
+K&auml;mpfer, E., ii. <a href="#v2page325">325</a>
+<br>
+Kanin-nos, i. <a href="#v1page222">222</a>
+<br>
+Karaginsk Island, ii. <a href="#v2page256">256</a>
+<br>
+Kara port, the, i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Pet sails through it, i. <a href="#v1page229">229</a></span>
+<br>
+Kara river, wintering at the, ii. <a href="#v2page184">184</a>
+<br>
+Kara Sea, the, voyage across, i. <a href="#v1page187">187</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">its name, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its boundaries, i. <a href="#v1page175">175</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">depth, i. <a href="#v1page15">15</a>, <a href="#v1page184">184</a>, <a href="#v1page187">187</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">temperature of the water, i. <a href="#v1page185">185</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">salinity, i. <a href="#v1page185">185</a>, <a href="#v1page189">189</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">fauna, i. <a href="#v1page184">184</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">alg&aelig;, 185;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">icebergs uncommon in, i. <a href="#v1page182">182</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">"ice-house," i. <a href="#v1page182">182</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">navigated for the first time by West-Europeans, i. <a href="#v1page227">227</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page286">286</a></span>
+<br>
+Kargauts, i. <a href="#v1page448">448</a>
+<br>
+Karlskrona, i. <a href="#v1page34">34</a>
+<br>
+Karmakul Bay, i. <a href="#v1page125">125</a>, <a href="#v1page255">255</a>
+<br>
+Kascholong, ii. <a href="#v2fn349">238<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Kawamura, Admiral, ii. <a href="#v2page301">301</a>, <a href="#v2page309">309</a>, <a href="#v2page369">369</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait of, ii. <a href="#v2page302">302</a></span>
+<br>
+Kay, E.C. Lister, i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page475" id="v2page475"></a>[ pg 475 ]</span>
+Kegor, i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>
+<br>
+Kellett, i. <a href="#v1page448">448</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>
+<br>
+Kellett Land, ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>
+<br>
+Keswick, ii. <a href="#v2page401">401</a>
+<br>
+Keulen's Atlas, ii. <a href="#v2page72">72</a>
+<br>
+Kilduin, i. <a href="#v1page237">237</a>
+<br>
+Killingworth, George, i. <a href="#v1page66">66</a>
+<br>
+Kind&auml;kov, ii. <a href="#v2page195">195</a>
+<br>
+King's Bay, i. <a href="#v1page137">137</a>
+<br>
+Kini Balu mountain, ii. <a href="#v2page413">413</a>
+<br>
+Kioto, ii. <a href="#v2page366">366</a>, <a href="#v2page372">372</a>,<a href="#v2page375">375</a>
+<br>
+Kirilov, secretary, ii. <a href="#v2page183">183</a>
+<br>
+Kita-Shira-Kava, ii. <a href="#v2page305">305</a>, <a href="#v2page308">308</a>
+<br>
+Kittiwake, see <a href="#LarusTridactylus"><i>Larus tridactylus</i></a>
+<br>
+Kittlitz, ii. <a href="#v2page245">245</a>
+<br>
+Kjellman, F.R., i. <a href="#v1page3">3</a>, <a href="#v1page33">33</a>, <a href="#v1page38">38</a>, <a href="#v1page185">185</a>, <a href="#v1page189">189</a>, <a href="#v1page196">196</a>, <a href="#v1fn96">201<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1fn96">202<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page319">319</a>, <a href="#v1page320">320</a>, <a href="#v1page327">327</a>, <a href="#v1page333">333</a>, <a href="#v1page340">340</a>, <a href="#v1page354">354</a>, <a href="#v1page437">437</a>, <a href="#v1page451">451</a>, <a href="#v1page468">468</a>, <a href="#v1page504">504</a>, <a href="#v1page523">523</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">ii. <a href="#v2page15">15</a>, <a href="#v2page225">225</a>, <a href="#v2page240">240</a>, <a href="#v2page245">245</a>, <a href="#v2page254">254</a>, <a href="#v2page291">291</a>, <a href="#v2page292">292</a>, <a href="#v2page414">414</a>, <a href="#v2page434">434</a>, <a href="#v2page447">447</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">sketch of a day during the wintering, i. <a href="#v1page513">513</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page435">435</a></span>
+<br>
+Klapmyts, i. <a href="#v1page165">165</a>
+<br>
+Klingstedt, i. <a href="#v1page271">271</a>, <a href="#v1page272">272</a>
+<br>
+Klokov, i. <a href="#v1page279">279</a>
+<br>
+Knoop, Baron, i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Koba-Yoschi, ii. <a href="#v2page370">370</a>, <a href="#v2page383">383</a>
+<br>
+Kobe, stay at, ii. <a href="#v2page364">364</a>
+<br>
+Koch, i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Kola, i. <a href="#v1page218">218</a>, <a href="#v1page253">253</a>, <a href="#v1page254">254</a>
+<br>
+Kolesoff, I. P., i. <a href="#v1page362">362</a>, <a href="#v1page364">364</a>
+<br>
+Kolgujev Island, i. <a href="#v1fn47">62<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page229">229</a>
+<br>
+Kolmogor, i. <a href="#v1page226">226</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page156">156</a>
+<br>
+Kolmogorzov, i. <a href="#v1page22">22</a>
+<br>
+Kolyma river, the, i. <a href="#v1page427">427</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page162">162</a>, <a href="#v2page165">165</a>, <a href="#v2page166">166</a>, <a href="#v2page195">195</a>, <a href="#v2page201">201</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page163">163</a></span>
+<br>
+Kolyutschin Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page227">227</a>, <a href="#v2page246">246</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2"><i>Vega</i> comes to, i, <a href="#v1page456">456</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its extent, ii. <a href="#v2page31">31</a>, <a href="#v2page32">32</a>, <a href="#v2page76">76</a></span>
+<br>
+Kolyutschin Island, i. <a href="#v1page456">456</a>, <a href="#v1page485">485</a>
+<br>
+Kompakova river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page176">176</a>
+<br>
+Konungs skuggj&aacute; on the walrus, i. <a href="#v1page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Konyam Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page221">221</a>, <a href="#v2page227">227</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2"><i>Vega</i> comes to, ii. <a href="#v2page245">245</a></span>
+<br>
+Kopai, a Schelag, ii. <a href="#v2page171">171</a>
+<br>
+Korepovskoj, i. <a href="#v1page315">315</a>, <a href="#v1page358">358</a>
+<br>
+Korovin, hunter, ii. <a href="#v2page274">274</a>, <a href="#v2fn366">276<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Kory&auml;ks, ii. <a href="#v2page82">82</a>, <a href="#v2page167">167</a>, <a href="#v2page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Koscheleff, ii. <a href="#v2fn287">125<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Koschelev, ii. <a href="#v2page186">186</a>
+<br>
+Koschevin, ii. <a href="#v2page205">205</a>
+<br>
+Kosirevskoj, Ivan, ii. <a href="#v2page174">174</a>
+<br>
+Kosmin, mate, ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>
+<br>
+Kostin Schar, i. <a href="#v1page236">236</a>
+<br>
+Kotelnoj Island, i. <a href="#v1page24">24</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>, <a href="#v2page206">206</a>, <a href="#v2page207">207</a>
+<br>
+Kotsches, i. <a href="#v1fn11">22<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn299">160<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Kotschuga, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>
+<br>
+Kotzebue, i. <a href="#v1page28">28</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>, <a href="#v2fn346">228<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">stay at St. Lawrence Island, ii. <a href="#v2page254">254</a></span>
+<br>
+Krascheninnikov, ii. <a href="#v2page80">80</a>, <a href="#v2fn303">167<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2fn308">173<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Krassilinikoff, ii. <a href="#v2page274">274</a>
+<br>
+Krestovski Island, ii. <a href="#v2page162">162</a>
+<br>
+Krestovskoj, i. <a href="#v1page193">193</a>, <a href="#v1page194">194</a>
+<br>
+Krestovskoj arm, the, ii. <a href="#v2page190">190</a>
+<br>
+Kroma river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page168">168</a>
+<br>
+Krotov, Lieut., i. <a href="#v1page279">279</a>
+<br>
+Krusenstern, M. von, i. <a href="#v1page161">161<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn287">125<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Krusenstern, Paul von, the elder, i. <a href="#v1page284">284</a>
+<br>
+Krusenstern, Paul von, the younger, i. <a href="#v1page287">287</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his portrait, i. <a href="#v1page285">285</a></span>
+<br>
+K&uuml;ber, Dr., ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>
+<br>
+K&uuml;hn, Franz, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>
+<br>
+Kung Karl's Land, i. <a href="#v1page137">137</a>, <a href="#v1fn179">301<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Kurbski, S. T., ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br>
+Kuro-Sivo, ii. <a href="#v2page295">295</a>
+<br>
+Kusakov, ii. <a href="#v2page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Kusatsu, stay at, ii. <a href="#v2page343">343</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">the healing power of the baths, ii. <a href="#v2page345">345</a></span>
+<br>
+Kutschum Khan, ii. <a href="#v2page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Kythay lacus, ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br><br>
+
+L
+<br><br>
+Labuan, ii. <a href="#v2page405">405</a>
+<br>
+Lagomys, ii. <a href="#v2page222">222</a>
+<br>
+Lagercrantz, ii. <a href="#v2page456">456</a>, <a href="#v2page460">460</a>
+<br>
+Lagoon formations, i. <a href="#v1page433">433</a>
+<br>
+<i>Lagopus hyperboreus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page129">129</a>, <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page214">214</a>, <a href="#v1page334">334</a>, <a href="#v1page508">508</a>
+<br>
+<i>Lagopus subalpinus</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page46">46</a>
+<br>
+La Madelene, ii. <a href="#v2page216">216</a>
+<br>
+La Martini&egrave;re, i. <a href="#v1page257">257</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his map, i. <a href="#v1page259">259</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Laminaria solidungula</i>, i. <a href="#v1page452">452</a>
+<br>
+Lamps, Chukch, ii. <a href="#v2page23">23</a>
+<br>
+Landmarks, i. <a href="#v1page228">228</a>
+<br>
+Land worms, i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Languet, Hubert, i. <a href="#v1page57">57</a>
+<br>
+Lapland, the Dutch navigation to, i. <a href="#v1fn120">227<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Lapps, the, dress, i. <a href="#v1page40">40</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">spoken of by Othere, i. <a href="#v1fn23">48<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page51">51</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">compared with other Polar races, i. <a href="#v1page90">90</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">skilful hunters, i. <a href="#v1fn115">224<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+Lapp sparrow, see <a href="#EmberizaLapponica"><i>Emberiza lapponica</i></a>
+<br>
+Laptev, Chariton, i. <a href="#v1page20">20</a>, <a href="#v1page21">21</a>, <a href="#v1fn205">367<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyages, ii. <a href="#v2page190">190</a></span>
+<br>
+Laptev, Dimitri, i. <a href="#v1page24">24</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">first voyage, ii. <a href="#v2page193">193</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">second voyage, ii. <a href="#v2page195">195</a></span>
+<br>
+La Ronci&egrave;re le Noury, ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>
+<br>
+<i>Larus eburneus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page117">117</a>, <a href="#v1page118">118</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page137">137</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">met with during expedition, i. <a href="#v1page343">343</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page42">42</a></span>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>glaucus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page114">114</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">met with during expedition, i. <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page321">321</a>, <a href="#v1page352">352</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page47">47</a></span>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>Rossii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page119">119</a>, <a href="#v1page120">120</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page48">48</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>Sabinii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page119">119</a>, <a href="#v1page120">120</a>, <a href="#v1page508">508</a>
+<br>
+<a name="LarusTridactylus">
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>tridactylus</i>,</a> i. <a href="#v1page117">117</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">seen during expedition, i. <a href="#v1page334">334</a>, <a href="#v1page352">352</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page42">42</a></span>
+<br>
+Lasarev, i. <a href="#v1page277">277</a>
+<br>
+Lassinius, i. <a href="#v1page24">24</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn322">187<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyage, ii. <a href="#v2page193">193</a></span>
+<br>
+Laxman, ii. <a href="#v2page329">329</a>
+<br>
+Lectures during the wintering, ii. <a href="#v2page7">7</a>
+<br>
+Lemming, the, i. <a href="#v1page146">146</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">met with during the expedition, i. <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page343">343</a>, <a href="#v1page437">437</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a></span>
+<br>
+Lena (river), the, ascent of, i. <a href="#v1page367">367</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">river area, i. <a href="#v1fn209">372<i>n</i></a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">navigable, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its natural beauty, ii. <a href="#v2fn323">188<i>n</i></a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered,  ii <a href="#v2page160">160</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian voyages from, ii. <a href="#v2page187">187</a>, <a href="#v2page198">198</a></span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page476" id="v2page476"></a>[ pg 476 ]</span>
+
+<i>Lena</i> (steamer), i. <a href="#v1page7">7</a>, <a href="#v1page8">8</a>, <a href="#v1page9">9</a>, <a href="#v1page41">41</a>, <a href="#v1page75">75</a>, <a href="#v1page171">171</a>, <a href="#v1page187">187</a>, <a href="#v1page200">200</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">parting from <i>Vega</i>, i. <a href="#v1page355">355</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">voyage up the river Lena, i. <a href="#v1page367">367</a></span>
+<br>
+Lena delta, the, i. <a href="#v1fn205">367<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Leontiev, ii. <a href="#v2page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Leprosy in Japan ii. <a href="#v2page345">345</a>
+<br>
+Lesseps, ii. <a href="#v2page441">441</a>
+<br>
+<i>Lestris Buffonii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page121">121</a>, <a href="#v1page334">334</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>parasitica</i>, i. <a href="#v1page121">121</a>, <a href="#v1page321">321</a>, <a href="#v1page334">334</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>pomarina</i>, i. <a href="#v1page121">121</a>
+<br>
+Letters sent home, i. <a href="#v1page496">496</a>, <a href="#v1page501">501</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page9">9</a>
+<br>
+Lechtenberg, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>
+<br>
+Lighthouse Island, i. <a href="#v1page428">428</a>
+<br>
+Lilljeborg, W, ii. <a href="#v2page56">56</a>
+<br>
+Limit of trees in the north of Europe and Asia, i. <a href="#v1page42">42</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">at the Yenisej, i. <a href="#v1page381">381</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at the Lena, i. <a href="#v1page43">43</a></span>
+<br>
+Lindstrand, ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>
+<br>
+<i>Linn&aelig;a borealis</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page240">240</a>, <a href="#v2page254">254</a>
+<br>
+Linn&aelig;us, ii. <a href="#v2page43">43</a>
+<br>
+Linschoten, i. <a href="#v1page236">236</a>, <a href="#v1page237">237</a>
+<br>
+Lisbon, stay in, ii. <a href="#v2page447">447</a>
+<br>
+L'Isle de la Croy&egrave;re, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a>, <a href="#v2page198">198</a>, <a href="#v2page200">200</a>
+<br>
+Little Auk, see <a href="#Mergulus"><i>Mergulus alle</i></a>
+<br>
+Ljachoff, i. <a href="#v1page418">418</a>, <a href="#v1page419">419</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>
+<br>
+<a name="Ljachoff">
+Ljachoff's Island,</a> ii. <a href="#v2page162">162</a>, <a href="#v2page201">201</a>, <a href="#v2page204">204</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2"><i>Vega</i> comes to, i. <a href="#v1page415">415</a></span>
+<br>
+Logan, J, i. <a href="#v1page400">400</a>
+<br>
+Lomme Bay, i. <a href="#v1page112">112</a>
+<br>
+London, stay at, ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Long, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page26">26</a>, ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>
+<br>
+Looms met with at Port Dickson, i. <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page353">353</a>
+<br>
+Loschkin, S., i. <a href="#v1page273">273</a>, <a href="#v1page280">280</a>
+<br>
+Loshak, i. <a href="#v1page224">224</a>
+<br>
+Lotterius, map by, ii. <a href="#v2page77">77</a>
+<br>
+<i>Louise</i> (steamer), i. <a href="#v1page314">314</a>, <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Ludlow, miner, i. <a href="#v1page217">217</a>
+<br>
+Luiz, King of Portugal, ii. <a href="#v2page448">448</a>
+<br>
+Lundstr&ouml;m, A. N., i. <a href="#v1page3">3</a>, <a href="#v1page193">193</a>, <a href="#v1page205">205</a>, <a href="#v1page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Lussov, ii. <a href="#v2page203">203</a>
+<br>
+L&uuml;tk&eacute;, von, i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>, <a href="#v1page279">279</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page78">78</a>, <a href="#v2page212">212</a>, <a href="#v2page245">245</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, i. <a href="#v1page278">278</a></span>
+<br><br>
+
+M
+<br><br>
+MacClintock, i. <a href="#v1page119">119</a>
+<br>
+Machimura Masinovo, ii. <a href="#v2page382">382</a>
+<br>
+Mack, F.E., 298
+<br>
+Madvig, J.N., ii. <a href="#v2page456">456</a>
+<br>
+Maelson, F., i. <a href="#v1page232">232</a>
+<br>
+Magnetical observations during the wintering, i. <a href="#v1page509">509</a>
+<br>
+Magnus, Johannes, i. <a href="#v1fn29">51<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Magnus, Olaus, i. <a href="#v1page145">145</a>, <a href="#v1page159">159</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">map of the North, i. <a href="#v1page53">53</a>, <a href="#v1page56">56</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">views regarding the North-east Passage, i. <a href="#v1fn32">53<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+M&auml;klin, F.W., i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Malacca, Straits of, ii. <a href="#v2page414">414</a>
+<br>
+Malays on Labuan and Borneo, ii. <a href="#v2page408">408</a>, <a href="#v2page412">412</a>
+<br>
+Maldonado, L.F., i. <a href="#v1page214">214</a>
+<br>
+Malgin, N., ii. <a href="#v2page169">169</a>
+<br>
+Malm, A.W., i. <a href="#v1page523">523</a>
+<br>
+Malmgren, A.J., i. <a href="#v1page119">119</a>, <a href="#v1page153">153</a>
+<br>
+Maloj Island, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>, <a href="#v2page205">205</a>
+<br>
+Malvano, Secretary of the Italian Cabinet, ii. <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Malygin, i. <a href="#v1page203">203</a>, <a href="#v1page272">272</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page184">184</a>
+<br>
+Mammoth, i. <a href="#v1page23">23</a>, <a href="#v1page30">30</a>, <a href="#v1page398">398</a>, <a href="#v1fn242">445<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">in Europe, i. <a href="#v1page399">399</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">in Chukch Land, ii. <a href="#v2page66">66</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at Eschscholz Bay, i. <a href="#v1fn122">228<i>n</i></a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">old accounts of, i. <a href="#v1page404">404</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">legends regarding its mode of life, i. <a href="#v1page405">405</a></span>
+<br>
+Maosoe, stay at, i. <a href="#v1page41">41</a>, <a href="#v1page71">71</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">climate, i. <a href="#v1page45">45</a></span>
+<br>
+Maps of the North, i. <a href="#v1page51">51</a>
+<br>
+Marco Polo, <i>see</i> <a href="#polo">Polo</a>
+<br>
+Markets in Siberia and Polar America, ii. <a href="#v2page13">13</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+Markham, Clements R., ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Markov, A., ii. <a href="#v2page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Marseilles, invitation to, ii. <a href="#v2page447">447</a>
+<br>
+Martino, Consul-general, ii <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br>
+Massa, Isaak, ii. <a href="#v2fn352">249<i>n</i></a>;
+  his map, i. <a href="#v1fn118">225<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1fn239">239<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn297">158<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Massage in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page335">335</a>
+<br>
+Matiuschin, midshipman, ii. <a href="#v2fn285">118<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Matotschkin Schar, i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>, <a href="#v1page70">70</a>, <a href="#v1page282">282</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">mountains in its neighbourhood, i. <a href="#v1page173">173</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">stone ramparts on its shores, i. <a href="#v1page188">188</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">surveyed, i. <a href="#v1page282">282</a></span>
+<br>
+Matveyev Island, i. <a href="#v1page272">272</a>
+<br>
+Maunoir, ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>
+<br>
+Maurice Island, i. <a href="#v1page241">241</a>
+<br>
+Maydell, G. von, i. <a href="#v1page410">410</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>
+<br>
+Medals in memory of the voyage of the <i>Vega</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page306">306</a>, <a href="#v2fn397">459<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Melchior, state councillor, ii. <a href="#v2page456">456</a>
+<br>
+Melguer, David, ii. <a href="#v2page216">216</a>
+<br>
+Melkaja Guba, i. <a href="#v1page283">283</a>
+<br>
+Menka, i. <a href="#v1page495">495</a>, <a href="#v1page501">501</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page125">125</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, i. <a href="#v1page495">495</a></span>
+<br>
+<a name="Mergulus">
+<i>Mergulus alle</i></a>, i. <a href="#v1page119">119</a>
+<br>
+Mertens, ii. <a href="#v2page245">245</a>
+<br>
+Mesen, i. <a href="#v1page51">51</a>, <a href="#v1page79">79</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br>
+Mesenkin, i. <a href="#v1page381">381</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">mammoth remains found at, i. <a href="#v1page410">410</a></span>
+<br>
+Messerschmidt, i. <a href="#v1page405">405</a>
+<br>
+Mestni Island, i. <a href="#v1page174">174</a>, <a href="#v1page228">228</a>, <a href="#v1page241">241</a>, <a href="#v1page297">297</a>
+<br>
+Meteorological observations, i. <a href="#v1page481">481</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page33">33</a>
+<br>
+<i>Metridia armata</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page56">56</a>
+<br>
+Metschigme Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page29">29</a>, <a href="#v2page227">227</a>
+<br>
+Meyenvaldt, mate, i. <a href="#v1page213">213</a>, <a href="#v1page317">317</a>
+<br>
+<i>Mieralymma Dicksoni</i>, i. <a href="#v1page343">343</a>
+<br>
+Middendorff, i. <a href="#v1page17">17</a>, <a href="#v1fn222">406<i>n</i></a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn351">246<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Migrating birds, ii. <a href="#v2page41">41</a>
+<br>
+Mikado, audience of, ii <a href="#v2page305">305</a>
+<br>
+Miller, i. <a href="#v1page460">460</a>
+<br>
+Mimisuka, the grave of the noses and ears, ii. <a href="#v2page380">380</a>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page477" id="v2page477"></a>[ pg 477 ]</span>
+Minin, i. <a href="#v1page16">16</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page186">186</a>, <a href="#v2page187">187</a>
+<br>
+Minusinsk, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>
+<br>
+Mirabelli, A., ii. <a href="#v2page444">444</a>
+<br>
+Mogi, excursion to, ii. <a href="#v2page390">390</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">fossil plants at, ii. <a href="#v2page392">392</a></span>
+<br>
+Mohn, i. <a href="#v1page300">300</a>
+<br>
+Moisture in the air, i. <a href="#v1page484">484</a>
+<br>
+Mokattam mountains, excursion to, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br>
+Molin, A., ii. <a href="#v2page175">175</a>
+<br>
+Mollusca, land and fresh-water, at Port Clarence, ii. <a href="#v2page242">242</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">at Konyam Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page245">245</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page362">362</a>, <a href="#v2page371">371</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">the northernmost, ii. <a href="#v2page245">245</a></span>
+<br>
+Mollusca, subfossil, in Siberia, i. <a href="#v1page378">378</a>
+<br>
+Moma, the river, ii. <a href="#v2page168">168</a>
+<br>
+Moore, Captain, ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>, <a href="#v2page213">213</a>, <a href="#v2page245">245</a>
+<br>
+Morgiovets, i. <a href="#v1page223">223</a>
+<br>
+<i>Mormon Arcticus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page113">113</a>
+<br>
+Morosko, L., ii. <a href="#v2page172">172</a>, <a href="#v2page173">173</a>
+<br>
+<i>Maskwa</i> (steamer), i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Mosquitoes in the Polar regions, i. <a href="#v1fn75">147<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Motora, Simeon, ii. <a href="#v2page165">165</a>
+<br>
+Moxon, Joseph, i. <a href="#v1page263">263</a>
+<br>
+Mucheron, B., i. <a href="#v1page232">232</a>
+<br>
+M&uuml;ller, G.P., i. 16<i>n</i>, <a href="#v1page21">21</a>, <a href="#v1page25">25</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn300">164<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page166">166</a>, <a href="#v2page167">167</a>, <a href="#v2page171">171</a>, <a href="#v2fn308">172<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2fn318">183<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page199">199</a>, <a href="#v2fn361">268<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+M&uuml;ller, J.B., i. <a href="#v1page405">405</a>
+<br>
+M&uuml;nster, S., ii. <a href="#v2fn293">156<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Muravjev, Lieut., i. <a href="#v1page272">272</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page183">183</a>
+<br>
+Murman Sea, i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>
+<br>
+Murray, Colin, ii. <a href="#v2page415">415</a>
+<br>
+Muscovy Company, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>, <a href="#v1page217">217</a>
+<br>
+Musk ox, discovery of the remains of, i. <a href="#v1page411">411</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn346">228<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">supposed occurrence of, on Wrangel Land, i. <a href="#v1fn245">449<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Mustela vulgaris</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page46">46</a>
+<br>
+Mutnaja river, i. <a href="#v1page268">268</a>
+<br>
+Mutnoj Saliv, ii. <a href="#v2page183">183</a>
+<br>
+<i>Myodes obensis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page146">146</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a>
+<br>
+<i>Myodes torquatus</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a>
+<br><br>
+
+N
+<br><br>
+Nagasaki, arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page389">389</a>
+<br>
+Nakasendo road, the, ii. <a href="#v2page327">327</a>, <a href="#v2page352">352</a>
+<br>
+Namollo, ii. <a href="#v2page80">80</a>, <a href="#v2page221">221</a>
+<br>
+Naples, stay at, ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>
+<br>
+Narainzay river, i. <a href="#v1page225">225</a>
+<br>
+Narborough, John, i. <a href="#v1page260">260</a>
+<br>
+Narwhal, i. <a href="#v1page165">165</a>, <a href="#v1page418">418</a>
+<br>
+Narontza river, i. <a href="#v1fn118">225<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Nathorst, A.G., ii. <a href="#v2page332">332</a>, <a href="#v2page394">394</a>, <a href="#v2page408">408</a>
+<br>
+Nay, C., i. <a href="#v1page232">232</a>
+<br>
+Nearchus, i. <a href="#v1page169">169</a>
+<br>
+Nedrevaag, A.O., i. <a href="#v1page298">298</a>
+<br>
+Negri, C., i. <a href="#v1page34">34</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page443">443</a>
+<br>
+Nephrite among the Eskimo, ii. <a href="#v2page236">236</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">among the Chinese, ii. <a href="#v2fn349">236<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page399">399</a></span>
+<br>
+Neremskoe, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>
+<br>
+Neumann, C. von, ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+New Siberian Islands, i. <a href="#v1page23">23</a>, <a href="#v1fn65">131<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page132">132</a>, <a href="#v1page413">413</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn304">171<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">exploratory journeys to, i. <a href="#v1page412">412</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">first visited by Europeans, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">journeys to, ii. <a href="#v2page205">205</a></span>
+<br>
+Nierop, i. <a href="#v1page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Nikul river, ii. <a href="#v2page167">167</a>
+<br>
+Nilson, K., ii. <a href="#v2page453">453</a>
+<br>
+Njaskaja, i. <a href="#v1page370">370</a>
+<br>
+Noah Elisej, ii. <a href="#v2page50">50</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page51">51</a></span>
+<br>
+Noah's Wood, i. <a href="#v1page30">30</a>, <a href="#v1page207">207</a>, <a href="#v1page381">381</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn336">207<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Nobel, A., ii. <a href="#v2page452">452</a>
+<br>
+Nordenski&ouml;ld, K., i. <a href="#v1page320">320</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn387">406<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+<i>Nordenski&ouml;ld</i> (steamer), ii. <a href="#v2page298">298</a>, <a href="#v2page301">301</a>
+<br>
+Nordquist, O., i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>, <a href="#v1page37">37</a>, <a href="#v1page39">39</a>, <a href="#v1page187">187</a>, <a href="#v1page200">200</a>, <a href="#v1page202">202</a>, <a href="#v1page319">319</a>, <a href="#v1page321">321</a>, <a href="#v1page327">327</a>, <a href="#v1page444">444</a>, <a href="#v1fn243">446<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page489">489</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">ii. <a href="#v2page12">12</a>, <a href="#v2page44">44</a>, <a href="#v2page82">82</a>, <a href="#v2page115">115</a>, <a href="#v2page315">315</a>, <a href="#v2page362">362</a>, <a href="#v2page369">369</a>, <a href="#v2page371">371</a>, <a href="#v2page435">435</a>, <a href="#v2page447">447</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to Menka's home, i. <a href="#v1page497">497</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">visit to Pidlin, i. <a href="#v1page502">502</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to Nutschoitjin, ii. <a href="#v2page18">18</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">on the animals wintering in Chukch Laud, ii. <a href="#v2page44">44</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page435">435</a></span>
+<br>
+Nordvik, ii. <a href="#v2page190">190</a>
+<br>
+Noril Mountains, i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+North-east Land, inland ice on, i. <a href="#v1page176">176</a>
+<br>
+North-east Passage, reasons of search for, i. <a href="#v1page58">58</a>, <a href="#v1page213">231</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">prize for its discovery, i. <a href="#v1page246">246</a></span>
+<br>
+North Pole, said to have been reached, i. <a href="#v1page263">263</a>
+<br>
+Norways, the i. <a href="#v1page109">109</a>
+<br>
+Northbrook, Earl of, ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Notti, ii. <a href="#v1page7">7</a>, <a href="#v1page19">19</a>, <a href="#v1page22">22</a>, <a href="#v1page129">129</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page8">8</a></span>
+<br>
+Novara Elliya, ii. <a href="#v2page432">432</a>
+<br>
+Novaya Sibir, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>, <a href="#v2page205">205</a>, <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Novaya Zemlya, animal life there, i. <a href="#v1page107">107</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">first known to West-Europeans, i. <a href="#v1page215">215</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its name, i. <a href="#v1page216">216</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian landmarks on, i. <a href="#v1fn122">228<i>n</i></a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its northern extremity passed for the first time, i. <a href="#v1page248">248</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">proposal to colonise it, i. <a href="#v1fn160">271<i>n</i></a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">supposed riches in metals, i. <a href="#v1page277">277</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page280">280</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Norwegian voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page293">293</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">curcumnavigation of, i. <a href="#v1page297">297</a></span>
+<br>
+Nummelin, G.A., i. <a href="#v1page211">211</a>, <a href="#v1page314">314</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, i. <a href="#v1page316">316</a></span>
+<br>
+Nunamo, ii. <a href="#v2page222">222</a>
+<br>
+Nutschoitjin, excursion to, ii. <a href="#v1page18">18</a>
+<br><br>
+
+O
+<br><br>
+Ob, Gulf of, Owzyn's voyage on, ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a>, <a href="#v2page186">186</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">surveyed, ii. <a href="#v2page186">186</a></span>
+<br>
+Ob, river territory, i. <a href="#v1fn209">372<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">navigable,  i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">first mentioned, ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian navigation to in former times, i. <a href="#v1page226">226</a>, <a href="#v1page244">244</a>, <a href="#v1page271">271</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">English vessel stranded at, i. <a href="#v1fn124">229<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page256">256</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">vessel stranded east of,  i. <a href="#v1page271">271</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian expedition to, ii. <a href="#v2page183">183</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">recent voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page313">313</a></span>
+<br>
+Obdorsk, i. <a href="#v1page204">204</a>, <a href="#v1page290">290</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a>, <a href="#v2page186">186</a>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page478" id="v2page478"></a>[ pg 478 ]</span>
+Observatory, magnetical, at Pitlekaj, i. <a href="#v1page473">473</a>, <a href="#v1page509">509</a>
+<br>
+Oiwaki, ii. <a href="#v2page352">352</a>
+<br>
+Okotsk, ii. <a href="#v2page174">174</a>
+<br>
+Okotsk, Sea of,  bottom frozen, ii. <a href="#v2fn270">61<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">navigation on, ii. <a href="#v2page175">175</a>, <a href="#v2page176">176</a></span>
+<br>
+Okuschi, ii. <a href="#v2page364">364</a>
+<br>
+Old Believers, Russian sect i. <a href="#v1page179">179</a>, <a href="#v1fn160">270<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Olenek river, i. <a href="#v1page20">20</a>, <a href="#v1page26">26</a>, ii. <a href="#v2page160">160</a>, <a href="#v2page188">188</a>, <a href="#v2page190">190</a>
+<br>
+Olutorsk river, ii. <a href="#v2page165">165</a>
+<br>
+Onkilon tribe, the ii. <a href="#v2page80">80</a>, <a href="#v2page221">221</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excavations on the sites of old dwellings i. <a href="#v1page444">444</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">implements, i. <a href="#v1page444">444</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Wrangel's account of them, i. <a href="#v1page446">446</a></span>
+<br>
+Oom, L.G., i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>
+<br>
+Oordt, Consul van, ii. <a href="#v2page298">298</a>
+<br>
+<i>Ophiacantha bidentata</i>, i. <a href="#v1page345">345</a>
+<br>
+<i>Ophioglypha nodosa</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page49">49</a>
+<br>
+Orange Island, i. <a href="#v1page241">241</a>
+<br>
+Orange Islands, i. <a href="#v1page234">234</a>, <a href="#v1page248">248</a>
+<br>
+<i>Orca gladiator</i>, i. <a href="#v1page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Orosius, Paulus, i. <a href="#v1fn22">47<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Osaka, ii. <a href="#v2page364">364</a>, <a href="#v2page366">366</a>
+<br>
+Oscar, Duke of Gotland, ii. <a href="#v2page453">453</a>, <a href="#v2page454">454</a>
+<br>
+Oscar, King, i. <a href="#v1page2">2</a>, <a href="#v1page3">3</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page459">459</a>, <a href="#v2page460">460</a>, <a href="#v2page463">463</a>
+<br>
+Osche, ii. <a href="#v2page278">278</a>
+<br>
+Oshima, ii. <a href="#v2page297">297</a>
+<br>
+<i>Osmerus eperlanus</i>, i. <a href="#v1page494">494</a>
+<br>
+Ostatiof, M., ii. <a href="#v2page72">72</a>
+<br>
+Ostyaks, i. <a href="#v1page384">384</a>
+<br>
+<i>Otaria Stelleri, see</i> <a href="#sealion">Sea lion</a>
+<br>
+<i>Otaria ursina, see</i> <a href="#seabear">Sea-bear</a>
+<br>
+Othere, i. <a href="#v1page158">158</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">voyage, i. <a href="#v1page47">47</a></span>
+<br>
+Otter, F.W. von, i. <a href="#v1page3">3</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page460">460</a>
+<br>
+Owl, snowy, i. <a href="#v1page131">131</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">observed during expedition, i. <a href="#v1page343">343</a>, <a href="#v1page352">352</a></span>
+<br>
+Owzyn, Lieut, i. <a href="#v1page16">16</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a>, <a href="#v2page186">186</a>
+<br><br>
+
+P
+<br><br>
+Pachtussov, voyages of, i. <a href="#v1page279">279</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">death of, i. <a href="#v1page282">282</a></span>
+<br>
+Paget, Sir A.B., ii. <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Paj-Roj mountain, the, i. <a href="#v1page74">74</a>
+<br>
+Palander, L, i. <a href="#v1page4">4</a>, <a href="#v1page9">9</a>, <a href="#v1fn3">10<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page11">11</a>, <a href="#v1page36">36</a>, <a href="#v1page38">38</a>, <a href="#v1page137">137</a>, <a href="#v1page141">141</a>, <a href="#v1page172">172</a>, <a href="#v1page176">176</a>, <a href="#v1page190">190</a>, <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page319">319</a>, <a href="#v1page348">348</a>, <a href="#v1page429">429</a>, <a href="#v1page456">456</a>, <a href="#v1page474">474</a>, <a href="#v1page478">478</a>, <a href="#v1page509">509</a>;
+  ii. <a href="#v2page67">67</a>, <a href="#v2page131">131</a>, <a href="#v2page226">226</a>, <a href="#v2page256">256</a>, <a href="#v2page298">298</a>, <a href="#v2page401">401</a>, <a href="#v2page410">410</a>, <a href="#v2page412">412</a>, <a href="#v2page443">443</a>, <a href="#v2page445">445</a>, <a href="#v2page447">447</a>, <a href="#v2fn394">451<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page463">463</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to a reindeer-chukch camp, ii. <a href="#v2page15">15</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page68">68</a></span>
+<br>
+Pallas, ii. <a href="#v2page211">211</a>, <a href="#v2page275">275</a>
+<br>
+Pallavicini, Prince, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>
+<br>
+Palliser, John, i. <a href="#v1page286">286</a>
+<br>
+Palmieri, Prof., ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>
+<br>
+Panelapoetski, i. <a href="#v1page262">262</a>
+<br>
+Pansch, Dr., i. <a href="#v1fn68">140<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Pappan Island, ii. <a href="#v2page409">409</a>
+<br>
+Paradeniya, botanic garden at, ii. <a href="#v2page428">428</a>
+<br>
+Parent, E., ii. <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Paris, <i>f&ecirc;tes</i> at, ii. <a href="#v2page453">453</a>
+<br>
+Parositi, Asiatic tribe, i. <a href="#v1fn59">103<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Parry Island, i. <a href="#v1page113">113</a>, <a href="#v1page133">133</a>
+<br>
+Parry, Sir Edward, ii. <a href="#v2page144">144</a>, <a href="#v2page210">210</a>
+<br>
+Paulov, Lieut, i. <a href="#v1page272">272</a>; i. <a href="#v1page183">183</a>
+<br>
+Paulutski, D., ii. <a href="#v2page75">75</a>, <a href="#v2page221">221</a>
+<br>
+Payer, i., <a href="#v1page266">266</a>, <a href="#v1page422">422</a>
+<br>
+Pedrotalagalla, ii. <a href="#v2page414">414</a>, <a href="#v2page432">432</a>
+<br>
+Pekarski, ii. <a href="#v2page275">275</a>
+<br>
+Pelikan, Consul, ii. <a href="#v2page298">298</a>
+<br>
+Penschina Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page75">75</a>
+<br>
+Penschina River, ii. <a href="#v2page166">166</a>
+<br>
+Permakov, J., ii. <a href="#v2page169">169</a>
+<br>
+Perry, Commodore, ii. <a href="#v2page297">297</a>
+<br>
+Pet, A., i. <a href="#v1page60">60</a>, <a href="#v1page172">172</a>;
+  his voyages, i. <a href="#v1page227">227</a>
+<br>
+Petchora river, i. <a href="#v1page55">55</a>, <a href="#v1page219">219</a>, <a href="#v1page224">224</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br>
+Peter the Great, ii. <a href="#v2page175">175</a>, <a href="#v2page179">179</a>
+<br>
+Petermann, A., his belief that the Polar Sea is occasionally navigable, i. <a href="#v1page265">265</a>
+<br>
+Petersen, C., i. <a href="#v1page143">143</a>, <a href="#v1page423">423</a>
+<br>
+Petropaulovsk, ii. <a href="#v2page196">196</a>, <a href="#v2page268">268</a>, <a href="#v2page294">294</a>
+<br>
+Pet's Straits, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>
+<br>
+<a name="Phalarope">
+Phalarope,</a> i <a href="#v1page128">128</a>, <a href="#v1page191">191</a>, <a href="#v1page320">320</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">observed during the expedition, i. <a href="#v1page415">415</a>, <a href="#v1page437">437</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page42">42</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Philip and Mary</i> (vessel), i. <a href="#v1fn119">226<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Phipps Island, i. <a href="#v1page133">133</a>
+<br>
+
+<i>Phoca barbata</i>, i. <a href="#v1fn81">159<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page162">162</a>, <a href="#v1page334">334</a>
+<br>
+<i>Phoca Groenlandica</i>, i. <a href="#v1page165">165</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">young of the, <a href="#v1page164">164</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Phoca hispida</i>, i. <a href="#v1page165">165</a>, <a href="#v1page343">343</a>
+<br>
+Pidlin, i. <a href="#v1page485">485</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">excursion to, i. <a href="#v1page502">502</a></span>
+<br>
+Pinto, Major, ii. <a href="#v2page448">448</a>
+<br>
+Piper, Count, ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Pitlekaj, i. <a href="#v1page485">485</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">flora at, i. <a href="#v1page468">468</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">appearance of, ii. <a href="#v2page60">60</a></span>
+<br>
+Pj&auml;sina River, i. <a href="#v1page193">193</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page187">187</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">is discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page160">160</a></span>
+<br>
+Plancius, Dutch geographer, i. <a href="#v1page232">232</a>
+<br>
+<i>Pleuropogon Sabini</i>, i. <a href="#v1page332">332</a>
+<br>
+Pliny the elder, ii. <a href="#v2page153">153</a>, <a href="#v2fn296">157<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Plover expedition, ii. <a href="#v2page79">79</a>, <a href="#v2page245">245</a>
+<br>
+Podurids, Novaya Zemlya, i. <a href="#v1page148">148</a>
+<br>
+Poetry, Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page382">382</a>
+<br>
+Pogytscha, River, ii. <a href="#v2page162">162</a>
+<br>
+Point de Galle, arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page414">414</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">departure from, ii. <a href="#v2page437">437</a></span>
+<br>
+<a name="Polarbear">
+Polar bear seen during the expedition,</a> i. <a href="#v1page190">190</a>, <a href="#v1page339">339</a>, <a href="#v1page353">353</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page46">46</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">account of, i. <a href="#v1page137">137</a></span>
+<br>
+Polar Sea hunting, i. <a href="#v1page291">291</a>
+<br>
+Pole of cold, i. <a href="#v1page474">474</a>
+<br>
+Police in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page331">331</a>
+<br>
+<a name="polo">
+Polo, Marco,</a> i. <a href="#v1page58">58</a>, 144; ii. <a href="#v2page154">154</a>, <a href="#v2fn295">157<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his life, ii. <a href="#v2page153">153</a></span>
+<br>
+Polynias, i. <a href="#v1page466">466</a>
+<br>
+Pompeii, excursion to, ii. <a href="#v2page444">444</a>
+<br>
+Pontchartrin, Count de, ii. <a href="#v2page216">216</a>
+<br>
+Poole, J., i. <a href="#v1page291">291</a>
+<br>
+Popov, ii. <a href="#v2page78">78</a>
+<br>
+Porcelain manufacture in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page381">381</a>
+<br>
+Port Clarence, ii. <a href="#v2page226">226</a>
+<br>
+Port Dickson, i. <a href="#v1page18">18</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">stay at, i. <a href="#v1page189">189</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its discovery, i. <a href="#v1page311">311</a></span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page479" id="v2page479"></a>[ pg 479 ]</span>
+Porthan, i. <a href="#v1page47">47</a>
+<br>
+Portugal, stay in, ii. <a href="#v2page447">447</a>
+<br>
+Pospjelov, i. <a href="#v1page277">277</a>
+<br>
+Postels, ii. <a href="#v2page245">245</a>
+<br>
+Postnik, ii. <a href="#v2page161">161</a>
+<br>
+Potatoes, antiscorbutic, i. <a href="#v1page11">11</a>
+<br>
+Preobraschenie Island, i. <a href="#v1page353">353</a>
+<br>
+Pribylov, ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>
+<br>
+Pribylov Islands, ii. <a href="#v2page258">258</a>
+<br>
+Priluschnoj, i. <a href="#v1page195">195</a>
+<br>
+<i>Procellaria galcialis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page108">108</a>
+<br>
+<i>Promontorium Scythicum</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page153">153</a>
+<br>
+<i>Promontorium Tabin</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page153">153</a>
+<br>
+Prontschischev, i. 19; ii. <a href="#v2page188">188</a>, <a href="#v2page189">189</a>
+<br>
+Protodiakonoff, Z., i. <a href="#v1page418">418</a>
+<br>
+<i>Proeven</i> (hunting sloop), i. <a href="#v1page1">1</a>, <a href="#v1page292">292</a>
+<br>
+Provision dep&ocirc;t on land, i. <a href="#v1page473">473</a>
+<br>
+Ptolemy, ii. <a href="#v2page152">152</a>
+<br>
+Purchas, i. <a href="#v1fn49">62<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Puschkarev, ii. <a href="#v2page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Pustosersk, i. <a href="#v1page75">75</a>
+<br>
+Putrefaction slow in the Polar regions, i. <a href="#v1page167">167</a>
+<br>
+Pyramids, the, visit to, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br><br>
+
+Q
+<br><br>
+Quaen Sea, i. <a href="#v1page215">215</a>
+<br>
+Quaens, skilful harpooners, i. <a href="#v1page224">224</a>
+<br>
+Quale, P, i. <a href="#v1page298">298</a>
+<br>
+Quatrefages, ii. <a href="#v2page453">453</a>
+<br><br>
+
+R
+<br><br>
+Rabaut, A., ii. <a href="#v2page447">447</a>
+<br>
+Railway, Siberian, i. <a href="#v1page375">375</a>
+<br>
+Rambodde, ii. <a href="#v2page432">432</a>
+<br>
+Ratnapoora, ii. <a href="#v2page416">416</a>
+<br>
+<i>Recherch&eacute;'s</i> wintering, ii. <a href="#v2page36">36</a>
+<br>
+Red ochre, ii. <a href="#v2page235">235</a>
+<br>
+Red Sea, ii. <a href="#v2page439">439</a>
+<br>
+Reindeer, tame, i. <a href="#v1page78">78</a>; wild, i. <a href="#v1page132">132</a>
+<br>
+Reindeer's skin used for clothing, i. <a href="#v1page37">37</a>
+<br>
+Reindeer's stomach, contents of, consumed by the Chukches, i. <a href="#v1page435">435</a>
+<br>
+Reitinacka, ii. <a href="#v2page57">57</a>, <a href="#v2page58">58</a>
+<br>
+Renoe, i. <a href="#v1page43">43</a>
+<br>
+<i>Rhinoceros antiquitatis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page406">406</a>
+<br>
+<i>Rhinoceros Merckii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page411">411</a>
+<br>
+Rhytina, ii. <a href="#v2page272">272</a>
+<br>
+Riccio, ii. <a href="#v2page444">444</a>
+<br>
+Richter, Consul-general, ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Rijp, i. <a href="#v1page246">246</a>
+<br>
+Riksdag, the, supports the expedition, i. <a href="#v1page5">5</a>
+<br>
+Rio-San, ii. <a href="#v2page382">382</a>
+<br>
+Rirajtinop, i. <a href="#v1page485">485</a>
+<br>
+Robeck, ii. <a href="#v2page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Rodgers, i. <a href="#v1page26">26</a>
+<br>
+Rokuriga-hara, ii. <a href="#v2page348">348</a>
+<br>
+Romanzov, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>
+<br>
+Rondes (sable), i. <a href="#v1page145">145</a>
+<br>
+Rookery, ii. <a href="#v2page282">282</a>
+<br>
+Rossmuislov, i. <a href="#v1page274">274</a>
+<br>
+Rotgansen, i. <a href="#v1page247">247</a>
+<br>
+Rotschilten, ii. <a href="#v2page16">16</a>, <a href="#v2page31">31</a>
+<br>
+Roule, C., i. <a href="#v1page216">216</a>
+<br>
+Rubies, ii. <a href="#v2page419">419</a>
+<br>
+Ruggieri, Prof., ii. <a href="#v2page444">444</a>
+<br>
+Ruinlike rock formations, i. <a href="#v1page428">428</a>
+<br>
+Runeberg, R., i. <a href="#v1page8">8</a>
+<br>
+Ruspoli, Prince, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>
+<br>
+Russians, at Chabarova, i. <a href="#v1page79">79</a>
+<br><br>
+
+S
+<br><br>
+<i>Sabinea septemcarinata</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page48">48</a>
+<br>
+Sachanich Bay, i. <a href="#v1fn130">236<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Sacrificial heights, i. <a href="#v1page92">92</a>
+<br>
+Saigo Kichinosuke ii. <a href="#v2page303">303</a>
+<br>
+Sajsan, Lake, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>
+<br>
+<i>Salix artica</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page65">65</a>
+<br>
+Samoyeds, i. <a href="#v1page77">77</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">their idols, i. <a href="#v1page85">85</a>, <a href="#v1page94">94</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">their dress, i. <a href="#v1page89">89</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Compared with other Polar races, i. <a href="#v1page91">91</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">burying place, i. <a href="#v1page97">97</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">their weapons, i. <a href="#v1page99">99</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">old accounts of them, i. <a href="#v1page100">100</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">their place in ethnography, i. <a href="#v1page103">103</a></span>
+<br>
+Samurai, ii. <a href="#v2page376">376</a>
+<br>
+Sandman, Captain, ii. <a href="#v2page294">294</a>
+<br>
+Sandpiper, <i>see</i> <a href="#Phalarope">Phalarope</a>
+<br>
+Sankin Grigorej, ii. <a href="#v2page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Sannikov, i. <a href="#v1page24">24</a>
+<br>
+Sanyo Sanitomi, ii. <a href="#v2page303">303</a>
+<br>
+Saostrovskoj, i. <a href="#v1page311">311</a>
+<br>
+Sapetto, Prof., ii. <a href="#v2page439">439</a>
+<br>
+Sapphires, ii. <a href="#v2page419">419</a>
+<br>
+Sarytschev, ii. <a href="#v2page408">408</a>
+<br>
+Satow, E M, ii. <a href="#v2page321">321</a>
+<br>
+Sauer, Martin, i. <a href="#v1page418">418</a>
+<br>
+Savavatari, ii. <a href="#v2page337">337</a>
+<br>
+Savina river, i. <a href="#v1page280">280</a>
+<br>
+Schalaurov, ii. <a href="#v2page200">200</a>
+<br>
+Schelags, ii. <a href="#v2page170">170</a>
+<br>
+Schelechov, G, ii. <a href="#v2fn362">270<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Scheltinga, ii. <a href="#v2page198">198</a>
+<br>
+Schestakov, A, ii. <a href="#v2page74">74</a>
+<br>
+Schigansk, i. <a href="#v1page369">369</a>
+<br>
+Schmidt, F, i. <a href="#v1page409">409</a>
+<br>
+Schmidt, H, i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Schrenck, L von, i. <a href="#v1page410">410</a>
+<br>
+Schtinnikov, A, ii. <a href="#v2page182">182</a>
+<br>
+Schwanenberg, D, i. <a href="#v1fn2">9<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page314">314</a>
+<br>
+Scoresby, i. <a href="#v1fn69">143<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Scurvy, i. <a href="#v1page45">45</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page295">295</a>
+<br>
+<a name="seabear">
+Sea-bear, the,</a> ii. <a href="#v2page272">272</a>
+<br>
+Sea-cow, ii. <a href="#v2page272">272</a>
+<br>
+<a name="sealion">
+Sea-lion,</a> i. 446; ii. <a href="#v2page267">267</a>
+<br>
+Sea-otter, ii. <a href="#v2page271">271</a>
+<br>
+Sea-spider, i. <a href="#v1page349">349</a>
+<br>
+Seals, i. <a href="#v1page162">162</a>
+<br>
+Sealskin used as clothing, i. <a href="#v1page37">37</a>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page480" id="v2page480"></a>[ pg 480 ]</span>
+<i>Searchthrift</i> (vessel), i. <a href="#v1page217">217</a>
+<br>
+Seebohm, Mr., i. <a href="#v1page315">315</a>
+<br>
+Selenetz Islands, i. <a href="#v1page228">228</a>
+<br>
+Selenga, i. <a href="#v1page374">374</a>
+<br>
+Selennoe Lake, i. <a href="#v1page269">269</a>
+<br>
+Self-dead animals, i. <a href="#v1page322">322</a>
+<br>
+Selifontov, i. <a href="#v1page204">204</a>
+<br>
+Selivaninskoj, i. <a href="#v1page387">387</a>
+<br>
+Selivestrov, ii. <a href="#v2fn301">166<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Semenoffski Island, i. <a href="#v1page414">414</a>
+<br>
+Semipalitinsk, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>
+<br>
+Senjavin Sound, ii. <a href="#v2page244">244</a>
+<br>
+Senkiti-San, ii. <a href="#v2page336">336</a>
+<br>
+Serapoa Koska, i. <a href="#v1page217">217</a>
+<br>
+Serdze Kamen, i. <a href="#v1page467">467</a>
+<br>
+Seribrenikoff, S. J., i. <a href="#v1page39">39</a>
+<br>
+Seven Islands, i. <a href="#v1page117">117</a>
+<br>
+<i>Severnoe Sianie</i>, i. <a href="#v1page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Shamans, ii. <a href="#v2page128">128</a>
+<br>
+Shaman drums, ii. <a href="#v2page24">24</a>
+<br>
+Shimonoseki. ii. <a href="#v2page387">387</a>
+<br>
+Shintoism, ii. <a href="#v2page378">378</a>
+<br>
+Sibbern, ii. <a href="#v2page453">453</a>
+<br>
+Siberian Polar Sea, i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>, <a href="#v1page28">28</a>
+<br>
+Siberian cattle plague, i. <a href="#v1page78">78</a>
+<br>
+Sibir, ii. <a href="#v2page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Sibiriakoff, A., i. <a href="#v1page2">2</a>, <a href="#v1page3">3</a>, <a href="#v1page8">8</a>, <a href="#v1page24">24</a>
+<br>
+Sibiriakoff Island, ii. <a href="#v2page312">312</a>
+<br>
+Sidoroff, M., i. <a href="#v1page211">211</a>
+<br>
+Sidoroff's graphite quarry, ii. <a href="#v2page235">235</a>
+<br>
+Siebold, P. H. F. von, ii. <a href="#v2page326">326</a>
+<br>
+Siebold, H. von, ii. <a href="#v2page326">326</a>
+<br>
+<i>Sieversia glacialis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page197">197</a>
+<br>
+Simonsen, i. <a href="#v1page300">300</a>
+<br>
+Simovies, i. <a href="#v1page193">193</a>
+<br>
+Simpson, John, ii. <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+Singapore, ii. <a href="#v2page413">413</a>
+<br>
+Singhalese, ii. <a href="#v2page424">424</a>
+<br>
+Sirovatskoj, ii. <a href="#v2page204">204</a>
+<br>
+Skoptzi in Siberia, i. <a href="#v1page387">387</a>
+<br>
+Skuratov, i. <a href="#v1page204">204</a>
+<br>
+Slaves among the Chukches, ii. <a href="#v2page123">123</a>
+<br>
+Sledges, i. <a href="#v1page82">82</a>, <a href="#v1page83">83</a>
+<br>
+Smitt, F.A., ii. <a href="#v2page59">59</a>
+<br>
+Snobberger, C. P., i. <a href="#v1page259">259</a>
+<br>
+Snow-blindness, i. <a href="#v1page477">477</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page10">10</a>
+<br>
+Snow-bunting, the, ii. <a href="#v2page129">129</a>
+<br>
+Snow-drifting, i. <a href="#v1page483">483</a>
+<br>
+Snow-shoes, ii. <a href="#v2page102">102</a>
+<br>
+Snow-spectacles, i. <a href="#v1page477">477</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page10">10</a>
+<br>
+Snow, the melting of the, ii. <a href="#v2page34">34</a>
+<br>
+Snups, M., ii. <a href="#v2fn294">157<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Sokolov, ii. <a href="#v2page176">176</a>
+<br>
+Solovets, ii. <a href="#v2page157">157</a>
+<br>
+<i>Somateria molissima</i>, i. <a href="#v1page123">123</a>
+<br>
+<i>Somateria spectabilis</i>, i. <a href="#v1page123">123</a>
+<br>
+<i>Somateria V.-nigrum</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page42">42</a>
+<br>
+Spangberg, Martin, ii. <a href="#v2page179">179</a>
+<br>
+Spinel, ii <a href="#v2page423">423</a>
+<br>
+Spirits, i. <a href="#v1page440">440</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page13">13</a>, <a href="#v2page116">116</a>, <a href="#v2page118">118</a>
+<br>
+Spitzbergen hunting, history of, i. <a href="#v1page29">29</a>
+<br>
+Spitzbergen, its discovery ascribed to Willoughby, i. <a href="#v1fn48">62<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered by Barents, i. <a href="#v1page247">247</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page291">291</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Norwegian voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page293">293</a></span>
+<br>
+Spottiswoode, Mr., ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Springs, hot, ii. <a href="#v2page343">343</a>
+<br>
+St. James's Islands, i. <a href="#v1page223">223</a>
+<br>
+St. Laurens Bay, i. <a href="#v1page236">236</a>
+<br>
+St. Lawrence Bay, ii. <a href="#v2page212">212</a>, <a href="#v2page218">218</a>
+<br>
+St. Lawrence Island, i. <a href="#v1page154">154</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page250">250</a>
+<br>
+<i>Stegocephalus Kessleri</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page48">48</a>
+<br>
+Stellar, G. N., ii. <a href="#v2page80">80</a>, <a href="#v2fn322">187<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page200">200</a>, <a href="#v2page266">266</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his death, ii. <a href="#v2page268">268</a></span>
+<br>
+Steppes, Siberian, i. <a href="#v1page384">384</a>
+<br>
+<i>Sterna macroura</i>, i. <a href="#v1page123">123</a>
+<br>
+Stockholm, arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page459">459</a>
+<br>
+Stolbovoj Island, i. <a href="#v1page414">414</a>
+<br>
+Stone Pacha, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br>
+Stone polishing works in Canton, ii. <a href="#v2page399">399</a>
+<br>
+Strabo, ii. <a href="#v2page148">148</a>, <a href="#v2page151">151</a>
+<br>
+Strahlenberg i. <a href="#v1page405">405</a>
+<br>
+<i>Strix nyctea</i>, i. <a href="#v1page131">131</a>
+<br>
+Stroganov, Russian commercial house, i. <a href="#v1page235">235</a>
+<br>
+Stuxberg, A., i. <a href="#v1page3">3</a>, <a href="#v1page38">38</a>, <a href="#v1page151">151</a>, <a href="#v1page193">193</a>, <a href="#v1page194">194</a>, <a href="#v1page198">198</a>, <a href="#v1page311">311</a>, <a href="#v1page324">324</a>, <a href="#v1page438">438</a>, <a href="#v1page451">451</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page225">225</a>, <a href="#v2page291">291</a>, <a href="#v2page315">315</a>, <a href="#v2page434">434</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page435">435</a></span>
+<br>
+Suez, arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page440">440</a>
+<br>
+Suez Canal, the, ii. <a href="#v2page441">441</a>
+<br>
+Sujeff, student, i. <a href="#v1fn92">185<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Swan, Bewick's, i. <a href="#v1page127">127</a>
+<br>
+Swedish expedition of 1875, the, i. <a href="#v1page12">12</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">visits Yalmal, i. <a href="#v1page205">205</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">reaches the Yenisej, i. <a href="#v1page311">311</a></span>
+<br>
+Swedish prisoners of war in Siberia, ii. <a href="#v2page175">175</a>
+<br>
+Swell from falling pieces of ice dangerous to vessels, i. <a href="#v1fn91">183<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Sword-bearing in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page377">377</a>
+<br>
+<i>Sylvia Ewersmanni</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page43">43</a>
+<br>
+Sylvius, Aeneas, i. <a href="#v1fn30">52<i>n</i></a>
+<br><br>
+
+T
+<br><br>
+Tabin, Promontorium, i. <a href="#v1page13">13</a>, <a href="#v1page241">241</a>
+<br>
+Taffelbeiget, ii. <a href="#v2page29">29</a>
+<br>
+Tagil river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Taimur Island, i. <a href="#v1page331">331</a>
+<br>
+Taimur lake, ii. <a href="#v2page192">192</a>
+<br>
+Taimur Land, inhabited by Samoyeds, i. <a href="#v1fn135">244<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">position of its east coast, i. <a href="#v1page352">352</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Minin's travels along the coast, ii. <a href="#v2page187">187</a></span>
+<br>
+Taimur river, the, i. <a href="#v1page409">409</a>
+<br>
+Takasaki, ii. <a href="#v2page325">325</a>
+<br>
+Takasima coal mine, ii. <a href="#v2page394">394</a>
+<br>
+Tamils, ii. <a href="#v2page424">424</a>
+<br>
+Tanning reindeer hides hides, ii. <a href="#v2page122">122</a>
+<br>
+Tas-ary, i. <a href="#v1page362">362</a>, <a href="#v1page368">368</a>
+<br>
+Tas river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page156">156</a>, <a href="#v2fn298">159<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Tatarinov, Feodor, ii. <a href="#v2page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Tatariov, Cossack, ii. <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page481" id="v2page481"></a>[ pg 481 ]</span>
+Tattooing, Chukch, i. <a href="#v1page499">499</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page99">99</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Eskimo, at Port Clarence, ii. <a href="#v2page232">232</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Eskimo, at St. Lawrence island ii. <a href="#v2page251">251</a>, <a href="#v2page252">252</a></span>
+<br>
+<i>Tazata, Insula</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page155">155</a>
+<br>
+Teano, Prince, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>, <a href="#v2page446">446</a>
+<br>
+Temples in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page375">375</a>, <a href="#v2page377">377</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">on Ceylon, ii. <a href="#v2page425">425</a></span>
+<br>
+Tennent, E, ii. <a href="#v2fn388">415<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page419">419</a>, <a href="#v2fn391">424<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Terfins, i. <a href="#v1fn23">48<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Tetgales, B. Y., i. <a href="#v1page232">232</a>
+<br>
+<i>Thalassiophyllum Clathrus</i>, ii. <a href="#v2page293">293</a>
+<br>
+Th&eacute;el, Hj, i. <a href="#v1page3">3</a>, <a href="#v1page311">311</a>
+<br>
+Theatres in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page356">356</a>
+<br>
+Thorne, Robert, i. <a href="#v1fn39">57<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Thunberg, C. P., ii. <a href="#v2page43">43</a>, <a href="#v2fn378">326<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Thwaites, Dr., ii. <a href="#v2page428">428</a>
+<br>
+Tietgen, state councillor, ii. <a href="#v2page456">456</a>
+<br>
+Tigil River, the, ii. <a href="#v2fn303">167<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page176">176</a>
+<br>
+Tintinyaranga, i. <a href="#v1page509">509</a>
+<br>
+Tjapka, Chukch village, ii. <a href="#v2page20">20</a>
+<br>
+Tjumen, ii. <a href="#v2page159">159</a>, <a href="#v2page268">268</a>
+<br>
+Tobacco, its use among the Chukches, ii. <a href="#v2page116">116</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">in Japan, ii. <a href="#v2page321">321</a></span>
+<br>
+Tobiesen, S. K., i. <a href="#v1page108">108</a>, <a href="#v1page141">141</a>, <a href="#v1page144">144</a>, <a href="#v1page152">152</a>, <a href="#v1page300">300</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his voyage to Spitzbergen, i. <a href="#v1page302">302</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">wintering on Bear Island, i. <a href="#v1page303">303</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">his death, i. <a href="#v1page305">305</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">his portrait, i. <a href="#v1page303">303</a></span>
+<br>
+Tobol river, the, ii. <a href="#v2page159">159</a>
+<br>
+Tobolsk, i. <a href="#v1page344">344</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a>, <a href="#v2page186">186</a>
+<br>
+Tokaido road, the, ii. <a href="#v2page315">315</a>
+<br>
+Tokio, visit to, ii. <a href="#v2page304">304</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">the Shoguns' graves at, ii. <a href="#v2page309">309</a></span>
+<br>
+Topaz, ii. <a href="#v2page400">400</a>, <a href="#v2page419">419</a>
+<br>
+Toporkoff Island, ii. <a href="#v2page291">291</a>
+<br>
+<i>Torosses</i>, i. <a href="#v1page425">425</a>, <a href="#v1page463">463</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page2">2</a>
+<br>
+Toxar Island, i. <a href="#v1page239">239</a>
+<br>
+Treacher, Governor, ii. <a href="#v2page408">408</a>
+<br>
+Trees, distribution of, in Siberia, i. <a href="#v1page383">383</a>
+<br>
+<i>Tringa maritima</i>, i. <a href="#v1page128">128</a>
+<br>
+Trofimov's mammoth, i. <a href="#v1page409">409</a>
+<br>
+Tromsoe, <i>Vega's</i> stay at, i. <a href="#v1page38">38</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">its climate, i. <a href="#v1fn21">45<i>n</i></a></span>
+<br>
+Tumat Island, i. <a href="#v1page362">362</a>
+<br>
+<i>Tundra</i>, appearance of the, i. <a href="#v1page378">378</a>
+<br>
+Tunguses, i. <a href="#v1page384">384</a>, <a href="#v1page408">408</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page191">191</a>
+<br><br>
+
+U
+<br><br>
+Umbellula in the Kara Sea, i. <a href="#v1page184">184</a>
+<br>
+Ural-Altaic race, i. <a href="#v1page103">103</a>
+<br>
+<i>Uria Br&uuml;nnichii</i>, i. <a href="#v1page110">110</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>grylle</i>, i. <a href="#v1page113">113</a>
+<br>
+Urusov, Prince, ii. <a href="#v2page445">445</a>
+<br>
+Ustjansk, ii. <a href="#v2page205">205</a>, <a href="#v2page206">206</a>
+<br>
+Usui toge, ii. <a href="#v2page352">352</a>
+<br><br>
+
+V
+<br><br>
+Vardoe, i. <a href="#v1page66">66</a>, <a href="#v1page68">68</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">climate of, i. <a href="#v1page45">45</a></span>
+<br>
+Varsina river, the, i. <a href="#v1page66">66</a>
+<br>
+Varthema, Luduvico de, ii. <a href="#v2page438">438</a>
+<br>
+Vasa Murrhina, ii. <a href="#v2fn349">236<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Vaygats Island, i. <a href="#v1page77">77</a>, <a href="#v1page93">93</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered, i. <a href="#v1page215">215</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">visited by Pet, i. <a href="#v1page228">228</a></span>
+<br>
+Veer, Gerrit de, i. <a href="#v1page101">101</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">his book, i. <a href="#v1page245">245</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2"><i>Vega</i>, the, purchased, i. <a href="#v1page8">8</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">description of, i. <a href="#v1page9">9</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">equipment of, i. <a href="#v1page11">11</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">position when frozen in, i. <a href="#v1page468">468</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">action of cold on, i. <a href="#v1page466">466</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">prepared for wintering, i. <a href="#v1page469">469</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">repaired, ii. <a href="#v2page396">396</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">sold, ii. <a href="#v2page463">463</a></span>
+<br>
+Vessels, Norse, i. <a href="#v1page50">50</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian, on the Polar sea, i. <a href="#v1page219">219</a></span>
+<br>
+Vlamingh, i. <a href="#v1page258">258</a>
+<br>
+Volcanic dust in Scandinavia, i. <a href="#v1page330">330</a>
+<br>
+Volcanoes, ii. <a href="#v2page249">249</a>
+<br>
+<i>Vulpes lagopus</i>, see <a href="#Fox">Fox, Arctic</a>
+<br>
+&mdash;&mdash; <i>vulgaris</i>, see <a href="#Fox">Fox, common</a>
+<br><br>
+
+W
+<br><br>
+Waern, C. F., i. <a href="#v1page5">5</a>
+<br>
+Waldburg-Zeil, Count, i. <a href="#v1page205">205</a>
+<br>
+Walden Island, i. <a href="#v1page112">112</a>
+<br>
+Walrus, i. <a href="#v1page152">152</a>
+<br>
+Walton, Lieut., ii. <a href="#v2page198">198</a>
+<br>
+Wax tree, the Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page389">389</a>
+<br>
+Waxel, Lieut, ii. <a href="#v2page197">197</a>
+<br>
+Weasel, ii. <a href="#v2page46">46</a>
+<br>
+Werchojansk, i. <a href="#v1page411">411</a>
+<br>
+Werkon, the river, ii. <a href="#v2page202">202</a>
+<br>
+Weyprecht, i. <a href="#v1page266">266</a>
+<br>
+Whales, on the coast of Norway, i. <a href="#v1page49">49</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">scarce at Novaya Zemlya, i, <a href="#v1page168">168</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">fear of, in ancient times, i. <a href="#v1page169">169</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">with European harpoons, found in the Pacific, i. <a href="#v1page264">264</a></span>
+<br>
+Whale bones on Spitzbergen, i. <a href="#v1page168">168</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">sub-fossil at Pitlekaj, i. <a href="#v1page520">520</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">used is building materials, ii. <a href="#v2page223">223</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">at St. Lawrence Island, ii. <a href="#v2page253">253</a></span>
+<br>
+Whale-fishing, described by Albertus Magnus, i. <a href="#v1fn82">159<i>n</i></a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">at Spitzbergen, i. <a href="#v1page168">168</a></span>
+<br>
+Whale <i>mummy</i> at Pitlekaj, i. <a href="#v1page523">523</a>
+<br>
+White-fronted goose, i. <a href="#v1page124">124</a>
+<br>
+White Island, <i>see</i> <a href="#BeliOstrov">Beli Ostrov</a>
+<br>
+White Sea, the, i. <a href="#v1page215">215</a>
+<br>
+<a name="whitewhale"></a>
+White whale, the, i. <a href="#v1page79">79</a>, <a href="#v1page167">167</a>
+<br>
+Widmark, H. A., ii. <a href="#v2page35">35</a>
+<br>
+Wiemut, Julian, ii. <a href="#v2page294">294</a>
+<br>
+Wiggins, J., i. <a href="#v1page311">311</a>, <a href="#v1page312">312</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, i. <a href="#v1page313">313</a></span>
+<br>
+Wilkoffski, ii. <a href="#v2page238">238</a>
+<br>
+Willoughby, Sir Hugh, i. <a href="#v1page13">13</a>, <a href="#v1page58">58</a>;
+  portrait, i. <a href="#v1page59">59</a>
+<br>
+Willoughby's, Land, i. <a href="#v1page62">62</a>
+<br>
+Wilui river, the, i. <a href="#v1page406">406</a>
+<br>
+Wood, Captain, i. <a href="#v1page260">260</a>
+<br>
+Wosnessenski, conservator, ii. <a href="#v2page276">276</a>
+<br>
+Wrangel, Ferdinand von, i. <a href="#v1page23">23</a>, <a href="#v1page265">265</a>, <a href="#v1page446">446</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">journeys, ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, ii. <a href="#v2page208">208</a></span>
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page482" id="v2page482"></a>[ pg 482 ]</span>
+Wrangel Land, i. <a href="#v1page23">23</a>, <a href="#v1page26">26</a>, <a href="#v1page448">448</a>; ii. <a href="#v2fn304">171<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v2page202">202</a>, <a href="#v2page209">209</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">landing on, i. <a href="#v1page448">448</a></span>
+<br>
+Wrestlers, Japanese, ii. <a href="#v2page339">339</a>
+<br>
+Wulfstan's travels, i. <a href="#v1page50">50</a>
+<br><br>
+
+Y
+<br><br>
+Yakovieva, i. <a href="#v1page316">316</a>
+<br>
+Yakuts, i. <a href="#v1page384">384</a>; ii. <a href="#v2page161">161</a>
+<br>
+Yakutsk, i. <a href="#v1page19">19</a>, <a href="#v1page22">22</a>, <a href="#v1page26">26</a>, <a href="#v1page370">370</a>, <a href="#v1page371">371</a>;
+  ii. <a href="#v2page187">187</a>, <a href="#v2page190">190</a>, <a href="#v2page193">193</a>
+<br>
+Yalmal, exclusion to, i. <a href="#v1page201">201</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">visited in 1875, i. <a href="#v1page205">205</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">population i. <a href="#v1page204">204</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">origin of the name, i. <a href="#v1page203">203</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">old accounts of, i. <a href="#v1page204">204</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">surveyed, ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a></span>
+<br>
+Yana River, the, i. <a href="#v1fn233">418<i>n</i></a>
+<br>
+Yanimoto, ii. <a href="#v2page366">366</a>
+<br>
+Yefremov Kamen, i. <a href="#v1page376">376</a>
+<br>
+Yekargauls, i. <a href="#v1page498">498</a>
+<br>
+Yelmert, i. <a href="#v1page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Yelmert Land, i. <a href="#v1page203">203</a>
+<br>
+Yenisej, the, voyages of the <i>Fraser</i> and the <i>Empress</i>, up, i. <a href="#v1page357">357</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">ascent of, in 1875, i. <a href="#v1page387">387</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">river territory, i. <a href="#v1page372">372</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">navigable, i. <a href="#v1page373">373</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">its banks, i. <a href="#v1page377">377</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">vegetation on, i. <a href="#v1page381">381</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">steamers on, i. <a href="#v1page394">394</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">discovered, ii. <a href="#v2page160">160</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian navigation on, in former times, i. <a href="#v1page243">243</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Russian sea, expeditions to, ii. <a href="#v2page185">185</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Minin's voyages on, ii. <a href="#v2page186">186</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">later voyages to, i. <a href="#v1page311">311</a></span>
+<br>
+Yenisej, mouth of the, map of, i. <a href="#v1page192">192</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">formerly inhabited, i. <a href="#v1page193">193</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">winter at, i. <a href="#v1page209">209</a></span>
+<br>
+Yettugin, ii. <a href="#v2page29">29</a>, <a href="#v2page67">67</a>, <a href="#v2page125">125</a>
+<br>
+Yii gate, the, ii. <a href="#v2page399">399</a>
+<br>
+Yinretlen, i. <a href="#v1page485">485</a>
+<br>
+<i>Ymer</i> (steamer), i. <a href="#v1page1">1</a>, <a href="#v1fn3">9<i>n</i></a>, <a href="#v1page312">312</a>, <a href="#v1page358">358</a>
+<br>
+Yokohama, ii. <a href="#v2page296">296</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">arrival at, ii. <a href="#v2page295">295</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">departure from, ii. <a href="#v2page364">364</a></span>
+<br>
+Yokosuka, ii. <a href="#v2page396">396</a>
+<br>
+<i>Yoldia Artica</i>, i. <a href="#v1page199">199</a>
+<br>
+Young, Sir Allen, ii. <a href="#v2page451">451</a>
+<br>
+Yugor Schar, i. <a href="#v1page14">14</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">expedition passes, i. <a href="#v1page171">171</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">rules for sailing through, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">harbours in, i. <a href="#v1page174">174</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">origin of the name, i. <a href="#v1page172">172</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">Pet did not sail through, i. <a href="#v1page228">228</a>;</span><br>
+ <span class="s2">map of, i. <a href="#v1page242">242</a></span>
+<br>
+Yukagires, ii. <a href="#v2page75">75</a>
+<br>
+Yukagir dwellings, remains of, on the New Siberian Islands, ii. <a href="#v2page209">209</a>
+<br><br>
+
+Z
+<br><br>
+<i>Zaritza</i> (steamer), i. <a href="#v1page360">360</a>
+<br>
+Zeno, i. <a href="#v1page53">53</a>
+<br>
+Ziegler's map of the north, i. <a href="#v1page53">53</a>
+<br>
+Zivolka, A. K., i. <a href="#v1page282">282</a>;<br>
+ <span class="s2">portrait, i. <a href="#v1page284">284</a></span>
+<br>
+Zircon, ii. <a href="#v2page423">423</a>
+<br>
+
+<br>
+THE END
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page483" id="v2page483"></a>[ pg 483 ]</span> <br>
+<hr>
+<b>THE ARCTIC VOYAGES OF BARON A. E.</b>
+  VON NORDENSKI&Ouml;LD, 1858-1879 With Illustrations and Map.
+  Demy 8vo. 16<i>s</i>.
+  "Those who wish to get a clearer notion of one of the first Arctic explorers of
+our day cannot do better than purchase this interesting volume."&mdash;<i>Atheneum</i>.
+<br>
+
+By CAPTAIN ALBERT H. MARKHAM, R.N.
+<br>
+<b>NORTHWARD HO!</b> By Captain ALBERT H. MARKHAM,
+R. N., Author of "The Frozen Sea," &amp;c. Including a Narrative of Captain
+Phipps's Expedition, by a Midshipman. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 10<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>.
+"Captain Markham's interesting volume has the advantage of being written
+by a man who is practically conversant with the subject."&mdash;<i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>.
+<br>
+
+By SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON, LL. D., F. R. S., &amp;c.
+<br>
+<b>THE DEPTHS OF THE SEA.</b> An Account of the
+  General Results of the Dredging Cruises of H. M. SS. "Lightning" and
+  "Porcupine" during the Summers of 1868-69-70, under the Scientific
+  Direction of Dr. CARPENTER, F. R. S., J. GWYN JEFFREYS, F. R. S., and
+  Sir WYVILLE THOMSON, Director of the Scientific Staff of the "Challenger"
+  Exploring Expedition.  8vo, extra gilt, with nearly 100 Illustrations and
+  Eight Coloured Maps and Plans.  Second Edition 31<i>s</i>. 6<i>d</i>.
+<br>
+<b>THE VOYAGE OF THE "CHALLENGER"&mdash;THE ATLANTIC.</b> A Preliminary Account of the Exploring Voyages of
+  H. M. S. "Challenger," during the Year 1873, and the early part of 1876.
+  With numerous Illustrations, Coloured Maps, Charts, &amp;c., and Portrait of
+  the Author, engraved by JEENS. Two Vols. 8vo. 45<i>s</i>.
+<br>
+
+By LORD GEORGE CAMPBELL
+<br>
+<b>LOG-LETTERS FROM THE "CHALLENGER"</b>
+  Fifth and Cheaper Edition, revised.   Crown 8vo. 6<i>s</i>.
+<br>
+
+By SIR SAMUEL BAKER, M. A., F. R. G. S.
+<br>
+<b>ISMA&Iuml;LIA</b> A Narrative of the Expedition to Central
+  Africa for the Suppression of the Slave Trade, organized by ISMAIL, Khedive
+  of Egypt.  With Illustrations by ZWECKER and DURAND.   New and
+  Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6<i>s</i>.
+<br>
+<b>THE NILE TRIBUTARIES OF ABYSSINIA, AND</b>
+  THE SWORD HUNTERS OF THE HAMRAN ARABS.  With Maps and
+  Illustrations Sixth and Cheaper Edition.  Crown 8vo. 6<i>s</i>.
+<br>
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+<br>
+By BARON H&Uuml;BNER.
+<br>
+<b>A RAMBLE ROUND THE WORLD</b> 1871. By M. le BARON de H&Uuml;BNER,
+  formerly Ambassador and Minister.  Translated by
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+<br>
+
+By SIR CHARLES W. DILKE, M. P.
+<br>
+<b>GREATER BRITAIN.</b> A Record of Travel in English-speaking
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+  and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo  6<i>s</i>.
+<br>
+
+By W. G. PALGRAVE.
+<br>
+<b>A NARRATIVE OF A YEAR'S JOURNEY</b>
+  THROUGH CENTRAL AND EASTERN ARABIA, 1862-63. With Map,
+  Plans, and Portrait of Author, engraved on Steel by JEENS. Crown
+  8vo 6<i>s</i>.
+MACMILLAN &amp; CO., LONDON, W. C.
+<br>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="v2page484" id="v2page484"></a>[ pg 484 ]</span>
+<br>
+
+
+<hr>
+
+
+<a name="tnotes"></a>
+
+START OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+<br>
+
+First a list of typographical errors, which have been corrected.
+Followed by alternative spellings of words noticed, the majority of which occur bewteen
+the index and the text, these have been left unchanged. There are also two short
+ERRATA for <a href="#v1errata">Volume I</a> and <a href="#v2errata">Volume II</a>
+in the printed edition.
+
+
+<p>Vol I page x "Cape Schelagskog" changed to "Cape Schelagskoj"
+[ to match 4 other instances in text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page xiii "Sieveria" changed to "Sieweria"
+[ as in the title "Neu-entdecktes Sieweria, worinnen die
+  Zobeln gefangen werden" confirmed on Internet, and one
+  other instance in the text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page xxv "Ida Fallander" changed to "Ida Falander"
+[to match 5 other instances in text]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page xxvi "Yenissej" changed to "Yenisej"
+[ to match many instances in text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 22 "Staduschin" changed to "Staduschin"
+[ to match 11 other instances in the text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 43  "Middendorf" changed to "Middendorff"
+[ to match 19 other instances in text]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 51 "Ptolemoei Cosmographia" changed to
+"Ptolem&aelig;i Cosmographia"
+[ confirmed on internet as the correct spelling, also correct
+  in one other instance in the text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 73 "Besimmanaja Bay" changed to "Besimannaja Bay"
+[to match 5 other instances in text]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 219 "Cape Woronov" changed to "Cape Voronov"
+[ to match entry in index and confirmed on Internet ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 310 "Novya Zemlaya" changed to "Novaya Zemlya"
+[ over 200+ instances of "Novaya Zemlya" ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 315 "Sewernoe Sianie" changed to "Severnoe Sianie"
+[ to match 2 other instances in text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 317 "Meywaldt" changed to "Meyenwaldt"
+[ to match 2 other instances in text, note also spelt as
+ "Meyenvaldt" in the index]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 377 "YEKISEJ" changed to "YENISEJ"
+[ to match many instances in text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol I page 397 "MIDDENDORF" changed to "MIDDENDORFF"
+[ to match 19 other instances in text ]
+
+<p>Vol I page 451 "Redog&ouml;rese" changed to "Redog&ouml;relse"
+[ to match 4 other instances in the text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol II page xvi "Pribyloo" changed to "Pribylov"
+[ to match 4 other instances in the text ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol II page 140 "ocasionally" changed to "occasionally"
+
+<p>Vol II page 183 "Dolgoj Island" changed to "Dolgoi Island"
+[to match index and 2 other instances in text]</p>
+
+<p>Vol II page 249 "Hessal Gerritz" changed to "Hessel Gerritz"
+[Internet book text search gives both variations of surname
+ see under differences of spelling below, but always "Hessel"
+ as the first name of the author ]</p>
+
+<p>Vol II page 432 "Pedrotalegalla" changed to "Pedrotalagalla"
+[ to match 2 other instances in text, also confirmed on
+  Internet as correct spelling for this mountain]</p>
+
+<p>Vol II page 447 "Nutschoitzin" changed "Nutschoitjin"
+[ to match other index entry and 6 instances in the text]</p>
+
+<p>Vol II page 481 "Vlaming" changed to "Vlamingh"
+[ to match 8 other instances in text ]</p>
+
+
+
+<p>Alternative spelling noticed, these remain unchanged as it
+is not obvious which is correct.
+
+<p>"Bruzewitz" In index and illustration, but "Brusewitz" in text</p>
+
+<p>"Engehardt's" or "Engelhardt's" </p>
+
+<p> "Hessel Gerritsz" or "Hessel Gerritz"</p>
+
+<p>"Gusinnaja Semlja" or "Gusinnyja Semlja"</p>
+
+<p>"Gwosdarev" in text, but "Gvosdarev" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Cape Kamennoj" in text, but "Cape Kammennoj" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Kolmogorsov" in text, but "Kolmogorzov" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Krassilnikoff's" in text, but "Krassilinikoff" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Labuan" in text, but "Labaan" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Matvejev" in text, but "Matveyev" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Meyenwaldt" in text, but "Meyenvaldt" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Morgiouets" in text, but "Morgiovets" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Mutnoi" in text, but "Mutnoj" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Oiwake" in text, but "Oiwaki" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Rotschitlen" in text, but "Rotschilten" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Sarytchev" or "Sarytschev"</p>
+
+<p>"Semenoffskoj" in text, but "Semenoffski" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Gusinnaja Semlja" in text, but "Gusinnaya Semlya" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Serebrenikoff" in text, but "Seribrenikoff" in index</p>
+
+<p>"skuggsj&aacute;" in text, but "skuggj&aacute;" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Sumiyashi" In list of illustrations, but
+"SUMIYOSHI" Caption on illustration"</p>
+
+<p>"Tajmur river" or "Taimur river"</p>
+
+<p>"Volodomir" in text, but "Volodimir" in index</p>
+
+<p>"Yekargaules" in text, but "Yekargauls" in index</p>
+
+<br>END OF TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+<hr>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and
+Europe, Volume I and Volume II, by A.E. Nordenskieold
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
+
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 02:13:12 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-15 02:13:12 -0700
commit	831b32e43329bc399eb363eedb7d847617b75a22 (patch)
tree	85bbbd7d31c5f6f705683fcfd79def8891bca41b /24365-h