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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Building of a Book, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Building of a Book
+       A Series of Practical Articles Written by Experts in the
+       Various Departments of Book Making and Distributing
+
+Author: Various
+
+Commentator: Theodore L. De Vinne
+
+Editor: Frederick H. Hitchcock
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2007 [EBook #23754]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BUILDING OF A BOOK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Christine P.
+Travers and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.]
+
+
+
+
+                    THE BUILDING OF A BOOK
+
+
+                A SERIES OF PRACTICAL ARTICLES
+              WRITTEN BY EXPERTS IN THE VARIOUS
+          DEPARTMENTS OF BOOK MAKING AND DISTRIBUTING
+
+
+                    WITH AN INTRODUCTION
+                   BY THEODORE L. DE VINNE
+
+
+                          EDITED BY
+                   FREDERICK H. HITCHCOCK
+
+
+                [Illustration: Editor's arm.]
+
+
+
+
+                     THE GRAFTON PRESS
+                PUBLISHERS       NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+                     Copyright, 1906,
+                  By THE GRAFTON PRESS.
+                Published December, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+                       DEDICATED
+                TO READERS AND LOVERS
+                 OF BOOKS THROUGHOUT
+                      THE COUNTRY
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+"The Building of a Book" had its origin in the wish to give practical,
+non-technical information to readers and lovers of books. I hope it
+will also be interesting and valuable to those persons who are
+actually engaged in book making and selling.
+
+All of the contributors are experts in their respective departments,
+and hence write with authority. I am exceedingly grateful to them for
+their very generous efforts to make the book a success.
+
+                                        THE EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES AND CONTRIBUTORS
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     1
+        By THEODORE L. DE VINNE, of Theodore L.
+        De Vinne & Company, Printers, New York.
+
+    THE AUTHOR                                                       4
+        By GEORGE W. CABLE, Author of "Grandissimes,"
+        "The Cavalier," and other books. Resident of
+        Northampton, Massachusetts.
+
+    THE LITERARY AGENT                                               9
+        By PAUL R. REYNOLDS, Literary Agent, New York,
+        representing several English publishing houses and
+        American authors.
+
+    THE LITERARY ADVISER                                            16
+        By FRANCIS W. HALSEY, formerly Editor of the
+        _New York Times Saturday Review of Books_, and
+        literary adviser for D. Appleton & Company. Now
+        literary adviser for Funk & Wagnalls Company, New York.
+
+    THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT                                    25
+        By LAWTON L. WALTON, in charge of the
+        manufacturing department of The Macmillan Company,
+        Publishers, New York.
+
+    THE MAKING OF TYPE                                              31
+        By L. BOYD BENTON, Mechanical Manager of the
+        Jersey City factory of the American Type Founders'
+        Company.
+
+    HAND COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING                              41
+        By J. STEARNS CUSHING, of J. S. Cushing &
+        Company, Norwood, Massachusetts, one of the three
+        concerns forming the Norwood Press.
+
+    COMPOSITION BY THE LINOTYPE MACHINE                             53
+        By FREDERICK J. WARBURTON, Treasurer of the
+        Mergenthaler Linotype Machine Company.
+
+    COMPOSITION BY THE MONOTYPE MACHINE                             66
+        By PAUL NATHAN, a member of Wood & Nathan,
+        New York, selling agents for the Lanston Monotype
+        Machine.
+
+    PROOF-READING                                                   77
+        By GEORGE L. MILLER, with the Charles Francis
+        Press, New York.
+
+    PAPER MAKING                                                    89
+        By HERBERT W. MASON, of S. D. Warren & Company,
+        Paper Makers, Boston, Massachusetts.
+
+    PRESSWORK                                                       99
+        By WALTER J. BERWICK, of Berwick & Smith
+        Company, Norwood, Massachusetts, one of the three
+        concerns constituting the Norwood Press.
+
+    THE PRINTING PRESS                                             112
+        By OTTO L. RAABE, with R. Hoe & Company, New
+        York, Printing Press Manufacturers.
+
+    PRINTING INK                                                   139
+        By JAMES A. ULLMAN, of Sigmund Ullman Company,
+        Ink Makers, New York.
+
+    THE PRINTER'S ROLLER                                           144
+        By ALBERT S. BURLINGHAM, President of the
+        National Roller Company, New York.
+
+    THE ILLUSTRATOR                                                154
+        By CHARLES D. WILLIAMS, Artist, New York.
+
+    HALF-TONE, LINE, AND COLOR PLATES                              164
+        By EMLYN M. GILL, President of the Gill
+        Engraving Company, New York.
+
+    THE WAX PROCESS                                                176
+        By ROBERT D. SERVOSS, Engraver of maps,
+        etc., by the wax process, New York.
+
+    MAKING INTAGLIO PLATES                                         180
+        By ELMER LATHAM, Manager of the mechanical
+        department of M. Kramer & Company, Photogravure
+        Makers, Brooklyn, New York.
+
+    PRINTING INTAGLIO PLATES                                       190
+        By GEORGE W. H. RITCHIE, Printer of
+        photogravure plates, etchings, etc., New York.
+
+    THE GELATINE PROCESS                                           198
+        By EMIL JACOBI, Manager of the factory
+        of the Campbell Art Company, New York, and
+        Elizabeth, New Jersey.
+
+    LITHOGRAPHY                                                    204
+        By CHARLES WILHELMS, late of
+        Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Printing
+        Company, Brooklyn, New York.
+
+    COVER DESIGNING                                                216
+        By AMY RICHARDS, Artist, New York, her
+        specialty being cover designs.
+
+    THE COVER STAMPS                                               221
+        By GEORGE BECKER, of Becker Brothers
+        Company, Die Cutters, New York.
+
+    BOOK CLOTHS                                                    226
+        By HENRY P. KENDALL, of the Holliston Mills,
+        Book Cloth Manufacturers, Norwood, Massachusetts.
+
+    BOOK LEATHERS                                                  234
+        By ELLERY C. BARTLETT, of Louis Dejonge &
+        Company, Dressers and Importers of Book Leathers,
+        New York.
+
+    THE BINDING                                                    237
+        By JESSE FELLOWES TAPLEY, President of
+        J. F. Tapley Company, Binders, New York.
+
+    SPECIAL BINDINGS                                               248
+        By HENRY BLACKWELL, Fine Binder, New York.
+
+    COPYRIGHTING                                                   257
+        By FREDERICK H. HITCHCOCK, Member of the
+        New York Bar; President of The Grafton Press,
+        Publishers, New York.
+
+    PUBLICITY                                                      269
+        By VIVIAN BURNETT, formerly in charge of
+        the Publicity Department of McClure, Phillips
+        & Company, Publishers, New York.
+
+    REVIEWING AND CRITICISING                                      292
+        By WALTER LITTLEFIELD, a Member of the Staff
+        of the _New York Times Saturday Review of Books_,
+        and literary correspondent of the _Chicago
+        Record-Herald_, and other papers.
+
+    THE TRAVELLING SALESMAN                                        303
+        By HARRY A. THOMPSON, formerly representing
+        John Lane, and Small, Maynard & Company, Publishers.
+        Now one of the Associate Editors of the _Saturday
+        Evening Post_, Philadelphia.
+
+    SELLING AT WHOLESALE                                           320
+        By JOSEPH E. BRAY, formerly with A. C.
+        McClurg & Company, Wholesalers, Chicago. Now with
+        the Outing Publishing Company, New York.
+
+    SELLING AT RETAIL                                              328
+        By WARREN SNYDER, Manager of the Book Stores
+        of John Wanamaker, Philadelphia and New York.
+
+    SELLING BY SUBSCRIPTION                                        339
+        By CHARLES S. OLCOTT, Manager of the
+        Subscription Department of Messrs. Houghton,
+        Mifflin & Company, New York.
+
+    SELLING AT AUCTION                                             350
+        By JOHN ANDERSON, Jr., President of the
+        Anderson Auction Company, New York.
+
+    SELECTING FOR A PUBLIC LIBRARY                                 362
+        By ARTHUR E. BOSTWICK, Chief of the
+        Circulation Department of the New York Public Library.
+
+    RARE AND SECOND-HAND BOOKS                                     370
+        By CHARLES E. GOODSPEED, Dealer in Rare and
+        Second-hand Books, Boston.
+
+
+
+
+THE BUILDING OF A BOOK
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+By Theodore L. De Vinne.
+
+
+To the hasty observer printing seems the simplest of arts or crafts.
+The small boy who has been taught to spell can readily arrange
+lettered blocks of wood in readable words, and that arrangement is
+rated by many as the great feature of printing. With his toy
+printing-press he can stamp paper upon inked type in so deft a manner
+that admiring friends may say the print is good enough for anybody.
+The elementary processes of printing are indeed so simple that they
+might have justified Dogberry in adding typography to the
+accomplishments of the "reading and writing that come by nature." With
+this delusion comes the desire for amateur performance. Men who would
+not undertake to make a coat or a pair of shoes are confident of their
+ability to make or to direct the making of a book.
+
+In real practice this apparent simplicity disappears. Commercial
+printing is never done quickly or cheaply by amateur methods. The
+printing-house that undertakes to print miscellaneous books for
+publishers must be provided with tons of type of different faces and
+sizes. It needs type-making and type-setting machines of great
+complexity, printing-presses of great size and cost, and much curious
+machinery in the departments of electrotyping and bookbinding; but
+these machines, intended to relieve the drudgery of monotonous manual
+labor, do not supplant the necessity for a higher skill in
+craftsmanship. They really make that craftsmanship more difficult.
+
+The difficulty of good book-making is greater now than ever.
+Improvements made during the last century in processes of engraving
+and the making of ink and paper and the increasing exactions of
+critical readers and reviewers, compel a closer attention to the petty
+detail of manufacture. The novice soon finds that some of the methods
+recently introduced are incompatible with other methods. For the
+production of a superior book practical experience and theoretical
+study of all processes are needed to harmonize their antagonisms. One
+has but to read over the headlines of the foregoing table of contents
+to note how many different arts, crafts, and sciences are required in
+the construction of a well-made book. A reading of these articles
+makes one understand the scope and limitations of each art and the
+necessity for its proper adjustment in its relation to the
+workmanship of other crafts with which it may be associated.
+
+For this purpose this book has been prepared. It is believed that a
+compilation of the experience of men eminent in their respective
+departments will be a useful guide to the amateur in authorship or the
+novice in publication.
+
+
+
+
+THE AUTHOR
+
+By George W. Cable.
+
+
+In a certain fine and true sense books of imaginative writing--and the
+present writer cannot undertake to speak of any others--are not built,
+but born. Nevertheless, there has always been an unlucky tendency on
+the part both of writers and readers to overstate this non-mechanical
+nature of poetic works, whether in prose or verse, and to give the
+processes of this production that air of mystery--not to say
+miracle--in which art is always tempted to veil its methods. There is
+an anatomy of the book, which is not its life, but is just as real as
+its life, and only less essential. There is an architecture awaiting
+the book while it is still in its author's brain; and for want of due
+regard to this architecture's laws, for want of a sound and shapely
+anatomy, many a book misses the success--not commercial only, but
+spiritual as well--which the amount of toil and talent spent on it
+ought to earn. And now that reading has become so democratic that the
+fortunes of a book of the imagination are largely in the hands of the
+Crowd, which cares nothing and feels nothing as to grace of form and
+tone in what it reads, the commercial risk in the physical deformities
+of a book is not so great as the risk of its spiritual failure. Now,
+too, that the magazines have made it so very desirable to the author
+that his work should be printed first in them, their mechanical
+limitations, which are legion, bear upon the author and often seem to
+him (and his personal friends) to bear cruelly. This difficulty is not
+a flattering or gentle discipline, nor are its discriminations always
+good or always bad. It works almost as crudely as that of the stage
+works on the theatrical dramatist. A cunning subservience to it covers
+a multitude of sins, and often achieves for the literary craftsman
+place and preference over the truer artist, if he overlooks the need
+of being also a craftsman. Yet it is the hard demand, not of the
+magazines alone, but of every highest interest, that the cure for this
+injustice be found in the truest artist making himself also the
+cunningest craftsman. "He that would be first among you let him be the
+servant of all."
+
+Well, then, what are some of these mechanical rules of construction?
+The space here allowed--see there, for instance!--gives room for but a
+hint or two; but, first of all, an author should know before the
+actual constructure of his creation begins to rise, how long it is to
+be. Of course he would like to say he cannot tell; that he is in the
+hands of his muse, and all that; but the truth is, his "artistic
+temperament" is trying to shirk the drudgery of the engineering
+problem involved. It is far better for him as an artist that he should
+thoroughly solve that problem; it will take time and labor, but it
+need not waste them. The length of his work will, or should, depend
+upon the breadth of it; by which we mean that a certain fulness of
+treatment involves a certain length. For instance, one cannot
+reasonably hope to keep a story short if it is about several persons
+and involves a conflict of their characters or fates. That is the
+second necessity; the length must be planned in proportion to the
+breadth. But, thirdly, both length and breadth should be governed by
+the importance, the dignity, the substantial value, the business, the
+substance, the spiritual stuff, of which the projected book is to
+consist. Hence the writer of true literary conscience will put the
+first, as above named, last, and the last first: spiritual substance,
+then breadth, then length.
+
+In order to make fairly sure of these essentials, as well as for other
+reasons, the author should have a clear determination of all the main
+features of the structure he proposes to raise. Especially the bridge
+should not be itself begun until its builder knows very definitely
+where and how it is to reach the other shore; nothing between the
+beginning and the end is so important to be sure about from the
+beginning, as the end. There is a great difference among writers as
+to the sense of need for a complete preliminary framework on which to
+build. But beyond doubt many feeble, many abortive, results come of
+having too little preparatory framework, too slender a scenario, to
+use a playwright's word which authors and editors are borrowing more
+and more.
+
+It seems good that a literary artist should always write for himself.
+Yet, of course, he should write unselfishly; we may say he would do
+well always to aim at the entertainment of the noblest minds, even
+when he does not exhort their loftiest moods. But he certainly
+achieves much besides if, while he does these things, at the same time
+and in the same doing he entertains the great commonalty of readers.
+If he does this, and all the more if he has the rare genius to do all
+these in one, his books, we may almost say, _ought_ to go first
+through the magazines. If he wants them to do so, then it will be a
+godsend to himself as well as to the editors if he will lay his plans,
+as far as they have any arithmetical character (and they can have
+much), according to the magazines' mechanical exigencies. He should
+know just how much of any magazine page his own typewritten pages will
+occupy; how many of its own pages that magazine commonly allows to
+writings of the kind he proposes to offer--how many yearly, and how
+many monthly; and so on. It is well that he should know the best time
+of the magazine's business year in which to seek to arrange with
+them. To a certain degree magazines actually "lay in stock" for a
+coming season and after that, for a time, are languid buyers.
+
+Be it understood that these remarks are as impromptu as a letter, and
+are intended only as hints and pointers. Yet much as they leave
+unstated, let a word be said as to the relation of the author to his
+book after he and all the later artisans of it have done their several
+parts in its building, and it is built. The care of the edifice ought
+still to be, far more than it commonly is, in the author's hands. The
+publisher has the fortunes of hundreds of works to promote and keep in
+repair; the author has but his own. Even an author may say that any
+publisher is glad to have suggestions from any author as to plans for
+keeping the children of that author's own brain alive in the world.
+
+
+
+
+THE LITERARY AGENT
+
+By Paul R. Reynolds.
+
+
+The work of the literary agent in the building of a book may be
+roughly divided into two parts, first, in relation to the author, and
+second, in relation to the publisher. When the author has finished his
+manuscript, he brings it to the literary agent to be placed. The
+literary agent reads it and decides what house is most likely to
+publish such a book. He does not offer a book on Nervous Disorders to
+a house which never publishes that kind of book. He does not offer a
+sensational novel to a conservative house. He offers a book on
+Political Economy to a house which publishes that class of book and
+which is in touch with the people who buy books of that order. Among a
+number of houses which bring out books of any definite class, he can
+select the house that is most energetic in pushing its books, that has
+behind it a prestige and name which will help its publications, and
+which possesses the requisite skill to lay its wares before the public
+advantageously. The success of many a book has depended more on the
+shrewdness of the publisher in laying it before the public in
+attractive and seductive guise than either the public or the author
+often realize.
+
+If the publisher accepts the manuscript offered to him by the literary
+agent, the latter arranges terms with the publisher, making as good a
+business arrangement as all the conditions justify. He draws up the
+contract with the publisher, and after the book is published, he
+collects the royalties from the publisher as they fall due. He enables
+the author to avoid any house that has a reputation for sharp
+practices. Knowing the personnel of the different houses, he knows the
+proper man to approach in offering his book, and he is of aid to the
+author in blowing his trumpet for him, telling what his previous work
+has been, in a way that the author, sensitive as he often is, cannot
+properly do. In short, the agent takes off the author's shoulders all
+the business end of publishing, leaving him free to devote himself to
+his own proper vocation without the vexatious business worries which
+he finds all the more vexatious because he has not had any training or
+experience in coping with them.
+
+I think the literary agent can be, and as time goes on, will be, of
+increasing use to the publisher. The literary agent, if he understands
+his business, takes up no manuscript in which he does not believe.
+When he brings the publisher a manuscript, it is because he thinks
+there is money in such manuscript for the publisher, for the author,
+and as far as commission is concerned, for himself. While it is an
+advantage to the author that he should have the judgment of the agent,
+because the agent looks at any manuscript from a cold-blooded business
+point of view, it is also of advantage to the publisher to know that
+the agent, free from the confidence and perhaps the bias that the
+author has about his own wares, is offering him any individual
+manuscript because he (the agent) believes it will sell. The result is
+that the publisher gets to know that the agent won't offer him a
+manuscript that is not up to a certain standard, and which, even
+though it should in the end not prove suitable to this publisher's
+special list, must receive careful consideration. In this way the
+agent becomes of use to the publisher because he tries never to offer
+him anything that is mere trash or that simply wastes the publisher's
+time. Some time ago a publishing house wrote to an agent telling him
+they wanted a certain kind of novel for the next season, and
+describing, with a good deal of particularity, the kind of book they
+wanted. The agent, after thinking the matter over, submitted two
+manuscripts. The publisher considered them and accepted both. In such
+a case the agent had certainly been of great use to the publisher. He
+had given him what he was looking for, and had saved him the nuisance
+and the actual expense of reading through a large number of
+manuscripts before finding the right one.
+
+It may be admitted frankly that the agent is sometimes accused of
+asking more for his wares than they are worth. In reply to this
+accusation it may be said that asking is not getting, and the agent
+who asks more than the market justifies, and thereby spoils the
+chances of a satisfactory arrangement, is not serving the best
+interests of his client. On the other hand, he will get the best price
+obtainable in the market, taking into consideration the character of
+the publishing house, its prestige and ability in pushing books, and
+as he is offering and selling every day he can generally obtain a
+better price and make a better arrangement than the author can.
+Realizing that the author and publishers are partners in an enterprise
+whose success depends upon a frank and clear understanding, he will do
+his best to make such relations friendly and harmonious and to the
+mutual advantage of both parties to the contract, never forgetting,
+however, that his especial client is the author, and that it is his
+duty to represent the author's interests.
+
+One of the notable features of the times is the growth of magazines.
+The arrangement for the serialization of a long story in a magazine,
+the placing of short stories and articles in magazines, the selling of
+stories, articles, and books in England, and arranging the
+simultaneous issue in both countries,--all this involves an immense
+amount of detail which one has to encounter fully to realize.
+Sometimes, where an author is putting out a good many manuscripts, the
+complications are numerous and perplexing. In the case of one author
+living abroad whom we will call Smith, a book was arranged with a
+house A, and a second with a house B. The author was taken ill, could
+not finish the first book in time so that A had to postpone it till
+the next year, and this meant that B had to postpone his book. Then a
+publishing house took a story which the same author had sold direct to
+it for magazine publication, without reserving book rights, and
+brought such story out in book form. This meant another complication.
+After B had postponed his book twice the author produced another book
+which he thought better than the second book, and wished published
+before B's book. Four times B was asked to postpone his book and each
+time agreed to, though not without certain _quid pro quos_. All these
+matters the agent had to straighten out, while the author was living
+three thousand miles away.
+
+The agent can also be of use to the author because he looks at any
+manuscript in an objective rather than in a subjective way. The
+author, who has toiled and striven over the child of his brain,
+regards it as fathers generally regard their children. Sometimes he
+cannot see its faults, sometimes he misjudges its virtues. It is too
+much a part of himself to be regarded coldly and calmly. When the
+publisher makes an offer for a book the author may with hasty disdain
+wish to reject it as entirely inadequate, or he may wish to accept it
+with eager haste, so glad is he for the chance of seeing the book in
+print. In this state of hasty acceptance or hasty rejection, the agent
+can look upon an offer calmly and dispassionately, to be accepted or
+rejected as the author's best interests shall dictate. Then again, as
+time goes on, more and more authors must live at a distance from the
+great centres. Some of them live in the uttermost parts of the earth.
+One author wrote recently to his agent from the wilds of Africa,
+saying, "I have found a nicely secluded spot, surrounded by gorillas
+and chimpanzees." To such authors it is essential that they should
+have an agent who is in touch with the publishers who are publishing
+their works.
+
+Then again, the agent can be of use to the author in sparing him some
+of the bitterness that the author feels when his manuscript is
+rejected. Who that has read it can ever forget the story of how
+Hawthorne, while still struggling for success, submitted a collection
+of short stories to a publisher, and of how the publisher, not having
+much capital, laid the manuscript aside, intending to publish it when
+things were a little easier; and how Hawthorne, after months of dreary
+waiting, wrote an angry letter to the publisher, and when he got the
+manuscript back, in bitter, hopeless rage burned it up? Years
+afterward the publisher admitted that the manuscript contained some of
+the most exquisite work Hawthorne had ever written. This story
+emphasizes the intense sensitiveness of the author about his work.
+Often after two or three rejections he will give the manuscript up as
+hopeless and of no value, while it may be that he has only failed to
+find the house that is looking for that kind of book. An agent, if he
+has once taken the book up, does not drop it so quickly. Only recently
+an agent sold a book which had been declined by fifteen houses to the
+sixteenth. He is willing to persevere with a manuscript and with an
+author, in spite of rebuffs and discouragement, if he believes that
+the author has merit; and if he is willing to persevere with an author
+in the day of small things, he will reap his reward later on.
+
+In conclusion the writer believes that the agent, as he has tried to
+indicate, can perform a definite and valuable service to both author
+and publisher by helping the author to bring his wares to the man who
+will publish them most advantageously, and by obtaining for the author
+the prices that such wares are worth in the open market, and he can
+help the publisher by acting as a sifter and bringing before the
+publisher and editor manuscripts that are really worthy of
+consideration.
+
+
+
+
+THE LITERARY ADVISER
+
+By Francis W. Halsey.
+
+
+The position of literary adviser to a publishing house differs in its
+duties, according as the adviser may be employed in a house highly
+organized, or in one that is not. When the organization is such that
+the duties in the various departments are not well differentiated, the
+adviser's work will be likely to involve many things that properly
+belong to the manufacturing and advertising departments. These
+conditions, however, if they exist at all, will be found in the
+smaller houses, or in houses which, as to personnel, are undergoing
+reorganization; they are, and ought to be, exceptional.
+
+The adviser's actual duties should pertain almost exclusively to the
+manuscripts, and to the relations of the house with those who produce
+them. In this way, the adviser acts as an intermediary between the
+publisher and the author. This relation seems, on the surface, to be
+somewhat delicate, and it usually is confidential, but most men find
+the occupation an agreeable one. Authors as a class, so far from being
+an irritable race, will usually be found, at least in their relations
+to publishers, not only interesting men and women, but candid and
+reasonable human beings. Probably the most delightful rewards of the
+literary adviser's calling come from the opportunities it gives him to
+extend his friendships among charming people.
+
+Any house which is large enough to employ a literary adviser will
+probably receive, in the course of a year, at least one thousand
+unsolicited manuscripts, which will come from every part of the
+country. They will naturally be of widely varying degrees of
+excellence; quite two-thirds of them will be fiction, and a
+considerable number will bear convincing evidence of having already
+been for some time in search of a publisher. Testimony from various
+houses has at different times been given as to the percentage of
+volunteered manuscripts which eventually find acceptance. It does not
+materially vary, being from one to two per cent. Some years ago, in
+order to test this estimate, I went carefully over the unsolicited
+manuscripts which had reached a large publishing house during a period
+of several months, and found that exactly one and one-half per cent of
+them had been published.
+
+This small showing should not imply that the remaining ninety-eight or
+ninety-nine per cent could in fairness be called worthless. With
+occasional exceptions, rejected manuscripts have been prepared with
+considerable intelligence; knowledge of themes is shown in them;
+there is some real literary skill in evidence, and particular care has
+been taken to secure legibility, about nine-tenths of them being in
+typewritten form. What they lack is certain other qualities more vital
+in the formation of a judgment as to their availability. In the case
+of fiction, they lack novelty of treatment, or for some other reason
+fail to be interesting, and in general there has not been infused into
+them the real breath of life. When they deal with serious subjects,
+they often cover ground which has been better covered before, or they
+attempt to achieve the not-worth-while, or the impossible.
+
+There is always a small number of manuscripts against which no other
+objection can be raised than that it would be impossible to secure
+from the public an adequate return in sales for the expenditure
+necessary in the manufacture and distribution of the books. One of the
+pathetic sides of the publishing business is the fact that manuscripts
+of this kind cannot oftener, in this day and generation, secure the
+amount of attention they deserve from the reading public. When a sale
+of one or two thousand copies would be necessary to make good the cost
+of publication, the publisher is confronted with the fact that he
+could not secure a sale exceeding five hundred. Indeed, when one
+considers the almost certain fate that awaits them, pathos of the most
+genuine kind is closely associated with volunteered manuscripts--those,
+I mean, which come from new writers. Hardly any form of endeavor to
+which educated minds devote themselves should more often awaken
+sympathetic feeling. Those who produce them almost always have their
+rewards far to seek, and seeking will not find them, and yet they
+"wrought in sad sincerity."
+
+The public is familiar with stories of successful books which, in the
+course of their peregrinations, were several times rejected by
+publishers. This, doubtless, has been the experience of all authors
+who have made notable successes with first books, and it doubtless
+always will be the experience of new authors. But along with this we
+must set down the further, but consoling fact, that probably no
+meritorious manuscript, possessing the possibilities of a great sale,
+ever yet failed ultimately to find a publisher. The best proof of this
+seems to be the absence of any notable instance of a book which, after
+being rejected by all the regular houses, finally was brought out
+privately, or at the author's expense, and then made a hit.
+
+It is a common impression that manuscripts are not carefully read in
+publishing houses. Again and again has this fiction been exploded by
+houses whose word should be accepted as final, but it now and then
+lifts up its head as if untouched before. Of course there are
+manuscripts which no one ever reads completely through from beginning
+to end, chapter by chapter, and page by page, simply because it has
+been found not to be necessary to do so. Every conscientious reader,
+however,--and most readers known to me have been nothing if not
+conscientious,--reads at least far enough into a manuscript to learn
+if there be anything in it that in the least degree is promising. He
+understands full well the danger of overlooking a meritorious work,
+and experience has taught him to be careful. Moreover, he is usually
+fired with the worthy ambition to make a discovery; but he acts
+according to his light only, and hence makes mistakes. The conditions
+in which his work is done, however, preclude the possibility of
+careless reading.
+
+It is doubtless true--indeed, I believe the records of every
+publishing house in the country will sustain this statement--that
+while no house has failed at some time in its career to reject at
+least one manuscript that was afterwards a highly successful book,
+mistakes of this kind have been extremely few; whereas the mistakes
+made by the same houses in accepting manuscripts that were afterward
+found to be unprofitable have been numerous. A further fact, which is
+seldom borne in mind, although it ought always to be remembered in any
+discussion of literary success, is that highly successful books
+usually bring to their publishers as much surprise as they do to any
+one else. This is distinctly true of novels by new writers, whose
+"big-sellers" have seldom or never been anticipated. It is well known
+in the trade that at least two, and probably a half-dozen, books
+highly successful during the past ten years, and all the works of new
+writers, were sent to press for the first edition, with a printing
+order for only two thousand copies.
+
+The public has gotten very much into the habit of judging the fortunes
+of a publishing house by the successful fiction which it puts forth,
+and this is also true of many men in the trade, whose means of knowing
+better ought to be ample. Probably the literary gossip prevalent in
+newspapers and periodicals is largely responsible for this habit. The
+facts are, however, that, from these books alone, no publishing house
+in this country is, or could be, well sustained. Unless there be in
+the background some other publishing enterprise that is producing
+constant revenue from year to year, mere fiction will accomplish
+little to make or save the publisher. The real sources of stability
+lie elsewhere, far beyond the ken of the superficial observer, and
+they are very commonly overlooked. In one instance, this mainstay is
+religious books; in another a cyclopædia; in another medical books, or
+educational; in another a dictionary; in another a periodical; and
+fortunate the house that has not one, but two or three, such sources
+of prosperity.
+
+It might be set down as an axiomatic statement that no large
+publishing house in this country could possibly live exclusively from
+what are known as miscellaneous books, by which is meant current
+fiction and other ephemeral publications. The worst thing about such
+books is that they create no assets; their life is short, and once it
+is ended, the plates have value only as old metal. A house, therefore,
+in publishing this class of books finds that each season it must begin
+all over again the work of creating business for itself. Books of the
+more substantial kind, however, whether they be religious,
+educational, scientific, medical, or in other senses books of
+reference, do not perish with the passing of a season. Once the right
+kinds have been found, they are good for at least ten years, and not
+infrequently for a generation.
+
+But this is wandering somewhat away from the subject of the literary
+adviser. His duties primarily are to preserve and to create good-will
+from authors toward the house which employs him, for that good-will is
+an asset of the first importance to a publishing house. Other kinds of
+good-will at the same time are essential to its fortunes,--notably the
+good-will of the bookseller and that of the book buyer,--but behind
+these, and primarily as the source of these, lies the good-will of the
+author. Houses now known to be the most prosperous in this country
+possess this good-will in abundance. So, too, the houses which are
+destined to much longer life are those which, by all legitimate
+means, shall seek to preserve and increase that good-will. Equally
+true is it, that the houses which in future shall fail will be those
+which do not cultivate and cherish the good-will of authors as the
+most valuable asset they can ever hope to possess.
+
+It is because of this possession that a publisher gets an author's
+book. It was by this means that he got the books he already has, and
+by this will he get those which will make him successful in the
+future. His books being good, it is through them that the bookseller's
+good-will is acquired, and through them also that the publisher will
+secure the good-will of the book buyer. No wiser words on this subject
+have been uttered in our generation than those which may be found,
+here and there, in "A Publisher's Confession," which I hope was
+written, as reputed, by Walter H. Page, for it is certainly sound
+enough and sane enough to be his:--
+
+     "The successful publisher sustains a relation to the
+     successful author that is not easily transferable. It is a
+     personal relation. A great corporation cannot take a real
+     publisher's place in his attitude to the author he serves."
+
+     "Every great publishing house has been built on the strong
+     friendships between writers and publishers. There is in
+     fact, no other sound basis to build on; for the publisher
+     cannot do his highest duty to any author whose work he does
+     not appreciate and with whom he is not in sympathy. Now,
+     when a man has an appreciation of your work, and sympathy
+     for it, he wins you. This is the simplest of all
+     psychological laws,--the simplest of all laws of friendship,
+     and one of the soundest."
+
+     "Mere printers and salesmen have not often built publishing
+     houses. For publishing houses have this distinction over
+     most other commercial institutions--they rest on the
+     friendship of the most interesting persons in the world, the
+     writers of good books."
+
+     "And--in all the noisy babble of commercialism--the writers
+     of our own generation who are worth most on a publisher's
+     list respond to the true publishing personality as readily
+     as writers did before the day of commercial methods. All the
+     changes that have come into the profession have not, after
+     all, changed its real character, as it is practised on its
+     higher levels. And this rule will hold true--that no
+     publishing house can win and keep a place on the highest
+     level that does not have at least one man who possesses this
+     true publishing personality."
+
+These are golden words. Men who knew them as self-evident truths laid
+the foundations, and in a few instances reared the superstructures, of
+the most famous publishing houses known to modern literature. Let us
+in part call the roll, restricting it to the dead: James T. Fields,
+the first Charles Scribner, George P. Putnam, Fletcher Harper, William
+H. Appleton, Daniel Macmillan, and the second John Murray. These men
+were more than publishers, adding as they did to that vocation the
+duties of the literary adviser, and becoming the ablest of their kind.
+Well may the literary adviser of our day, who is seldom himself a
+publisher, read the story of their lives and take heart from it in the
+discharge of his own duties.
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT
+
+By Lawton L. Walton.
+
+
+The manufacture of a book consists primarily of the processes of
+typography,[1] or type composition, or the setting up of
+type--presswork or printing--photo-engraving or other methods of
+reproduction--designing--die-cutting--and binding, all of which are
+involved in transforming a manuscript into the completed book as it
+reaches the reader.
+
+                   [Footnote 1: The word "typographer" is used to
+                   differentiate between the compositor and the
+                   printer, the latter being the one who does the
+                   presswork.]
+
+In the machinery of a modern publishing house the manufacturing man is
+the person who follows these processes in their devious volutions and
+evolutions, until the finished production comes from the binder's
+hands.
+
+After a manuscript has been accepted by a publishing house, it is
+turned over to the manufacturing man with such general instructions
+regarding the make-up of the book, as may have been considered or
+discussed with the author, who invariably and sometimes unfortunately,
+has some preconceived notion of what his book should look like.
+
+The manufacturing man then selects what he considers a suitable style
+and size of type and size of letter-press page for the book, and sends
+the manuscript to the typographer with instructions to set up a few
+sample pages, and to make an estimate of the number of pages that the
+book will make, so as to verify his own calculations in this respect.
+
+If these sample pages do not prove satisfactory, others are set up,
+until a page is arrived at finally that will meet all the requirements
+that the publisher deems necessary. This is then invariably submitted
+to the author for his approval.
+
+This detail settled, the typographer is now instructed to proceed with
+the composition and to send proofs to the author. Sometimes a book is
+set up at once in page form but more often first proofs are sent out
+in galley strips, on which the author makes his corrections before the
+matter is apportioned into pages; another proof in page form is sent
+to the author on the return of which the typographer casts the
+electrotype plates from which the book is printed, unless, as in rare
+instances, the book is to be printed from the type, when no
+electrotype plates are made.
+
+The manufacturing man keeps in touch with this work in its various
+stages as it proceeds, and as soon as the number of pages that the
+book will make can definitely be determined, he places an order for
+the paper on which it is to be printed.
+
+Meanwhile, if the book is to be illustrated, an illustrator must be
+engaged, and furnished with a set of early proofs of the book from
+which to select the points or situations to illustrate. When the
+drawings are finally approved they are carefully looked over, marked
+to show the sizes at which they are to be reproduced, and sent to the
+engraver for reproduction.
+
+Upon receipt of the reproductions from the engraver, the proofs are
+carefully compared with the originals, and if the work has been
+satisfactorily performed, the cuts are sent to the typographer or the
+printer for insertion in their proper places in the plates or type
+matter of the book.
+
+The matter of the paper on which the book is to be printed has now to
+be considered: First, the size of the page, _i.e._ the apportionment
+of the margins around the page of letter-press, is decided. Second,
+the quality of paper to be used, and the surface or finish is then
+selected; and finally, the bulk or thickness that the book must be, to
+make a volume of proper proportions, is determined. The paper is then
+ordered, to be delivered to the printer who will print the book.
+
+Time was when paper was made by hand in certain fixed sizes, and the
+size of the book was determined by the number of times the sheet of
+paper was folded, and the letter-press page was adapted to the size
+of the paper. In these days of machinery, when paper can be made in
+any size of sheet desired, the process is reversed: the size of the
+letter-press page is determined and the size of the sheet of paper
+adapted thereto. Upon receipt of the paper the printer sends a
+full-sized dummy of it to the manufacturing man so that he may compare
+it with the order that was given to the paper dealer. The book is then
+put to press, and as soon as the printing has been completed, the
+printed sheets are delivered to the binder.
+
+If the book is to have a decorative cover, a designer has been
+employed to furnish a suitable cover design. When the design has been
+approved, it is turned over to the die cutter to cut the brass dies
+used by the binder in stamping the design on the cover of the book.
+
+The dies when finished are sent with the design to the binder to be
+copied. He stamps off some sample covers until the result called for
+by the designer has been attained and is then ready to proceed with
+the operation of binding the book, as soon as the printed sheets have
+been delivered to him from the printer.
+
+The binder is usually supplied by the printer with a small number of
+advance copies of the book, before the complete run of the sheets has
+been delivered. These advance copies are bound up at once and
+delivered to the manufacturing man so that any faults or errors may
+be caught and improvements be made before the entire edition of the
+book is bound.
+
+Printed paper wrappers for the book have been made and supplied to the
+binder for wrapping each copy, and as soon as the books are bound,
+they are wrapped and delivered at the publisher's stock rooms.
+
+The manufacturing man sees that early copies of each new book, for
+copyright purposes, are furnished to the proper department that
+attends to that detail, and that early copies also are supplied to the
+publicity department, to place with editors for special or advance
+reviews.
+
+The manufacturing man also provides the travelling representatives of
+his house with adequate dummies (_i.e._ partly completed copies) of
+all new books as soon as the important details of their make-up have
+been decided.
+
+This brief outline covers all of the steps in the process of the
+evolution of a book. Reams, however, could be devoted to the
+innumerable details that interweave and overlap each other with which
+the manufacturing man has to contend, when, as is often the case in
+our larger publishing houses, he has from forty to fifty books, and
+sometimes more, in process of manufacture at one time. I know of no
+man to whom disappointment comes more often than to him,--from the
+delays due to causes wholly unavoidable, to the blunders of stupid
+workmen and the broken promises of others; but these are all
+forgotten when the completed book, that he has worried over in its
+course through the press, in many instances for months, reaches his
+hands completed, "a thing of beauty."
+
+
+
+
+THE MAKING OF TYPE
+
+By L. Boyd Benton.
+
+
+Type are made of type metal, a mixture of tin, antimony, lead, and
+copper. As antimony expands in solidifying, advantage is taken of this
+quality, and the mixture is so proportioned that the expansion of the
+antimony will practically counteract the shrinkage of the other
+ingredients. The proportion of the mixture is varied according to the
+size and style of type and to the purposes for which it is used.
+
+Type are cast separately in moulds, a "matrix" at the end of the mould
+forming the letter or other character.
+
+Machinery is used very largely in modern type-making. The steps of its
+manufacture are in this order: drawing the design, producing of a
+metal pattern therefrom, placing the pattern either in the engraving
+machine to produce steel punches and type-metal originals, or in the
+matrix-engraving machine to produce matrices, adjusting the matrix to
+the mould, and finally, casting the type.
+
+The design for a new style of type is made generally with pen and
+ink, the capital letters being drawn about an inch high and the others
+in predetermined proportions. When the design is for a plain text
+letter, similar to that with which this book is printed, it is
+essential to have the letters proportioned and shaped in such a manner
+as will cause the least strain on the eye in reading, and, at the same
+time, produce a pleasing effect when the page is viewed as a whole.
+When the printed page conveys information to the reader, without
+attracting attention to itself, it is ideal.
+
+While this is true in regard to a design for a text letter, the design
+for a display type is often made to attract attention, not only to
+itself, but to what it proclaims, by its boldness and beauty and
+sometimes even by its ugliness.
+
+After the design has been drawn, it is placed in a "delineating
+machine," where an enlarged outline pencil copy, or tracing, is made,
+so large that all errors are easily seen and corrected. New designs
+may, however, be drawn in outline by hand on the enlarged scale, thus
+rendering unnecessary both the pen-and-ink drawing and the tracing.
+
+With the aid of the delineating machine, the operator, besides being
+able to produce an accurately enlarged outline pencil tracing of a
+design, is also enabled, by various adjustments, to change the form of
+the pencil tracing in such a manner that it becomes proportionately
+more condensed or extended, and even italicized or back-sloped. That
+is, from a single design, say Gothic, pencil tracings can be made
+condensed, extended, italicized, and back-sloped, as well as an
+enlarged facsimile.
+
+The next operation consists in placing the enlarged outline pencil
+drawing in a machine which enables the operator to reproduce the
+outline drawing, reduced in size, on a metal plate, evenly covered
+with wax, with the line traced entirely through the wax. The plate is
+then covered with a thin layer of copper, electrically deposited, and
+is "backed up" with metal, and trimmed and finished, similar to an
+ordinary electrotype plate of a page of type. A copper-faced metal
+plate is thus produced, on which are the raised outlines of a letter.
+This is called the "pattern." From this pattern all regular type sizes
+may be cut. It determines the shape of the letter, but the size and
+variations from the pattern are determined later by the adjustments of
+the engraving machine in which it is used.
+
+The pattern is now sent to the engraving room. Machines have
+superseded the old-fashioned way of cutting punches and originals by
+hand, and they have enormously increased the production of new type
+faces. Whereas in the old days it took about eighteen months to bring
+out a new Roman face, or style of letters, in seven different sizes,
+to-day it can be done in about five weeks. The reason is that formerly
+only one artist, known as a punch-cutter, could work on a single face,
+and he had to cut all the sizes, otherwise there were noticeable
+differences in style. By machine methods, where all sizes can be cut
+simultaneously, it is only a question of having the requisite number
+of engraving machines.
+
+As to the quality of machine work, it is superior to hand work both in
+accuracy and uniformity. The artist formerly cut the punches, or
+originals, by hand under a magnifying glass, and the excellence of his
+work was really marvellous. However, when changing from one size to
+another, there were often perceptible variations in the shapes of the
+letters, or the sizes were not always evenly graded. By the machine
+method the workman uses the long end of a lever, as explained below,
+and has therefore a greater chance of doing accurate work. In addition
+to this, a rigid pattern forms the shape of the letter, and to it all
+sizes must conform.
+
+Another gain the machine has over hand-cutting is its greater range.
+When the old-time artist made an unusually small size of type for
+Bible use, he did it with great strain on his eyes and nerves. At any
+moment his tool might slip and spoil the work. With the machine, on
+the other hand, and with no physical strain whatever, experimental
+punches have been cut so small as to be legible only with a
+microscope--too small, in fact, to print. At present there are two
+styles of engraving machines employed,--one cutting the letter in
+relief,--called a "punch" if cut in steel, and an "original" if cut in
+type metal,--and the other cutting a letter in intaglio,--called a
+"matrix." Both machines are constructed on the principle of the lever,
+the long arm following the pattern, while the short arm moves either
+the work against the cutting tool, or the cutting tool against the
+work. The adjustments are such that the operator is enabled to engrave
+the letter proportionately more extended or condensed, and lighter or
+heavier in face, than the pattern. All these variations are necessary
+for the production of a properly graded modern series containing the
+usual sizes. In fact, on account of the laws of optics, which cannot
+be gone into here, only one size of a series is cut in absolutely
+exact proportion to the patterns.
+
+As it is impossible to describe these machines clearly without the aid
+of many diagrams and much technical language, only a brief description
+of their operation will be given.
+
+When the letters are to be engraved in steel, blocks or "blanks" are
+cut from soft steel and finished to the proper size. A blank is then
+fastened in the "holder," the machine for cutting the letter in relief
+adjusted to the proper leverage, and the pattern clamped to the "bed."
+The long arm of the lever, containing the proper "tracer" or follower,
+is moved by the operator around the outside of the pattern on the
+copper-faced metal plate, causing the blank to be moved by the
+shorter arm around and against a rotating cutting tool. This operation
+is repeated several times with different sizes of tracers and
+different adjustments to enable the cutting tool to cut at different
+depths, until finally a steel letter in relief is produced, engraved
+the reverse of the pattern and very much smaller. After being hardened
+and polished, this is called a steel punch, and, when driven into a
+flat piece of copper, it produces what is known as a "strike" or
+unfinished matrix.
+
+If in the same machine type metal is used for blanks, the resulting
+originals are placed in a "flask," or holder, and submerged in a bath,
+where they receive on the face of the letter a thick coating of
+nickel, electrically deposited. As soon as the deposit is of
+sufficient thickness, they are removed and the soft metal letters
+withdrawn, leaving a deep facsimile impression in the deposited metal,
+which also is an unfinished matrix.
+
+The machine for engraving a matrix in intaglio is operated in much the
+same manner as that for engraving a punch in relief. The same patterns
+are used, but the operator traces on the inside of the raised outline
+instead of on the outside. Besides following the outline, the operator
+guides the tracers over all the surface of the pattern within the
+outlines; otherwise the letter would appear in the matrix in outline
+only. The matrices are cut in steel and in watchmakers' nickel, and
+the work is so accurately done that about half the labor of finishing
+is saved.
+
+It will be noted from the foregoing that all three processes of
+engraving end in the production of an unfinished matrix.
+
+The adjusting of the matrix to the mould is technically called
+"fitting," and requires great skill. If type are cast from unfitted
+matrices, be the letters ever so cleverly designed and perfectly cut,
+when assembled in the printed page they will present a very ragged
+appearance. Some letters will appear slanting backward, others
+forward, some be above the line, others below; some will perforate the
+paper, while others will not print at all; the distances between the
+letters will everywhere be unequal, and some will print on but one
+edge. Indeed, a single letter may have half of these faults, but when
+the matrices are properly fitted, the printed page presents a smooth
+and even appearance.
+
+The mould for this purpose is made of hardened steel, and in it is
+formed the body of the type. The printing end is formed in the matrix.
+The mould is provided at one end with guides and devices for holding
+the matrix snugly against it while the type is being cast, and for
+withdrawing the matrix and opening the mould when the type is
+discharged. At the opposite end from the matrix is an opening through
+which the melted metal enters. The moulds are made adjustable so that
+each character is cast the proper width, the opening of course being
+wider for a "W" than for an "i." Only one mould is necessary for one
+size of type, and with it all the matrices for that size may be used.
+Commercially, however, it is often necessary to make several moulds of
+the same size in order to produce the requisite amount of type.
+
+After the adjustments are made, the casting of the type follows. Type
+are now cast in a machine which is automatic, after it is once
+adjusted to cast a given letter. The melted type metal is forced by a
+pump into the mould and the matrix, and when solidified, the type is
+ejected from the mould and moved between knives which trim all four
+sides. The type are delivered side by side on a specially grooved
+piece of wood, three feet long, called a "stick," on which they are
+removed from the machine for inspection. Type are cast at the rate of
+from ten to two hundred per minute, according to the size, the speed
+being limited only by the time it takes the metal to solidify. To
+accelerate this, a stream of cold water is forced through passages
+surrounding the mould, and a jet of cold air is blown against the
+outside.
+
+The automatic casting machine performs six different operations.
+Formerly, all of them, except the casting itself, were done by hand,
+and each type was handled separately, except in the operation of
+dressing, or the final finishing, where they were handled in lines of
+about three feet in length.
+
+After the type have been delivered to the inspector, they are examined
+under a magnifying glass and all imperfect type are thrown out. The
+perfect type are then delivered to "fonting" room, where they are
+weighed, counted, and put up in suitable packages in proper proportion
+of one letter with another, ready for the printer.
+
+Formerly the various sizes of type were indicated by names which had
+developed with the history of type making. It was a source of
+considerable annoyance to printers that these old standards were not
+accurate, and that two types of supposedly the same size, and sold
+under the same name, by different makers, varied so much that they
+could not be used side by side. Of recent years the "point" system, by
+which each size bears a proportionate relation to every other size,
+has done much to remedy this trouble, and now nearly all type is made
+on that basis. An American point is practically one seventy-second of
+an inch. Actually it is .013837 inch. It was based on the pica size
+most extensively in use in this country. This pica was divided into
+twelve equal parts and each part called a point. All the other sizes
+were made to conform to multiples of this point. The point is so near
+a seventy-second of an inch that printers frequently calculate the
+length of the pages by counting the lines, the basis being twelve
+lines of 6 point, nine lines of 8 point, eight lines of 9 point, and
+six lines of 12 point to the inch. This calculation is really quite
+accurate.
+
+The following table will show the old and new names for the various
+sizes:--
+
+  3-1/2 Point,      Brilliant.
+  4-1/2 Point,      Diamond.
+  5 Point,          Pearl.
+  5-1/2 Point,      Agate.
+  6 Point,          Nonpareil.
+  7 Point,          Minion.
+  8 Point,          Brevier.
+  9 Point,          Bourgeois.
+  10 Point,         Long Primer.
+  11 Point,         Small Pica.
+  12 Point,         Pica.
+  14 Point,         2-line Minion or English.
+  16 Point,         2-line Brevier.
+  18 Point,         Great Primer.
+  20 Point,         2-line Long Primer or Paragon.
+  22 Point,         2-line Small Pica.
+  24 Point,         2-line Pica.
+  28 Point,         2-line English.
+  30 Point,         5-line Nonpareil.
+  32 Point,         4-line Brevier.
+  36 Point,         2-line Great Primer.
+  40 Point,         Double Paragon.
+  42 Point,         7-line Nonpareil.
+  44 Point,         4-line Small Pica or Canon.
+  48 Point,         4-line Pica.
+  54 Point,         9-line Nonpareil.
+  60 Point,         5-line Pica.
+  72 Point,         6-line Pica.
+
+
+
+
+HAND COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING
+
+By J. Stearns Cushing.
+
+
+The form of the book, the size of the type page, and the size and
+style of the type having been determined, the manuscript is handed to
+the foreman of the composing room, with all the collected directions
+in regard to it. He fills out a scheme of the work which tells the
+whole story,--somewhat as shown in illustration opposite page 42.
+
+Under the heading "Remarks," in the scheme shown, are noted general
+directions as to capitalization, punctuation, and spelling (whether
+Webster, Worcester, or English spelling--which means generally not
+much more than the insertion of the "u" in words like "favor,"
+"honor," etc., and the use of "s" instead of "z" in words like
+"recognize," "authorize," etc.). Sometimes these directions are given
+by the publisher, sometimes by the author, but more often by the
+superintendent or foreman of the printing-office. The office generally
+has a fairly well established system, which is followed in the absence
+of other orders. It is rarely the case that it is not the wisest
+course, if one is dealing with a reputable firm of printers, to leave
+all such details, except deciding the dictionary to be followed, to
+them. It is their business, and they will, if allowed, pursue a
+consistent and uniform plan, whereas few authors and fewer publishers
+are able, or take the pains, to do this. Too often the author has a
+few peculiar ideas as to punctuation or capitalization, which he
+introduces just frequently enough to upset the consistent plan of the
+printer. He will neither leave the responsibility to the latter nor
+will he assume it himself, and the natural result is a lack of
+uniformity which might have been avoided if the printer had been
+allowed to guide this part of the work without interference.
+
+The compositors who are to set the type are selected according to the
+difficulty of the matter in hand, and each one is given a few pages of
+the "copy," or manuscript. The portion thus given each compositor is
+called a "take," and its length is determined by circumstances. For
+instance, if time is an object, small takes are given, in order that
+the next step in the forwarding of the work may be started promptly
+and without the delay which would be occasioned by waiting for the
+compositor to set up a longer take.
+
+When the compositor has finished his take, the copy and type are
+passed to a boy, who "locks up" the type on the galley--a flat brass
+tray with upright sides on which the compositor has placed his
+type--and takes a proof of it upon a galley-or "roller"-press. This is
+the proof known as a "galley-proof," and is, in book work, printed on
+a strip of paper about 7 × 25 inches in size, leaving room for a
+generous margin to accommodate proof-readers' and authors'
+corrections, alterations, or additions.
+
+[Illustration: MEMORANDUM No.
+
+  Date: ____
+  Name and Address of Author: ____
+  Name and Address of Publisher: ____
+  Uniform with ____
+  Size of Page: ____
+  Type,--Old Style or Modern face: ____
+  Text in ____ leaded with ____
+  Foot-notes ____ in leaded with ____
+  Extract in ____ leaded with ____
+  Other Types: ____
+  Running Titles in ____
+  Left-hand Running Title: ____
+  Right-hand Running Title: ____
+
+  PROOFS to be sent as follows:
+
+  1st Rev. and Copy to ____
+  2d Rev. and Old Rev. to ____
+
+  (Put Changes of Orders as to Proofs in this column.)
+
+  F. Proofs: ____
+  When begun: ____ When to be completed: ____
+  REMARKS. ____]
+
+[Illustration: Example of a proof-read page of "Address at Gettysburg".]
+
+The galley-proof, with the corresponding copy, is then handed to the
+proof-reader, who is assisted by a "copy-holder" (an assistant who
+reads the copy aloud) in comparing it with the manuscript and marking
+typographical errors and departures from copy on its margin. Thence
+the proof passes back again to the compositor, who corrects the type
+in accordance with the proof-reader's markings. Opposite page 44 is a
+specimen of a page proof before correction and after the changes
+indicated have been made.
+
+New proofs are taken of the corrected galley, and these are revised by
+a proof-reader in order to be sure that the compositor has made all
+the corrections marked and to mark anew any he may have overlooked or
+wrongly altered. If many such occur, the proof is again passed to the
+compositor for further correction and the taking of fresh proofs. The
+reviser having found the proof reasonably correct, and having marked
+on its margin any noticed errors remaining, and also having "Queried"
+to the author any doubtful points to which it is desirable that the
+latter's attention should be drawn, the proof--known as the "first
+revise"--and the manuscript are sent to the author for his reading and
+correction or alteration.[2]
+
+                   [Footnote 2: If the book is to be illustrated, the
+                   author or publisher should be particular to
+                   indicate the position of all cuts by pasting proofs
+                   of them on the margin of the galley-proofs nearest
+                   the place desired. The time occupied by the
+                   "make-up" in "overrunning" matter for the insertion
+                   of cuts is charged as "author's time," and they can
+                   be inserted at less expense in the galley-proofs
+                   while making-up the type into pages than at any
+                   other time. All alterations, so far as practicable,
+                   for the same reason, should also be made in the
+                   galley-proofs, especially those which involve an
+                   increase or decrease in the amount of matter, since
+                   changes of this nature made in the page-proof
+                   necessitate the added expense of a rearrangement of
+                   the made-up pages of type.]
+
+On the return of the galley-proofs to the printer, the changes
+indicated on the margins are made by compositors selected for the
+purpose, and the galleys of type and the proofs are then turned over
+by them to the "make-up." The "make-up" inserts the cuts, divides the
+matter into page lengths, and adds the running titles and folios at
+the heads of the pages.
+
+At this stage the separate types composing the page are held in place
+and together by strong twine called "page cord," which is wound around
+the whole page several times, the end being so tucked in at the corner
+as to prevent its becoming unfastened prematurely. The page thus held
+together is quite secure against being "pied" if proper care is
+exercised in handling it, and it can be put on a hand-press and
+excellent proofs readily taken from it. A loosely tied page, however,
+may allow the letters to spread apart at the ends of the lines, or the
+type to get "off its feet," or may show lines slightly curved or
+letters out of alignment. The proof of a page displaying such
+conditions often causes the author, unlearned in printers' methods,
+much perturbation of mind and unnecessary fear that his book is going
+to be printed with these defects. These should in reality be no cause
+for worry, since by a later operation, that of "locking-up" the "form"
+in which the pages will be placed before they are sent to the
+electrotyping department, the types readily and correctly adjust
+themselves.
+
+Proofs of these twine-bound pages are taken on a hand-press, passed to
+the reviser for comparison with the galley-proofs returned by the
+author, and if the latter has expressed a wish to see a second revise
+of the proofs, they are again sent to him. For such a "second revise"
+and any further revises an extra charge is made. The proofs to which
+an author is regularly entitled are a duplicate set of the first
+revise, a duplicate set of "F"-proofs,--to be mentioned later,--and
+one set of proofs of the electrotype plates; though it may be added
+that the last is not at all essential and is seldom called for.
+
+Usually the author does not require to see another proof after the
+second revise, which he returns to the printer with his final changes
+and the direction that the pages may be "corrected and cast," that
+is, put into the permanent form of electrotype plates. Some authors,
+however, will ask to see and will make alterations in revise after
+revise, even to the sixth or seventh, and could probably find
+something to change in several more if the patience or pocketbook of
+the publisher would permit it. All the expense of overhauling,
+correcting, and taking additional proofs of the pages is charged by
+the printer as "author's time." It is possible for an author to make
+comparatively few and simple changes each time he receives a new
+revise, but yet have a much larger bill for author's changes than
+another who makes twice or thrice as many alterations at one time on
+the galley-proof, and only requires another proof in order that he may
+verify the correctness of the printer's work. The moral is obvious.
+
+After the pages have been cast, further alterations, while entirely
+possible, are quite expensive and necessarily more or less injurious
+to the plates.
+
+The author having given the word to "cast," the pages of type are laid
+on a smooth, level table of iron or marble called an "imposing stone."
+They are then enclosed--either two or three or four pages together,
+according to their size--in iron frames called "chases," in which they
+are squarely and securely "locked up," the type having first been
+levelled down by light blows of a mallet on a block of smooth, hard
+wood called a "planer." This locking-up of the pages in iron frames
+naturally corrects the defects noted in the twine-bound pages, and not
+only brings the type into proper alignment and adjustment, but
+prevents the probability of types becoming displaced or new errors
+occurring through types dropping out of the page and being wrongly
+replaced.
+
+When the locking-up process is completed, the iron chase and type
+embraced by it is called a "form." A proof of this form is read and
+examined by a proof-reader with the utmost care, with a view to
+eliminating any remaining errors or defective types or badly adjusted
+lines, and to making the pages as nearly typographically perfect as
+possible. It is surprising how many glaring errors, which have eluded
+all readers up to this time, are discovered by the practised eye of
+the final proof-reader.
+
+The form having received this most careful final reading, the proof is
+passed back to the "stone-hands"--those who lock up and correct the
+forms--for final correction and adjustment, after which several more
+sets of proofs are taken, called "F"-proofs (variously and correctly
+understood as standing for "final," "file," or "foundry" proofs). A
+set of F-proofs is sent to the author to keep on file, occasionally
+one is sent to the publisher, and one set is always retained in the
+proof-room of the printing-office. These proofs are characterized by
+heavy black borders which enclose each page, and which frequently
+render nervous authors apprehensive lest their books are to appear in
+this funereal livery. These black borders are the prints of the
+"guard-lines," which, rising to the level of the type, form a
+protection to the pages and the plates in their progress through the
+electrotyping department; but before the plates are finished up and
+made ready for the pressroom, the guard-lines, which have been moulded
+with the type, are removed.
+
+After several sets of F-proofs have been taken, the form is carried to
+the moulding or "battery" room of the electrotyping department, where
+it leaves its perfect impress in the receptive wax. Thence it will
+later be returned to the composing room and taken apart and the type
+distributed, soon to be again set up in new combinations of letters
+and words. The little types making a page of verse to-day may do duty
+to-morrow in a page of a text-book in the higher mathematics.
+
+After the type form has been warmed by placing it upon a steam table,
+an impression of it is taken in a composition resembling wax which is
+spread upon a metal slab to the thickness of about one-twelfth of an
+inch. Both the surface of the type and of the wax are thoroughly
+coated with plumbago or black lead, which serves as a lubricant to
+prevent the wax from adhering to the type.
+
+As the blank places in the form would not provide sufficient depth in
+the plate, it is necessary to build them up in the wax mould by
+dropping more melted wax in such places to a height corresponding to
+the depth required in the plate, which is, of course, the reverse of
+the mould, and will show corresponding depressions wherever the mould
+has raised parts. If great care is not taken in this operation of
+"building-up," wax is apt to flow over into depressions in the mould,
+thereby effacing from it a part of the impression, and the plate
+appears later without the letters or words thus unintentionally
+blotted out. The reviser of the plate-proofs must watch carefully for
+such cases.
+
+The mould is now thoroughly brushed over again with a better quality
+of black lead than before, and this furnishes the necessary metallic
+surface without which the copper would not deposit. Then it is
+"stopped out" by going over its edges with a hot iron, which melts the
+wax, destroys the black-lead coating, and confines the deposit of
+copper to its face.
+
+After carefully clearing the face of the mould of all extraneous
+matter by a stream of water from a force-pump, it is washed with a
+solution of iron filings and blue vitriol which forms a primary copper
+facing. It is then suspended by a copper-connecting strip in a bath
+containing a solution of sulphate of copper, water, and sulphuric
+acid. Through the instrumentality of this solution, and the action of
+a current of electricity from a dynamo, copper particles separate
+from sheets of copper (called "anodes," which are also suspended in
+the bath) and deposit into the face of the mould, thus exactly
+reproducing the elevations and depressions of the form of type or
+illustrations of which the mould is an impression. After remaining in
+the bath about two hours, when the deposit of copper should be about
+as thick as a visiting card, the mould is taken from the bath and the
+copper shell removed from the wax by pouring boiling hot water upon
+it. A further washing in hot lye, and a bath in an acid pickle,
+completely removes every vestige of wax from the shell. The back of
+the shell is now moistened with soldering fluid and covered with a
+layer of tin-foil, which acts as a solder between the copper and the
+later backing of lead.
+
+The shells are now placed face downward in a shallow pan, and melted
+lead is poured upon them until of a sufficient depth; then the whole
+mass is cooled off, and the solid lead plate with copper face is
+removed from the pan and carried to the finishing room, where it is
+planed down to a standard thickness of about one-seventh of an inch.
+The various pages in the cast are sawed apart, the guard-lines
+removed, side and foot edges bevelled, head edge trimmed square, and
+the open or blank parts of the plate lowered by a routing machine to a
+sufficient depth to prevent their showing later on the printed sheet.
+
+Then a proof taken from the plates is carefully examined for
+imperfections, and the plates are corrected or repaired accordingly,
+and are now ready for the press.
+
+Although, owing to the expense and to the fact that the plate is more
+or less weakened thereby, it is desirable to avoid as much as possible
+making alterations in the plates, they can be made, and the following
+is the course generally pursued. If the change involves but a letter
+or two, the letters in the plate are cut out and new type letters are
+inserted; but if the alteration involves a whole word or more, it is
+inadvisable to insert the lead type, owing to its being softer and
+less durable than the copper-faced plate, and it will therefore soon
+show more wear than the rest of the page; and so it is customary to
+reset and electrotype so much of the page as is necessary to
+incorporate the proposed alteration, and then to substitute this part
+of the page for the part to be altered, by cutting out the old and
+soldering in the new piece, which must of course exactly correspond in
+size.
+
+As a patched plate is apt at any time to go to pieces on the press,
+and may destroy other plates around it, or may even damage the press
+itself, it is generally considered best to cast a new plate from the
+patched one. This does not, however, apply to plates in which only
+single letters or words have been inserted, but to those which have
+been cut apart their whole width for the insertion of one or more
+lines.
+
+The plates having been finally approved, they are made up in groups
+(or "signatures") of sixteen, and packed in strong boxes for future
+storage. Each box generally contains three of these groups, or
+forty-eight plates, and is plainly marked with the title of the book
+and the numbers of the signatures contained therein.
+
+The longevity of good electrotype plates is dependent upon the care
+with which they are handled and the quality of paper printed from
+them; but with smooth book paper and good treatment it is entirely
+possible to print from them a half million impressions without their
+showing any great or material wear.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION BY THE LINOTYPE MACHINE
+
+By Frederick J. Warburton.
+
+
+The Linotype, pronounced by _London Engineering_ "the most wonderful
+machine of the century," was not the product of a day. Its creator,
+whose early training had never touched the printer's art, was
+fortunately led to the study of that art, through the efforts of
+others, whose education had prepared them to look for a better method
+of producing print than that which had been in use since the days of
+Gutenberg; but his invention abolished at one stroke composition and
+distribution; introduced for the first time the line, instead of the
+letter, as the unit of composition; brought into the art the idea of
+automatically and instantly producing by a keyboard solid lines of
+composed and justified type, to be once used and then melted down;
+rendered it possible to secure for each issue new and sharp faces;
+abolished the usual investment for type; cheapened the cost of
+standing matter; removed all danger of "pieing," and at the same time
+reduced greatly the cost of composition. The story is an interesting
+one.
+
+In the autumn of 1876, Charles T. Moore, a native of Virginia,
+exhibited to a company of Washington reporters a printing machine upon
+which he had been working for many years, and which he believed to be
+then substantially complete. It was a machine of very moderate
+dimensions, requiring a small motive power, and which bore upon a
+cylinder in successive rows the characters required for printed
+matter. By the manipulation of finger keys, while the cylinder was
+kept in continuous forward motion, the characters were printed in
+lithographic ink upon a paper ribbon, in proper relation to each
+other; this ribbon was afterwards cut into lengths, arranged in the
+form of a page, "justified," to a certain extent, by cutting between
+and separating the words, and then transferred to a lithographic
+stone, from which the print was made. Such print was not, of course,
+of the highest character, but it was a beginning; and the machines
+were used in Washington and New York, mainly in the transcription of
+stenographic notes taken in law cases and in the proceedings of
+legislative committees. A number of these machines was built, but
+mechanical difficulties became so frequent that the parties interested
+resolved, very wisely, before proceeding to build upon a large scale,
+to put the machine into the hands of a thorough mechanical expert, so
+that it might be tried out and a determination reached as to whether
+or not it was a commercially practical one. At the head of the little
+company of men who nurtured this enterprise and contributed most
+largely by their labors and means to its development, were James O.
+Clephane, a well-known law and convention reporter, and Andrew Devine,
+then the Senate reporter of the Associated Press. In their search for
+an expert, a Baltimore manufacturer named Hahl, who had constructed
+some of these machines, was consulted, and upon his recommendation his
+cousin, Ottmar Mergenthaler, was selected to undertake the work, and
+thus the future inventor of the Linotype was discovered.
+
+Mergenthaler was born in 1854, in Würtemberg, Germany, had been a
+watchmaker, and at this time was employed upon the finer parts of the
+mechanical work done in Hahl's shop. The contract was that
+Mergenthaler was to give his services at a rate of wages considerably
+beyond what he was then receiving, and Hahl was to charge a reasonable
+price for the use of his shop and the cost of material. The task
+undertaken, however, proved to be a far larger one than had been
+anticipated, and the means of the promoters were exhausted long before
+the modifications and improvements continually presented had been
+worked out. The circle of contributors was therefore necessarily
+widened, and indeed that process went on for years, enough, could they
+have been foreseen, to have dismayed and disheartened those who were
+there "in the beginning." Mergenthaler and Moore, assisted by the
+practical suggestions of Clephane and Devine, continued to work upon
+the problem for about two years, by which time the lithographic
+printing machine had become one which indented the characters in a
+papier-maché strip, and this being cut up and adjusted upon a flat
+surface in lines, the way was prepared for casting in type metal. The
+next step of importance was the production of the "bar indenting
+machine," a machine which carried a series of metal bars, bearing upon
+their edges male printing characters, the bars being provided with
+springs for "justifying" purposes. The papier-maché matrix lines
+resulting from pressure against the characters were secured upon a
+backing sheet, over this sheet was laid a gridiron frame containing a
+series of slots, and into these slots type metal was poured by hand to
+form slugs bearing the characters from which to print. This system was
+immediately followed by a machine which cast the slugs automatically,
+one line at a time, from the matrix sheets.
+
+It was in this work that Mergenthaler received the education which
+resulted in his great invention and in due time he presented his plans
+for a machine which was known as the "Band" machine. In this machine
+the characters required for printing were indented in the edges of a
+series of narrow brass bands, each band containing a full alphabet,
+and hanging, with spacers, side by side in the machine. The bands
+tapered in thickness from top to bottom, the characters being arranged
+upon them in the order of the width-space which they occupied. By
+touching the keys of a keyboard similar to a typewriter, the bands
+dropped successively, bringing the characters required into line at a
+given point; a casting mechanism was then brought in contact with this
+line of characters, molten metal forced against it through a mould of
+the proper dimensions, and a slug with a printing surface upon its
+face was thus formed. This was recognized as a great advance and was
+hailed with delight by the now largely increased company. The
+necessary funds were provided and the building of the new machine
+undertaken. But Mergenthaler continued active, and before a second of
+the "Band" machines could be built, he had devised a plan for dealing
+with the letters by means of independent matrices. These matrices were
+pieces of brass measuring 1-1/4 inches by 3/4 of an inch and of the
+necessary thickness to accommodate the character, which it bore upon
+its edge in intaglio; they were stored in the newly devised machine in
+vertical copper tubes, from the bases of which they were drawn, as
+required, by a mechanism actuated by finger keys, caught by the "ears"
+as they dropped upon a miniature railway, and by a blast of air
+carried one by one to the assembling point. Wedge spacers being
+dropped in between the words, the line was carried to the front of the
+mould, where "justification" and casting took place.
+
+Success seemed at last to have been reached, and now the problem was,
+first, how to obtain means to build machines, and second, how to
+persuade printers to use them. The first of these was the easier,
+although no slight task; the second was one of great difficulty. The
+field for the machine then in sight was the newspaper, and the
+newspaper must appear daily. The old method of printing from founder's
+type, set for the most part by hand, was doing the work; a
+revolutionary method by which the type was to be made and set by
+machine, although promising great economies, was a dangerous
+innovation and one from which publishers naturally shrank. They could
+see the fate which awaited them if they adopted the new system and it
+proved unsuccessful. However, a number of newspaper men, after a
+careful investigation of the whole subject, determined to make the
+trial; and the leaders of these were Whitelaw Reid of the _New York
+Tribune_, Melvin Stone of the _Chicago News_ (to whom succeeded Victor
+F. Lawson), and Walter N. Haldeman of the _Louisville Courier-Journal_.
+Into these offices, then, the Linotype went. To Mr. Reid belongs the
+honor of giving the machine a name--line of type--Linotype, and of
+first using it to print a daily newspaper. Of the machine last
+described, two hundred were built, but before they were half marketed,
+the ingenious Mergenthaler presented a new form, which showed so
+great an advance that it was perforce adopted, and the machines then
+in use, although they gave excellent results, were in course of time
+displaced. The new machine did away with the air blast, the matrices
+being carried to the assembling point by gravity from magazines to be
+hereafter described, and the distributing elevator was displaced by an
+"arm" which lifted the lines of matrices, after the casting process,
+to the top of the machine to be returned to their places.
+
+The improvements made in the Linotype since Mergenthaler's time (who
+died in 1899 at the early age of forty-five) have been very great;
+indeed, almost a new machine has been created in doing what was
+necessary to adapt it to the more and more exacting work which it was
+called upon to perform in the offices of the great American book
+publishers. These improvements have been largely the work of, or the
+following out of suggestions made by, Philip T. Dodge, the patent
+attorney of the parties interested in the enterprise from the
+beginning, and later the president of the Mergenthaler Linotype
+Company. They went on year after year under the supervision of a corps
+of gifted mechanical experts, the chief of whom was John R. Rogers,
+the inventor of the Typograph, until from the machine of Mergenthaler,
+supplying through its ninety keys as many characters, a machine
+appeared yielding three hundred and sixty different characters from
+the like keyboard. The magazines, too, were capable of being charged
+with matrices representing any face from Agate (5-point) to English
+(14-point), and even larger faces for display advertising and for
+initial letters, by special contrivances which cannot be described
+without carrying this article beyond reasonable limits. Among the
+ingenious devices added are: the Rogers systems of setting rule and
+figure tables, box heads, etc.; the reversal of the line so as to set
+Hebrew characters in their proper relation; the production of
+printers' rules of any pattern; the making of ornamental borders; a
+device for the casting of the same line an indefinite number of times
+from one setting. The machine was also greatly simplified in its
+construction.
+
+The amount of money expended in the enterprise before the point of
+profit was reached was very great; it aggregated many millions of
+dollars; but the promoters had faith in the success of the machine and
+taxed themselves ungrudgingly. Among those who contributed largely to
+the ultimate result by substantial aid and wise counsel in the conduct
+of the business the name of D. O. Mills should be particularly
+mentioned.
+
+It was Mergenthaler's great good fortune to have had as his supporters
+many men of the character of those mentioned above, and in thus being
+relieved of all financial anxiety and permitted to work out thoroughly
+and without delay every idea that suggested itself either to him or
+to the ingenious men who had been drawn into the enterprise. His
+profits, too, were proportionate to the company's success, and
+although he did not live to enjoy them for his natural term of years,
+he had the satisfaction of knowing that a handsome income would
+continue to flow into the hands of his wife and children.
+
+The company's principal works are situated in the Borough of Brooklyn,
+New York City, and have a space devoted to manufacturing purposes of
+about one hundred and sixty thousand square feet. Approximately one
+hundred Linotypes, besides a large number of smaller machines and a
+vast quantity of supplies, are turned out from there every month; but
+the growing demand from abroad for American-built machines has led to
+the consideration of plans for an entirely new establishment, to be
+built in accordance with the latest modes of factory construction.
+About ten thousand Linotypes are now in daily use.
+
+The machine as at present built is shown in part by the accompanying
+cut, and its operation may be briefly described as follows:--
+
+The Linotype machine contains, as its fundamental elements, several
+hundred single matrices, which consist of flat plates of brass having
+on one edge a female letter or matrix proper, and in the upper end a
+series of teeth, used for selecting and distributing them to their
+proper places in the magazine. These matrices are held in the
+magazine of the machine, a channel of it being devoted to each
+separate character, and there are also channels which carry quads of
+definite thickness for use in tabular work, etc. The machine is so
+organized that on manipulating the finger keys, matrices are selected
+in the order in which their characters are to appear in print, and
+they are assembled in line side by side at the point marked _G_ in the
+illustration, with wedge-shaped spaces between the words. This series
+of assembled matrices forms a line matrix, or, in other words, a line
+of female type adapted to form a line of raised printed characters on
+a slug which is cast against them. After the matrix line has been
+composed, it is automatically transferred to the face of a slotted
+mould, as shown at _K_, and while in this position the wedge spaces
+are pushed up through the line, and in this manner exact and
+instantaneous justification is secured. Behind the mould there is a
+melting pot, _M_, heated by a flame from a gas or oil burner, and
+containing a constant supply of molten metal. The pot has a perforated
+mouth which fits against and closes the rear side of the mould, and it
+contains a pump plunger mechanically actuated. After the matrix line
+is in place against the front of the mould, the plunger falls and
+forces the molten metal through the mouth pot into the mould, against
+and into the characters in the matrix line. The metal instantly
+solidifies, forming a slug having on its edge raised characters
+formed by the matrices. The mould wheel next makes a partial
+revolution, turning the mould from its original horizontal position to
+a vertical one in front of an ejector blade, which, advancing from the
+rear through the mould, pushes the slug from the latter into the
+receiving galley at the front. A vibrating arm advances the slugs
+laterally in the galley, assembling them in column or page form ready
+for use. To insure absolute accuracy in the height and thickness of
+the slugs, knives are arranged to act upon the base and side faces as
+they are being carried toward the galley. After the matrices have
+served their purpose in front of the mould, they are shifted laterally
+until the teeth in their upper ends engage the horizontal ribs on the
+bar _R_; this bar then rises, as shown by the dotted lines, lifting
+the matrices to the distributor at the top of the machine, but leaving
+the wedge spacers, _I_, behind, to be shifted to their box, _H_. The
+teeth in the top of each matrix are arranged in a special order,
+according to the character it contains, the number or relation of its
+teeth differing from that of a matrix containing any other character,
+and this difference insures proper distribution. A distributor bar,
+_T_, is fixed horizontally over the upper end of the magazine and
+bears on its lower edge longitudinal ribs or teeth, adapted to engage
+the teeth of the matrices and hold the latter in suspension as they
+are carried along the bar over the mouths of the magazine channels by
+means of screws which engage their edges. Each matrix remains in
+engagement with the bar until it arrives at the required point,
+directly over its own channel, and at this point for the first time
+its teeth bear such relation to those on the bar that it is permitted
+to disengage and fall into the channel. It is to be particularly noted
+that the matrices pursue a circulatory course through the machine,
+starting singly from the bottom of the magazine and passing thence to
+the line being composed, thence in the line to the mould, and finally
+back singly to the top of the magazine. This circulation permits the
+operations of composing one line, casting from a second, and
+distributing a third, to be carried on concurrently, and enables the
+machine to run at a speed exceeding that at which an operator can
+finger the keys. A change from one face of type to any other is
+effected by simply drawing off one magazine and substituting another
+containing the face required, so that the variety of faces needs to be
+limited only by the number of them which the printer chooses to carry
+in his stock.
+
+[Illustration: A Linotype Matrix.]
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of the Linotype Machine.]
+
+[Illustration: Linotype Slugs.]
+
+[Illustration: The Linotype Melting Pot and Mold Wheel.]
+
+Matrices are also made bearing two characters, as the ordinary body
+character and the corresponding italics, or a body character and a
+small capital or a black face, and either of these is brought into use
+as desired by the touching of a key, so that if, for instance, it is
+required to print a word in italics or black face at any part of the
+line being composed, it is effected in this way, and composition in
+the body letter is resumed by releasing the key.
+
+The latest pattern of machine is supplied with two magazines,
+superimposed one above the other, each with its own distributing
+apparatus. The operator can elect, by moving a lever, from which
+magazine the letter wanted will fall--the same keyboard serving for
+both. It is thus possible to set two sizes of type from one machine,
+each matrix showing two characters as described above.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION BY THE MONOTYPE MACHINE
+
+By Paul Nathan.
+
+
+Though for more than half a century machines adapted for the setting
+of type have been in use, it is only within a few years that the
+average printer of books has been enabled to avail himself of the
+services of a mechanical substitute for the hand compositor. The fact
+seems to be that despite the ingenuity that was brought to bear upon
+the problem, the pioneer inventors were satisfied to obtain speed,
+with its resultant economy, at the expense of the quality of the
+finished product. Thus, until comparatively recently, machine
+composition was debarred from the establishments of the makers of fine
+books, and found its chief field of activity in the office of
+newspaper publishers and others to whom a technically perfect output
+was not essential so long as a distinct saving of time and labor could
+be assured. Thanks, however, to persistent effort on the part of those
+inventors who would not be satisfied until a machine was evolved which
+should equal in its output the work of the hand compositor, the
+problem has been triumphantly solved, and to-day the very finest
+examples of the printed book owe their being to the mechanical
+type-setter.
+
+The claim is made for one of these machines, the monotype, that, so
+far from lowering the standard of composition, its introduction into
+the offices of the leading book printers of the world has had the
+contrary effect, and that it is only the work of the most skilful hand
+compositor which can at every point be compared with that turned out
+by the machine. The fact that the type for some recent books of the
+very highest class, so-called "editions de luxe," has been cast and
+set by the monotype machine would seem to afford justification for
+this claim, extravagant as at first glance it may appear.
+
+The monotype machine is, to use a Hibernicism, two machines, which,
+though quite separate and unrelated, are yet mutually interdependent
+and necessary the one to the other. One of these is the composing
+machine, or keyboard, the other the caster, or type-founder. To begin
+with the former: this is in appearance not unlike a large typewriter
+standing upon an iron pedestal, the keyboard which forms its principal
+feature having two hundred and twenty-five keys corresponding to as
+many different characters. This keyboard is generally placed in some
+such position in the printing office as conduces to the health and
+comfort of the operator, for there is no more noise or disagreeable
+consequence attendant on its operation than in the case of the
+familiar typewriter, which it so markedly resembles.
+
+It has been said that the machines are interdependent; yet they are
+entirely independent as to time and place. The keyboard, as a matter
+of fact, acts as a sort of go-between betwixt the operator and the
+casting-machine, setting the latter the task it has to perform and
+indicating to it the precise manner of its performance. A roll of
+paper, which as the keyboard is operated continuously unwinds and is
+rewound, forms the actual means of communication between the two
+machines. The operator, as he (or she, for in increasing numbers women
+are being trained as monotype operators) sits facing the keyboard, has
+before him, conveniently hanging from an adjustable arm, the "copy"
+that has to be set in type. As he reads it he manipulates the keys
+precisely as does an operator on a typewriter, but each key as it is
+depressed, in place of writing a letter, punches certain round holes
+in the roll of paper. Enough keys are depressed to form a word, then
+one is touched to form a space, and so on until just before the end of
+the line is reached (the length of this line, or the "measure," as it
+is termed, has at the outset been determined upon by the setting of an
+indicator) a bell rings, and the operator knows that he must prepare
+to finish the line with a completed word or syllable and then proceed
+to justify it. "Justification," as it is termed, is perhaps the
+most difficult function of either the hand or the machine compositor.
+On the deftness with which this function is discharged depends almost
+entirely the typographic excellence of the printed page. To justify is
+to so increase the distance between the words by the introduction of
+type-metal "spaces" as to enable the characters to exactly fill the
+line. To make these spaces as nearly equal as possible is the aim of
+every good printer, and in proportion as he succeeds in his endeavor
+the printed page will please the eye and be free from those
+irregularities of "white space," which detract from its legibility as
+well as from its artistic appearance.
+
+[Illustration: The Monotype Keyboard.]
+
+[Illustration: The Monotype Caster.]
+
+That the monotype should not only "justify" each line automatically,
+but justify with a mathematical exactness impossible of attainment by
+the more or less rough-and-ready methods of the most careful human
+type-setter is at first thought a little bewildering. The fact
+remains, however, that it does so, and another triumph is to be
+recorded for man's "instruments of precision."
+
+Monotype justification is effected as follows: an ingenious
+registering device waits, as it were, on all the movements of the
+operator, with the result that when he has approached as close to the
+end of the line as he dare go, he has merely to glance at a
+cylindrical dial in front of him. The pointer on this dial signifies
+to him which of the "justifying keys" he must depress. He touches
+them in accordance therewith, and the line is justified, or rather it
+_will_ be justified when, as will be seen later on, the casting
+machine takes up its part of the work. That is the outward
+manifestation; it remains to be seen in what manner the machine
+accomplishes its task. Firstly, the machine automatically notes the
+exact width of the space left over at the line's end; then, also
+automatically, it records the number of spaces between the words
+already set which form the incompleted line; finally, it divides the
+residuary space into as many parts as there are word-spaces, and
+allots to each of these one of the parts. Thus if there is one-tenth
+of an inch to spare at the end of the line and ten word-spaces, then
+one-hundredth of an inch added to each of these spaces will justify
+the line with mathematical accuracy. But the machine will do something
+more wonderful than this. It will separately justify separate parts of
+the same line. The utility of this is comprehended when it is pointed
+out that when the "copy" to be set consists of what is technically
+termed "tabular" matter, the various columns of figures or so forth
+composing it are not composed vertically but horizontally and so each
+section must of necessity be justified separately.
+
+Should the compositor be required to "over-run illustrations," as the
+term goes, in other words to leave a space in which the "block" for a
+cut may be inserted, so that it may have type all around it or on one
+side of it only, the machine offers no difficulty at all. All that the
+operator has to do in this case is to carry the composition of each
+line as far as necessary and then complete it with a row of "quads,"
+or spaces. Thus, when the composition is cast by the casting-machine
+the space into which the block is to fit is occupied by a square of
+"quads." These have only to be lifted out, the block inserted, and the
+trick is done.
+
+We will then imagine that the operator has finished his task. Of the
+bank of two hundred and twenty-five keys in front of him (the
+equivalent of a full "font" of type, with figures, italics, and
+symbols complete), he has depressed in turn those necessary to spell
+out the words of his copy, he has put a space between the words he has
+justified in accordance with the dictates of the justifying dial, has
+arranged the spaces for the insertion of blocks or illustrations, and
+as the result of his labors he has merely a roll of perforated paper
+not unlike that which operates the now familiar pianola or
+piano-player. Yet this roll of paper is the informing spirit, as it
+were, of the machine. Its production is the only portion of the work
+of the monotype for which a human directing agency is necessary, every
+other function being purely automatic.
+
+The roll of perforated ribbon is lifted off the keyboard and put in
+place on the casting-and setting-machine. As it is swiftly unwound it
+delivers to the casting-machine the message with which the operator
+has charged it. Through the perforations he has made compressed air is
+forced. Now, as has been explained, the holes correspond to the
+characters or typographic symbols of the "copy," and the jet of air
+forced through them sets in motion the machinery, which controls what
+is known as the "matrix-case," a rectangular metal frame about five
+inches square, which contains two hundred and twenty-five matrices, or
+little blocks of hardened copper, each one of which is a mould
+corresponding to a character on the keyboard. This frame is mounted
+horizontally on a slide, which by an ingenious mechanical movement
+brings any one of the two hundred and twenty-five matrices over what
+is termed the mould. The particular matrix thus placed in position is
+determined by those particular holes punched in the paper ribbon at
+the keyboard, through which the compressed air is at that precise
+moment being forced.
+
+The mould referred to is closed by the matrix, a jet of molten metal
+is forced in, and in an instant the type is cast, its face being
+formed by the matrix, its body or shank by the mould. The cast type is
+ejected and takes its place in the galley, to be followed by another
+and that by yet others in their regular rotation. It must, however, be
+pointed out that the composition emerges from the machine hind part
+foremost and upside down as it were. This enables the justification
+holes, which were originally punched at the _end_ and not at the
+beginning of each line, to direct the proper casting of the spaces in
+the lines to which they correspond.
+
+It will be seen, therefore, that the casting portion of the monotype
+machine is actually automatic. It performs all its operations without
+human assistance or direction. Occasionally it will stop of its own
+accord and refuse to work, but this merely means that it has found
+something amiss with the perforated instructions, a mistake as to the
+length of a line or so forth, and it refuses to continue until the
+workman in charge of it puts the error right, then it starts on again
+and continues on its even course, casting letters and spaces and
+punctuation marks, and arranging them first in words, then in lines,
+next in paragraphs, and finally in a column on the galley.
+
+The casting-machine works at so high a rate of speed (casting from one
+hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty characters per minute) that
+it can in its output keep well ahead of the operator on the keyboard.
+This, however, so far from being an inconvenience or leading to any
+loss of time, is an advantage, for four casting-machines, which can
+easily be looked after by one man and a boy, can cope with the work of
+five keyboard operators, or if all are engaged on the same character
+of composition two casters can attend to the output of three
+keyboards. This suggests a reference to the facilities offered by the
+machine for the production of matter composed in various faces of
+type. The machine casts practically all sizes in general use from
+five-point, or "pearl," to fourteen point, or "English." Owing to the
+number of characters included in the matrix-case, it can at the same
+time set upper and lower case, small capitals, and upper and lower
+case italics, or any similar combination of two or even three
+different faced alphabets. To change from one complete set of matrices
+to another is a simple operation, performed in about a minute of time,
+while the changing of mould, which insures a corresponding change in
+the size of the "body" of the type, takes about ten minutes.
+
+To return, however, to the perforated roll of paper, which it must be
+imagined has passed entirely through the casting-machine and has been
+automatically re-rolled. Its present function has come to an end, and
+it is now lifted out of its position on the machine and placed away
+for future reference in a drawer or cabinet. This is a by no means
+unimportant feature of the Monotype, for it is thus no longer
+necessary to preserve the heavy, cumbrous, and expensive "plates" of a
+book in anticipation of a second edition being called for at some
+future time. As a matter of fact, indeed, "plates," or electrotypes of
+monotyped matter, are by no means a necessity. Many thousand
+impressions can with safety be printed from the types themselves, and
+these latter at the conclusion of the job can be remelted and new type
+cast from the resultant metal. The paper rolls, occupying but a few
+square inches of space, can be kept, and when the time arrives may be
+passed through the casting-machine again, to supply a new printing
+surface identical in every respect with the original.
+
+But the galley of monotyped composition has been waiting during this
+digression. It is lifted off the machine by the attendant and a rough
+proof pulled, which is corrected by the proof-reader. The advantage of
+the individual types is then apparent, for the composition is
+corrected and otherwise handled precisely as would be the case had the
+matter been set entirely by hand. Indeed, the operation consumes even
+less time, for the discarded characters, instead of being placed back
+carefully in their proper compartments in the case for future use, are
+merely thrown aside by the corrector, to find their way eventually
+into the melting pot. It may be added, however, that the Monotype
+itself furnishes the types used in the correction of its
+matter--"sorts," as they are termed by the printer. These are cast by
+the machine during the times when it is not employed upon more
+important work.
+
+Indeed, an attachment has recently been added to the machine, whereby
+its use as a type-caster is still further extended. As has been
+mentioned, the machine casts and composes type of any sized face, from
+five to fourteen point. With, however, the attachment referred to, it
+can now cast for the use of the hand compositor complete fonts of type
+up to and including thirty-six point in size, so that an entire book,
+title-page included, nowadays often owes its typographical "dress" to
+the ingenious machine known as "The Lanston Monotype."
+
+
+
+
+PROOF-READING
+
+By George L. Miller.
+
+
+When part of a book has been set up in type, in what is called "galley
+form," an impression is taken, technically known as "first proof," and
+this proof is handed to the proof-reader. This long-suffering
+individual lives in a chronic state of warfare with the compositors on
+the one hand and the author on the other. His first duty is to see
+that the proof agrees with the author's manuscript, that nothing has
+been omitted, and nothing inserted that is not in the copy. He must
+see, further, that the spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar,
+and so forth, are correct, and the book set according to the "style"
+ordered. He first of all, therefore, compares the proof with the
+manuscript, or an assistant reads the manuscript aloud, the
+proof-reader listening intently for any variation from the proof
+before him and marking any errors he may find.
+
+Now this seems easy enough, and if every author prepared his copy
+carefully, so that there could be no possible mistake as to his
+meaning, nothing would be easier; but in practice a number of
+questions arise which would never be thought of by an outsider. On a
+new work being put in hand, some half-dozen compositors are given a
+few sheets of copy apiece, and if the proof-reader happens to be
+readily accessible he is bombarded within the first half-hour or so
+with, "How am I to spell centre?" "Has travelling one or two l's?"
+"Shall I capitalize the word State?" "Shall I spell out two hundred?"
+"Do you want ships' names in Italic?" and so on and so on. As to
+punctuation, every compositor thinks he knows better than proof-reader
+and author combined and follows his own sweet will. As every error on
+the first proof must be corrected by the compositor at his own
+expense, here arises the cause of war mentioned in our opening
+paragraph.
+
+Much has been written about printers' errors and the mistakes of "the
+intelligent compositor." Aside from those caused by illegible
+manuscript, mistakes arise from faulty "distribution," that is to say,
+the type has been thrown into the wrong boxes. Thus we get _c_ for
+_e_, _h_ for _n_, _y_ for _p_, etc., these boxes being contiguous and
+the letters of the same thickness; if, for instance, the compositor
+picked up _u_ instead of _t_ the difference in thickness would at once
+be noticed by him and the mistake rectified. Then letters are
+sometimes set upside down and we find letters of a different "face"
+which have got into the case by mistake. In type set on machine,
+errors arise from striking adjacent keys, or some matrix will stick
+in the channel and make its appearance later, sometimes even in the
+next line. But the chief source of error is illegible or carelessly
+prepared manuscript, and to the author's slips of the pen must be
+added in these days the slips of the typewriter.
+
+It is quite possible for a man to be an expert in astronomy, medicine,
+or natural history and yet have hazy ideas on spelling and
+punctuation. "When in doubt use a dash" is an old standing joke, but
+some authors use dashes all the time, making them do duty for commas,
+semicolons, and periods. They will write indifferently 4 or four and
+frequently their capital _a_'s _c_'s, _m_'s, and _n_'s cannot be
+distinguished from the small letters. They will commence a story
+telling that the "Captain" did so and so, and lo, on the next page the
+"captain" sinks into a common noun; and so with "Father," "mother,"
+"Aunt," "uncle," etc. Just see what the story would look like if set
+according to copy!
+
+Now the proof-reader is expected to rectify all this, thereby drawing
+on his head the wrath of the compositor, who says "he followed the
+copy," and occasionally incurring the wrath of the author as well for
+departing therefrom. Sometimes instructions are given that the
+author's spelling, punctuation, etc., are to be carefully followed,
+when of course no question can arise; and the proof-reader will query
+on the proof submitted to the author anything which does not seem to
+him to be correct.
+
+The great newspapers and magazines have what they call a "style sheet"
+for the guidance of their compositors and proof-readers and insist on
+its being faithfully followed. Only by this means could uniformity in
+the appearance of the paper be secured. In this style sheet careful
+and minute directions are given for the use of capital letters, the
+use of Italic, spelling out of numbers, compound words, etc. In the
+Government printing-office in Washington they have a style book of
+some two hundred pages. Some book printing-offices have what they call
+"the style of the office," which will be followed if no instructions
+are received from the author to the contrary, while some publishing
+houses with connections in England insist on English spelling being
+followed in all their books, as books with American spelling will not
+sell over there.
+
+Here is an outline of an "office style":--
+
+"Spell and divide words according to Webster's dictionary.
+
+"Capitalize President and all Secretaries of State, Senator,
+Congressman, Governor, Government (of U.S. or other country), King,
+Emperor, Republican (and all political parties), all pronouns relating
+to the Deity, Legislature, State, Nation, Street, Avenue, (Hudson)
+River.
+
+"Use small capitals for B.C., A.D., A.M., and P.M.
+
+"Use Italics for names of ships, names of characters in plays, names
+of newspapers and magazines, and all foreign words.
+
+"Use quotation marks for names of books.
+
+"Spell out all numbers under 100.
+
+"Compound co-operate, to-day, to-morrow.
+
+"Use period after per cent., and Roman numerals I. VI., etc.
+
+"Bible references in this style: 2 Kings vii. 29.
+
+"All poetical quotations to be in smaller type than text."
+
+Now, some authors will not accept the above style and insist on one
+entirely different. Many will accept Webster's spelling but draw the
+line at _theater_, which they want spelt _theatre_, and balk at
+_skillfully_ and _skillful_ or _installment_. They will order spelling
+according to the Standard Dictionary, yet will not accept _sulfur_,
+_rime_, or _worshiping_. One man wants all his numbers in figures, and
+another does not like compound words. Still another abhors dashes or
+colons, or quotation marks, and yet another will not have Italic type
+used in his work.
+
+So it frequently happens that a proof-reader will have passing through
+his hands three or four books in entirely different styles, each of
+which he must bear in mind and conform to if he would avoid trouble.
+But whatever style be adopted, it is essential that it be strictly
+adhered to throughout the work; therefore in large printing-offices
+where there are many proof-readers care is always taken that, however
+many compositors may be engaged in setting up the work, the same
+reader handles it from start to finish.
+
+If the proof-reader finds any passages whose meaning is not clear, or
+sentences of faulty construction, he will call the author's attention
+thereto. He will also call attention to Biblical or poetical
+quotations which he may know to be incorrect. Many authors will quote
+Scripture or poetry from memory, which is found to vary in many
+respects from the original on verification. And then they complain
+because "the printer did not set it up right,"--when they are charged
+for corrections. But why should the compositor bear the expense of
+correction--or the master-printer for that matter--when the copy was
+clearly wrong in the first instance? A moment's thought will show the
+injustice of such a procedure.
+
+From what we have said may be seen the importance of the reading of
+"first proof." Many offices have the proofs read twice, first without
+referring to the copy, when the more glaring errors may be corrected
+at leisure, and then again carefully read by copy. The proofs are then
+returned to the compositors for correction, each man correcting the
+portion he set up.
+
+A second proof is now taken which is put in the hands of another
+proof-reader (or "reviser") for revision. His business is to see that
+the corrections of the first reader have all been duly made. Should
+he find any palpable errors that have been overlooked by the first
+reader, he will call his attention thereto and on approval mark them.
+It may be necessary to return the proofs again to the compositors for
+correction, and even a third time. When found to be what is called
+"clean," they are sent to the author (usually in duplicate) along with
+the copy.
+
+And now the author sees himself in print, perhaps for the first time.
+He will notice that his work presents a different appearance from what
+it did in manuscript. Here and there a passage can be improved, a
+phrase polished, an idea amplified--the same man will think
+differently at different times; and lo, here, the stupid printer has
+made him speak of a marine landscape when he wrote Maine landscape!
+(That proof-reader must be disciplined.) And here a sentence has been
+left out which he wrote on the back of his copy and has been skipped
+by compositor, copy-holder, proof-reader, and reviser alike! Then the
+queries of the proof-reader must be answered, and a few commas here
+and there would improve things,--and so he proceeds to mark up his
+proofs, for all of which corrections he has to pay at so much per
+hour--second cause of war.
+
+The proofs are now returned to the printer and corrected, and a revise
+(after passing through the proof-reader's hands) sent to the author,
+which process may be repeated _ad infinitum_, until the author gives
+the order to make up into pages.
+
+The type is now handed over to the "make-up," and inasmuch as his work
+must be carefully revised by the proof-reader, we may describe it
+here. Having first of all made a gauge showing the size of the
+page--supposing the page to be seven inches deep, he will cut a notch
+in a thin piece of wood showing that size--he must "cast off" or
+estimate how the pages are going to "break." There must not be any
+short lines, or "widows" as the printers call them,--that is, the
+concluding lines of paragraphs which are not full length,--at the
+heads of pages. The first line of a paragraph should not appear at the
+bottom of a page (but this rule is more honored in the breach than the
+observance), and the concluding page of a chapter should not be less
+than one-quarter page in length. These difficulties are avoided by
+"saving" a line here and there,--that is, where the last line of a
+paragraph consists of only one or two words, in squeezing them into
+the line above, or by "making" lines, which is accomplished by
+spreading long lines out and driving one or two words over. Any line
+containing one word only at the end of a paragraph ought to overlap
+the indention of the first line of the next paragraph. Such a word as
+"is" or "it" will not do so and should be turned back to the line
+above. Then again, where cuts or illustrations are inserted in the
+text a page will sometimes break in the middle of a cut, which, as
+Euclid says, is impossible, therefore the cut must be moved, sometimes
+necessitating slight alterations in the text, _e.g._ "The following
+illustration" must be altered to "The illustration on the next page,"
+or "The illustration above," as the case may be. And here we may
+remark that all cuts or illustrations should be made and furnished to
+the printer in time to be inserted in the first proof. The writer
+calls to mind an instance where the cuts arrived after the whole book
+had been made up into pages, necessitating a re-make-up at
+considerable expense.
+
+Proofs of the pages being furnished to the proof-reader, he first of
+all compares them with the author's last galley proof to see that
+nothing has been omitted (frequently lines fall off the ends of
+galleys), that they are in due sequence and "join up," and that the
+author's last corrections have been made. He then sees to the
+pagination, the running heads at top of each page, and sees that the
+foot-notes have been inserted in the pages where they belong and
+verifies the reference marks. The author will probably have used the *
+[symbol: dagger][symbol: double-dagger] § and they will have been so
+set up, as they appeared on each page of the original manuscript. But
+when in type and made up into pages they will probably fall
+differently, the note bearing the § mark may come on the following
+page and of course must be altered to an *, a corresponding change
+being made in the text. A much better plan is to number foot-notes 1,
+2, 3 and so on, when no alteration on making-up will be required.
+
+The proof-reader must also look after the "widows" and other matters
+before mentioned. If the book is set in linotype, the make-up will
+have been unable to make these changes. He will simply allow the
+proper space and the changes required will be marked by the
+proof-reader and a number of pages corrected at a time. This is a
+point of economy.
+
+All corrections having been made and revised, proofs are submitted to
+the author for his final approval. The author may find it advisable to
+make alterations even after his book is made up into pages,
+necessitating further revises; but everything finally being in order,
+he gives the order to print or to electrotype.
+
+If the pages are to be electrotyped or made into plates, they are
+"locked up" in an iron frame called a "chase," two or four together,
+and proofs are given to the proof-reader for a final reading.
+
+If the book is to be printed from the type, the pages are "imposed" in
+sheets of eight, sixteen, or thirty-two, so arranged that the folios
+will be in order when the sheet is folded up. They now make what is
+called a "form," and a proof of this--known as the "stone proof"--is
+taken for final reading.
+
+The proof-reader now reads the work all through, looking carefully to
+the spelling, punctuation, and grammar, as in reading "first proof,"
+and more especially looking out for bad or imperfect letters. If many
+corrections have been made, the type is very apt to be broken and the
+spacing between words to become irregular. All imperfect letters must
+be replaced and bad spacing rectified. Then again, commas, hyphens,
+periods, and thin letters, such as _l_, _f_, or _t_, are apt to slip
+out of place at the ends of lines. And here a serious source of error
+may be mentioned which can be found out only by reading the whole page
+over. In type set on the linotype machine every line is one solid
+piece of metal. Any correction to be made involves resetting the whole
+line. Now the compositor in inserting the new line is very apt to take
+out a line _beginning with the same word_, replacing it with the new
+one, thus making a very serious blunder, and of course the
+proof-reader or author who sees the next proof has no intimation that
+the wrong line has been tampered with. On reading the page over,
+however, it will be noticed that something is wrong, previous proofs
+can be referred to, and the mistake rectified.
+
+The proofs having been finally read, revised, and marked O. K., the
+pages are sent to the foundry or to press, as the case may be.
+
+But the proof-reader has not done with them yet. If the book is
+electrotyped, the plates may turn out faulty; sometimes the type will
+sink in places under the enormous pressure applied in moulding. It is
+therefore highly advisable that proofs should be taken of the plates
+and gone over for imperfections; this may save valuable time later
+when the book is on the press. Some authors don't mind the expense of
+making changes in their work even after the pages are cast.
+
+The proof-reader only takes leave of the book when it is on the press
+and all is ready to go ahead and print. A sheet is submitted to him
+which he must _visé_ for bad letters, see that nothing has fallen out
+in transit to the pressroom, and that the pressman has not taken out
+any cuts to underlay and reinserted them upside down. He will also
+verify the folios again (if the book is printed from plates this will
+be the first opportunity of doing so) and see that the pages join up
+to what has gone before. Here his work ends.
+
+
+
+
+PAPER MAKING
+
+By Herbert W. Mason.
+
+
+The word "paper" derives its name from the ancient Greek word
+"papyrus," the name of the material used in ancient times for writing
+purposes, and manufactured by the Egyptians from the papyrus plant,
+and which was, up to the eighth century, the best-known writing
+material. Probably the earliest manufacturers of paper were the
+Chinese, who used the mulberry tree and other like plants for this
+purpose, and may be called the inventors of our modern paper
+manufacturing, as they have practised the art of paper making for
+almost two thousand years.
+
+In the ordinary book papers of to-day the materials used are largely
+rags and wood fibres. "Esparto," a Spanish grass, is used in England
+to a great extent, but it is too expensive to import to this country,
+and is, therefore, not used here. Many other materials could be used
+to advantage, such as "bagasse," the waste material of sugar cane, and
+corn stalks, both of which make good book paper; also hemp, wild
+clover, and other plants which have a good fibre.
+
+Only two kinds of rags are used, linen and cotton, of both of which
+there are several grades. Linen rags make a very strong paper, and are
+mostly used in manufacturing fine writing papers, ledgers, and covers
+for books where strength is necessary. Cotton rags may be divided into
+three distinct kinds, whites, blues, and colors, and these in turn are
+subdivided into several grades. Most of the blue rags are now imported
+from Germany, Belgium, and France; none from Japan as formerly. The
+whites and colors are bought in this country.
+
+Wood fibres are divided into two classes, the harder woods, such as
+spruce, fir, etc., and the softer, such as poplar, cottonwood, etc.
+There are three ways of reducing or disintegrating wood fibres: first,
+by sulphurous acid or bi-sulphite of lime fumes, which gives the name
+"sulphite fibre"; second, by caustic soda, which is called "soda
+fibre"; and third, by grinding. The last is usually only used for
+stock in very low grades of paper, such as newspaper and wrapping
+paper; it is rarely used for book paper. Many persons think that this
+ground wood, which is merely spruce ground very fine into pulp, is
+used in book papers; but if it were, the paper would not last long,
+and would almost immediately discolor on exposure to light and air.
+There is a theory that no paper made from wood fibres is lasting, and
+that therefore high grades of paper for fine books should be made
+only of rags, but this is erroneous, for wood stock and rag stock
+nowadays are treated and prepared in the same way, and only
+practically pure cellulose matter goes into the paper. It would be a
+different matter, however, if _ground_ wood were used for fine papers,
+for in this stock the cellulose matter is not separated.
+
+Rags are usually purchased by the paper manufacturer in solid bales,
+which have been graded into whites, blues, or colors. After being
+opened, they are thrown into a thrashing machine, which thrashes and
+shakes out the greater part of the loose dust and dirt. Later, they
+are sorted more carefully by hand into several grades, according to
+their colors and cleanliness. All the woollens, gunny, buttons, hooks
+and eyes, silks, and foreign materials are thrown aside. As the rags
+are usually too large to be thrown into the boilers to be cooked, they
+are cut into very small pieces by means of sharp revolving knives, to
+which they are fed rapidly from an endless belt. When cut, they are
+packed into a revolving kettle or boiler, called a "rotary," and
+cooked with caustic soda and lime for several hours, to disintegrate
+the fibres, separate the cellulose matter, and "start" the colors. The
+rags, after coming out of the boiler, look very dark, and are all
+mashed together. They are then thrown into a tub of water and revolved
+horizontally by means of a large wheel fitted with radial knives,
+which tear and bruise them while water continually runs in and out,
+carrying away the dirt. In a few hours the rags look much cleaner, and
+a small amount of chlorate of lime and sulphuric acid is run in to
+bleach them white. After having been thoroughly stirred for a while,
+the stock is run into what is called a drainer, where it is allowed to
+stand for several hours to drain off as much water as possible. Liquid
+chloride of lime, which is used for bleaching, and sulphuric acid is
+then run over the fibre, which in turn is drained and washed off
+again. By this time the pulp is white enough to be sent to the
+beaters, to be prepared for the paper machines, and is called
+"half-stock."
+
+Wood fibres for book papers are usually treated in the same general
+way as rags. First, the logs are peeled and are cut into suitable
+lengths to be thrown into a wood chopper and cut up in very small
+pieces. If the wood is treated by sulphurous acid or bi-sulphite of
+lime fumes, it is called the "sulphite process"; if by caustic soda,
+the "soda process." This wood is cooked in large upright kettles
+called "digesters." In one case the sulphite fumes are allowed to
+permeate through the wood under a high pressure, and in the other the
+caustic soda is put in "straight," and the wood is cooked under a high
+pressure of steam. This is done to dissolve out all the gum and
+resins, in order to leave the pure cellulose matter. After the cooking
+is done, the stock has to be bleached in very much the same way as
+the rags and washed thoroughly before it is ready for the "beaters."
+
+For "beating," the stock is thrown into a large revolving tub. Rag and
+wood fibre may be mixed in different proportions, according to the
+grade of the paper wanted. The stock is then washed a little to be
+sure that it is clean and white. Water at first is mixed in with the
+fibre until it is so diluted that it will flow freely; then it is
+beaten for several hours by means of an iron wheel covered with iron
+or steel knives about one-quarter of an inch thick, which revolves
+over an iron bed-plate with similar knives. During this beating
+process, clay is mixed with the stock, mainly to give the paper a
+well-filled and better appearance, and not, as most people think, to
+add weight, although this is sometimes an object. Sizing material is
+also added, which helps to keep the fibres together and hold the ink
+in printing. If it is desired to give the paper a white shade, a small
+amount of aniline blue or pink is mixed in; otherwise it is called
+"natural" or "unblued."
+
+The beating part of the process of paper making is the most important.
+The stock has to be beaten up so that all the fibres are separated and
+broken into just the right lengths according to the weight and
+strength of the paper to be made. The harder the roll is set down on
+the bed plate, the shorter the fibre will be and _vice versa_, but if
+the roll is not put down hard, the stock has to be beaten so much
+longer.
+
+"Machining" may be divided into five processes:--
+
+_First._ When the stock leaves the beater it is run into a large
+"stuff" chest, and is continually being stirred so that it will not be
+lumpy. By this time the pulp is about as clean as possible and is
+ready for the paper machines. The first thing to be done on the
+machine is to dilute the stock with pure water to the consistency of
+buttermilk, according to the thickness of the paper required. Then
+this liquid stock runs through what are called "sand settlers," which
+are supposed to collect what dirt, iron, etc., remain.
+
+_Second._ From the sand settlers the stock runs on to a screen,
+through which it is drawn by means of suction. This process prevents
+fibres which are lumpy and too long from getting on to the machine,
+and allows only those of a certain size and length to go forward to be
+made into paper. An endless and very fine wire cloth, which is
+continually moving at the same rate of speed as the rest of the paper
+machine, takes the stock after it has been screened. This is the first
+step toward making the material into actual paper. Thick rubber straps
+on each side of the wire determine the width of the paper. This wire
+shakes a little in order to weave the fibres together while in a state
+of suspension. At this period the stock looks like thick cream, but
+soon changes its appearance to the form of a sheet more or less solid
+on coming to the end of the wire, where there is what is called a
+"dandy,"--a roll covered with similar wire cloth pressing lightly on
+the paper as it runs along the wire. Designs in relief on the surface
+of this roll produce the well-known marks called "water marks." Just
+beyond the "dandy," underneath the wire, is a suction box which draws
+enough of the water out so that the paper can go through the "couch"
+roll at the end of the wire without being crumbled.
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section of a Paper Machine.]
+
+_Third._ The couch roll is a small hard roll covered with a thick felt
+called a "jacket," and is used on the paper machine to prevent the
+paper from being crushed, for it presses out much of the water and
+flattens the paper so that it will pass from the wire to the felts
+without breaking and through the press rolls without crushing. From
+this couch roll the paper leaves the wire and is carried along on an
+endless woollen felt to the press rolls, which are made of hard
+rubber, steel, or brass. These rolls press the fibres together well,
+squeezing out more of the water and flattening the sheet.
+
+_Fourth._ From the press felts the paper is carried to the "dryer
+felts," which in turn carry the paper to the "dryers," which revolve
+and by means of the felt carry the paper along to the next dryer, and
+so on. The dryers are hollow iron or steel cylinders, heated by means
+of the exhaust steam from the engines which run the machine. More or
+less steam is allowed to run into the dryers, according to the quality
+of paper being made.
+
+_Fifth._ As soon as the paper has been carried over all the dryers,
+during which time it becomes, perfectly dry, it is run through a set
+of so-called steel "chilled rolls," at the end of the machine, which
+are under pressure and which give the paper a fairly smooth surface
+for ordinary type printing. If a rough surface is desired, the paper
+is simply wound on reels from the dryers.
+
+Super-calendered papers are those which have a high finish and smooth
+surface, and are used for cuts, lithographic work, magazine papers,
+and ordinary illustrations. To calender paper, it is run through a
+series of alternate "chilled" and "paper" rolls. The chilled rolls are
+made of steel and have a very smooth and even surface. The "paper"
+roll is made of circular discs of thin, but strong manila paper,
+clamped together on an iron shaft, and then put under hydraulic
+pressure, this pressure being increased constantly until it reaches
+one hundred tons of pressure to the inch. The rolls are sometimes kept
+under this pressure for five or six weeks, and then are turned on a
+lathe into a true and smooth cylinder, and finally burnished by being
+revolved against each other.
+
+A "cotton" roll, used at times in place of the "paper" roll, is made
+in the same manner, except it is made of pieces of cotton cloth
+instead of thin manila paper. There is a heavy pressure on these
+rolls, and the paper goes through at a high rate of speed. When an
+especially smooth surface is wanted, steam is run on the paper as it
+unwinds, dampening it and giving the web a surface like that on ironed
+linen.
+
+"Coated" paper is treated differently, being covered with a fine
+coating, which, after super-calendering, gives the paper a glazed and
+smooth surface for fine half-tone illustrations. Clay, mixed with
+casein, the product of skimmed milk, or glue, is the chief material
+used for coating. It is put on the paper by means of large brushes.
+Then it is dried by fans and passed through a long passageway heated
+by steam to a high temperature. After being reeled, it is allowed to
+stand for a while to harden; then is run several times through the
+calenders to get the smooth surface. If a high, glazed finish is
+necessary, steam is put on while running through the calenders. This
+gives a very bright surface for fine lithographic work. For the best
+coated papers, instead of clay, sulphate of lime and sometimes
+sulphate of barium is used, with glue or casein. Formaldehyde, a
+chemical compound, is used to prevent decomposition in the coating
+materials; and soda or borax is used to "cut" or dissolve the casein
+or glue.
+
+If the paper is to be printed "from the web," that is, from the roll,
+it first has to be trimmed to the correct width, then wound tightly
+under a high pressure to a certain thickness, then the rolls are
+packed up in wrapping paper ready to be shipped. Some rolls contain as
+much as five miles of paper. When the paper is to be put up in
+sheets, it has to be cut to exactly the correct width and length on
+the cutting machine. It is all very carefully sorted--the imperfect
+sheets being thrown out--counted and packed in wooden cases, or done
+up with strong wrapping paper in bundles, ready to be sent to the
+printer.
+
+
+
+
+PRESSWORK
+
+By Walter J. Berwick.
+
+
+Books are printed in "forms," or sheets, of four, eight, twelve,
+twenty-four, or thirty-two pages at a time, the number being
+determined to a great extent by the size of the type page and by the
+class of the work.
+
+An ordinary twelvemo book, without illustrations in the text, is
+usually printed in forms of thirty-two pages, on what is known as a
+single-cylinder flat-bed press, which prints only one side of the
+paper at an impression. For large editions, the size of the sheet of
+paper is sometimes doubled and sixty-four pages printed at a time. The
+class of work in question may also be printed on perfecting presses
+which print both sides of the paper at one time, and in this way as
+many as one hundred and twenty-eight pages are frequently printed on
+one sheet, there being sixty-four pages on each side. Large editions
+of books having small pages, such as small Bibles, are often printed
+two hundred and fifty-six pages (one hundred and twenty-eight on each
+side) at one time.
+
+High grade, illustrated books are always printed on one side of the
+sheet at a time, the reverse side being printed after the first
+impression has dried properly. Thus a smooch, or "offset," the result
+of handling the paper before the ink has become dry, is prevented.
+
+For convenience, I shall describe the process of printing a book from
+electrotype plates on a press which prints thirty-two pages at a time
+and on only one side of the paper.
+
+Before ordering his paper, the publisher must first determine the size
+of the paper page of his proposed book, and from this arrive at the
+necessary size of the sheets of paper. He must also determine the
+thickness of the paper needed to give the finished book its proper
+bulk.
+
+If the book is to be trimmed on top, bottom, and front, about
+one-eighth of an inch must be allowed on top and front for the binder
+to trim off, and about one-fourth of an inch on the bottom. The
+dimensions from back to front, including the amount left for the
+"trim," should be multiplied by eight; and the page dimension the
+other way, including the trim, by four. This would give the size of
+paper needed. As an illustration, if the trimmed size of a book is
+7-7/8 × 5-3/8 inches, the paper should be 32 × 44 inches. If the book
+is printed 16 pages at a time, the paper should be 22 × 44; and if 64
+pages at a time, 44 × 64.
+
+The quality of the paper and the size of the sheet being decided upon,
+and the number of pages known, any large paper house can tell the
+weight necessary to give the required thickness to the book.
+
+On receipt of the printing order, with directions as to whether the
+book is to be trimmed or not, the printer first makes up what is
+called a "form" of so-called "patent" blocks on which the stereotype
+or electrotype plates are placed during the printing of the book.
+These blocks are made of wood or iron planed to an even thickness of
+about three-fourths of an inch, so that when an electrotype plate is
+placed upon one, it will take only a few thicknesses of thin paper
+between it and the electrotyped page to make the whole "type-high,"
+that is, as high as an ordinary piece of type.
+
+Two adjacent edges of these blocks are bound with strips of brass,
+which project above the block and are turned over slightly, so as to
+receive the two bevelled edges of the electrotype plate. The other two
+edges are provided with movable clamps, which are screwed tight
+against the flat edges of the electrotype plate by means of ratchets,
+thus holding the plate firmly in its place.
+
+In practice, the longer of the two brass-bound edges is called the
+"back" of the block and the shorter one the "head," the other long
+edge being known as the "front" and the other short edge, the "foot."
+These terms, as a matter of fact, originated from the use of the same
+words in describing the printed page of a book, the "back"
+corresponding with the side of the page next to the binding of the
+book, the "head" being the top of the book, and so on.
+
+One-half of a set of blocks--thirty-two being a set in this case--are
+made with the backs on the left and one-half with the backs on the
+right edge of the block. The common way is to place thirty-two of
+these blocks, in four rows of eight blocks each, in a "chase," or iron
+frame, with a cross-bar in the centre. Thus sixteen blocks are on each
+side of the cross-bar, and all have their backs toward it. The form
+then appears like this:--
+
+[Illustration: Blocks, cross-bar.]
+
+Strips of wood, called "furniture," are then used to fill up the
+spaces between the blocks, care being taken to see that all the backs,
+fronts, and heads are in uniform positions. As some people prefer the
+printed pages of a book to be near the centre of the paper pages,
+while others like the head and back margins to be much narrower than
+the margins at the front and foot, the distances between the blocks
+must be arranged according to the taste of the publisher or the
+author.
+
+After the blocks have been spaced as desired, and the spaces filled
+with furniture, the form is "locked up," or tightened securely, with
+wedge-shaped pieces of iron called "quoins," and it is then placed in
+position on the bed of the press, securely fastened by screw clamps,
+and "making ready" for printing is begun.
+
+Notwithstanding the care that has been taken to have all the "patent"
+blocks and the electrotype plates of even and uniform thickness, there
+is almost never a case where a form can be put on the press and
+printed off properly without considerable work being required to make
+the surface of the plates absolutely flat so that the entire printed
+part of the page will receive the same amount of ink and will press
+evenly on the paper.
+
+The first step in making a press "ready" is to place a sheet of heavy
+cardboard around the cylinder, and over it draw a smooth piece of
+muslin or cotton cloth. This is called the "packing." In many of the
+best offices this sheet of heavy cardboard is not used, but in its
+place is a patent make-ready called "Tympalyn."
+
+Over this a thick sheet of manila paper is shrunk, it being pasted
+under clamps on the front of the cylinder, and carried around and
+fastened to hooks on a rod on the back. The rod is then turned until
+the sheet is perfectly tight and smooth.
+
+While the pressman is laying out his plates the feeder should be
+cutting thin sheets of paper the size of one of the plates. Some of
+these papers are cut about one inch shorter than the plates for
+"bevels," and these are pasted on the middle of the full-size pieces.
+These bevels and the larger "blank" sheets are to go between the
+plates and the blocks to overcome any variation there may be in the
+thickness and to make the surface of the form as nearly level as
+possible. The "bevels" raise the centres very slightly above the edges
+of the plate, thus reducing the pressure of the cylinder at the points
+of contact and departure, and saving the plates from wear.
+
+The cylinder being properly packed, and the form of blocks fastened on
+the press so that the impression of the form will come in the middle
+of the paper sheets, it is necessary to know whether the binder is to
+fold the sheets by hand or by machine, and if the latter, what kind of
+machine, as different ones require different "imposition" or
+arrangement of pages. This being decided, the plates are fastened on
+the blocks so arranged that when the sheet is cut and folded the pages
+of the book will run consecutively. Before levelling up the form with
+the bevels and blank sheets, the plates of all open or short pages, if
+any, are replaced with solid pages, as these sheets and underlay are
+to remain through the printing of all the forms of the book. The
+rollers are now put in the press and adjusted to just touch the inking
+table, the ink put on the rollers and distributed, and one impression
+printed on one of several sheets of thin paper which are run through
+the press together.[3] This printed sheet is then turned face down by
+the pressman and any unevenness of the impression noted. One of the
+printed pages is taken as a standard and by removing as many pieces of
+the thin sheets as necessary from under the plates where the
+impression is too heavy, and by adding where it is not heavy enough,
+the surface of the form is finally "evened," or made as nearly equal
+as possible.
+
+                   [Footnote 3: If one sheet of paper were run through
+                   the press before "making ready," it would not
+                   receive any impression, there being a space equal
+                   to the thickness of ten sheets of paper between the
+                   cylinder and the surface of the type. A bunch of
+                   six or eight sheets is therefore run through to get
+                   an impression for "make-ready" purposes.]
+
+After this another impression is taken, and of this sheet an
+"underlay" is made to further "even up" the form. The low places in
+the individual plates are carefully marked with crayon or a soft
+pencil on the impression, and the spots so marked are covered with a
+piece of thin paper. The printed pages are then cut out a little
+larger than the type page, and placed under the plates from which
+they were printed. The plates of the solid pages, which had been
+substituted for the open pages, are now removed, and the open pages
+are put back in their places on the form.
+
+Up to this point, all the "making ready" which has been done, is of
+permanent use in printing all of the forms of the book in question.
+The work that follows has to be done on each form as it is put on the
+press.
+
+More thin sheets of paper are now run through the press, the number
+run through together being one less than were printed for the
+underlay. These printed sheets are used for "overlays," which are very
+much like an underlay except that much more care is taken in marking
+any uneven places. A thinner paper is used to bring up the low places
+in the plates. An impression of the form is then made on the manila
+paper sheet which had, as before mentioned, been drawn around the
+cylinder, and on this printed manila sheet this overlay is pasted, the
+impression on the manila paper being a guide for the placing of the
+overlay.
+
+Another overlay is now made in the same way as the first; only it will
+now be found, if the work has been properly done, that there will be
+only a few spots to be covered with tissue. After this overlay has
+been made and the necessary pieces pasted over the first one, a thin
+sheet of manila is smoothly and tightly drawn around the cylinder,
+covering completely the thick manila sheet with the pasted overlays on
+it. The form is then ready to print.
+
+While the feeder, as the man who feeds the paper into the press is
+called, has been "filling in" the overlay, the pressman should have
+been getting "register,"--that is, moving the plates so that the
+headlines and the sides of the plates align properly, and that when
+both sides of the paper have been printed, the pages will exactly back
+each other. The ink fountain should also have been so regulated by
+means of thumb-screws that the right amount of ink will run on the
+rollers and be distributed evenly over the form. Where too much ink
+shows on the printed sheet, the thumb-screws on the fountain are
+tightened a little, to decrease the flow, and where not enough ink
+shows the thumb-screws are loosened to increase its flow. This process
+is repeated until the "color" is all right. The grippers, which seize
+and carry the sheets of paper through the press, the reels, cylinder
+bands, and many other things have also to be adjusted. These cannot
+well be described, but have to be learned by actual experience.
+
+The "making ready" and watching the sheets as they come from the press
+to see that the "color" does not vary, is the skilful part of the
+process. The feeding can be done by a bright boy after a few weeks'
+experience, but is now done automatically by machines to a great
+extent.
+
+While the press was being made ready, another set of men in charge of
+the paper have taken it out of the cases or bundles, counted out the
+number of sheets required for each form, piled it on hand trucks,
+keeping that required for each form separate, and have delivered it to
+the press. If a machine feeder is used, the paper is piled on the
+elevator of the feeder, from which it is automatically taken, one
+sheet at a time, and delivered on endless tapes to gauges on the feed
+board of the press, thus bringing every sheet in the same position
+each time. The number of sheets required for the order are printed
+from one form on one side and then from another form on the other
+side.
+
+From the preceding it can be seen that to get a press ready may be a
+matter of hours, while, in the case of ordinary book work, a press
+generally prints from 1200 to 2000 impressions and more per hour.
+
+The principal difference between making ready a form on a flat-bed
+perfecting press with two cylinders and on a single-cylinder press is
+in extra work necessary to obtain correct registering of the plates
+and in preventing an offset of the fresh ink on the second cylinder.
+Otherwise, a perfecting press is very much like two cylinder presses
+joined together. It has two sets of rollers, two ink fountains, two
+cylinders, two forms, etc., but only one feed board and one delivery.
+The sheet is fed to one cylinder and printed, taken from this
+cylinder by the second and printed on the second side, and delivered
+on the "fly board" ready to go to the shipping department.
+
+The process of making ready forms containing illustrations is
+practically the same as for plain ones, except that a new underlay is
+made for each form, and much more care and skill must be used on the
+cuts themselves. It frequently happens that one or even two days are
+spent making ready a form of half-tone cuts, before the actual
+printing, which takes perhaps half a day to do, can be begun.
+
+In most offices, a special "cut overlay" is made for forms with cuts,
+or illustrations. The cut is placed on a hand press before the form is
+made up, and proofs on four different thicknesses of paper are made.
+The heaviest paper is used as a bottom sheet, and the others are
+pasted on it. Out of the next to the thickest paper of all, the solid
+blacks are cut and pasted accurately on the same places on the bottom
+sheet. From the second or next thinner sheet, the medium shades
+including the solid blacks are cut and pasted on the bottom sheet,
+thus building up the blacks and strong shadows. From the thinnest
+sheet of all, the high lights and very light shades are cut, and the
+rest of the sheet is pasted on the bottom one. In this way the solid
+blacks and dark shadows on the cut have three thicknesses on the
+overlay; the next shades two, and the light shades one, where the high
+lights are cut out altogether. This is the common form of "cut
+overlay" used in most offices; but there are many other kinds, some
+being made on metal by chemical action. All kinds are fastened
+carefully over the impression of the cut made on the heavy manila
+sheet covering the cylinder, and the cut must not be moved on the form
+after the overlay has been fastened on the cylinder, or the effect of
+all the work will be entirely lost.
+
+One of the great troubles which the printer has to contend with, is
+electricity in the paper. The pressman is unaware of its presence
+until he lifts a printed sheet from the pile and receives a slight
+shock, and finds the sheets stick together. In the case of a cut form,
+the ink is almost sure to be offset, and in printing the second side
+of the paper the feeder will have to stop frequently to separate the
+sheets. Much money has been spent and many devices originated to
+overcome this trouble. Ink manufacturers make a liquid preparation to
+be applied to the packing. A row of lighted gas-jets placed near the
+point where the sheet goes on to the "flyboard," a heated steam-pipe,
+and many other things have been used, but a new device by which
+electricity is generated and carried into the press, and there
+neutralizes the electricity in the paper, is the best of them all.
+
+The printed sheets are counted automatically by the press, and as fast
+as enough accumulate, they are piled on hand trucks and removed to the
+shipping room. Here they are "jogged up" so that the edges are even
+and are counted again by hand. If they are to be shipped away, they
+are tied up in bundles or nailed in cases and marked for shipment. If
+the bindery is connected with the pressroom, they are simply jogged,
+counted, and piled on trucks and delivered in this way.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRINTING PRESS
+
+By Otto L. Raabe.
+
+
+Throughout the stages of development of the book-printing press the
+chief object has been to lessen the cost of printing. Whether the
+direct purpose of an improvement has been to increase the working
+speed of the press, to lessen the necessary operating power, to
+simplify the mechanism, to strengthen the parts, to lighten the
+pressman's labor, or to better the quality of printing, the ultimate
+aim has always been the same. It has been the constant incentive to
+invention and the standard for judging the adaptability of a press.
+
+The first printing press was the "wooden screw" press, which came into
+use about the middle of the fifteenth century, and was built upon the
+same mechanical principle as the linen presses in the homes of the
+well-to-do. This was the press used by Gutenberg.
+
+It consisted of two upright timbers held together at the top and the
+bottom by crosspieces of wood and with two intermediate cross-timbers.
+One of these intermediate cross-timbers supported a wooden or stone
+"bed" on which the form of type was placed, and through the other
+passed a large wooden screw, the lower point of which was attached to
+the centre of a flat, wooden plate, called the "platen." The lower
+side of the platen was covered with a soft "packing" or "blanket" of
+cloth. After the type had been inked, a sheet of paper was laid on it.
+This paper had previously been dampened so that it would take a better
+impression of the type. The screw was then turned down until the
+platen pressed the paper against the inked type, and produced a
+printed sheet.
+
+The form of type was incased in a frame called a "coffin." These
+coffins and the type within them were very heavy, but they had to be
+lifted in and out of the press by hand. After each impression the
+platen was screwed upward so that the sheet of paper which had been
+printed could be removed and hung up to dry.
+
+This simple form of press continued in use without material change
+until the early part of the seventeenth century. The first
+improvements on it came about 1620, and consisted of a device for
+rolling in and out the wooden or stone bed on which the type rested
+instead of lifting it by hand, of a new form of iron hand-lever for
+turning the screw, and of an iron screw in place of the wooden one.
+These were the inventions of William Janson Blaeuw, a printer of
+Amsterdam. Blaeuw's press was introduced into England and used there
+as well as on the continent. It was substantially the same press as
+that on which Benjamin Franklin worked when in London in 1735.
+
+After this first type of printing press had been in use for three and
+a half centuries, a much-improved form was invented by the Earl of
+Stanhope in 1798. The frame of his press was made of iron, cast in one
+piece; the bed, the impression plate, or "platen," and the other large
+parts were also of cast iron, while the working parts were of iron,
+steel, or brass. The iron impression screw was retained, but connected
+to it was a combination of levers whereby its power was greatly
+increased. This enabled the printing of larger forms and the use of a
+thinner and harder "packing," or "tympan," between the platen and the
+sheet of paper to be printed, resulting in a sharper and clearer
+impression. Much less exertion was required to work the lever, and at
+first, on this account, a printer, who was accustomed to use all his
+physical force on the old screw press, found it difficult to work on
+the new one.
+
+This improved style of press was received with so much favor by
+printers that several persons took up its manufacture, and competition
+soon reduced its cost and brought it into general use for printing
+newspapers as well as books. The process of printing remained about
+the same as in the earlier presses. Two men were required to work it.
+One spread the ink on a wooden block, rolling over it with two
+leather-covered balls, about six inches in diameter, stuffed with
+wool or horsehair, and fastened to round wooden handles. Holding one
+of these inking balls in each hand, he then rolled one upon the other
+to distribute the ink evenly over both of them, and applied the ink to
+the face of the type by rocking the balls over it until the entire
+form was inked. While this was being done, the other man was placing
+the sheet of paper on the "tympan." This was a light frame, in two
+parts, really forming two frames, one inside the other, and both
+covered with parchment. There was a woollen or felt blanket between
+them, and the two frames were held together by hooks. The outer frame
+was hinged at its lower end to the outer end of the bed of the press,
+and when ready to receive the paper, it stood in a nearly upright
+position at about right angles to the bed. On the frame were two or
+four pins, upon which the sheet of paper was impaled.
+
+Attached to the upper end of the inner frame by hinges was a thin and
+narrow frame, called the "frisket," of the same length and width as
+the inner tympan frame. This frisket was covered with strong paper in
+which were openings, cut a little larger than the size of the pages of
+the type-form. When the sheets of paper had been placed upon the
+tympan frame, the frisket was folded down upon it, and the two were
+then turned down over the form of type. The bed was then "run in"
+under the platen by means of a crank at the side of the press, and
+the platen was screwed down to make the impression. After the
+impression had been taken, the platen was screwed up, the bed "run
+out," the tympan frame and frisket lifted, and the printed sheet taken
+off.
+
+The introduction of this Stanhope press gave a great impetus to the
+development of the printing press in other countries as well as in
+England, and many varieties were devised during the thirty years
+following. Although as early as 1811 Koenig had made a cylinder press
+which had proved fairly successful, the better grades of printing
+could be obtained only by the flat pressure of the hand-presses. In
+some of these hand presses, the platen, or upper impression plate, was
+moved into position over the bed and remained stationary while the bed
+with the type-form upon it was forced upward to make the impression.
+In others, the platen was hinged to the bed, but in all of them the
+mechanism was complicated.
+
+The "Columbian" press, devised by George Clymer, of Philadelphia, in
+1816, gained considerable distinction both in this country and in
+England, where it was introduced in 1818. It differed from the
+Stanhope in that the screw was dispensed with, the platen being
+depressed by a combination of levers and lifted by the aid of a
+weighted balance-lever.
+
+The reduction of the hand-lever movement to its simplest and most
+powerful form is now seen in the Washington hand press, devised by
+Samuel Rust, of New York, in 1827. His patent was later purchased by
+R. Hoe & Co., who made nearly seven thousand of these presses in
+different sizes and still make many of a greatly strengthened pattern
+for taking fine proofs from photo-engraved plates. Some of these
+presses made before 1850 are still in use, and occasionally one hears
+of a Washington hand press being used for printing upon handmade paper
+an edition of a small and limited number of copies of a book. Of all
+the hand presses, this is the only one that has survived to the
+present day.
+
+With the introduction of other means for applying power than the
+hand-lever, a distinction came to be drawn between printing _presses_
+and printing _machines_. The term "machine" might perhaps be more
+appropriately used for the huge printing presses of the present day,
+yet, as the first essential is the impression power, all other
+features being subordinate, the term "press" is still the proper one
+to apply, even to the greatest combination of printing units yet
+devised.
+
+The "bed and platen" system of printing as first used in hand presses
+occupies such an important place in the history of the book-printing
+press that a further description of its career is necessary.
+
+In December, 1806, Friedrich Koenig, a Saxon, who later gave to the
+world the first practical cylinder press, went from Germany to England
+to seek assistance in carrying out his plans for the construction of
+a greatly improved printing press, having failed in his efforts in his
+own country and in Russia. He succeeded in enlisting the support of
+Thomas Bensley, a London printer, and constructed a press in which all
+the operations but laying on and taking off of the sheet were
+performed mechanically.
+
+An accurate description of this press is not extant, but it is known
+to have consisted of a large wooden frame, a platen worked by a
+vertical screw and gears, a type-bed drawn forward and backward by
+means of straps fastened to a large roller underneath the bed, a
+tympan frame and frisket arranged to open and close automatically with
+the movement of the bed, and an inking apparatus, consisting of an
+ink-box with a narrow slit in the bottom through which the ink was
+forced by a piston upon a roller below, from which it was transmitted
+by two intermediate rollers to another and lower roller which inked
+the form as it passed underneath. The two intermediate rollers had an
+alternating, lateral motion which spread or distributed the ink
+sideways before it reached the lowest roller.
+
+This press was the first to have ink-distributing rollers and the
+first to be run by steam power. In April, 1811, the "Annual Register"
+for 1810 was printed on it by Mr. Bensley at the rate of eight hundred
+impressions an hour. Nothing further is recorded about this press, and
+it was probably abandoned as being too complicated.
+
+In the following year, Koenig's first cylinder press was completed, to
+be followed two years later by an improved cylinder press made for the
+_London Times_, which will be referred to farther on.
+
+In his experiments, the Earl of Stanhope had tried, without success,
+to find a substitute for inking-balls by making rollers covered with
+different kinds of skins. He also tried other materials, such as
+cloth, silk, etc., but the unavoidable seam and the impossibility of
+keeping these materials soft and pliable defeated his purpose. About
+1813 inking-rollers made of a composition of glue and molasses came
+into general use, and this important invention was of great assistance
+in the further improvement of the printing press.
+
+Other cylinder presses with mechanical inking appliances were devised
+and patented, the most notable of which were those of Rutt, Bacon,
+Cowper, Applegath, and Napier, but the mechanical imperfections of
+these presses unfitted them for the better grades of book printing.
+
+Further efforts were, therefore, directed to increasing the output of
+the bed and platen presses by the application of improved inking
+devices, sheet-feeding, and impression mechanisms. About 1825 there
+was constructed by D. Napier, a machinist in London, a press
+containing such appliances which produced six to seven hundred
+impressions an hour. Other presses constructed upon the same
+principle, but with two type-beds, two sets of friskets, two inking
+mechanisms--and only one platen, in the centre of the press--were made
+by Hopkinson & Cope and by Napier, and were known as "double platen
+machines," though this is really a misnomer as there was only one
+platen.
+
+Napier's invention achieved the greatest popularity and came into
+general use. At each end of his press there was an inking device, a
+type-bed, and a frisket, each set of which operated alternately with
+the other, but either could be made inoperative if the "feeder," or
+"layer-on," failed to place the sheet in time. Four boys, besides the
+printer, were required--two to lay on, and two to take off the sheets.
+
+When the type-bed and the frisket carrying the sheet of paper were in
+position under the platen, the latter was drawn downward to make the
+impression by means of a "toggle" joint which acted upon two strong
+rods, one on each side, and was then raised again by a counterbalance
+weight. Owing to the awkward method of handling the paper, the working
+speed of the press was necessarily slow, and the size of the sheets
+limited to double royal, or 25 × 40 inches.
+
+The best presses of this type were those devised and patented by Isaac
+Adams, of Boston, in 1830 and 1836, and by Otis Tufts, also of Boston,
+in 1834. R. Hoe & Co., of New York, acquired Adams' business in 1858
+and continued the manufacture of his presses. Over one thousand in
+many different sizes were made by this firm, the largest printing a
+sheet 33 × 46 inches at a working speed of one thousand impressions an
+hour. The last Adams press was made in 1882, but quite a number are
+still in use in prominent printing-offices in New York, Boston, and a
+few other cities, where the results on fine book work are still
+considered better than from the faster cylinder presses. The
+mechanical principle employed in the Adams press for exerting a flat,
+parallel pressure has now been generally adopted for heavy stamping
+and embossing presses.
+
+To go back to the early part of the nineteenth century, when Koenig
+found his bed and platen press impracticable, he immediately set to
+work, assisted by one of his countrymen, Andreas Bauer, a mechanic who
+had helped him formerly, and in the latter part of 1812, the first
+flat-bed cylinder press was erected by them in Bensley's office. The
+cylinder of this press had three impression surfaces with spaces
+between them, and each covered with a soft blanket. With each forward
+movement of the type-bed the cylinder made one-third of a revolution
+and then came to a standstill, while the bed returned to its
+starting-point. The spaces between the impression surfaces allowed the
+type-form to pass under the cylinder without touching the blankets. At
+the end of the cylinder and at equal distances along its circumference
+were hinged three frisket frames, each fitted with tapes having reel
+springs at one end. The frisket frame of the uppermost impression
+surface rested in a vertically inclined position against the high
+framework of the inking mechanism. The sheet of paper was placed upon
+the blanket, and the cylinder then turned forward, drawing the frisket
+frame down with it, while the tapes, kept taut by the reel springs,
+adjusted themselves to the curvature of the cylinder and held the
+sheet upon it. After one-third of a revolution, the cylinder came to a
+stop to let the type-bed return. On the next forward movement of the
+bed and the next one-third of a revolution of the cylinder, the
+impression was made, and on the next repetition of these movements,
+the sheet was taken off by hand, and the cylinder returned to its
+original position to have another sheet placed on the first frisket.
+At every complete revolution of the cylinder and three complete
+reciprocating movements of the bed, three sheets were printed.
+
+The inking mechanism was similar to that employed on the bed and
+platen press, but the mechanism for forcing the ink through the slit
+in the bottom of the fountain was improved. The inking-rollers were
+covered with leather as before. The type-bed was moved by a very
+ingenious mechanism which is in use even at the present time, and is
+described farther on, when the two-revolution press is mentioned. The
+different parts were not connected with each other, the cylinder, the
+type-bed, the inking-rollers, and the fountain being operated
+independently by separate driving mechanisms. This press printed eight
+hundred sheets an hour, on one side. A part of Clarkson's "Life of
+William Penn" was printed on this press, and was the first book ever
+printed on a cylinder press.
+
+Printers and publishers were sceptical as to the practical value of
+this novel invention, but Mr. John Walter, the proprietor of the
+_London Times_, with better foresight than the others, and needing
+increased facilities for printing his paper, contracted for two
+presses, each to have two impression cylinders. These were constructed
+for him with great secrecy in a building adjoining the pressroom of
+the _Times_, and on November 28, 1814, the entire edition of that
+paper was printed on them,--the first cylinder presses driven by steam
+power.
+
+The mechanical principles were the same as in the first cylinder
+press. There were two impression cylinders, but only one type-bed, and
+the latter had, therefore, to travel a greater distance than in the
+single-cylinder press. This made it impossible to obtain quite double
+the output of the single-cylinder press, but each of these new presses
+produced eleven hundred impressions an hour, a very respectable
+performance for that early stage. The threefold motion of the
+cylinders was retained, but the frisket frames were displaced, and
+tapes running over rollers and underneath the cylinders held the
+sheets against the impression surfaces. An improvement was also made
+in the inking mechanism by the addition of an intermediate roller
+between the fountain and the upper distributing cylinder roller.
+
+The next step in advance was the construction of the first of the
+so-called perfecting presses, which was patented, December 24, 1814,
+and erected in Mr. Bensley's office in 1815 or 1816. This press had
+two type-beds and two impression cylinders, one of each near either
+end of the press. The cylinders instead of having a threefold motion
+revolved continuously. The circumference of each corresponded
+approximately to the distance traversed by one of the beds. The part
+of the cylinder which made the impression was a little larger in
+diameter than the remainder, the low portion giving the necessary room
+for the type-bed to return without touching it. The board from which
+the sheets were "fed" was near the centre of the press, and at the top
+adjoining the feed board was an endless belt made of cloth as wide as
+the board and running with an intermittent motion over two rollers.
+
+The sheet of paper was laid upon this belt, which then moved forward,
+carrying the sheet between the tapes and leading it to the top of,
+down and around, the first cylinder where it received the first
+impression. Thence the sheet was conveyed by the tapes to the top of
+and around the second impression cylinder and was printed on the
+reverse side, that is "perfected," and it was then taken from the
+lower side of the second cylinder by hand and laid upon a board in the
+centre of the press, between the two impression cylinders and
+underneath the feed board. This press printed both sides of a sheet
+21 × 34-1/2 inches at a speed of nine hundred to one thousand an hour.
+
+Shortly afterward a single-cylinder press was constructed upon the
+same principle, the forerunner of what is now known as the single
+large or drum cylinder press.
+
+Within the next few years, Applegath and Cowper greatly simplified the
+presses in the _Times_ and in Bensley's office by removing many of the
+gear wheels. They also invented the first inking-table, a flat, iron
+plate attached to the type-bed which enabled the rollers to distribute
+the ink more evenly than before. They placed rollers at an angle
+across the ink-table and introduced the revolving roller and the
+scraping blade in the ink-fountain.
+
+More important, however, were Napier's inventions about 1824, of
+"grippers" which seized the sheet of paper at its front edge and drew
+it from the feed board, while the cylinder was in motion, and of a
+method of alternately depressing and raising the impression cylinders
+on the forward and backward stroke of the type-bed, making it
+unnecessary to have a part of the cylinders of smaller diameter than
+the rest to allow the type to pass under it as the bed returned. This
+made it possible to use cylinders of a smaller diameter. These
+improvements were first embodied in a perfecting press made for
+Hansard, a London printer.
+
+Although a number of presses were already being operated by steam
+power, Hansard, in his description of the Napier bed and platen press
+(the "Nay-Peer," he called it) finds a peculiar advantage in that "it
+supersedes the necessity of steam power, as the motion of this machine
+is gained by two men turning a fly-wheel which acts as the impelling
+power."
+
+I have described the development of the printing press up to this
+state with considerable detail, because it discloses the main
+principles of the book press of the present day. During the first
+quarter of the last century, the manufacture of cylinder presses was
+confined to England, not only because London was then the leading
+centre of civilization, but because nowhere else could be found the
+mechanical facilities for constructing the large metal frames and
+parts. Koenig left London for his native land in 1817, dejected by the
+treatment he had received at the hands of Bensley, both in financial
+matters and in the attempts to disparage his achievements. He was
+followed two years later by his friend Bauer, and together they
+founded the firm of Koenig & Bauer at Oberzell, where it still thrives
+as one of the largest factories in Germany.
+
+It was not long, however, before the United States took the lead in
+the number of presses manufactured as well as in their improvement,
+and the present high state of efficiency of American presses makes
+them models which are copied in all other countries. These
+improvements and the perfections of details often presented problems
+which were more difficult to solve than those of the earlier
+inventors, and thousands of patents have been granted to Americans for
+new and ingenious devices.
+
+The firm of R. Hoe & Co., which as early as 1822 was already engaged
+in the manufacture of hand-presses in New York, commenced about 1832
+to manufacture flat-bed cylinder presses, beginning with the single
+large or drum cylinder press which was followed soon afterward by the
+single small cylinder and the double small cylinder press, the
+flat-bed perfecting press, the stop-cylinder press, the two-revolution
+press, and the rotary book press. They also made and are still making
+large newspaper and color presses which are used all over the
+civilized world, but of these we will not treat here.
+
+As stated at the beginning of this article the chief object in press
+making has always been to lessen the cost of printing, but after
+increased speed had been attained, there came a demand for a press
+that would produce the finest quality of printing without sacrificing
+the quantity produced.
+
+To meet this no press has ever surpassed the stop cylinder. It has
+been made in several different sizes, the largest having a type-bed
+45 × 65 inches. Resting upon and attached to a heavy iron foundation
+are two iron side frames which are securely braced together by an
+upper iron frame, called the "rib." This upper frame contains four
+tracks faced with hard steel, on which run a series of friction
+rollers, supporting the iron type-bed. Attached to the front of the
+type-bed is an iron plate, called the ink-table, its surface level
+with the surface of the type-form as it lies upon the bed.
+
+At the front of the press is the ink-fountain and a number of steel
+and composition rollers, called the "distributing rollers." The ink is
+delivered a little at a time from the fountain to the revolving
+distributing rollers, and from them to the ink-table which moves under
+the rollers with the motion of the type-bed. By this means the ink is
+distributed upon the entire surface of the ink-table in a thin, even
+film. From the ink-table the ink is taken by a set of six rollers,
+called the "form rollers." Resting on the form rollers and moving in
+contact with them are additional rollers which help to distribute the
+ink still finer before it reaches the type.
+
+The impression cylinder is located at a distance from the front of the
+press of about two-thirds of the entire length of the press. The
+circumference of the cylinder is equal to the distance that the
+type-bed travels in one direction. When the type-bed moves from the
+front to the rear, the cylinder rotates in unison with it, and thus
+the cylinder makes one revolution. While the bed returns the cylinder
+does not move.
+
+Near the rear of the press is a large wooden board extending across
+the press and lying in a slightly inclined position with its lower
+edge almost directly above the centre of the impression cylinder. This
+is the "feed board" upon which the sheets of paper lie before they are
+printed. The impression cylinder has a set of grippers, and when the
+cylinder is at rest, these grippers are close to the edge of the feed
+board and stand open to receive the edge of the sheet of paper.
+Extending a little over the front of the feed board are two gauges
+against which the front edge of the sheet of paper is placed, while
+one side edge of the sheet is placed against a gauge at the side of
+the feed board. Just an instant before the cylinder commences to
+rotate, the grippers seize the front edge of the sheet, and the gauges
+lift out of the way. The cylinder then carries the sheet around, meets
+the moving inked form, and makes the impression. Before the cylinder
+completes its revolution, the grippers open and release the sheet, and
+at the same instant another set of grippers on an adjoining cylinder,
+called the "delivery cylinder," seize the sheet. From this delivery
+cylinder the sheet runs down over a set of strings, and is lifted off
+the strings by a sort of fan, or "sheet flier," and deposited on a
+table at the rear of the press. This method of delivering the sheets
+is known as the cylinder or rear delivery. This press may also be
+fitted for "front delivery." By this method the sheet of paper after
+being printed is carried around on the impression cylinder until the
+front edge comes again to the feeding point. Just as the impression
+cylinder comes to a stop, a set of grippers seize the front edge of
+the printed sheet, draw it over and away from the impression cylinder,
+and deposit it, with the printed side up, upon a table near the front
+of the press and above the ink-fountain and distributing rollers.
+
+The average speed of one of these presses is from one thousand to
+fifteen hundred impressions an hour, depending upon the desired
+quality of the work.
+
+Notwithstanding the excellent qualities of the stop-cylinder press,
+commercial necessities often demand a sacrifice of quality to speed,
+and this has brought the two-revolution press into very general use.
+As the name implies, the cylinder makes two revolutions, one to print
+the sheet, and the other, an idle one, to allow the bed to return.
+While the bed is returning, the impression cylinder is lifted to clear
+the type-form. As the cylinder rotates continually at a uniform speed,
+the type-bed must also travel at a constant speed. The reversal of the
+movements of the bed must, therefore, take place in a short space of
+time.
+
+The study of inventors has been concentrated upon this subject more
+than upon any other connected with flat-bed presses, and hundreds of
+patents for "bed motions" have been taken out. Considering the fact
+that in the larger presses the weight of the bed and form is about one
+and a half tons and that this weight moving at a speed of about six
+feet in a second must be brought to a full stop and put into motion
+again in the opposite direction at full speed in about one-quarter of
+a second, it is obvious that the problem was not an easy one,
+especially when the reversal of the bed must be accomplished without a
+jar or vibration. The mechanism employed has always been a driving
+gear and one or two toothed racks. In Koenig's original movement, the
+driving gear on the end of a rising and falling shaft ran on top of a
+rack attached to the bottom of the bed in order to drive the bed in
+one direction, and then descending around the end of the rack ran in
+the bottom to the same rack to drive the bed in the other direction
+and ascending at the other end to repeat the movement. This, as
+already stated, has proven a very efficient mechanism and is employed,
+with improvements, by some of the press manufacturers of the present
+time.
+
+In a pamphlet entitled "A Short History of the Printing Press" (New
+York, 1902), by Robert Hoe, the writer describes a method of reversing
+the bed. Although somewhat technical, it seems desirable to quote him
+as follows: "As early as 1847, Hoe & Co. patented an entirely new
+bed-driving mechanism. To a hanger fixed on the lower side of the bed
+were attached two racks facing each other, but not in the same
+vertical plane, and separated by a distance equal to the diameter of
+the driving wheel, which was on a horizontal shaft and movable
+sideways so as to engage in either one or other of the racks. By this
+means, a uniform movement was obtained in each direction. The reversal
+of the bed was accomplished by a roller at either end of the bed
+entering a recess in a disc on the driving shaft, which in a
+half-revolution brought the bed to a stop and started it in the
+opposite direction. This involved a new principle; a crank action
+operating directly upon the bed from a shaft having a fixed centre,
+and within recent years modifications of this patent have been
+successfully employed to drive the type-bed at a high velocity and
+reverse it without a shock or vibration."
+
+This invention appears to have been the forerunner of the more recent
+improvements in bed motions. A notable one is that employed in the
+Miehle presses, which have gained much celebrity, run at a high rate
+of speed, and are used in many printing-offices in this and other
+countries. The reversal of the bed movement is accomplished by a
+so-called "true crank" movement and with an absence of jar and
+vibration never before obtained in any other than the stop-cylinder
+presses.
+
+At the present time, the latest development in printing presses is Hoe
+& Co.'s new two-revolution press, in which, also, the reversal of the
+bed is accomplished by the true crank movement, but with an
+improvement which brings it to an easy stop and returns it without the
+least vibration.
+
+On all two-revolution presses there are employed, to assist in the
+reversal of the bed, air-chambers or cylinders, without which the
+reversing mechanisms could not withstand the enormous strain to which
+they are subjected. These are iron cylinders, closed at one end,
+approximately six inches in diameter and eighteen inches long, and
+varying in size according to the size of the press. Some presses have
+two and others four of these cylinders, one or two at each end. The
+open ends of the cylinders are toward the bed, and attached to the bed
+are two or four pistons which enter the air-chambers as the bed nears
+the end of its stroke. The compression of the air in the cylinders
+makes a cushion and checks the momentum of the moving bed. The pistons
+can be adjusted to regulate the air compression to suit the velocity
+of the bed and the weight of the form, which vary in different kinds
+of work.
+
+The delivery of the printed sheets is performed either by a delivery
+cylinder or by a front delivery with the printed side of the paper
+uppermost as already described for the stop-cylinder presses. Grippers
+are not used in the front delivery carriage, as the sheet is
+discharged from the cylinder by its continuous rotation.
+
+The average running speed of a two-revolution press is about one-third
+greater than that of a stop cylinder, or about eighteen hundred
+impressions an hour, as against from one thousand to thirteen hundred
+and fifty impressions from the stop cylinder, this being the
+comparison in presses of the average size, printing sheets about
+33 × 46 inches. The driving power required is in the proportion of
+about five for the two-revolution press to three for the stop
+cylinder, and the wear and tear is in about the same proportion.
+
+Another press, which is still employed to a small extent for
+book-work, is the flat-bed perfecting press. This press is virtually
+two two-revolution presses combined into one, with the advantage that
+they require only one man as "feeder," but with the disadvantage that
+they produce only about two-thirds as much work as two separate
+single-cylinder, two-revolution presses. Their greatest disadvantage
+lies in the difficulty of preventing the fresh ink on the side of the
+sheet first printed from "setting off" on the packing of the cylinder
+which prints the reverse or second side. Mechanisms are employed to
+move the "tympan sheet" or outside covering of the second cylinder
+along at fixed intervals, but they are complicated and troublesome.
+These presses are expensive and cumbersome, and can generally be used
+only for inferior grades of work in large editions. Under the care of
+a skilful and painstaking pressman, good work can be produced from
+them, but fine book-work is always done on stop-cylinder and
+two-revolution, single-cylinder presses, which have now been brought
+to a high state of perfection.
+
+Nearly a hundred years ago Hansard wrote, "The printing machine in its
+present state appears susceptible of little improvement." He was, in
+truth, right so far as the main principles of the flat-bed cylinder
+press are concerned, but there have been immense improvements in many
+of the details. With the introduction of automatic sheet-feeding
+devices, and improvements in the driving, inking, and delivery
+arrangements, mechanical ingenuity seems to have been exhausted. The
+temptation is strong to apply Hansard's prediction to the flat-bed
+cylinder press of the present day, but with the many surprises that
+meet us in other fields this would border on temerity.
+
+Already there have been great advances in adapting the entirely rotary
+principle to the printing of high-grade work, although its use is
+still restricted to the production of large editions.
+
+As early as 1852 Hoe & Co. made a rotary press for D. Appleton & Co.,
+especially for printing the famous Webster spelling-book. The types
+were locked up on the cylinders in curved beds, called "turtles," and
+the sheets were delivered by a sheet-flier. Probably thirty million
+copies were printed on this press, which was dismantled nearly
+twenty-six years ago.
+
+In 1886 this same concern made a press which is still used for
+printing some of the forms of the _Century Magazine_. This press had
+two pairs of cylinders, and curved electrotype plates were used on it.
+The paper was in a roll at one end, and at the other end there were
+delivered, to each revolution of the cylinders, eight eight-page
+signatures already folded to the size of the _Century_ page. This was
+the first rotary press made for a good grade of book-work. Two similar
+presses were afterward made for _Harper's Weekly_ and for the _Strand
+Magazine_ of London.
+
+What is known as the rotary art press was made in 1890 for printing
+the fine half-tone illustrations in the _Century Magazine_.
+
+This has one plate cylinder and one impression cylinder, and curved
+electrotype plates are used. The sheets are "fed" by hand in the usual
+manner, and are printed on one side at a time and delivered by a
+sheet-flier. It produces as much work as four flat-bed cylinder
+presses and of better quality. The plates are inked by sixteen
+rollers. The performance of this press is another demonstration of the
+superiority of the rotary over the flat-bed principle of printing.
+
+Since then hundreds of rotary presses have been made for magazine and
+book printing, most of them equipped with attachments for folding the
+sheets as they are printed, and all having a high rate of speed. C.
+B. Cottrell & Co. have made many rotary presses for magazine printing,
+most of which deliver the sheets flat, without folding, and most of
+them made to suit some predetermined size or sizes of sheets or pages.
+
+In the evolution of the printing press there are three sharply defined
+stages: first, the flat impression surface and the flat printing
+surface, requiring the exertion of all of the impressing power upon
+the entire surfaces; second, the cylindrical impression surface and
+the flat printing surface, requiring the exertion of all of the
+impressing power upon only a narrow line or a small portion of the
+printing surface; third, a cylindrical impression surface and a
+cylindrical printing surface, still further reducing the area upon
+which all the impressing power is exerted.
+
+Just as the second stage has, particularly for book-work, virtually
+superseded the first, so the third is destined to supersede the
+second. It is only an adaptation of the means to the ends. The
+mechanical principles of the rotary press are, in fact, simpler than
+those of the flat-bed cylinder press, and it may be said that so far
+as the purely mechanical part of the press is concerned, they have
+been fully developed, but much still remains to be done in other
+directions. The variety in the sizes of the pages of different books,
+the smallness of the editions, and the fact that the finer grades of
+paper, especially coated paper, cannot be obtained in roll form, are
+obstacles to be removed. As most book forms are electrotyped for
+flat-bed presses, and as it requires but little additional expense to
+curve the plates, this one item is not much of an obstacle to
+overcome. It is, however, still difficult to curve the plates
+perfectly, and the pressmen, even if they can produce excellent work
+from flat-bed presses, require considerable training if they have had
+no experience on rotary presses. All these difficulties are sure to be
+overcome in time.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING INK
+
+By James A. Ullman.
+
+
+The process of making printing ink consists of grinding a pigment,
+black, white, or colored, into a suitable varnish. The pigment is that
+constituent which makes the impression visible, while the varnish is
+the vehicle which carries the pigment during the operation of grinding
+and during its distribution on the press to the type, from the type to
+the paper, and ultimately binds it to the paper.
+
+A complete factory for the production of printing ink consequently
+consists of three distinct plants,--one for the production of the
+varnishes, one for the manufacture of the pigments, and one for the
+grinding of the pigments into the varnishes.
+
+Roughly speaking, the varnishes are divided into three classes, the
+first and second of which are the varnishes proper, _i.e._ the resin
+and the linseed varnishes, while the third class consists of dryers,
+etc., whose purpose is to influence the drying and consistency of the
+inks.
+
+Taking up first the proper varnishes, we find that these are produced
+by the destructive distillation of resin in huge cast-iron stills. By
+this process, the solid resin of colophony is split up into water,
+various resinic acids or naphthas, and resin oils of various specific
+gravities and consistencies, all of which are separated from each
+other into separate containers which are ready to receive them. As one
+distillation is not sufficient to purify the resin oils from the water
+and acid, which would not only give the resulting ink an obnoxious
+odor but be detrimental to type, plates, etc., the distillation is
+repeated a number of times until the oils become perfectly pure. The
+grades of varnishes made from these resin oils are used for the
+cheaper classes of printing inks, not only on account of their lower
+cost, but because they are more suitable for the class of work for
+which such inks are used.
+
+The linseed varnishes are made by boiling refined linseed oils at a
+very high temperature. The linseed oil loses its acrid elements by
+volatilization, and gradually becomes thick and viscous, the various
+"numbers" or consistencies of these varnishes being dependent upon the
+length of time during which the oil is subjected to the process, and
+to the temperature applied.
+
+The dryers are made by adding to the linseed oil during the boiling,
+suitable oxidizing agents, such as compounds of lead or manganese, by
+means of which the oil is chemically affected, _i.e._ it is oxidized.
+Such dryers, when added to printing ink, attracts the oxygen of the
+air and transfer it by catalytic action to the varnish of the ink,
+thus causing it to oxidize more rapidly, or to become, as it is
+commonly called, dry.
+
+Having disposed of the manufacture of the varnishes and dryers, we now
+come to the manufacture of pigments. This is such a large field that
+it can be only cursorily covered within the limits of a short article.
+The pigments are of many kinds and classes. The blacks alone would
+form a large chapter by themselves; yet all of them consist of carbon,
+produced by the combustion of hydrocarbons of various kinds, and
+according to their origin they are the so-called carbon blacks, lamp
+blacks, spirit blacks, oil blacks, Frankfort blacks, etc., each of
+which has its distinct and peculiar properties and value for its
+specific purpose.
+
+The other pigments fall naturally into two divisions,--chemical colors
+and the so-called "lakes." The chemical colors are in general of
+mineral origin, produced by the action of one chemical upon the other,
+or in some cases by physical or chemical action upon earths and ores.
+In the first group, we have such colors as vermilions, white lead,
+chrome yellows, the ferrocyanide blues (Milori blues, bronze blues,
+Prussian blues, Chinese blues, Antwerp blues, Paris blues, Berlin
+blues), ultramarines, etc.; in the second group, such colors as
+cyanides, umbers, Indian red, and many others.
+
+The lakes are principally formed by the use of coal-tar derivatives,
+and are usually incorrectly grouped as anilines. They are produced by
+precipitating water-soluble dyes upon a suitable substratum or base.
+Their shades, strength, brilliancy, permanency, and working qualities
+are dependent upon the nature of the dye itself, upon the nature and
+percentage of the substratum or base, and also upon the suitable
+selection and manipulation of the precipitating agents. This class of
+colors is to-day by far the most important of all, since through great
+progress made in chemistry in recent years, it is possible to make
+them of the greatest possible strength and permanency, together with a
+brilliancy of shade which was for many years an ideal earnestly
+striven for, but apparently impossible to accomplish.
+
+Having thus considered the products which are the principal raw
+materials of printing ink, we now come to the ink itself. Being
+provided with all the varnishes, pigments, dryers, etc., of suitable
+qualities and shades, it is necessary to combine them in proper
+proportions, after selecting such as will be mutually compatible, and
+to grind them to the utmost fineness. The machinery to accomplish this
+purpose consists, first, of mixers, in which the ingredients are
+thoroughly incorporated with each other. This being done, the
+resulting mixture or "pulp," as it is called, is ground upon mills
+formed of rollers or cylinders, which are set in close contact by
+means of screws and made to revolve by power. Between these rollers
+the pulp is passed again and again, the number of times being
+dependent upon the consistency of the ink and the nature of the
+pigments, until it is ground or comminuted to the utmost fineness. The
+result is printing ink as it is known to the printer, varying in
+consistency, strength, intensity, permanency, brilliancy, drying, and
+other working qualities, according to the nature of the various
+varnishes, dryers, and pigments with which it is made.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRINTER'S ROLLER
+
+By Albert S. Burlingham.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the fact that no one thing connected with the art of
+printing has done more toward the advancement of that art than the
+simple inking appliance familiarly and commonly known as "the
+printer's roller,"--without which, indeed, the evolution of the power
+printing press from the primitive hand machines of the fathers would
+not have been possible,--it is an inexplicable truth that historians
+and encyclopædia makers who have made investigation of the origin and
+progress of the art seem to have attached so little of importance to
+the invention or introduction of the composition roller that only
+meagre and casual reference is made to it. Even its predecessor, the
+"ink-ball," receives but scant courtesy at the hands of these
+chroniclers, for while they enter into the minutest detail (and
+properly so) in investigating as to whom the world is indebted for the
+idea of movable types and the invention of the printing press, they
+have not thought it worth their while to rescue from oblivion the
+suggester or adapter or constructor--whatever he may have been--of
+the device by which those types were inked to receive the impression
+from that press, and without which neither types nor press would have
+been of any avail.
+
+It seems to be established beyond doubt, however, that the first
+suggestion of a roller to take the place of the ink-balls in applying
+ink to type forms was that of William Nicholson, with whom, also, the
+idea of the cylinder press originated, in 1790. He recognized the fact
+that no power press on the cylinder principle could be of practical
+use without an inking apparatus different from the primitive
+ink-balls. These were hollowed-out blocks of beech, mounted with a
+handle, the cavity stuffed with wool and covered with untanned
+sheepskin which had been well trodden until it was soft and pliable.
+
+The early printing presses were made of wood, and two men were
+required to work a press--one to make the impressions and one to ink
+the forms with the balls. The ink was contained in a receptacle called
+the ink-table. It was enclosed on three sides, and was attached firmly
+to one post, or cheek, of the press, on which were the racks for
+holding the ink-balls when not in use. A beechen implement, resembling
+somewhat our potato masher, and called the "brayer," was used to
+manipulate the ink as it lay on the table; an iron shovel, known as
+the "slicer," being used to portion out from the mass of ink such
+quantities as were needed from time to time for the brayer.
+
+It required much strength to manipulate the ink-balls properly, and
+thus it was a man's work. Taking up ink with them from the table, the
+operator vigorously beat the balls together with a rolling movement,
+turning them a little at a time so as to make the ink cover the entire
+surface and distribute it perfectly thereon. Then the type-forms were
+beaten with them until they were properly inked. The work of printing
+off an edition was divided between the two men, one manipulating the
+ink-balls for an hour, and then taking his turn at the press, while
+for the next hour his fellow-workman attended to the inking.
+
+William Nicholson, seeing at once that the idea of a cylinder press
+could never be worked out to practical perfection with such a process
+of inking as that, built up an inking roller with manifold layers of
+cloth, which he covered with the trodden sheep-pelt surface used in
+the ink-balls, the distribution of the ink on the roller to be made by
+contact with a revolving cylinder of wood. The idea was there, but
+that it would have had the intended result was never known, for
+although Nicholson's press contained nearly all the principles on
+which the cylinder presses of our day are constructed, it lacked one
+vital feature--the attaching of the type-forms to the cylinders--and
+was consequently not of any practical use.
+
+The Earl of Stanhope, who, in 1798, invented the first iron frame and
+"platen" press, with the improvement of levers in addition to screws
+to give the impression, coupled with his object Nicholson's idea of an
+inking roller or revolving cylinder. He spent large sums in trying to
+find a substance that he could utilize for that purpose. He
+investigated with the skins of many animals, domestic and wild, and
+tanned and dressed in various ways. Different textures of cloth and
+varieties of silk were used, but without success. The seam that was
+necessary down the entire length of the roller was one great
+impediment to success, and even if that could have been overcome, the
+proper softness and pliability of surface for receiving and depositing
+the ink evenly and smoothly on the type could not be obtained from any
+of the processes experimented with; and Stanhope's improvement in
+printing presses was still subject to the inconvenience of the ancient
+ink-balls.
+
+In 1807 a printer named Maxwell made a sheepskin roller which he
+introduced into Philadelphia. It failed of success, and the printers
+returned to the ink-balls. This Maxwell roller was reintroduced by
+Fanshaw, a New York printer, in 1815, but the printers of that city
+rejected it.
+
+The inventors in England were still busily engaged in trying to solve
+the problem of the cylinder press that Nicholson had more than
+suggested in 1790, and the one great obstacle to success was the
+absence of a proper substance for supplying the need of an inking
+roller, the difficulty of the type and cylinder having been overcome
+by the invention of the "turtle" form. In 1813 a man whose name one
+historian gives as B. Foster, another as T. B. Foster, and to whom
+another refers as "Forster, an ingenious printer, employed by S.
+Hamilton, at Weymouth, England," one day visited the Staffordshire
+pottery. In a coloring process in use there Forster, or Foster,
+noticed a peculiar composition that covered the surface of the
+potter's "dabber." It was moist, pliable, and elastic. The historians
+do not say so, but we may well imagine that this "ingenious printer,"
+seeing in that composition what he believed to be the long-sought
+substance that would do away with the sheep pelt as an inking device,
+with all that implied to the progress of the art of printing, must
+have awaited with feelings of acute anxiety the answer of the potter
+to his query as to what that composition was.
+
+And what was it? "Glue and treacle,"--two of the simplest of articles,
+and the easiest to obtain. The printer experimented with them, and
+although he was the first to put to practical use in the art of
+printing the thing that revolutionized it and advanced it to its
+present state of wonderful perfection, yet so far as the printed
+chronicle of him goes, we do not know what his Christian name was, or
+whether his surname was Foster or Forster; and one chronicler states
+that it was in 1813, and another that it was in 1815, that he
+discovered roller composition to his fellow-printers.
+
+The collateral evidence, however, is to the effect that it was in
+1813. Forster (admitting that to have been his name), proved the
+availability of glue and molasses as an inking surface, not by using
+it in the form of a roller, but by coating a canvas with it, and using
+the canvas thus prepared in place of the sheep pelt on inking balls.
+From this the press inventors got the idea of coating a wooden
+cylinder with the composition. Applegath & Cowper, inventors of the
+Applegath cylinder press, were the first to adapt it in roller form,
+and for a time held a patent on the use of it; but the courts of
+England decided that there could be no patent on the composition, and
+substitutes for the manufacture of rollers having been devised which
+were no infringement on Applegath & Cowper's moulds, the compound came
+into open use, and Koenig, who had so improved and perfected
+Nicholson's ideas and plans for a power cylinder press, was able, in
+1814, by the adaptation of the glue and molasses roller, to print the
+first edition of a newspaper that was ever run from a cylinder
+press--the historic edition of _The London Times_. The problem of the
+inking apparatus solved, there was no longer any limit to the exercise
+of inventive genius in the advancement of the printing art; and it
+is, therefore, to the printer's roller, more than to any one thing,
+that that art owes its wonderful preëminence to-day.
+
+There is no record in any of the histories of printing, or in
+encyclopædias, of who it was that introduced the composition roller
+into use in this country, or any reference to the date when it came
+into service. De Vinne, in his "Typographia," published in 1876, says
+that ink-balls were in use here "fifty years ago," or in 1826; but it
+must have been only in isolated and out-of-the-way rural printing
+offices, for it can hardly be supposed that Yankee "go-aheadativeness"
+would have failed to recognize at once the importance of the
+discovery, or have long delayed its general adoption, although the
+hand press, with many improvements, remained the universal printing
+machine in the United States until 1822, when the Treadwell power
+press gave the first impulse to more rapid printing. The Treadwell was
+not a cylinder press, but its invention would have been of no
+consequence without the composition roller. It is certain, however,
+that more than sixty years ago the melting pot and roller mould had
+become an important adjunct to every rural printing office, and the
+making of a new roller was an event in the routine of the
+establishment. The orthodox mixture for the composition in the
+printing office where the writer of this was the "devil" forty-seven
+years ago was "a pint of sugar-house molasses to every pound of the
+best glue, with a tablespoonful of tar to every three pints and three
+pounds." And that was the customary composition of that day among
+country printers.
+
+There is a tradition among printers and roller-makers that the first
+roller turned out in this country was moulded in a stove pipe; but
+whether it was or not, and no matter who the first roller-maker might
+have been, it is a fact that the advance in the art of roller-making
+has had to be rapid in order to keep pace with the vast improvements
+in the cylinder press which the first composition called into use, and
+the old-fashioned glue and molasses rollers would be now of no more
+service to them than would the primitive ink-balls which the roller
+replaced. A comparison between the mode of making a roller in the
+early days of the business and the methods in use to-day will be of
+interest.
+
+In the old days the composition was cooked in a caldron over a coal
+fire, with water between two jackets to make the steam that forced the
+melting. The cast-iron moulds were placed near a stove to give them
+the necessary warmth of inner surface, a warm mould being required to
+give a good "face" to the roller in the casting. While cooking, the
+composition was constantly stirred with a stick to assist in the
+proper assimilation of the ingredients. After it had reached the
+proper stage, it was strained from the melting kettle into pouring
+kettles, similar to ordinary milk pails. The composition was poured
+from the top. Naturally, this let into the moulds, with the
+composition, the air bubbles and froth that were always present, which
+caused imperfections in the rollers. After pouring, it was necessary
+to let the moulds stand all night, so the composition might become
+sufficiently cool to permit the "drawing" of the rollers. This was
+effected by placing a stick against the iron journal at one end of the
+roller core and pushing until the roller was forced out of the mould.
+
+But the roller factory of to-day is quite a different affair. Instead
+of separate moulds standing about a stove to get ready for the
+pouring, there are moulds in nests, or cylinders, resembling a Gatling
+gun, or a tubular boiler. There will perhaps be twenty roller moulds
+in a nest. The cylinders are balanced in the centre on journals, thus
+enabling the workman to place them at any angle desired, for purposes
+of oiling the moulds and loading them with the roller cores. The
+cylinders have hot and cold water contact, by which they may be
+surrounded by either at will. To warm the moulds the cylinder is put
+in an upright position, and hot water circulated about it the required
+length of time.
+
+The composition--which is something more than the old-time glue and
+molasses--is prepared for pouring by melting in a double-jacketed
+steam kettle, the stirring being done by a mixer run by steam power.
+When ready, the composition is drawn off from the bottom of the
+cooking kettles into pouring kettles which have air-tight hoods. To
+these a hose is attached, the other end of the hose being connected
+with a tank which is charged with air by a pump. The hose being then
+attached to the cylinder, the air is introduced from the tank into the
+pouring kettle, forcing the composition upward into the cylinder, and
+all air from the moulds. This insures a perfect roller.
+
+When the composition has reached the top of the roller stocks, the
+valve at the bottom of the cylinder is closed, and the process is
+continued to the next cylinder ready for pouring. The cooling of the
+cylinders is effected by turning the cold water current around them,
+and a nest of moulds may be filled and emptied four or five times a
+day. After the cooling, the bottom plate of the cylinder is removed;
+the rollers drop out, are trimmed, and are ready for the shipping box.
+
+
+
+
+THE ILLUSTRATOR
+
+By Charles D. Williams.
+
+
+It is only in comparatively modern times that the art of illustration
+has received the encouragement that makes for perfection. For this,
+the cheapening of the manufacturing cost in printing is mainly
+responsible. An illustration proper should always accompany text and
+in days past the making of a book was so costly in itself that the
+possibility of illustration was almost beyond thought. Only the
+wealthy could afford illustrated books and as their reading was very
+limited, naturally illustration was crowded to the wall. Those with
+money to spend on pictures preferred decorations or portraits,
+consequently the endeavors of artists were aimed at supplying what
+suited the tastes of buyers. Illustration is and always has been the
+art of the people. It makes clearer to the imagination their stories
+and their songs, it mirrors their manner of life, interests, and
+pursuits in a way that brightens what would otherwise often be
+commonplace.
+
+Art seems to entwine itself about the strongest figures in a
+community, absorbing with its nourishment the ethical qualities of
+the leader. Thus we have Michael Angelo in a community ruled by the
+church, creating, at its demands, a "Day of Judgment," a "Magdalen at
+the Cross," a "Moses," and Velasquez, evolving a marvellous technique
+while immortalizing in wonderful portraits the vanity of his Spanish
+lords.
+
+So that at the present day, with the people in ascendency, what is
+more probable than the perfect development of the art which most
+appeals to their tastes? Every day, artists of the highest
+intelligence find in illustration an opportunity to give the best that
+is in them, and the chances that illustration will reach the heights
+of perfection attained by other branches of art are exceedingly good.
+
+The opportunities for an illustrator are without end, and the problems
+are beyond number. It is a difficult performance to hand out, to
+order, pictures in which human emotions stand counterfeited. In the
+fact that illustration springs from and stands with the written tale
+and must finally serve its proper place between board covers, the man
+who labors at it finds some of his work already finished for him by
+the author. But it is a saving that tantalizes more than it assists.
+
+The technical equipment of the artist must twist into realistic
+semblance, clear to the eye, the imaginary product of the author. He
+must not add to it nor take away from it--even for the sake of beauty
+in his picture--one iota of the facts given him. His imagination,
+grasping all the ideas of the author, must assemble them and find a
+place for each one, good, bad, and indifferent, and present them to
+the reader in a form that will command his approval.
+
+The artist cannot tease the mind with the vague influence of
+description, as can the author, nor can he veil his products with the
+pleasing glamour of unreality. Without haze his work stands forth,
+bold facts in half-tone reproduction and printer's ink, fighting an
+uncertain fight at best with the imagination of the reader.
+
+People will have illustrations, though. If the pictures do not
+literally fill the bill, they nevertheless please. Something definite,
+carrying a story idea, is always acceptable.
+
+Something which excites the imagination invariably challenges
+interest, and the illustrator who is true to his calling and above
+shirking his task enhances the interesting features of a book a
+thousand fold, if he spares no pains in arriving at an actual
+expression of the author's intention.
+
+The knowledge that an illustrator brings to his work should be as
+broad and varied as human history. Above and beyond his ability to
+draw or execute in a manner technically pleasing, should stand his
+knowledge of people, places, and events. It should include all Things,
+Ologies, and Isms. A living Index he must be, knowing just enough to
+readily discover more, and with this knowledge he must make others
+feel and imagine.
+
+If the author would tell of wars, Trojan, Egyptian, or Siamese, the
+illustrator must follow him and be truthful. He must know enough of
+Troy, Egypt, or Siam to make clear to the reader the face, form, and
+clothes of the characters, their weapons of bloodshed, their way of
+killing, how they marched to do it and through what manner of country.
+He must know or find out all these things, and within all his pictures
+must carry the spirit of terror and murder that stalked at the time,
+so carefully expressed that the terror and murder will be of that
+particular epoch and no other. All this must be shown as clearly as
+that the characters belong to their helmets or shields, their war
+chariots or bamboo lances. Simple the task may seem in these days of
+public libraries and ready reference, yet it is a most nerve-racking
+business, this placing an embossed helm or set of greaves on the hero
+of a story, so that he may stand out a Roman, and when the labor is
+finished having him stare genially out at you, insistently proclaiming
+the masquerade, and seemingly proud of his resemblance to a St. Louis
+button salesman.
+
+When all is said and done the illustrator's strongest asset is spirit.
+Technique and a grain of insight will help a man over many a rut in
+portraiture, and a knowledge of patting clay and using a chisel has
+saved many a sculptor, but technical equipment alone never made an
+illustrator, because he deals too directly with life in action. Slack
+drawing and impatience of method will always be pardoned in an
+illustrator, if his picture convinces.
+
+Let a writer tell of a pair in love and the illustrator pictures their
+kiss; if he convinces the reader that the kiss is in earnest, the
+drawing may be full of faults, but the point is made and nothing more
+is asked, save that "she" be pretty and "he" manly. Consider the
+difficulty of this trick of convincing, when the words of love
+carefully weighed and prepared by the author and set into the
+atmosphere of a scene equally well prepared will often occasion
+derisive smiles. So it may be explained that the purpose of
+illustration is to carry the spirit of action rather than to serve as
+a basis for deft expression of technical skill, and illustration will
+reach its highest development along the lines which give it an excuse
+for its existence.
+
+The mechanical processes for the reproduction of illustrations have
+served to develop various methods of drawing the original picture. The
+half-tone screen in connection with photography has made possible an
+almost exact copy of the artist's work, and at very small cost.
+Formerly an illustration was drawn on a wood block and turned over to
+a wood engraver, who laboriously cut it into the block and as he cut
+away the drawing as he worked it was impossible to compare his
+reproduction with the original. It can be readily seen that only a
+very good engraver was to be trusted to reproduce anything of value,
+and as there were never very many engravers of the first class,
+artists' work usually suffered. Half-tone engraving reproduces a
+drawing by photography and necessarily shows much of the individual
+method of the artist. Zinc etching of pen-and-ink drawings is even
+more exact in its results. Lately, methods of reproducing colored
+originals and paintings have been brought forward, and the results are
+surprisingly good. Scientific photography is at the bottom of this,
+and the old method of lithography, which demanded ten or twelve
+printings in reproduction, and then fell short, seems to have seen the
+last day on which it will break the heart of the artist.
+
+Because of the sun and the dry plate, illustrators had to find inks
+and methods which would aid the engraver as much as possible. The use
+of opaque white as a ground for the mixture of tones, with its
+resultant bluish cast in black-and-white drawing, has almost
+disappeared. The camera will not find gradations in blue and artists
+have found it better to use pure india ink washed out in water,
+allowing the white of the paper to serve for high lights. Of course,
+opaque has its uses, but it is only after much experience and many
+disappointments that an artist can learn just where to use it and how.
+Pen-and-ink drawings and crayon drawings on rough paper in which the
+crayon is applied direct, and not rubbed, will always please the
+engraver most and return the best reproductions; but in this case
+cleverness and technique demand the greater notice from the artist if
+he would have the result interesting. A successful pen drawing is an
+achievement almost equal to an etching and it is unfortunate,
+considering the ease with which it may be successfully engraved, that
+good pen drawing is so rare.
+
+Black-and-white oil offers an inviting field to the illustrator who
+aims at a sense of completeness in his work. Honestly handled, there
+is no other method of working that can convey an equal feeling of
+solidity and earnestness. By its use an artist can suggest all the
+qualities of a full-color painting and impress one with the
+last-forever look that thought and study gives to earnest work.
+
+Most drawings for reproduction are worked in wash--why, it is hard to
+say. Oil will shine and reflect lights, and the engraver has this to
+overcome; but, barring the lightness and appearance of ease that wash
+suggests, there is no very apparent difference in the reproductions,
+and oil has the advantage of greater simplicity in detail.
+
+For deftness and brilliancy illustrations finished in crayon rubbed
+into tones easily surpass those done by other methods, but the process
+has the disadvantage of appearing thin in the reproduction, unless
+the plate is very carefully tooled and printed.
+
+When the illustrator has chosen his subject and decided on the method
+of treatment that will best serve the demands of the story to be
+pictured, fully half his labor is completed.
+
+The preliminary sketches necessary to the condensing of his ideas open
+the door to the real pleasure in his work--standing up a model and
+creating therefrom a character is pure joy, and it is for this alone
+that the illustrator toils through the dry dust of reference libraries
+and costume shops.
+
+Models are either a great aid or a great drawback in the picturing of
+characters, for while they assist the artist by simplifying the labor
+of drawing, they often handicap him by intruding their own personality
+into the work, thereby spoiling the sense of character aimed at. When
+an illustrator allows this to happen, it does not matter how beautiful
+or accurate his sketch may be, he fails in the first essential of his
+craft, entering forthwith into the field occupied by painters and
+decorators, who can do the same thing very much better. So, while the
+model is often a necessary appendage to the construction of a
+character, it is imperative that the spirit and sense spring from the
+artist, whose business is, not to reproduce the model, but to use it
+sparingly as he would a book of reference.
+
+The illustrator finds that the speech an author puts into the mouths
+of his characters is the best index to their personality. They may be
+described as tall or short, dark or light, stout or thin, and their
+creator may explain their capacities for love, hate, villany, or
+dissipation, but it is only the words with which they express their
+ideas that really describes them. His description of the beauty of a
+girl will not be accepted on trust. He must supply her with deportment
+and breeding before her beauty can be truly imagined. Thus it may be
+explained that the measure of an author's conception and clearness
+often determines the qualities in an illustration. The true
+illustrator is sensitive to faults in the delineation of character,
+and, although he may not be aware of it, his work will show it. Of
+course it often happens that an artist is taken up with ideas of
+technique and, author or no author, will make his pictures in just
+such a way; but such work is hardly illustration and serves itself
+better standing alone.
+
+And thus it goes throughout the scene to be pictured--place, time, and
+people, all must be imagined twice and equally clear, by both the
+author and the illustrator, before the reader will agree.
+
+To the illustrator, hampered by given quantities, falls the most
+difficult task in this duet of imagination, and he can at best hope
+only for the reader's approval, as all credit for conception goes to
+the author. It is on this approval, though, that he builds, for if he
+succeeds in making things clearer to the reader's imagination, he has
+accomplished what he set out to do and has proved himself worth his
+hire.
+
+So the aims of illustration are set forth, but whether the laborer
+completes his work well or ill, whether he brings great ability or
+only honest intention to its accomplishment, he is engaged in a
+business as fascinating as it is uncertain. Failure only drives him to
+another try, and success is always just around the corner. The
+illustrator who would live by his work must live with it. If he has a
+thought in his mind that does not deal in some form with illustrations
+and half-tone plates, he is wasting that thought and his time besides.
+
+
+
+
+HALF-TONE, LINE, AND COLOR PLATES
+
+By Emlyn M. Gill.
+
+
+Practically all book illustrations, as well as those in catalogues and
+periodicals of all kinds, are made by some method of photo-engraving.
+Wood engraving is almost a thing of the past, and many who are in a
+position to know predict that after the present generation of wood
+engravers has passed out of existence, artistic wood engraving will be
+a lost art. It is certain that there is now no younger school of wood
+engravers growing up to take the place of the engravers whose work in
+the leading magazines, up to a few years ago, made them famous.
+
+The quickly made and comparatively inexpensive process plates have not
+only taken the place of wood engraving, but have increased the field
+of illustration to a very large extent. They have made possible
+hundreds and even thousands of publications which could not have
+existed in the old days of expensive wood engraving. The use of
+photo-engraved plates has increased enormously each year during the
+past twenty years, and with this increased use has come the inevitable
+decrease in cost, so that illustrations are no longer much of a
+luxury to the publisher.
+
+Photography is the basis of all the mechanical processes that come
+under the general head of photo-engraving. These processes are
+generally called mechanical, yet, as in photography, great skill is
+required to produce the best results. The higher grades of half-tone
+work require much careful finishing, which is all done by hand, and
+which, moreover, must be done by a skilful, intelligent, and artistic
+engraver. Practically all things may be reproduced successfully by
+photo-engraving, but the vast majority of subjects that go to the
+photo-engraver are either photographs or drawings.
+
+All methods of relief plate photo-engraving come under two general
+heads: "Half-tone" and "line engraving," the latter being very
+generally known as "zinc etching." Zinc etching is the simplest method
+of photo-engraving and should be thoroughly understood before one
+begins to inquire into the intricacies of the half-tone process. It is
+used to reproduce what is known as "black and white" work, or line
+drawings. Any drawing or print having black lines or dots on a white
+background, without any middle shades, may be engraved by this
+process. The old-fashioned "wet-plate" photography is used in making
+practically all process plates, either in line or half-tone.
+
+I will describe briefly all the operations gone through in making a
+line plate, taking for a subject a map drawn in black ink on white
+paper or a head drawn by Charles Dana Gibson,--subjects wide apart in
+an artistic way, but of absolutely equal values so far as making the
+plate is concerned. The drawing is first put on a copy board in front
+of a camera made especially for this work, in whose holder the wet
+plate has already been placed by the operator. The subject may be
+enlarged or reduced to any desired size, nearly all drawings being
+made much larger than they are desired to be reproduced in the plates.
+The exposure is much longer than in ordinary dry plate work, generally
+lasting in the neighborhood of five minutes. The result is a black and
+white negative. That is, the lines that were black in the drawing are
+absolutely clear and transparent in the negative, but the rest of the
+negative is black. From the photographer, the negative goes to the
+"negative-turning" room. Here the negative is coated with solutions of
+collodion and rubber cement, which makes the film exceedingly
+tough--so tough that it is easily stripped from the glass on which it
+was made, and is "turned" with the positive side up on another sheet
+of glass. If this were not done, the plate would be reversed in
+printing--that is, a line of type would read from right to left, or
+backward. After the negative is "turned," it is ready for the etching
+room. Here the surface of a sheet of zinc about one-sixteenth of an
+inch thick, which has been polished until it is as smooth as plate
+glass and without a scratch or a flaw of any kind, is flowed with a
+sensitized solution, easily affected by light. The negative is placed
+in a printing frame over the sensitized zinc and a print is made. That
+is, it is exposed to the sunlight or to a powerful electric light, and
+the light shines through the transparent parts of the negative, and
+hardens the sensitized surface; while the black part of the negative
+protects the sensitized surface from the action of the light. The
+plate is next "rolled up" with a lithograph roller which distributes a
+thin coating of etching ink over the entire surface. The plate is then
+washed off carefully by the operator, but the ink adheres to all
+portions of the plate that have been acted upon by the light. We now
+have a fully developed print on the highly polished surface of the
+zinc that is an exact reproduction of the original drawing. It is now
+necessary to make this print acid proof, and this is done by covering
+the plate with a coating of very fine resinous powder, called
+"dragon's blood," which adheres to the printed portions of the plate.
+The plate is subjected to enough heat to melt this powder, and is then
+ready for the acid bath.
+
+A strong solution of nitric acid is used for etching zinc plates. This
+acid is placed in trays, which are rocked constantly, either by power
+or by hand, while the plate is being etched. The melted dragon's
+blood makes a perfect acid resistant and the acid, therefore, does not
+affect the print (or picture itself), but eats away the bare surfaces
+of the metal between the black lines and the dots. When this etching
+has proceeded far enough to make a plate that may be used in printing,
+the lines and dots of the picture stand up in bold relief, while the
+metal around these lines and dots has been eaten away to a
+considerable depth.
+
+There are many details that cannot be described in a short article,
+but these are the principal operations gone through in etching the
+plate. One very important detail in etching is to prevent
+"undercutting." It is obvious that if the acid will eat down, it will
+also eat sidewise. The acid resistant is only on the surface. If means
+were not taken to prevent it, as soon as the acid got below the
+surface, it would begin to eat in under the print and the lines and
+dots of the picture would disappear; therefore, as soon as the plate
+has had its first "bite," it is taken from the acid, dried, and
+dragon's blood is brushed against the sides of the lines. This powder
+is then melted and the plate given another etching. While the plate is
+being etched down, it is removed from the acid several times, and the
+sides of the dots and lines are again protected. After leaving the
+etching room the plate goes to the "router," an ingenious machine,
+with a cutting tool revolving at a speed of fourteen thousand
+revolutions a minute, which quickly removes the waste metal in the
+large open places between the lines and dots. The zinc plates are
+carefully looked over by a finisher, defects are removed, and the
+metal plates are then nailed on wooden blocks, so that they will be
+"type-high," that is, of exactly the same height as the metal
+type-forms used in printing. Hand presses are a necessity in all
+photo-engraving shops, and with these several "proofs" of each plate
+are printed in order that the customer may judge of the quality of the
+plate.
+
+While the line, or zinc etching process is immensely useful, in
+reproducing pen-and-ink drawings, maps, wood-cut prints, etc., yet the
+half-tone process is the one that practically revolutionized all known
+methods of illustration, after it had become perfected. While zinc
+etching is limited in its capabilities to the reproduction of black
+and white subjects, practically everything in art or nature may be
+reproduced by the half-tone process. The half-tone "screen" makes it
+possible to take a photograph or wash drawing and break the flat
+surface of the picture up into lines and dots, with the white spaces
+between that are an absolute essential in relief plate printing. If a
+half-tone print taken from any magazine or periodical is examined
+closely, either with the naked eye or a magnifying glass, it will be
+seen that the entire picture is a perfect network of lines and dots,
+and that there are two sets of lines running diagonally across the
+plate at right angles to each other. In the darker portions of the
+picture it will be seen that the lines are very heavy, with a small
+white dot in the centre of each square, made by the intersecting
+lines. In the lighter portions of the picture, these lines will be
+found to be very fine, while in the lightest parts, or in the "high
+lights," as they are called, the lines disappear and in their places
+are a mass of fine dots, not much larger than a pin point.
+
+To make a half-tone plate of a photograph or other subject, it is
+necessary to break the negative up into lines and dots. It is for this
+purpose that the half-tone "screen" is used. The screen consists of
+two thin pieces of plate-glass, on the surface of which a series of
+very delicate parallel black lines have been ruled running diagonally
+across the glass. When these pieces of glass are placed together, face
+to face, the parallel lines ruled on them intersect each other at
+right angles, giving a very fine "mosquito-netting" effect. The method
+of making the negative is very similar to that described in making
+line negatives, excepting that in making a half-tone negative the
+screen is placed in the plate-holder directly in front of the
+negative. The subject is then photographed, and the result is a
+negative completely covered with a mass of fine transparent lines and
+dots.
+
+Copper is generally used instead of zinc in making half-tone plates.
+In making a print on copper the light shines through the transparent
+lines and dots of the negative and hardens the sensitized surface of
+the plate. The black parts of the negative between the transparent
+lines and dots protect the sensitized surface. When the plate, after
+printing, is placed under a water tap, the parts of the sensitized
+surface that have not been acted upon by light wash away, leaving a
+print that becomes acid proof after being subjected to an intense
+heat.
+
+The method of etching a copper plate is similar to that already
+described for etching zinc plates, excepting that sesquichloride of
+iron is used instead of nitric acid. In a half-tone the dots and lines
+are so close together that great depth is neither desirable nor
+possible, and no steps are taken to prevent undercutting.
+
+The half-tone plate, after it has been carried as far as possible by
+mechanical processes, is capable of great improvement in the hands of
+skilful engravers. The plate as it comes from the etching bath may be
+termed a mechanical product. Though great skill is necessary in making
+the negative, the print, and the etching, the hand-finishing gives the
+plate many of its artistic qualities. The unfinished plate is apt to
+be more or less "flat" in appearance; the high lights may not be light
+enough, while the dark portions of the plate are apt, in cases, to be
+too light. The most common methods of finishing are reëtching and
+burnishing. The finisher dips a camel's-hair brush in acid and
+applies it to the high-light portions of the plate, or other places
+that are too dark, and allows it to act on the metal until these parts
+of the plate are lightened sufficiently. The parts of the plate that
+are too light are made darker by rubbing down the surface of the plate
+with a tool called the burnisher. The skilful, artistic finisher has
+other methods at his command of making the plate reproduce as
+accurately and as artistically as possible the original drawing or
+photograph. High lights are sometimes cut out entirely, or a fine
+engraver's tool may be "run" between the lines; while a
+"wood-engraved" finish is produced by cutting, in certain portions of
+the plate, lines similar to those used in wood engraving.
+
+In the price-cutting that has been going on as a result of the fierce
+competition that has existed among photo-engravers during the past few
+years, the artistic possibilities of the half-tone have been lost
+sight of to a certain extent. The product of the engravers is sold by
+the square inch, regardless of the fact that the cost of one plate may
+be double the cost of another plate of the same size, but from a
+different subject.
+
+A point also worth remembering is that until the plate reaches the
+finishers' hands, it has been more or less of a mechanical product;
+and that the plate is made an artistic creation by the skill, care,
+and brains of an intelligent class of men earning from $25 to $50 a
+week. Those expecting "the best" at "the lowest price" can easily
+guess about how much of this high-priced finishing they will get when
+the price paid barely covers the cost of the mechanical product. Then,
+engravers striving for high quality in the product pay from
+twenty-five to fifty per cent higher wages, as a rule, than the cheap,
+commercial shops. But the idea of square-inch price has so generally
+permeated the buying public, that the larger and better shops have
+been compelled, to a greater or less extent, to meet the prices of
+their less skilful competitors. They are enabled to do this and give
+their customers much greater value for their money, only through
+better business methods, more modern facilities, and by conducting the
+business on a very large scale.
+
+The screens used in making half-tones represent an enormous outlay in
+the large shops. A comparatively small screen costs in the
+neighborhood of $100. A screen 18 × 20, ruled 120 or 133 lines to the
+inch, costs about $500. Screens are made with different numbers of
+lines to the inch, from 65, for coarse, newspaper work, up to 400. The
+screens in general use are 65, 85, 100, 110, 120, 133, 150, 166, 175,
+and 200; but intermediate sizes are also used, such as 125 and 140. A
+screen containing 200 lines to the inch is about the finest ever used
+for ordinary printing purposes, though a few screens with 250, 300,
+and 400 lines to the inch have been made. A well-equipped
+photo-engraving establishment must have all these screens, and all of
+them in many different sizes. In the writer's shop there are fifteen
+cameras, all of them in constant use in the daytime and five or six of
+them are always in use all night. Some days the bulk of the work in
+the place will be a fine grade of magazine engraving calling for a 175
+screen. In order to keep all the cameras at work all the time, a thing
+that is very important in a well-regulated place, it is necessary to
+have a number of 175 screens almost equal to the number of cameras.
+The same is true of most of the other screens in general use.
+Fortunately for the engraver and the consumer these screens
+practically last forever if carefully handled.
+
+The greatest developments in process work during the past few years
+have been in the making of color plates. Beautiful results are
+obtained in two colors by the "duograph" or "duotone" processes, the
+plates being made for two printings. The three-color process aims to
+reproduce all colors in three printings, by using inks of red, yellow,
+and blue. This process is very interesting, but somewhat intricate.
+Primarily, the results are made possible by color separations. The aim
+is to take a colored subject--an oil painting, for instance--and by
+photographing it three times, each time through a different colored
+piece of glass, to divide all the colors into what are called the
+three primary colors--red, yellow, and blue. From each of these color
+separations a half-tone plate is made, and when these plates are put
+on the printing-press, and the impressions are printed over each other
+in yellow, red, and blue inks, respectively, the result is a printed
+picture reproducing correctly all the colors of the original subject.
+
+While many subjects may be reproduced accurately by this process, yet
+the three-color process seems inadequate to give perfectly
+satisfactory results in all cases. Nearly all three-color process
+houses are now prepared to add a fourth, or key, plate, to be printed
+in black, in case the subject seems to need it. The three-color
+process has enabled many of the leading magazines to use illustrations
+in colors, and there is not the slightest doubt but that there is a
+great future for this class of work.
+
+
+
+
+THE WAX PROCESS
+
+By Robert D. Servoss.
+
+
+Almost all of the maps found in text and reference books, as well as
+the geometrical diagrams used in mathematical and scientific works,
+are made by what is known as the "wax process."
+
+This process was invented and patented by an Englishman named Palmer
+about 1840, shortly after the discovery of the method of making
+electrotype plates for printing purposes. He announced that he would
+furnish artists with copper plates covered with a waxlike composition
+on which they could make their own drawings, in a manner similar to
+but much simpler than the method followed by the etcher on copper.
+After receiving the artist's work, the plates were to be returned to
+Palmer, who then made an ordinary electrotype of the engraving. A
+circular, issued about 1841, gives the necessary instructions for
+engraving, and the prices for the wax-coated plates and the subsequent
+electrotypes, and shows many beautiful illustrations made by artists
+of that time. It was then called the "glyphographic process."
+
+The process was first introduced into this country by a firm of
+printers in Buffalo, New York, and was used by them for several years
+for illustrating the United States patent office reports until it was
+superseded upon the introduction of photo-lithography and the
+subsequent adoption by the government of a uniform standard for patent
+drawings.
+
+This process may be described in a general way as follows: A copper
+plate having a highly polished surface is first blackened by the
+application of a weak solution of sulphuret of potassium, or other
+chemical which will oxidize the copper. Then a composition, made by
+melting together in proper proportions, beeswax, zinc-white, and
+paraffin, is "flowed" over the blackened surface, producing an opaque
+whitish engraving ground. The thickness of the wax is varied according
+to the subject to be engraved, but in general should not exceed that
+of heavy writing paper. After it has been allowed to cool with the
+plate lying perfectly horizontal, the wax is smoothed down to an even
+thickness by a steel scraper, and the plate is then ready to receive
+the engraving.
+
+Taking for an example the engraving of a map, the original copy is
+either photographed on the wax surface, or is transferred to it by
+covering the back of the copy with red chalk and tracing over every
+line with a steel point. The photograph, or the tracing, on the wax
+must not be a reversed one, as might be supposed, but should "read
+right." The outlines of the map are then gone over, with an engraving
+tool which cuts out a small channel in the wax, down to, but not
+into, the surface of the copper plate. The bottoms of these channels
+will eventually form the surface of the relief lines in the resultant
+electrotype plate, but now appear as dark lines against the whitish
+groundwork of the wax.
+
+The engraving tools are made in different sizes, and therefore
+channels of varying widths at the bottoms may be cut in order to
+produce lines of different sizes. In cutting lines to indicate
+rivers,--which must be thin at the source and increase in thickness as
+they approach the mouth,--tools are used in graduated sizes. The first
+one cuts its own line of equal width for a very short distance, then
+another and slightly wider tool is used, the next still wider, and so
+on until the river line is completed. In reality a series of steps,
+the work is so done that the line appears to the eye to increase in
+width evenly and gradually from a very fine beginning to a heavy
+ending. The wavy lines indicating hills and mountains are made in
+substantially the same way. Special steel punches are pressed through
+the wax to the copper to show town and capital marks, and after all
+the lines and marks are completed, the plate is ready to receive the
+lettering. The name of each individual town, city, state, or river is
+set up in printer's type and stamped one name at a time into the wax.
+The type is placed in a small tool resembling a vise, which holds it
+in perfect alignment and on a perfect level. Tools of various shapes
+are used for stamping the names in straight and curved lines. It is
+necessary to wet the type to prevent its adhering to the wax.
+
+The plate is then carefully compared with the original copy and after
+any necessary corrections have been made it is gone over by an expert
+operator, who cuts out any of the channels which may have been
+obliterated by the burr of the wax, resulting from pressing in the
+names.
+
+We now have a plate in which the lines have been cut in small channels
+and the names stamped with type. This is a matrix, or mould, from
+which an electrotype of the lines now sunken in the wax may be made in
+high relief for printing, but the blank portions of the wax are so
+thin that it is first necessary to fill in all these places on the
+plates with wax in order to produce a sufficiently deep electrotype
+plate. This is done by "building up" the plate. A small hook-shaped
+tool, heated over a gas jet, is used to melt small pieces of wax which
+are run carefully around all the names and in the spaces between
+lines, thus filling up all these spaces with a round, smooth body of
+wax. From this mould an ordinary electrotype is made by the method
+described elsewhere in this book.
+
+All these operations require much skill and patience at every step,
+but the plates produced by the wax process are always much deeper and
+stronger than those made by any other process.
+
+
+
+
+MAKING INTAGLIO PLATES
+
+By Elmer Latham.
+
+
+The method by which a photogravure plate is produced, is probably the
+least understood of all of the many photo-processes of reproduction.
+This is chiefly on account of the difficulty of the process, which is
+not an easy matter to explain in detail, and also on account of the
+secrecy with which all plate makers guard their processes.
+
+The reproduction of a mezzotint or line-engraved print, when made by a
+good photogravure process, produces in most cases a print which cannot
+be detected from the original. The originator of the process was
+probably Fox Talbot, an Englishman. The writer has seen one of his
+prints, made between 1855 and 1860, which was a very creditable piece
+of work. Dujardin of Paris took up Talbot's process, and after much
+modification, succeeded in developing a successful process which he is
+working to-day. All photogravure plate makers of the present time have
+more or less copied the process of Fox Talbot.
+
+There are three different methods of making these plates known to the
+writer. The reader probably knows that a photogravure plate is not a
+relief plate, but an intaglio, and is printed on an etching-press in
+the same manner as an etching and requires special skill in printing
+on the part of the printer to produce the best results. I will give a
+brief explanation of the three different processes.
+
+The first is known as the transfer process. In this process a reversed
+photographic negative is made from the copy, from which a positive or
+"transparency" is made, either by contact or in the camera. A piece of
+carbon paper is then coated lightly with gelatine, sensitized with
+bichromate of potassium and allowed to dry. The paper is then placed
+in contact with the positive and printed in daylight until the image
+is imprinted on the gelatine coating of the paper, such portions of
+which as have received the most exposure from the action of light
+becoming quite insoluble. A copper plate, cleaned so that it is free
+from grease, is introduced into a large box into which has been blown
+a very finely powdered resin, which is allowed to settle somewhat
+before putting in the plate. The plate is allowed to remain in the box
+until a fine deposit of resin has settled all over it. It is then
+carefully removed and heated over a gas burner until the resin adheres
+firmly to the plate. The resin is melted only to such a point that it
+forms a fine grain all over the plate, leaving interstices of bare
+copper between. The paper, on the gelatine surface of which the
+picture is printed, is now placed in a tray of warm water, and the
+parts of the image which have had the least exposure are thereby
+dissolved and washed away, the image being thus fully developed on the
+paper. This is placed in contact with the grained plate, which has
+been placed in the tray of water, and firmly squeezed in contact with
+the plate. The paper is stripped off, leaving the gelatine film on the
+copper. The plate is now removed from the tray and dried, and is then
+ready for etching, which is accomplished by placing the plate
+successively in several baths of acid of different strengths until the
+desired results are obtained. This process gives a shallow plate, of
+not great wearing quality, and, as a rule, requires a great deal of
+work by the engraver to bring the plate up to anything like the copy.
+The light tints come out very soft and smooth, but the black tones
+etch "flat" and lose all detail. These blacks must be put in by hand.
+The poor wearing qualities of these plates make them undesirable in
+cases where a large edition has to be printed.
+
+The next process is the "deposited" plate used by "Goupil" of Paris,
+in which copper is deposited by electricity upon a swelled gelatine
+film which has had a grain formed upon its surface chemically or
+otherwise. The deposition has to be continued until the plate has
+acquired the necessary thickness, which takes about three weeks; and
+this is a long time to wait in these days, when a publisher usually
+expects his order executed in ten days. These plates are practically
+hand made. The process gives a plate that could not possibly be used
+without a great deal of retouching by an expert engraver. Goupil turns
+out a beautiful plate, due principally to his large force of
+engravers, one man working on a particular part of the plate, then
+passing it on to another who does some other portion, and so on, until
+the plate is finished. In this way each engraver becomes exceedingly
+skilful in one thing. Line engraving is reproduced by this process
+exceedingly well, but such plates, like the transfer process, are
+shallow and give out soon in the printing.
+
+The last process that I have to deal with is the one I am working
+myself. In this process the plates are made in two or more etchings,
+according to the requirements of the subject which is to be
+reproduced. This method produces a plate of great depth both in the
+light and black tints, and on account of the small amount of hand-work
+required after the plate is etched, the copy is followed very closely.
+With a good positive and favorable conditions, quite frequently a
+plate is made upon which the retoucher needs to do no work at all, and
+a more faithful reproduction is made than by any of the other methods
+that I have mentioned. After a good positive is procured, the copper
+plate is cleaned, and a sensitized solution of gelatine is flowed over
+the plate, dried down, and then printed under the positive, with a
+short exposure. The plate is grained as in the transfer process, and
+is then etched.
+
+This first etching, on account of the short exposure, goes over the
+plate in about three minutes, and is simply intended to get the light
+tints. The plate is again cleaned off and coated, this time in a
+different manner, and given a much longer exposure under the positive.
+The next etching takes about three hours, which gives the blacks great
+depth. Comparing this with the transfer plate which has an etching of
+from fifteen to twenty minutes, the reason for the difference in the
+wearing qualities of the plate is quite evident. This process, whether
+used by myself or others, I feel free to say is the best one that has
+ever been worked, inasmuch as it gives a far more faithful
+reproduction than any of the others with a minimum of work by the
+retoucher.
+
+Some plate makers claim to make all their plates without any
+retouching, which cannot be done. As I have mentioned before,
+occasionally a plate can be made as good as the copy without
+hand-work. But to say that any chemical process gives such results
+continually, or that a plate cannot be improved by a skilful retoucher
+is, to say the least, misleading. All of the different processes are
+very sensitive to atmospheric influences, and no small amount of
+chemical as well as mechanical skill is required to keep things
+running smoothly; and at certain times the best of operators are at a
+loss to remedy some slight fault that may upset things temporarily.
+Photogravure making is based upon a foundation of small details, that
+must be looked after with the utmost care, and the neglect of any one
+of which means failure at the end. So it may be surmised that at times
+the operator has trouble of his own.
+
+Every maker of plates, no matter which process he uses, has his
+individual ways of doing things, so that except in a general way no
+two processes are operated alike. This gives an individuality to each
+man's work, and an expert can easily tell one from another. For
+high-class illustrations, no other photographic process can compare
+with photogravure, and no doubt it will be many years before anything
+will be found to excel or even equal it. Much experimenting has been
+done with other methods, but the results have always been inferior,
+and I think it is safe to predict that the photogravure will always be
+popular.
+
+Etchings, mezzotints, and steel engravings are still occasionally used
+in the illustration of fine books, and brief descriptions of how they
+are made will be of interest.
+
+An etching is usually made on a copper plate. The plate being covered
+with a thin coating of wax, the artist works on it with an etching
+point, sketching his subject on the plate in fine lines as he would in
+making a pen-and-ink drawing, but cutting his lines through to the
+copper. The plate is then "walled in" with a high rim of wax, forming
+a sort of tray of the plate. Into this tray is poured a diluted
+solution of nitric acid, which etches, or "bites," into the uncovered
+lines on the plate. Some artists give a plate a short "bite," as the
+etching is called, for the light lines, then cover these portions of
+the plate with wax and give the plate successive "bites," stopping out
+each part as it gains its required depth. Others remove the coating
+and "prove" the plate by taking a print from it after each
+"bite,"--each of these prints being known as a "state of the plate"
+and showing what is still required to be done. In the work of an
+etcher like Whistler the impressions of the "first state," "second
+state," etc., are of considerable interest, as they show the progress
+of the man's work, but, except as an object of interest or as a
+curiosity, these prints can have no real value as they are unfinished
+work, simply showing the various stages in the making of a work of
+art.
+
+A mezzotint is also usually made on a copper plate. A texture, or
+groundwork, is worked on the copper plate with a tool resembling a
+cabinet maker's toothed plane iron, except it is rounded at the end.
+The teeth are very fine, ranging from forty to one hundred and twenty
+to the inch in different tools. This tool is called a "Bercier," or
+"rocker." The rounded edge allows the tool to be rocked across the
+plate, the rocking motion causing the teeth to form indentations in
+the copper. The rocking has to be continued until the surface of the
+plate is completely covered, and it then presents an appearance like
+velvet. Rocking in from forty to sixty directions is necessary to
+cover the plate properly. The durability of a mezzotint plate depends
+entirely upon the pressure put upon the rocker, and the depth to which
+it penetrates the copper. After the ground is thus laid, the outline
+is sketched in on the rocked surface, which takes the pencil easily,
+and then with steel scrapers and burnishers the light and middle tints
+are worked down, leaving undisturbed the portions of the surface where
+the strongest blacks are to be. From time to time, a print is taken
+from the plate, to note the progress of the work, which advances
+slowly to the finish. On account of the length of time necessary for
+the laying of the ground and the scraping of the plate, many artists
+hesitate to attempt mezzotint plates. There are very few men in this
+country to-day who do mezzotint engraving, which, considering the
+results to be obtained, seems somewhat surprising.
+
+For flesh tones, drapery, and landscapes it has no equal. The velvety
+richness of the blacks, the beautiful gradations of the middle tones,
+and the extreme delicacy of the light tints give the artist a power of
+expression not obtainable by any other method of engraving. Besides
+this, as the engraving is done on the bare copper, the artist can see
+at all times the progress of his work without having to take off the
+wax ground as he must in making an etching. This is a great advantage,
+for as the effect of each stroke can be plainly seen on the plate, the
+element of uncertainty which always attends the production of an
+etching is entirely eliminated, and it is then simply a question of
+skill with the scraper. The difficulty of obtaining rockers is one
+great drawback. I doubt if one could be obtained in New York to-day.
+The teeth have to be very accurately cut, and a perfect tool has a
+value to an engraver that cannot well be estimated. The lack of demand
+has prevented their manufacture in this country, but they could be
+made here by any fine tool maker.
+
+Steel engravings are still used to some extent in this country,
+although only in portrait work. A wax ground is laid on the plate as
+in etching. A tracing is made from the photograph, from which the
+picture is to be made, and is then transferred to the wax ground. The
+engraver then follows the lines of the tracing with an etching point,
+the hair, head, and outline of the features being gone over carefully.
+Then the plate is etched with weak nitric acid. If the face is to be
+"stippled," it is covered with fine dots made by a graver directly on
+the surface of the metal after the plate has been etched and the wax
+cleaned off. If the face is to be a mezzotint, that part of the work
+is all rocked over, and then scraped down within the etched outline,
+when the flesh is modelled as in a regular mezzotint. The drapery,
+background, etc., is usually done by a ruling machine with fine or
+coarse, waved or straight lines, as the texture may require. These
+lines are ruled through a coating of wax, and then, by etching and
+stopping out, the required results are obtained.
+
+This method of engraving is also giving place to process work, and in
+a few years more the steel engraved portrait will probably be a thing
+of the past.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING INTAGLIO PLATES
+
+By George W. H. Ritchie.
+
+
+The method of printing etchings, mezzotint, and other intaglio plates
+is the same to-day as it was in the time of Rembrandt and Durer. The
+modern inventor has found no way to economize time, labor, or expense
+in the work--excepting that in the case of postage stamps, bond
+certificates, and similar plates, which are printed in vast
+quantities, the work has been adapted to the steam press.
+
+In the olden time the engraver, or etcher, himself was to a
+considerable extent his own printer. He worked at engraving his plate
+until he needed a proof to show him how the work was progressing. Then
+he printed, or "pulled," a proof and resumed his work, taking proofs
+from time to time until he had completed the plate to his
+satisfaction. Then, if only a small edition was required, he printed
+it. Proofs taken during the making of a plate are known by plate
+engravers and printers as the "states" of a plate, and it is due to
+the whim of the etcher, the softness of the copper, and the wearing of
+the plate in printing that we have prints representing many "states"
+of a single plate which might otherwise have had but one state, thus
+depriving one modern print collector of the privilege of discovering
+in his proof three hairs more or less in a donkey's tail than his
+rival finds in another proof, which makes the former's more valuable
+by several hundred pounds.
+
+One form of press is used for all manner of intaglio plate printing.
+It consists of a framework supporting two heavy iron rollers, between
+which moves a flat iron travelling plank, or bed, and on this bed the
+plate to be printed is laid. The pressure of the rollers is regulated
+by screws at each end of the top roller, which is covered with two or
+three pieces of thick felt. This top roller is revolved by handles and
+the bed moves along with it under the pressure of the roller. At one
+side of the press stands a rectangular box, or "stove," made of iron,
+or having an iron top. The top is heated by gas and on it the printer
+puts his plate while inking and wiping it. The heat thins the ink as
+it is applied, allowing it to be worked freely and to be "lifted"
+easily by the paper.
+
+The ink is made of fine bone dust, vegetable or other form of carbon,
+which has been carefully cleansed from foreign matter and ground to
+the necessary fineness in combination with burned linseed oil. Its
+strength and consistency should be varied according to the plate which
+is in hand, and the color also may be varied to suit the character of
+the plate by the addition of pigments.
+
+The paper used in plate printing may be one of several kinds, but the
+usual variety is a fine white paper free from spots and imperfections
+which might mar the appearance of the finished print. This paper is
+made either by hand or machinery of selected bleached cotton rags, and
+has a soft, spongy surface which yields readily under the pressure of
+the plate. Before it can be used the paper is moistened and allowed to
+stand for from one to twelve hours, or even longer, until it becomes
+evenly and thoroughly dampened,--but not wet,--so that it will more
+readily force itself into the lines of the plate and take therefrom
+and hold the ink.
+
+Before printing a photogravure, mezzotint, or other engraved plate the
+printer must first carefully examine it to see that it has no
+scratches, and that no dried ink remains in the lines from the last
+printing, and, in fact, that there are none of the many possible
+impedimenta which might prevent the production of a perfect print. The
+plate being in proper condition, it is then thoroughly cleansed with
+turpentine or benzine, all traces of which must be carefully wiped
+from the surface before the ink is applied. The plate is then laid on
+the heated iron box or "stove" until it has become thoroughly warmed.
+The surface of the plate is covered with ink, put on by means of an
+ink-roller, or perhaps the old-fashioned dauber, and the ink is
+thoroughly worked into the lines or depressions in the plate. After
+this the ink on the flat surface of the plate is entirely removed by
+wiping with rags. The printer's hand, which has become more or less
+covered with ink from the rags, is then passed over a piece of chalk,
+or gilder's white, and lightly rubbed over the surface of the plate,
+to remove the last vestige of the ink, leaving a highly polished flat
+surface with the incised lines or depressions filled with ink to the
+level of the surface.
+
+The plate is then ready for printing and is placed on the bed of the
+press, a sheet of dampened paper laid upon it, and both are then run
+between the rollers of the press. As the top roller is encased in soft
+blankets, the soft, dampened paper is forced into the ink-filled lines
+of the plate, and when the paper is removed the ink clings to it and
+shows an exact impression of the engraving. This entire process must
+be repeated for each print made from an intaglio plate.
+
+While the printing of a steel engraving or photogravure is a more or
+less mechanical operation, the printing of an etching--and "dry
+points" may be included--is oftentimes as much of an art as the actual
+etching of the plate. The two styles of printing may be compared to
+two kinds of fishing,--that of fishing for flounders with a drop line,
+from a flat-bottomed boat at low tide when one must just sit tight
+until one has a bite, and then haul in the fish, bait up, drop the
+line and wait again, as against that of angling for trout on an early
+spring day, dropping the fly in a likely spot without success at the
+first cast, persevering until rewarded by a rise and then by the sport
+of playing the fish, giving him line and reeling him in as about he
+circles and finally is landed. A good one, perchance, but the sport
+was in landing him. So it is with printing an etching. There is the
+opportunity to play with, and work hard over, a plate. Perhaps the
+etcher has not, for reasons only known to himself, put in the plate
+all that can be shown in the print by ordinary printing. The printer
+actually has to interpret in his printing the etcher's meaning, for
+the which, as a rule, he gets "more kicks than ha'pence," and in the
+end wishes he had stuck to plain plate printing as far as the profit
+is concerned.
+
+In the process of printing an etching, the printer first covers the
+plate with ink and then wipes it with the rags, and, if necessary,
+with the hand. It depends entirely upon the etched work of the plate
+as to how it must be wiped, and it rests with the printer to prepare a
+proof which is satisfactory to the etcher. The plate is wiped
+"closely" where the high lights are required or a tint (a thin coating
+of ink) left over certain portions where it needs to be darker. After
+this the plate is "retroussed," which is accomplished by passing a
+very soft piece of fine muslin, or a "badger blender,"--a soft brush
+used by artists,--delicately over the work in the plate and drawing
+the ink up and over the edges of the lines. This softens and broadens
+the lines and gives a very rich effect, and, if continued
+sufficiently, fills the spaces between the lines and produces an
+almost black effect. All this work is varied according to the wishes
+of the etcher. A plate that left the etcher's hand a mere skeleton may
+be made to produce a print which is a thing of life. The possibilities
+of an etching in the hands of a skilful printer are almost limitless;
+the effects can vary with every impression, each showing a new
+picture. His processes are as interesting as those of the etcher
+himself, and it is within his capabilities to transform an etching
+from a broad daylight effect into a moonlight scene, including the
+moon, by judiciously, or injudiciously, inking and wiping the plate.
+
+A "dry point" plate is produced by drawing on a copper plate with a
+steel or diamond point, and without biting by acid. The lines are cut
+into the copper and a burr thrown up which holds the ink in printing,
+and produces a soft, velvety line. The method of printing such a plate
+is similar to that of an etching, but the possibilities are not as
+great in the printing, as they rest to a greater extent upon the work
+of the artist. A great depth of color, producing wonderfully rich
+effects, can be obtained and the finer lines can be made much more
+delicate than by any other method.
+
+The printing of intaglio plates in color flourished for a short period
+in the latter portion of the eighteenth century, and the best prints
+of that time now in existence are of rare beauty and bring enormous
+prices. The process, now almost a memory, is a costly one, and this
+prevents its use in book illustration excepting for volumes which
+command a very high price. This kind of printing requires the plate to
+be actually painted by hand with inks of such colors as the picture
+may require, and the painting has to be repeated for every impression
+that is taken. The colors are put on with a "dole,"--a small piece of
+muslin turned to a point,--and great care must be taken that they do
+not overlap, or run into, each other. As each color is placed, the
+plate is wiped clean with rags as already described, and when all the
+colors have been properly placed, the plate is pulled through the
+press in the same manner as in ordinary printing.
+
+The successful printer of color plates must be a rare artist or else
+work under the direction of an artist. Little of this work is now done
+except in Paris and Vienna, and the limited number of color plates of
+this kind used for book illustration in this country does not warrant
+the time and expense necessary to train printers capable of doing the
+work. Even English plates are usually sent to Paris to be printed.
+
+It is difficult to describe the work of what is termed artistic
+printing. Every plate is a subject to be treated by itself, and no
+hard and fast rule can be applied. It is really a matter of artistic
+feeling, and to revert to the simile of the angler, one cannot explain
+how a trout should be played, but can only say that it depends on the
+fish, the water, and the circumstances. A fisherman can _show_ you, if
+you are on the spot, and so can the printer.
+
+
+
+
+THE GELATINE PROCESS
+
+By Emil Jacobi.
+
+
+Of the many photo-mechanical processes which have come into existence
+in recent years, the photo-gelatine, next to the half-tone process,
+has shown the greatest adaptability for practical use in art and
+commerce.
+
+Whatever the name may be,--Collotype, Artotype, Albertype, Phototype,
+or Carbon-gravure,--the principle is the same; an impression is made
+in printer's ink from a photo-chemically produced design on a gelatine
+surface, either on the hand-press or on a power cylinder press similar
+to that used in lithographic printing.
+
+There is hardly any process which is more capable of producing fine
+works of art. It is the only true method for reproducing, in the full
+sense of the word, an etching, engraving, a drawing in pen and ink, an
+aquarelle, a painting, or objects from nature. The depth and richness
+of tone of an engraving, the delicate tints of an aquarelle or
+india-ink sketch, and the sharpness of the lines of an etching or pen
+sketch can be reproduced with such fidelity that it is often
+impossible to distinguish the copy from the original, and this is
+achieved the more easily as the printing can be done in any color and
+on any material, be it paper, parchment, leather, or textile goods.
+
+Another great advantage of a gelatine print is its inalterability and
+durability, no chemicals being employed in transferring the picture to
+the paper. The picture itself being formed by solid pigments, such as
+are used in printer's ink or painter's colors, there is no possibility
+of its fading or changing color, which cannot be said even of platino
+prints, at present considered the most lasting of all photo-chemical
+processes.
+
+Like all new inventions, the photo-gelatine process, in its early
+stages, had to undergo severe trials, and for some years almost
+disappeared from public view, after many failures precipitated through
+unscrupulous promoters and inefficient persons who claimed
+impossibilities for the new process. It took years of patience and
+perseverance to regain the lost ground and overcome the opposition of
+those who had suffered by the failure of this process to produce the
+promised results; but at present it is, in Europe, one of the methods
+in most general use for illustrating, and in this country it is making
+steady progress and rapidly finding favor.
+
+The process, simple as it may seem to the casual observer, requires,
+more than any other photo-mechanical process, skilled hands in its
+different manipulations to keep it up to the standard of perfection.
+The following short description will give the uninitiated sufficient
+enlightenment to think and speak intelligently about it.
+
+The foundation or starting point, as of all the other photo-mechanical
+processes, is a photographic negative; that is, a picture on glass or
+some other transparent substance, in which the light parts of the
+picture appear dark, and the dark parts light in transparency,
+graduated according to the different shades of tone in the original.
+The next and most prominent feature is the printing plate. A perfectly
+even glass, copper, or zinc plate is covered on the surface with a
+solution of fine gelatine and bichromate of potassium, and dried. This
+printing plate is then placed under a negative and exposed to the
+light. The action of the light on the bichromated gelatine forms the
+basis of this process. In proportion to the graduated density of the
+negative, the light acts more or less on the bichromated gelatine,
+rendering the latter, in proportion, insoluble and hardening it. After
+sufficient exposure the plate is washed out in water to eliminate the
+bichromate not acted upon by the light, and is then actually ready for
+the press.
+
+If the printing is to be done on a hand press, a lithographic leather
+roller is charged with printer's ink, and the plate, which has been
+fastened on a suitable bed-plate in the press, is rolled up while it
+is still moist. Those parts of the plate which were acted upon by the
+light and hardened, repel the water and take up the ink, and thus all
+the graduating tones, up to the high lights or white parts, which have
+not been affected by the light, will take the ink proportionately. The
+white parts of the picture, where the light did not act upon the
+gelatine during the exposure under the negative, retain the natural
+property of gelatine to absorb water, and consequently repel the ink
+altogether.
+
+From the foregoing it will be easy to understand that a certain degree
+of moisture in the plate is necessary to get a correct impression.
+After the leather roller, a composition roller, such as is used in
+typographical processes, is employed to make the ink smooth and give
+the fine details not obtainable from the rough surface of a leather
+roller. A sheet of paper is then placed upon the plate and by pressure
+the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper.
+
+The printing, in former years, could only be done on hand presses; but
+with the introduction of improved power presses especially adapted to
+it the process itself has been so perfected that the finest work can
+be executed on them, at the same time insuring greater evenness and
+increased quantity of production, and also admitting the use of larger
+plates than would be possible on a hand press.
+
+The prevailing impression, whenever machinery is employed to supersede
+hand-work, is that the production is increased to such an extent as to
+reduce the cost to a minimum, but in the gelatine printing process,
+even with the aid of power presses, the rapidity of printing is far
+behind the possibilities of the lithographic or typographical printing
+press, and the process, therefore, is only applicable to works of art,
+and the better grade of illustrations in literary and commercial
+publications.
+
+The lesser rapidity of production and the greater cost is balanced by
+the quality, where this item comes into consideration; and where only
+small editions are required, even the cost compares favorably with
+other methods, as the initial cost of preparing the printing plate is
+small compared with the cost of photogravure or the better class of
+half-tone plate. It is only in cases of large editions of many
+thousands that the advantage of rapid printing reduces the cost of the
+initial expense. But fine art publications and illustrations will
+never be used in very large quantities, and, therefore, there is a
+large field for the photo-gelatine process in this country, where it
+is as yet so little used. In France, Germany, and Austria there are
+dozens of establishments which employ ten or more power presses for
+photo-gelatine work, while here only within the last few years has the
+process been sufficiently appreciated to warrant the introduction of a
+few steam presses; and these have to be imported from abroad at a high
+rate of duty, as the present demand for the presses does not make it
+advisable for our domestic press builders to invest in their
+construction, especially after an isolated attempt in that line,
+misguided by inexperienced and unpractical men, which turned out to be
+a total failure.
+
+Notwithstanding all these difficulties and obstacles, it is a fact
+that the photo-gelatine process has gained ground sufficiently to
+indicate a prosperous future, as its products are becoming more widely
+known and appreciated.
+
+
+
+
+LITHOGRAPHY
+
+By Charles Wilhelms.
+
+
+As an embellishment to the modern book, chromo-lithographed
+illustrations are quite popular and in some cases absolutely
+necessary, being not only attractive, but conveying an accurate idea
+of the color as well as the form of the object illustrated. Although
+the illustration is nothing more than a colored print, it may be a
+revelation to some when they learn of the numerous details incidental
+to its production.
+
+It may not be generally known, and yet of sufficient interest to the
+reader to state that the art of lithography, or surface printing, was
+invented accidentally. The inventor, Aloys Senefelder, had been
+engaged for years endeavoring to find some process for etching copper
+plates as a substitute for typographic printing plates; and the piece
+of stone (of a kind now known as Solenhofen lithographic stone), which
+eventually led him to the discovery of lithography had been used by
+him as a slab upon which he had been accustomed to grind his printing
+ink. The materials which he used for his acid-resisting mixture while
+etching his copper plates were beeswax, soap, and lampblack, and in
+selecting these materials he accidentally invented the basis for all
+crayons or lithographic "tusche" or inks, now used so extensively for
+drawing on stone. It seems that Senefelder finally became thoroughly
+disheartened about his etched copper plates, mainly owing to the great
+expense and labor connected with their production, and was about to
+discontinue his efforts when the idea occurred to him to experiment
+with the stone which he had used as an ink slab for so many months,
+treating it in the same manner as the copper plates.
+
+He knew that the calcareous stone was easily affected by acid and that
+he could protect its surface against it by a layer of wax. After
+polishing the surface of the stone and coating it with a slight layer
+of wax, he made his drawing with a pointed tool, laying bare the
+surface of the stone where he desired the engraving. Then applying the
+acid and removing the remaining wax, he filled the etched lines with
+printing ink, cleaned the surface of the stone with water, and was
+enabled to obtain an impression on paper from it. This manner of
+treating a stone has been employed by vignette engravers for many
+years, but of late has become obsolete. The result gave encouragement
+to Senefelder and induced him to renew his experiments, when he was
+accidentally led a step farther in the direction of surface or
+chemical printing.
+
+Senefelder had just ground and polished a stone, when his mother
+entered the room and asked him to take a memorandum of some clothes
+which she was about to send away to be laundered. Having neither paper
+nor ink at hand, he hastily wrote the items with a pen, dipped in his
+acid-resisting mixture, upon the stone which had just been polished.
+When he afterwards started to wipe the writing from the stone, it
+occurred to him that it might be possible to reverse his process by
+etching the surface of the stone, leaving the writing or drawing in
+relief, which could be printed from in the same manner as from type.
+He was fairly successful in this, and after many disappointments and
+much hardship, he eventually succeeded in interesting a capitalist,
+with whose assistance he was enabled to establish his new relief stone
+process on a commercial basis.
+
+The process, however, was at best only an imperfect one, and it seems
+strange that the final discovery of surface or lithographic printing
+should have been so long delayed, when Senefelder was in reality so
+near it, when he first poured the acid over the stone containing his
+laundry memorandum. If he had instantly washed off the acid and
+cleaned the surface of the stone with water, he might have proceeded
+to print thousands of impressions by simply keeping the surface of the
+stone moist while passing the ink roller or dabber over it, then
+drying and taking an impression, and repeating this operation
+indefinitely. It is not surprising, therefore, that a man of such
+persistence and capability as Senefelder should eventually discover
+the best method for drawing and printing from stone; for it is a fact
+that, since he perfected his invention, more than a hundred years ago,
+it has been hardly possible to improve on his methods, so completely
+did he cover the entire field of manipulation in this direction.
+Continuing his experiments, Senefelder finally found that the
+calcareous stone absorbed and held grease, and that it just as readily
+absorbed water, where the surface was exposed and clean; that any
+design drawn or transferred with a greasy crayon or ink upon a cleanly
+polished stone would be firmly held, after being slightly etched; and
+that after such a stone had been moistened, it could be inked with
+rollers, the ink adhering only to the greasy matter constituting the
+design (although it did not stand out in the relief) and that the ink
+rollers would not smut the stone, the ink being repelled by the water
+or moisture covering its surface. Upon this principle of chemical
+affinity, the adherence of greasy substances to each other and the
+mutual antipathy of grease and water, the art of lithographic printing
+is based.
+
+The methods or processes now employed in reproducing oil-paintings,
+colored photographs, or water-colors by lithography are numerous, and
+require great skill and experience, not only on the part of the
+lithographic artist, but also on the part of the printer. Photography
+has of late years been used to a great extent in creating the basis of
+the color plates, to be afterwards perfected by the manipulation of
+the experienced chromo-lithographer.
+
+To insure a satisfactory result the first essential is, of course, a
+good original, which can be made in water-color, oil, or pastel. The
+number of printings to be employed should be predetermined and a color
+scale adopted. The lithographer must carefully analyze the original
+painting, making his calculations as to the best way of obtaining the
+desired color effects by a judicious selection and use of his colors,
+and the superimposing of one printing over the other, so as to obtain
+true color values. It must be remembered that, while the average
+painter has an unlimited variety of pigments at his disposal, the
+lithographer is in this respect very much at a disadvantage, not
+usually having more than from six to fourteen colors with which to
+produce a facsimile of the original.
+
+The first step is the making of the so-called key-plate. A piece of
+gelatine is laid on the original, which is, let us say by way of
+illustration, a water-color to be reproduced in ten printings, and a
+careful tracing of the original is made by scratching, with an
+engraving needle, the outline of each wash or touch of color composing
+the picture. This being completed, the lithographic ink (tusche) or
+transfer ink is carefully rubbed into the tracing, which is laid face
+down on a polished lithographic stone, slightly moistened, and passed
+through a hand press; thereby transferring the ink from the engraved
+lines to the polished surface of the stone. The design on the stone is
+then rolled in with black printing ink and etched, thus enabling the
+lithographer to take the necessary ten impressions of the key-plate.
+These, in their turn, are again transferred to as many lithographic
+stones. This is accomplished by dusting the impressions with a red
+powder, which adheres only to the design printed on the sheet. The
+powdered outline design is then transferred to the surface of the
+stone by passing both through a hand press. The key has been
+previously provided with register marks (a short horizontal line
+intersected by a vertical one) at top, bottom, and both sides. These
+are of the utmost importance to the prover, and finally to the
+transferrer, who prepares the work for the press, as without them it
+would be impossible to register one color over the other in its proper
+place. At any stage of the process, the register marks of all ten
+colors, which have been made in succession on a single sheet of paper,
+should coincide precisely and appear as a single mark in the form of a
+small cross.
+
+The lithographer now has before him the ten stones, each stamped with
+the identical network of lines in red chalk representing his key. He
+proceeds to draw each color-plate successively, at all times adhering
+closely to the red chalk outlines, filling in with tusche where full
+strength of the color is required and using lithographic crayon or the
+stipple process to reproduce the various gradations of this color in
+order to secure the full color value of each printing. The register
+marks are ruled in on each stone corresponding to those on the key, so
+that the prover or printer has these marks in the same identical
+position on each and every color as a guide for register.
+
+As each stone is finished it is etched; that is, treated with a weak
+solution of nitric acid and gum-water, in order to remove all
+accidental traces of scum from its surface, and to prepare it for
+printing. Then proofs are made, which serve as a guide to the
+lithographer during the progress of his work, and finally as a guide
+to the transferrer and to the printer. The proving is done on a hand
+press, and it is here that we have our first glimpse of chemical
+printing, which, notwithstanding its simplicity, seems so mysterious
+to one uninitiated in its secrets.
+
+The writer recollects his own first experience. A stone had just been
+placed fresh from the etching trough in the bed of the press, when, to
+his amazement, the prover deliberately proceeded to eliminate every
+trace of the drawing with a sponge saturated with turpentine. After
+drying the stone by means of a fan, he passed over the surface a
+sponge soaked in water, then applied black ink with a roller, when
+behold, the drawing was restored in its entirety. The solution is very
+simple: the greasy matter is absorbed and held by the stone and in its
+turn repels water and attracts grease.
+
+An impression is made with black printing ink on paper by passing it
+through the hand press. The black impression approved of by the
+lithographer, the stone is again cleaned with turpentine and proved in
+the color required, and so with each color-plate, until the proof is
+complete. When photography is employed, the half-tone negative takes
+the place of the key. Prints are made from a reversed negative on the
+sensitized surface of the stone, or on as many stones as the
+color-plates require, and then manipulated by the lithographer, who
+adds or modifies strength with his "tusche" or crayon, and scrapes or
+washes out lights where necessary. The various modes of procedure are
+too diverse to enter into here, but it may be well to mention that the
+principal ones are the albumen, the asphaltum, and finally the
+three-color process, the latter differing but little as far as the
+artistic part of the work is concerned from that employed for making
+relief printing plates for the typographic press.
+
+The original drawing plates, or stones, are not used to print from
+direct unless the edition be very small. Just as the typographic
+printer uses electrotypes in place of the original type or cuts, the
+lithographer makes transfers from the original stones to print his
+edition and carefully preserves the original stones for future
+editions. The transfers are prepared in a very simple manner. The
+original stones are rolled over with a specially prepared transfer
+ink, and impressions are taken from them on a paper, known under the
+name of transfer paper, coated with a sizing of starch, flour, and
+glycerine. By printing from the original, only one copy can be
+produced at each impression, whereas by using transfers a number of
+copies of the original can be printed at one impression. For example,
+if the picture measures 8 × 10 inches of paper, a transfer can be made
+containing fifteen copies on one sheet measuring 30 × 40 inches. In
+this case fifteen impressions are made from the key-plate as well as
+from each of the color-plates, on the paper, and with the ink
+described above.
+
+The first transfer to be made is that of the key-plate. The fifteen
+impressions are laid in their proper positions on a sheet of paper of
+the required size, and are held in position on same by indentations
+made with a dull-pointed steel tool. The sheet is laid face down upon
+a cleanly polished stone, which is then repeatedly pulled through a
+hand press until all the ink has been transferred from the paper to
+the surface of the stone. The transfer paper still adhering to the
+stone is then moistened and washed off the stone, leaving the design
+completely transferred to the stone. A slight solution of gum arabic
+and water is then applied, the stone washed clean, and after being
+repeatedly rolled in with printing ink and etched, is ready for
+printing. An impression is then made in the usual manner from this
+key-transfer, which impression is coated with a solution of shellac.
+This is done for the purpose of rendering it impervious to the effect
+of the atmosphere, thus insuring against its stretching or shrinking.
+Upon this varnished key-sheet all subsequent transfer impressions of
+the ten colors are "stuck up," to use the technical term, and
+transferred to stone in the same manner as is employed in the making
+of the key-transfer. The register marks serve as a guide in "sticking
+up" the separate transfer impressions and insure an accurate register
+of the colors laid over each other during the process of printing. New
+register marks are placed upon the key-transfer at top, bottom, and
+sides similar to those on the original (which are removed from the
+transfer), and these new marks now appear on all color transfers to
+serve as a guide to the steam-press printer in printing his edition.
+He likewise uses the hand-press proofs of the picture as a guide in
+mixing his inks.
+
+The lithographic power printing press is constructed on the same
+general principle as the ordinary typographic press, excepting that it
+is provided with an apparatus for moistening the stone previous to
+the application of the ink rollers. The stone containing the design is
+placed in the bed of the press, and the moisture, as well as the ink,
+is applied by means of rollers similar to those used in the
+typographic printing press. All the ten colors are now successively
+printed from the transfers on a steam press, and if it is a perfect
+job, the pictures can be cut to size and delivered to the publisher.
+
+At present the cumbrous stone and the slow-moving flat-bed press are
+being supplanted by the light and pliable aluminum plates and the
+fast-moving rotary presses. The aluminum plate has all the requisites
+for the highest grades of lithographic or surface printing, and the
+rotary press is beyond doubt a vast improvement over the flat-bed
+press, not only as to speed, but also as to the quality and uniformity
+of its product. The mode of procedure in making transfers to aluminum
+plates is much the same as that employed in making transfers to stone.
+The pliability of the aluminum plate and the ease with which it can be
+adjusted to a printing cylinder has resulted in the successful
+introduction and use of two-and three-color lithographic rotary
+presses, printing at one operation two or three colors. It has been
+demonstrated that the result is fully equal to that obtained from the
+single-color press, provided good judgment be used as to the
+succession of the colors or printings. This marks a new epoch in the
+art of lithography and enables it to compete with the typographic
+three-color process, which has been making such wonderful progress
+during the last five years, and at one time seriously threatened
+lithography as a medium for the reproduction of certain classes of
+colored illustrations.
+
+Our experience teaches us, however, that the surface or lithographic
+and the relief or typographic method will never seriously interfere
+with each other, but on the contrary by actively competing in all
+matter relating to the reproductive art will continue to improve their
+respective methods, and thus enable them to satisfy the continually
+increasing demands on the part of the public for colored
+illustrations, not only as to the quantity but particularly as to the
+quality thereof.
+
+
+
+
+COVER DESIGNING
+
+By Amy Richards.
+
+
+So many books of the present day have decorative book covers
+especially designed to fit each book that many people who buy the
+books are beginning to ask what suggests these designs and how they
+are executed.
+
+Having made book-cover designs for a number of years, I have been
+asked to write a practical account of how these book covers are made,
+which will give an answer to some of these questions. This account
+will have no bearing on the designs used on hand-bound books with
+their beautiful "tooled" covers. These are a different branch of the
+art altogether from the so-called "commercial bindings" which I am
+about to describe. The designs for these tooled covers are as a rule
+made by the same hands that bind the books.
+
+Every year hundreds of books are published that need "commercial" book
+covers. In many cases these covers are used to help sell the book;
+that is, they must be attractive enough to draw attention to the book
+as it lies on the counter in the bookshops and other places where the
+book is on sale.
+
+Some publishers have artists, regularly employed, to make their own
+designs exclusively; but as a rule each publisher keeps in touch with
+a number of designers, sending for one or the other as the needs of a
+particular book require. When a design is needed, the particular sort
+of cover required is discussed with the publisher, the number of
+colors that can be used is mentioned, also the exact dimensions of the
+book and the material to be used in binding the book. Almost every
+designer prefers to read the manuscript of the book, if possible, or
+to have a synopsis of it, for, naturally, he can make a much more
+suitable and successful cover if he has a complete idea of the subject
+of the book.
+
+Having read the book, or having been told what it is about, the
+designer makes one or more rough sketches in color, giving a general
+idea of the book cover, both as to design, color scheme, and material
+to be used in binding. If one of these sketches is selected, the
+designer then makes an accurate "working" drawing, either in color, or
+black and white. If a black-and-white drawing is made, a rough color
+sketch is sent with it to indicate how the die is to be cut.
+
+A finished book-cover design can be made on water-color paper,
+bristol-board, or a piece of book-cover linen. This last method is
+popular with publishers, as it shows them how the cover will look when
+finished. A designer keeps sample books of all the most popular
+bookbinding materials, which the manufacturers are glad to supply. A
+practical designer always chooses for the ground color of a design a
+cloth that is to be found at one of the regular book-cloth
+manufacturers.
+
+When a book-cover design is finished, it is neatly mounted on
+cardboard and a careful note is written on the margin, telling how the
+design is to be executed by the binder, the kind of cloth to be used,
+and its number in a particular sample book. Unless the design is
+executed on a piece of book cloth, a sample of the cloth desired is
+pasted under the directions. The design is then cut in brass by a die
+cutter, as described in the next chapter, and the covers are stamped
+in gold or inks from this die by the binder. The design must be the
+exact size of the future book or drawn larger in exact proportion for
+reduction to the proper size.
+
+Gold is of course the most expensive way of reproducing a cover
+design, and a publisher generally tries to get as good an effect as
+possible without the use of gold, or he limits its use to the title
+lines or to a small part of the design. Four inks is usually the
+extreme number used, and more often only two or three are used, or
+gold and one ink.
+
+Several styles of decoration are used in designing book covers; but
+they may be put roughly into two classes,--those that are purely
+ornamental and those that are pictorial. Personally I am in favor of
+the purely ornamental cover, as being more dignified; but there are
+books that seem to require a pictorial cover that is treated somewhat
+in the fashion of a decorative poster.
+
+A book-cover designer to be successful should be very versatile and
+able to make use of figures as well as thoroughly versed in the use of
+ornament.
+
+One of the most important parts of a book cover is the title, to which
+the amateur and inexperienced designer does not always give sufficient
+attention. The title must be clearly drawn and everything else in the
+cover made subservient to it, so that the first thing the eye falls on
+is the title. For this reason a thorough study of lettering is
+necessary for the successful cover designer, and much practice in
+order to become proficient. A very successful cover may be due simply
+to a well-selected cloth with lettering properly drawn and placed so
+that the eye is perfectly satisfied and the whole has an air of
+distinction. Each designer grows insensibly into his or her own
+particular style, which those who are interested in book covers grow
+to know; but the more varied his style the more in demand will be the
+designer.
+
+The designing of book covers is a minor art, but since there is a
+constant demand for ornamented covers, the more taste and skill that
+can be devoted to the making of them, the better. When one looks back
+to the covers of fifteen years ago, one realizes what an advance has
+been made, and that the standard has been raised higher and higher,
+until at the present time many a famous illustrator or decorative
+painter occasionally turns his or her hand to the designing of book
+covers.
+
+
+
+
+THE COVER STAMPS
+
+By George Becker.
+
+
+Not many years ago the crudest and most primitive devices were used in
+the production of a book cover. The artist, if such he could be
+called, who was responsible for the design, seldom went to the trouble
+of furnishing the engraver with anything more than a pencil sketch,
+which the latter transferred to a brass plate about one-quarter of an
+inch thick by coating the plate with beeswax and laying the sketch on
+it, face downward. When the paper was removed the beeswax retained the
+marks of the lead pencil. He then began the tedious process of
+outlining it by hand with a graver and afterward finished it with a
+chisel.
+
+But the exacting demands of modern artistic taste, the improvement of
+scientific methods and the pressure of competition have marked a
+complete transformation in the business of making dies for book
+covers. A few pencils and gravers, a vise bench, and a grindstone no
+longer make an engraving establishment. Colored sketches of most
+painstaking execution, accompanied by a working drawing in black and
+white, have taken the place of the old pencil sketch. These artistic
+productions, having passed the ordeal of critical examination, are
+handed over to the photographer, who, if he understands his part, does
+all that the beeswax did, and a good deal more. He takes the
+black-and-white drawing above referred to and reproduces it, in the
+size desired, directly on a brass plate covered with a sensitive
+coating, and then having prepared it with acid-proof preparations, he
+passes it over to the etcher.
+
+The etcher in his turn, with unerring judgment in the strength of his
+acids, does what the most careful outliner could not accomplish; he
+produces a perfect facsimile of the original drawing, with all its
+artistic freedom. The process used is practically the same as the zinc
+etching process described in the chapter on half-tones and line
+plates. The plate, having been etched as deep as is safe, is then
+turned over to the router, whose business it is to cut out all the
+metal between ornaments and lettering to the proper depth. This done,
+the engraver, who in former years practically dug out the entire plate
+with his hand tools, comes in to give the finishing touches and
+correct any slight imperfection that may remain. It is of the utmost
+importance, of course, that the dies should be clear-cut and deep, to
+avoid clogging up in printing, particularly in the plates used for
+stamping in inks. The experienced and watchful engraver is expected
+to detect any spots where the etching process has not fully
+accomplished its purpose. Lettering, especially, should be cut clear,
+deep, and free from "feather," or ragged edges.
+
+The above process applies to single plates or to plates intended for
+printing in one color only, or in gold. Where two or more colors are
+wanted, the photographer has to make as many prints as there are
+colors in the artist's design, as each one calls for a separate plate.
+The proceeding otherwise remains the same, excepting that to the
+engraver's task is added the necessity of making sure of a perfect
+register or fitting together of the various parts.
+
+The transformation in the demands of publishers and writers has become
+so great since the days of the primitive little shop above referred
+to, that a die cutter, working on those lines, would be hopelessly out
+of the race at the present day. In order to meet satisfactorily the
+artistic expectation of the present generation a first-class engraving
+establishment must have: an accomplished staff of artists, supplied
+with a library of standard authorities on the various schools of art,
+as well as a good selection of modern art publications; a skilled
+photographer with a complete photographic outfit, including, of
+course, a suitable gallery with the best obtainable light, both
+natural and artificial; and lastly a complete staff of routers and
+engravers, some of whom should be specialists in lettering, while
+others should devote their attention exclusively to figures.
+
+Of all the elements that go to make book-cover decoration the
+lettering is by far the most important. It should receive special
+care, as in some cases it constitutes the entire decoration. In this
+respect the critical taste of the present day shows itself even more
+strongly than in the matter of decorative ornamentation, and no amount
+of ornamentation, whatever its artistic value, can redeem a cover
+whose lettering is lacking in style, character, or typographical merit
+of some kind. Experience is such a good teacher that I can usually
+tell, by looking at a die, not only who designed the lettering, but
+also what workman engraved it.
+
+Some dies are intended for stamping in gold or colored leaf and
+consequently have to be heated sufficiently to cause the leaf to
+adhere to the cloth cover, while others are meant simply for black
+stamping or stamping in ink of various colors; but all are engraved on
+brass for the sake of durability. Sometimes, where very large editions
+are expected, as of school books, steel is substituted for brass.
+
+The die, when finished, is used by the binder in a stamping press.
+Color work calls for considerable skill on the part of the stamper,
+who should be an expert in mixing inks as the best-cut die will
+often show poor results if not properly handled. In fact, the success
+of a book cover depends on three individuals,--the artist who designs
+it, the engraver who cuts it, and the stamper who prints it.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK CLOTHS
+
+By Henry P. Kendall.
+
+
+The great increase in the number of books produced each year has
+brought a corresponding development in the use of prepared cloth for
+the bindings. Previous to the beginning of the last century cloth was
+almost unknown as a material for covering a book. Books were then very
+costly. They were printed laboriously by hand, on paper also made by
+hand, and were naturally considered worthy of the most lasting
+bindings. As the life of books depends on the strength and wearing
+quality of the covers, such materials as wood, vellum, and leather,
+often reënforced with metal, were generally used.
+
+The nineteenth century has marked a great progress in the variety and
+quantity, if not in the quality, of published books. Improvements in
+methods and in machinery have progressed side by side with economies
+in paper making. As the cost of producing the printed sheets became
+less, a demand arose for a correspondingly cheaper material for
+bindings. The want was satisfactorily met by the use of cloth, and
+from the day that it was first used it has become more and more a
+factor in book manufacturing.
+
+When so commonplace a binding material as cloth was selected, artists
+and binders and publishers considered that ornamentation on such a
+material was almost a waste of time and money. So the libraries of our
+grandfathers contained rows of gloomy and unattractive books, bound in
+black cloth stamped in old-fashioned designs, with a back title of
+lemon gold, and it is only comparatively a few years ago that binding
+in cloth began to be considered worthy of the attention of the
+designer and the artist, but since then the demand for a more varied
+assortment and a wider choice of colors and patterns has been steadily
+growing.
+
+Let us consider briefly the different kinds of book cloths that are
+most commonly used to-day and try to make clear to the lay reader the
+different fabrics, whose nomenclature is so frequently confused even
+by binders and publishers.
+
+Book cloths, from their appearance and manufacture, fall into two
+natural divisions, the first being the so-called "solid colors," in
+which the threads of the cloth are not easily distinguishable. This
+division contains two grades of cloth, generally known as common
+colors and extra colors. The standard width of all book cloths is
+thirty-eight inches. The commons and extras are sold by the roll, and
+the standard number of yards to the roll of these fabrics is
+thirty-eight.
+
+The second division consists of the so-called "linens" and "buckrams,"
+in which each thread, with the imperfections and peculiarities of the
+weaving, are plainly seen and form a large part of their picturesque
+effect.
+
+The first of the "common colors" to be used was the black cloth
+already referred to, but they are now made in many colors, though
+chiefly in simple, pronounced shades, such as browns, blues, greens,
+and reds. These cloths have been dyed, and sized with a stiffening
+preparation. They are the cheapest of the solid colors and are used in
+various patterns, which are embossed on the surface during the process
+of manufacture.
+
+The ordinary patterns which are in the greatest use to-day are
+designated in the trade by letters. Perhaps the most familiar is the
+"T" pattern, straight parallel ridges or striations, about forty to
+the inch, and running across the cloth from selvage to selvage. When
+properly used, these ribs run from top to bottom of a book cover. For
+this reason it is not economical to use the "T" pattern if the height
+of the cover is not a multiple of the width of the cloth, as it
+results in a waste of cloth. This explains why the cost of the book
+bound in "T" pattern is frequently somewhat higher than the same book
+bound in another pattern of the same cloth.
+
+A similar design is the "S" or silk pattern, made up of finer lines
+running diagonally across the cloth, giving the surface a sheen
+somewhat resembling silk. Also in common use are a group of patterns
+composed of small irregular dots or points, the finest of which is
+known as the "C" pattern, a coarser pattern of similar design, the
+"J," and, coarser still, the "L," which has somewhat the appearance of
+the coarse grain of a morocco leather. The pattern known as "H" is a
+simple diamond made by intersecting diagonal lines similar to the ribs
+of the "T" pattern. Other patterns in less common use are those
+resembling morocco leather, pigskin, and patterns in fancy designs.
+
+Following the increased use of the common cloths, attention was given
+to the artistic effects which might be obtained by using colored inks
+and gold on lettering and design, and also to the effect obtained by
+pressure of hot binders' dies or stamps upon covers made with embossed
+cloths, which latter process is known in binding as "blanking" or
+"blind" stamping.
+
+With these advances in the art of cover decoration came the demand for
+the more delicate tints and richer shades of the colors, and as a
+result finer colors than could be produced in the common cloths were
+introduced to meet this demand; these fabrics were called the "extra"
+cloths. They have a solid, smooth surface, more "body," and are in
+every way firmer and better fabrics, and more costly, too, some of the
+shades costing from twenty to forty per cent more than the common
+cloths.
+
+Extra cloths are used largely on the better class of bindings, such as
+the popular fiction, holiday books, scientific books, and books of
+reference, and whenever fine coloring or a better appearance is
+desired. These cloths are chiefly used in the plain fabric, which is
+known as "vellum," and in the "T," "S," and "H" patterns. The trained
+eye easily recognizes extra cloth from the common cloths, by the
+appearance of the surface; but any one may readily distinguish them by
+the appearance of the back, which in the extra cloths is not colored,
+but in the commons is the same color as the face.
+
+Of the second division of cloths, in which the appearance of the
+threads becomes a part of the effect, there are first the "linen"
+cloths. The name "linen" applied to this group is really a misnomer,
+for many laymen are led to think that such cloths have flax as a
+foundation and are therefore genuine linens. This is not so, for there
+is but one genuine linen book cloth to be had, and that is a coarse,
+irregularly woven cloth, dyed in dull colors, and manufactured by a
+foreign house. It is quite expensive, costing sixty cents a square
+yard, which is one of the reasons why it is seldom used.
+
+The chief characteristics of the linen cloths are that the coloring
+used fills the interstices, but allows all the threads to be clearly
+seen. The irregularities of the weaving, therefore, stand out plainly,
+and produce to a certain extent the appearance of woven linen fabrics.
+
+Linen book cloths are made in two grades, and are sold by the yard
+under special names given to them by the manufacturers. The cheaper
+grade is sold under the name of "vellum de luxe," "X" grade, or
+"Oxford." A better grade of linen book cloth sells (in 1906) at about
+sixteen cents per yard under the names "art vellum," "B" grade, and
+"linen finish." It is a very durable fabric and extensively used.
+
+The linen cloths are made principally in the plain surface, and in the
+"T" pattern, but almost never in any other patterns, the reason for
+this being the fact that the character of the cloth is very little
+changed by the embossing, which is used with greater effect on the
+solid colors. These linen cloths are especially adapted for school and
+other books which are constantly handled, as their construction shows
+the wear less than do the solid colors.
+
+The buckrams might have been properly classed with the linens, as that
+is what, in fact, they are. Linen cloth observed through a microscope
+which magnifies the threads to a coarseness of about forty to the inch
+gives us the exact appearance of the buckram, which is a heavy, strong
+cloth well adapted to large books, and which furnishes the most
+durable binding of all the book cloths. The colors of buckrams
+correspond closely with those of the linens; they are also sold under
+trade names given them by manufacturers, such as "art canvas" and "E"
+grade.
+
+Buckrams are sometimes embossed to imitate in part the appearance of
+an irregularly woven fabric called "crash." Crash is a special cloth
+which might properly be classed with the buckrams, and when suitably
+used is a very artistic material.
+
+Basket cloth is still another material which could properly be
+included with the buckrams. This grade of cloth gains its name from
+the fact that the threads are woven in squares resembling a basket
+mesh. They are made in the same coloring as the linen cloths.
+
+In describing the cloths above, only those of American manufacture
+have been considered. There are English cloths which correspond to
+nearly all of these fabrics, but they are little used in America on
+account of the delay in importing them and because of the duty, which
+makes the price here higher than for corresponding grades of domestic
+manufacture.
+
+One cannot stand before the windows of the large book stores at
+holiday time without being impressed by the possibilities offered by
+the many colors and patterns of cloths and the varied hues of inks and
+foil, in helping the artist to make books attractive to the eye, and
+suggestive of the sentiment and motive of their contents. One feels
+that the designer of book covers has surely a wider field to-day than
+when he confined his attention entirely to making intricate designs
+for single leather-bound folios.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK LEATHERS
+
+By Ellery C. Bartlett.
+
+
+There is hardly any part of the world that has not been drawn upon for
+suitable skins to be made into leather for bookbinding. The skins
+generally used are goat, seal, pigskin, cowhide, calf, and sheep, and
+they vary in quality according to the country they come from and the
+manner in which the animals are cared for, the stall-fed animals, or
+those that are protected from storm and have regular food, producing
+the best skins.
+
+In preparing these skins for bookbinders, great care has to be taken
+to extract as much of the natural oil as possible, as this is apt to
+discolor the gold leaf decorations put on by the artistic binder.
+
+Tanners usually buy skins with the hair on. They are first put into
+water, for the purpose of softening them, after which they are laid
+over a beam and a knife is drawn over them, to still further soften
+them. They are then put into vats containing slack lime-water, which
+loosens the hair and kills the animal life remaining in the skin.
+After having been in these vats for a period of about ten days, they
+are washed in water, to remove the lime and clean the skin. Afterwards
+they are put through a process called "bating," which destroys any
+animal matter in the skins which may have escaped the first process,
+and they are then finally cleansed by a solution of bran and water,
+which also prepares them for tanning.
+
+After the skins have been in tan for a week or more, they are taken
+out, tacked on drying frames and all the wrinkles stretched out of
+them. When thoroughly dry, they are ready for the coloring process.
+After being colored, they are again tacked on the frames; and when
+they are thoroughly dry again they are taken to the graining room,
+where the finishing processes are done by skilled workmen, the utmost
+care being needed to produce the desired result.
+
+The matching of shades is a very difficult process, as the question of
+color must be decided while the skins are still wet. Weather
+conditions have a very important bearing on the manufacture of
+leather, and changes in the atmosphere often spoil all the careful
+work that has previously been put on a skin.
+
+The finest leather for books comes from France, although a good
+quality is made in England and Germany, and the United States is
+rapidly improving its output.
+
+The graining of the leather to bring out the natural grain in the
+skin, is done by hand and sometimes by electroplate reproductions of
+the natural grain by means of the embossing press. When large grain is
+wanted, the skins are shaved only slightly on the back; if small
+grains are wanted, the skins are shaved thinner. This process removes
+all roughness from the back of the skin, leaving it smooth and clean.
+
+Formerly the binder, in preparing his covers, was compelled to pare
+the edges with a knife, which was a slow and laborious process; but
+now--thanks to the inventive American talent--he can have the whole
+skin split to any desired thickness or thinness, without injury; or,
+he can have the edges pared by cleverly devised machinery.
+
+Leather manufacturers are able, by using splitting machines, to split
+skins so that both parts of a skin can be used--the upper part of the
+skin being called the grain and the lower the flesh. Were this not the
+case, it would be impossible for the binder to supply the needs of his
+customers, as the output does not keep pace with the constantly
+increasing demand. In fact, binders are constantly looking for
+substitutes, but, after all, there is nothing so good as leather.
+
+
+
+
+THE BINDING
+
+By Jesse Fellowes Tapley.
+
+
+The changes in the methods of bookbinding during the last sixty years
+have been very great, and during the last twenty-five years the
+invention of machines for doing the work rapidly has created almost a
+revolution in the art.
+
+Fifty years ago the pay of journeymen bookbinders ranged from eight to
+ten dollars a week, for a day of ten hours, and the cost of binding an
+ordinary 12mo volume of 500 pages in cloth was from sixteen to
+eighteen cents. To-day the same volume can be bound for eight to ten
+cents, with the pay of the journeyman from eighteen to twenty dollars
+a week, for a day of nine hours. The pay of girls has, as a general
+thing, been proportionally increased, while the amount of work they
+can turn out with the newly invented machinery is triple as much as
+could be done by hand, and on some branches of the work it is more
+than six times as much.
+
+The first process of making a book is the folding. The sheets are
+usually printed so as to fold in sections of sixteen pages, with
+signature figures, as 1, 2, 3, or alphabet letters, as A, B, C,
+printed at the bottom of the first page of each section, for the
+guidance of the binder in placing the signatures in regular order for
+gathering the book.
+
+Usually two or four forms are printed on one sheet. One girl could
+fold by hand from 3500 to 4000 sections of 16 pages a day. With modern
+machines the range is from 17,000 to 48,000, according to the make of
+the machine and whether it is equipped with an automatic feeder or
+not.
+
+There are three styles of machines in general use. The point machine,
+fed by hand, has needle points on the feed board, on which is placed
+the sheet, which has proper holes made by the printing press. The next
+is called a drop-roll machine, which, if equipped with an automatic
+feeder, will fold 24,000 sections a day, delivering two sections at
+each revolution. The next is called a quadruple machine, which, with
+an automatic feeder, will fold 48,000 sections a day or as many as
+twelve girls could do by hand.
+
+In binderies where large editions of books are done, it would be
+almost impossible to keep the different sections from getting mixed,
+unless they were put into compact bundles and tied up until the
+complete book is folded. This is accomplished by putting a quantity of
+each section into hydraulic or screw presses, with a board at the top
+and bottom of the bundle, which is tied with a strong cord. They are
+then marked with name and signature, and piled up until wanted for
+gathering into books.
+
+If the book has plates printed separately from the text, they have to
+be inserted before it can be gathered. Plating is done by girls, 5000
+being a day's work for an experienced hand.
+
+Gathering comes next. The sections are laid out in separate piles in
+consecutive order, and one signature taken from each pile, making a
+complete book. From 30,000 to 45,000 sections is a day's work.
+
+After gathering, the book is pressed to make it solid. This is done by
+passing it through a powerful press, called a smashing machine. The
+old-fashioned way was to pile the books between boards in a standing
+press, running the screw down with an iron lever, and allowing them to
+stay in same for several hours. In a modern smashing machine a book
+can be made as solid in half a minute as the standing press will make
+it by ten hours' pressing.
+
+From the smashing machine it goes to the collator, by whom it is
+examined to see if any signature is misplaced or left out.
+
+It then goes to the modern sewing machine. This is one of the most
+valuable labor-saving machines for the binder ever invented, as it
+almost, if not entirely, supersedes hand sewing on what is called
+edition work. This machine will sew from 15,000 to 18,000 signatures a
+day, and do it better than it can be done by hand. Each signature is
+sewed independently and with from two to five stitches, so that if one
+breaks the signature is held fast by the others, while in hand sewing
+the thread goes through the whole length of the signature, and if by
+chance it is broken, the book is ruined so far as the sewing is
+concerned. In addition the machine does more work, in the same time,
+than five or six girls sewing by hand.
+
+After sewing, the books are prepared for trimming by "jogging up" in
+bunches of the proper thickness, for the cutting machine. If the work
+is large or the paper highly sized and slippery, a light coating of
+glue is applied to the centre of the back, to keep the signatures in
+place. In olden times books were trimmed in a press having hardwood
+jaws and wood screws near each end, worked with an iron lever. Into
+this press the books were clamped, the rough edge to be trimmed off
+projecting above the jaws. To trim the book, a plough was used, made
+of two thick side pieces of hard wood about one foot long and six
+inches high, with a long hand screw passing through them. (The end at
+the right had a handle outside of the side piece, and the end at the
+left engaged a screw in the left side piece.) At the bottom of the
+right side piece, and resting on the jaw of the press, was a
+sharp-pointed knife. The plough was worked back and forth, and at each
+motion the screw in the plough was turned enough for the knife to
+take a shaving from the book. To keep the plough in place, the
+left-hand jaw had a deep groove on its surface, in which the plough
+worked. This was slow and hard work.
+
+Sometime between the years 1840 and 1850, a machine was invented in
+which books were clamped, and a heavy knife descended perpendicularly.
+This was an improvement on the old-fashioned press and plough, but it
+was found that, unless the knife was very sharp, the tendency was to
+draw the paper, and in effect jam it off rather than cut it.
+
+To obviate this, the next move was to arrange the knife so that it
+would give a drawing cut, or come down on a slant, rather than a rigid
+descent. This is the principle on which most book and paper cutting
+machines are made to-day.
+
+About 1850 a machine was invented in which a vibrating knife worked
+back and forth on the paper to be cut. This was thought at the time to
+be the best principle for a cutting machine.
+
+Ten or twenty years later a new machine made its appearance. This one
+had a knife held rigidly in the frame of the machine, and the books
+were clamped into a carriage drawn up by a chain against the edge of
+the knife. It was the most rapid trimmer that had appeared, and held
+its position for a good many years; but in the meantime, for general
+work, the machines with a descending slanting knife held their own and
+multiplied.
+
+Within a very short time a new machine has appeared. This has two
+slanting descending knives and doubles the work of the older machines,
+as it cuts two sides at one blow, and will trim from 7000 to 8000
+ordinary books a day, against 500 or 600 by the old-fashioned press
+and plough.
+
+After the edges are trimmed, the book is rounded and backed. In this
+process, too, great improvement has been made. Originally this work
+was done by hand with a hammer, the rounding being accomplished by
+striking one side of the back as the book lay flat, and then the
+other, forming it at the same time by the hand, to give the back the
+convex, and the front the concave, form. Some persons are found now
+who think the hollow or concave front of the book is made by trimming
+it in that way.
+
+The backing process gives the groove on which the cover is hinged. In
+olden times this was done by clamping the book in a press between
+backing irons, with the back projecting enough to give the proper
+groove, and gradually drawing it over from the centre with the hammer.
+In small job shops this is the practice to-day, but in large
+establishments it has given place to modern machines. The first
+innovation was what is called the roller backer. This makes the
+groove, the book being first rounded as described. Then came the
+rounder and backer, which is run by power, and both rounds and backs
+the book at one operation.
+
+To show the advance made, it may be stated that 500 books was a good
+day's work with press and hammer. With the advent of the roller backer
+1000 was a fair day's work, but when the power machine was invented,
+the production jumped up to 4000 and over, a day.
+
+After the book is rounded and grooved, the back is glued and a piece
+of coarse woven cloth, wide enough to lap over each side an inch or
+more, is put on, and over this another coat of glue and a piece of
+paper the width of the back are applied.
+
+The book is then ready for the cover, which is put on by pasting the
+first and last leaf, drawing the cover on, and putting it in press
+between boards whose edges are bound with a brass band, the rim
+projecting above the surface of the board. This rim presses the cloth
+between the covers and the back of the book, making a hinge upon which
+the cover opens. Two men can paste and press 1500 to 2000 books a day.
+A new machine has been put on the market within a year, that, with the
+same help, will do the work at the rate of 4000 a day. This process is
+termed "casing in."
+
+The making of the book cover is a distinct branch in binding edition
+work. The pasteboard formerly was cut by hand shears, one piece at a
+time. It is now done by rotary shears, cutting from six to ten pieces
+as fast as the sheets of board can be fed to the machine.
+
+The cloth for the cover is cut to the proper size, glued by hand, the
+boards laid on by gauge, and the edges turned in with a folder. A man
+expert at the work can make from 600 to 800 covers a day. About
+fifteen years ago a machine was invented, which turns out from 3000 to
+4500 a day. This machine is automatic in its operation, gluing the
+cloth, laying on the boards, turning in the edges, and delivering a
+more perfect cover than can be made by hand.
+
+Stamping the cover is a trade by itself. It requires long experience
+and skill to make an expert. There are several branches in this trade,
+such as blank or blind stamping, stamping with ink (or a colored leaf
+made to take the place of ink), and stamping with gold. Laying gold
+preparatory to stamping is a distinct branch, and is done by girls.
+This is such a delicate operation that it requires long experience.
+There has been no improvement in the principle of the stamping or
+embossing press since the first machines came into use. The die or
+stamp is held in the head of the press by clamps, and the cover is
+placed on the platen or bed of the press, which is raised up to the
+stamp by a "toggle joint" operated with a "cam."
+
+Since covers began to be ornamented with ink, attachments have been
+added to the presses for inking the stamps. There have also been
+invented powerful printing presses, made for stamping covers in ink.
+The process is the same as on common printing presses.
+
+The dies used for stamping covers are cut on hardened brass, and are
+capable of standing an immense pressure. They are not set in chases,
+as are the forms on printing presses, but are glued to iron plates.
+The head of the press to which the plates are clamped is heated,
+either by running a jet of live steam through it, or by gas jets.
+
+For gilt work, or colored leaf, heat is necessary. The cover is
+prepared with a coat of size. The gold or ink leaf is then laid on and
+an impression is given with the heated die, which melts the size and
+fastens the leaf only at the point where the die strikes. The surplus
+leaf is brushed off, leaving only the design visible.
+
+The binding of cheap leather-covered books is essentially the same as
+with cloth. The difference is that the covers must be made by hand. No
+machine will do any part, except paring the edges of the covers. There
+are several machines that will do this work, one machine doing as much
+in a day as three men could with knife and paring stone in the old
+way.
+
+Edge-gilding is another distinct branch of the trade, and is generally
+done before books are rounded and backed. The books are clamped, after
+trimming, between the jaws of powerful screw presses and the edges
+scraped to make them perfectly smooth. They are then colored with a
+mixture of red chalk, or black lead, applied with a sponge, to give
+the gold a dark color. A size made of the white of eggs is then
+applied with a brush, the gold leaf floated on, and when dry burnished
+with an agate or bloodstone. No machine has yet been invented that
+will do this work.
+
+Edge-marbling is another branch. A shallow trough is filled with a
+solution of gum hog or gum tragacanth of the consistency of thick
+cream. Each color, which must be ground very fine, is mixed in water
+and ox-gall, and sprinkled separately over the surface of the gum with
+brushes. The ox-gall prevents the colors from mixing together on the
+solution, every drop being distinct. If three or more colors are used,
+the first one containing a little gall, the second more than the
+first, and the third more than the second, each color will make a
+place for itself by crowding the others into a narrower space. The
+books are held firmly in a clamp, and as the edges are dipped into the
+solution they take up the colors as they lie on the surface.
+
+There are other edges called for besides the gilt, the marbled, or the
+plain smooth cut. The deckle edge is left uncut, just as it comes from
+the paper-maker. The uncut or rough cut is made by taking off any
+projecting edges of the leaves. There are machines for doing this, one
+having a circular knife rigged like a circular saw, the book being run
+lengthwise against it. There are also other methods of removing
+overhanging leaves, one by using hand shears, another by filing.
+
+In fine leather binding, while the preparation of the book for the
+cover is essentially the same as in cloth work, the covering is all
+hand-work, requiring experience and skill, and is a distinct branch of
+the trade.
+
+Finishing by hand is another, and requires long experience to become
+an expert. Gold ornamentation requires heated tools, and in the hands
+of a practised finisher beautiful designs can be worked out with quite
+a limited assortment of rolls, straight and curved lines, and a few
+sprigs, dots, and stars.
+
+In olden times, when all work was done by hand, the product of a
+good-sized cloth bindery was from 500 to 1000 books a day. Now, with
+modern machinery, in a well-equipped bindery, the product is from 5000
+to 10,000 copies of an ordinary 12mo book.
+
+There are a number of other machines in use, run by power, which have
+not been enumerated in the above sketch, such as wire and thread
+stitching machines, gluing and pasting machines, brushing machines,
+and last but not least a gold-saving machine, out of whose bowels
+large binders take from $200 to $400 worth of waste gold each month.
+This waste gold comes from the surplus gold brushed from the covers
+after stamping.
+
+
+
+
+SPECIAL BINDINGS
+
+By Henry Blackwell.
+
+
+Much has been written about the art of special binding, and many
+lengthy treatises have been written on the various methods of early
+and modern "extra," or fine binders. It will be my province to
+describe the stages through which a book passes, from the time it is
+received in the bindery until it is shipped out of the establishment.
+I will take for my subject a rare old book that is to be rebound in a
+half-levant morocco binding. In a good shop, all books, no matter what
+the binding is to be, are treated alike in regard to workmanship,
+care, and materials. If a binder puts his name in the completed book,
+it is a sign that the book has been to the best of his ability
+honestly and well bound.
+
+When the customer brings the book to the binder, the style of binding,
+color of the leather, amount and kind of ornamentation, and all the
+other details are determined upon and entered carefully in a numbered
+order book, and the number of the order is marked in pencil on an
+inside leaf of the book itself, so that the original instructions may
+be referred to from time to time. This number is usually left in the
+book after it has been finished and delivered to the owner, and not
+infrequently has been the means of identifying a lost or stolen
+volume.
+
+The book is then given to the first operator, usually a girl, who
+removes the cover, if there is any, and takes the book apart,
+separating carefully each of the "signatures," or sections, and
+removing the threads of the old binding. If any of the pages are
+loose, they are pasted neatly in their proper places and the "insert
+plates" (illustrations, maps, etc.), which had been printed separately
+from the text and pasted in the volume, are examined to make sure that
+they are firmly fixed. Another operator goes over the entire volume
+and cleans any of the pages that have become soiled.
+
+The book is then prepared for the sewing by a man who hammers the back
+until it is flat and all the edges of the signatures lie evenly. He
+then divides it into sections of half a dozen or more signatures,
+places each of these between smooth wooden boards, and puts the whole
+into an upright iron press, in which it is subjected to a great
+pressure, and where it ought to remain over night in order to make it
+entirely flat and solid. A better way of pressing a book at this stage
+of the operation is to pass it several times through a rolling
+machine, which is made for this special purpose with two heavy iron
+rollers, say twenty inches long and ten inches in diameter. These
+machines are seldom used in America, but are invariably found in the
+equipment of binders' workshops abroad, which is perhaps one reason
+why English books are so solidly bound.
+
+Following the pressing, or the rolling, the book is placed, back
+uppermost, in another press, something like a wooden vise. By means of
+a handsaw, several cuts, just deep enough to cut entirely through the
+fold of each signature, are made across the back of the book. Seven of
+these saw marks are usually made, the five in the middle being for the
+cords on which the book is sewed, and the two at the ends for threads
+which help to make the sewing more secure. If the book is to have a
+binding with raised bands across the back, no actual cuts are made,
+the back being simply scratched to guide the girl in sewing, so that
+the heavy twine on which she sews will stand out on the back, forcing
+the leather up in the five middle places and forming the raised bands.
+
+After it has been sawed, or scratched, the book goes to a girl who
+collates it--that is, examines it thoroughly, signature by signature,
+and makes sure that everything is in its right place. If the volume is
+old or especially valuable, it is gone over page by page. The first
+and last signatures are then whip-stitched, or sewed over and over
+along the back edges, and then put in their places.
+
+The book is then sewn on a "sewing frame." This is a small wooden
+table about twelve by eighteen inches, with legs only one inch high.
+At two corners there are upright wooden screws, some fifteen inches
+long with movable collars which support a crosspiece. To this
+crosspiece are fastened three stout cords, their other ends being
+attached to the table. The position of these cords are regulated to
+fit the saw marks on the back of the book, then they are tightened by
+means of the screw collars. The sections of the book are then placed
+against these cords, one by one, and the threads passed through the
+saw cuts and outside the cords, thus sewing them firmly to the back of
+the book. When several books of the same size are being bound at one
+time, the operator goes right on sewing book after book, one signature
+after the other, until she has finished a pile of books a foot or more
+high. When the sewing is finished the cords are cut so as to leave a
+free end of an inch and a half on each side of the book, and to these
+ends are fastened the boards, as described later.
+
+Linen or silk thread is used in sewing, the heaviness of which depends
+upon the size of the book and the thickness of the paper of the book.
+If the book has many single leaves, or illustrations, it is sometimes
+necessary to whip-stitch each signature before sewing.
+
+The book, or the pile of books, then passes to the "forwarder," who
+"draws off" or separates each book from the others in the pile, and
+again hammers the book, to flatten out any "swell" which may be
+present after the sewing. He then pastes, or "tacks," the first and
+last whip-stitched signatures to the signatures next them, this
+pasting being only, say, an eighth of an inch wide along the back
+edge.
+
+The paper is then chosen for the "end papers," usually matching
+closely the paper of the book. They are cut a little larger than the
+paper page of the book, and pasted along the edge to the outside and
+whip-stitched signatures. Marble paper in suitable harmony or contrast
+with the leather to be used on the book is then selected for lining
+the inside of the covers cut to the same size as the "end papers," and
+pasted to them, after having been folded so that the colored sides
+come face to face.
+
+When all this pasting has dried thoroughly, the back of the book is
+covered with a thin coating of glue, to preserve its shape and then,
+while the back is quite flat, the front edges of the leaves are
+trimmed off evenly in a cutting machine. If this edge is to be gilded,
+special care is taken to have the edges cut smoothly.
+
+The back is then "rounded" by use of a hammer; if the book is to be a
+"flat back" one, the rounding is very slight. It is necessary even in
+the case of a flat back book to round it somewhat so that it will
+retain its shape when the finished book is placed on the shelf. After
+the rounding, the top, or "head," and the bottom, or "tail," of the
+book are trimmed evenly in the cutting machine.
+
+The book is then ready for the gilder, who places it, with the edge
+which is to be gilded uppermost, in a press. This edge is covered with
+red chalk, which shows all the uneven places, which are then scraped
+with a steel scraper. This operation is repeated until the edge is
+very smooth, and it is then treated with a sizing made of white of egg
+and water, which is to hold the gold leaf to the edges of the leaves.
+The gold leaf is laid on the still wet edge, and when slightly dry is
+covered with a sheet of paper and rubbed down with a burnisher, and
+when entirely dry is burnished again with a smooth piece of agate or
+bloodstone.
+
+The boards, pieces of strong and durable binders' "boards" made of
+paper or tarred rope, are then selected and cut to fit the book,
+extending about one-eighth of an inch over the head, tail, and front
+edges of the leaves. Each of the cords, on which the book has been
+sewed, is moistened with paste, and put through two holes which are
+punched side by side in the board and within a quarter of an inch of
+the inside edge. The cord is carried down through one hole, and up
+through the other, and the remaining end is cut off and hammered down
+smooth where it stays firmly fastened by the paste. This is called
+"lacing on the boards" and when finished makes, so far as strength
+is concerned, the cover-boards and the inside of the book practically
+one piece. The book is then given another long pressing.
+
+The coverer then takes the volume. He first wraps the edges with paper
+to keep them clean and then puts on the headbands. These are either
+sewn directly on to the book or may be bought ready-made, when they
+are put on with glue.
+
+The back is covered with a strip of coarsely woven crash lined with
+several pieces of paper. This is glued to the back to make it hard and
+solid and to prevent it from cracking, or "breaking," when the book is
+opened.
+
+The leather is then cut out for the corners and for the back, in the
+latter case allowance being made for its extension over and on to the
+boards to the proper distance. The back lining is trimmed off to the
+top of the headbands, and the leather is pasted on the rough side in
+position and turned in at the "head" and "tail" of the back. The five
+raised bands are then "pinched up" and the whole back is polished, or
+"crushed," with a hot polisher until the leather is smoothed down to
+the desired surface.
+
+In decorating the cover, or "tooling" it, as it is called, the design
+is first pressed into the leather of the back with heated tools. These
+designs, appearing "blank," or sunken, in the leather, are washed over
+with a thin coat of paste and water, followed by a sizing of albumen,
+and finally with vaseline, to make the gold stick. Gold leaf is laid
+over the "blank" designs and the same heated tools used to press the
+gold into the leather. As many as three layers of gold are frequently
+put on in this way until the design is full and clear. The waste edges
+of the pieces of gold leaf are removed with a piece of soft rubber and
+the whole back washed with benzine to remove the grease of the
+vaseline and that of the natural leather.
+
+The part of the leather which projects over the sides is pasted to the
+boards, trimmed off straight, and pared down until the edges are very
+thin. Another piece of plain paper is then cut out and pasted on the
+board, covering it right up to the edges of the leather. This makes
+the side board and the leather even in height and prevents the outside
+marbled paper from showing ridges made by the edges of the leather.
+
+When the outside has dried, a piece of paper is pasted on the inside
+of each board. This paper has a tendency to shrink a little and to
+warp the boards, so that they will hold tightly to the inside of the
+book. If this paper were not put on the inside of the covers, the
+marbled paper on the outside might cause the boards to warp away from
+the book itself.
+
+The end papers are then pasted down on to the board, and when
+thoroughly dry all the leather along the inside and the outside edges
+of the cover sides is carefully washed and polished with an iron
+polisher. The book is then placed between plates made of steel, either
+nickel or silver plated, and placed in the press to remain a day or
+two, after which the back is polished again and the sides are finished
+with gilt lines along the edges of the leather next to the marbled
+paper. Then the book is finally inspected, a silk marker inserted, and
+the volume is done and ready for delivery.
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHTING
+
+By Frederick H. Hitchcock.
+
+
+Copyrighting a book is in most instances not a difficult matter, but
+the present United States laws are so complicated and inconsistent
+that an inexperienced author may readily fall into errors of one kind
+or another.
+
+In a modern publishing house, the routine work of complying with the
+provisions of the copyright laws is usually in the hands of one clerk,
+who is responsible for the preparation and filing of the necessary
+documents at the proper time and for keeping a complete record of all
+that he does. Experience soon brings such a clerk a really valuable
+knowledge of the law, but as many questions of vital importance arise
+from time to time, it is customary for one of the most responsible men
+in the concern, generally a member of the firm or an officer in the
+corporation, to exercise a general supervision of all copyright
+matters.
+
+When a book is ready to be sent to the bindery, the manufacturing
+department will generally order a certain number of copies to be
+finished in advance of the rest of the edition. Some of these will be
+for the travelling salesman's use, some for the publicity department,
+and at least two for copyright purposes. With the copies delivered to
+the copyright clerk, the manufacturing department will send one or two
+separate title-pages, either torn from the printed sheets or taken
+from the early proofs made by the printer. With these in hand and with
+information from the selling department as to the day when the book is
+to be published, the clerk in charge will then take the first step
+toward copyrighting it. This is the filing of the claim for copyright
+and of the title of the book.
+
+The Copyright Office in the Library of Congress at Washington supplies
+free upon request application blanks, and one of these must be
+carefully filled in. The information called for by this blank is as
+follows: the amount of the fees enclosed, whether a sealed copy of the
+record, or certificate as it is called, is desired, whether the volume
+is to be classed as a book, periodical, or dramatic composition, an
+abbreviated title of the book, the name of the author, or proprietor,
+the name and address of the applicant, the name of the country where
+the book was printed, whether the applicant is the author, or (having
+an assignment from the author) the proprietor, the name of the country
+of which the author is a citizen, or subject, and whether the whole or
+a part of the book is sought to be copyrighted.
+
+There is a blank page in the form where the print or proof of the
+title-page must be pasted. If neither of these is available at the
+time, it is customary to use a typewritten title-page, but as the law
+distinctly calls for a "printed" title and as the courts have not
+decided whether typewriting is printing within the intention of the
+law, it is best to follow the exact letter of the law.
+
+The fee for filing the application or claim for copyright is fifty
+cents if the author is a citizen or resident of the United States, or
+one dollar if he is a foreigner. If a copy of the record entered at
+the Copyright Office is desired, an additional fifty cents is
+required. The fees, preferably in the form of a money-order, are
+enclosed in the envelope containing the claim, and the whole
+forwarded, postage prepaid, to the Register of Copyrights at the
+Library of Congress.
+
+Upon receiving these, the Copyright Office will acknowledge the
+receipt of the fees and make a record of the claim and of the title in
+books provided for the purpose. The law specifies that this record
+shall be in the following words:--
+
+"Library of Congress, to wit: Be it remembered that on the___day
+of________190________________ of_________has deposited in this Office
+the title of a BOOK, the title of which is in the following words, to
+wit:____________, the right whereof_______ claims as author and
+proprietor in conformity with the laws of the United States respecting
+copyrights. ______________Librarian of Congress."
+
+It is generally the custom to obtain a copy of this record, which, if
+the fee is enclosed, is sent to the claimant as soon after the receipt
+of the application as it can be made out in the regular course of the
+business of the Copyright Office. This copy is signed by the Register
+of Copyrights and is sealed with the official seal of the Library of
+Congress. The period of protection under an original claim is
+twenty-eight years.
+
+It is important to remember that the application and the title are
+required by law to be delivered to the Register of Copyrights "on or
+before the day of publication in this or any other country." If
+delayed until after that day, the book cannot have the protection of
+the copyright law.
+
+Prior to 1891 none but citizens or residents of the United States
+could obtain copyright, but in July of that year the privilege was
+extended to the citizens, or subjects, of such other countries as
+grant to the citizens of the United States the same copyright
+privileges which they afford to their own countrymen. At the present
+time these privileged countries are Belgium, France, Great Britain and
+her possessions, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Portugal,
+Spain, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica, the Netherlands (Holland) and her
+possessions, Cuba, China, and Norway.
+
+The law also requires that a book desired to be copyrighted in the
+United States must be printed in this country. It is, therefore, not
+possible to copyright a book which has been put into type and
+electrotyped in England and sent here for the presswork and binding.
+Copies of a book manufactured in this country may, however, be sent to
+England and copyrighted there.
+
+The second step is to send two copies of the printed book for deposit
+in the Copyright Office, and until this has been done, the copyright
+is incomplete. These copies, like the title, must be delivered on or
+before the day of publication.
+
+A printed receipt-form for books to be deposited is supplied by the
+Copyright Office, and it is the usual practice for the sender to fill
+in his address, and the names of the book and of the author, so that
+when the books are received, the Register of Copyrights needs only to
+date and sign the receipt-form and return it to the sender. This
+receipt-form should be enclosed with the books when they are
+forwarded. The package must be plainly addressed (the Copyright Office
+furnishes printed labels if desired) and sent, carriage prepaid,
+through the mail.
+
+It not infrequently happens that publication must be made before the
+two copies of a book can reach Washington. In such cases the copyright
+clerk may take the books to the nearest post-office and obtain from
+the postmaster a dated receipt for them which is equivalent to
+delivery to the Copyright Office. The package is not finally wrapped
+until the postmaster has examined it.
+
+When these steps have been properly taken, and the certificate, or
+sealed copy, of the record and the receipt for the two copies have
+been received, the copyright is secure so far as our laws can render
+it. It should be borne in mind that the Copyright Office does not
+grant a copyright in a manner similar to the granting of a patent
+right by the patent office. Its function is simply to record in a
+permanent place and in official form the claim made by the author, or
+by the proprietor, of that right. When a book is "pirated" and the
+offender sued, it must first be established by the records that the
+provisions of the law have been complied with fully and correctly. In
+this way a copyright is always subject to review by the courts.
+
+Every copy of a book for which copyright has been claimed must have a
+formal notice to that effect, printed on its "title-page or on the
+page following." As prescribed by law, this notice must read either
+"Entered according to the Act of Congress in the year 1906 by A. B. in
+the Office of the Library of Congress," or simply, "Copyright, 1906,
+by A. B." The omission of such a notice from the book would make it
+impossible for its owner to prevent its being reprinted. There is a
+penalty of $100 for using the notice of copyright in an uncopyrighted
+book, and when the notice is used, there is a penalty of $25, if the
+two copies as required by law are not deposited. This latter penalty
+also applies in the case of failure to deposit one copy of a new
+edition differing from the former one, if a notice of copyright is
+used in the new edition.
+
+In order to obtain a renewal of a copyright, the claim and the title
+must be filed on a form provided for the purpose with the Register of
+Copyrights "within six months before the expiration of the first
+term," which would be sometime between twenty-seven and one-half and
+twenty-eight years from the date of filing the original title. The
+copyright period runs from the date of filing the original claim, and
+not from the time of depositing the books, and great care should be
+taken to ascertain the date of the registration of the original title,
+and to compute the time so that the filing of the application for
+renewal will surely fall within the specified six months. The renewal
+period is fourteen years, and the fees are the same as in the case of
+the original application, but a certificate, or copy of the record, of
+the renewal claim must be taken and paid for by the claimant.
+
+Only one copy of a book is required to be deposited to complete the
+claim for a renewal term of copyright. This copy also must be
+delivered within "six months before the expiration of the first term,"
+and should be accompanied by a receipt as in the case of the original
+deposit. In order to complete the claim, a copy of the certificate
+must be published verbatim, within two months of the date of renewal
+for four weeks in one or more newspapers printed in the United States.
+
+In obtaining international copyright, publication on the same day here
+and abroad is necessary, and this is sometimes a cause of considerable
+inconvenience in actual practice. When a New York publisher wishes to
+copyright in England a novel which he is about to publish, he must
+prepare six special copies of the finished book, bind them in cloth,
+print the copyright notice on the back of the title-page, and the name
+and address of the London firm or the individual who is willing to act
+as the English publisher of the book, and forward the copies to that
+person. At the same time he will write to this agent, telling him of
+the shipment and requesting him to enter the book for copyright and
+publish it in England on or about such a date. He will, of course,
+allow sufficient time for the books to reach London, and he will
+carefully point out in his letter any American holidays which occur
+near the probable date of publication. Upon receiving the books, the
+London agent will cable the New York publisher the date on which he
+will publish the book, taking care to allow an interval of a day or
+two, because of a possible delay.
+
+On the day agreed upon, the New York publisher proceeds to copyright
+and publish his book in this country in the usual manner, while the
+London agent does the same abroad, delivering to the British Museum
+one copy of the book, and to Stationer's Hall, for use in certain
+libraries, four copies. Both of them will on that day sell at least
+one or two copies which will constitute a legal publication.
+
+It is the custom with many publishers to establish the publication day
+of all of their books, by displaying a few copies, or by actually
+selling one or more copies to some one. In the case of a very popular
+copyrighted book which it is desirable to have the retailers all over
+the country begin to sell on the same day, it is deemed safer to make
+this technical publication before any of the books are distributed
+through the trade. A record of the first sales entered in a
+publisher's sales-book in the course of business would effectually
+prevent any one from claiming in after years a right to reprint a book
+on the ground that the claim, title, and copies were not originally
+filed until after the book had been put upon the market.
+
+Under a recent amendment in our law, an author of a book in a foreign
+language, who is a citizen of one of the foreign countries which
+allows to our citizens the same copyright privileges as are allowed to
+its own countrymen, is permitted to file in the Copyright Office
+within thirty days after its publication in a foreign country a copy
+of his book with a formal declaration that he is the author and that
+he intends to translate it or to print it in its original language and
+to apply for copyright in the United States. After doing this, he is
+allowed one year in which to complete his proposed translation or to
+print it in the original language and copyright it here.
+
+Before this statute was passed, two or more persons could translate a
+foreign book, and each could copyright his own translation. Every copy
+of a book for which such protection is desired under this law must
+bear a notice stating, "Published ---- Nineteen Hundred and ----.
+Privilege of copyright in the United States reserved under the Act
+approved March 3, 1905, by A. B."
+
+Only the author or his assignee (_i.e._ the proprietor) may secure
+copyright in a book. An author may transfer orally all or part of his
+rights before publication, but after publication it is necessary for
+him to make the assignment by some form of written instrument. In
+order to make it a valid assignment, the original instrument must be
+sent to be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within
+sixty days after its execution. The fee for recording an assignment is
+one dollar. After the original document has been recorded, it is
+signed and sealed and returned to the sender, who should preserve it
+with the certificate.
+
+It is a common practice to have in the contract between the author and
+his publisher a clause assigning to the publisher all of the author's
+rights for the "full term of copyright and for any and all renewals."
+The agreement, of course, includes other provisions such as for the
+payment of the usual royalties, accounting, etc. Having been made
+before publication such an assignment does not need to be recorded in
+the Copyright Office.
+
+The history of copyright is an extremely interesting subject, but it
+cannot be properly treated in the limits of this article. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the first copyright law was enacted by
+Parliament during Queen Anne's reign and is known as "8 Anne, c. 9."
+This statute provided that an author should have complete control of
+his literary productions during a first term of fourteen years after
+publication, and a renewal term of the same length, and provided
+penalties against piracy. A great many questions concerning this law
+arose from time to time in trials before various courts, but perhaps
+the chief one of interest was that of whether the limitation of the
+period during which it granted protection had destroyed the author's
+rights which had existed previously. For fifty years after the passage
+of the law, the decisions were that the right of ownership existed for
+all time as a right in common law unaffected by the statute, but in
+1774 the highest English court held that while the rights of the
+author before the publication of his book remained unaffected, after
+publication he had no rights except during the period specified by the
+statute. This decision is still believed by many authorities to have
+been a wrong one, but it has been the basis for all subsequent
+copyright law in this country as well as in England. Therefore in the
+United States to-day, the right of ownership lies in the author until
+his work is published, but upon publication he has no rights except
+those given him by law, and these he can obtain only by a strict
+compliance with the requirements of the law. Any one who is
+sufficiently interested to read the first hundred pages of Drone's
+"Treatise on the Law of Property in Intellectual Productions" will be
+well repaid for the effort, and will obtain considerable light upon
+how the "right of copying," or printing, a book developed, why its
+duration is not unlimited, and why we must observe certain formalities
+in order to protect our literary work by it.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICITY
+
+By Vivian Burnett.
+
+
+The duty of bringing the productions of a publishing house to the
+attention of the public is a very important one, and much depends upon
+the cleverness and energy with which it is discharged. It can easily
+be seen that no matter how good the books brought out by a firm, they
+would be likely to remain on stockroom shelves if readers were not
+properly made aware of their issue. The name "Publicity department" is
+the most descriptive title that can be given to the part of the staff
+devoting its energies to the many variations of news-spreading
+involved in this work.
+
+Publicity involves both editorial and commercial elements. From the
+editorial side it is of prime importance that the person in charge of
+the publicity have at the very beginning a complete and definite idea
+of the reasons that have ruled in the acceptance of a book,--what
+class of people it was published for, and just what species of a book
+it is considered to be. Is it purposed to appeal to a certain
+religious class of people? Is it for the distinctly literary? Perhaps
+it is one of those volumes on the border line between a juvenile and
+an adult's book, which may be presented either as a volume for young
+or for grown-up folks. The publicity man must be in full understanding
+of this estimate before he can do his work properly. On the commercial
+side, he must know just the feeling of the trade in regard to an
+author and any type of book; and must be in close touch with the
+salesmen, not only at the beginning, but all through the life of the
+volume. He can learn from them what amount of success the author's
+previous books have met, and thus be enabled to present his volume in
+a way that will hitch on to a previous success or avoid the odium of a
+recent failure. Salesmen can help him to know the interests of every
+section of the country, so that advantage can be taken of them in
+bringing the book to the local bookseller's attention and influencing
+him to a special effort in its behalf.
+
+Few people are aware of the influence exerted by the book clerk, who
+can substitute something "just as good" much more easily than a drug
+or dry goods clerk, especially if he has a good argument to offer. The
+largest part of the publicity of a publishing house is aimed to
+influence the general reader, but more and more attention is to-day
+being paid to the salesman in the bookshop, and quite wisely, too. He
+cannot be expected to read all the books, and any effort made to give
+him an acquaintance with your books that goes beyond their covers is
+clear gain to him, to the publisher, and distinctly to the book-buying
+public.
+
+Now, a book can be made or marred by the publicity it gets. If it is
+wrongly launched, it will have an uphill climb, whatever its virtues.
+This is especially true, as a result of the fact that a good deal is
+written and printed about a book before it is off press and present to
+speak for itself.
+
+One general rule should be most strictly adhered to in publicity, and
+that is, be honest and be sincere. Nowhere is the rule "honesty is the
+best policy" more unanimously justified. You may be as enthusiastic as
+you please, but the book should be put forward for what it really is.
+Only under such handling does it stand a chance for the full success
+its qualities warrant. This all reverts to the question of the
+editorial conception of a volume. Some books are not made for great
+sellers; they are written for the keen enjoyment of a select educated
+few; and if so presented that they fall into the hands of the popular
+novel devourer, they will surely be condemned, and the condemnation
+will reach and have its effect upon many who should legitimately have
+bought the book. On the other hand, a novel of no literary quality
+thrust into the hands of a person of bookish tastes will make an
+influential enemy, who will doubtless have among his followers many
+persons to whom the book would appeal. It is best to find out what
+people will take the book, and advertise it to them. The process of
+emasculating your presentation of it by cutting out everything that
+would keep _anybody_ from reading it is a dangerous one. The dislikes
+of the world of readers are too many for one to be able to dodge them
+all, and, after all, most of us like a positive rather than a negative
+volume. Just because many people do not read essays,--to take an
+extreme case,--is no reason for avoiding the statement that yours is a
+volume of essays. Fortunately, there are thousands upon thousands of
+people who do read essays; and if the book is a good book of essays,
+they will bring their influence--that word-of-mouth influence which is
+almost as powerful as a "puff" by President Roosevelt--to bear upon
+non-essay reading people, and you will be the gainer by that much for
+your wisdom and honesty.
+
+These observations are germane, and worthy consideration because
+commercialism and the endeavor to produce big sellers are always an
+influence to overstate, misstate, and be extravagant in the praise of
+a volume. But such extravagance always discounts itself in the mind of
+the reader, and experience has pretty definitely proved that what a
+prospective buyer wants is a straightforward concise indication of the
+story and its quality. A word of praise quoted from a review may help
+him make up his mind, yet he probably knows it is a pretty poor book
+of which _some_ newspaper doesn't say "Holds the reader's interest
+from cover to cover" or "We hail the author of this volume as one of
+the most promising of our American writers."
+
+In considering the practical details of publicity, it will be clearest
+to take them in chronological order. First: The book should be
+thoroughly and critically read. The person in charge of the publicity
+ought to have every volume put into his hands as soon as it is
+accepted. When he has read it thoroughly and has formed his idea of
+it, he discusses it thoroughly with the person responsible for its
+acceptance. From this discussion, in which the sales department is
+represented, evolves naturally the "editorial attitude" upon which
+every line of future publicity and every sentence of salesman's talk
+will be based. Without a complete understanding throughout the
+establishment of the "editorial attitude" the entire publicity will be
+aimless and unconvincing.
+
+The first work in publicity on a season's book is probably the
+catalogue, which must be had ready for the salesmen when they go off
+on their trips. The aim of the catalogue is to present as full an
+account of the book as possible. It is meant for the eye of an
+interested person, who can be counted upon to read rather a lengthy
+notice. Every possible detail of price, number of illustrations,
+paper, size, kind of binding, table of contents, previous works by the
+same author, are given, and thus it becomes a complete reference book.
+It is the general custom of publishing houses to issue a complete
+catalogue in the Fall, with a supplemental catalogue in the Spring
+containing the books of the Spring season. Most firms also bring out a
+Fall list, to present their Fall books, which would be buried beyond
+notice in a bulky complete catalogue. In this Fall list not
+infrequently the Spring books are included, making what is really an
+annual catalogue. These three catalogues are essential, and they are
+as a rule supplemented by many special book lists and pamphlets. A
+holiday catalogue is a steady institution in nearly every publishing
+house. Its aim is to present to Christmas buyers the most attractive
+volumes of the house's issue, and it is usually elaborate, with many
+illustrations, a fine cover, and it is often printed in colors. Then
+there are frequently issued catalogues of books on special subjects,
+art, children's books, special editions, etc.
+
+The uses of catalogues are many. A large number are sent to the
+publisher's best friend, the bookseller,--sometimes imprinted with his
+name,--who distributes them. They also go out by mail to special lists
+of people who are known to be interested in books, and a large number
+are sent to persons who write asking information.
+
+In elaborateness the circular follows close on the catalogue, and it
+has quite as wide if not a wider field. It is large or small,
+depending upon the importance of the book. Sometimes it reaches the
+dignity of a bound pamphlet, but it is usually a single leaf or at
+most a four-page folder. Here again, all necessary information of
+price and contents is given at length. But as the person into whose
+hands the circular falls cannot be counted on to be interested
+beforehand, the whole make-up and arrangement of the circular is
+calculated for drawing attention and fixing interest. The circular,
+therefore, must be made attractive.
+
+And here should be introduced a word in general on the appearance of
+the printed matter that is sent out by a publishing house. It must be
+good printing. It must be attractive printing. It is the indication to
+the people whose eyes it meets of the work of the house it advertises.
+Few people want to buy badly made books; and, unconsciously, if a
+circular or catalogue is commonplace and badly printed, those
+qualities will be attached to the book advertised. And it is quite
+true, on the other hand, that the distinction and comely appearance of
+a circular will prejudice in favor of the book. Moreover, a circular's
+service can be rendered only when it attracts attention, and what is
+spent in aiding it to catch the eye, through making it artistically
+beautiful and printing it in color, will bring its return and more in
+the added efficiency produced. There are, doubtless, people who would
+not be affected by bad printing, but people of taste, the people who
+most influence the sale of books, are sure to be antagonized.
+
+Probably, the most useful circular of all is the little leaf or
+"slip" circular. It is printed on both sides, and is inserted between
+the leaves of books of similar interest to the one it advertises,
+usually about three to a book. It is made the size of the ordinary
+business envelope, for it is also used in direct circularization of
+lists and as an enclosure with bills, statements, and sometimes with
+general correspondence. Often, when advertising two or more books, it
+has four or even eight pages, though the latter makes it almost too
+bulky for insertion in books. These larger circulars have an order
+form attached giving the list of books, and a place for the name and
+address of the prospective buyer,--a device to make it as easy as
+possible for him to order his selection. When such circulars are
+inserted in books either the order form is left off, or something
+substituted in its place, for, as can readily be seen, the order form
+is a bid for direct business by the publisher which would naturally be
+obnoxious to the bookseller. Larger and more elaborate circulars than
+these as a rule are used only for direct circularization. The subject
+of circularization is much too important and complicated to be
+exhausted in a few paragraphs, or even in an extended article. Enough
+has been said here, however, at least to suggest the circular's field.
+
+The next problem in publicity to be taken up is the poster. The poster
+has had its ups and downs, and in some quarters is a somewhat
+discredited form of advertising, but it has its value. The
+booksellers always demand posters. The one great argument against them
+is that posters good enough to attract attention, that is, with a good
+design and in colors, are somewhat expensive for book advertising. If
+properly exhibited, they sell books, but the difficulty lies in the
+fact that if they are _too_ attractive, they are likely to find their
+way into a poster collector's portfolio before they have been exposed
+long on the board. Yet, especially with leading books of fiction, this
+is one of the risks that must be taken, for with each such
+publication, the public eye must be caught with the fact of the book's
+issue, and for this purpose a striking poster has no equal. For
+serious books inexpensive clear type posters are quite sufficient.
+
+The book being now nearly off press, there will be needed some matter
+for the paper jacket that slips over and protects the cloth cover
+while the book is on the stall. Most important is the brief note on
+the front that serves to indicate the quality of the volume and thus
+guide the purchaser. On a book of fiction fifty or not more than
+seventy-five words of the very best possible presentation of the book
+is required. Here is the place where most of all the prospective
+purchaser's interest must be aroused. Here the most felicitous
+publicity inspiration is needed--and the problem is to indicate the
+story, yet not tell it, and to pique curiosity to the buying point. On
+books of a serious nature a jacket note is just as essential, if not
+more so, but the problem is different. The prospective purchaser of
+such a book as "Irish History and the Irish Question," "The Flower
+Garden," for example, has an interest in the subject already aroused.
+What he wishes to know is the scope of the volume and the manner in
+which the subject is treated. The note for such a volume, therefore,
+should contain a plain, straightforward statement of the importance of
+the book, the point of view taken, a brief table of contents
+indicating the most important divisions of the subject, and some
+mention of the author's special qualification for writing the volume.
+On the back of the paper "jacket" and on the little flaps that turn at
+the sides of a book, it is customary to put advertisements of cognate
+books. Often these paper jackets are treated in elaborate poster
+style, and for good reason, since as a rule they are the first part of
+a book a buyer sees, and his attention is not likely to be attracted
+if only cheap paper be used.
+
+The date of the book's publication has probably now been set, and the
+next step in publicity--a most important one--is the sending out of
+review copies. This is the last thing in which haphazard methods would
+be permissible. The list of newspapers who get complimentary copies
+should be carefully selected, not so much with an eye to size of
+circulation, as to quality and standing. A paper that is known to give
+attention to books is worth two that have merely large circulations
+and no distinction; first, because the books sent will be
+appreciatively reviewed, and, second, because people in the habit of
+buying books will consult the review columns and be influenced by
+them. There are possibly one hundred and fifty or one hundred and
+seventy-five papers in the United States to whom it would be
+profitable to send a book. A great many more, however, think they
+should receive them. With even the most popular novel two hundred
+review copies is a generously sufficient number to place for review.
+In deciding where these should go, the contents of the book itself is
+of course the guide. Some books can be calculated to appeal more to
+one section of the country than to another because of their
+subject-matter. Certain classes of people--ministers, school-teachers,
+sportsmen, doctors--can sometimes be drawn upon by the judicious
+distribution of a few complimentary copies, to assist the sale of a
+book, and then there is the home of the author, where special
+attention can always be expected.
+
+Opinions differ as to the amount of influence exerted by reviews upon
+the fortunes of a book. It is certainly true that to trace direct
+returns from reviews is often difficult. Frequently books which are
+splendidly reviewed move slowly, and there seems no explanation of
+their failure to "catch on." They may be, and frequently are, books of
+real value and quality. The history of publishing is full of such
+mysteries. On the other hand, _returns_ are visible enough when a book
+is slated by the press; there its power is amply evident.
+
+The American press is notably fair, notably discriminating, and
+notably independent. It gives its own views fearlessly, and resents
+any efforts made by publishers to get their own adjective-besprinkled
+puffs printed. In rush seasons it will make use of publisher's
+description, after carefully blue-pencilling obtrusive adjectives, but
+it goes no farther. In fact, the newspaper-review part of publishing
+publicity is best left alone. The book must do the work itself.
+
+The book has now reached the place where that which is commonly called
+advertising should begin; that is, publicity in newspapers and
+magazines. The use of newspapers, to any great extent at least, is a
+comparatively recent development in the publishing business, dating
+back not much more than ten years. Its efficiency, that is to say, its
+proportion of return to outlay, is far from being established. While
+at the beginning of the movement great rewards were reaped, the light
+of more mature experience seems to show that those books which, under
+heavy newspaper advertising, reached editions of 100,000 to 150,000
+were really special cases,--books of a peculiarly popular, almost
+low-grade, quality, that had an exceptional public. It is sure that
+what brought success with them would not succeed with the average
+publication. For this reason, publishers to-day are by no means as
+lavish as they used to be with their appropriation for newspaper
+advertising. Yet even in this era of retrenchment a very large
+proportion of the money devoted to publicity still goes to the
+newspapers.
+
+While it would be foolish to attempt formulating a set of fixed rules
+for newspaper advertising, there are certain underlying principles
+that should be borne in mind.
+
+Books are in the class of luxuries; most books at least. There is no
+natural demand for them to assist the advertiser, such as there is for
+food-stuffs. With a book, it is the advertiser's business to persuade
+the buyer that he will be interested or instructed or amused by the
+volume to the value of his outlay, be it a quarter or fifty
+dollars,--where in the matter of necessities and food commodities the
+advertiser's task is the much more simple one of proving that his
+product is intrinsically better or better value than any similar thing
+on the market. The sale of a book depends entirely upon the almost
+artificial desire that is created for it, whereas with other things
+there is a real need, and it is necessary only to prove that the
+article fills this need. For these reasons book advertising--with
+piano, picture, music, candy, and perhaps automobile advertising--is
+difficult to carry out profitably. It is the class most expensive
+proportionately to the value of the product, for it can count in
+only the smallest degree upon what is known as the "cumulative" effect
+of a campaign. Every advertisement of such an article as a breakfast
+food, for example, whether it be on a bill-board, in a newspaper, or
+in a circular, adds to the effect of every other one. The repetition
+of the name, whether it be consciously or unconsciously observed by
+the public, assists in forcing attention and thus interest, and
+finally results in a sale. Half a million dollars can be spent in
+making "Whipped Oats" a household word. Every dollar backs up every
+other dollar, and the demand for Whipped Oats will last for years.
+"The Return from Davy Jones," which can have at the very most say
+$5000 spent on it, benefits the very least from the cumulative effect,
+and the demand for the book is practically over in a year, especially
+if it be a popular novel. Each newspaper advertisement of a book must
+in fact bring returns to pay for itself, and this, of course, demands
+the very cleverest kind of "copy."
+
+Many elements enter into the popularity and sale-ability of a book,
+but no one seems to know just what they are. Even the best and most
+experienced readers fail to pick successes--let big books go by them,
+and conversely praise volumes that turn out flat failures. Yet certain
+things in the line of publicity can be counted upon to assist in
+making a volume's success. The name of a well-known author is the best
+asset a book can have. That gets it good advance sales and a quick
+and appreciative attention from the book reviewers. In this respect,
+nothing could better exemplify the New England homely proverb, "Sich
+as has, gits." The work of publicity on a book by a well-known author
+is easy, if care is taken always to bring that author's name forward
+in connection with his previous achievements. This is especially true
+in regard to newspaper advertising.
+
+Doctors violently disagree over book advertising principles, and
+possibly it is best to start by saying that there _are_ none and that
+each book is a rule unto itself. Certainly a close and careful study
+of a book's points and the class of people to whom it would likely
+appeal, its "editorial qualities," is the only proper basis for a
+campaign. For the average novel by a well-known author the main
+problem is to let the world know it has been issued. Therefore, in
+advertising in a newspaper, the announcement of the book's publication
+should be made in such a manner that all the readers of that paper
+will notice it. The campaign should start with what is technically
+known as a "must be seen" notice. It is the publisher's business to
+shout loud enough to be heard above the clatter of the small
+advertisements, "Just out--New book by Donan Coyle, 'The Return from
+Davy Jones.'" If some piquant description of the book follow, this
+should be sure to send all those readers of the paper interested in
+Donan Coyle to the bookshop in search of the new volume. Much smaller
+"ads." following from time to time, that may catch the eye of the
+forgetful ones and arouse their interest by some words of personal or
+press commendation on the volume, would close a campaign of this kind,
+which would have naturally gathered in its trail many readers and even
+non-readers not distinctly interested in Donan Coyle. It would at
+least have started the mouth-to-mouth advertising of the book, to
+which paid-for advertising can after all be regarded only as assistant
+and support. In fact, when all is said and done the greatest service
+advertising does is in reminding people of books they have heard
+praised, and the best advertising is that placed on the road to the
+bookstalls, a strong argument for the poster, since it is exhibited in
+front of the bookshop, where it can catch the passer-by. In tune with
+this conception of the advertisement as an announcement is this
+general rule--advertise prominently the name of the book, and the
+author's name if it is important. These are commodities you have to
+sell, the things you wish people to ask for--just as the bacon-maker
+wants you to ask for "Blank's Bacons."
+
+For books that have no well-known author's name to assist them, or
+those for which a large sale cannot be forecasted at the start,--books
+that appeal to the select few,--other and more inexpensive methods
+must be pursued. In most such cases it is probable that any
+advertising in newspapers would be unwise, and this leads to the
+subject of magazine advertising, which is much higher grade and more
+suited to such books of quality. There are many distinctly literary
+publications, the subscribers to which are always searching for books
+of a fine type--an interested clientele who will read advertising
+pages rather thoroughly, and gladly pay good prices for good books.
+Small advertisements--perhaps a page of small advertisements of good
+books--in a magazine of this class will bring returns, especially if
+the books have been well reviewed. There are also trade journals,
+which go to the booksellers, and in these the publisher must announce
+his new issues well,--describe them thoroughly, and give some idea of
+what he intends doing in the way of energetic general advertising. The
+aim of this is to influence booksellers to increase their orders.
+
+These few paragraphs only scratch the surface of a broad subject of
+extreme interest. Each publishing firm has developed through its
+experience its own principles of the psychology of public opinion, its
+own idea of the qualities a book should possess, and its own way of
+getting at the people. Results are frequently so surprising that one
+is inclined to class publishing among the games of chance. It is
+certain that everybody cannot make a success at it, and there is no
+doubt that it requires a definite endowment of genius.
+
+There falls to the publicity department the writing of a great many
+letters,--numbers are in answer to questions concerning books and
+authors, but by far the larger number are in the nature of circulars.
+The personal typewritten letter or the printed typewritten letter that
+masquerades as such, has a power equal to a hundred circulars. It
+claims attention at once, if it does not declare itself an
+advertisement on the outside, where a printed circular gets swept into
+the waste-paper basket unread. It's expensive--about three cents a
+letter if done properly, but when there are special ends to be
+accomplished, such as calling the attention of the clergy to a novel
+that would suggest sermons, or the members of an Audubon society to a
+book on birds, it is the surest and most profitable method.
+
+It is especially in a mail order or subscription book concern that the
+circular letter is of most use. The expensive sets of such concerns,
+and the large profit figured on them, justify such a costly method of
+publicity. It is generally made more expensive by the enclosure in the
+envelope of return postal cards and other printed material.
+
+This subscription business is a business by itself and conducted quite
+differently from average publishing. The advertising is lavish, and
+the underlying principle of it is, that the prospective purchaser
+wishes a complete description of the wares. Attractive premium, and
+short-time low-price offers are always made, and the endeavor is to
+get the prospective customer to permit the set of volumes to be sent
+on inspection, reliance being held in the ability to make him keep
+them through the real quality of the books, assisted by a series of
+"follow up" letters enlarging upon the virtues of the set. Lists of
+names are circularized, and "follow up" letters used here also to
+bring orders.
+
+An important form of publicity is that which has grown up as a result
+of the interest shown by readers, especially in America, in the
+personality of authors and the desire to know what is happening in the
+world of books. This very natural and legitimate curiosity affords the
+publisher a chance to push his products forward in an unobtrusive way.
+Because it is to all appearances unbiased, it wields quite a deal of
+influence, especially in building up the reputation of an author.
+Every paper that pretends to any literary standing prints regularly or
+occasionally a column of Literary Chat, in which is given brief news
+of authors and books. There will perhaps be a humorous anecdote of the
+author of a prominent novel, a brief summary of a book shortly to be
+issued, some comment by a well-known person on a well-known book, a
+biographical sketch of a new author, a telling extract from a book of
+serious value, a note that "The Return from Davy Jones" is in its
+_n_th edition--all of it really news and of interest. Some newspapers
+write their own chat, but the majority print, with small alteration,
+such as is furnished by the publicity departments of publishing
+houses, which send out weekly or monthly printed or typewritten sheets
+of such brief items. In this way Donan Coyle as the author of "The
+Return from Davy Jones" is kept before the public. The public also has
+a legitimate desire to know something of the appearance of the author
+of a popular novel or important books of essays, and the newspaper
+reviewer frequently wishes to print a portrait with his review. Here
+the publicity department steps in and helps him, by furnishing
+suitable electrotype portraits upon request, and not infrequently, by
+sending out proofs with interesting notes, suggests the use of the
+portrait. The relation between a literary editor who wants to print
+the book news and a manager of publicity is a mutually beneficial one.
+If they coöperate thus, they can be of great assistance to each other,
+and in the exchange each one gets value received. By a thousand little
+methods and devices the person in charge of publicity can furnish
+desired information and get this undersurface publicity, and by
+putting out _bona-fide_ news and really good stories about them, bring
+even his lesser light authors into prominence. In this field, as in
+all others, the well-known authors advertise themselves and set up a
+demand for publicity.
+
+The financial end of Publicity is full of complexities. The question
+of how much an expenditure per volume is warranted is one that cannot
+be answered generally. There are many limiting and defining
+considerations. First of all, the book itself. If it is the kind to be
+a "big seller," a risk can possibly be taken on a larger advertising
+investment than would be warranted in the case of a good book of finer
+quality and limited appeal. Certain books of coarser, more obvious
+qualities have a large public if it can be reached. In such cases an
+exceptional effort will bring exceptional returns. By the risk of a
+large advertising outlay the firm may get big profits; while a flat
+failure, because the large, non-book-buying public had not been
+reached through newspaper and lavish poster advertising methods, might
+result if only a few hundreds were spent. Judgment of the finest kind
+is required here, and it cannot always decide rightly.
+
+How much to spend depends essentially upon the book, and there is no
+hard and fast rule. Books have been known to reach their public and
+reach good sales at an advertising outlay of about one cent per copy.
+Others have had fifty cents per copy sold spent upon them, and fallen
+flat.
+
+The publishing business is not one in which there are great profits,
+and the margin between the cost of manufacturing and the wholesale
+price is small. This small amount must furnish the author's royalty,
+the advertising appropriation, the publisher's cost of doing business,
+and his profit. It can be seen then that the amount of royalty paid
+on a book in a certain degree rules the amount of advertising that
+can be done,--the publisher and author are, in a measure, partners,
+and if the author demands a large royalty, he thereby cuts down the
+amount the publisher can afford to expend in advertising his book. The
+larger the appropriation for advertising, the larger the chance for
+increased sales.
+
+It is difficult to make any generalization on the amount that should
+be devoted to publicity. Taking the $1.50 novel as a standard, it
+might be said that figuring in all kinds of publicity--newspaper,
+magazine, circular, literary notices, etc.--from ten to twelve per
+cent of the wholesale price on the first edition of 10,000 would be a
+liberal allowance. On more expensive volumes, handled as subscription
+books, a much larger proportion would be the rule. On new books other
+than fiction, where the sale could not be expected to reach more than
+a few thousand, there would be no business justification in spending
+so much. Such books have more or less to make their own way.
+
+Publicity is an essential part of the publishing business, and the
+breadth of its field, as well as the proper way to apply its
+influence, is beginning to be more correctly understood. Fortunately,
+for all concerned, the author as well as the publisher and the
+book-buying public, it is a power that can work only for good, and in
+a good cause. It hastens the fame and the sales of a really good book,
+but its power with a bad book is very small indeed. One fact has
+developed from the thousands of book advertising campaigns, and it is
+this--that you cannot force a really worthless book down the throat of
+the American reading public however much money you put into
+advertising. You may create a big sale for a very light and frothy
+story, with little to recommend it from the literary critic's point of
+view, but you can be sure, if it succeeds, your novel has certain
+positive, if rather superficial virtues, either in the story, in the
+local color, or in the method of telling. And when one contemplates
+the huge success of Mrs. Humphry Ward's and Edith Wharton's
+distinguished novels, one is obliged to accept the comforting
+conviction that the reading public of this country knows a good book
+when it sees it.
+
+
+
+
+REVIEWING AND CRITICISING
+
+By Walter Littlefield.
+
+
+About 60,000 volumes are annually published in Germany, France, Italy,
+Great Britain, and the United States. Germany heads the list, with
+something less than 25,000, and the United States ends it, with
+between five and six thousand titles, although it should be added that
+Continental figures refer to all material bearing an imprint published
+for circulation whether pamphlet or book. Aside from purely scientific
+and specialistic publications those intended for public perusal of all
+grades of literacy and intelligence may be classified as history,
+biography, travel, _belles-lettres_ (including art, criticism, and
+poetry), and fiction. It is the work of the literary critic to write
+about these books in such a manner that neither the author nor the
+public may suffer injustice by their purchase or non-purchase. The
+critic must explain their purpose, point out their merits and
+imperfections, and compare their features with the features of other
+books on the same subject. In short, he should tell the public whether
+to read the book or not. He should do so in an entertaining manner.
+
+Now the way this end is achieved in America often excites the derision
+of the literary foreigner; for although most American reviews are
+readable enough, they often lack the critical emphasis and literary
+scope and color so conspicuous in the literary criticism of the
+British and Continental reviews. But the foreigner overlooks the fact
+that American reviewers usually have something to say about every
+publication which claims to appeal to a reading public, and that many
+of these would be absolutely ignored by foreign critics, who are
+possibly right--when we consider their readers--in selecting only what
+they deem worthy of their knowledge and critical acumen. The foreign
+man-of-letters' idea of what should constitute the functions of the
+critic I find most admirably laid down in Mr. Arthur Symons's
+introduction to a new edition of Coleridge's "Biographia Literaria" in
+Everyman's Library. Mr. Symons writes:--
+
+     The aim of criticism is to distinguish what is essential in
+     the work of a writer; and in order to do this, its first
+     business must be to find out where he is different from all
+     other writers. It is the delight of the critic to praise;
+     but praise is scarcely a part of his duty. He may often seem
+     to find himself obliged to condemn; yet condemnation is
+     hardly a necessary part of his office. What we ask of him
+     is, that he should find out for us more than we can find out
+     for ourselves: trace what in us is a whim or leaning to its
+     remote home or centre of gravity, and explain why we are
+     affected in this way or that way by this or that writer. He
+     studies origins in effects, and must know himself, and be
+     able to allow for his own mental and emotional variations,
+     if he is to do more than give us the records of his likes
+     and dislikes. He must have the passion of the lover, and be
+     enamored of every form of beauty; and, like the lover, not
+     of all equally, but with a general allowance of those least
+     to his liking. He will do well to be not without a touch of
+     intolerance: that intolerance which, in the lover of the
+     best, is an act of justice against the second-rate. The
+     second-rate may perhaps have some reason for existence: that
+     is doubtful; but the danger of the second-rate, if it is
+     accepted "on its own merits," as people say, is that it may
+     come to be taken for the thing it resembles, as a wavering
+     image in water resembles the rock which it reflects.
+
+Obviously, here in America we have a sympathetic tolerance for the
+"second-rate." But such tolerance is not without its excuse. The fault
+of the uncritical element in many of the book notices which appear in
+American newspapers and magazines lies to a large extent at the door
+of the author who gives us material which humiliates and silences
+criticism, although a certain expository attention must be given for
+the very fact that the book invariably has a public awaiting it. For
+such gratuitous attention the author should be grateful. At least his
+public is not misled.
+
+Literary criticism is a distinct department of literature, with its
+functions and limits as clearly defined as are those of any of the
+creative departments,--history, biography, fiction. It presupposes on
+the part of the writer the possession of a knowledge of permanent
+literature, of the rules of literary construction, of trained taste in
+selecting models, and of a quick imagination capable of perceiving
+pertinent comparisons and setting forth vivid impressions. Writers
+like Lessing, Victor Cousin, Matthew Arnold, and Jules Lemaître have
+exercised in criticism a system which is quite as capable of
+exposition and analysis as that of the historian, the poet, or the
+novelist. In America this system has also done its best, without
+entirely prostituting its art, to meet the exigencies and claims of
+pseudo-literary production and its sympathetic, impressionable public.
+
+Until within quite recent years there were only two acknowledged
+schools of criticism: the scientific and the classical. The former
+gauged the work to be criticised by rule and measure; the latter
+compared it with models which had long been established as criterions
+of good taste. Then came the impressionistic school, in which the
+critic, while not unmindful of accepted and approved rules of
+construction and expression or of classical paradigms, allowed the
+author more license, more individuality, and permitted himself the
+same freedom in noting a thing good, bad, or indifferent, because it
+so appealed to his personal taste at the time of perusal and quite
+independent of what had gone before. This impressionistic criticism is
+essentially a personal view, and without it very few current books
+could be considered critically at all.
+
+Now of the 5000 odd books annually brought out in the United States
+there are possibly not more than 100, including half a dozen novels,
+which are worthy subjects for the professional critic. If this be
+deemed an exaggeration, one has only to look over the Publishers' List
+of twenty-five years ago and see how many books then published are
+read to-day. Why, then, do the 4900 receive any attention?
+
+Books, like every other commercial commodity, whether presented under
+the guise of art or science, have their production regulated by the
+law of supply and demand. The ability to read print in the United
+States is pretty general, and this ability is diffused among all sorts
+and conditions of people of vastly varied ideas as to what may give
+instruction, satisfaction, or pleasure in the form of books. We know
+that a large majority of the people who read do not read what is
+considered the best. The enormous circulation of the "Yellow Press,"
+the low literary value of books of rapidly succeeding phenomenal
+editions, prove this. Criticism, except in acknowledged "literary"
+reviews, has been obliged to take into account the mental limitations
+and tastes of the readers of the 4900 books, and so it fixes its
+standard of popular exposition and elucidation at a little above the
+average taste, and does its best to explain according to the author's
+own lights what to criticise would be remorselessly to condemn.
+
+But do all the one hundred worthy and elect books receive correct
+treatment according to the tenets of criticism? it may be asked.
+Probably not at every hand and in all cases. And here may be
+introduced another cause of the lack of proficient literary criticism
+noticed by the literary foreigner in American magazines, and
+especially in those pages of the daily and weekly press devoted to
+books. The discussion of books which once occupied several pages in
+American monthly magazines is now principally confined to the books
+issued by the publishing house which also publishes the magazine. What
+has come to be known as the "news value" of books cannot suffer a
+review of a novel by a prominent author or of a book on a current
+political or sociological topic to appear a month or two or three
+after the publication of the book itself. The eagerness of the public
+can hardly wait for an elaborate review in the press. Thus the
+newspapers rival one another in setting before their readers the first
+"news" of the book. It is usually impossible to expect "criticism" in
+such active circumstances. The public neither expects nor desires it.
+This leads to expositions in which are incorporated generous citations
+from the book, and from this the public is invited to form its own
+opinion. When such an exposition is properly done, a reader can tell
+whether he wishes to peruse the book as a whole. In late years this
+system of exposition has been growing in popularity,--a popularity no
+doubt augmented by the reader's increasing desire to be his own
+critic,--so now only the more important historical, biographical, and
+travellers' books receive expert criticism. Why wait months to get
+expert opinion on a popular book on Russia, Ibsen, or a journey in
+search of one of the poles, while the public is impatient to find out
+simply whether the book is entertaining? And again, how expert is
+expert opinion? I know of one famous biography of a famous man which,
+having been accepted as "the" authority for five years, finally had
+its pretensions demolished, its citations proved a mass of forgeries,
+by one tireless and persevering critic who would not accept the
+"expert" opinion which lauded it to the skies shortly after its
+publication.
+
+Now that criticism, or rather the lack of it, has been explained, it
+may be of some interest to learn how the vast number of books which is
+annually put forth is handled by the editors of literary reviews and
+the "book pages" of the daily press. Having for nearly ten years been
+connected with the literary supplement of a New York daily which
+prides itself on ignoring nothing which is published with the idea of
+being read, my experiences for observation have been somewhat unusual.
+The increase in the number of books, and the eagerness of the public
+to learn about them at the earliest possible moment, have caused the
+daily press to usurp some of the functions formerly enjoyed by the
+monthly reviews. The latter do little more than mention the vast
+majority of publications and confine more and more their critical
+talents to what they consider conspicuous and distinctive literary
+productions. Purely literary periodicals have come and gone and left
+few mourners. The pages of The Bookman, for example, are no longer
+confined to literary criticism, to essays on bookish topics, to gossip
+of author and publisher.
+
+There are four distinct publishing periods in the book world. The
+early spring season, principally confined to those books which could
+not be made ready to meet the recent holiday season, and to routine
+books,--books which on account of copyright exigencies have to be
+published then, books which for prestige the publisher would have bear
+his imprint, etc. Then comes the late spring season, which is
+principally confined to novels of the lighter sort and to books for
+supplementary school reading for the coming autumn. Toward the end of
+August the first Holiday books usually make their appearance. They
+increase in number until the end of September, when there is a lull.
+From the middle of October until the end of November there is a
+perfect outpour of books. The months of November and December until
+Christmas Day are the busiest times in the year for the reviewer.
+
+As the books come in they are carefully looked over by the one who is
+known as the "critic" of the review or paper. He has men and women on
+his lists whose pens he has tried before--they may be lawyers, college
+professors, sportsmen, society men, professional novel readers, etc.
+He considers the author of the book at hand, its seeming importance,
+etc., and despatches it to a critic. An expert writer of expositions
+is usually ready to relieve him of volumes upon which for some reason
+he does not feel justified in requesting expert opinion. Occasionally
+he makes a mistake by giving out for exposition a really important
+book. The expert who has been impatiently waiting for the volume
+points out the error. The work of a well-known novelist is usually
+sent to a critic who is familiar with former tales by the same author.
+Juveniles are handed over to one of proved sympathy with stories for
+boys and girls--one who is conservative yet quick to catch a new
+element. Books that are essentially for gifts are disposed of in a
+similar manner--to one who has proved his or her ability to set forth
+artistic features in books. New editions of classics are turned over
+to writers who are acquainted with the mechanical make-up of a book,
+so that the reader may learn whether the new edition of the favorite
+author is well bound, printed, and appropriately decorated and
+illustrated. And among the hundreds of "brief notices," expositions,
+impressions, descriptions, and long and short essays that are handed
+in, there are invariably some pieces of valuable comment which are
+well in keeping with the traditions of professional criticism. The
+critic usually returns the book with his article. These books are
+ultimately collected and disposed of in various ways. They may be sold
+at auction to members of the staff, which is an effective way of
+getting rid of them just before Christmas.
+
+Is there any likelihood of an improvement in literary criticism--any
+chance of a return by the daily press to what the Reviews of the past
+gave and those of England and the Continent still give? The standard
+of criticism is determined by two forces: the quality of books and the
+taste of would-be purchasers. If every book were really "criticised,"
+the criticisms of many would be utterly incomprehensible to many of
+their possible readers. The public gets the books it desires; the
+books receive the attention they deserve. When the standard of reading
+shall be raised, so that the public shall demand better books, it will
+be found that more books will receive "serious" attention. As it is at
+present, the public does not desire much elaborate, fine criticism.
+It, together with its favorite authors, would be sorely dissatisfied
+if it got more. It may be added that, in my humble opinion, the
+function of a critic as an arbiter of literary taste is measurably
+overestimated. Of course, a man who has won distinction as a judge of
+books and who signs his articles may have some influence. But it
+seems to me that the function of the anonymous reviewer should begin
+and end by explaining the book and let the public be its own critic.
+It will certainly be in the end. For no critic ever killed a good
+book; none ever praised an unworthy volume into success and fame.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAVELLING SALESMAN
+
+By Harry A. Thompson.
+
+
+The increase in the visible supply of authors more than meets the
+demand. A manuscript once accepted, the publisher finds no lack of
+paper makers ready to supply him with any grade of fair white paper
+that he may wish to spoil. Printers even manifest a dignified alacrity
+to set the type and print the book, and binders are yet to be accused
+of any disinclination to cover it.
+
+It is only when author, paper maker, printer, and binder have done
+with their share in the exploitation of literature that the publisher
+finds that the current which had been urging him gently onward has set
+against him. Of making many books there is no end, but the profitable
+marketing of the same is vanity and vexation of spirit.
+
+Enter the salesman.
+
+He is to convince the bookseller, who is to convince the public, that
+this particular book--shall we, for our purpose, christen it "Last
+Year's Nests"?--is the great American novel (whatever that means), and
+that its influence on the reading of unborn generations will be
+measured by the rank it holds in the list of the six best sellers.
+
+The salesman is handicapped not a little by the fact that it is
+neither shoes, nor pig-iron, nor even mess-pork that he is selling,
+and, therefore, superior quality of workmanship, inferior price, and
+personal magnetism count for little. Persuasiveness, which, perhaps,
+is a part of personal magnetism, counts; so does an intelligent
+knowledge of the contents of the book; likewise hard work and tactful
+persistence; also, honesty. But opposed against the combination is the
+bookseller, on guard against overstocking, to some extent a purchaser
+of a pig in a poke, conscious that one unsold book eats up the profit
+on five copies safely disposed of.
+
+Time was when good salesmanship consisted in overstocking a
+bookseller; this was occasioned less by persuasiveness than by
+overpersuasiveness. Regardless of the merits of the book and with no
+more than a nodding acquaintance with its contents, a persuasive
+salesman could "load" a customer--as he called it out of the
+customer's hearing--with two hundred and fifty copies of a novel that
+had no other merit than that it had been written by a novelist whose
+previous book had met with success. The significance of these figures,
+two hundred and fifty, is to be found in the maximum discount to
+retailers of forty and ten per cent on that quantity. Latterly, the
+publisher has found that a bankrupt bookseller has few creditors
+besides publishers, and has come to a realizing sense of the futility
+of clogging the distributing machinery. He is disposed, therefore, to
+exercise some restraint upon his salesman's ardor. Perhaps it were
+better to say that the salesman, grown wiser, is more disposed to aid
+the bookseller in his purchases to the end that no monuments of unsold
+failures will stare him in the face on his next visit to the
+customer's store. Yet even to this day, such restraint is tempered by
+a certain amount of moderation.
+
+All of which, while interesting to the historian of the publishing
+trade, carries us too far in advance of our text. Let us therefore
+return to "Last Year's Nests"--12mo, cloth, illustrated, gilt top,
+uncut edges, price $1.50.
+
+The first edition--it may be one thousand copies or ten thousand--has
+been delivered to the publisher by the beaming binder, who alone, in
+some instances, knows his profit on them. "Last Year's Nests" is by a
+well-known author, and contains some elements of popularity. The
+literary adviser has written a beautiful and scholarly appreciation of
+it, one of the lady stenographers has declared it grand, and the
+salesman, if he is given to reading anything beyond the title-page,
+says it's a corker. He starts out with it; along with a trunkful of
+other books, to be sure, but our sympathies are wholly with the
+"Nests," and it is only its career that we shall follow.
+
+He may be one of a force of salesmen, each of whom has his own
+territory. One may visit only the larger cities, Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Chicago; another may take in the smaller
+towns along this route; another, the Middle West, Southern or
+Southwestern territory. Still another, the cities west of Chicago,
+including those on the Pacific coast. Houses publishing competitive
+lines and non-copyright books have other methods and machinery for
+distribution. I speak only for the copyright salesman, and not to be
+too prolix, take only the copyright novel as an illustration of the
+day's work.
+
+The salesman arrives at a town, say Chicago. He goes to the hotel,
+orders his trunks and sample tables sent to his room. The tables are
+set up--well-worn pine boards on trestles and covered with sheeting.
+He unpacks his trunk and arranges his books on the tables as
+effectively as his artistic sense permits. Then he visits his
+customers and makes appointments that cover a full week. Previous to
+his arrival his office had informed the booksellers of his coming,
+inclosing a catalogue. This the bookseller handed to a clerk to be
+marked up. The clerk had gone over their stock of this particular
+publisher's books and had marked opposite each title in the catalogue
+the number of copies on hand. Armed with this catalogue the bookseller
+keeps his appointment at the room of the traveller. [It ought to be
+mentioned in passing that this is a purely hypothetical case, invented
+for the purposes of illustration. The clerk who marks up the
+catalogue in advance of the salesman's arrival is as fictitious as the
+bookseller who keeps his appointment promptly. Perhaps this delightful
+uncertainty is another of the many influences that make the book
+business, from the writing of the manuscript to the reading of the
+printed book, so fascinating.]
+
+In the salesman's room the customer examines the new books, asks
+questions, hears arguments (many of them fearfully and wonderfully
+made), and eventually, after much debate, gives his order. Having
+ordered all the new books that he wishes, he goes over the catalogue
+and gives what is called his stock order; that is to say, he orders
+the books on which his stock is low but for which there is still a
+demand.
+
+Perhaps the salesman has reserved for his final battle the sale of
+"Last Year's Nests." As prices cut some figure in this argument, we
+are driven, for a moment, to the dry bones of prices and discounts.
+
+Listed in the publisher's catalogue at $1.50, the ordinary discount to
+a dealer ordering two or three copies is thirty-three and one-third
+per cent, or $1.00 net, the bookseller paying transportation charges.
+Competition, however, has increased this discount to forty per cent,
+so that we shall assume that in small quantities the book can be had
+at $.90 net. In larger quantities extra discounts are given; some
+publishers give forty and five per cent on fifty copies and forty and
+ten per cent on one hundred copies; others increase the quantities to
+one hundred and two hundred and fifty copies respectively for the
+extra discounts. But, as has been pointed out, the growing tendency is
+not to overload the bookseller, especially in view of the fact that it
+is the publisher who loses when the bookseller assigns.
+
+Assuming that the "Last Year's Nests" is likely to have a large sale
+and that the salesman wishes to sell Mr. Bookseller two hundred and
+fifty copies, he quotes the extra discount of forty and ten per cent
+on that quantity. If he can persuade the bookseller to take two
+hundred and fifty copies, he has not only swollen his sales by that
+amount, but he has forced a probable retail sale of that quantity. For
+once on the bookseller's tables, the very size of the order inspires
+every clerk to help reduce the pile, not to mention the fact that the
+books are bought and must be paid for. Had the bookseller bought five
+copies, extra efforts toward sales would not be forthcoming; the
+energy would be applied to another novel. Hence the salesman's efforts
+to effect a large sale.
+
+There is another reason for this extra quantity. Two hundred and fifty
+copies of "Last Year's Nests," piled in a pyramid, is a gentle
+reminder to the bookseller's customers that it is a mighty important
+book. Such an argument is often more potent than the disagreeing
+opinions of critics. Here is a case in point.
+
+A novelist wrote an altogether charming and spirited novel. The
+reviewers spoke well of it, but the sale of the book hung fire. It was
+the dull season,--May or June,--and there was no other novel of any
+worth in the public mind. The salesman said to his employer: "Here's a
+book that has a good chance for success. If you'll back me with some
+good advertising, I'll guarantee to make that novel sell."
+
+The publisher replied: "Go ahead, my son; I'll take a gamble on it."
+(They really talk that way when they travel mufti.) So the salesman
+induced the New York wholesalers to erect a pyramid of a thousand
+copies in their respective stores, guaranteeing to take back the books
+if they were not sold. This was done for the purpose of impressing the
+buyers for country stores who were flocking into New York for their
+fall purchases.
+
+Next the retail booksellers were asked to take, on the same terms,
+from one hundred to two hundred and fifty copies and pile them
+conspicuously in their stores. As trade was dull and there was no one
+big seller clamoring for public recognition at the time, the dealers
+were willing to assist in the work of encouraging good literature.
+
+Then an advertising campaign was planned. Critics there were a-plenty
+who wagged a sad head because the advertising was undignified. What
+they meant was that it was unconventional, was without the dignity of
+tradition to give it its hallmark. It had, at least, the novelty of
+originality, and answered the final test of good advertising in that
+it attracted attention. Then the sale began, and as soon as New York
+City was reporting it among the list of the six best sellers, the
+salesman took to the road to carry on the campaign. The result was
+eventually a sale reaching six figures.
+
+But to get back to "Last Year's Nests." It is to be published June 1.
+A few sample pages only have been printed, but blank paper fills out
+to the bulk of the book as it will be. Illustrations--if they are
+ready--are inserted, the title-page printed, and the whole is bound up
+in a sample cover. This is technically known as a dummy, and serves to
+show the prospective buyer merely the outward and visible sign of an
+inward and spiritual appeal to public favor. For the purpose of
+informing the bookseller it is worth but little more than the printed
+title or a catalogue announcement. For all $1.50 novels look alike,
+are printed on pretty much the same kind of paper, and bear covers
+differing more in degree than kind. Yet the bookseller likes to handle
+something tangible when he is making up his order, and the salesman,
+with even a dummy in his hand, finds that there is less wear and tear
+upon his imagination.
+
+Were he selling shoes, the salesman would, as a matter of course,
+point out the superior quality of the goods, lay stress on their
+style and durability, and as a clincher, present the incontrovertible
+argument of low price. On no such brief can the book salesman rest his
+case. "Last Year's Nests" varies in no respect mechanically from any
+of its 12mo competitors; and if it did, it would make no difference.
+"Look at the design of the cover, see how durable it is," argues the
+salesman. "What a charming title-page, and note the classic proportion
+of the printed page to the margin," he continues. The startled
+customer, listening to such an argument, would be inclined to humor
+the salesman until he could safely get him into the hands of an
+alienist.
+
+Two arguments and two only comprise the salesman's stock in trade; if
+he can say that "Last Year's Nests" is by the well-known author whose
+name is a household word and whose previous book sold so many thousand
+copies, he has the bookseller on the mourner's bench; if he can (and
+he frequently does) add the clinching argument that his firm will
+advertise the book heavily, he can leave the bookseller with that
+thrill of triumph we all feel when we bend another's will to our own.
+
+A young and inexperienced salesman, whom we shall call Mr. Green, was
+making his Western trip. As he was waiting in a bookseller's store for
+his customer's attention, there entered a traveller of ripe years and
+experience, representing one of the larger publishing firms. Naturally
+the bookseller gave the older salesman his instant attention. With no
+desire to eavesdrop, Mr. Green could not avoid overhearing the
+conversation.
+
+"Hello, Blank! Anything new?"
+
+"Yes, I have a big novel here by a big man. It will have a big sale,"
+and Blank mentioned the title and author.
+
+At this point, Green pricked up his ears. He had read the novel in
+manuscript form and his immediate thought was, "Here's where I learn
+something about the gentle art of making sales."
+
+Mr. Blank proceeded so tell what he knew about the book. His synopsis
+was so inaccurate that Green knew that he had not read the book, but
+was glibly misquoting the publisher's announcement. Green's courage
+was fired as he reflected how much better he could have portrayed the
+chief incidents of the plot. But his triumph was momentary. Blank
+ended his argument in a voice that left no doubt of his own faith in
+the effectiveness of his logic. "And the firm is going to advertise it
+like ----."
+
+"Send me two hundred and fifty copies," said the customer.
+
+The longer Mr. Green travelled the more convinced he became that the
+old salesman knew his business. The argument of advertising carries
+with it a certain persuasiveness that the customer cannot resist. Not
+always does a liberal use of printer's ink land a book among the six
+best sellers; but it does it so often that the rule is proved by the
+exception. A publisher once made the statement, in the presence of a
+number of men interested in the book-publishing business, that, by
+advertising, he could sell twenty thousand copies of any book, no
+matter how bad it was. The silence of the others indicated assent to
+the doctrine. But one inquiring mind broke in with the question, "But
+can you make a profit on it?"
+
+"Ah! That is another question," answered the publisher.
+
+And the ledgers of several publishers will show a loss, due to
+excessive advertising, on books that loom large in public favor. The
+author has reaped good royalties and the salesman has had no great
+draft made upon his stock of persuasive argument.
+
+It is under such circumstances that the traveller finds his work easy
+and his burden light. Another condition under which he meets with less
+resistance is in the instance of a second book by an author whose
+first book has met with success. The bookseller is a wary, cautious
+man; what illusions he once had have gone down the corridors of time
+along with the many books that have not helped him. For reasons that
+are not so inscrutable as they may seem to the enthusiastic salesman,
+the bookseller is disinclined to order more than a few copies of a
+first book by a new author. Perhaps the traveller has read the book
+and is surcharged with enthusiasm; he talks eloquently and ably in
+the book's behalf; he masses argument upon argument--and in the end
+makes about as much impression as he would by shooting putty balls at
+the Sphinx. Even though the salesman's enthusiasm may find its
+justification in the reviewer's opinions and the beginning of a brisk
+sale for the book all over the country, still the reluctant bookseller
+broods moodily over the past and refuses to be stung again. But let
+the book have a large sale and then let the salesman start out with a
+second book by this author: the bookseller, with few exceptions, will
+go the limit on quantity. Unfortunately, it frequently happens that
+the public--which is a discriminating public or not, as you chance to
+look at it--does not seem possessed of the same blind confidence, and
+the result is a monument of unsold copies.
+
+The trade, I think, is coming more and more to be guided by the advice
+of such salesmen as have proved to be the possessors of judgment and
+honesty. By judgment is meant not merely the opinion that one forms of
+the literary value of a book, but that commercial estimate that a good
+salesman is able to make. The literary adviser can state in terms of
+literary criticism the reasons why the Ms. is worthy of publication;
+but the traveller, if he happens to be more than a mere peddler, can,
+after reading the Ms., take pencil and paper and figure out how many
+copies he can place. Publishers are growing to appreciate this quality
+in a salesman and are seeking his advice before accepting a Ms. Some
+go further and ask his assistance in the make-up of a book; for a good
+cover covers a multitude of sins.
+
+In former years it was considered the salesman's first duty to "load"
+the customer; that is, sell him all he could, regardless of the merits
+of the books. In those days a denial of the good old doctrine that the
+imprint could do no wrong was rank heresy. Such salesmen are no longer
+categorised with Cæsar's wife, and the new salesmanship is having its
+day. Its members are men of reading and intelligence, who have taken
+the trouble to learn something about the wares they are selling, and
+who have found that it pays to be honest. It doesn't seem to pay the
+first year; but if the salesman's judgment of books is discriminating
+and he hangs on, the booksellers soon realize that they can trust him.
+As they know little of the new books he is offering, they are inclined
+to be guided by his advice; should they find that this pays, they will
+repose more confidence in him. A traveller who, in lieu of personal
+imagination and the power of persuasion, was forced to depend upon
+hard work and the common, or garden, kind of honesty for what success
+he had on the road, was giving up his work to take an indoor position.
+On his final trip he had a "first" book by a "first" author; it was an
+unusual book and had in it possibilities of a really great sale. The
+firm publishing the book was in the hands of an assignee. The outlook
+was not propitious for a large sale: a new book by an unknown author
+published by an assignee. But the salesman believed in the book,
+believed in it with judgment and enthusiasm. "I found," he said, in
+telling the story, "that the trade to a man believed in me. It
+affected me deeply to feel that my years of straight dealing had not
+been wasted. The booksellers backed me up, bought all the copies I
+asked them to buy,--and I asked largely,--with the result that I sold
+ten thousand copies in advance of publication. The firm has sold since
+over two hundred thousand copies of that book and its creditors
+received a hundred cents on the dollar."
+
+It would seem an axiom that a man selling books should have at least a
+bowing acquaintance with their contents, yet I have heard salesmen
+argue hotly in favor of the old-time salesman who sold books as he
+would sell shoes or hats. Such a one was selling a novel to a Boston
+bookseller. He had not taken the trouble to read the book, but had
+been told by his firm that it was a good story. Flushed with the
+vehemence of his own argument for a large order, he floundered about
+among such vague statements as: "You can't go to sleep until you have
+finished it! It's great! A corking story! Can't lay the book down!
+Unable to turn out the light until you have read the last line!"
+
+"But what's it about?" quickly interrupted the customer, suspecting
+that the traveller had not read the book.
+
+"It's about--it's about a dollar and a quarter," was the quick retort.
+
+Perhaps here we find the substitute for the reading that maketh a full
+man. Repartee of this sort is disarming, and the quickness of wit that
+prompts it is not one of the least useful attributes of salesmanship.
+To carry the moral a step farther, it is only fair to say that the
+nimble salesman has had the wit to get out of the publishing business
+into another line of industry that, if reports are to be believed, has
+made him independent.
+
+The commercial traveller who sells books has no fault to find with the
+people with whom he deals. By the very nature of his calling the
+bookseller is a man of reading and culture; now and then among them
+you find a man of rare culture. So genuinely friendly are the
+relations existing between seller and purchaser that a travelling man
+has the feeling that he is making a pleasure trip among friends. Such
+relations are no mean asset to the salesman, although they are not
+wholly essential. For it is to the bookseller's interest at least to
+examine the samples of every publisher's representative. It is not a
+question of laying in the winter's supply of coal, or of being content
+with one good old standby line of kitchen ranges. It is books that he
+is dealing in; an article that knows no competition and that has a
+brief career. Should my lady ask for Mark Twain's last book, it would
+be a poor bookseller who answered, "We don't sell it, but we have a
+large pile of Marie Corelli's latest." Or should the customer desire a
+copy of Henry James's recent volume, what would it profit the
+bookseller to inform her that he did not have it in stock, but he had
+something just as good?
+
+It is because of the immense numbers of titles the bookseller must
+carry that the salesman always finds him a willing listener. And in
+the end, even though he does not buy heavily, he must order at least a
+few each of the salable books. Such complacency on the part of the
+bookseller might argue for direct dealing on the part of the publisher
+by means of circulars and letters, thus saving the expense of a
+traveller. But firms that have tried this have had a change of heart
+and have quickly availed themselves of the traveller's services.
+
+He is useful in ways other than selling. If he is keen to advance his
+firm's interests,--and most of the book travellers are,--he will
+interest the bookseller's clerks in the principal books of his line.
+He will send them a copy of an important book, knowing that the clerk,
+should he become interested in the book, will personally sell many
+copies.
+
+In the matter of credits, the travelling man is of considerable
+service to his house. He is on the spot, can size up the bookseller's
+trade, note if he is overstocked, particularly with unsalable books,
+or "plugs," as they are called, obtain the gossip of the town, and in
+many ways can form an estimate of the bookseller's financial condition
+that is more trustworthy than any the credit man in the home office
+can get. There were a dozen publishers' representatives who once sat
+in solemn conclave discussing the financial responsibility of an
+important customer. He was suspected of being beyond his depth, and
+some of the travellers had been warned not to sell him. Several
+personally inspected his business, obtained a report from him and his
+bank, and threshed out the matter as solemnly and seriously as if they
+were the interested publishers whom they represented. It was decided
+to extend further credit to the bookseller; his orders were taken and
+sent in with full explanations. How many orders were rejected by the
+publishers I do not, of course, know. But the judgment of the
+travellers, as events proved, was justified.
+
+The publisher is learning to regard his travelling man as more than a
+salesman. He is asking him, now and then, to assist him in the
+selection of a manuscript, to aid him in planning the letter-press,
+and binding of a book. For by the very nature of his work the
+traveller is the one man in the publisher's employ who has a
+comprehensive grasp of the many branches of this alluring, but not
+very profitable, business.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING AT WHOLESALE
+
+By Joseph E. Bray.
+
+
+In the process of manufacture a book passes through so many hands that
+if the finished product is exactly in accordance with the plan that
+existed in the mind of its designer, he is justified in looking upon
+it with the satisfaction felt by an artist who has worked well. After
+a book is issued, however, it is quite another and equally important a
+matter to sell it, and this part of book publication requires as much
+thought and perhaps more dogged persistence than the other. There are
+some books, such as "Ben Hur" and "David Harum," for instance, that
+make a market for themselves, and the demand for such successes,
+though starting perhaps in a rather circumscribed locality, moves
+onward and outward, gathering force all the time like an avalanche.
+These are rare exceptions, however, and for most books a market must
+be created. No matter how good the book, it is not enough to view the
+finished product with satisfaction and expect that the public will buy
+it in the proportion that it deserves. It has to be marketed like any
+other article of commerce; and a book is only on the market properly
+when you find its selling points known to the trade, and the volume
+itself temptingly displayed on the counters in the bookstores
+everywhere, ready to become the property of any one who may be
+attracted by a reviewer's description, a clever advertisement, the
+polite recommendation of a well-posted clerk, or any other of the many
+reasons that induce people to buy books. This condition of course
+obtains in all large cities on or soon after the day of publication of
+a well-managed book--but urban publicity is not sufficient. The whole
+country must be taken care of, and the several thousand booksellers
+scattered over this great land must be placed in the same relative
+position as their brethren in the large cities. How they are supplied
+with the book, posted as to its merits, and enabled to take care of
+whatever demands arise, is the wholesale, or "jobbing," side of book
+selling.
+
+This class of booksellers relies mostly upon the wholesaler for
+information and supplies. Everyone knows when Winston Churchill and
+Mrs. Humphry Ward are writing books, and what they are about; but when
+a dealer in a small town gets a call for "The Sands of Time," author
+unknown, a book he has never heard of before, he usually transmits the
+order just as he has received it to his jobber, who supplies him with
+the book if it is on the market, or with the necessary information
+regarding it if he is not able to supply it. The jobber's work,
+broadly speaking, is twofold: To see that a book for which the demand
+is certain to be large and immediate is in the hands of all his
+customers promptly after publication, and to take care of all
+inquiries that arise throughout the country for lesser-known books.
+His establishment must be a very temple of learning, and he has to
+know everything in the book world, from the plot of the latest "best
+seller" to the relative importance of a work on the differential
+calculus.
+
+Let us take his first duty. A book is to be published by a noted
+author, and a large sale is confidently expected. It will be widely
+advertised, and the press will feature it in the review columns. His
+first move usually is to distribute descriptive notices among his
+customers, telling them what he knows about it and inviting them to
+send in their orders. His travellers are also notified and are advised
+as to how the book is likely to be received by the people, and whether
+it is accounted better or worse than the author's previous works. The
+jobber has therefore to size up a book early in the game, without
+perhaps having seen anything relating to it except the publisher's
+advance notices. He has to be very careful not to "over-sell" the
+book, and yet at the same time he must distribute it in sufficient
+quantities, so that no sales may be lost through dealers not having
+supplies. Orders generally begin to come in quickly, and sometimes the
+advance sales of popular books are enormous. Then comes the question
+of buying a first supply. The suave, persuasive agent of the publisher
+waits upon the jobber and tells him what a wonderful work it is, that
+the demand is without a doubt going to beat all records, and he had
+"better hurry up and place a large order before the first edition is
+exhausted," and all that kind of thing. The jobber takes into
+consideration the facts he has been able to learn concerning the book,
+and places an order accordingly. Then his own travellers are supplied
+with dummies or advance copies, and the work of arousing an interest
+in the book in all sections of the country proceeds actively. Not only
+are all the towns canvassed thoroughly, but even the smaller villages
+are visited or the modest orders solicited by mail, though the stocks
+of the local booksellers may embrace only a few of the best sellers.
+
+It is generally arranged so that the stock of the book of the kind to
+which we have alluded is delivered to the jobber on or before the day
+of publication, and he in turn tries to place it in the hands of his
+customers early, usually on or within a day or two of the date of
+issue. From Maine to California, and from the northern boundary to the
+Gulf, there is no town of importance, and no village where a bookstore
+exists, that has not copies of, or information concerning, the book
+within a short time of its coming from the press. After this is done,
+patience is necessary and a period of comparative inactivity ensues.
+The book is before the people, and it is necessary to wait for their
+verdict. There are many ways of "puffing" a book. Clever advertising
+will do much. Window displays and all the other arts resorted to by
+bookseller and publisher sell copies; but unless the people take to
+it, unless it appeals to them, unless they talk about it, and pass it
+along, none of these ways will do more than give a book a very
+temporary period of demand. The wisest publisher sometimes issues
+books that never reach a second edition. They awaken no responsive
+echo in the hearts of the people, the stamp of public approval is not
+put upon them, and although hailed with a flourish of trumpets and a
+blast of advertising, they die an early death, the author and the
+publisher perhaps being the only people that regret their demise.
+
+In the case of a work that does meet with public approval, this
+approval is soon shown, and it is not a hard matter to care for the
+demand. The wholesaler aims to keep a stock on hand sufficiently large
+to cover all calls upon him, and does what he can to push the good
+thing along, through his salesmen and the circular literature which he
+sends out from time to time.
+
+There are other classes of books, however, in which the wholesaler
+must interest himself and which cannot be treated so easily; here
+perhaps his service to the community and the publishing field are the
+greatest. Only the select few among books are big sellers; the
+majority do not sell largely, and only a very small percentage of the
+many thousands of books put forth annually make a stir in the world. A
+novel by an unknown author, a biography of an eminent man, a modest
+work of travel or adventure, technical books and those that add to the
+world's knowledge, cannot be given a wide distribution or an inviting
+display on the shelves of the trade. The smaller bookseller cannot
+afford to carry them. His profits are small and his investments in
+books of this class have to be very carefully considered. His margin
+of profit is too small for him to take more chances than he has to,
+and consequently he relies largely upon his jobber, from whom he in
+most cases picks up these books as he needs them. The wholesaler has
+to be a bureau of information concerning this part of his business.
+His mail brings him in all sorts of inquiries for books that have been
+out of print for years. Somebody wants them, can they be obtained by
+advertising for them or otherwise? The jobber must know this and give
+the information to his customer promptly. Books not yet published.
+When will they be issued? What will be the cost? An approximate price
+must be given. What are the best books on certain subjects, and how do
+they compare with other works in the same field? Hundreds of inquiries
+similar to these are constantly received. Sometimes titles are garbled
+and twisted all out of shape, taken down perhaps by the rural
+bookseller phonetically and confidently forwarded to the wholesaler,
+who will certainly know. The right book is usually sent, and not often
+is the jobber found to be at fault. Curiously enough, the majority of
+people are very careless in regard to titles of books, and many
+conundrums of this kind are daily solved by the trade.
+
+Peculiar in many ways is the book trade, and the ordinary laws of
+commercialism do not always apply to the book business. The book
+market is fickle to the utmost degree. The books that should sell
+sometimes do not "move" at all, and those that apparently have but
+little to recommend them turn out to be the best of the bunch so far
+as sales are concerned. A jobber has to be something of an optimist;
+he must keep his ear to the ground, and, like certain types of
+politicians, must be prepared to give the people what they want when
+they want it. He can of course help along the demand for good books
+and check that for poor literature, and, to his credit, he usually
+does this, but the book-buying public is truly democratic and in the
+main people are pretty definite in their wants. Oftentimes they can be
+led, but it is rarely that they will consent to be driven.
+
+Another important part of the jobber's business is the supplying of
+public libraries and similar institutions. Here his knowledge of books
+and the resources of his establishment are put to the severest test.
+Libraries use a vast quantity of books, and the demand from this
+source is extremely varied in character. Librarians are also very
+shrewd and careful buyers, and much work in the way of pricing of
+lists, answering inquiries, etc., is demanded. Margins of profit here
+are very small, but there is practically no loss in the matter of
+accounts, and a librarian is very satisfactory to deal with, as he
+usually knows what he wants. The popular novel has been pushed so much
+to the front of late years and advertised on such a colossal scale,
+that one not versed in the reading demands of the people might very
+well think America was reading nothing else. In the orders sent in by
+public libraries, however, "solid reading" is very largely
+represented, and, as a matter of fact, that class of literature is
+making just as great an increase in public demand as the lighter kind.
+
+The wholesaler therefore is a useful member of the book world and an
+important factor in the distribution of books. He must combine the
+acumen of the business man with a taste for literature for
+literature's sake, have an enormous capacity for detail but be capable
+of grasping an opportunity, possess the wisdom of Solomon, the
+patience of Job, and the tact of a diplomat. He must be, in short, a
+business man, a scholar, and a philosopher; and even with all these
+accomplishments he is not likely to endanger the peace of the
+community by accumulating an enormous fortune.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING AT RETAIL
+
+By Warren Snyder.
+
+
+It is with the finished product of author and publisher that the
+bookseller has chiefly to do. In the building of a book he does not
+come into contact with author, artist, compositor, printer, or
+publisher. If he be in a position to place large orders, his opinion
+is occasionally sought as to the advisability of bringing out a new
+edition of some book or books for which there seems to be a demand. A
+book may have reached an unusually large sale in an ordinary edition;
+he is asked if he thinks a finer and more expensive edition would be
+warrantable. He is, however, chary in most cases about expressing an
+opinion; and he never allows himself to become enthusiastic over any
+book in the presence of a publisher or a publisher's representative.
+For he feels that if he should display any eagerness, he would, in a
+measure, commit himself to placing a large order for that particular
+book.
+
+With books being brought out at the rate they have been for the last
+five years, the bookseller finds himself with little time or
+inclination either to read or to think about the things to come. He
+has enough to occupy his attention in his efforts to display and sell
+the books he already has on hand. Witness the pyramids of volumes
+towering ceilingward--many of them books that have been there for
+several moons at least; and which are likely to remain there until
+many more moons have waxed and waned.
+
+I often wonder if the bookseller of fifty years ago ever dreamed of
+what his successor would have to contend with in the way of new
+publications. I recall a conversation I had two or three years ago
+with a man more than seventy years of age. He had started out in his
+business life as a clerk in a bookstore and he said to me, "There are
+no booksellers to-day like there were when I was in the book business.
+Then," he continued, "a bookseller was thoroughly posted as to the
+contents of the books he had for sale; while now they know but little
+more about a book than its title." I asked him if he ever stopped to
+compare the conditions under which the bookseller of past days worked
+with those under which the bookseller of to-day had to labor. I have
+read that in 1855 there were but five hundred new books issued in the
+United States. In 1905--fifty years later--there were seventy-five
+hundred new books launched on the market. This did not include some
+six hundred reprints.
+
+When there was an average of less than ten new books published in a
+week, it was an easy task for an intelligent salesperson to get a
+fair knowledge of the contents of every one. But when books are ground
+out at the rate of one hundred and fifty a week,--twenty-five a
+day,--the task becomes an impossible one. Yet I have frequently been
+asked by seemingly intelligent persons if I did not read a book before
+purchasing it. And when I have attempted to explain that it would be
+impossible for me to read all the books issued, they have not
+hesitated to convey, by word or gesture, their opinion of this
+obviously reckless way of doing business. Not long ago a man came to
+my office inquiring for the manager. When he was directed to me he
+said: "I bought a book here a few days ago, and it is imperfect. There
+are a number of pages missing, while some pages are repeated." Then,
+with a sneer, "I am surprised that a firm like this should sell
+imperfect books." I assured him that we had no intention of selling an
+imperfect book; it was an accident that sometimes happened. The wonder
+to me was that it did not happen oftener. I was sorry if he had been
+put to any inconvenience; we would cheerfully give him another copy.
+We could return the imperfect copy to the publishers who would make it
+right with us.
+
+"But don't you examine the books you buy to see if the pages are all
+there?"
+
+I told him how impossible that would be. Why, we often added as many
+as fifty thousand volumes to our stock in a single week. He left me,
+I am sure, convinced that we were careless in our mode of doing
+business.
+
+Once I was called from my office to meet a lady who also had a
+grievance. She accosted me with the air of one who had been basely
+swindled. "I bought a book here yesterday," she said, "one you
+advertised as cheap. I wish to return it and get my money back. My
+husband says it is no wonder that you can sell books so cheap; this
+one is not half finished. Look at the rough edges; the leaves are not
+even cut."
+
+Of course I had the price of the book returned to her at once. Then I
+proceeded to show her some of the expensive and finely bound volumes
+with rough edges. I explained how the value of many of these books
+would be lessened if the leaves were trimmed. I tried to give her the
+point of view of the book collector. She was incredulous. I think,
+however, that she went away a wiser, if not a happier woman; and she
+has probably blushed many times since when recalling the incident.
+
+The buyer of books for a large store does not go out to look for new
+publications. He remains in his office, and the publisher sends a
+representative to see him in regard to each new book issued. In New
+York City he is called upon on an average of once a week by some one
+from each publishing house. At certain seasons of the year these
+"commercial travellers," as they prefer to be titled, seem to drift
+in ten or a dozen at a time. They will often be found waiting in line
+outside the buyer's office, each taking his turn. Each will have from
+two to ten new books, all to be ready within the next two weeks.
+
+I have said that the bookseller of to-day has but little time to read
+about the volumes that are forthcoming. Therefore, most of the new
+books are first brought to his attention by the salesmen who come to
+solicit orders. Every book must be given some consideration; and in
+most cases some quantity of it must be ordered. It may be five copies
+or it may be five thousand. To the inexperienced it is difficult to
+explain the precise considerations that govern the amount of the
+order. Here is where the strain comes on the buyer; for the
+responsibility lies with him. Yet he must decide without having read a
+single page; and he must decide quickly--in a few minutes. Many times
+he places an order without having seen the completed book at all. Some
+pages of the text, a half-dozen illustrations, and the outside cover
+are perhaps presented to him. Even the fact that the publisher has had
+the manuscript read by three or four experts before deciding to
+publish, does not always help him. There are many miscalculations on
+the part of both buyer and publisher.
+
+But, you insist, how does a buyer form a judgment of the number of
+copies to buy if he does not read the book? There are many things to
+guide him. There is the popularity of the author to be considered;
+the subject of the book; the mechanical features; the price; and the
+publisher's name and standing. If it is an author's first book the
+risk is great. If both the author and publisher are new the risk is
+still greater. For the amount of advertising that such a publisher is
+likely to do is an unknown quantity. The buyer can estimate pretty
+closely on the advertising probabilities of well-established firms; he
+knows what they are accustomed to do in that line.
+
+In the reminiscences of a bookseller who began business more than
+seventy years ago, there is a letter from his mother written in 1844,
+from which the following is an excerpt:--
+
+"I will ask you once more to consider my plea regarding the policy and
+character of some portion of your business. The selecting of books for
+a reading community is a peculiar responsibility; and if the matter
+therein contained be good in its wholesale and retail consequences it
+will rise up for you, if bad, against you, even here in this partly
+Christianized America."
+
+But the bookman no longer has the opportunity of selecting for a
+community. The conditions are changed. In these days of extended
+advertising in newspapers and magazines, the reading public learns all
+about the new books before going near a bookstore. The demand is
+created outside the shop; the dealer must be prepared to supply it.
+
+Customers tell him not only what to keep on sale, but what not to keep
+on sale. The writer of the present article has been admonished not to
+have in stock the writings of many of the great authors--Darwin,
+Huxley, Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Miss Braddon, George Eliot, Mrs.
+Humphry Ward, Balzac, Byron, and many others. A letter received about
+fifteen years ago read something like this:--
+
+"I was much surprised yesterday, while passing through your bookstore,
+to find a number of immoral books there for sale. I copied down the
+names of a few of them--'An Earnest Trifler' and 'A Desperate
+Chance.'"
+
+There were four others the titles of which I do not recall; but the
+two mentioned made an impression on my mind, because I had read the
+first one only a short time before; and knew it to be a perfectly pure
+story. The second one happened to have been written by an acquaintance
+of mine, J. D. Jerrold Kelly, now a commander in the United States
+Navy. If he ever reads this article he will probably be informed for
+the first time that he is accused of having written an immoral story.
+The funny part of the incident was that the letter in question closed
+with the following: "I will admit that I have not read any of these
+books. I would not soil my mind by reading them; but I think the
+titles are quite sufficient to lead many a weak-minded person astray."
+I leave the reader to draw his own conclusions.
+
+I said that the bookseller does not necessarily come into contact with
+author or publisher in the building of a book. He is, however,
+frequently called upon by authors of the class that might be termed
+unsuccessful. These want his help. One came to me with a proposition
+that I take five thousand copies of a book he had written. "It's a
+wonderful book," he said. "Nothing like it has been written; and it's
+bound to make a great stir. It will revolutionize society completely.
+All it needs is for you to 'push' the sale." When I asked to see the
+book, he said it was not published yet. "I am looking for a publisher;
+and will let you see a copy as soon as it is ready. But," he added,
+"if you would give me your order now it would be a great help in
+securing a publisher." It is scarcely necessary for me to add that I
+did not feel called upon to help him to the extent of ordering five
+thousand copies of the book without seeing it, even if society had to
+remain unrevolutionized for a while longer. I never saw the author
+again; nor have I heard of the book. Now many books must have been
+written for which no publisher could be found! The pity is that so
+many have found publishers--a statement with which I feel sure
+publishers and booksellers alike will agree.
+
+A year or two ago I was asked by a friend to give some advice to a
+lady who had written a book. She did not take my advice, however, when
+I gave it--I hardly expected that she would. In fact, she went
+directly contrary to it, and practically published the book herself.
+Later she came to me with the proposition that I take her book and
+"push" it as the Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia was being pushed;
+she was sure it would have a large sale, if only I would advertise it
+in the same way that these other books were being advertised--full
+pages in the daily papers. The retail price of her book was, I
+believe, one dollar. These are but two instances; I could mention many
+more equally ridiculous. How that word "push" does grate on my ears!
+It will put me in a bad humor about as quickly as anything I can
+recall.
+
+My first experience in the book business was on Nassau Street, then
+one of the great book streets of New York City, if not the greatest.
+One morning shortly after the store opened an elderly couple from the
+country came in--the man evidently interested in books; but the woman
+not at all. While he was looking over the counters she remained well
+in the centre of the main aisle, a short distance behind him.
+Presently he came to a counter on which there was a placard: "Books
+fifty cents each." By some mistake an expensive volume had been laid
+with these second-hand books. The man picked it up and began leafing
+it over. Then turning to the woman he said, "That's cheap at fifty
+cents." "What's it good for?" was her query. "I wouldn't spend fifty
+cents for it." Then I heard him say, "That's worth more than fifty
+cents. If that's the price I'll buy it." "Young man, what's the price
+of this book?" This last to me. I told him, "Nine dollars." The look
+he gave the woman was not unkindly, but it spoke volumes. He knew a
+thing or two about books; he was thoroughly conscious of his
+superiority over her, when it came to their value.
+
+During the last thirty years a magnificent work has been done in
+suppressing and destroying the filthy literature that was almost
+openly sold in the streets of many of our largest cities. Too much
+credit cannot be given the society that took the matter in hand. I
+believe that nearly every dealer to-day aims to keep his stock free
+from demoralizing books; but in the nature of things the line of
+demarcation cannot be drawn with entire satisfaction to all. About
+twenty years ago an itinerant dealer was arrested in a New Jersey town
+for selling a certain book. I was present at the trial, which was
+somewhat farcical. The defendant had gathered together a large number
+of catalogues to show that the book had been sold by the most
+reputable dealers in the country; and that it was included in the
+catalogues of most of the public libraries. But the judge would not
+allow this as evidence. He took the stand that the whole question
+rested upon the book itself. It did not matter what the rest of the
+world thought of the book; they were there to judge whether or not it
+was immoral. (The penalty for selling an immoral book in New Jersey
+was, I think, at least one year's imprisonment.) The jury was composed
+of twelve yokels, eleven of them had never heard of the book, the
+twelfth said he had read it about twenty years earlier. As the whole
+thing hinged on the opinion of the jury as to its character, copies
+were supplied by the defendant, and the jury was sent into another
+room to read the book. After an hour or so they returned. All agreed
+that the story was not immoral, and the case was dismissed.
+
+It would be a pleasure for me to write of the many distinguished
+persons with whom I have become acquainted during my career as a
+bookseller and buyer. But were I once to begin on the subject I fear
+my readers would believe me lacking in "terminal facilities." I should
+regret, however, to have to close this article without mention of the
+many delightful friendships I have formed with authors, customers, and
+publishers. And I may add, with the men who sell to me--whom, almost
+to a man, I have found thoroughly conscientious. These are pleasant
+features that go a long way toward compensating one for being in a
+business, the profits of which, at the best, are small as compared
+with those of other lines of trade.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING BY SUBSCRIPTION
+
+By Charles S. Olcott.
+
+
+The business of selling books may be divided, in a general way, into
+two divisions, one seeking to bring the people to the books, the other
+aiming to take the books to the people. The first operates through the
+retail book stores, news-stands, department stores, and the like. The
+other employs agents, or advertises in the newspapers or magazines, to
+secure orders or "subscriptions," on receipt of which the books are
+delivered. The latter method of selling has become known as the
+"Subscription-book" business.
+
+The agent usually calls at the office or home of his prospective
+customer and shows samples of the text pages, illustrations, bindings,
+etc., bound together in a form known as a "prospectus." Sometimes he
+exhibits a number of different prospectuses. The customer signs an
+order blank, which the agent turns over to the publisher, who makes
+the delivery and collects the money. To cover the entire country, the
+large publisher establishes branch offices in many different cities or
+sells his books to so-called "general agents," who secure their own
+canvassers.
+
+It may be asked, why does such a method exist? Do not people know
+enough to go to the book stores and ask for what they want? And why go
+to a man and urge him to buy a book he does not want? The answer goes
+deep into human nature. People have to be urged to take very many
+things which they know they ought to have. The small boy knows he
+ought to go to school, but has to be coaxed. Parents know he ought to
+go, but compulsory education laws have been found necessary in many
+states. The churches are good, but people sometimes need urging even
+to go there. Life insurance, honestly conducted, is one of the
+greatest blessings a man can buy with money, but the principal
+expenditures of the great companies are the vast sums spent in
+pleading with the people to take advantage of it.
+
+Experience has proved this to be true of books. Men and women must be
+employed to show the people their value. The latest novel, if popular
+and well advertised, will sell fairly well in the retail store, but an
+encyclopædia, or any extensive set of books, must be taken directly to
+the people and explained by competent salesmen if the publishers hope
+to pay the cost of the plates within a lifetime. This is strikingly
+illustrated in the case of the "Encyclopædia Britannica." The sales in
+England of the original ninth edition were less than ten thousand
+sets. In America, where subscription methods were adopted from the
+first, and in England, after some enterprising American
+subscription-book men took it in hand, the sales may be fairly
+estimated at something like one hundred and fifty thousand sets.
+
+Twenty or thirty years ago, by far the most common form of
+subscription book was the variety labelled "Manual of Business," or
+the "Complete Farm Cyclopedia," or the "Road to Heaven." The publisher
+did not advertise for customers but for agents. The books were sold
+directly to the agent, and he in turn delivered them to his customers
+and collected the money. Anybody out of employment could take up the
+business. The aim was to get as many agents as possible and sell them
+the books. The agent canvassed with a "prospectus" after committing to
+memory his little story. The subscribers signed their names in the
+back of the prospectus. Sometimes the young and inexperienced agent
+ordered as many copies as he had signatures or more. Woe unto him if
+he did, for oftentimes they would not "deliver." Many years ago I
+remember calling at a modest little home in the Middle West. While
+waiting in the parlor, I noticed how peculiarly it was furnished.
+Every corner of the little square room contained a monument of
+symmetrical design, all different, but each some three or four feet
+high, and all built of books, as a child might build a fairy castle
+out of his wooden blocks. A closer inspection showed that all the
+volumes were copies of the same book bound in "half morocco"! The
+explanation came later when I was incidentally informed that "Willie
+had tried canvassing, but most of 'em backed out."
+
+This reminds one of the remark of Thoreau when, four years after the
+publication of his first book (at the author's expense), the publisher
+compelled him to remove 706 unsold copies out of the edition of 1000,
+and he had them all carted to his home. "I now have," he said, "a
+library of nearly 900 volumes, over 700 of which I wrote myself." It
+is an interesting fact in this connection that the successors of that
+publisher are to-day, fifty years later, successfully selling by
+subscription an edition of Thoreau's writings in 20 volumes, the set
+in the cheapest style of binding costing $100.
+
+Among the famous books sold by this method have been Blaine's "Twenty
+Years in Congress," Stanley's "In Darkest Africa," and Grant's
+"Memoirs." The handsome fortune which the publishers of the latter
+were enabled to pay to Mrs. Grant was made possible only by the
+application of the subscription method of reaching the people.
+
+Another form of subscription book, now fortunately obsolete, was the
+book in "parts." A "part" consisted of some twenty-four or forty-eight
+pages, or more, in paper covers. These were delivered and paid for by
+the buyer in instalments of one or two at a time until the entire
+work was complete. Then the binding order was solicited. It was an
+expensive and unsatisfactory makeshift, intended to reach those who
+could pay only a dollar or two a month. The theory was that the people
+could not be trusted, and therefore the book must be cut up and
+delivered in pieces. Later the publishers learned that "most people
+are honest," and the modern method is to deliver the complete
+publication and collect the price in monthly instalments. This plan
+has proved far more economical both to subscribers and publishers, and
+the losses are few if the management is careful and conservative. One
+house which carefully scrutinizes its orders has suffered losses of
+less than one per cent on a business of several millions of dollars
+covering a period of fifteen years.
+
+In late years by far the greatest part of the subscription-book
+business has been done with complete sets of books, usually the
+writings of the leading standard authors. These books are sold
+directly to the subscriber who gives a signed order, and the publisher
+makes the delivery, pays the agent a cash commission, and collects the
+payments as they fall due. The old, worthless, "made-up" books are
+rapidly disappearing, and the subscription-book of to-day is as a rule
+a vastly superior article to that of a score of years ago. In fact
+some of the oldest and most reliable publishing houses in America now
+offer their choicest output by subscription. A large investment of
+capital in plates, illustrations, editorial work, etc., such as is
+necessary in many of the extensive editions of standard works, could
+not be made unless there, were an assured return. The subscription
+method of selling makes such undertakings possible, and the result of
+its adoption has been the issue of many superb publications which
+never would or could have been undertaken, had the retail book store
+been the only outlet to the market. The subscription business has in
+this way proved a marked benefit to the lovers of fine editions of
+their favorite authors. The book-lover has been benefited, too, in the
+matter of prices. The agent's commission under the modern methods is
+no greater than the bookseller's profit, and no extraordinary
+allowance is made for losses, as many imagine, for the losses are
+comparatively small. The desire to extend his business leads the
+publisher to make his books more attractive, while there is plenty of
+competition to keep the prices down. It is a fact that the buyer is
+to-day getting a far better book for his money than ever before.
+
+The personnel of the canvassing force has also undergone a change. A
+business such as the best houses are now doing requires agents of
+intelligence, tact, and judgment. The callow youth cannot succeed as
+he did once. The man who has failed at everything else will fail here.
+There are now men and women engaged in selling books by subscription,
+who possess business ability of a high order. Many of them have
+well-established lines of trade,--regular customers who depend upon
+them to supply their wants and keep them informed. The old jibes about
+the book-agent fall flat when applied to them. They do not bore their
+customers or tire them out. They serve them, and the customers are
+glad to be served by them.
+
+I have taken care to point out that these observations apply to the
+business as conducted by the older and more conservative book
+publishers, who value their reputation. In a consideration of the
+subject a sharp distinction should be drawn between such publishers
+and a class of irresponsible schemers who by various ingenious devices
+seek to gain the public ear and then proceed to impose upon their
+victims to the full extent of their credulity. In recent years many
+schemes have been devised,--a few honest, some about half honest, and
+the rest miserable "fakes."
+
+One of the earliest and most successful "schemes," not dishonest but
+certainly ingenious, was that of a publisher who had a large stock of
+unmarketable books whose retail price was $6 a volume. He organized an
+association and sold memberships at $10, the membership entitling the
+subscriber to one of the $6 books and the privilege of buying
+miscellaneous books at a discount. The discounts really were no
+greater than could have been obtained in any department store, but the
+"association" thought it had a great concession and multiplied so
+rapidly that the unmarketable book had to be reprinted again and
+again.
+
+The next "scheme" to come into prominence was the so-called "raised
+contract." The process was simple. The order blank read, for example,
+$5 a volume, but the publisher wanted "a few influential citizens like
+yourself" to write testimonials, and had a few copies for sale to such
+people--only a very few--at $3, merely the cost of the paper and
+binding. By paying cash you could get another reduction, and as a
+special favor from the agent still another, and so on, until you found
+the price whittled down to the ridiculously low sum of $2.65. When the
+customer woke up and found that all his neighbors were also
+"influential citizens" who had bought at the same price or possibly
+less, and that the book would be dear at $2, he mentally resolved to
+"buy no more from that house." The figures are given merely to
+illustrate the idea and are not quoted from any particular
+proposition. It is unfortunately true, however, that the plan here
+illustrated is now in daily use by many concerns, although there are
+indications that it is gradually dying as the result of overwork!
+
+Another scheme is to advertise a "a few slightly damaged" copies of a
+book for sale at barely the cost of the sheets--to save rebinding. A
+publisher once confided to me that he was doing a "land-office
+business" selling "slightly damaged stock." "How do you damage the
+stock," I asked,--"throw the books across the room?" "No," he replied,
+laughing, "we haven't time to do that."
+
+Some of the schemes are so ludicrous as to cause one to wonder how
+anybody can be made to believe the story. Such was the one which
+soberly informed the prospective customer that he had been selected by
+a committee of Congress as one of a few representative citizens to
+whom the United States government would be willing to sell some of its
+precious documents. He was not asked to subscribe, but merely to "let
+us know" if he didn't want it, for "another gentleman" was quite
+anxious to secure his copy, etc. Of course the fortunate
+representative citizen made haste to secure the copy which Congress
+intended him to have. I am told that the originator of this scheme
+made a fortune out of it.
+
+All these schemes, from the laughably absurd to the contemptibly mean,
+should be regarded merely as an excrescence upon the legitimate
+subscription-book business. They are like the "get-rich-quick" and
+"wildcat" banking schemes which flourish in prosperous times, but have
+nothing whatever in common with legitimate financial affairs. It is
+unfortunate for the book trade that these schemers selected books as
+the particular kind of merchandise upon which to exercise their
+ingenuity. They admit that their agents are expected not to canvass
+the merits of the book, but to "sell their story." They might have
+done the same thing had they chosen jewelry, bric-a-brac, rugs,
+paintings, stocks, bonds, or anything else as the subject for their
+exploitation. The reliable publishers are hoping that at no distant
+date the schemers will take up some of these other lines, although
+they bear no grudge against the latter.
+
+If any prejudice exists in the public mind against subscription books,
+it is caused by the illegitimate use of books as a means of "fooling"
+if not of swindling the people. There are many honorable men and many
+houses of the highest class who are engaged in the subscription-book
+business. These should no more be classed with such schemers as I have
+described than Tiffany's with the diamond merchants who ornament the
+fronts of their stores with the three balls. The leading legal lights
+of the world and the gentry who frequent the police courts are all
+called lawyers; the eminent surgeon who performs marvellous operations
+involving incredible knowledge and skill and the half-breed who used
+to pull teeth in front of the circus, the brass band drowning the
+shrieks of his victims, are both called doctors. The eminent divine
+and his ignorant colored brother may both be preachers. Intelligent
+people know how to discriminate between these, and do not condemn the
+one for the faults of the others. And so the intelligent and honorable
+book agent who represents a thoroughly reliable publishing house
+deserves to be differentiated from the fellow who comes with a lie on
+his tongue, for which an unscrupulous schemer is directly responsible.
+
+The subscription-book business, in the hands of honorable men, has
+performed a great service to the whole country, by putting good books
+into thousands and hundreds of thousands of homes, where, but for
+them, there would be little to read beyond the newspaper or the
+magazine. The best publishers have found it the most practicable
+method of distribution for their more extensive productions, and
+thousands of thoughtful men are glad of the opportunity to receive the
+representatives of such houses and to have the best of the new
+publications promptly brought to their attention.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING AT AUCTION
+
+By John Anderson, Jr.
+
+
+While the auctioneer is admitted to be an important factor in the
+handling of a book once it has become a finished product, his
+relations to it are not clearly understood, even by many of those who
+avail themselves of his services as a medium of sale or purchase. An
+endeavor shall therefore be made to present here, in the simplest
+possible way, some facts which may prove both pertinent and
+enlightening.
+
+It is to be presumed that the auctioneering of books began at the time
+when it first became apparent to the owners of libraries that a
+necessity existed for the establishment of a system by which they
+could reach the largest number of buyers, and bring about the quickest
+sales and returns, for these are, admittedly, the distinguishing
+features of the auction method, as opposed to all others.[4] Selling
+to the highest bidder proved the happy solution of the problem, and to
+this day it has been universally recognized as the most satisfactory
+method of dispersion. To quote a book as having sold for so much at
+auction gives it in the minds of all true bookmen the best possible
+criterion of value. The prices obtained, though variable, represent a
+consensus of opinion, and may be considered as standards.
+
+                   [Footnote 4: "But it was soon perceived, that when
+                   necessity or inclination determined the disposal of
+                   libraries, the auction method was on the whole by
+                   far the best, producing as it did, and still does,
+                   competition amongst a larger circle of intending
+                   purchasers, with a better result than would have
+                   been obtained by selling _en bloc_."--JOHN LAWLER,
+                   in "Book Auctions in England in the Seventeenth
+                   Century."]
+
+So far as can be traced, the earliest known book auctions took place
+in Holland. The library of Marnix of St. Aldegonde was sold by
+Christopher Poret at Leyden, July 6, 1599, this being the earliest
+recorded sale. The first English book sale is supposed to have been
+that held on October 31, 1676, when the library of the then lately
+deceased Rev. Lazarus Seaman was sold at his residence in Warwick
+Court, Warwick Lane, London, by William Cooper. The earliest known
+sale in America occurred at the Crown Coffee House in Boston, on July
+2, 1717, and succeeding days, when was dispersed the library of the
+famous early New England divine, Rev. Ebenezer Pemberton. Philadelphia
+held book auction sales many years in advance of New York, the
+earliest known being that of the library of Charles Read, in 1737. The
+date of the first sale in New York is unknown, as is the name of the
+auctioneer, but an advertisement of McLaughlin & Blakely, of 41 Maiden
+Lane, in a paper of May 4, 1825, reads as follows, "From the long
+acquaintance of Mr. McLaughlin with the book auction business, he
+trusts that the firm will receive a consequent share of public
+patronage." It is known that McLaughlin & Co. held unimportant book
+sales at 78 Maiden Lane in 1824, and late though this date is, it will
+have to stand as representing the earliest book auction sale in New
+York until newly discovered evidence reveals an earlier recorded
+one.[5]
+
+                   [Footnote 5: "Seventy Years of Book Auctions in New
+                   York," Robert F. Roden.]
+
+It rarely happens that a really great collection of books is sold
+otherwise than at auction. The collector recognizes that the taste and
+judgment displayed by him in the acquirement of his library will, by
+the medium of the auctioneer's carefully prepared catalogue, be made
+evident to all succeeding generations of book lovers. How many would
+to-day know the names of George Brinley, John Allan, and William
+Menzies, were it not for the sale catalogues of their collections?
+They attained book-fame without having sought it.
+
+In this connection, an extract may be quoted from the will of Edmond
+de Goncourt, the distinguished French writer and collector:--
+
+     "My wish is that my Drawings, my Prints, my Curiosities, my
+     Books--in a word, these things of Art which have been the
+     joy of my life--shall not be consigned to the cold tomb of a
+     Museum, and subjected to the stupid glance of the careless
+     passer-by; but I require that they shall all be dispersed
+     under the hammer of the auctioneer, so that the pleasure
+     which the acquiring of each one of them has given me shall
+     be given again, in each case, to some inheritor of my own
+     tastes."
+
+A list of those whose libraries have been dispersed at public auction
+would contain an astonishing proportion of names great in the world's
+history. Even in cases where the collections were not directly
+dispersed by the auction method, it will be found that the bulk of the
+more important works contained therein had, at some previous period,
+passed through the auctioneer's hands.
+
+To unthinking minds, there exist certain prejudices against the
+auction method, doubtless due to a want of discrimination between the
+many who faithfully pursue their calling, and the few who by
+questionable dealings have dishonored and discredited themselves
+rather than their craft. Benjamin Franklin is only one among many of
+the American book auctioneers whose names were synonymous with
+integrity during the long period--nearly two hundred years--in which
+their services were employed in the dispersal of libraries. The long
+and honorable careers of certain of the English book auction
+houses--notably that of Messrs. Sotheby, Wilkinson & Hodge, founded in
+1744--shows conclusively that the business itself has been accepted by
+the public, as forming an essential part in disseminating the world's
+literature.
+
+The auctioneer is in a position to extend many exceptional advantages
+to his customers.
+
+The quantity and variety of the books offered is far greater than is
+possible to be found in the stock of any dealer, being subject to
+constant additions and changes. The average quality is high where the
+auctioneer makes the sales of private collections a specialty, and
+much inferior where dependence is placed upon the sale of material
+received from the booksellers which they have been unable to sell
+after repeated efforts. Naturally, the better items are reserved for
+their own shelves. Among the leaders in the book auction trade, it
+will be found that a very large proportion of the material offered by
+them comes from authentic private sources, though, in many cases,
+there is a disinclination on the part of the owner to allow the use of
+his or her name in connection with the sale.
+
+The prices obtained for books at sales held by regular book
+auctioneers (no pretence of recognition need be accorded furniture and
+bric-a-brac auctioneers, who occasionally secure consignments of books
+from parties unaware of the existence of an establishment devoted
+exclusively to their sale) are necessarily variable, being governed,
+as is everything else, by the law of demand and supply. A particularly
+choice item will command about the same price whenever offered,--generally
+an increasing one,--but the ordinary book can often be obtained at
+bargain figures. This element of uncertainty goes far toward making
+the auction sale so attractive to collectors with slender purses, as
+also to those who may be designated "moral book-gamblers," always
+ready to take a chance where the outcome is problematical. Many fine
+collections have been gathered by well-informed private buyers, who
+made a point of attending auction sales, and purchasing desirable
+items, when for some reason the prices were lower than usual. Some of
+these collections have since been sold at auction, and the owners have
+netted a handsome profit on their investments.
+
+Many book buyers entertain erroneous ideas regarding the condition of
+the volumes sold at leading auction houses, confounding them with
+those sold at storage warehouses, furniture auction rooms, etc. The
+fact is, a very large proportion of the books, even of the older
+species, are in fine, clean condition, many being in choice bindings,
+and equal to the most fastidious requirement.
+
+An indication of the important relation of the book auctioneer to the
+market, as a source of supply, may be judged from the issue of a
+bulletin by the American Library Association during the past year,
+calling attention of the three thousand or more public libraries of
+the country to the advantages of purchasing at auction sales,
+recommending certain named houses, and outlining the mode of procedure
+in sending bids. It took years of hard and discouraging labor to bring
+about conditions that would warrant this recognition.
+
+The great majority of buyers at book auctions reside in localities
+widely removed from the cities where the sales are held, and it is, of
+course, necessary that these customers should be given equal
+advantages with the home buyers in effecting purchases at sales. The
+printed catalogue is made the medium of this accomplishment. The books
+are described in detail, mention being made of the author's name, the
+title, size, binding, place, and date of publication, and condition
+(if either above or below the average). If the edition is special, or
+it is a large paper copy, this is duly set forth in the description.
+All imperfections are carefully noted. The aim of the auctioneer is to
+bring the book or set of books so clearly before the mind of the
+prospective buyer as to gain his confidence. An express stipulation is
+made in the conditions of sale that any book found to be otherwise
+than as described may be returned, but as the auctioneer desires to
+avoid this contingency, he is generally careful in his descriptions,
+and they may, as a rule, be depended upon.
+
+A printed slip is enclosed in each catalogue on which the intending
+purchaser notes the numbers of the lots he desires and the limit of
+price to which he is prepared to go. It is then forwarded by mail to
+the auction house, where the slips are tabulated by a clerk, the names
+and amounts being placed against each item in a specially prepared
+catalogue. Incidentally, it may be stated that all bids are
+considered as strictly confidential.
+
+At the time of sale, the principal of the establishment, or one of his
+chief assistants, takes his place in the audience on an even footing
+with all other buyers, and uses the bids, as enrolled, in competition
+with such as may be offered by other attendants at the sale.
+
+Where two or more bids have been received on any item, the competition
+is first narrowed by the elimination of all except the two highest
+ones, and then the start is made at a figure just beyond the second
+highest. The battle between the auctioneer, acting as the
+representative of the out-of-town bidder, and some ardent book lover
+personally attending the sale, for the possession of a particularly
+coveted work, often provokes genuine enthusiasm. It is finally knocked
+down to the highest bidder at the point where competition ceases, and
+this is often much below the limit named by the buyer. The wise
+purchaser at auction, when assured of the honorable standing of the
+house with which he deals, will not hesitate in sending liberal bids,
+for by so doing he will gain much and lose little.
+
+The methods of conducting sales and handling bids differ somewhat in
+the various cities, but that, as above outlined, is adopted by the
+leading houses. In some concerns, the auctioneer himself executes the
+commissions from the rostrum, but when this is done, even though he
+may be a man of the strictest integrity, the method is open to
+criticism, it being well understood that the reputation of an
+auctioneer is largely dependent on the high prices he obtains.
+
+There is a material difference between the English and American
+methods of cataloguing books for sale at auction. In England the
+charges are inclusive, the cost of printing, postage, etc., being
+assumed by the auctioneer, so that he finds it to his interest to
+compress catalogue descriptions into the narrowest possible compass,
+to minimize the distribution of the catalogue, and to spend as small
+an amount of money in advertising as possible. In America, the charges
+are exclusive, the commission representing the auctioneer's only
+interest, and the incidental expenses of printing, etc., are paid by
+the consignor. Because of this, a more liberal policy is pursued as to
+expenditures. Many good titles that are bunched in lots in the London
+sales are here separately catalogued, mention is made of all defects,
+and, on the average, more careful attention is paid to the details of
+the descriptions. Catalogues are given a wider circulation in America,
+and more dependence is placed on the receipt of bids from out-of-town
+buyers. New methods and channels of advertising are being constantly
+considered and utilized. It is believed that these elements, combined,
+conduce to the benefit of the consignor, when the material offered
+possesses real interest and value.
+
+The auctioneer who conducts a modern high-class establishment, where a
+guaranty of intelligent service is given, can employ only the best
+available talent for cataloguing purposes, either men of proved
+ability and special knowledge, or those that show a decided aptitude
+for the work and give promise of attainment.
+
+Most book auction houses in this country are obliged to call in the
+services of an interpreter when a book in other than the English or
+French language is to be catalogued, but in Europe the force employed
+is, as a rule, equal to all emergencies. To illustrate the variety of
+demand made upon the modern auctioneer, in this line, it may be stated
+that the establishment with which the writer is connected, can
+catalogue items in English, French, German, Italian, Spanish,
+Portuguese, Latin, Greek, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish; in fact, nearly
+all of the European, and some of the Oriental Languages, without
+calling upon outside help.
+
+A book auctioneer would find it as impossible to properly handle books
+without the use of a suitable reference library, as for a carpenter to
+work without tools. In a live, up-to-date auction house, every
+bibliographical work of real value not already possessed is secured
+when found in the open markets, and consulted frequently. These
+collections often represent an expenditure of thousands of dollars.
+Some single works call for the outlay of hundreds, but they are
+essential for the use of the expert cataloguer.
+
+The labor involved in handling books in connection with their sale at
+auction is very heavy. Supposing that a library of, say, five thousand
+volumes is offered for sale. It is packed by the owner, or under his
+directions, and is forwarded to the auctioneer. The boxes are opened
+and the contents placed in a special compartment. They are then
+catalogued, each item being separately handled. Another clerk then
+arranges them for exhibition on the shelves, where they remain until
+the time of sale. During the sale, they are again exhibited, and
+handled, and after it are laid aside in groups, according to their
+newly acquired ownership. When shipment is made the following day, or
+later, another handling is required. No scheme can be devised that
+will admit of less than four handlings of the entire lot. When we
+consider that in some establishments nearly a million separate items
+are received and sold each season, some idea may be formed of the
+labor involved.
+
+The auctioneer has been obliged to either adapt his business to modern
+conditions, even though it entails heavy expense and added burdens, or
+take a rear place in the procession. Business cannot be transacted now
+as it was even five years ago, though many attempt to do it by the
+antiquated methods of the times "befo' de war." More books are sold
+by auction each successive year; and with the wonderful progress being
+made in the literary development of this great country, it is likely
+that the auctioneer will become in the near future an even more
+important factor in the formation and dissemination of libraries than
+ever before.
+
+The following extract from a magazine article on "The Book Auction,"
+written years ago by Joel Benton, may be deemed a fitting conclusion.
+He said:--
+
+     "In no one place are there so many eager patrons of the book
+     auction as in New York. Here are men who can give thousands
+     of dollars for a single book, if they choose, and add it to
+     an already extremely valuable collection.
+
+     "It is pleasant to see these men and their representatives
+     sitting in the auction room, and poring, over their
+     catalogues. There are times when they must not be disturbed,
+     or spoken to. Great issues depend upon their utmost
+     attention. Not Izaak Walton, the many rare editions of whose
+     one great book they rapturously fish for, ever fished more
+     intently for trout and grayling than they for the beauties
+     of thought and of the printer's art.
+
+     "No idyls of the brook call your chronic book buyer to bask
+     in green meadows, and under cerulean skies while the auction
+     season lasts. The pine floor, the gaslight, and the voice of
+     the auctioneer hold him. His house may overflow with
+     thousands of unshelved volumes. Naught cares he. It is not
+     because he is short of reading that he buys. It is because
+     he is drawn by that fascinating, never-to-be-accounted-for,
+     and inexpressible ardor of the pursuit. I have a friend who
+     says he would rather attend a book auction than spend an
+     evening with the President, or with our greatest general, or
+     with a literary lion like Tennyson or Browning."
+
+
+
+
+SELECTING FOR A PUBLIC LIBRARY
+
+By Arthur E. Bostwick.
+
+
+In selecting books for a public library, the two things generally
+taken into account are the public desire and the public need. The
+different values attached to each of these two factors may be said to
+determine the policy of the library in book-buying. The extreme cases,
+where full force is given to one factor while the other is entirely
+disregarded, do not, of course, exist. Libraries do not purchase every
+book that is asked for, without considering whether such purchases are
+right and proper. Nor do they, on the other hand, disregard popular
+demand altogether and purchase from a list made up solely with regard
+to what the community ought to read rather than what it wants to read.
+Between these two extremes, however, there may be an indefinite number
+of means. A librarian may, for instance, purchase chiefly books in
+general demand, exercising judgment in disregarding such requests as
+he may deem improper. Or he may buy chiefly those books that in his
+opinion should be read in his community, listening to the voice of the
+public only when it becomes importunate. Several considerations may
+have part in influencing his course in this regard. In the first
+place, a library with plenty of money at command may in a measure
+follow both plans; in other words, it may buy not only all the good
+books that the public wants to read, but those also that it should
+read. The more limited the appropriation for book purchase, the more
+pressing becomes the need that the librarian should decide on a
+precise policy. Again, a library whose books are for general
+circulation would naturally give more heed to popular demand than a
+reference library used chiefly by students. Further, an endowed
+institution, not dependent on public support, could afford to
+disregard the public wishes to an extent impossible in the case of a
+library whose expenses are paid by the municipality from the proceeds
+of taxation. Above and beyond all these considerations, the personal
+equation comes in, sometimes very powerfully. It often seems as if
+some library authorities regard popular favor as an actual mark of
+discredit, while others look upon it almost as a condition precedent
+to purchase. Take, as an example, the so-called "fiction question,"
+over which most libraries, and some of their patrons, are at present
+more or less exercised. There can be no doubt of the popular regard
+for this form of literature, especially for the current novel or
+romance. Some libraries would sternly discourage this preference and
+refuse to purchase fiction less than one year old, while others do
+not hesitate to buy, within the limits of their purses, all such books
+as would be likely to interest or entertain the average reader of
+taste and intelligence. The views of the selector regarding the
+relative importance of the library's duties as an educator and an
+entertainer must also affect his views.
+
+It has been tacitly assumed that the selection is made by one person.
+As a matter of fact, however, the final approval is generally given by
+a book committee of some kind, usually a committee of the library
+trustees or persons responsible to them, often with the help of
+outside advisers. The weight of the librarian's views with this body
+will depend on various circumstances. Sometimes he has his own way;
+sometimes his wishes are practically disregarded. Moreover, the
+composition of such a body varies so that any continuous policy is
+difficult for it.
+
+Owing to all these facts, it is probable that no two libraries in the
+United States, even when they are closely related by classification,
+as when both are branch libraries for circulation, state libraries,
+public reference libraries, or university libraries, are pursuing
+exactly the same policy in book purchase, although, as has been said,
+their various policies are always compounded of different proportions
+of these two factors,--regard for the wishes and demands of their
+users, and consideration of what is right and proper for those users,
+from whatever standpoint. The stickler for uniformity will lament
+this diversity, but it is probably a good thing. In many libraries,
+there are as many minds as there are men, and it cannot be and ought
+not to be otherwise.
+
+Now, how does the person, or the body, that is responsible for the
+selection of books for a library ascertain the facts on which, as has
+been said, the selection must be based? It is usually not difficult to
+find out what the public wants. Its demands almost overwhelm the
+assistant at the desk. Some libraries provide special blank forms on
+which these requests may be noted. They are often capricious;
+sometimes they do not represent the dominant public wish. The voice of
+one insistent person asking for his book day after day may impress
+itself on the mind more forcibly than the many diffident murmurs of a
+considerable number. In libraries that possess a system of branches,
+there is little difficulty in recognizing a general public demand.
+Such a demand will be reported from a large number of branch libraries
+at once, in which case the chances of mistake will be small. In the
+New York Public Library many useful suggestions are gained through the
+operation of the inter-branch loan system, whereby a user of one
+branch may send for a book contained in any other branch. Books so
+asked for are reported at the central headquarters, and if they are
+not in the library at all, the request is regarded as a suggestion for
+purchase. Should such requests come from users of several branches at
+once, the desired book is very likely to be purchased. Often the
+demand is general rather than specific, as for "a book about the
+Caucasus" or for "more works on surveying," and sometimes they are
+vague or misleading, titles being wrong and authors' names spelled
+phonetically; yet the work made necessary in looking up these demands
+is more than repaid by the knowledge that it may result in making the
+library of more value to the public.
+
+In some cases the librarian desires not only to respond to the public
+want, but even to anticipate it. He does not wait to see whether a new
+book on Japan will be in demand, because he is sure that such will be
+the case. He does not hesitate to order a new book by Kipling or Mrs.
+Humphry Ward as soon as he sees its title in the publisher's
+announcements. The necessity for some other anticipatory orders may be
+less evident, and this kind of work requires good judgment and
+discrimination; but in general if a book is to be purchased on
+publication, it cannot be on the library shelves too soon after the
+date of issue. In any case, where it is desirable and proper to please
+the public, double pleasure can be given by promptness; hence the
+importance of being a little before, rather than a little behind, the
+popular desire.
+
+All this calls for little but quick and discriminating
+observation,--the ability to feel and read the public pulse in
+matters literary. It is in regard to the second and more important
+factor that failure waits most insistently on the librarian. What are
+the public's needs, as distinguished from its desires? What ought it
+to read? Here steps in the "categorical imperative" with a vengeance.
+The librarian, when he thinks of his duty along this line, begins to
+shudder as he realizes his responsibility as an educator, as a mentor,
+as a trainer of literary taste. Probably in some instances he takes
+himself too seriously. But, no matter how lightly he may bear these
+responsibilities, every selector of books for a public library
+realizes that he must give some consideration to this question. In the
+first place, there are general needs; there are certain standard books
+that must be on the shelves of every well-ordered library, no matter
+whether they are read or not. It is his business to provide and
+recommend them. What are these standards? No two lists are alike. They
+start together: "the Bible and Shakespeare"--and then off they go in
+divergent paths! Secondly, there are special needs dependent on
+locality or on the race or temperament of the users of a particular
+library. The determination of these needs in itself is a task of no
+small magnitude; their legitimate satisfaction is sometimes difficult
+in the extreme. To take a concrete instance, the librarian may
+discover that there is in his vicinity a little knot of people who
+meet occasionally to talk over current questions, not formally, but
+half by accident. They would be benefited, and would be greatly
+interested, in the right sort of books on economics, but they have
+scarcely heard that there is such a subject. That the public library
+might be interested in them and might aid them would never occur to
+any of them. The discovery of such people, the determination of just
+what books they need, and the successful bringing together of man and
+book--all these are the business of the librarian, and it is a part of
+his work that cannot be separated from that of book selection.
+
+In much of this work the librarian of a large library must depend to a
+great extent on others. Both the desires and the needs of those who
+use his library he must learn from the reports of subordinates and
+from outside friends. The librarian of a small library can ascertain
+much personally; but both librarians are largely dependent upon expert
+opinion in their final selections. After concluding that the library
+must have an especially full and good collection of books on pottery,
+the selector must go to some one who knows, to find out what are the
+best works on this subject. When there is a good list, he must know
+where to find it, or at least where to go to find out where it is. He
+must consult all the current publishers' lists as they appear, and
+scan each catalogue of bargains. His list of books wanted for purchase
+should far exceed his ability to buy, for then he must, perforce,
+exercise his judgment and pick out the best. If, after all, the
+collection of books in his library is not such as to meet the approval
+of the public, he must bow meekly under the weight of its scorn.
+
+The deluge of books that falls daily from the presses is almost past
+comprehension. The number of intelligent readers, thanks to the
+opportunities given by our public libraries, is increasing in due
+proportion. To select from the stream what is properly fitted to the
+demands of this rapidly growing host is a task not to be lightly
+performed. That the authorities of our libraries do not shrink from it
+is fortunate indeed; that the result is no worse than it is, is a fact
+on which the reading public must doubtless be congratulated.
+
+
+
+
+RARE AND SECOND-HAND BOOKS
+
+By Charles E. Goodspeed.
+
+
+Books are much more indestructible than is generally supposed.
+Furniture, clothing, and most of the appurtenances of the house
+disappear rapidly with time, but books, by the nature of their
+component material and construction, have a longer life. At least this
+may be said of books printed before the present era of paper making.
+Since the invention of printing in the fifteenth century, the product
+of the myriad presses, principally in Europe, has been enormous, and
+the output of books in the four hundred odd years of printing defies
+computation. While many have been destroyed by use, fire, or other
+agencies, an immense number exists at the present time, and their
+disposal, made necessary through death or the breaking up of
+households, is a matter of practical consideration. As it is usually
+impossible for the owner to find individual customers, the second-hand
+book-dealer becomes a necessity. The usefulness of the dealer to the
+community depends upon his honesty, intelligence, and industry; upon
+his honesty, in giving a fair price to the owner, on his intelligence
+in finding customers for books apart from general interest, and on
+his industry in so conducting his business that his stock may not
+become a mass of ill-assorted rubbish.
+
+The small collection of books in the ordinary household (averaging
+usually not over a few hundred volumes), contains, it is safe to say,
+a large percentage of no commercial value. The rest may be valued
+either for rarity, for the place which they may fill in some
+collection, or for the intrinsic excellence of the edition. Customers
+for the rarities are found amongst numerous collectors, and to a more
+limited extent in the large public libraries. Many individual buyers
+prefer the sterling editions printed on rag paper by the old masters
+of the craft to books of modern production, and so create a market for
+good old editions. Modern editions of standard authors are produced so
+cheaply, however, that an old edition will bring but a small price
+unless it has some distinguishing merit.
+
+These points should be borne in mind by those who have books to sell.
+They should remember, also, that the public is to-day no longer
+interested in many subjects on which books were printed in the past.
+It should also be known that the arts, the sciences, and the
+professions, have made such advances that old books on these subjects
+are of little more value than waste paper, excepting in the few
+notable cases of books which are of historical importance to the
+student as landmarks of progress. The omission of these works, of
+obsolete fiction, and the books of the hour, reduce the bulk of the
+ordinary collection to a small value.
+
+It may then properly be asked where the valuable books come from, and
+how are they obtained? It may safely be stated that most rarities
+to-day are discovered in out-of-the-way places, in old collections or
+libraries, attics, or from sources which have not been investigated by
+the keen-eyed collectors and dealers. There are comparatively few
+houses, at least in the most thickly settled parts of this country,
+which have no books, and in a considerable number of these collections
+there are at least some books which have a degree of rarity and a
+special commercial value. The large private libraries are also
+constantly being dispersed, and, excepting always the books which are
+being absorbed by the permanent collections of public institutions,
+form a constant supply, passing from the owner to dealer, from him to
+a new owner, only to find their way eventually to the market again.
+
+Books are not valuable merely because of age (excepting those printed
+in the fifteenth century), nor solely on account of their rarity. It
+is quite apparent that a rare book for which there is no demand can
+have no value. It is the combination of desirability and rarity which
+gives value, and that value fluctuates with the demand, being subject
+to the caprice of the collector or the fashion of the day. This may be
+illustrated by the collecting of first editions. Thirty years ago the
+first editions of modern authors brought small prices; twenty years
+later they were eagerly sought for; while now a reaction is taking
+place, and only the great rarities in this line find a ready sale.
+
+At the present time the books which are most quickly sold in this
+country are those relating to American history, particularly those on
+the discovery and settlement of the continent, the Indians, the
+American Revolution, navy, local history, and genealogy, etc. Books on
+these subjects which are really rare, find a ready sale.
+
+First editions of the early books in _belles-lettres_, books with
+presentation inscriptions from their authors, books containing unusual
+examples of early engravers, or those made famous by the illustrative
+work of such artists as Rowlandson, Leech, and Cruikshank; these are a
+few of the lines in which there are numerous collectors, but it should
+be understood that they are only a few of the more conspicuous out of
+hundreds of similar lines of interest. The number of collectors is
+multiplying with the increase of the country's wealth, and there is a
+growing tendency for collectors to take up new subjects, which very
+much broadens the interest in the books of bygone days. To enumerate
+these subjects at length would be but to detail the personal interests
+and hobbies of thousands of cultivated collectors. It may be safely
+prophesied that books which are regarded to-day as rare and desirable
+by any considerable number of collectors will, on the whole, command a
+steady increase in value. The tendency, however, is strongly toward a
+decrease in the value of books of moderate value and a large increase
+in the value of especially desirable items. The accounts given in the
+daily press of the finding of valuable books are the innocent means of
+misleading a great many people, who labor under the delusion that
+because one early edition of a book commands a large price, another
+edition of about the same time must necessarily have the same value.
+This is one of many errors which the public entertains regarding rare
+books. Not only does a few years' difference in the date of
+publication mean the difference between a large value and none at all,
+but often two editions, apparently the same, bearing identical
+title-pages, possess differences in text, which are known only to the
+expert, but which make a vast difference in their value. Books
+otherwise valuable, but containing material defects (such as lack of
+pages or portions of pages), are thereby very much reduced in value;
+in fact, the value of an imperfect book is usually but a small
+fraction of that of a perfect example. Not only do these grosser
+defects reduce the value, but it sometimes happens that the mere
+absence of a half title, or advertising leaves, or even the flyleaves,
+will make a considerable difference. Such points also as the size of
+the copy, whether it is in original binding or not, or, if rebound,
+whether the edges have been trimmed by the binder,--these all have an
+important bearing upon prices. As a rule, the nearer the book is to
+the original state in which it left the publisher's hands, the more
+valuable it will be.
+
+The art of the second-hand bookseller requires a knowledge of the
+science of bibliography, and painstaking attention to the details and
+orderly arrangement of stock, with a classification by subjects. Other
+things are desirable, but these are indispensable. The stock of
+second-hand books should be kept in such a manner that any book
+inquired for can be instantly located. Nothing is more irritating both
+to the dealer and to the customer than an unsuccessful search for a
+book known to be in stock. There are probably very few books which at
+some time will not be desired by some person; in fact, a large portion
+of the books in a dealer's stock would be instantly sold if he could
+understand the particular feature which would be of interest to the
+possible customer. Usually, the feature is there, and the customer
+exists. It is the bookseller's business to find both.
+
+There is no business in which a thorough knowledge of the stock and a
+painstaking attention to small details are of more importance than in
+the selling of books, and without them the second-hand bookseller's
+establishment degenerates to the level of the junk shop.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Building of a Book, by Various
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+<html lang="en">
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+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
+<title>The Project Gutenberg e-Book of The Building of a Book; Editor: F. H. Hitchcock.</title>
+
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Building of a Book, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Building of a Book
+       A Series of Practical Articles Written by Experts in the
+              Various Departments of Book Making and Distributing
+
+Author: Various
+
+Commentator: Theodore L. De Vinne
+
+Editor: Frederick H. Hitchcock
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2007 [EBook #23754]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BUILDING OF A BOOK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Christine P.
+Travers and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="tn">[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.]</p>
+
+<h1>THE BUILDING OF A BOOK</h1>
+
+<p class="p4 smaller center noindent">A SERIES OF PRACTICAL ARTICLES<br>
+WRITTEN BY EXPERTS IN THE VARIOUS<br>
+DEPARTMENTS OF BOOK MAKING AND DISTRIBUTING</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center noindent">WITH AN INTRODUCTION<br>
+BY THEODORE L. DE VINNE</p>
+
+<p class="p2 center noindent">EDITED BY<br>
+FREDERICK H. HITCHCOCK</p>
+
+<div class="p4">
+<a id="img001" name="img001"></a>
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img001.jpg" width="100" height="128" alt="Editor's arm." title=""></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="p4 smaller center noindent">THE GRAFTON PRESS<br>
+PUBLISHERS <span class="add5em">NEW YORK</span></p>
+
+<p class="p4 smaller center noindent"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1906,</span><br>
+<span class="smcap">By THE GRAFTON PRESS.</span><br>
+Published December, 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="p4 center noindent">Dedicated<br>
+  TO READERS AND LOVERS<br>
+  OF BOOKS THROUGHOUT<br>
+  THE COUNTRY</p>
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagevii" name="pagevii"></a>(p. vii)</span>FOREWORD</h2>
+
+<p>"The Building of a Book" had its origin in the wish to give practical,
+non-technical information to readers and lovers of books. I hope it
+will also be interesting and valuable to those persons who are
+actually engaged in book making and selling.</p>
+
+<p>All of the contributors are experts in their respective departments,
+and hence write with authority. I am exceedingly grateful to them for
+their very generous efforts to make the book a success.</p>
+
+<p class="left50">THE EDITOR.</p>
+
+<a id="toc" name="toc"></a>
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="pageix" name="pageix"></a>(p. ix)</span>ARTICLES AND CONTRIBUTORS</h2>
+
+<ul class="toc">
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page001"><span class="smcap min2em">Introduction</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Theodore L. De Vinne</span>, of Theodore L.
+      De Vinne &amp; Company, Printers, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page004"><span class="smcap min2em">The Author</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">George W. Cable</span>, Author of "Grandissimes,"
+      "The Cavalier," and other books. Resident of
+      Northampton, Massachusetts.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page009"><span class="smcap min2em">The Literary Agent</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Paul R. Reynolds</span>, Literary Agent, New York,
+      representing several English publishing houses and
+      American authors.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page016"><span class="smcap min2em">The Literary Adviser</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Francis W. Halsey</span>, formerly Editor of the
+      <span class="italic">New York Times Saturday Review of Books</span>, and
+      literary adviser for D. Appleton &amp; Company. Now
+      literary adviser for Funk &amp; Wagnalls Company, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page025"><span class="smcap min2em">The Manufacturing Department</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Lawton L. Walton</span>, in charge of the
+      manufacturing department of The Macmillan Company,
+      Publishers, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page031"><span class="smcap min2em">The Making of Type</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">L. Boyd Benton</span>, Mechanical Manager of the
+      Jersey City factory of the American Type Founders'
+      Company.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page041"><span class="smcap min2em">Hand Composition and Electrotyping</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">J. Stearns Cushing</span>, of J. S. Cushing &amp;
+      Company, Norwood, Massachusetts, one of the three
+      concerns forming the Norwood Press.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagex" name="pagex"></a>(p. x)</span><a href="#page053"><span class="smcap min2em">Composition by the Linotype Machine</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Frederick J. Warburton</span>, Treasurer of the
+      Mergenthaler Linotype Machine Company.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page066"><span class="smcap min2em">Composition by the Monotype Machine</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Paul Nathan</span>, a member of Wood &amp; Nathan,
+      New York, selling agents for the Lanston Monotype
+      Machine.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page077"><span class="smcap min2em">Proof-reading</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">George L. Miller</span>, with the Charles Francis
+      Press, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page089"><span class="smcap min2em">Paper Making</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Herbert W. Mason</span>, of S. D. Warren &amp; Company,
+      Paper Makers, Boston, Massachusetts.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page099"><span class="smcap min2em">Presswork</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Walter J. Berwick</span>, of Berwick &amp; Smith
+      Company, Norwood, Massachusetts, one of the three
+      concerns constituting the Norwood Press.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page112"><span class="smcap min2em">The Printing Press</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Otto L. Raabe</span>, with R. Hoe &amp; Company, New
+      York, Printing Press Manufacturers.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page139"><span class="smcap min2em">Printing Ink</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">James A. Ullman</span>, of Sigmund Ullman Company,
+      Ink Makers, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page144"><span class="smcap min2em">The Printer's Roller</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Albert S. Burlingham</span>, President of the
+      National Roller Company, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page154"><span class="smcap min2em">The Illustrator</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Charles D. Williams</span>, Artist, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page164"><span class="smcap min2em">Half-tone, Line, and Color Plates</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Emlyn M. Gill</span>, President of the Gill
+      Engraving Company, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexi" name="pagexi"></a>(p. xi)</span><a href="#page176"><span class="smcap min2em">The Wax Process</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Robert D. Servoss</span>, Engraver of maps,
+      etc., by the wax process, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page180"><span class="smcap min2em">Making Intaglio Plates</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Elmer Latham</span>, Manager of the mechanical
+      department of M. Kramer &amp; Company, Photogravure
+      Makers, Brooklyn, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page190"><span class="smcap min2em">Printing Intaglio Plates</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">George W. H. Ritchie</span>, Printer of
+      photogravure plates, etchings, etc., New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page198"><span class="smcap min2em">The Gelatine Process</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Emil Jacobi</span>, Manager of the factory
+      of the Campbell Art Company, New York, and
+      Elizabeth, New Jersey.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page204"><span class="smcap min2em">Lithography</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Charles Wilhelms</span>, late of
+      Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Printing
+      Company, Brooklyn, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page216"><span class="smcap min2em">Cover Designing</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Amy Richards</span>, Artist, New York, her
+      specialty being cover designs.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page221"><span class="smcap min2em">The Cover Stamps</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">George Becker</span>, of Becker Brothers
+      Company, Die Cutters, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page226"><span class="smcap min2em">Book Cloths</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Henry P. Kendall</span>, of the Holliston Mills,
+      Book Cloth Manufacturers, Norwood, Massachusetts.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page234"><span class="smcap min2em">Book Leathers</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Ellery C. Bartlett</span>, of Louis Dejonge &amp;
+      Company, Dressers and Importers of Book Leathers,
+      New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexii" name="pagexii"></a>(p. xii)</span><a href="#page237"><span class="smcap min2em">The Binding</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Jesse Fellowes Tapley</span>, President of
+      J. F. Tapley Company, Binders, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page248"><span class="smcap min2em">Special Bindings</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Henry Blackwell</span>, Fine Binder, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page257"><span class="smcap min2em">Copyrighting</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Frederick H. Hitchcock</span>, Member of the
+      New York Bar; President of The Grafton Press,
+      Publishers, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page269"><span class="smcap min2em">Publicity</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Vivian Burnett</span>, formerly in charge of
+      the Publicity Department of McClure, Phillips
+      &amp; Company, Publishers, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page292"><span class="smcap min2em">Reviewing and Criticising</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Walter Littlefield</span>, a Member of the Staff
+      of the <span class="italic">New York Times Saturday Review of Books</span>,
+      and literary correspondent of the <span class="italic">Chicago
+      Record-Herald</span>, and other papers.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page303"><span class="smcap min2em">The Travelling Salesman</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Harry A. Thompson</span>, formerly representing
+      John Lane, and Small, Maynard &amp; Company, Publishers.
+      Now one of the Associate Editors of the <span class="italic">Saturday
+      Evening Post</span>, Philadelphia.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page320"><span class="smcap min2em">Selling at Wholesale</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Joseph E. Bray</span>, formerly with A. C.
+      McClurg &amp; Company, Wholesalers, Chicago. Now with
+      the Outing Publishing Company, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page328"><span class="smcap min2em">Selling at Retail</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Warren Snyder</span>, Manager of the Book Stores
+      of John Wanamaker, Philadelphia and New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page339"><span class="smcap min2em">Selling by Subscription</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Charles S. Olcott</span>, Manager of the
+      Subscription Department of Messrs. Houghton,
+      Mifflin &amp; Company, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><span class="pagenum"><a id="pagexiii" name="pagexiii"></a>(p. xiii)</span><a href="#page350"><span class="smcap min2em">Selling at Auction</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">John Anderson, Jr</span>., President of the
+      Anderson Auction Company, New York.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page362"><span class="smcap min2em">Selecting for a Public Library</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Arthur E. Bostwick</span>, Chief of the
+      Circulation Department of the New York Public Library.</li>
+
+<li class="wide"><a href="#page370"><span class="smcap min2em">Rare and Second-hand Books</span></a><br>
+      By <span class="smcap">Charles E. Goodspeed</span>, Dealer in Rare and
+      Second-hand Books, Boston.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<h1><span class="pagenum"><a id="page001" name="page001"></a>(p. 001)</span>THE BUILDING OF A BOOK</h1>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTION<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Theodore L. De Vinne</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>To the hasty observer printing seems the simplest of arts or crafts.
+The small boy who has been taught to spell can readily arrange
+lettered blocks of wood in readable words, and that arrangement is
+rated by many as the great feature of printing. With his toy
+printing-press he can stamp paper upon inked type in so deft a manner
+that admiring friends may say the print is good enough for anybody.
+The elementary processes of printing are indeed so simple that they
+might have justified Dogberry in adding typography to the
+accomplishments of the "reading and writing that come by nature." With
+this delusion comes the desire for amateur performance. Men who would
+not undertake to make a coat or a pair of shoes are confident of their
+ability to make or to direct the making of a book.</p>
+
+<p>In real practice this apparent simplicity disappears. Commercial
+printing is never done quickly or cheaply by amateur methods. The
+printing-house <span class="pagenum"><a id="page002" name="page002"></a>(p. 002)</span>that undertakes to print miscellaneous books
+for publishers must be provided with tons of type of different faces
+and sizes. It needs type-making and type-setting machines of great
+complexity, printing-presses of great size and cost, and much curious
+machinery in the departments of electrotyping and bookbinding; but
+these machines, intended to relieve the drudgery of monotonous manual
+labor, do not supplant the necessity for a higher skill in
+craftsmanship. They really make that craftsmanship more difficult.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of good book-making is greater now than ever.
+Improvements made during the last century in processes of engraving
+and the making of ink and paper and the increasing exactions of
+critical readers and reviewers, compel a closer attention to the petty
+detail of manufacture. The novice soon finds that some of the methods
+recently introduced are incompatible with other methods. For the
+production of a superior book practical experience and theoretical
+study of all processes are needed to harmonize their antagonisms. One
+has but to read over the headlines of the foregoing table of contents
+to note how many different arts, crafts, and sciences are required in
+the construction of a well-made book. A reading of these articles
+makes one understand the scope and limitations of each art and the
+necessity for its proper adjustment in its relation <span class="pagenum"><a id="page003" name="page003"></a>(p. 003)</span>to the
+workmanship of other crafts with which it may be associated.</p>
+
+<p>For this purpose this book has been prepared. It is believed that a
+compilation of the experience of men eminent in their respective
+departments will be a useful guide to the amateur in authorship or the
+novice in publication.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page004" name="page004"></a>(p. 004)</span>THE AUTHOR<br>
+
+<span class="author">By George W. Cable</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In a certain fine and true sense books of imaginative writing&mdash;and the
+present writer cannot undertake to speak of any others&mdash;are not built,
+but born. Nevertheless, there has always been an unlucky tendency on
+the part both of writers and readers to overstate this non-mechanical
+nature of poetic works, whether in prose or verse, and to give the
+processes of this production that air of mystery&mdash;not to say
+miracle&mdash;in which art is always tempted to veil its methods. There is
+an anatomy of the book, which is not its life, but is just as real as
+its life, and only less essential. There is an architecture awaiting
+the book while it is still in its author's brain; and for want of due
+regard to this architecture's laws, for want of a sound and shapely
+anatomy, many a book misses the success&mdash;not commercial only, but
+spiritual as well&mdash;which the amount of toil and talent spent on it
+ought to earn. And now that reading has become so democratic that the
+fortunes of a book of the imagination are largely in the hands
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page005" name="page005"></a>(p. 005)</span>of the Crowd, which cares nothing and feels nothing as to
+grace of form and tone in what it reads, the commercial risk in the
+physical deformities of a book is not so great as the risk of its
+spiritual failure. Now, too, that the magazines have made it so very
+desirable to the author that his work should be printed first in them,
+their mechanical limitations, which are legion, bear upon the author
+and often seem to him (and his personal friends) to bear cruelly. This
+difficulty is not a flattering or gentle discipline, nor are its
+discriminations always good or always bad. It works almost as crudely
+as that of the stage works on the theatrical dramatist. A cunning
+subservience to it covers a multitude of sins, and often achieves for
+the literary craftsman place and preference over the truer artist, if
+he overlooks the need of being also a craftsman. Yet it is the hard
+demand, not of the magazines alone, but of every highest interest,
+that the cure for this injustice be found in the truest artist making
+himself also the cunningest craftsman. "He that would be first among
+you let him be the servant of all."</p>
+
+<p>Well, then, what are some of these mechanical rules of construction?
+The space here allowed&mdash;see there, for instance!&mdash;gives room for but a
+hint or two; but, first of all, an author should know before the
+actual constructure of his creation begins to rise, how long it is to
+be. Of course he would like to say he cannot tell; that he is in the
+hands <span class="pagenum"><a id="page006" name="page006"></a>(p. 006)</span>of his muse, and all that; but the truth is, his
+"artistic temperament" is trying to shirk the drudgery of the
+engineering problem involved. It is far better for him as an artist
+that he should thoroughly solve that problem; it will take time and
+labor, but it need not waste them. The length of his work will, or
+should, depend upon the breadth of it; by which we mean that a certain
+fulness of treatment involves a certain length. For instance, one
+cannot reasonably hope to keep a story short if it is about several
+persons and involves a conflict of their characters or fates. That is
+the second necessity; the length must be planned in proportion to the
+breadth. But, thirdly, both length and breadth should be governed by
+the importance, the dignity, the substantial value, the business, the
+substance, the spiritual stuff, of which the projected book is to
+consist. Hence the writer of true literary conscience will put the
+first, as above named, last, and the last first: spiritual substance,
+then breadth, then length.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make fairly sure of these essentials, as well as for other
+reasons, the author should have a clear determination of all the main
+features of the structure he proposes to raise. Especially the bridge
+should not be itself begun until its builder knows very definitely
+where and how it is to reach the other shore; nothing between the
+beginning and the end is so important to be sure about from the
+beginning, as the end. There is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page007" name="page007"></a>(p. 007)</span>a great difference among
+writers as to the sense of need for a complete preliminary framework
+on which to build. But beyond doubt many feeble, many abortive,
+results come of having too little preparatory framework, too slender a
+scenario, to use a playwright's word which authors and editors are
+borrowing more and more.</p>
+
+<p>It seems good that a literary artist should always write for himself.
+Yet, of course, he should write unselfishly; we may say he would do
+well always to aim at the entertainment of the noblest minds, even
+when he does not exhort their loftiest moods. But he certainly
+achieves much besides if, while he does these things, at the same time
+and in the same doing he entertains the great commonalty of readers.
+If he does this, and all the more if he has the rare genius to do all
+these in one, his books, we may almost say, <span class="italic">ought</span> to go first
+through the magazines. If he wants them to do so, then it will be a
+godsend to himself as well as to the editors if he will lay his plans,
+as far as they have any arithmetical character (and they can have
+much), according to the magazines' mechanical exigencies. He should
+know just how much of any magazine page his own typewritten pages will
+occupy; how many of its own pages that magazine commonly allows to
+writings of the kind he proposes to offer&mdash;how many yearly, and how
+many monthly; and so on. It is well that he should know the best time
+of the magazine's business <span class="pagenum"><a id="page008" name="page008"></a>(p. 008)</span>year in which to seek to arrange
+with them. To a certain degree magazines actually "lay in stock" for a
+coming season and after that, for a time, are languid buyers.</p>
+
+<p>Be it understood that these remarks are as impromptu as a letter, and
+are intended only as hints and pointers. Yet much as they leave
+unstated, let a word be said as to the relation of the author to his
+book after he and all the later artisans of it have done their several
+parts in its building, and it is built. The care of the edifice ought
+still to be, far more than it commonly is, in the author's hands. The
+publisher has the fortunes of hundreds of works to promote and keep in
+repair; the author has but his own. Even an author may say that any
+publisher is glad to have suggestions from any author as to plans for
+keeping the children of that author's own brain alive in the world.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page009" name="page009"></a>(p. 009)</span>THE LITERARY AGENT<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Paul R. Reynolds</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The work of the literary agent in the building of a book may be
+roughly divided into two parts, first, in relation to the author, and
+second, in relation to the publisher. When the author has finished his
+manuscript, he brings it to the literary agent to be placed. The
+literary agent reads it and decides what house is most likely to
+publish such a book. He does not offer a book on Nervous Disorders to
+a house which never publishes that kind of book. He does not offer a
+sensational novel to a conservative house. He offers a book on
+Political Economy to a house which publishes that class of book and
+which is in touch with the people who buy books of that order. Among a
+number of houses which bring out books of any definite class, he can
+select the house that is most energetic in pushing its books, that has
+behind it a prestige and name which will help its publications, and
+which possesses the requisite skill to lay its wares before the public
+advantageously. The success of many a book has depended more on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page010" name="page010"></a>(p. 010)</span>shrewdness of the publisher in laying it before the public
+in attractive and seductive guise than either the public or the author
+often realize.</p>
+
+<p>If the publisher accepts the manuscript offered to him by the literary
+agent, the latter arranges terms with the publisher, making as good a
+business arrangement as all the conditions justify. He draws up the
+contract with the publisher, and after the book is published, he
+collects the royalties from the publisher as they fall due. He enables
+the author to avoid any house that has a reputation for sharp
+practices. Knowing the personnel of the different houses, he knows the
+proper man to approach in offering his book, and he is of aid to the
+author in blowing his trumpet for him, telling what his previous work
+has been, in a way that the author, sensitive as he often is, cannot
+properly do. In short, the agent takes off the author's shoulders all
+the business end of publishing, leaving him free to devote himself to
+his own proper vocation without the vexatious business worries which
+he finds all the more vexatious because he has not had any training or
+experience in coping with them.</p>
+
+<p>I think the literary agent can be, and as time goes on, will be, of
+increasing use to the publisher. The literary agent, if he understands
+his business, takes up no manuscript in which he does not believe.
+When he brings the publisher a manuscript, it is because he thinks
+there is money in such <span class="pagenum"><a id="page011" name="page011"></a>(p. 011)</span>manuscript for the publisher, for the
+author, and as far as commission is concerned, for himself. While it
+is an advantage to the author that he should have the judgment of the
+agent, because the agent looks at any manuscript from a cold-blooded
+business point of view, it is also of advantage to the publisher to
+know that the agent, free from the confidence and perhaps the bias
+that the author has about his own wares, is offering him any
+individual manuscript because he (the agent) believes it will sell.
+The result is that the publisher gets to know that the agent won't
+offer him a manuscript that is not up to a certain standard, and
+which, even though it should in the end not prove suitable to this
+publisher's special list, must receive careful consideration. In this
+way the agent becomes of use to the publisher because he tries never
+to offer him anything that is mere trash or that simply wastes the
+publisher's time. Some time ago a publishing house wrote to an agent
+telling him they wanted a certain kind of novel for the next season,
+and describing, with a good deal of particularity, the kind of book
+they wanted. The agent, after thinking the matter over, submitted two
+manuscripts. The publisher considered them and accepted both. In such
+a case the agent had certainly been of great use to the publisher. He
+had given him what he was looking for, and had saved him the nuisance
+and the actual expense of reading <span class="pagenum"><a id="page012" name="page012"></a>(p. 012)</span>through a large number of
+manuscripts before finding the right one.</p>
+
+<p>It may be admitted frankly that the agent is sometimes accused of
+asking more for his wares than they are worth. In reply to this
+accusation it may be said that asking is not getting, and the agent
+who asks more than the market justifies, and thereby spoils the
+chances of a satisfactory arrangement, is not serving the best
+interests of his client. On the other hand, he will get the best price
+obtainable in the market, taking into consideration the character of
+the publishing house, its prestige and ability in pushing books, and
+as he is offering and selling every day he can generally obtain a
+better price and make a better arrangement than the author can.
+Realizing that the author and publishers are partners in an enterprise
+whose success depends upon a frank and clear understanding, he will do
+his best to make such relations friendly and harmonious and to the
+mutual advantage of both parties to the contract, never forgetting,
+however, that his especial client is the author, and that it is his
+duty to represent the author's interests.</p>
+
+<p>One of the notable features of the times is the growth of magazines.
+The arrangement for the serialization of a long story in a magazine,
+the placing of short stories and articles in magazines, the selling of
+stories, articles, and books in England, and arranging the
+simultaneous issue in both countries,&mdash;all <span class="pagenum"><a id="page013" name="page013"></a>(p. 013)</span>this involves an
+immense amount of detail which one has to encounter fully to realize.
+Sometimes, where an author is putting out a good many manuscripts, the
+complications are numerous and perplexing. In the case of one author
+living abroad whom we will call Smith, a book was arranged with a
+house A, and a second with a house B. The author was taken ill, could
+not finish the first book in time so that A had to postpone it till
+the next year, and this meant that B had to postpone his book. Then a
+publishing house took a story which the same author had sold direct to
+it for magazine publication, without reserving book rights, and
+brought such story out in book form. This meant another complication.
+After B had postponed his book twice the author produced another book
+which he thought better than the second book, and wished published
+before B's book. Four times B was asked to postpone his book and each
+time agreed to, though not without certain <span class="italic">quid pro quos</span>. All these
+matters the agent had to straighten out, while the author was living
+three thousand miles away.</p>
+
+<p>The agent can also be of use to the author because he looks at any
+manuscript in an objective rather than in a subjective way. The
+author, who has toiled and striven over the child of his brain,
+regards it as fathers generally regard their children. Sometimes he
+cannot see its faults, sometimes he misjudges its virtues. It is too
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page014" name="page014"></a>(p. 014)</span>much a part of himself to be regarded coldly and calmly.
+When the publisher makes an offer for a book the author may with hasty
+disdain wish to reject it as entirely inadequate, or he may wish to
+accept it with eager haste, so glad is he for the chance of seeing the
+book in print. In this state of hasty acceptance or hasty rejection,
+the agent can look upon an offer calmly and dispassionately, to be
+accepted or rejected as the author's best interests shall dictate.
+Then again, as time goes on, more and more authors must live at a
+distance from the great centres. Some of them live in the uttermost
+parts of the earth. One author wrote recently to his agent from the
+wilds of Africa, saying, "I have found a nicely secluded spot,
+surrounded by gorillas and chimpanzees." To such authors it is
+essential that they should have an agent who is in touch with the
+publishers who are publishing their works.</p>
+
+<p>Then again, the agent can be of use to the author in sparing him some
+of the bitterness that the author feels when his manuscript is
+rejected. Who that has read it can ever forget the story of how
+Hawthorne, while still struggling for success, submitted a collection
+of short stories to a publisher, and of how the publisher, not having
+much capital, laid the manuscript aside, intending to publish it when
+things were a little easier; and how Hawthorne, after months of dreary
+waiting, wrote an angry letter to the publisher, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page015" name="page015"></a>(p. 015)</span>and when he
+got the manuscript back, in bitter, hopeless rage burned it up? Years
+afterward the publisher admitted that the manuscript contained some of
+the most exquisite work Hawthorne had ever written. This story
+emphasizes the intense sensitiveness of the author about his work.
+Often after two or three rejections he will give the manuscript up as
+hopeless and of no value, while it may be that he has only failed to
+find the house that is looking for that kind of book. An agent, if he
+has once taken the book up, does not drop it so quickly. Only recently
+an agent sold a book which had been declined by fifteen houses to the
+sixteenth. He is willing to persevere with a manuscript and with an
+author, in spite of rebuffs and discouragement, if he believes that
+the author has merit; and if he is willing to persevere with an author
+in the day of small things, he will reap his reward later on.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion the writer believes that the agent, as he has tried to
+indicate, can perform a definite and valuable service to both author
+and publisher by helping the author to bring his wares to the man who
+will publish them most advantageously, and by obtaining for the author
+the prices that such wares are worth in the open market, and he can
+help the publisher by acting as a sifter and bringing before the
+publisher and editor manuscripts that are really worthy of
+consideration.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page016" name="page016"></a>(p. 016)</span>THE LITERARY ADVISER<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Francis W. Halsey</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The position of literary adviser to a publishing house differs in its
+duties, according as the adviser may be employed in a house highly
+organized, or in one that is not. When the organization is such that
+the duties in the various departments are not well differentiated, the
+adviser's work will be likely to involve many things that properly
+belong to the manufacturing and advertising departments. These
+conditions, however, if they exist at all, will be found in the
+smaller houses, or in houses which, as to personnel, are undergoing
+reorganization; they are, and ought to be, exceptional.</p>
+
+<p>The adviser's actual duties should pertain almost exclusively to the
+manuscripts, and to the relations of the house with those who produce
+them. In this way, the adviser acts as an intermediary between the
+publisher and the author. This relation seems, on the surface, to be
+somewhat delicate, and it usually is confidential, but most men find
+the occupation an agreeable one. Authors as a class, so far from being
+an irritable race, will usually be found, at least in their relations
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page017" name="page017"></a>(p. 017)</span>to publishers, not only interesting men and women, but
+candid and reasonable human beings. Probably the most delightful
+rewards of the literary adviser's calling come from the opportunities
+it gives him to extend his friendships among charming people.</p>
+
+<p>Any house which is large enough to employ a literary adviser will
+probably receive, in the course of a year, at least one thousand
+unsolicited manuscripts, which will come from every part of the
+country. They will naturally be of widely varying degrees of
+excellence; quite two-thirds of them will be fiction, and a
+considerable number will bear convincing evidence of having already
+been for some time in search of a publisher. Testimony from various
+houses has at different times been given as to the percentage of
+volunteered manuscripts which eventually find acceptance. It does not
+materially vary, being from one to two per cent. Some years ago, in
+order to test this estimate, I went carefully over the unsolicited
+manuscripts which had reached a large publishing house during a period
+of several months, and found that exactly one and one-half per cent of
+them had been published.</p>
+
+<p>This small showing should not imply that the remaining ninety-eight or
+ninety-nine per cent could in fairness be called worthless. With
+occasional exceptions, rejected manuscripts have been prepared with
+considerable intelligence; knowledge <span class="pagenum"><a id="page018" name="page018"></a>(p. 018)</span>of themes is shown in
+them; there is some real literary skill in evidence, and particular
+care has been taken to secure legibility, about nine-tenths of them
+being in typewritten form. What they lack is certain other qualities
+more vital in the formation of a judgment as to their availability. In
+the case of fiction, they lack novelty of treatment, or for some other
+reason fail to be interesting, and in general there has not been
+infused into them the real breath of life. When they deal with serious
+subjects, they often cover ground which has been better covered
+before, or they attempt to achieve the not-worth-while, or the
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p>There is always a small number of manuscripts against which no other
+objection can be raised than that it would be impossible to secure
+from the public an adequate return in sales for the expenditure
+necessary in the manufacture and distribution of the books. One of the
+pathetic sides of the publishing business is the fact that manuscripts
+of this kind cannot oftener, in this day and generation, secure the
+amount of attention they deserve from the reading public. When a sale
+of one or two thousand copies would be necessary to make good the cost
+of publication, the publisher is confronted with the fact that he
+could not secure a sale exceeding five hundred. Indeed, when one
+considers the almost certain fate that awaits them, pathos of the most
+genuine kind is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page019" name="page019"></a>(p. 019)</span>closely associated with volunteered
+manuscripts&mdash;those, I mean, which come from new writers. Hardly any
+form of endeavor to which educated minds devote themselves should more
+often awaken sympathetic feeling. Those who produce them almost always
+have their rewards far to seek, and seeking will not find them, and
+yet they "wrought in sad sincerity."</p>
+
+<p>The public is familiar with stories of successful books which, in the
+course of their peregrinations, were several times rejected by
+publishers. This, doubtless, has been the experience of all authors
+who have made notable successes with first books, and it doubtless
+always will be the experience of new authors. But along with this we
+must set down the further, but consoling fact, that probably no
+meritorious manuscript, possessing the possibilities of a great sale,
+ever yet failed ultimately to find a publisher. The best proof of this
+seems to be the absence of any notable instance of a book which, after
+being rejected by all the regular houses, finally was brought out
+privately, or at the author's expense, and then made a hit.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common impression that manuscripts are not carefully read in
+publishing houses. Again and again has this fiction been exploded by
+houses whose word should be accepted as final, but it now and then
+lifts up its head as if untouched before. Of course there are
+manuscripts which no one ever reads completely through from beginning
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page020" name="page020"></a>(p. 020)</span>to end, chapter by chapter, and page by page, simply because
+it has been found not to be necessary to do so. Every conscientious
+reader, however,&mdash;and most readers known to me have been nothing if
+not conscientious,&mdash;reads at least far enough into a manuscript to
+learn if there be anything in it that in the least degree is
+promising. He understands full well the danger of overlooking a
+meritorious work, and experience has taught him to be careful.
+Moreover, he is usually fired with the worthy ambition to make a
+discovery; but he acts according to his light only, and hence makes
+mistakes. The conditions in which his work is done, however, preclude
+the possibility of careless reading.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtless true&mdash;indeed, I believe the records of every
+publishing house in the country will sustain this statement&mdash;that
+while no house has failed at some time in its career to reject at
+least one manuscript that was afterwards a highly successful book,
+mistakes of this kind have been extremely few; whereas the mistakes
+made by the same houses in accepting manuscripts that were afterward
+found to be unprofitable have been numerous. A further fact, which is
+seldom borne in mind, although it ought always to be remembered in any
+discussion of literary success, is that highly successful books
+usually bring to their publishers as much surprise as they do to any
+one else. This is distinctly true of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page021" name="page021"></a>(p. 021)</span>novels by new writers,
+whose "big-sellers" have seldom or never been anticipated. It is well
+known in the trade that at least two, and probably a half-dozen, books
+highly successful during the past ten years, and all the works of new
+writers, were sent to press for the first edition, with a printing
+order for only two thousand copies.</p>
+
+<p>The public has gotten very much into the habit of judging the fortunes
+of a publishing house by the successful fiction which it puts forth,
+and this is also true of many men in the trade, whose means of knowing
+better ought to be ample. Probably the literary gossip prevalent in
+newspapers and periodicals is largely responsible for this habit. The
+facts are, however, that, from these books alone, no publishing house
+in this country is, or could be, well sustained. Unless there be in
+the background some other publishing enterprise that is producing
+constant revenue from year to year, mere fiction will accomplish
+little to make or save the publisher. The real sources of stability
+lie elsewhere, far beyond the ken of the superficial observer, and
+they are very commonly overlooked. In one instance, this mainstay is
+religious books; in another a cyclopædia; in another medical books, or
+educational; in another a dictionary; in another a periodical; and
+fortunate the house that has not one, but two or three, such sources
+of prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>It might be set down as an axiomatic statement <span class="pagenum"><a id="page022" name="page022"></a>(p. 022)</span>that no large
+publishing house in this country could possibly live exclusively from
+what are known as miscellaneous books, by which is meant current
+fiction and other ephemeral publications. The worst thing about such
+books is that they create no assets; their life is short, and once it
+is ended, the plates have value only as old metal. A house, therefore,
+in publishing this class of books finds that each season it must begin
+all over again the work of creating business for itself. Books of the
+more substantial kind, however, whether they be religious,
+educational, scientific, medical, or in other senses books of
+reference, do not perish with the passing of a season. Once the right
+kinds have been found, they are good for at least ten years, and not
+infrequently for a generation.</p>
+
+<p>But this is wandering somewhat away from the subject of the literary
+adviser. His duties primarily are to preserve and to create good-will
+from authors toward the house which employs him, for that good-will is
+an asset of the first importance to a publishing house. Other kinds of
+good-will at the same time are essential to its fortunes,&mdash;notably the
+good-will of the bookseller and that of the book buyer,&mdash;but behind
+these, and primarily as the source of these, lies the good-will of the
+author. Houses now known to be the most prosperous in this country
+possess this good-will in abundance. So, too, the houses which are
+destined to much longer life are those which, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page023" name="page023"></a>(p. 023)</span>by all
+legitimate means, shall seek to preserve and increase that good-will.
+Equally true is it, that the houses which in future shall fail will be
+those which do not cultivate and cherish the good-will of authors as
+the most valuable asset they can ever hope to possess.</p>
+
+<p>It is because of this possession that a publisher gets an author's
+book. It was by this means that he got the books he already has, and
+by this will he get those which will make him successful in the
+future. His books being good, it is through them that the bookseller's
+good-will is acquired, and through them also that the publisher will
+secure the good-will of the book buyer. No wiser words on this subject
+have been uttered in our generation than those which may be found,
+here and there, in "A Publisher's Confession," which I hope was
+written, as reputed, by Walter H. Page, for it is certainly sound
+enough and sane enough to be his:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>"The successful publisher sustains a relation to the
+     successful author that is not easily transferable. It is a
+     personal relation. A great corporation cannot take a real
+     publisher's place in his attitude to the author he serves."</p>
+
+<p>"Every great publishing house has been built on the strong
+     friendships between writers and publishers. There is in
+     fact, no other sound basis to build on; for the publisher
+     cannot do his highest duty to any author whose work he does
+     not appreciate and with whom he is not in sympathy. Now,
+     when a man has an appreciation of your work, and sympathy
+     for it, he wins you. This is the simplest of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page024" name="page024"></a>(p. 024)</span>all
+     psychological laws,&mdash;the simplest of all laws of friendship,
+     and one of the soundest."</p>
+
+<p>"Mere printers and salesmen have not often built publishing
+     houses. For publishing houses have this distinction over
+     most other commercial institutions&mdash;they rest on the
+     friendship of the most interesting persons in the world, the
+     writers of good books."</p>
+
+<p>"And&mdash;in all the noisy babble of commercialism&mdash;the writers
+     of our own generation who are worth most on a publisher's
+     list respond to the true publishing personality as readily
+     as writers did before the day of commercial methods. All the
+     changes that have come into the profession have not, after
+     all, changed its real character, as it is practised on its
+     higher levels. And this rule will hold true&mdash;that no
+     publishing house can win and keep a place on the highest
+     level that does not have at least one man who possesses this
+     true publishing personality."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These are golden words. Men who knew them as self-evident truths laid
+the foundations, and in a few instances reared the superstructures, of
+the most famous publishing houses known to modern literature. Let us
+in part call the roll, restricting it to the dead: James T. Fields,
+the first Charles Scribner, George P. Putnam, Fletcher Harper, William
+H. Appleton, Daniel Macmillan, and the second John Murray. These men
+were more than publishers, adding as they did to that vocation the
+duties of the literary adviser, and becoming the ablest of their kind.
+Well may the literary adviser of our day, who is seldom himself a
+publisher, read the story of their lives and take heart from it in the
+discharge of his own duties.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page025" name="page025"></a>(p. 025)</span>THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Lawton L. Walton</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The manufacture of a book consists primarily of the processes of
+typography,<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1" title="Go to footnote 1"><span class="smaller">[1]</span></a> or type composition, or the setting up of
+type&mdash;presswork or printing&mdash;photo-engraving or other methods of
+reproduction&mdash;designing&mdash;die-cutting&mdash;and binding, all of which are
+involved in transforming a manuscript into the completed book as it
+reaches the reader.</p>
+
+<p>In the machinery of a modern publishing house the manufacturing man is
+the person who follows these processes in their devious volutions and
+evolutions, until the finished production comes from the binder's
+hands.</p>
+
+<p>After a manuscript has been accepted by a publishing house, it is
+turned over to the manufacturing man with such general instructions
+regarding the make-up of the book, as may have been considered or
+discussed with the author, who invariably and sometimes unfortunately,
+has some <span class="pagenum"><a id="page026" name="page026"></a>(p. 026)</span>preconceived notion of what his book should look
+like.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturing man then selects what he considers a suitable style
+and size of type and size of letter-press page for the book, and sends
+the manuscript to the typographer with instructions to set up a few
+sample pages, and to make an estimate of the number of pages that the
+book will make, so as to verify his own calculations in this respect.</p>
+
+<p>If these sample pages do not prove satisfactory, others are set up,
+until a page is arrived at finally that will meet all the requirements
+that the publisher deems necessary. This is then invariably submitted
+to the author for his approval.</p>
+
+<p>This detail settled, the typographer is now instructed to proceed with
+the composition and to send proofs to the author. Sometimes a book is
+set up at once in page form but more often first proofs are sent out
+in galley strips, on which the author makes his corrections before the
+matter is apportioned into pages; another proof in page form is sent
+to the author on the return of which the typographer casts the
+electrotype plates from which the book is printed, unless, as in rare
+instances, the book is to be printed from the type, when no
+electrotype plates are made.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturing man keeps in touch with this work in its various
+stages as it proceeds, and as soon as the number of pages that the
+book will <span class="pagenum"><a id="page027" name="page027"></a>(p. 027)</span>make can definitely be determined, he places an
+order for the paper on which it is to be printed.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, if the book is to be illustrated, an illustrator must be
+engaged, and furnished with a set of early proofs of the book from
+which to select the points or situations to illustrate. When the
+drawings are finally approved they are carefully looked over, marked
+to show the sizes at which they are to be reproduced, and sent to the
+engraver for reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>Upon receipt of the reproductions from the engraver, the proofs are
+carefully compared with the originals, and if the work has been
+satisfactorily performed, the cuts are sent to the typographer or the
+printer for insertion in their proper places in the plates or type
+matter of the book.</p>
+
+<p>The matter of the paper on which the book is to be printed has now to
+be considered: First, the size of the page, <span class="italic">i.e.</span> the apportionment
+of the margins around the page of letter-press, is decided. Second,
+the quality of paper to be used, and the surface or finish is then
+selected; and finally, the bulk or thickness that the book must be, to
+make a volume of proper proportions, is determined. The paper is then
+ordered, to be delivered to the printer who will print the book.</p>
+
+<p>Time was when paper was made by hand in certain fixed sizes, and the
+size of the book was determined by the number of times the sheet of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page028" name="page028"></a>(p. 028)</span>paper was folded, and the letter-press page was adapted to
+the size of the paper. In these days of machinery, when paper can be
+made in any size of sheet desired, the process is reversed: the size
+of the letter-press page is determined and the size of the sheet of
+paper adapted thereto. Upon receipt of the paper the printer sends a
+full-sized dummy of it to the manufacturing man so that he may compare
+it with the order that was given to the paper dealer. The book is then
+put to press, and as soon as the printing has been completed, the
+printed sheets are delivered to the binder.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is to have a decorative cover, a designer has been
+employed to furnish a suitable cover design. When the design has been
+approved, it is turned over to the die cutter to cut the brass dies
+used by the binder in stamping the design on the cover of the book.</p>
+
+<p>The dies when finished are sent with the design to the binder to be
+copied. He stamps off some sample covers until the result called for
+by the designer has been attained and is then ready to proceed with
+the operation of binding the book, as soon as the printed sheets have
+been delivered to him from the printer.</p>
+
+<p>The binder is usually supplied by the printer with a small number of
+advance copies of the book, before the complete run of the sheets has
+been delivered. These advance copies are bound up at once and
+delivered to the manufacturing man so <span class="pagenum"><a id="page029" name="page029"></a>(p. 029)</span>that any faults or
+errors may be caught and improvements be made before the entire
+edition of the book is bound.</p>
+
+<p>Printed paper wrappers for the book have been made and supplied to the
+binder for wrapping each copy, and as soon as the books are bound,
+they are wrapped and delivered at the publisher's stock rooms.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturing man sees that early copies of each new book, for
+copyright purposes, are furnished to the proper department that
+attends to that detail, and that early copies also are supplied to the
+publicity department, to place with editors for special or advance
+reviews.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacturing man also provides the travelling representatives of
+his house with adequate dummies (<span class="italic">i.e.</span> partly completed copies) of
+all new books as soon as the important details of their make-up have
+been decided.</p>
+
+<p>This brief outline covers all of the steps in the process of the
+evolution of a book. Reams, however, could be devoted to the
+innumerable details that interweave and overlap each other with which
+the manufacturing man has to contend, when, as is often the case in
+our larger publishing houses, he has from forty to fifty books, and
+sometimes more, in process of manufacture at one time. I know of no
+man to whom disappointment comes more often than to him,&mdash;from the
+delays due to causes wholly unavoidable, to the blunders of stupid
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page030" name="page030"></a>(p. 030)</span>workmen and the broken promises of others; but these are all
+forgotten when the completed book, that he has worried over in its
+course through the press, in many instances for months, reaches his
+hands completed, "a thing of beauty."<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page031" name="page031"></a>(p. 031)</span>THE MAKING OF TYPE<br>
+
+<span class="author">By L. Boyd Benton</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Type are made of type metal, a mixture of tin, antimony, lead, and
+copper. As antimony expands in solidifying, advantage is taken of this
+quality, and the mixture is so proportioned that the expansion of the
+antimony will practically counteract the shrinkage of the other
+ingredients. The proportion of the mixture is varied according to the
+size and style of type and to the purposes for which it is used.</p>
+
+<p>Type are cast separately in moulds, a "matrix" at the end of the mould
+forming the letter or other character.</p>
+
+<p>Machinery is used very largely in modern type-making. The steps of its
+manufacture are in this order: drawing the design, producing of a
+metal pattern therefrom, placing the pattern either in the engraving
+machine to produce steel punches and type-metal originals, or in the
+matrix-engraving machine to produce matrices, adjusting the matrix to
+the mould, and finally, casting the type.</p>
+
+<p>The design for a new style of type is made generally <span class="pagenum"><a id="page032" name="page032"></a>(p. 032)</span>with
+pen and ink, the capital letters being drawn about an inch high and
+the others in predetermined proportions. When the design is for a
+plain text letter, similar to that with which this book is printed, it
+is essential to have the letters proportioned and shaped in such a
+manner as will cause the least strain on the eye in reading, and, at
+the same time, produce a pleasing effect when the page is viewed as a
+whole. When the printed page conveys information to the reader,
+without attracting attention to itself, it is ideal.</p>
+
+<p>While this is true in regard to a design for a text letter, the design
+for a display type is often made to attract attention, not only to
+itself, but to what it proclaims, by its boldness and beauty and
+sometimes even by its ugliness.</p>
+
+<p>After the design has been drawn, it is placed in a "delineating
+machine," where an enlarged outline pencil copy, or tracing, is made,
+so large that all errors are easily seen and corrected. New designs
+may, however, be drawn in outline by hand on the enlarged scale, thus
+rendering unnecessary both the pen-and-ink drawing and the tracing.</p>
+
+<p>With the aid of the delineating machine, the operator, besides being
+able to produce an accurately enlarged outline pencil tracing of a
+design, is also enabled, by various adjustments, to change the form of
+the pencil tracing in such a manner that it becomes proportionately
+more condensed or extended, and even italicized or back-sloped. That
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page033" name="page033"></a>(p. 033)</span>is, from a single design, say Gothic, pencil tracings can be
+made condensed, extended, italicized, and back-sloped, as well as an
+enlarged facsimile.</p>
+
+<p>The next operation consists in placing the enlarged outline pencil
+drawing in a machine which enables the operator to reproduce the
+outline drawing, reduced in size, on a metal plate, evenly covered
+with wax, with the line traced entirely through the wax. The plate is
+then covered with a thin layer of copper, electrically deposited, and
+is "backed up" with metal, and trimmed and finished, similar to an
+ordinary electrotype plate of a page of type. A copper-faced metal
+plate is thus produced, on which are the raised outlines of a letter.
+This is called the "pattern." From this pattern all regular type sizes
+may be cut. It determines the shape of the letter, but the size and
+variations from the pattern are determined later by the adjustments of
+the engraving machine in which it is used.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern is now sent to the engraving room. Machines have
+superseded the old-fashioned way of cutting punches and originals by
+hand, and they have enormously increased the production of new type
+faces. Whereas in the old days it took about eighteen months to bring
+out a new Roman face, or style of letters, in seven different sizes,
+to-day it can be done in about five weeks. The reason is that formerly
+only one artist, known as a punch-cutter, could work on a single face,
+and he had to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page034" name="page034"></a>(p. 034)</span>cut all the sizes, otherwise there were
+noticeable differences in style. By machine methods, where all sizes
+can be cut simultaneously, it is only a question of having the
+requisite number of engraving machines.</p>
+
+<p>As to the quality of machine work, it is superior to hand work both in
+accuracy and uniformity. The artist formerly cut the punches, or
+originals, by hand under a magnifying glass, and the excellence of his
+work was really marvellous. However, when changing from one size to
+another, there were often perceptible variations in the shapes of the
+letters, or the sizes were not always evenly graded. By the machine
+method the workman uses the long end of a lever, as explained below,
+and has therefore a greater chance of doing accurate work. In addition
+to this, a rigid pattern forms the shape of the letter, and to it all
+sizes must conform.</p>
+
+<p>Another gain the machine has over hand-cutting is its greater range.
+When the old-time artist made an unusually small size of type for
+Bible use, he did it with great strain on his eyes and nerves. At any
+moment his tool might slip and spoil the work. With the machine, on
+the other hand, and with no physical strain whatever, experimental
+punches have been cut so small as to be legible only with a
+microscope&mdash;too small, in fact, to print. At present there are two
+styles of engraving machines employed,&mdash;one cutting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page035" name="page035"></a>(p. 035)</span>the
+letter in relief,&mdash;called a "punch" if cut in steel, and an "original"
+if cut in type metal,&mdash;and the other cutting a letter in
+intaglio,&mdash;called a "matrix." Both machines are constructed on the
+principle of the lever, the long arm following the pattern, while the
+short arm moves either the work against the cutting tool, or the
+cutting tool against the work. The adjustments are such that the
+operator is enabled to engrave the letter proportionately more
+extended or condensed, and lighter or heavier in face, than the
+pattern. All these variations are necessary for the production of a
+properly graded modern series containing the usual sizes. In fact, on
+account of the laws of optics, which cannot be gone into here, only
+one size of a series is cut in absolutely exact proportion to the
+patterns.</p>
+
+<p>As it is impossible to describe these machines clearly without the aid
+of many diagrams and much technical language, only a brief description
+of their operation will be given.</p>
+
+<p>When the letters are to be engraved in steel, blocks or "blanks" are
+cut from soft steel and finished to the proper size. A blank is then
+fastened in the "holder," the machine for cutting the letter in relief
+adjusted to the proper leverage, and the pattern clamped to the "bed."
+The long arm of the lever, containing the proper "tracer" or follower,
+is moved by the operator around the outside of the pattern on the
+copper-faced metal <span class="pagenum"><a id="page036" name="page036"></a>(p. 036)</span>plate, causing the blank to be moved by
+the shorter arm around and against a rotating cutting tool. This
+operation is repeated several times with different sizes of tracers
+and different adjustments to enable the cutting tool to cut at
+different depths, until finally a steel letter in relief is produced,
+engraved the reverse of the pattern and very much smaller. After being
+hardened and polished, this is called a steel punch, and, when driven
+into a flat piece of copper, it produces what is known as a "strike"
+or unfinished matrix.</p>
+
+<p>If in the same machine type metal is used for blanks, the resulting
+originals are placed in a "flask," or holder, and submerged in a bath,
+where they receive on the face of the letter a thick coating of
+nickel, electrically deposited. As soon as the deposit is of
+sufficient thickness, they are removed and the soft metal letters
+withdrawn, leaving a deep facsimile impression in the deposited metal,
+which also is an unfinished matrix.</p>
+
+<p>The machine for engraving a matrix in intaglio is operated in much the
+same manner as that for engraving a punch in relief. The same patterns
+are used, but the operator traces on the inside of the raised outline
+instead of on the outside. Besides following the outline, the operator
+guides the tracers over all the surface of the pattern within the
+outlines; otherwise the letter would appear in the matrix in outline
+only. The matrices are cut in steel and in watchmakers' nickel,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page037" name="page037"></a>(p. 037)</span>and the work is so accurately done that about half the labor
+of finishing is saved.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noted from the foregoing that all three processes of
+engraving end in the production of an unfinished matrix.</p>
+
+<p>The adjusting of the matrix to the mould is technically called
+"fitting," and requires great skill. If type are cast from unfitted
+matrices, be the letters ever so cleverly designed and perfectly cut,
+when assembled in the printed page they will present a very ragged
+appearance. Some letters will appear slanting backward, others
+forward, some be above the line, others below; some will perforate the
+paper, while others will not print at all; the distances between the
+letters will everywhere be unequal, and some will print on but one
+edge. Indeed, a single letter may have half of these faults, but when
+the matrices are properly fitted, the printed page presents a smooth
+and even appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The mould for this purpose is made of hardened steel, and in it is
+formed the body of the type. The printing end is formed in the matrix.
+The mould is provided at one end with guides and devices for holding
+the matrix snugly against it while the type is being cast, and for
+withdrawing the matrix and opening the mould when the type is
+discharged. At the opposite end from the matrix is an opening through
+which the melted metal enters. The moulds are made adjustable
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page038" name="page038"></a>(p. 038)</span>so that each character is cast the proper width, the opening
+of course being wider for a "W" than for an "i." Only one mould is
+necessary for one size of type, and with it all the matrices for that
+size may be used. Commercially, however, it is often necessary to make
+several moulds of the same size in order to produce the requisite
+amount of type.</p>
+
+<p>After the adjustments are made, the casting of the type follows. Type
+are now cast in a machine which is automatic, after it is once
+adjusted to cast a given letter. The melted type metal is forced by a
+pump into the mould and the matrix, and when solidified, the type is
+ejected from the mould and moved between knives which trim all four
+sides. The type are delivered side by side on a specially grooved
+piece of wood, three feet long, called a "stick," on which they are
+removed from the machine for inspection. Type are cast at the rate of
+from ten to two hundred per minute, according to the size, the speed
+being limited only by the time it takes the metal to solidify. To
+accelerate this, a stream of cold water is forced through passages
+surrounding the mould, and a jet of cold air is blown against the
+outside.</p>
+
+<p>The automatic casting machine performs six different operations.
+Formerly, all of them, except the casting itself, were done by hand,
+and each type was handled separately, except in the operation of
+dressing, or the final finishing, where <span class="pagenum"><a id="page039" name="page039"></a>(p. 039)</span>they were handled in
+lines of about three feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>After the type have been delivered to the inspector, they are examined
+under a magnifying glass and all imperfect type are thrown out. The
+perfect type are then delivered to "fonting" room, where they are
+weighed, counted, and put up in suitable packages in proper proportion
+of one letter with another, ready for the printer.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly the various sizes of type were indicated by names which had
+developed with the history of type making. It was a source of
+considerable annoyance to printers that these old standards were not
+accurate, and that two types of supposedly the same size, and sold
+under the same name, by different makers, varied so much that they
+could not be used side by side. Of recent years the "point" system, by
+which each size bears a proportionate relation to every other size,
+has done much to remedy this trouble, and now nearly all type is made
+on that basis. An American point is practically one seventy-second of
+an inch. Actually it is .013837 inch. It was based on the pica size
+most extensively in use in this country. This pica was divided into
+twelve equal parts and each part called a point. All the other sizes
+were made to conform to multiples of this point. The point is so near
+a seventy-second of an inch that printers frequently calculate the
+length of the pages by counting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page040" name="page040"></a>(p. 040)</span>the lines, the basis being
+twelve lines of 6 point, nine lines of 8 point, eight lines of 9
+point, and six lines of 12 point to the inch. This calculation is
+really quite accurate.</p>
+
+<p>The following table will show the old and new names for the various
+sizes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>3-&frac12; Point,      <span class="align40">Brilliant.</span></li>
+<li>4-&frac12; Point,      <span class="align40">Diamond.</span></li>
+<li>5 Point,          <span class="align40">Pearl.</span></li>
+<li>5-&frac12; Point,      <span class="align40">Agate.</span></li>
+<li>6 Point,          <span class="align40">Nonpareil.</span></li>
+<li>7 Point,          <span class="align40">Minion.</span></li>
+<li>8 Point,          <span class="align40">Brevier.</span></li>
+<li>9 Point,          <span class="align40">Bourgeois.</span></li>
+<li>10 Point,         <span class="align40">Long Primer.</span></li>
+<li>11 Point,         <span class="align40">Small Pica.</span></li>
+<li>12 Point,         <span class="align40">Pica.</span></li>
+<li>14 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line Minion or English.</span></li>
+<li>16 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line Brevier.</span></li>
+<li>18 Point,         <span class="align40">Great Primer.</span></li>
+<li>20 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line Long Primer or Paragon.</span></li>
+<li>22 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line Small Pica.</span></li>
+<li>24 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line Pica.</span></li>
+<li>28 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line English.</span></li>
+<li>30 Point,         <span class="align40">5-line Nonpareil.</span></li>
+<li>32 Point,         <span class="align40">4-line Brevier.</span></li>
+<li>36 Point,         <span class="align40">2-line Great Primer.</span></li>
+<li>40 Point,         <span class="align40">Double Paragon.</span></li>
+<li>42 Point,         <span class="align40">7-line Nonpareil.</span></li>
+<li>44 Point,         <span class="align40">4-line Small Pica or Canon.</span></li>
+<li>48 Point,         <span class="align40">4-line Pica.</span></li>
+<li>54 Point,         <span class="align40">9-line Nonpareil.</span></li>
+<li>60 Point,         <span class="align40">5-line Pica.</span></li>
+<li>72 Point,         <span class="align40">6-line Pica.</span></li>
+</ul><a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a>
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page041" name="page041"></a>(p. 041)</span>HAND COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By J. Stearns Cushing</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The form of the book, the size of the type page, and the size and
+style of the type having been determined, the manuscript is handed to
+the foreman of the composing room, with all the collected directions
+in regard to it. He fills out a scheme of the work which tells the
+whole story,&mdash;somewhat as shown in illustration opposite page 42.</p>
+
+<p>Under the heading "Remarks," in the scheme shown, are noted general
+directions as to capitalization, punctuation, and spelling (whether
+Webster, Worcester, or English spelling&mdash;which means generally not
+much more than the insertion of the "u" in words like "favor,"
+"honor," etc., and the use of "s" instead of "z" in words like
+"recognize," "authorize," etc.). Sometimes these directions are given
+by the publisher, sometimes by the author, but more often by the
+superintendent or foreman of the printing-office. The office generally
+has a fairly well established system, which is followed in the absence
+of other orders. It is rarely the case that it is not the wisest
+course, if <span class="pagenum"><a id="page042" name="page042"></a>(p. 042)</span>one is dealing with a reputable firm of printers,
+to leave all such details, except deciding the dictionary to be
+followed, to them. It is their business, and they will, if allowed,
+pursue a consistent and uniform plan, whereas few authors and fewer
+publishers are able, or take the pains, to do this. Too often the
+author has a few peculiar ideas as to punctuation or capitalization,
+which he introduces just frequently enough to upset the consistent
+plan of the printer. He will neither leave the responsibility to the
+latter nor will he assume it himself, and the natural result is a lack
+of uniformity which might have been avoided if the printer had been
+allowed to guide this part of the work without interference.</p>
+
+<p>The compositors who are to set the type are selected according to the
+difficulty of the matter in hand, and each one is given a few pages of
+the "copy," or manuscript. The portion thus given each compositor is
+called a "take," and its length is determined by circumstances. For
+instance, if time is an object, small takes are given, in order that
+the next step in the forwarding of the work may be started promptly
+and without the delay which would be occasioned by waiting for the
+compositor to set up a longer take.</p>
+
+<p>When the compositor has finished his take, the copy and type are
+passed to a boy, who "locks up" the type on the galley&mdash;a flat brass
+tray with upright sides on which the compositor has placed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page043" name="page043"></a>(p. 043)</span>
+his type&mdash;and takes a proof of it upon a galley-or "roller"-press.
+This is the proof known as a "galley-proof," and is, in book work,
+printed on a strip of paper about 7 × 25 inches in size, leaving room
+for a generous margin to accommodate proof-readers' and authors'
+corrections, alterations, or additions.</p>
+
+<a id="img002" name="img002"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img002.jpg" width="400" height="862" alt="Memorandum." title="">
+</div>
+
+<div class="p2">
+<a id="img003" name="img003"></a>
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img003.jpg" width="600" height="384" alt="Galley-proof." title=""></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The galley-proof, with the corresponding copy, is then handed to the
+proof-reader, who is assisted by a "copy-holder" (an assistant who
+reads the copy aloud) in comparing it with the manuscript and marking
+typographical errors and departures from copy on its margin. Thence
+the proof passes back again to the compositor, who corrects the type
+in accordance with the proof-reader's markings. Opposite page 44 is a
+specimen of a page proof before correction and after the changes
+indicated have been made.</p>
+
+<p>New proofs are taken of the corrected galley, and these are revised by
+a proof-reader in order to be sure that the compositor has made all
+the corrections marked and to mark anew any he may have overlooked or
+wrongly altered. If many such occur, the proof is again passed to the
+compositor for further correction and the taking of fresh proofs. The
+reviser having found the proof reasonably correct, and having marked
+on its margin any noticed errors remaining, and also having "Queried"
+to the author any doubtful points to which it is desirable that the
+latter's attention should be drawn, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page044" name="page044"></a>(p. 044)</span>the proof&mdash;known as the
+"first revise"&mdash;and the manuscript are sent to the author for his
+reading and correction or alteration.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2" title="Go to footnote 2"><span class="smaller">[2]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>On the return of the galley-proofs to the printer, the changes
+indicated on the margins are made by compositors selected for the
+purpose, and the galleys of type and the proofs are then turned over
+by them to the "make-up." The "make-up" inserts the cuts, divides the
+matter into page lengths, and adds the running titles and folios at
+the heads of the pages.</p>
+
+<p>At this stage the separate types composing the page are held in place
+and together by strong twine called "page cord," which is wound around
+the whole page several times, the end being so tucked in at the corner
+as to prevent its becoming unfastened prematurely. The page thus held
+together is quite secure against being "pied" if proper care is
+exercised in handling it, and it can be put on a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page045" name="page045"></a>(p. 045)</span>hand-press
+and excellent proofs readily taken from it. A loosely tied page,
+however, may allow the letters to spread apart at the ends of the
+lines, or the type to get "off its feet," or may show lines slightly
+curved or letters out of alignment. The proof of a page displaying
+such conditions often causes the author, unlearned in printers'
+methods, much perturbation of mind and unnecessary fear that his book
+is going to be printed with these defects. These should in reality be
+no cause for worry, since by a later operation, that of "locking-up"
+the "form" in which the pages will be placed before they are sent to
+the electrotyping department, the types readily and correctly adjust
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Proofs of these twine-bound pages are taken on a hand-press, passed to
+the reviser for comparison with the galley-proofs returned by the
+author, and if the latter has expressed a wish to see a second revise
+of the proofs, they are again sent to him. For such a "second revise"
+and any further revises an extra charge is made. The proofs to which
+an author is regularly entitled are a duplicate set of the first
+revise, a duplicate set of "F"-proofs,&mdash;to be mentioned later,&mdash;and
+one set of proofs of the electrotype plates; though it may be added
+that the last is not at all essential and is seldom called for.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the author does not require to see another proof after the
+second revise, which he returns to the printer with his final changes
+and the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page046" name="page046"></a>(p. 046)</span>direction that the pages may be "corrected and
+cast," that is, put into the permanent form of electrotype plates.
+Some authors, however, will ask to see and will make alterations in
+revise after revise, even to the sixth or seventh, and could probably
+find something to change in several more if the patience or pocketbook
+of the publisher would permit it. All the expense of overhauling,
+correcting, and taking additional proofs of the pages is charged by
+the printer as "author's time." It is possible for an author to make
+comparatively few and simple changes each time he receives a new
+revise, but yet have a much larger bill for author's changes than
+another who makes twice or thrice as many alterations at one time on
+the galley-proof, and only requires another proof in order that he may
+verify the correctness of the printer's work. The moral is obvious.</p>
+
+<p>After the pages have been cast, further alterations, while entirely
+possible, are quite expensive and necessarily more or less injurious
+to the plates.</p>
+
+<p>The author having given the word to "cast," the pages of type are laid
+on a smooth, level table of iron or marble called an "imposing stone."
+They are then enclosed&mdash;either two or three or four pages together,
+according to their size&mdash;in iron frames called "chases," in which they
+are squarely and securely "locked up," the type having first been
+levelled down by light blows of a mallet on a block of smooth, hard
+wood called a "planer." <span class="pagenum"><a id="page047" name="page047"></a>(p. 047)</span>This locking-up of the pages in iron
+frames naturally corrects the defects noted in the twine-bound pages,
+and not only brings the type into proper alignment and adjustment, but
+prevents the probability of types becoming displaced or new errors
+occurring through types dropping out of the page and being wrongly
+replaced.</p>
+
+<p>When the locking-up process is completed, the iron chase and type
+embraced by it is called a "form." A proof of this form is read and
+examined by a proof-reader with the utmost care, with a view to
+eliminating any remaining errors or defective types or badly adjusted
+lines, and to making the pages as nearly typographically perfect as
+possible. It is surprising how many glaring errors, which have eluded
+all readers up to this time, are discovered by the practised eye of
+the final proof-reader.</p>
+
+<p>The form having received this most careful final reading, the proof is
+passed back to the "stone-hands"&mdash;those who lock up and correct the
+forms&mdash;for final correction and adjustment, after which several more
+sets of proofs are taken, called "F"-proofs (variously and correctly
+understood as standing for "final," "file," or "foundry" proofs). A
+set of F-proofs is sent to the author to keep on file, occasionally
+one is sent to the publisher, and one set is always retained in the
+proof-room of the printing-office. These proofs are characterized by
+heavy black borders which enclose each page, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page048" name="page048"></a>(p. 048)</span>and which
+frequently render nervous authors apprehensive lest their books are to
+appear in this funereal livery. These black borders are the prints of
+the "guard-lines," which, rising to the level of the type, form a
+protection to the pages and the plates in their progress through the
+electrotyping department; but before the plates are finished up and
+made ready for the pressroom, the guard-lines, which have been moulded
+with the type, are removed.</p>
+
+<p>After several sets of F-proofs have been taken, the form is carried to
+the moulding or "battery" room of the electrotyping department, where
+it leaves its perfect impress in the receptive wax. Thence it will
+later be returned to the composing room and taken apart and the type
+distributed, soon to be again set up in new combinations of letters
+and words. The little types making a page of verse to-day may do duty
+to-morrow in a page of a text-book in the higher mathematics.</p>
+
+<p>After the type form has been warmed by placing it upon a steam table,
+an impression of it is taken in a composition resembling wax which is
+spread upon a metal slab to the thickness of about one-twelfth of an
+inch. Both the surface of the type and of the wax are thoroughly
+coated with plumbago or black lead, which serves as a lubricant to
+prevent the wax from adhering to the type.</p>
+
+<p>As the blank places in the form would not provide <span class="pagenum"><a id="page049" name="page049"></a>(p. 049)</span>sufficient
+depth in the plate, it is necessary to build them up in the wax mould
+by dropping more melted wax in such places to a height corresponding
+to the depth required in the plate, which is, of course, the reverse
+of the mould, and will show corresponding depressions wherever the
+mould has raised parts. If great care is not taken in this operation
+of "building-up," wax is apt to flow over into depressions in the
+mould, thereby effacing from it a part of the impression, and the
+plate appears later without the letters or words thus unintentionally
+blotted out. The reviser of the plate-proofs must watch carefully for
+such cases.</p>
+
+<p>The mould is now thoroughly brushed over again with a better quality
+of black lead than before, and this furnishes the necessary metallic
+surface without which the copper would not deposit. Then it is
+"stopped out" by going over its edges with a hot iron, which melts the
+wax, destroys the black-lead coating, and confines the deposit of
+copper to its face.</p>
+
+<p>After carefully clearing the face of the mould of all extraneous
+matter by a stream of water from a force-pump, it is washed with a
+solution of iron filings and blue vitriol which forms a primary copper
+facing. It is then suspended by a copper-connecting strip in a bath
+containing a solution of sulphate of copper, water, and sulphuric
+acid. Through the instrumentality of this solution, and the action of
+a current of electricity from a dynamo, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page050" name="page050"></a>(p. 050)</span>copper particles
+separate from sheets of copper (called "anodes," which are also
+suspended in the bath) and deposit into the face of the mould, thus
+exactly reproducing the elevations and depressions of the form of type
+or illustrations of which the mould is an impression. After remaining
+in the bath about two hours, when the deposit of copper should be
+about as thick as a visiting card, the mould is taken from the bath
+and the copper shell removed from the wax by pouring boiling hot water
+upon it. A further washing in hot lye, and a bath in an acid pickle,
+completely removes every vestige of wax from the shell. The back of
+the shell is now moistened with soldering fluid and covered with a
+layer of tin-foil, which acts as a solder between the copper and the
+later backing of lead.</p>
+
+<p>The shells are now placed face downward in a shallow pan, and melted
+lead is poured upon them until of a sufficient depth; then the whole
+mass is cooled off, and the solid lead plate with copper face is
+removed from the pan and carried to the finishing room, where it is
+planed down to a standard thickness of about one-seventh of an inch.
+The various pages in the cast are sawed apart, the guard-lines
+removed, side and foot edges bevelled, head edge trimmed square, and
+the open or blank parts of the plate lowered by a routing machine to a
+sufficient depth to prevent their showing later on the printed sheet.</p>
+
+<p>Then a proof taken from the plates is carefully <span class="pagenum"><a id="page051" name="page051"></a>(p. 051)</span>examined for
+imperfections, and the plates are corrected or repaired accordingly,
+and are now ready for the press.</p>
+
+<p>Although, owing to the expense and to the fact that the plate is more
+or less weakened thereby, it is desirable to avoid as much as possible
+making alterations in the plates, they can be made, and the following
+is the course generally pursued. If the change involves but a letter
+or two, the letters in the plate are cut out and new type letters are
+inserted; but if the alteration involves a whole word or more, it is
+inadvisable to insert the lead type, owing to its being softer and
+less durable than the copper-faced plate, and it will therefore soon
+show more wear than the rest of the page; and so it is customary to
+reset and electrotype so much of the page as is necessary to
+incorporate the proposed alteration, and then to substitute this part
+of the page for the part to be altered, by cutting out the old and
+soldering in the new piece, which must of course exactly correspond in
+size.</p>
+
+<p>As a patched plate is apt at any time to go to pieces on the press,
+and may destroy other plates around it, or may even damage the press
+itself, it is generally considered best to cast a new plate from the
+patched one. This does not, however, apply to plates in which only
+single letters or words have been inserted, but to those which have
+been cut apart their whole width for the insertion of one or more
+lines.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page052" name="page052"></a>(p. 052)</span>The plates having been finally approved, they are made up in
+groups (or "signatures") of sixteen, and packed in strong boxes for
+future storage. Each box generally contains three of these groups, or
+forty-eight plates, and is plainly marked with the title of the book
+and the numbers of the signatures contained therein.</p>
+
+<p>The longevity of good electrotype plates is dependent upon the care
+with which they are handled and the quality of paper printed from
+them; but with smooth book paper and good treatment it is entirely
+possible to print from them a half million impressions without their
+showing any great or material wear.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page053" name="page053"></a>(p. 053)</span>COMPOSITION BY THE LINOTYPE MACHINE<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Frederick J. Warburton</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The Linotype, pronounced by <span class="italic">London Engineering</span> "the most wonderful
+machine of the century," was not the product of a day. Its creator,
+whose early training had never touched the printer's art, was
+fortunately led to the study of that art, through the efforts of
+others, whose education had prepared them to look for a better method
+of producing print than that which had been in use since the days of
+Gutenberg; but his invention abolished at one stroke composition and
+distribution; introduced for the first time the line, instead of the
+letter, as the unit of composition; brought into the art the idea of
+automatically and instantly producing by a keyboard solid lines of
+composed and justified type, to be once used and then melted down;
+rendered it possible to secure for each issue new and sharp faces;
+abolished the usual investment for type; cheapened the cost of
+standing matter; removed all danger of "pieing," and at the same time
+reduced greatly the cost of composition. The story is an interesting
+one.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page054" name="page054"></a>(p. 054)</span>In the autumn of 1876, Charles T. Moore, a native of
+Virginia, exhibited to a company of Washington reporters a printing
+machine upon which he had been working for many years, and which he
+believed to be then substantially complete. It was a machine of very
+moderate dimensions, requiring a small motive power, and which bore
+upon a cylinder in successive rows the characters required for printed
+matter. By the manipulation of finger keys, while the cylinder was
+kept in continuous forward motion, the characters were printed in
+lithographic ink upon a paper ribbon, in proper relation to each
+other; this ribbon was afterwards cut into lengths, arranged in the
+form of a page, "justified," to a certain extent, by cutting between
+and separating the words, and then transferred to a lithographic
+stone, from which the print was made. Such print was not, of course,
+of the highest character, but it was a beginning; and the machines
+were used in Washington and New York, mainly in the transcription of
+stenographic notes taken in law cases and in the proceedings of
+legislative committees. A number of these machines was built, but
+mechanical difficulties became so frequent that the parties interested
+resolved, very wisely, before proceeding to build upon a large scale,
+to put the machine into the hands of a thorough mechanical expert, so
+that it might be tried out and a determination reached as to whether
+or not it was a commercially practical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page055" name="page055"></a>(p. 055)</span>one. At the head of
+the little company of men who nurtured this enterprise and contributed
+most largely by their labors and means to its development, were James
+O. Clephane, a well-known law and convention reporter, and Andrew
+Devine, then the Senate reporter of the Associated Press. In their
+search for an expert, a Baltimore manufacturer named Hahl, who had
+constructed some of these machines, was consulted, and upon his
+recommendation his cousin, Ottmar Mergenthaler, was selected to
+undertake the work, and thus the future inventor of the Linotype was
+discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Mergenthaler was born in 1854, in Würtemberg, Germany, had been a
+watchmaker, and at this time was employed upon the finer parts of the
+mechanical work done in Hahl's shop. The contract was that
+Mergenthaler was to give his services at a rate of wages considerably
+beyond what he was then receiving, and Hahl was to charge a reasonable
+price for the use of his shop and the cost of material. The task
+undertaken, however, proved to be a far larger one than had been
+anticipated, and the means of the promoters were exhausted long before
+the modifications and improvements continually presented had been
+worked out. The circle of contributors was therefore necessarily
+widened, and indeed that process went on for years, enough, could they
+have been foreseen, to have dismayed and disheartened those who were
+there "in the beginning." Mergenthaler and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page056" name="page056"></a>(p. 056)</span>Moore, assisted
+by the practical suggestions of Clephane and Devine, continued to work
+upon the problem for about two years, by which time the lithographic
+printing machine had become one which indented the characters in a
+papier-maché strip, and this being cut up and adjusted upon a flat
+surface in lines, the way was prepared for casting in type metal. The
+next step of importance was the production of the "bar indenting
+machine," a machine which carried a series of metal bars, bearing upon
+their edges male printing characters, the bars being provided with
+springs for "justifying" purposes. The papier-maché matrix lines
+resulting from pressure against the characters were secured upon a
+backing sheet, over this sheet was laid a gridiron frame containing a
+series of slots, and into these slots type metal was poured by hand to
+form slugs bearing the characters from which to print. This system was
+immediately followed by a machine which cast the slugs automatically,
+one line at a time, from the matrix sheets.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this work that Mergenthaler received the education which
+resulted in his great invention and in due time he presented his plans
+for a machine which was known as the "Band" machine. In this machine
+the characters required for printing were indented in the edges of a
+series of narrow brass bands, each band containing a full alphabet,
+and hanging, with spacers, side by side in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page057" name="page057"></a>(p. 057)</span>machine. The
+bands tapered in thickness from top to bottom, the characters being
+arranged upon them in the order of the width-space which they
+occupied. By touching the keys of a keyboard similar to a typewriter,
+the bands dropped successively, bringing the characters required into
+line at a given point; a casting mechanism was then brought in contact
+with this line of characters, molten metal forced against it through a
+mould of the proper dimensions, and a slug with a printing surface
+upon its face was thus formed. This was recognized as a great advance
+and was hailed with delight by the now largely increased company. The
+necessary funds were provided and the building of the new machine
+undertaken. But Mergenthaler continued active, and before a second of
+the "Band" machines could be built, he had devised a plan for dealing
+with the letters by means of independent matrices. These matrices were
+pieces of brass measuring 1-&frac14; inches by &frac34; of an inch and of the
+necessary thickness to accommodate the character, which it bore upon
+its edge in intaglio; they were stored in the newly devised machine in
+vertical copper tubes, from the bases of which they were drawn, as
+required, by a mechanism actuated by finger keys, caught by the "ears"
+as they dropped upon a miniature railway, and by a blast of air
+carried one by one to the assembling point. Wedge spacers being
+dropped in between the words, the line was carried to the front of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page058" name="page058"></a>(p. 058)</span>mould, where "justification" and casting took place.</p>
+
+<p>Success seemed at last to have been reached, and now the problem was,
+first, how to obtain means to build machines, and second, how to
+persuade printers to use them. The first of these was the easier,
+although no slight task; the second was one of great difficulty. The
+field for the machine then in sight was the newspaper, and the
+newspaper must appear daily. The old method of printing from founder's
+type, set for the most part by hand, was doing the work; a
+revolutionary method by which the type was to be made and set by
+machine, although promising great economies, was a dangerous
+innovation and one from which publishers naturally shrank. They could
+see the fate which awaited them if they adopted the new system and it
+proved unsuccessful. However, a number of newspaper men, after a
+careful investigation of the whole subject, determined to make the
+trial; and the leaders of these were Whitelaw Reid of the <span class="italic">New York
+Tribune</span>, Melvin Stone of the <span class="italic">Chicago News</span> (to whom succeeded Victor
+F. Lawson), and Walter N. Haldeman of the <span class="italic">Louisville Courier-Journal</span>.
+Into these offices, then, the Linotype went. To Mr. Reid belongs the
+honor of giving the machine a name&mdash;line of type&mdash;Linotype, and of
+first using it to print a daily newspaper. Of the machine last
+described, two hundred were built, but before they were half marketed,
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page059" name="page059"></a>(p. 059)</span>ingenious Mergenthaler presented a new form, which
+showed so great an advance that it was perforce adopted, and the
+machines then in use, although they gave excellent results, were in
+course of time displaced. The new machine did away with the air blast,
+the matrices being carried to the assembling point by gravity from
+magazines to be hereafter described, and the distributing elevator was
+displaced by an "arm" which lifted the lines of matrices, after the
+casting process, to the top of the machine to be returned to their
+places.</p>
+
+<p>The improvements made in the Linotype since Mergenthaler's time (who
+died in 1899 at the early age of forty-five) have been very great;
+indeed, almost a new machine has been created in doing what was
+necessary to adapt it to the more and more exacting work which it was
+called upon to perform in the offices of the great American book
+publishers. These improvements have been largely the work of, or the
+following out of suggestions made by, Philip T. Dodge, the patent
+attorney of the parties interested in the enterprise from the
+beginning, and later the president of the Mergenthaler Linotype
+Company. They went on year after year under the supervision of a corps
+of gifted mechanical experts, the chief of whom was John R. Rogers,
+the inventor of the Typograph, until from the machine of Mergenthaler,
+supplying through its ninety keys as many characters, a machine
+appeared yielding three hundred and sixty different <span class="pagenum"><a id="page060" name="page060"></a>(p. 060)</span>
+characters from the like keyboard. The magazines, too, were capable of
+being charged with matrices representing any face from Agate (5-point)
+to English (14-point), and even larger faces for display advertising
+and for initial letters, by special contrivances which cannot be
+described without carrying this article beyond reasonable limits.
+Among the ingenious devices added are: the Rogers systems of setting
+rule and figure tables, box heads, etc.; the reversal of the line so
+as to set Hebrew characters in their proper relation; the production
+of printers' rules of any pattern; the making of ornamental borders; a
+device for the casting of the same line an indefinite number of times
+from one setting. The machine was also greatly simplified in its
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of money expended in the enterprise before the point of
+profit was reached was very great; it aggregated many millions of
+dollars; but the promoters had faith in the success of the machine and
+taxed themselves ungrudgingly. Among those who contributed largely to
+the ultimate result by substantial aid and wise counsel in the conduct
+of the business the name of D. O. Mills should be particularly
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>It was Mergenthaler's great good fortune to have had as his supporters
+many men of the character of those mentioned above, and in thus being
+relieved of all financial anxiety and permitted to work out thoroughly
+and without delay every idea that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page061" name="page061"></a>(p. 061)</span>suggested itself either to
+him or to the ingenious men who had been drawn into the enterprise.
+His profits, too, were proportionate to the company's success, and
+although he did not live to enjoy them for his natural term of years,
+he had the satisfaction of knowing that a handsome income would
+continue to flow into the hands of his wife and children.</p>
+
+<p>The company's principal works are situated in the Borough of Brooklyn,
+New York City, and have a space devoted to manufacturing purposes of
+about one hundred and sixty thousand square feet. Approximately one
+hundred Linotypes, besides a large number of smaller machines and a
+vast quantity of supplies, are turned out from there every month; but
+the growing demand from abroad for American-built machines has led to
+the consideration of plans for an entirely new establishment, to be
+built in accordance with the latest modes of factory construction.
+About ten thousand Linotypes are now in daily use.</p>
+
+<p>The machine as at present built is shown in part by the accompanying
+cut, and its operation may be briefly described as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The Linotype machine contains, as its fundamental elements, several
+hundred single matrices, which consist of flat plates of brass having
+on one edge a female letter or matrix proper, and in the upper end a
+series of teeth, used for selecting and distributing them to their
+proper places in the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page062" name="page062"></a>(p. 062)</span>magazine. These matrices are held in
+the magazine of the machine, a channel of it being devoted to each
+separate character, and there are also channels which carry quads of
+definite thickness for use in tabular work, etc. The machine is so
+organized that on manipulating the finger keys, matrices are selected
+in the order in which their characters are to appear in print, and
+they are assembled in line side by side at the point marked <span class="italic">G</span> in the
+illustration, with wedge-shaped spaces between the words. This series
+of assembled matrices forms a line matrix, or, in other words, a line
+of female type adapted to form a line of raised printed characters on
+a slug which is cast against them. After the matrix line has been
+composed, it is automatically transferred to the face of a slotted
+mould, as shown at <span class="italic">K</span>, and while in this position the wedge spaces
+are pushed up through the line, and in this manner exact and
+instantaneous justification is secured. Behind the mould there is a
+melting pot, <span class="italic">M</span>, heated by a flame from a gas or oil burner, and
+containing a constant supply of molten metal. The pot has a perforated
+mouth which fits against and closes the rear side of the mould, and it
+contains a pump plunger mechanically actuated. After the matrix line
+is in place against the front of the mould, the plunger falls and
+forces the molten metal through the mouth pot into the mould, against
+and into the characters in the matrix line. The metal instantly
+solidifies, forming a slug <span class="pagenum"><a id="page063" name="page063"></a>(p. 063)</span>having on its edge raised
+characters formed by the matrices. The mould wheel next makes a
+partial revolution, turning the mould from its original horizontal
+position to a vertical one in front of an ejector blade, which,
+advancing from the rear through the mould, pushes the slug from the
+latter into the receiving galley at the front. A vibrating arm
+advances the slugs laterally in the galley, assembling them in column
+or page form ready for use. To insure absolute accuracy in the height
+and thickness of the slugs, knives are arranged to act upon the base
+and side faces as they are being carried toward the galley. After the
+matrices have served their purpose in front of the mould, they are
+shifted laterally until the teeth in their upper ends engage the
+horizontal ribs on the bar <span class="italic">R</span>; this bar then rises, as shown by the
+dotted lines, lifting the matrices to the distributor at the top of
+the machine, but leaving the wedge spacers, <span class="italic">I</span>, behind, to be shifted
+to their box, <span class="italic">H</span>. The teeth in the top of each matrix are arranged in
+a special order, according to the character it contains, the number or
+relation of its teeth differing from that of a matrix containing any
+other character, and this difference insures proper distribution. A
+distributor bar, <span class="italic">T</span>, is fixed horizontally over the upper end of the
+magazine and bears on its lower edge longitudinal ribs or teeth,
+adapted to engage the teeth of the matrices and hold the latter in
+suspension as they are carried along the bar over the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page064" name="page064"></a>(p. 064)</span>mouths
+of the magazine channels by means of screws which engage their edges.
+Each matrix remains in engagement with the bar until it arrives at the
+required point, directly over its own channel, and at this point for
+the first time its teeth bear such relation to those on the bar that
+it is permitted to disengage and fall into the channel. It is to be
+particularly noted that the matrices pursue a circulatory course
+through the machine, starting singly from the bottom of the magazine
+and passing thence to the line being composed, thence in the line to
+the mould, and finally back singly to the top of the magazine. This
+circulation permits the operations of composing one line, casting from
+a second, and distributing a third, to be carried on concurrently, and
+enables the machine to run at a speed exceeding that at which an
+operator can finger the keys. A change from one face of type to any
+other is effected by simply drawing off one magazine and substituting
+another containing the face required, so that the variety of faces
+needs to be limited only by the number of them which the printer
+chooses to carry in his stock.</p>
+
+<a id="img004" name="img004"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="150" height="303" alt="" title="">
+<p>A Linotype Matrix.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="p4">
+<a id="img005" name="img005"></a>
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img005.jpg" width="400" height="471" alt="" title=""><br>
+Diagram of the Linotype Machine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="p4">
+<a id="img006" name="img006"></a>
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img006.jpg" width="300" height="178" alt="" title=""><br>
+Linotype Slugs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="p4">
+<a id="img007" name="img007"></a>
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img007.jpg" width="400" height="366" alt="" title=""><br>
+The Linotype Melting Pot and Mold Wheel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Matrices are also made bearing two characters, as the ordinary body
+character and the corresponding italics, or a body character and a
+small capital or a black face, and either of these is brought into use
+as desired by the touching of a key, so that if, for instance, it is
+required to print a word in italics <span class="pagenum"><a id="page065" name="page065"></a>(p. 065)</span>or black face at any
+part of the line being composed, it is effected in this way, and
+composition in the body letter is resumed by releasing the key.</p>
+
+<p>The latest pattern of machine is supplied with two magazines,
+superimposed one above the other, each with its own distributing
+apparatus. The operator can elect, by moving a lever, from which
+magazine the letter wanted will fall&mdash;the same keyboard serving for
+both. It is thus possible to set two sizes of type from one machine,
+each matrix showing two characters as described above.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page066" name="page066"></a>(p. 066)</span>COMPOSITION BY THE MONOTYPE MACHINE<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Paul Nathan</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Though for more than half a century machines adapted for the setting
+of type have been in use, it is only within a few years that the
+average printer of books has been enabled to avail himself of the
+services of a mechanical substitute for the hand compositor. The fact
+seems to be that despite the ingenuity that was brought to bear upon
+the problem, the pioneer inventors were satisfied to obtain speed,
+with its resultant economy, at the expense of the quality of the
+finished product. Thus, until comparatively recently, machine
+composition was debarred from the establishments of the makers of fine
+books, and found its chief field of activity in the office of
+newspaper publishers and others to whom a technically perfect output
+was not essential so long as a distinct saving of time and labor could
+be assured. Thanks, however, to persistent effort on the part of those
+inventors who would not be satisfied until a machine was evolved which
+should equal in its output the work of the hand compositor, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page067" name="page067"></a>(p. 067)</span>problem has been triumphantly solved, and to-day the very
+finest examples of the printed book owe their being to the mechanical
+type-setter.</p>
+
+<p>The claim is made for one of these machines, the monotype, that, so
+far from lowering the standard of composition, its introduction into
+the offices of the leading book printers of the world has had the
+contrary effect, and that it is only the work of the most skilful hand
+compositor which can at every point be compared with that turned out
+by the machine. The fact that the type for some recent books of the
+very highest class, so-called "editions de luxe," has been cast and
+set by the monotype machine would seem to afford justification for
+this claim, extravagant as at first glance it may appear.</p>
+
+<p>The monotype machine is, to use a Hibernicism, two machines, which,
+though quite separate and unrelated, are yet mutually interdependent
+and necessary the one to the other. One of these is the composing
+machine, or keyboard, the other the caster, or type-founder. To begin
+with the former: this is in appearance not unlike a large typewriter
+standing upon an iron pedestal, the keyboard which forms its principal
+feature having two hundred and twenty-five keys corresponding to as
+many different characters. This keyboard is generally placed in some
+such position in the printing office as conduces to the health and
+comfort of the operator, for there is no more noise <span class="pagenum"><a id="page068" name="page068"></a>(p. 068)</span>or
+disagreeable consequence attendant on its operation than in the case
+of the familiar typewriter, which it so markedly resembles.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that the machines are interdependent; yet they are
+entirely independent as to time and place. The keyboard, as a matter
+of fact, acts as a sort of go-between betwixt the operator and the
+casting-machine, setting the latter the task it has to perform and
+indicating to it the precise manner of its performance. A roll of
+paper, which as the keyboard is operated continuously unwinds and is
+rewound, forms the actual means of communication between the two
+machines. The operator, as he (or she, for in increasing numbers women
+are being trained as monotype operators) sits facing the keyboard, has
+before him, conveniently hanging from an adjustable arm, the "copy"
+that has to be set in type. As he reads it he manipulates the keys
+precisely as does an operator on a typewriter, but each key as it is
+depressed, in place of writing a letter, punches certain round holes
+in the roll of paper. Enough keys are depressed to form a word, then
+one is touched to form a space, and so on until just before the end of
+the line is reached (the length of this line, or the "measure," as it
+is termed, has at the outset been determined upon by the setting of an
+indicator) a bell rings, and the operator knows that he must prepare
+to finish the line with a completed word or syllable and then proceed
+to justify it. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page069" name="page069"></a>(p. 069)</span>"Justification," as it is termed, is
+perhaps the most difficult function of either the hand or the machine
+compositor. On the deftness with which this function is discharged
+depends almost entirely the typographic excellence of the printed
+page. To justify is to so increase the distance between the words by
+the introduction of type-metal "spaces" as to enable the characters to
+exactly fill the line. To make these spaces as nearly equal as
+possible is the aim of every good printer, and in proportion as he
+succeeds in his endeavor the printed page will please the eye and be
+free from those irregularities of "white space," which detract from
+its legibility as well as from its artistic appearance.</p>
+
+<a id="img008" name="img008"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img008.jpg" width="300" height="546" alt="" title="">
+<p>The Monotype Keyboard.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="p4">
+<a id="img009" name="img009"></a>
+<p class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img009.jpg" width="300" height="492" alt="" title=""><br>
+The Monotype Caster.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the monotype should not only "justify" each line automatically,
+but justify with a mathematical exactness impossible of attainment by
+the more or less rough-and-ready methods of the most careful human
+type-setter is at first thought a little bewildering. The fact
+remains, however, that it does so, and another triumph is to be
+recorded for man's "instruments of precision."</p>
+
+<p>Monotype justification is effected as follows: an ingenious
+registering device waits, as it were, on all the movements of the
+operator, with the result that when he has approached as close to the
+end of the line as he dare go, he has merely to glance at a
+cylindrical dial in front of him. The pointer on this dial signifies
+to him which of the "justifying keys" he must depress. He touches
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page070" name="page070"></a>(p. 070)</span>them in accordance therewith, and the line is justified, or
+rather it <span class="italic">will</span> be justified when, as will be seen later on, the
+casting machine takes up its part of the work. That is the outward
+manifestation; it remains to be seen in what manner the machine
+accomplishes its task. Firstly, the machine automatically notes the
+exact width of the space left over at the line's end; then, also
+automatically, it records the number of spaces between the words
+already set which form the incompleted line; finally, it divides the
+residuary space into as many parts as there are word-spaces, and
+allots to each of these one of the parts. Thus if there is one-tenth
+of an inch to spare at the end of the line and ten word-spaces, then
+one-hundredth of an inch added to each of these spaces will justify
+the line with mathematical accuracy. But the machine will do something
+more wonderful than this. It will separately justify separate parts of
+the same line. The utility of this is comprehended when it is pointed
+out that when the "copy" to be set consists of what is technically
+termed "tabular" matter, the various columns of figures or so forth
+composing it are not composed vertically but horizontally and so each
+section must of necessity be justified separately.</p>
+
+<p>Should the compositor be required to "over-run illustrations," as the
+term goes, in other words to leave a space in which the "block" for a
+cut may be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page071" name="page071"></a>(p. 071)</span>inserted, so that it may have type all around it
+or on one side of it only, the machine offers no difficulty at all.
+All that the operator has to do in this case is to carry the
+composition of each line as far as necessary and then complete it with
+a row of "quads," or spaces. Thus, when the composition is cast by the
+casting-machine the space into which the block is to fit is occupied
+by a square of "quads." These have only to be lifted out, the block
+inserted, and the trick is done.</p>
+
+<p>We will then imagine that the operator has finished his task. Of the
+bank of two hundred and twenty-five keys in front of him (the
+equivalent of a full "font" of type, with figures, italics, and
+symbols complete), he has depressed in turn those necessary to spell
+out the words of his copy, he has put a space between the words he has
+justified in accordance with the dictates of the justifying dial, has
+arranged the spaces for the insertion of blocks or illustrations, and
+as the result of his labors he has merely a roll of perforated paper
+not unlike that which operates the now familiar pianola or
+piano-player. Yet this roll of paper is the informing spirit, as it
+were, of the machine. Its production is the only portion of the work
+of the monotype for which a human directing agency is necessary, every
+other function being purely automatic.</p>
+
+<p>The roll of perforated ribbon is lifted off the keyboard and put in
+place on the casting-and setting-machine. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page072" name="page072"></a>(p. 072)</span>As it is swiftly
+unwound it delivers to the casting-machine the message with which the
+operator has charged it. Through the perforations he has made
+compressed air is forced. Now, as has been explained, the holes
+correspond to the characters or typographic symbols of the "copy," and
+the jet of air forced through them sets in motion the machinery, which
+controls what is known as the "matrix-case," a rectangular metal frame
+about five inches square, which contains two hundred and twenty-five
+matrices, or little blocks of hardened copper, each one of which is a
+mould corresponding to a character on the keyboard. This frame is
+mounted horizontally on a slide, which by an ingenious mechanical
+movement brings any one of the two hundred and twenty-five matrices
+over what is termed the mould. The particular matrix thus placed in
+position is determined by those particular holes punched in the paper
+ribbon at the keyboard, through which the compressed air is at that
+precise moment being forced.</p>
+
+<p>The mould referred to is closed by the matrix, a jet of molten metal
+is forced in, and in an instant the type is cast, its face being
+formed by the matrix, its body or shank by the mould. The cast type is
+ejected and takes its place in the galley, to be followed by another
+and that by yet others in their regular rotation. It must, however, be
+pointed out that the composition emerges from <span class="pagenum"><a id="page073" name="page073"></a>(p. 073)</span>the machine
+hind part foremost and upside down as it were. This enables the
+justification holes, which were originally punched at the <span class="italic">end</span> and
+not at the beginning of each line, to direct the proper casting of the
+spaces in the lines to which they correspond.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen, therefore, that the casting portion of the monotype
+machine is actually automatic. It performs all its operations without
+human assistance or direction. Occasionally it will stop of its own
+accord and refuse to work, but this merely means that it has found
+something amiss with the perforated instructions, a mistake as to the
+length of a line or so forth, and it refuses to continue until the
+workman in charge of it puts the error right, then it starts on again
+and continues on its even course, casting letters and spaces and
+punctuation marks, and arranging them first in words, then in lines,
+next in paragraphs, and finally in a column on the galley.</p>
+
+<p>The casting-machine works at so high a rate of speed (casting from one
+hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty characters per minute) that
+it can in its output keep well ahead of the operator on the keyboard.
+This, however, so far from being an inconvenience or leading to any
+loss of time, is an advantage, for four casting-machines, which can
+easily be looked after by one man and a boy, can cope with the work of
+five keyboard operators, or if all are engaged on the same character
+of composition <span class="pagenum"><a id="page074" name="page074"></a>(p. 074)</span>two casters can attend to the output of three
+keyboards. This suggests a reference to the facilities offered by the
+machine for the production of matter composed in various faces of
+type. The machine casts practically all sizes in general use from
+five-point, or "pearl," to fourteen point, or "English." Owing to the
+number of characters included in the matrix-case, it can at the same
+time set upper and lower case, small capitals, and upper and lower
+case italics, or any similar combination of two or even three
+different faced alphabets. To change from one complete set of matrices
+to another is a simple operation, performed in about a minute of time,
+while the changing of mould, which insures a corresponding change in
+the size of the "body" of the type, takes about ten minutes.</p>
+
+<p>To return, however, to the perforated roll of paper, which it must be
+imagined has passed entirely through the casting-machine and has been
+automatically re-rolled. Its present function has come to an end, and
+it is now lifted out of its position on the machine and placed away
+for future reference in a drawer or cabinet. This is a by no means
+unimportant feature of the Monotype, for it is thus no longer
+necessary to preserve the heavy, cumbrous, and expensive "plates" of a
+book in anticipation of a second edition being called for at some
+future time. As a matter of fact, indeed, "plates," or electrotypes of
+monotyped matter, are by no means a necessity. Many <span class="pagenum"><a id="page075" name="page075"></a>(p. 075)</span>thousand
+impressions can with safety be printed from the types themselves, and
+these latter at the conclusion of the job can be remelted and new type
+cast from the resultant metal. The paper rolls, occupying but a few
+square inches of space, can be kept, and when the time arrives may be
+passed through the casting-machine again, to supply a new printing
+surface identical in every respect with the original.</p>
+
+<p>But the galley of monotyped composition has been waiting during this
+digression. It is lifted off the machine by the attendant and a rough
+proof pulled, which is corrected by the proof-reader. The advantage of
+the individual types is then apparent, for the composition is
+corrected and otherwise handled precisely as would be the case had the
+matter been set entirely by hand. Indeed, the operation consumes even
+less time, for the discarded characters, instead of being placed back
+carefully in their proper compartments in the case for future use, are
+merely thrown aside by the corrector, to find their way eventually
+into the melting pot. It may be added, however, that the Monotype
+itself furnishes the types used in the correction of its
+matter&mdash;"sorts," as they are termed by the printer. These are cast by
+the machine during the times when it is not employed upon more
+important work.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, an attachment has recently been added to the machine, whereby
+its use as a type-caster <span class="pagenum"><a id="page076" name="page076"></a>(p. 076)</span>is still further extended. As has
+been mentioned, the machine casts and composes type of any sized face,
+from five to fourteen point. With, however, the attachment referred
+to, it can now cast for the use of the hand compositor complete fonts
+of type up to and including thirty-six point in size, so that an
+entire book, title-page included, nowadays often owes its
+typographical "dress" to the ingenious machine known as "The Lanston
+Monotype."<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page077" name="page077"></a>(p. 077)</span>PROOF-READING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By George L. Miller</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>When part of a book has been set up in type, in what is called "galley
+form," an impression is taken, technically known as "first proof," and
+this proof is handed to the proof-reader. This long-suffering
+individual lives in a chronic state of warfare with the compositors on
+the one hand and the author on the other. His first duty is to see
+that the proof agrees with the author's manuscript, that nothing has
+been omitted, and nothing inserted that is not in the copy. He must
+see, further, that the spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar,
+and so forth, are correct, and the book set according to the "style"
+ordered. He first of all, therefore, compares the proof with the
+manuscript, or an assistant reads the manuscript aloud, the
+proof-reader listening intently for any variation from the proof
+before him and marking any errors he may find.</p>
+
+<p>Now this seems easy enough, and if every author prepared his copy
+carefully, so that there could be no possible mistake as to his
+meaning, nothing would be easier; but in practice a number of
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page078" name="page078"></a>(p. 078)</span>questions arise which would never be thought of by an
+outsider. On a new work being put in hand, some half-dozen compositors
+are given a few sheets of copy apiece, and if the proof-reader happens
+to be readily accessible he is bombarded within the first half-hour or
+so with, "How am I to spell centre?" "Has travelling one or two l's?"
+"Shall I capitalize the word State?" "Shall I spell out two hundred?"
+"Do you want ships' names in Italic?" and so on and so on. As to
+punctuation, every compositor thinks he knows better than proof-reader
+and author combined and follows his own sweet will. As every error on
+the first proof must be corrected by the compositor at his own
+expense, here arises the cause of war mentioned in our opening
+paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written about printers' errors and the mistakes of "the
+intelligent compositor." Aside from those caused by illegible
+manuscript, mistakes arise from faulty "distribution," that is to say,
+the type has been thrown into the wrong boxes. Thus we get <span class="italic">c</span> for
+<span class="italic">e</span>, <span class="italic">h</span> for <span class="italic">n</span>, <span class="italic">y</span> for <span class="italic">p</span>, etc., these boxes being contiguous and
+the letters of the same thickness; if, for instance, the compositor
+picked up <span class="italic">u</span> instead of <span class="italic">t</span> the difference in thickness would at once
+be noticed by him and the mistake rectified. Then letters are
+sometimes set upside down and we find letters of a different "face"
+which have got into the case by mistake. In type set on machine,
+errors arise from striking <span class="pagenum"><a id="page079" name="page079"></a>(p. 079)</span>adjacent keys, or some matrix
+will stick in the channel and make its appearance later, sometimes
+even in the next line. But the chief source of error is illegible or
+carelessly prepared manuscript, and to the author's slips of the pen
+must be added in these days the slips of the typewriter.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible for a man to be an expert in astronomy, medicine,
+or natural history and yet have hazy ideas on spelling and
+punctuation. "When in doubt use a dash" is an old standing joke, but
+some authors use dashes all the time, making them do duty for commas,
+semicolons, and periods. They will write indifferently 4 or four and
+frequently their capital <span class="italic">a</span>'s <span class="italic">c</span>'s, <span class="italic">m</span>'s, and <span class="italic">n</span>'s cannot be
+distinguished from the small letters. They will commence a story
+telling that the "Captain" did so and so, and lo, on the next page the
+"captain" sinks into a common noun; and so with "Father," "mother,"
+"Aunt," "uncle," etc. Just see what the story would look like if set
+according to copy!</p>
+
+<p>Now the proof-reader is expected to rectify all this, thereby drawing
+on his head the wrath of the compositor, who says "he followed the
+copy," and occasionally incurring the wrath of the author as well for
+departing therefrom. Sometimes instructions are given that the
+author's spelling, punctuation, etc., are to be carefully followed,
+when of course no question can arise; and the proof-reader will query
+on the proof submitted to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page080" name="page080"></a>(p. 080)</span>the author anything which does not
+seem to him to be correct.</p>
+
+<p>The great newspapers and magazines have what they call a "style sheet"
+for the guidance of their compositors and proof-readers and insist on
+its being faithfully followed. Only by this means could uniformity in
+the appearance of the paper be secured. In this style sheet careful
+and minute directions are given for the use of capital letters, the
+use of Italic, spelling out of numbers, compound words, etc. In the
+Government printing-office in Washington they have a style book of
+some two hundred pages. Some book printing-offices have what they call
+"the style of the office," which will be followed if no instructions
+are received from the author to the contrary, while some publishing
+houses with connections in England insist on English spelling being
+followed in all their books, as books with American spelling will not
+sell over there.</p>
+
+<p>Here is an outline of an "office style":&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Spell and divide words according to Webster's dictionary.</p>
+
+<p>"Capitalize President and all Secretaries of State, Senator,
+Congressman, Governor, Government (of U.S. or other country), King,
+Emperor, Republican (and all political parties), all pronouns relating
+to the Deity, Legislature, State, Nation, Street, Avenue, (Hudson)
+River.</p>
+
+<p>"Use small capitals for <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, <span class="smcap">A.D.</span>, <span class="smcap">A.M.</span>, and <span class="smcap">P.M.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page081" name="page081"></a>(p. 081)</span>"Use Italics for names of ships, names of characters in
+plays, names of newspapers and magazines, and all foreign words.</p>
+
+<p>"Use quotation marks for names of books.</p>
+
+<p>"Spell out all numbers under 100.</p>
+
+<p>"Compound co-operate, to-day, to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>"Use period after per cent., and Roman numerals I. VI., etc.</p>
+
+<p>"Bible references in this style: 2 Kings vii. 29.</p>
+
+<p>"All poetical quotations to be in smaller type than text."</p>
+
+<p>Now, some authors will not accept the above style and insist on one
+entirely different. Many will accept Webster's spelling but draw the
+line at <span class="italic">theater</span>, which they want spelt <span class="italic">theatre</span>, and balk at
+<span class="italic">skillfully</span> and <span class="italic">skillful</span> or <span class="italic">installment</span>. They will order spelling
+according to the Standard Dictionary, yet will not accept <span class="italic">sulfur</span>,
+<span class="italic">rime</span>, or <span class="italic">worshiping</span>. One man wants all his numbers in figures, and
+another does not like compound words. Still another abhors dashes or
+colons, or quotation marks, and yet another will not have Italic type
+used in his work.</p>
+
+<p>So it frequently happens that a proof-reader will have passing through
+his hands three or four books in entirely different styles, each of
+which he must bear in mind and conform to if he would avoid trouble.
+But whatever style be adopted, it is essential that it be strictly
+adhered to throughout the work; therefore in large printing-offices
+where <span class="pagenum"><a id="page082" name="page082"></a>(p. 082)</span>there are many proof-readers care is always taken
+that, however many compositors may be engaged in setting up the work,
+the same reader handles it from start to finish.</p>
+
+<p>If the proof-reader finds any passages whose meaning is not clear, or
+sentences of faulty construction, he will call the author's attention
+thereto. He will also call attention to Biblical or poetical
+quotations which he may know to be incorrect. Many authors will quote
+Scripture or poetry from memory, which is found to vary in many
+respects from the original on verification. And then they complain
+because "the printer did not set it up right,"&mdash;when they are charged
+for corrections. But why should the compositor bear the expense of
+correction&mdash;or the master-printer for that matter&mdash;when the copy was
+clearly wrong in the first instance? A moment's thought will show the
+injustice of such a procedure.</p>
+
+<p>From what we have said may be seen the importance of the reading of
+"first proof." Many offices have the proofs read twice, first without
+referring to the copy, when the more glaring errors may be corrected
+at leisure, and then again carefully read by copy. The proofs are then
+returned to the compositors for correction, each man correcting the
+portion he set up.</p>
+
+<p>A second proof is now taken which is put in the hands of another
+proof-reader (or "reviser") for revision. His business is to see that
+the corrections <span class="pagenum"><a id="page083" name="page083"></a>(p. 083)</span>of the first reader have all been duly made.
+Should he find any palpable errors that have been overlooked by the
+first reader, he will call his attention thereto and on approval mark
+them. It may be necessary to return the proofs again to the
+compositors for correction, and even a third time. When found to be
+what is called "clean," they are sent to the author (usually in
+duplicate) along with the copy.</p>
+
+<p>And now the author sees himself in print, perhaps for the first time.
+He will notice that his work presents a different appearance from what
+it did in manuscript. Here and there a passage can be improved, a
+phrase polished, an idea amplified&mdash;the same man will think
+differently at different times; and lo, here, the stupid printer has
+made him speak of a marine landscape when he wrote Maine landscape!
+(That proof-reader must be disciplined.) And here a sentence has been
+left out which he wrote on the back of his copy and has been skipped
+by compositor, copy-holder, proof-reader, and reviser alike! Then the
+queries of the proof-reader must be answered, and a few commas here
+and there would improve things,&mdash;and so he proceeds to mark up his
+proofs, for all of which corrections he has to pay at so much per
+hour&mdash;second cause of war.</p>
+
+<p>The proofs are now returned to the printer and corrected, and a revise
+(after passing through the proof-reader's hands) sent to the author,
+which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page084" name="page084"></a>(p. 084)</span>process may be repeated <span class="italic">ad infinitum</span>, until the
+author gives the order to make up into pages.</p>
+
+<p>The type is now handed over to the "make-up," and inasmuch as his work
+must be carefully revised by the proof-reader, we may describe it
+here. Having first of all made a gauge showing the size of the
+page&mdash;supposing the page to be seven inches deep, he will cut a notch
+in a thin piece of wood showing that size&mdash;he must "cast off" or
+estimate how the pages are going to "break." There must not be any
+short lines, or "widows" as the printers call them,&mdash;that is, the
+concluding lines of paragraphs which are not full length,&mdash;at the
+heads of pages. The first line of a paragraph should not appear at the
+bottom of a page (but this rule is more honored in the breach than the
+observance), and the concluding page of a chapter should not be less
+than one-quarter page in length. These difficulties are avoided by
+"saving" a line here and there,&mdash;that is, where the last line of a
+paragraph consists of only one or two words, in squeezing them into
+the line above, or by "making" lines, which is accomplished by
+spreading long lines out and driving one or two words over. Any line
+containing one word only at the end of a paragraph ought to overlap
+the indention of the first line of the next paragraph. Such a word as
+"is" or "it" will not do so and should be turned back to the line
+above. Then again, where cuts or illustrations are inserted in the
+text <span class="pagenum"><a id="page085" name="page085"></a>(p. 085)</span>a page will sometimes break in the middle of a cut,
+which, as Euclid says, is impossible, therefore the cut must be moved,
+sometimes necessitating slight alterations in the text, <span class="italic">e.g.</span> "The
+following illustration" must be altered to "The illustration on the
+next page," or "The illustration above," as the case may be. And here
+we may remark that all cuts or illustrations should be made and
+furnished to the printer in time to be inserted in the first proof.
+The writer calls to mind an instance where the cuts arrived after the
+whole book had been made up into pages, necessitating a re-make-up at
+considerable expense.</p>
+
+<p>Proofs of the pages being furnished to the proof-reader, he first of
+all compares them with the author's last galley proof to see that
+nothing has been omitted (frequently lines fall off the ends of
+galleys), that they are in due sequence and "join up," and that the
+author's last corrections have been made. He then sees to the
+pagination, the running heads at top of each page, and sees that the
+foot-notes have been inserted in the pages where they belong and
+verifies the reference marks. The author will probably have used the *
+&#8224; &#8225; § and they
+will have been so set up, as they appeared on each page of the
+original manuscript. But when in type and made up into pages they will
+probably fall differently, the note bearing the § mark may come on the
+following page and of course must be altered to an *, a corresponding
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page086" name="page086"></a>(p. 086)</span>change being made in the text. A much better plan is to
+number foot-notes 1, 2, 3 and so on, when no alteration on making-up
+will be required.</p>
+
+<p>The proof-reader must also look after the "widows" and other matters
+before mentioned. If the book is set in linotype, the make-up will
+have been unable to make these changes. He will simply allow the
+proper space and the changes required will be marked by the
+proof-reader and a number of pages corrected at a time. This is a
+point of economy.</p>
+
+<p>All corrections having been made and revised, proofs are submitted to
+the author for his final approval. The author may find it advisable to
+make alterations even after his book is made up into pages,
+necessitating further revises; but everything finally being in order,
+he gives the order to print or to electrotype.</p>
+
+<p>If the pages are to be electrotyped or made into plates, they are
+"locked up" in an iron frame called a "chase," two or four together,
+and proofs are given to the proof-reader for a final reading.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is to be printed from the type, the pages are "imposed" in
+sheets of eight, sixteen, or thirty-two, so arranged that the folios
+will be in order when the sheet is folded up. They now make what is
+called a "form," and a proof of this&mdash;known as the "stone proof"&mdash;is
+taken for final reading.</p>
+
+<p>The proof-reader now reads the work all through, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page087" name="page087"></a>(p. 087)</span>looking
+carefully to the spelling, punctuation, and grammar, as in reading
+"first proof," and more especially looking out for bad or imperfect
+letters. If many corrections have been made, the type is very apt to
+be broken and the spacing between words to become irregular. All
+imperfect letters must be replaced and bad spacing rectified. Then
+again, commas, hyphens, periods, and thin letters, such as <span class="italic">l</span>, <span class="italic">f</span>,
+or <span class="italic">t</span>, are apt to slip out of place at the ends of lines. And here a
+serious source of error may be mentioned which can be found out only
+by reading the whole page over. In type set on the linotype machine
+every line is one solid piece of metal. Any correction to be made
+involves resetting the whole line. Now the compositor in inserting the
+new line is very apt to take out a line <span class="italic">beginning with the same
+word</span>, replacing it with the new one, thus making a very serious
+blunder, and of course the proof-reader or author who sees the next
+proof has no intimation that the wrong line has been tampered with. On
+reading the page over, however, it will be noticed that something is
+wrong, previous proofs can be referred to, and the mistake rectified.</p>
+
+<p>The proofs having been finally read, revised, and marked O. K., the
+pages are sent to the foundry or to press, as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>But the proof-reader has not done with them yet. If the book is
+electrotyped, the plates may turn out faulty; sometimes the type will
+sink in places <span class="pagenum"><a id="page088" name="page088"></a>(p. 088)</span>under the enormous pressure applied in
+moulding. It is therefore highly advisable that proofs should be taken
+of the plates and gone over for imperfections; this may save valuable
+time later when the book is on the press. Some authors don't mind the
+expense of making changes in their work even after the pages are cast.</p>
+
+<p>The proof-reader only takes leave of the book when it is on the press
+and all is ready to go ahead and print. A sheet is submitted to him
+which he must <span class="italic">visé</span> for bad letters, see that nothing has fallen out
+in transit to the pressroom, and that the pressman has not taken out
+any cuts to underlay and reinserted them upside down. He will also
+verify the folios again (if the book is printed from plates this will
+be the first opportunity of doing so) and see that the pages join up
+to what has gone before. Here his work ends.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page089" name="page089"></a>(p. 089)</span>PAPER MAKING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Herbert W. Mason</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The word "paper" derives its name from the ancient Greek word
+"papyrus," the name of the material used in ancient times for writing
+purposes, and manufactured by the Egyptians from the papyrus plant,
+and which was, up to the eighth century, the best-known writing
+material. Probably the earliest manufacturers of paper were the
+Chinese, who used the mulberry tree and other like plants for this
+purpose, and may be called the inventors of our modern paper
+manufacturing, as they have practised the art of paper making for
+almost two thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>In the ordinary book papers of to-day the materials used are largely
+rags and wood fibres. "Esparto," a Spanish grass, is used in England
+to a great extent, but it is too expensive to import to this country,
+and is, therefore, not used here. Many other materials could be used
+to advantage, such as "bagasse," the waste material of sugar cane, and
+corn stalks, both of which make good book paper; also hemp, wild
+clover, and other plants which have a good fibre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page090" name="page090"></a>(p. 090)</span>Only two kinds of rags are used, linen and cotton, of both of
+which there are several grades. Linen rags make a very strong paper,
+and are mostly used in manufacturing fine writing papers, ledgers, and
+covers for books where strength is necessary. Cotton rags may be
+divided into three distinct kinds, whites, blues, and colors, and
+these in turn are subdivided into several grades. Most of the blue
+rags are now imported from Germany, Belgium, and France; none from
+Japan as formerly. The whites and colors are bought in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Wood fibres are divided into two classes, the harder woods, such as
+spruce, fir, etc., and the softer, such as poplar, cottonwood, etc.
+There are three ways of reducing or disintegrating wood fibres: first,
+by sulphurous acid or bi-sulphite of lime fumes, which gives the name
+"sulphite fibre"; second, by caustic soda, which is called "soda
+fibre"; and third, by grinding. The last is usually only used for
+stock in very low grades of paper, such as newspaper and wrapping
+paper; it is rarely used for book paper. Many persons think that this
+ground wood, which is merely spruce ground very fine into pulp, is
+used in book papers; but if it were, the paper would not last long,
+and would almost immediately discolor on exposure to light and air.
+There is a theory that no paper made from wood fibres is lasting, and
+that therefore high grades of paper for fine books should be made
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page091" name="page091"></a>(p. 091)</span>only of rags, but this is erroneous, for wood stock and rag
+stock nowadays are treated and prepared in the same way, and only
+practically pure cellulose matter goes into the paper. It would be a
+different matter, however, if <span class="italic">ground</span> wood were used for fine papers,
+for in this stock the cellulose matter is not separated.</p>
+
+<p>Rags are usually purchased by the paper manufacturer in solid bales,
+which have been graded into whites, blues, or colors. After being
+opened, they are thrown into a thrashing machine, which thrashes and
+shakes out the greater part of the loose dust and dirt. Later, they
+are sorted more carefully by hand into several grades, according to
+their colors and cleanliness. All the woollens, gunny, buttons, hooks
+and eyes, silks, and foreign materials are thrown aside. As the rags
+are usually too large to be thrown into the boilers to be cooked, they
+are cut into very small pieces by means of sharp revolving knives, to
+which they are fed rapidly from an endless belt. When cut, they are
+packed into a revolving kettle or boiler, called a "rotary," and
+cooked with caustic soda and lime for several hours, to disintegrate
+the fibres, separate the cellulose matter, and "start" the colors. The
+rags, after coming out of the boiler, look very dark, and are all
+mashed together. They are then thrown into a tub of water and revolved
+horizontally by means of a large wheel fitted with radial knives,
+which tear and bruise them while <span class="pagenum"><a id="page092" name="page092"></a>(p. 092)</span>water continually runs in
+and out, carrying away the dirt. In a few hours the rags look much
+cleaner, and a small amount of chlorate of lime and sulphuric acid is
+run in to bleach them white. After having been thoroughly stirred for
+a while, the stock is run into what is called a drainer, where it is
+allowed to stand for several hours to drain off as much water as
+possible. Liquid chloride of lime, which is used for bleaching, and
+sulphuric acid is then run over the fibre, which in turn is drained
+and washed off again. By this time the pulp is white enough to be sent
+to the beaters, to be prepared for the paper machines, and is called
+"half-stock."</p>
+
+<p>Wood fibres for book papers are usually treated in the same general
+way as rags. First, the logs are peeled and are cut into suitable
+lengths to be thrown into a wood chopper and cut up in very small
+pieces. If the wood is treated by sulphurous acid or bi-sulphite of
+lime fumes, it is called the "sulphite process"; if by caustic soda,
+the "soda process." This wood is cooked in large upright kettles
+called "digesters." In one case the sulphite fumes are allowed to
+permeate through the wood under a high pressure, and in the other the
+caustic soda is put in "straight," and the wood is cooked under a high
+pressure of steam. This is done to dissolve out all the gum and
+resins, in order to leave the pure cellulose matter. After the cooking
+is done, the stock has to be bleached in very <span class="pagenum"><a id="page093" name="page093"></a>(p. 093)</span>much the same
+way as the rags and washed thoroughly before it is ready for the
+"beaters."</p>
+
+<p>For "beating," the stock is thrown into a large revolving tub. Rag and
+wood fibre may be mixed in different proportions, according to the
+grade of the paper wanted. The stock is then washed a little to be
+sure that it is clean and white. Water at first is mixed in with the
+fibre until it is so diluted that it will flow freely; then it is
+beaten for several hours by means of an iron wheel covered with iron
+or steel knives about one-quarter of an inch thick, which revolves
+over an iron bed-plate with similar knives. During this beating
+process, clay is mixed with the stock, mainly to give the paper a
+well-filled and better appearance, and not, as most people think, to
+add weight, although this is sometimes an object. Sizing material is
+also added, which helps to keep the fibres together and hold the ink
+in printing. If it is desired to give the paper a white shade, a small
+amount of aniline blue or pink is mixed in; otherwise it is called
+"natural" or "unblued."</p>
+
+<p>The beating part of the process of paper making is the most important.
+The stock has to be beaten up so that all the fibres are separated and
+broken into just the right lengths according to the weight and
+strength of the paper to be made. The harder the roll is set down on
+the bed plate, the shorter the fibre will be and <span class="italic">vice versa</span>, but if
+the roll is not put down hard, the stock has to be beaten so much
+longer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page094" name="page094"></a>(p. 094)</span>"Machining" may be divided into five processes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">First.</span> When the stock leaves the beater it is run into a large
+"stuff" chest, and is continually being stirred so that it will not be
+lumpy. By this time the pulp is about as clean as possible and is
+ready for the paper machines. The first thing to be done on the
+machine is to dilute the stock with pure water to the consistency of
+buttermilk, according to the thickness of the paper required. Then
+this liquid stock runs through what are called "sand settlers," which
+are supposed to collect what dirt, iron, etc., remain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Second.</span> From the sand settlers the stock runs on to a screen,
+through which it is drawn by means of suction. This process prevents
+fibres which are lumpy and too long from getting on to the machine,
+and allows only those of a certain size and length to go forward to be
+made into paper. An endless and very fine wire cloth, which is
+continually moving at the same rate of speed as the rest of the paper
+machine, takes the stock after it has been screened. This is the first
+step toward making the material into actual paper. Thick rubber straps
+on each side of the wire determine the width of the paper. This wire
+shakes a little in order to weave the fibres together while in a state
+of suspension. At this period the stock looks like thick cream, but
+soon changes its appearance to the form of a sheet more or less solid
+on coming to the end <span class="pagenum"><a id="page095" name="page095"></a>(p. 095)</span>of the wire, where there is what is
+called a "dandy,"&mdash;a roll covered with similar wire cloth pressing
+lightly on the paper as it runs along the wire. Designs in relief on
+the surface of this roll produce the well-known marks called "water
+marks." Just beyond the "dandy," underneath the wire, is a suction box
+which draws enough of the water out so that the paper can go through
+the "couch" roll at the end of the wire without being crumbled.</p>
+
+<a id="img010" name="img010"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img010.jpg" width="600" height="337" alt="" title="">
+<p>Cross-section of a Paper Machine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Third.</span> The couch roll is a small hard roll covered with a thick felt
+called a "jacket," and is used on the paper machine to prevent the
+paper from being crushed, for it presses out much of the water and
+flattens the paper so that it will pass from the wire to the felts
+without breaking and through the press rolls without crushing. From
+this couch roll the paper leaves the wire and is carried along on an
+endless woollen felt to the press rolls, which are made of hard
+rubber, steel, or brass. These rolls press the fibres together well,
+squeezing out more of the water and flattening the sheet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="italic">Fourth.</span> From the press felts the paper is carried to the "dryer
+felts," which in turn carry the paper to the "dryers," which revolve
+and by means of the felt carry the paper along to the next dryer, and
+so on. The dryers are hollow iron or steel cylinders, heated by means
+of the exhaust steam from the engines which run the machine. More or
+less steam is allowed to run into the dryers, according to the quality
+of paper being made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page096" name="page096"></a>(p. 096)</span><span class="italic">Fifth.</span> As soon as the paper has been carried over all the
+dryers, during which time it becomes, perfectly dry, it is run through
+a set of so-called steel "chilled rolls," at the end of the machine,
+which are under pressure and which give the paper a fairly smooth
+surface for ordinary type printing. If a rough surface is desired, the
+paper is simply wound on reels from the dryers.</p>
+
+<p>Super-calendered papers are those which have a high finish and smooth
+surface, and are used for cuts, lithographic work, magazine papers,
+and ordinary illustrations. To calender paper, it is run through a
+series of alternate "chilled" and "paper" rolls. The chilled rolls are
+made of steel and have a very smooth and even surface. The "paper"
+roll is made of circular discs of thin, but strong manila paper,
+clamped together on an iron shaft, and then put under hydraulic
+pressure, this pressure being increased constantly until it reaches
+one hundred tons of pressure to the inch. The rolls are sometimes kept
+under this pressure for five or six weeks, and then are turned on a
+lathe into a true and smooth cylinder, and finally burnished by being
+revolved against each other.</p>
+
+<p>A "cotton" roll, used at times in place of the "paper" roll, is made
+in the same manner, except it is made of pieces of cotton cloth
+instead of thin manila paper. There is a heavy pressure on these
+rolls, and the paper goes through at a high rate of speed. When an
+especially smooth surface <span class="pagenum"><a id="page097" name="page097"></a>(p. 097)</span>is wanted, steam is run on the
+paper as it unwinds, dampening it and giving the web a surface like
+that on ironed linen.</p>
+
+<p>"Coated" paper is treated differently, being covered with a fine
+coating, which, after super-calendering, gives the paper a glazed and
+smooth surface for fine half-tone illustrations. Clay, mixed with
+casein, the product of skimmed milk, or glue, is the chief material
+used for coating. It is put on the paper by means of large brushes.
+Then it is dried by fans and passed through a long passageway heated
+by steam to a high temperature. After being reeled, it is allowed to
+stand for a while to harden; then is run several times through the
+calenders to get the smooth surface. If a high, glazed finish is
+necessary, steam is put on while running through the calenders. This
+gives a very bright surface for fine lithographic work. For the best
+coated papers, instead of clay, sulphate of lime and sometimes
+sulphate of barium is used, with glue or casein. Formaldehyde, a
+chemical compound, is used to prevent decomposition in the coating
+materials; and soda or borax is used to "cut" or dissolve the casein
+or glue.</p>
+
+<p>If the paper is to be printed "from the web," that is, from the roll,
+it first has to be trimmed to the correct width, then wound tightly
+under a high pressure to a certain thickness, then the rolls are
+packed up in wrapping paper ready to be shipped. Some rolls contain as
+much as five miles of paper. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page098" name="page098"></a>(p. 098)</span>When the paper is to be put up
+in sheets, it has to be cut to exactly the correct width and length on
+the cutting machine. It is all very carefully sorted&mdash;the imperfect
+sheets being thrown out&mdash;counted and packed in wooden cases, or done
+up with strong wrapping paper in bundles, ready to be sent to the
+printer.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page099" name="page099"></a>(p. 099)</span>PRESSWORK<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Walter J. Berwick</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Books are printed in "forms," or sheets, of four, eight, twelve,
+twenty-four, or thirty-two pages at a time, the number being
+determined to a great extent by the size of the type page and by the
+class of the work.</p>
+
+<p>An ordinary twelvemo book, without illustrations in the text, is
+usually printed in forms of thirty-two pages, on what is known as a
+single-cylinder flat-bed press, which prints only one side of the
+paper at an impression. For large editions, the size of the sheet of
+paper is sometimes doubled and sixty-four pages printed at a time. The
+class of work in question may also be printed on perfecting presses
+which print both sides of the paper at one time, and in this way as
+many as one hundred and twenty-eight pages are frequently printed on
+one sheet, there being sixty-four pages on each side. Large editions
+of books having small pages, such as small Bibles, are often printed
+two hundred and fifty-six pages (one hundred and twenty-eight on each
+side) at one time.</p>
+
+<p>High grade, illustrated books are always printed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page100" name="page100"></a>(p. 100)</span>on one side
+of the sheet at a time, the reverse side being printed after the first
+impression has dried properly. Thus a smooch, or "offset," the result
+of handling the paper before the ink has become dry, is prevented.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience, I shall describe the process of printing a book from
+electrotype plates on a press which prints thirty-two pages at a time
+and on only one side of the paper.</p>
+
+<p>Before ordering his paper, the publisher must first determine the size
+of the paper page of his proposed book, and from this arrive at the
+necessary size of the sheets of paper. He must also determine the
+thickness of the paper needed to give the finished book its proper
+bulk.</p>
+
+<p>If the book is to be trimmed on top, bottom, and front, about
+one-eighth of an inch must be allowed on top and front for the binder
+to trim off, and about one-fourth of an inch on the bottom. The
+dimensions from back to front, including the amount left for the
+"trim," should be multiplied by eight; and the page dimension the
+other way, including the trim, by four. This would give the size of
+paper needed. As an illustration, if the trimmed size of a book is
+7-<span title="7/8"><sup>7</sup>/<span class="sub">8</span></span> × 5-<span title="3/8"><sup>3</sup>/<span class="sub">8</span></span> inches, the paper should be 32 × 44 inches. If the book
+is printed 16 pages at a time, the paper should be 22 × 44; and if 64
+pages at a time, 44 × 64.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of the paper and the size of the sheet being decided upon,
+and the number of pages <span class="pagenum"><a id="page101" name="page101"></a>(p. 101)</span>known, any large paper house can
+tell the weight necessary to give the required thickness to the book.</p>
+
+<p>On receipt of the printing order, with directions as to whether the
+book is to be trimmed or not, the printer first makes up what is
+called a "form" of so-called "patent" blocks on which the stereotype
+or electrotype plates are placed during the printing of the book.
+These blocks are made of wood or iron planed to an even thickness of
+about three-fourths of an inch, so that when an electrotype plate is
+placed upon one, it will take only a few thicknesses of thin paper
+between it and the electrotyped page to make the whole "type-high,"
+that is, as high as an ordinary piece of type.</p>
+
+<p>Two adjacent edges of these blocks are bound with strips of brass,
+which project above the block and are turned over slightly, so as to
+receive the two bevelled edges of the electrotype plate. The other two
+edges are provided with movable clamps, which are screwed tight
+against the flat edges of the electrotype plate by means of ratchets,
+thus holding the plate firmly in its place.</p>
+
+<p>In practice, the longer of the two brass-bound edges is called the
+"back" of the block and the shorter one the "head," the other long
+edge being known as the "front" and the other short edge, the "foot."
+These terms, as a matter of fact, originated from the use of the same
+words in describing the printed page of a book, the "back" <span class="pagenum"><a id="page102" name="page102"></a>(p. 102)</span>
+corresponding with the side of the page next to the binding of the
+book, the "head" being the top of the book, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>One-half of a set of blocks&mdash;thirty-two being a set in this case&mdash;are
+made with the backs on the left and one-half with the backs on the
+right edge of the block. The common way is to place thirty-two of
+these blocks, in four rows of eight blocks each, in a "chase," or iron
+frame, with a cross-bar in the centre. Thus sixteen blocks are on each
+side of the cross-bar, and all have their backs toward it. The form
+then appears like this:&mdash;</p>
+
+<a id="img011" name="img011"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/img011.jpg" width="400" height="298" alt="Blocks." title="">
+</div>
+
+<p>Strips of wood, called "furniture," are then used to fill up the
+spaces between the blocks, care being taken to see that all the backs,
+fronts, and heads <span class="pagenum"><a id="page103" name="page103"></a>(p. 103)</span>are in uniform positions. As some people
+prefer the printed pages of a book to be near the centre of the paper
+pages, while others like the head and back margins to be much narrower
+than the margins at the front and foot, the distances between the
+blocks must be arranged according to the taste of the publisher or the
+author.</p>
+
+<p>After the blocks have been spaced as desired, and the spaces filled
+with furniture, the form is "locked up," or tightened securely, with
+wedge-shaped pieces of iron called "quoins," and it is then placed in
+position on the bed of the press, securely fastened by screw clamps,
+and "making ready" for printing is begun.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the care that has been taken to have all the "patent"
+blocks and the electrotype plates of even and uniform thickness, there
+is almost never a case where a form can be put on the press and
+printed off properly without considerable work being required to make
+the surface of the plates absolutely flat so that the entire printed
+part of the page will receive the same amount of ink and will press
+evenly on the paper.</p>
+
+<p>The first step in making a press "ready" is to place a sheet of heavy
+cardboard around the cylinder, and over it draw a smooth piece of
+muslin or cotton cloth. This is called the "packing." In many of the
+best offices this sheet of heavy cardboard is not used, but in its
+place is a patent make-ready called "Tympalyn."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page104" name="page104"></a>(p. 104)</span>Over this a thick sheet of manila paper is shrunk, it being
+pasted under clamps on the front of the cylinder, and carried around
+and fastened to hooks on a rod on the back. The rod is then turned
+until the sheet is perfectly tight and smooth.</p>
+
+<p>While the pressman is laying out his plates the feeder should be
+cutting thin sheets of paper the size of one of the plates. Some of
+these papers are cut about one inch shorter than the plates for
+"bevels," and these are pasted on the middle of the full-size pieces.
+These bevels and the larger "blank" sheets are to go between the
+plates and the blocks to overcome any variation there may be in the
+thickness and to make the surface of the form as nearly level as
+possible. The "bevels" raise the centres very slightly above the edges
+of the plate, thus reducing the pressure of the cylinder at the points
+of contact and departure, and saving the plates from wear.</p>
+
+<p>The cylinder being properly packed, and the form of blocks fastened on
+the press so that the impression of the form will come in the middle
+of the paper sheets, it is necessary to know whether the binder is to
+fold the sheets by hand or by machine, and if the latter, what kind of
+machine, as different ones require different "imposition" or
+arrangement of pages. This being decided, the plates are fastened on
+the blocks so arranged that when the sheet is cut and folded the pages
+of the book will run consecutively. Before levelling <span class="pagenum"><a id="page105" name="page105"></a>(p. 105)</span>up the
+form with the bevels and blank sheets, the plates of all open or short
+pages, if any, are replaced with solid pages, as these sheets and
+underlay are to remain through the printing of all the forms of the
+book. The rollers are now put in the press and adjusted to just touch
+the inking table, the ink put on the rollers and distributed, and one
+impression printed on one of several sheets of thin paper which are
+run through the press together.<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3" title="Go to footnote 3"><span class="smaller">[3]</span></a> This printed sheet is then turned
+face down by the pressman and any unevenness of the impression noted.
+One of the printed pages is taken as a standard and by removing as
+many pieces of the thin sheets as necessary from under the plates
+where the impression is too heavy, and by adding where it is not heavy
+enough, the surface of the form is finally "evened," or made as nearly
+equal as possible.</p>
+
+<p>After this another impression is taken, and of this sheet an
+"underlay" is made to further "even up" the form. The low places in
+the individual plates are carefully marked with crayon or a soft
+pencil on the impression, and the spots so marked are covered with a
+piece of thin paper. The printed pages are then cut out a little
+larger than the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page106" name="page106"></a>(p. 106)</span>type page, and placed under the plates from
+which they were printed. The plates of the solid pages, which had been
+substituted for the open pages, are now removed, and the open pages
+are put back in their places on the form.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point, all the "making ready" which has been done, is of
+permanent use in printing all of the forms of the book in question.
+The work that follows has to be done on each form as it is put on the
+press.</p>
+
+<p>More thin sheets of paper are now run through the press, the number
+run through together being one less than were printed for the
+underlay. These printed sheets are used for "overlays," which are very
+much like an underlay except that much more care is taken in marking
+any uneven places. A thinner paper is used to bring up the low places
+in the plates. An impression of the form is then made on the manila
+paper sheet which had, as before mentioned, been drawn around the
+cylinder, and on this printed manila sheet this overlay is pasted, the
+impression on the manila paper being a guide for the placing of the
+overlay.</p>
+
+<p>Another overlay is now made in the same way as the first; only it will
+now be found, if the work has been properly done, that there will be
+only a few spots to be covered with tissue. After this overlay has
+been made and the necessary pieces pasted over the first one, a thin
+sheet of manila is smoothly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page107" name="page107"></a>(p. 107)</span>and tightly drawn around the
+cylinder, covering completely the thick manila sheet with the pasted
+overlays on it. The form is then ready to print.</p>
+
+<p>While the feeder, as the man who feeds the paper into the press is
+called, has been "filling in" the overlay, the pressman should have
+been getting "register,"&mdash;that is, moving the plates so that the
+headlines and the sides of the plates align properly, and that when
+both sides of the paper have been printed, the pages will exactly back
+each other. The ink fountain should also have been so regulated by
+means of thumb-screws that the right amount of ink will run on the
+rollers and be distributed evenly over the form. Where too much ink
+shows on the printed sheet, the thumb-screws on the fountain are
+tightened a little, to decrease the flow, and where not enough ink
+shows the thumb-screws are loosened to increase its flow. This process
+is repeated until the "color" is all right. The grippers, which seize
+and carry the sheets of paper through the press, the reels, cylinder
+bands, and many other things have also to be adjusted. These cannot
+well be described, but have to be learned by actual experience.</p>
+
+<p>The "making ready" and watching the sheets as they come from the press
+to see that the "color" does not vary, is the skilful part of the
+process. The feeding can be done by a bright boy after a few weeks'
+experience, but is now done automatically by machines to a great
+extent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page108" name="page108"></a>(p. 108)</span>While the press was being made ready, another set of men in
+charge of the paper have taken it out of the cases or bundles, counted
+out the number of sheets required for each form, piled it on hand
+trucks, keeping that required for each form separate, and have
+delivered it to the press. If a machine feeder is used, the paper is
+piled on the elevator of the feeder, from which it is automatically
+taken, one sheet at a time, and delivered on endless tapes to gauges
+on the feed board of the press, thus bringing every sheet in the same
+position each time. The number of sheets required for the order are
+printed from one form on one side and then from another form on the
+other side.</p>
+
+<p>From the preceding it can be seen that to get a press ready may be a
+matter of hours, while, in the case of ordinary book work, a press
+generally prints from 1200 to 2000 impressions and more per hour.</p>
+
+<p>The principal difference between making ready a form on a flat-bed
+perfecting press with two cylinders and on a single-cylinder press is
+in extra work necessary to obtain correct registering of the plates
+and in preventing an offset of the fresh ink on the second cylinder.
+Otherwise, a perfecting press is very much like two cylinder presses
+joined together. It has two sets of rollers, two ink fountains, two
+cylinders, two forms, etc., but only one feed board and one delivery.
+The sheet is fed to one cylinder and printed, taken from this
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page109" name="page109"></a>(p. 109)</span>cylinder by the second and printed on the second side, and
+delivered on the "fly board" ready to go to the shipping department.</p>
+
+<p>The process of making ready forms containing illustrations is
+practically the same as for plain ones, except that a new underlay is
+made for each form, and much more care and skill must be used on the
+cuts themselves. It frequently happens that one or even two days are
+spent making ready a form of half-tone cuts, before the actual
+printing, which takes perhaps half a day to do, can be begun.</p>
+
+<p>In most offices, a special "cut overlay" is made for forms with cuts,
+or illustrations. The cut is placed on a hand press before the form is
+made up, and proofs on four different thicknesses of paper are made.
+The heaviest paper is used as a bottom sheet, and the others are
+pasted on it. Out of the next to the thickest paper of all, the solid
+blacks are cut and pasted accurately on the same places on the bottom
+sheet. From the second or next thinner sheet, the medium shades
+including the solid blacks are cut and pasted on the bottom sheet,
+thus building up the blacks and strong shadows. From the thinnest
+sheet of all, the high lights and very light shades are cut, and the
+rest of the sheet is pasted on the bottom one. In this way the solid
+blacks and dark shadows on the cut have three thicknesses on the
+overlay; the next shades two, and the light shades one, where the high
+lights are cut out altogether. This is the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page110" name="page110"></a>(p. 110)</span>common form of
+"cut overlay" used in most offices; but there are many other kinds,
+some being made on metal by chemical action. All kinds are fastened
+carefully over the impression of the cut made on the heavy manila
+sheet covering the cylinder, and the cut must not be moved on the form
+after the overlay has been fastened on the cylinder, or the effect of
+all the work will be entirely lost.</p>
+
+<p>One of the great troubles which the printer has to contend with, is
+electricity in the paper. The pressman is unaware of its presence
+until he lifts a printed sheet from the pile and receives a slight
+shock, and finds the sheets stick together. In the case of a cut form,
+the ink is almost sure to be offset, and in printing the second side
+of the paper the feeder will have to stop frequently to separate the
+sheets. Much money has been spent and many devices originated to
+overcome this trouble. Ink manufacturers make a liquid preparation to
+be applied to the packing. A row of lighted gas-jets placed near the
+point where the sheet goes on to the "flyboard," a heated steam-pipe,
+and many other things have been used, but a new device by which
+electricity is generated and carried into the press, and there
+neutralizes the electricity in the paper, is the best of them all.</p>
+
+<p>The printed sheets are counted automatically by the press, and as fast
+as enough accumulate, they are piled on hand trucks and removed to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page111" name="page111"></a>(p. 111)</span>shipping room. Here they are "jogged up" so that the edges
+are even and are counted again by hand. If they are to be shipped
+away, they are tied up in bundles or nailed in cases and marked for
+shipment. If the bindery is connected with the pressroom, they are
+simply jogged, counted, and piled on trucks and delivered in this way.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page112" name="page112"></a>(p. 112)</span>THE PRINTING PRESS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Otto L. Raabe</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Throughout the stages of development of the book-printing press the
+chief object has been to lessen the cost of printing. Whether the
+direct purpose of an improvement has been to increase the working
+speed of the press, to lessen the necessary operating power, to
+simplify the mechanism, to strengthen the parts, to lighten the
+pressman's labor, or to better the quality of printing, the ultimate
+aim has always been the same. It has been the constant incentive to
+invention and the standard for judging the adaptability of a press.</p>
+
+<p>The first printing press was the "wooden screw" press, which came into
+use about the middle of the fifteenth century, and was built upon the
+same mechanical principle as the linen presses in the homes of the
+well-to-do. This was the press used by Gutenberg.</p>
+
+<p>It consisted of two upright timbers held together at the top and the
+bottom by crosspieces of wood and with two intermediate cross-timbers.
+One of these intermediate cross-timbers supported a wooden or stone
+"bed" on which the form of type was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page113" name="page113"></a>(p. 113)</span>placed, and through the
+other passed a large wooden screw, the lower point of which was
+attached to the centre of a flat, wooden plate, called the "platen."
+The lower side of the platen was covered with a soft "packing" or
+"blanket" of cloth. After the type had been inked, a sheet of paper
+was laid on it. This paper had previously been dampened so that it
+would take a better impression of the type. The screw was then turned
+down until the platen pressed the paper against the inked type, and
+produced a printed sheet.</p>
+
+<p>The form of type was incased in a frame called a "coffin." These
+coffins and the type within them were very heavy, but they had to be
+lifted in and out of the press by hand. After each impression the
+platen was screwed upward so that the sheet of paper which had been
+printed could be removed and hung up to dry.</p>
+
+<p>This simple form of press continued in use without material change
+until the early part of the seventeenth century. The first
+improvements on it came about 1620, and consisted of a device for
+rolling in and out the wooden or stone bed on which the type rested
+instead of lifting it by hand, of a new form of iron hand-lever for
+turning the screw, and of an iron screw in place of the wooden one.
+These were the inventions of William Janson Blaeuw, a printer of
+Amsterdam. Blaeuw's press was introduced into England and used there
+as well as on the continent. It was substantially <span class="pagenum"><a id="page114" name="page114"></a>(p. 114)</span>the same
+press as that on which Benjamin Franklin worked when in London in
+1735.</p>
+
+<p>After this first type of printing press had been in use for three and
+a half centuries, a much-improved form was invented by the Earl of
+Stanhope in 1798. The frame of his press was made of iron, cast in one
+piece; the bed, the impression plate, or "platen," and the other large
+parts were also of cast iron, while the working parts were of iron,
+steel, or brass. The iron impression screw was retained, but connected
+to it was a combination of levers whereby its power was greatly
+increased. This enabled the printing of larger forms and the use of a
+thinner and harder "packing," or "tympan," between the platen and the
+sheet of paper to be printed, resulting in a sharper and clearer
+impression. Much less exertion was required to work the lever, and at
+first, on this account, a printer, who was accustomed to use all his
+physical force on the old screw press, found it difficult to work on
+the new one.</p>
+
+<p>This improved style of press was received with so much favor by
+printers that several persons took up its manufacture, and competition
+soon reduced its cost and brought it into general use for printing
+newspapers as well as books. The process of printing remained about
+the same as in the earlier presses. Two men were required to work it.
+One spread the ink on a wooden block, rolling over it with two
+leather-covered balls, about six <span class="pagenum"><a id="page115" name="page115"></a>(p. 115)</span>inches in diameter, stuffed
+with wool or horsehair, and fastened to round wooden handles. Holding
+one of these inking balls in each hand, he then rolled one upon the
+other to distribute the ink evenly over both of them, and applied the
+ink to the face of the type by rocking the balls over it until the
+entire form was inked. While this was being done, the other man was
+placing the sheet of paper on the "tympan." This was a light frame, in
+two parts, really forming two frames, one inside the other, and both
+covered with parchment. There was a woollen or felt blanket between
+them, and the two frames were held together by hooks. The outer frame
+was hinged at its lower end to the outer end of the bed of the press,
+and when ready to receive the paper, it stood in a nearly upright
+position at about right angles to the bed. On the frame were two or
+four pins, upon which the sheet of paper was impaled.</p>
+
+<p>Attached to the upper end of the inner frame by hinges was a thin and
+narrow frame, called the "frisket," of the same length and width as
+the inner tympan frame. This frisket was covered with strong paper in
+which were openings, cut a little larger than the size of the pages of
+the type-form. When the sheets of paper had been placed upon the
+tympan frame, the frisket was folded down upon it, and the two were
+then turned down over the form of type. The bed was then "run in"
+under the platen by means of a crank at the side <span class="pagenum"><a id="page116" name="page116"></a>(p. 116)</span>of the
+press, and the platen was screwed down to make the impression. After
+the impression had been taken, the platen was screwed up, the bed "run
+out," the tympan frame and frisket lifted, and the printed sheet taken
+off.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of this Stanhope press gave a great impetus to the
+development of the printing press in other countries as well as in
+England, and many varieties were devised during the thirty years
+following. Although as early as 1811 Koenig had made a cylinder press
+which had proved fairly successful, the better grades of printing
+could be obtained only by the flat pressure of the hand-presses. In
+some of these hand presses, the platen, or upper impression plate, was
+moved into position over the bed and remained stationary while the bed
+with the type-form upon it was forced upward to make the impression.
+In others, the platen was hinged to the bed, but in all of them the
+mechanism was complicated.</p>
+
+<p>The "Columbian" press, devised by George Clymer, of Philadelphia, in
+1816, gained considerable distinction both in this country and in
+England, where it was introduced in 1818. It differed from the
+Stanhope in that the screw was dispensed with, the platen being
+depressed by a combination of levers and lifted by the aid of a
+weighted balance-lever.</p>
+
+<p>The reduction of the hand-lever movement to its simplest and most
+powerful form is now seen <span class="pagenum"><a id="page117" name="page117"></a>(p. 117)</span>in the Washington hand press,
+devised by Samuel Rust, of New York, in 1827. His patent was later
+purchased by R. Hoe &amp; Co., who made nearly seven thousand of these
+presses in different sizes and still make many of a greatly
+strengthened pattern for taking fine proofs from photo-engraved
+plates. Some of these presses made before 1850 are still in use, and
+occasionally one hears of a Washington hand press being used for
+printing upon handmade paper an edition of a small and limited number
+of copies of a book. Of all the hand presses, this is the only one
+that has survived to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>With the introduction of other means for applying power than the
+hand-lever, a distinction came to be drawn between printing <span class="italic">presses</span>
+and printing <span class="italic">machines</span>. The term "machine" might perhaps be more
+appropriately used for the huge printing presses of the present day,
+yet, as the first essential is the impression power, all other
+features being subordinate, the term "press" is still the proper one
+to apply, even to the greatest combination of printing units yet
+devised.</p>
+
+<p>The "bed and platen" system of printing as first used in hand presses
+occupies such an important place in the history of the book-printing
+press that a further description of its career is necessary.</p>
+
+<p>In December, 1806, Friedrich Koenig, a Saxon, who later gave to the
+world the first practical cylinder press, went from Germany to England
+to seek assistance in carrying out his plans for the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page118" name="page118"></a>(p. 118)</span>
+construction of a greatly improved printing press, having failed in
+his efforts in his own country and in Russia. He succeeded in
+enlisting the support of Thomas Bensley, a London printer, and
+constructed a press in which all the operations but laying on and
+taking off of the sheet were performed mechanically.</p>
+
+<p>An accurate description of this press is not extant, but it is known
+to have consisted of a large wooden frame, a platen worked by a
+vertical screw and gears, a type-bed drawn forward and backward by
+means of straps fastened to a large roller underneath the bed, a
+tympan frame and frisket arranged to open and close automatically with
+the movement of the bed, and an inking apparatus, consisting of an
+ink-box with a narrow slit in the bottom through which the ink was
+forced by a piston upon a roller below, from which it was transmitted
+by two intermediate rollers to another and lower roller which inked
+the form as it passed underneath. The two intermediate rollers had an
+alternating, lateral motion which spread or distributed the ink
+sideways before it reached the lowest roller.</p>
+
+<p>This press was the first to have ink-distributing rollers and the
+first to be run by steam power. In April, 1811, the "Annual Register"
+for 1810 was printed on it by Mr. Bensley at the rate of eight hundred
+impressions an hour. Nothing further is recorded about this press, and
+it was probably abandoned as being too complicated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page119" name="page119"></a>(p. 119)</span>In the following year, Koenig's first cylinder press was
+completed, to be followed two years later by an improved cylinder
+press made for the <span class="italic">London Times</span>, which will be referred to farther
+on.</p>
+
+<p>In his experiments, the Earl of Stanhope had tried, without success,
+to find a substitute for inking-balls by making rollers covered with
+different kinds of skins. He also tried other materials, such as
+cloth, silk, etc., but the unavoidable seam and the impossibility of
+keeping these materials soft and pliable defeated his purpose. About
+1813 inking-rollers made of a composition of glue and molasses came
+into general use, and this important invention was of great assistance
+in the further improvement of the printing press.</p>
+
+<p>Other cylinder presses with mechanical inking appliances were devised
+and patented, the most notable of which were those of Rutt, Bacon,
+Cowper, Applegath, and Napier, but the mechanical imperfections of
+these presses unfitted them for the better grades of book printing.</p>
+
+<p>Further efforts were, therefore, directed to increasing the output of
+the bed and platen presses by the application of improved inking
+devices, sheet-feeding, and impression mechanisms. About 1825 there
+was constructed by D. Napier, a machinist in London, a press
+containing such appliances which produced six to seven hundred
+impressions an hour. Other presses constructed upon the same
+principle, but with two type-beds, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page120" name="page120"></a>(p. 120)</span>two sets of friskets, two
+inking mechanisms&mdash;and only one platen, in the centre of the
+press&mdash;were made by Hopkinson &amp; Cope and by Napier, and were known as
+"double platen machines," though this is really a misnomer as there
+was only one platen.</p>
+
+<p>Napier's invention achieved the greatest popularity and came into
+general use. At each end of his press there was an inking device, a
+type-bed, and a frisket, each set of which operated alternately with
+the other, but either could be made inoperative if the "feeder," or
+"layer-on," failed to place the sheet in time. Four boys, besides the
+printer, were required&mdash;two to lay on, and two to take off the sheets.</p>
+
+<p>When the type-bed and the frisket carrying the sheet of paper were in
+position under the platen, the latter was drawn downward to make the
+impression by means of a "toggle" joint which acted upon two strong
+rods, one on each side, and was then raised again by a counterbalance
+weight. Owing to the awkward method of handling the paper, the working
+speed of the press was necessarily slow, and the size of the sheets
+limited to double royal, or 25 × 40 inches.</p>
+
+<p>The best presses of this type were those devised and patented by Isaac
+Adams, of Boston, in 1830 and 1836, and by Otis Tufts, also of Boston,
+in 1834. R. Hoe &amp; Co., of New York, acquired Adams' business in 1858
+and continued the manufacture <span class="pagenum"><a id="page121" name="page121"></a>(p. 121)</span>of his presses. Over one
+thousand in many different sizes were made by this firm, the largest
+printing a sheet 33 × 46 inches at a working speed of one thousand
+impressions an hour. The last Adams press was made in 1882, but quite
+a number are still in use in prominent printing-offices in New York,
+Boston, and a few other cities, where the results on fine book work
+are still considered better than from the faster cylinder presses. The
+mechanical principle employed in the Adams press for exerting a flat,
+parallel pressure has now been generally adopted for heavy stamping
+and embossing presses.</p>
+
+<p>To go back to the early part of the nineteenth century, when Koenig
+found his bed and platen press impracticable, he immediately set to
+work, assisted by one of his countrymen, Andreas Bauer, a mechanic who
+had helped him formerly, and in the latter part of 1812, the first
+flat-bed cylinder press was erected by them in Bensley's office. The
+cylinder of this press had three impression surfaces with spaces
+between them, and each covered with a soft blanket. With each forward
+movement of the type-bed the cylinder made one-third of a revolution
+and then came to a standstill, while the bed returned to its
+starting-point. The spaces between the impression surfaces allowed the
+type-form to pass under the cylinder without touching the blankets. At
+the end of the cylinder and at equal distances along its circumference
+were hinged <span class="pagenum"><a id="page122" name="page122"></a>(p. 122)</span>three frisket frames, each fitted with tapes
+having reel springs at one end. The frisket frame of the uppermost
+impression surface rested in a vertically inclined position against
+the high framework of the inking mechanism. The sheet of paper was
+placed upon the blanket, and the cylinder then turned forward, drawing
+the frisket frame down with it, while the tapes, kept taut by the reel
+springs, adjusted themselves to the curvature of the cylinder and held
+the sheet upon it. After one-third of a revolution, the cylinder came
+to a stop to let the type-bed return. On the next forward movement of
+the bed and the next one-third of a revolution of the cylinder, the
+impression was made, and on the next repetition of these movements,
+the sheet was taken off by hand, and the cylinder returned to its
+original position to have another sheet placed on the first frisket.
+At every complete revolution of the cylinder and three complete
+reciprocating movements of the bed, three sheets were printed.</p>
+
+<p>The inking mechanism was similar to that employed on the bed and
+platen press, but the mechanism for forcing the ink through the slit
+in the bottom of the fountain was improved. The inking-rollers were
+covered with leather as before. The type-bed was moved by a very
+ingenious mechanism which is in use even at the present time, and is
+described farther on, when the two-revolution press is mentioned. The
+different parts were not <span class="pagenum"><a id="page123" name="page123"></a>(p. 123)</span>connected with each other, the
+cylinder, the type-bed, the inking-rollers, and the fountain being
+operated independently by separate driving mechanisms. This press
+printed eight hundred sheets an hour, on one side. A part of
+Clarkson's "Life of William Penn" was printed on this press, and was
+the first book ever printed on a cylinder press.</p>
+
+<p>Printers and publishers were sceptical as to the practical value of
+this novel invention, but Mr. John Walter, the proprietor of the
+<span class="italic">London Times</span>, with better foresight than the others, and needing
+increased facilities for printing his paper, contracted for two
+presses, each to have two impression cylinders. These were constructed
+for him with great secrecy in a building adjoining the pressroom of
+the <span class="italic">Times</span>, and on November 28, 1814, the entire edition of that
+paper was printed on them,&mdash;the first cylinder presses driven by steam
+power.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical principles were the same as in the first cylinder
+press. There were two impression cylinders, but only one type-bed, and
+the latter had, therefore, to travel a greater distance than in the
+single-cylinder press. This made it impossible to obtain quite double
+the output of the single-cylinder press, but each of these new presses
+produced eleven hundred impressions an hour, a very respectable
+performance for that early stage. The threefold motion of the
+cylinders was retained, but the frisket frames were displaced, and
+tapes running over rollers and underneath the cylinders <span class="pagenum"><a id="page124" name="page124"></a>(p. 124)</span>held
+the sheets against the impression surfaces. An improvement was also
+made in the inking mechanism by the addition of an intermediate roller
+between the fountain and the upper distributing cylinder roller.</p>
+
+<p>The next step in advance was the construction of the first of the
+so-called perfecting presses, which was patented, December 24, 1814,
+and erected in Mr. Bensley's office in 1815 or 1816. This press had
+two type-beds and two impression cylinders, one of each near either
+end of the press. The cylinders instead of having a threefold motion
+revolved continuously. The circumference of each corresponded
+approximately to the distance traversed by one of the beds. The part
+of the cylinder which made the impression was a little larger in
+diameter than the remainder, the low portion giving the necessary room
+for the type-bed to return without touching it. The board from which
+the sheets were "fed" was near the centre of the press, and at the top
+adjoining the feed board was an endless belt made of cloth as wide as
+the board and running with an intermittent motion over two rollers.</p>
+
+<p>The sheet of paper was laid upon this belt, which then moved forward,
+carrying the sheet between the tapes and leading it to the top of,
+down and around, the first cylinder where it received the first
+impression. Thence the sheet was conveyed by the tapes to the top of
+and around <span class="pagenum"><a id="page125" name="page125"></a>(p. 125)</span>the second impression cylinder and was printed on
+the reverse side, that is "perfected," and it was then taken from the
+lower side of the second cylinder by hand and laid upon a board in the
+centre of the press, between the two impression cylinders and
+underneath the feed board. This press printed both sides of a sheet
+21 × 34-&frac12; inches at a speed of nine hundred to one thousand an hour.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterward a single-cylinder press was constructed upon the
+same principle, the forerunner of what is now known as the single
+large or drum cylinder press.</p>
+
+<p>Within the next few years, Applegath and Cowper greatly simplified the
+presses in the <span class="italic">Times</span> and in Bensley's office by removing many of the
+gear wheels. They also invented the first inking-table, a flat, iron
+plate attached to the type-bed which enabled the rollers to distribute
+the ink more evenly than before. They placed rollers at an angle
+across the ink-table and introduced the revolving roller and the
+scraping blade in the ink-fountain.</p>
+
+<p>More important, however, were Napier's inventions about 1824, of
+"grippers" which seized the sheet of paper at its front edge and drew
+it from the feed board, while the cylinder was in motion, and of a
+method of alternately depressing and raising the impression cylinders
+on the forward and backward stroke of the type-bed, making it
+unnecessary to have a part of the cylinders of smaller <span class="pagenum"><a id="page126" name="page126"></a>(p. 126)</span>
+diameter than the rest to allow the type to pass under it as the bed
+returned. This made it possible to use cylinders of a smaller
+diameter. These improvements were first embodied in a perfecting press
+made for Hansard, a London printer.</p>
+
+<p>Although a number of presses were already being operated by steam
+power, Hansard, in his description of the Napier bed and platen press
+(the "Nay-Peer," he called it) finds a peculiar advantage in that "it
+supersedes the necessity of steam power, as the motion of this machine
+is gained by two men turning a fly-wheel which acts as the impelling
+power."</p>
+
+<p>I have described the development of the printing press up to this
+state with considerable detail, because it discloses the main
+principles of the book press of the present day. During the first
+quarter of the last century, the manufacture of cylinder presses was
+confined to England, not only because London was then the leading
+centre of civilization, but because nowhere else could be found the
+mechanical facilities for constructing the large metal frames and
+parts. Koenig left London for his native land in 1817, dejected by the
+treatment he had received at the hands of Bensley, both in financial
+matters and in the attempts to disparage his achievements. He was
+followed two years later by his friend Bauer, and together they
+founded the firm of Koenig &amp; Bauer at Oberzell, where it still thrives
+as one of the largest factories in Germany.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page127" name="page127"></a>(p. 127)</span>It was not long, however, before the United States took the
+lead in the number of presses manufactured as well as in their
+improvement, and the present high state of efficiency of American
+presses makes them models which are copied in all other countries.
+These improvements and the perfections of details often presented
+problems which were more difficult to solve than those of the earlier
+inventors, and thousands of patents have been granted to Americans for
+new and ingenious devices.</p>
+
+<p>The firm of R. Hoe &amp; Co., which as early as 1822 was already engaged
+in the manufacture of hand-presses in New York, commenced about 1832
+to manufacture flat-bed cylinder presses, beginning with the single
+large or drum cylinder press which was followed soon afterward by the
+single small cylinder and the double small cylinder press, the
+flat-bed perfecting press, the stop-cylinder press, the two-revolution
+press, and the rotary book press. They also made and are still making
+large newspaper and color presses which are used all over the
+civilized world, but of these we will not treat here.</p>
+
+<p>As stated at the beginning of this article the chief object in press
+making has always been to lessen the cost of printing, but after
+increased speed had been attained, there came a demand for a press
+that would produce the finest quality of printing without sacrificing
+the quantity produced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page128" name="page128"></a>(p. 128)</span>To meet this no press has ever surpassed the stop cylinder.
+It has been made in several different sizes, the largest having a
+type-bed 45 × 65 inches. Resting upon and attached to a heavy iron
+foundation are two iron side frames which are securely braced together
+by an upper iron frame, called the "rib." This upper frame contains
+four tracks faced with hard steel, on which run a series of friction
+rollers, supporting the iron type-bed. Attached to the front of the
+type-bed is an iron plate, called the ink-table, its surface level
+with the surface of the type-form as it lies upon the bed.</p>
+
+<p>At the front of the press is the ink-fountain and a number of steel
+and composition rollers, called the "distributing rollers." The ink is
+delivered a little at a time from the fountain to the revolving
+distributing rollers, and from them to the ink-table which moves under
+the rollers with the motion of the type-bed. By this means the ink is
+distributed upon the entire surface of the ink-table in a thin, even
+film. From the ink-table the ink is taken by a set of six rollers,
+called the "form rollers." Resting on the form rollers and moving in
+contact with them are additional rollers which help to distribute the
+ink still finer before it reaches the type.</p>
+
+<p>The impression cylinder is located at a distance from the front of the
+press of about two-thirds of the entire length of the press. The
+circumference of the cylinder is equal to the distance that the
+type-bed travels in one direction. When the type-bed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page129" name="page129"></a>(p. 129)</span>moves
+from the front to the rear, the cylinder rotates in unison with it,
+and thus the cylinder makes one revolution. While the bed returns the
+cylinder does not move.</p>
+
+<p>Near the rear of the press is a large wooden board extending across
+the press and lying in a slightly inclined position with its lower
+edge almost directly above the centre of the impression cylinder. This
+is the "feed board" upon which the sheets of paper lie before they are
+printed. The impression cylinder has a set of grippers, and when the
+cylinder is at rest, these grippers are close to the edge of the feed
+board and stand open to receive the edge of the sheet of paper.
+Extending a little over the front of the feed board are two gauges
+against which the front edge of the sheet of paper is placed, while
+one side edge of the sheet is placed against a gauge at the side of
+the feed board. Just an instant before the cylinder commences to
+rotate, the grippers seize the front edge of the sheet, and the gauges
+lift out of the way. The cylinder then carries the sheet around, meets
+the moving inked form, and makes the impression. Before the cylinder
+completes its revolution, the grippers open and release the sheet, and
+at the same instant another set of grippers on an adjoining cylinder,
+called the "delivery cylinder," seize the sheet. From this delivery
+cylinder the sheet runs down over a set of strings, and is lifted off
+the strings by a sort of fan, or "sheet flier," and deposited on a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page130" name="page130"></a>(p. 130)</span>table at the rear of the press. This method of delivering
+the sheets is known as the cylinder or rear delivery. This press may
+also be fitted for "front delivery." By this method the sheet of paper
+after being printed is carried around on the impression cylinder until
+the front edge comes again to the feeding point. Just as the
+impression cylinder comes to a stop, a set of grippers seize the front
+edge of the printed sheet, draw it over and away from the impression
+cylinder, and deposit it, with the printed side up, upon a table near
+the front of the press and above the ink-fountain and distributing
+rollers.</p>
+
+<p>The average speed of one of these presses is from one thousand to
+fifteen hundred impressions an hour, depending upon the desired
+quality of the work.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the excellent qualities of the stop-cylinder press,
+commercial necessities often demand a sacrifice of quality to speed,
+and this has brought the two-revolution press into very general use.
+As the name implies, the cylinder makes two revolutions, one to print
+the sheet, and the other, an idle one, to allow the bed to return.
+While the bed is returning, the impression cylinder is lifted to clear
+the type-form. As the cylinder rotates continually at a uniform speed,
+the type-bed must also travel at a constant speed. The reversal of the
+movements of the bed must, therefore, take place in a short space of
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The study of inventors has been concentrated <span class="pagenum"><a id="page131" name="page131"></a>(p. 131)</span>upon this
+subject more than upon any other connected with flat-bed presses, and
+hundreds of patents for "bed motions" have been taken out. Considering
+the fact that in the larger presses the weight of the bed and form is
+about one and a half tons and that this weight moving at a speed of
+about six feet in a second must be brought to a full stop and put into
+motion again in the opposite direction at full speed in about
+one-quarter of a second, it is obvious that the problem was not an
+easy one, especially when the reversal of the bed must be accomplished
+without a jar or vibration. The mechanism employed has always been a
+driving gear and one or two toothed racks. In Koenig's original
+movement, the driving gear on the end of a rising and falling shaft
+ran on top of a rack attached to the bottom of the bed in order to
+drive the bed in one direction, and then descending around the end of
+the rack ran in the bottom to the same rack to drive the bed in the
+other direction and ascending at the other end to repeat the movement.
+This, as already stated, has proven a very efficient mechanism and is
+employed, with improvements, by some of the press manufacturers of the
+present time.</p>
+
+<p>In a pamphlet entitled "A Short History of the Printing Press" (New
+York, 1902), by Robert Hoe, the writer describes a method of reversing
+the bed. Although somewhat technical, it seems desirable to quote him
+as follows: "As early as <span class="pagenum"><a id="page132" name="page132"></a>(p. 132)</span>1847, Hoe &amp; Co. patented an
+entirely new bed-driving mechanism. To a hanger fixed on the lower
+side of the bed were attached two racks facing each other, but not in
+the same vertical plane, and separated by a distance equal to the
+diameter of the driving wheel, which was on a horizontal shaft and
+movable sideways so as to engage in either one or other of the racks.
+By this means, a uniform movement was obtained in each direction. The
+reversal of the bed was accomplished by a roller at either end of the
+bed entering a recess in a disc on the driving shaft, which in a
+half-revolution brought the bed to a stop and started it in the
+opposite direction. This involved a new principle; a crank action
+operating directly upon the bed from a shaft having a fixed centre,
+and within recent years modifications of this patent have been
+successfully employed to drive the type-bed at a high velocity and
+reverse it without a shock or vibration."</p>
+
+<p>This invention appears to have been the forerunner of the more recent
+improvements in bed motions. A notable one is that employed in the
+Miehle presses, which have gained much celebrity, run at a high rate
+of speed, and are used in many printing-offices in this and other
+countries. The reversal of the bed movement is accomplished by a
+so-called "true crank" movement and with an absence of jar and
+vibration never before obtained in any other than the stop-cylinder
+presses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page133" name="page133"></a>(p. 133)</span>At the present time, the latest development in printing
+presses is Hoe &amp; Co.'s new two-revolution press, in which, also, the
+reversal of the bed is accomplished by the true crank movement, but
+with an improvement which brings it to an easy stop and returns it
+without the least vibration.</p>
+
+<p>On all two-revolution presses there are employed, to assist in the
+reversal of the bed, air-chambers or cylinders, without which the
+reversing mechanisms could not withstand the enormous strain to which
+they are subjected. These are iron cylinders, closed at one end,
+approximately six inches in diameter and eighteen inches long, and
+varying in size according to the size of the press. Some presses have
+two and others four of these cylinders, one or two at each end. The
+open ends of the cylinders are toward the bed, and attached to the bed
+are two or four pistons which enter the air-chambers as the bed nears
+the end of its stroke. The compression of the air in the cylinders
+makes a cushion and checks the momentum of the moving bed. The pistons
+can be adjusted to regulate the air compression to suit the velocity
+of the bed and the weight of the form, which vary in different kinds
+of work.</p>
+
+<p>The delivery of the printed sheets is performed either by a delivery
+cylinder or by a front delivery with the printed side of the paper
+uppermost as already described for the stop-cylinder presses. Grippers
+are not used in the front delivery carriage, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page134" name="page134"></a>(p. 134)</span>as the sheet is
+discharged from the cylinder by its continuous rotation.</p>
+
+<p>The average running speed of a two-revolution press is about one-third
+greater than that of a stop cylinder, or about eighteen hundred
+impressions an hour, as against from one thousand to thirteen hundred
+and fifty impressions from the stop cylinder, this being the
+comparison in presses of the average size, printing sheets about
+33 × 46 inches. The driving power required is in the proportion of
+about five for the two-revolution press to three for the stop
+cylinder, and the wear and tear is in about the same proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Another press, which is still employed to a small extent for
+book-work, is the flat-bed perfecting press. This press is virtually
+two two-revolution presses combined into one, with the advantage that
+they require only one man as "feeder," but with the disadvantage that
+they produce only about two-thirds as much work as two separate
+single-cylinder, two-revolution presses. Their greatest disadvantage
+lies in the difficulty of preventing the fresh ink on the side of the
+sheet first printed from "setting off" on the packing of the cylinder
+which prints the reverse or second side. Mechanisms are employed to
+move the "tympan sheet" or outside covering of the second cylinder
+along at fixed intervals, but they are complicated and troublesome.
+These presses are expensive and cumbersome, and can generally be used
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page135" name="page135"></a>(p. 135)</span>only for inferior grades of work in large editions. Under
+the care of a skilful and painstaking pressman, good work can be
+produced from them, but fine book-work is always done on stop-cylinder
+and two-revolution, single-cylinder presses, which have now been
+brought to a high state of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly a hundred years ago Hansard wrote, "The printing machine in its
+present state appears susceptible of little improvement." He was, in
+truth, right so far as the main principles of the flat-bed cylinder
+press are concerned, but there have been immense improvements in many
+of the details. With the introduction of automatic sheet-feeding
+devices, and improvements in the driving, inking, and delivery
+arrangements, mechanical ingenuity seems to have been exhausted. The
+temptation is strong to apply Hansard's prediction to the flat-bed
+cylinder press of the present day, but with the many surprises that
+meet us in other fields this would border on temerity.</p>
+
+<p>Already there have been great advances in adapting the entirely rotary
+principle to the printing of high-grade work, although its use is
+still restricted to the production of large editions.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1852 Hoe &amp; Co. made a rotary press for D. Appleton &amp; Co.,
+especially for printing the famous Webster spelling-book. The types
+were locked up on the cylinders in curved beds, called "turtles," and
+the sheets were delivered by a sheet-flier. Probably thirty million
+copies were <span class="pagenum"><a id="page136" name="page136"></a>(p. 136)</span>printed on this press, which was dismantled
+nearly twenty-six years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In 1886 this same concern made a press which is still used for
+printing some of the forms of the <span class="italic">Century Magazine</span>. This press had
+two pairs of cylinders, and curved electrotype plates were used on it.
+The paper was in a roll at one end, and at the other end there were
+delivered, to each revolution of the cylinders, eight eight-page
+signatures already folded to the size of the <span class="italic">Century</span> page. This was
+the first rotary press made for a good grade of book-work. Two similar
+presses were afterward made for <span class="italic">Harper's Weekly</span> and for the <span class="italic">Strand
+Magazine</span> of London.</p>
+
+<p>What is known as the rotary art press was made in 1890 for printing
+the fine half-tone illustrations in the <span class="italic">Century Magazine</span>.</p>
+
+<p>This has one plate cylinder and one impression cylinder, and curved
+electrotype plates are used. The sheets are "fed" by hand in the usual
+manner, and are printed on one side at a time and delivered by a
+sheet-flier. It produces as much work as four flat-bed cylinder
+presses and of better quality. The plates are inked by sixteen
+rollers. The performance of this press is another demonstration of the
+superiority of the rotary over the flat-bed principle of printing.</p>
+
+<p>Since then hundreds of rotary presses have been made for magazine and
+book printing, most of them equipped with attachments for folding the
+sheets <span class="pagenum"><a id="page137" name="page137"></a>(p. 137)</span>as they are printed, and all having a high rate of
+speed. C. B. Cottrell &amp; Co. have made many rotary presses for magazine
+printing, most of which deliver the sheets flat, without folding, and
+most of them made to suit some predetermined size or sizes of sheets
+or pages.</p>
+
+<p>In the evolution of the printing press there are three sharply defined
+stages: first, the flat impression surface and the flat printing
+surface, requiring the exertion of all of the impressing power upon
+the entire surfaces; second, the cylindrical impression surface and
+the flat printing surface, requiring the exertion of all of the
+impressing power upon only a narrow line or a small portion of the
+printing surface; third, a cylindrical impression surface and a
+cylindrical printing surface, still further reducing the area upon
+which all the impressing power is exerted.</p>
+
+<p>Just as the second stage has, particularly for book-work, virtually
+superseded the first, so the third is destined to supersede the
+second. It is only an adaptation of the means to the ends. The
+mechanical principles of the rotary press are, in fact, simpler than
+those of the flat-bed cylinder press, and it may be said that so far
+as the purely mechanical part of the press is concerned, they have
+been fully developed, but much still remains to be done in other
+directions. The variety in the sizes of the pages of different books,
+the smallness of the editions, and the fact that the finer <span class="pagenum"><a id="page138" name="page138"></a>(p. 138)</span>
+grades of paper, especially coated paper, cannot be obtained in roll
+form, are obstacles to be removed. As most book forms are electrotyped
+for flat-bed presses, and as it requires but little additional expense
+to curve the plates, this one item is not much of an obstacle to
+overcome. It is, however, still difficult to curve the plates
+perfectly, and the pressmen, even if they can produce excellent work
+from flat-bed presses, require considerable training if they have had
+no experience on rotary presses. All these difficulties are sure to be
+overcome in time.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page139" name="page139"></a>(p. 139)</span>PRINTING INK<br>
+
+<span class="author">By James A. Ullman</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The process of making printing ink consists of grinding a pigment,
+black, white, or colored, into a suitable varnish. The pigment is that
+constituent which makes the impression visible, while the varnish is
+the vehicle which carries the pigment during the operation of grinding
+and during its distribution on the press to the type, from the type to
+the paper, and ultimately binds it to the paper.</p>
+
+<p>A complete factory for the production of printing ink consequently
+consists of three distinct plants,&mdash;one for the production of the
+varnishes, one for the manufacture of the pigments, and one for the
+grinding of the pigments into the varnishes.</p>
+
+<p>Roughly speaking, the varnishes are divided into three classes, the
+first and second of which are the varnishes proper, <span class="italic">i.e.</span> the resin
+and the linseed varnishes, while the third class consists of dryers,
+etc., whose purpose is to influence the drying and consistency of the
+inks.</p>
+
+<p>Taking up first the proper varnishes, we find that these are produced
+by the destructive distillation <span class="pagenum"><a id="page140" name="page140"></a>(p. 140)</span>of resin in huge cast-iron
+stills. By this process, the solid resin of colophony is split up into
+water, various resinic acids or naphthas, and resin oils of various
+specific gravities and consistencies, all of which are separated from
+each other into separate containers which are ready to receive them.
+As one distillation is not sufficient to purify the resin oils from
+the water and acid, which would not only give the resulting ink an
+obnoxious odor but be detrimental to type, plates, etc., the
+distillation is repeated a number of times until the oils become
+perfectly pure. The grades of varnishes made from these resin oils are
+used for the cheaper classes of printing inks, not only on account of
+their lower cost, but because they are more suitable for the class of
+work for which such inks are used.</p>
+
+<p>The linseed varnishes are made by boiling refined linseed oils at a
+very high temperature. The linseed oil loses its acrid elements by
+volatilization, and gradually becomes thick and viscous, the various
+"numbers" or consistencies of these varnishes being dependent upon the
+length of time during which the oil is subjected to the process, and
+to the temperature applied.</p>
+
+<p>The dryers are made by adding to the linseed oil during the boiling,
+suitable oxidizing agents, such as compounds of lead or manganese, by
+means of which the oil is chemically affected, <span class="italic">i.e.</span> it is oxidized.
+Such dryers, when added to printing <span class="pagenum"><a id="page141" name="page141"></a>(p. 141)</span>ink, attracts the oxygen
+of the air and transfer it by catalytic action to the varnish of the
+ink, thus causing it to oxidize more rapidly, or to become, as it is
+commonly called, dry.</p>
+
+<p>Having disposed of the manufacture of the varnishes and dryers, we now
+come to the manufacture of pigments. This is such a large field that
+it can be only cursorily covered within the limits of a short article.
+The pigments are of many kinds and classes. The blacks alone would
+form a large chapter by themselves; yet all of them consist of carbon,
+produced by the combustion of hydrocarbons of various kinds, and
+according to their origin they are the so-called carbon blacks, lamp
+blacks, spirit blacks, oil blacks, Frankfort blacks, etc., each of
+which has its distinct and peculiar properties and value for its
+specific purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The other pigments fall naturally into two divisions,&mdash;chemical colors
+and the so-called "lakes." The chemical colors are in general of
+mineral origin, produced by the action of one chemical upon the other,
+or in some cases by physical or chemical action upon earths and ores.
+In the first group, we have such colors as vermilions, white lead,
+chrome yellows, the ferrocyanide blues (Milori blues, bronze blues,
+Prussian blues, Chinese blues, Antwerp blues, Paris blues, Berlin
+blues), ultramarines, etc.; in the second group, such colors as
+cyanides, umbers, Indian red, and many others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page142" name="page142"></a>(p. 142)</span>The lakes are principally formed by the use of coal-tar
+derivatives, and are usually incorrectly grouped as anilines. They are
+produced by precipitating water-soluble dyes upon a suitable
+substratum or base. Their shades, strength, brilliancy, permanency,
+and working qualities are dependent upon the nature of the dye itself,
+upon the nature and percentage of the substratum or base, and also
+upon the suitable selection and manipulation of the precipitating
+agents. This class of colors is to-day by far the most important of
+all, since through great progress made in chemistry in recent years,
+it is possible to make them of the greatest possible strength and
+permanency, together with a brilliancy of shade which was for many
+years an ideal earnestly striven for, but apparently impossible to
+accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus considered the products which are the principal raw
+materials of printing ink, we now come to the ink itself. Being
+provided with all the varnishes, pigments, dryers, etc., of suitable
+qualities and shades, it is necessary to combine them in proper
+proportions, after selecting such as will be mutually compatible, and
+to grind them to the utmost fineness. The machinery to accomplish this
+purpose consists, first, of mixers, in which the ingredients are
+thoroughly incorporated with each other. This being done, the
+resulting mixture or "pulp," as it is called, is ground upon mills
+formed of rollers or cylinders, which are set <span class="pagenum"><a id="page143" name="page143"></a>(p. 143)</span>in close
+contact by means of screws and made to revolve by power. Between these
+rollers the pulp is passed again and again, the number of times being
+dependent upon the consistency of the ink and the nature of the
+pigments, until it is ground or comminuted to the utmost fineness. The
+result is printing ink as it is known to the printer, varying in
+consistency, strength, intensity, permanency, brilliancy, drying, and
+other working qualities, according to the nature of the various
+varnishes, dryers, and pigments with which it is made.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page144" name="page144"></a>(p. 144)</span>THE PRINTER'S ROLLER<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Albert S. Burlingham</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the fact that no one thing connected with the art of
+printing has done more toward the advancement of that art than the
+simple inking appliance familiarly and commonly known as "the
+printer's roller,"&mdash;without which, indeed, the evolution of the power
+printing press from the primitive hand machines of the fathers would
+not have been possible,&mdash;it is an inexplicable truth that historians
+and encyclopædia makers who have made investigation of the origin and
+progress of the art seem to have attached so little of importance to
+the invention or introduction of the composition roller that only
+meagre and casual reference is made to it. Even its predecessor, the
+"ink-ball," receives but scant courtesy at the hands of these
+chroniclers, for while they enter into the minutest detail (and
+properly so) in investigating as to whom the world is indebted for the
+idea of movable types and the invention of the printing press, they
+have not thought it worth their while to rescue from oblivion the
+suggester or adapter or constructor&mdash;whatever he may <span class="pagenum"><a id="page145" name="page145"></a>(p. 145)</span>have
+been&mdash;of the device by which those types were inked to receive the
+impression from that press, and without which neither types nor press
+would have been of any avail.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to be established beyond doubt, however, that the first
+suggestion of a roller to take the place of the ink-balls in applying
+ink to type forms was that of William Nicholson, with whom, also, the
+idea of the cylinder press originated, in 1790. He recognized the fact
+that no power press on the cylinder principle could be of practical
+use without an inking apparatus different from the primitive
+ink-balls. These were hollowed-out blocks of beech, mounted with a
+handle, the cavity stuffed with wool and covered with untanned
+sheepskin which had been well trodden until it was soft and pliable.</p>
+
+<p>The early printing presses were made of wood, and two men were
+required to work a press&mdash;one to make the impressions and one to ink
+the forms with the balls. The ink was contained in a receptacle called
+the ink-table. It was enclosed on three sides, and was attached firmly
+to one post, or cheek, of the press, on which were the racks for
+holding the ink-balls when not in use. A beechen implement, resembling
+somewhat our potato masher, and called the "brayer," was used to
+manipulate the ink as it lay on the table; an iron shovel, known as
+the "slicer," being used to portion out from the mass of ink such
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page146" name="page146"></a>(p. 146)</span>quantities as were needed from time to time for the brayer.</p>
+
+<p>It required much strength to manipulate the ink-balls properly, and
+thus it was a man's work. Taking up ink with them from the table, the
+operator vigorously beat the balls together with a rolling movement,
+turning them a little at a time so as to make the ink cover the entire
+surface and distribute it perfectly thereon. Then the type-forms were
+beaten with them until they were properly inked. The work of printing
+off an edition was divided between the two men, one manipulating the
+ink-balls for an hour, and then taking his turn at the press, while
+for the next hour his fellow-workman attended to the inking.</p>
+
+<p>William Nicholson, seeing at once that the idea of a cylinder press
+could never be worked out to practical perfection with such a process
+of inking as that, built up an inking roller with manifold layers of
+cloth, which he covered with the trodden sheep-pelt surface used in
+the ink-balls, the distribution of the ink on the roller to be made by
+contact with a revolving cylinder of wood. The idea was there, but
+that it would have had the intended result was never known, for
+although Nicholson's press contained nearly all the principles on
+which the cylinder presses of our day are constructed, it lacked one
+vital feature&mdash;the attaching of the type-forms to the cylinders&mdash;and
+was consequently not of any practical use.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page147" name="page147"></a>(p. 147)</span>The Earl of Stanhope, who, in 1798, invented the first iron
+frame and "platen" press, with the improvement of levers in addition
+to screws to give the impression, coupled with his object Nicholson's
+idea of an inking roller or revolving cylinder. He spent large sums in
+trying to find a substance that he could utilize for that purpose. He
+investigated with the skins of many animals, domestic and wild, and
+tanned and dressed in various ways. Different textures of cloth and
+varieties of silk were used, but without success. The seam that was
+necessary down the entire length of the roller was one great
+impediment to success, and even if that could have been overcome, the
+proper softness and pliability of surface for receiving and depositing
+the ink evenly and smoothly on the type could not be obtained from any
+of the processes experimented with; and Stanhope's improvement in
+printing presses was still subject to the inconvenience of the ancient
+ink-balls.</p>
+
+<p>In 1807 a printer named Maxwell made a sheepskin roller which he
+introduced into Philadelphia. It failed of success, and the printers
+returned to the ink-balls. This Maxwell roller was reintroduced by
+Fanshaw, a New York printer, in 1815, but the printers of that city
+rejected it.</p>
+
+<p>The inventors in England were still busily engaged in trying to solve
+the problem of the cylinder press that Nicholson had more than
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page148" name="page148"></a>(p. 148)</span>suggested in 1790, and the one great obstacle to success was
+the absence of a proper substance for supplying the need of an inking
+roller, the difficulty of the type and cylinder having been overcome
+by the invention of the "turtle" form. In 1813 a man whose name one
+historian gives as B. Foster, another as T. B. Foster, and to whom
+another refers as "Forster, an ingenious printer, employed by S.
+Hamilton, at Weymouth, England," one day visited the Staffordshire
+pottery. In a coloring process in use there Forster, or Foster,
+noticed a peculiar composition that covered the surface of the
+potter's "dabber." It was moist, pliable, and elastic. The historians
+do not say so, but we may well imagine that this "ingenious printer,"
+seeing in that composition what he believed to be the long-sought
+substance that would do away with the sheep pelt as an inking device,
+with all that implied to the progress of the art of printing, must
+have awaited with feelings of acute anxiety the answer of the potter
+to his query as to what that composition was.</p>
+
+<p>And what was it? "Glue and treacle,"&mdash;two of the simplest of articles,
+and the easiest to obtain. The printer experimented with them, and
+although he was the first to put to practical use in the art of
+printing the thing that revolutionized it and advanced it to its
+present state of wonderful perfection, yet so far as the printed
+chronicle of him goes, we do not know what his Christian name was,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page149" name="page149"></a>(p. 149)</span>or whether his surname was Foster or Forster; and one
+chronicler states that it was in 1813, and another that it was in
+1815, that he discovered roller composition to his fellow-printers.</p>
+
+<p>The collateral evidence, however, is to the effect that it was in
+1813. Forster (admitting that to have been his name), proved the
+availability of glue and molasses as an inking surface, not by using
+it in the form of a roller, but by coating a canvas with it, and using
+the canvas thus prepared in place of the sheep pelt on inking balls.
+From this the press inventors got the idea of coating a wooden
+cylinder with the composition. Applegath &amp; Cowper, inventors of the
+Applegath cylinder press, were the first to adapt it in roller form,
+and for a time held a patent on the use of it; but the courts of
+England decided that there could be no patent on the composition, and
+substitutes for the manufacture of rollers having been devised which
+were no infringement on Applegath &amp; Cowper's moulds, the compound came
+into open use, and Koenig, who had so improved and perfected
+Nicholson's ideas and plans for a power cylinder press, was able, in
+1814, by the adaptation of the glue and molasses roller, to print the
+first edition of a newspaper that was ever run from a cylinder
+press&mdash;the historic edition of <span class="italic">The London Times</span>. The problem of the
+inking apparatus solved, there was no longer any limit to the exercise
+of inventive genius in <span class="pagenum"><a id="page150" name="page150"></a>(p. 150)</span>the advancement of the printing art;
+and it is, therefore, to the printer's roller, more than to any one
+thing, that that art owes its wonderful preëminence to-day.</p>
+
+<p>There is no record in any of the histories of printing, or in
+encyclopædias, of who it was that introduced the composition roller
+into use in this country, or any reference to the date when it came
+into service. De Vinne, in his "Typographia," published in 1876, says
+that ink-balls were in use here "fifty years ago," or in 1826; but it
+must have been only in isolated and out-of-the-way rural printing
+offices, for it can hardly be supposed that Yankee "go-aheadativeness"
+would have failed to recognize at once the importance of the
+discovery, or have long delayed its general adoption, although the
+hand press, with many improvements, remained the universal printing
+machine in the United States until 1822, when the Treadwell power
+press gave the first impulse to more rapid printing. The Treadwell was
+not a cylinder press, but its invention would have been of no
+consequence without the composition roller. It is certain, however,
+that more than sixty years ago the melting pot and roller mould had
+become an important adjunct to every rural printing office, and the
+making of a new roller was an event in the routine of the
+establishment. The orthodox mixture for the composition in the
+printing office where the writer of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page151" name="page151"></a>(p. 151)</span>this was the "devil"
+forty-seven years ago was "a pint of sugar-house molasses to every
+pound of the best glue, with a tablespoonful of tar to every three
+pints and three pounds." And that was the customary composition of
+that day among country printers.</p>
+
+<p>There is a tradition among printers and roller-makers that the first
+roller turned out in this country was moulded in a stove pipe; but
+whether it was or not, and no matter who the first roller-maker might
+have been, it is a fact that the advance in the art of roller-making
+has had to be rapid in order to keep pace with the vast improvements
+in the cylinder press which the first composition called into use, and
+the old-fashioned glue and molasses rollers would be now of no more
+service to them than would the primitive ink-balls which the roller
+replaced. A comparison between the mode of making a roller in the
+early days of the business and the methods in use to-day will be of
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>In the old days the composition was cooked in a caldron over a coal
+fire, with water between two jackets to make the steam that forced the
+melting. The cast-iron moulds were placed near a stove to give them
+the necessary warmth of inner surface, a warm mould being required to
+give a good "face" to the roller in the casting. While cooking, the
+composition was constantly stirred with a stick to assist in the
+proper <span class="pagenum"><a id="page152" name="page152"></a>(p. 152)</span>assimilation of the ingredients. After it had reached
+the proper stage, it was strained from the melting kettle into pouring
+kettles, similar to ordinary milk pails. The composition was poured
+from the top. Naturally, this let into the moulds, with the
+composition, the air bubbles and froth that were always present, which
+caused imperfections in the rollers. After pouring, it was necessary
+to let the moulds stand all night, so the composition might become
+sufficiently cool to permit the "drawing" of the rollers. This was
+effected by placing a stick against the iron journal at one end of the
+roller core and pushing until the roller was forced out of the mould.</p>
+
+<p>But the roller factory of to-day is quite a different affair. Instead
+of separate moulds standing about a stove to get ready for the
+pouring, there are moulds in nests, or cylinders, resembling a Gatling
+gun, or a tubular boiler. There will perhaps be twenty roller moulds
+in a nest. The cylinders are balanced in the centre on journals, thus
+enabling the workman to place them at any angle desired, for purposes
+of oiling the moulds and loading them with the roller cores. The
+cylinders have hot and cold water contact, by which they may be
+surrounded by either at will. To warm the moulds the cylinder is put
+in an upright position, and hot water circulated about it the required
+length of time.</p>
+
+<p>The composition&mdash;which is something more <span class="pagenum"><a id="page153" name="page153"></a>(p. 153)</span>than the old-time
+glue and molasses&mdash;is prepared for pouring by melting in a
+double-jacketed steam kettle, the stirring being done by a mixer run
+by steam power. When ready, the composition is drawn off from the
+bottom of the cooking kettles into pouring kettles which have
+air-tight hoods. To these a hose is attached, the other end of the
+hose being connected with a tank which is charged with air by a pump.
+The hose being then attached to the cylinder, the air is introduced
+from the tank into the pouring kettle, forcing the composition upward
+into the cylinder, and all air from the moulds. This insures a perfect
+roller.</p>
+
+<p>When the composition has reached the top of the roller stocks, the
+valve at the bottom of the cylinder is closed, and the process is
+continued to the next cylinder ready for pouring. The cooling of the
+cylinders is effected by turning the cold water current around them,
+and a nest of moulds may be filled and emptied four or five times a
+day. After the cooling, the bottom plate of the cylinder is removed;
+the rollers drop out, are trimmed, and are ready for the shipping box.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page154" name="page154"></a>(p. 154)</span>THE ILLUSTRATOR<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Charles D. Williams</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is only in comparatively modern times that the art of illustration
+has received the encouragement that makes for perfection. For this,
+the cheapening of the manufacturing cost in printing is mainly
+responsible. An illustration proper should always accompany text and
+in days past the making of a book was so costly in itself that the
+possibility of illustration was almost beyond thought. Only the
+wealthy could afford illustrated books and as their reading was very
+limited, naturally illustration was crowded to the wall. Those with
+money to spend on pictures preferred decorations or portraits,
+consequently the endeavors of artists were aimed at supplying what
+suited the tastes of buyers. Illustration is and always has been the
+art of the people. It makes clearer to the imagination their stories
+and their songs, it mirrors their manner of life, interests, and
+pursuits in a way that brightens what would otherwise often be
+commonplace.</p>
+
+<p>Art seems to entwine itself about the strongest figures in a
+community, absorbing with its nourishment <span class="pagenum"><a id="page155" name="page155"></a>(p. 155)</span>the ethical
+qualities of the leader. Thus we have Michael Angelo in a community
+ruled by the church, creating, at its demands, a "Day of Judgment," a
+"Magdalen at the Cross," a "Moses," and Velasquez, evolving a
+marvellous technique while immortalizing in wonderful portraits the
+vanity of his Spanish lords.</p>
+
+<p>So that at the present day, with the people in ascendency, what is
+more probable than the perfect development of the art which most
+appeals to their tastes? Every day, artists of the highest
+intelligence find in illustration an opportunity to give the best that
+is in them, and the chances that illustration will reach the heights
+of perfection attained by other branches of art are exceedingly good.</p>
+
+<p>The opportunities for an illustrator are without end, and the problems
+are beyond number. It is a difficult performance to hand out, to
+order, pictures in which human emotions stand counterfeited. In the
+fact that illustration springs from and stands with the written tale
+and must finally serve its proper place between board covers, the man
+who labors at it finds some of his work already finished for him by
+the author. But it is a saving that tantalizes more than it assists.</p>
+
+<p>The technical equipment of the artist must twist into realistic
+semblance, clear to the eye, the imaginary product of the author. He
+must not add to it nor take away from it&mdash;even for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page156" name="page156"></a>(p. 156)</span>the sake
+of beauty in his picture&mdash;one iota of the facts given him. His
+imagination, grasping all the ideas of the author, must assemble them
+and find a place for each one, good, bad, and indifferent, and present
+them to the reader in a form that will command his approval.</p>
+
+<p>The artist cannot tease the mind with the vague influence of
+description, as can the author, nor can he veil his products with the
+pleasing glamour of unreality. Without haze his work stands forth,
+bold facts in half-tone reproduction and printer's ink, fighting an
+uncertain fight at best with the imagination of the reader.</p>
+
+<p>People will have illustrations, though. If the pictures do not
+literally fill the bill, they nevertheless please. Something definite,
+carrying a story idea, is always acceptable.</p>
+
+<p>Something which excites the imagination invariably challenges
+interest, and the illustrator who is true to his calling and above
+shirking his task enhances the interesting features of a book a
+thousand fold, if he spares no pains in arriving at an actual
+expression of the author's intention.</p>
+
+<p>The knowledge that an illustrator brings to his work should be as
+broad and varied as human history. Above and beyond his ability to
+draw or execute in a manner technically pleasing, should stand his
+knowledge of people, places, and events. It should include all Things,
+Ologies, and Isms. A living Index he must be, knowing just enough
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page157" name="page157"></a>(p. 157)</span>to readily discover more, and with this knowledge he must
+make others feel and imagine.</p>
+
+<p>If the author would tell of wars, Trojan, Egyptian, or Siamese, the
+illustrator must follow him and be truthful. He must know enough of
+Troy, Egypt, or Siam to make clear to the reader the face, form, and
+clothes of the characters, their weapons of bloodshed, their way of
+killing, how they marched to do it and through what manner of country.
+He must know or find out all these things, and within all his pictures
+must carry the spirit of terror and murder that stalked at the time,
+so carefully expressed that the terror and murder will be of that
+particular epoch and no other. All this must be shown as clearly as
+that the characters belong to their helmets or shields, their war
+chariots or bamboo lances. Simple the task may seem in these days of
+public libraries and ready reference, yet it is a most nerve-racking
+business, this placing an embossed helm or set of greaves on the hero
+of a story, so that he may stand out a Roman, and when the labor is
+finished having him stare genially out at you, insistently proclaiming
+the masquerade, and seemingly proud of his resemblance to a St. Louis
+button salesman.</p>
+
+<p>When all is said and done the illustrator's strongest asset is spirit.
+Technique and a grain of insight will help a man over many a rut in
+portraiture, and a knowledge of patting clay and using a chisel has
+saved many a sculptor, but technical <span class="pagenum"><a id="page158" name="page158"></a>(p. 158)</span>equipment alone never
+made an illustrator, because he deals too directly with life in
+action. Slack drawing and impatience of method will always be pardoned
+in an illustrator, if his picture convinces.</p>
+
+<p>Let a writer tell of a pair in love and the illustrator pictures their
+kiss; if he convinces the reader that the kiss is in earnest, the
+drawing may be full of faults, but the point is made and nothing more
+is asked, save that "she" be pretty and "he" manly. Consider the
+difficulty of this trick of convincing, when the words of love
+carefully weighed and prepared by the author and set into the
+atmosphere of a scene equally well prepared will often occasion
+derisive smiles. So it may be explained that the purpose of
+illustration is to carry the spirit of action rather than to serve as
+a basis for deft expression of technical skill, and illustration will
+reach its highest development along the lines which give it an excuse
+for its existence.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanical processes for the reproduction of illustrations have
+served to develop various methods of drawing the original picture. The
+half-tone screen in connection with photography has made possible an
+almost exact copy of the artist's work, and at very small cost.
+Formerly an illustration was drawn on a wood block and turned over to
+a wood engraver, who laboriously cut it into the block and as he cut
+away the drawing as he worked it was impossible to compare <span class="pagenum"><a id="page159" name="page159"></a>(p. 159)</span>
+his reproduction with the original. It can be readily seen that only a
+very good engraver was to be trusted to reproduce anything of value,
+and as there were never very many engravers of the first class,
+artists' work usually suffered. Half-tone engraving reproduces a
+drawing by photography and necessarily shows much of the individual
+method of the artist. Zinc etching of pen-and-ink drawings is even
+more exact in its results. Lately, methods of reproducing colored
+originals and paintings have been brought forward, and the results are
+surprisingly good. Scientific photography is at the bottom of this,
+and the old method of lithography, which demanded ten or twelve
+printings in reproduction, and then fell short, seems to have seen the
+last day on which it will break the heart of the artist.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the sun and the dry plate, illustrators had to find inks
+and methods which would aid the engraver as much as possible. The use
+of opaque white as a ground for the mixture of tones, with its
+resultant bluish cast in black-and-white drawing, has almost
+disappeared. The camera will not find gradations in blue and artists
+have found it better to use pure india ink washed out in water,
+allowing the white of the paper to serve for high lights. Of course,
+opaque has its uses, but it is only after much experience and many
+disappointments that an artist can learn just where to use it and how.
+Pen-and-ink drawings and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page160" name="page160"></a>(p. 160)</span>crayon drawings on rough paper in
+which the crayon is applied direct, and not rubbed, will always please
+the engraver most and return the best reproductions; but in this case
+cleverness and technique demand the greater notice from the artist if
+he would have the result interesting. A successful pen drawing is an
+achievement almost equal to an etching and it is unfortunate,
+considering the ease with which it may be successfully engraved, that
+good pen drawing is so rare.</p>
+
+<p>Black-and-white oil offers an inviting field to the illustrator who
+aims at a sense of completeness in his work. Honestly handled, there
+is no other method of working that can convey an equal feeling of
+solidity and earnestness. By its use an artist can suggest all the
+qualities of a full-color painting and impress one with the
+last-forever look that thought and study gives to earnest work.</p>
+
+<p>Most drawings for reproduction are worked in wash&mdash;why, it is hard to
+say. Oil will shine and reflect lights, and the engraver has this to
+overcome; but, barring the lightness and appearance of ease that wash
+suggests, there is no very apparent difference in the reproductions,
+and oil has the advantage of greater simplicity in detail.</p>
+
+<p>For deftness and brilliancy illustrations finished in crayon rubbed
+into tones easily surpass those done by other methods, but the process
+has the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page161" name="page161"></a>(p. 161)</span>disadvantage of appearing thin in the reproduction,
+unless the plate is very carefully tooled and printed.</p>
+
+<p>When the illustrator has chosen his subject and decided on the method
+of treatment that will best serve the demands of the story to be
+pictured, fully half his labor is completed.</p>
+
+<p>The preliminary sketches necessary to the condensing of his ideas open
+the door to the real pleasure in his work&mdash;standing up a model and
+creating therefrom a character is pure joy, and it is for this alone
+that the illustrator toils through the dry dust of reference libraries
+and costume shops.</p>
+
+<p>Models are either a great aid or a great drawback in the picturing of
+characters, for while they assist the artist by simplifying the labor
+of drawing, they often handicap him by intruding their own personality
+into the work, thereby spoiling the sense of character aimed at. When
+an illustrator allows this to happen, it does not matter how beautiful
+or accurate his sketch may be, he fails in the first essential of his
+craft, entering forthwith into the field occupied by painters and
+decorators, who can do the same thing very much better. So, while the
+model is often a necessary appendage to the construction of a
+character, it is imperative that the spirit and sense spring from the
+artist, whose business is, not to reproduce the model, but to use it
+sparingly as he would a book of reference.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page162" name="page162"></a>(p. 162)</span>The illustrator finds that the speech an author puts into the
+mouths of his characters is the best index to their personality. They
+may be described as tall or short, dark or light, stout or thin, and
+their creator may explain their capacities for love, hate, villany, or
+dissipation, but it is only the words with which they express their
+ideas that really describes them. His description of the beauty of a
+girl will not be accepted on trust. He must supply her with deportment
+and breeding before her beauty can be truly imagined. Thus it may be
+explained that the measure of an author's conception and clearness
+often determines the qualities in an illustration. The true
+illustrator is sensitive to faults in the delineation of character,
+and, although he may not be aware of it, his work will show it. Of
+course it often happens that an artist is taken up with ideas of
+technique and, author or no author, will make his pictures in just
+such a way; but such work is hardly illustration and serves itself
+better standing alone.</p>
+
+<p>And thus it goes throughout the scene to be pictured&mdash;place, time, and
+people, all must be imagined twice and equally clear, by both the
+author and the illustrator, before the reader will agree.</p>
+
+<p>To the illustrator, hampered by given quantities, falls the most
+difficult task in this duet of imagination, and he can at best hope
+only for the reader's approval, as all credit for conception goes to
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page163" name="page163"></a>(p. 163)</span>author. It is on this approval, though, that he builds,
+for if he succeeds in making things clearer to the reader's
+imagination, he has accomplished what he set out to do and has proved
+himself worth his hire.</p>
+
+<p>So the aims of illustration are set forth, but whether the laborer
+completes his work well or ill, whether he brings great ability or
+only honest intention to its accomplishment, he is engaged in a
+business as fascinating as it is uncertain. Failure only drives him to
+another try, and success is always just around the corner. The
+illustrator who would live by his work must live with it. If he has a
+thought in his mind that does not deal in some form with illustrations
+and half-tone plates, he is wasting that thought and his time besides.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page164" name="page164"></a>(p. 164)</span>HALF-TONE, LINE, AND COLOR PLATES<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Emlyn M. Gill</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Practically all book illustrations, as well as those in catalogues and
+periodicals of all kinds, are made by some method of photo-engraving.
+Wood engraving is almost a thing of the past, and many who are in a
+position to know predict that after the present generation of wood
+engravers has passed out of existence, artistic wood engraving will be
+a lost art. It is certain that there is now no younger school of wood
+engravers growing up to take the place of the engravers whose work in
+the leading magazines, up to a few years ago, made them famous.</p>
+
+<p>The quickly made and comparatively inexpensive process plates have not
+only taken the place of wood engraving, but have increased the field
+of illustration to a very large extent. They have made possible
+hundreds and even thousands of publications which could not have
+existed in the old days of expensive wood engraving. The use of
+photo-engraved plates has increased enormously each year during the
+past twenty years, and with this increased use has come the inevitable
+decrease <span class="pagenum"><a id="page165" name="page165"></a>(p. 165)</span>in cost, so that illustrations are no longer much
+of a luxury to the publisher.</p>
+
+<p>Photography is the basis of all the mechanical processes that come
+under the general head of photo-engraving. These processes are
+generally called mechanical, yet, as in photography, great skill is
+required to produce the best results. The higher grades of half-tone
+work require much careful finishing, which is all done by hand, and
+which, moreover, must be done by a skilful, intelligent, and artistic
+engraver. Practically all things may be reproduced successfully by
+photo-engraving, but the vast majority of subjects that go to the
+photo-engraver are either photographs or drawings.</p>
+
+<p>All methods of relief plate photo-engraving come under two general
+heads: "Half-tone" and "line engraving," the latter being very
+generally known as "zinc etching." Zinc etching is the simplest method
+of photo-engraving and should be thoroughly understood before one
+begins to inquire into the intricacies of the half-tone process. It is
+used to reproduce what is known as "black and white" work, or line
+drawings. Any drawing or print having black lines or dots on a white
+background, without any middle shades, may be engraved by this
+process. The old-fashioned "wet-plate" photography is used in making
+practically all process plates, either in line or half-tone.</p>
+
+<p>I will describe briefly all the operations gone <span class="pagenum"><a id="page166" name="page166"></a>(p. 166)</span>through in
+making a line plate, taking for a subject a map drawn in black ink on
+white paper or a head drawn by Charles Dana Gibson,&mdash;subjects wide
+apart in an artistic way, but of absolutely equal values so far as
+making the plate is concerned. The drawing is first put on a copy
+board in front of a camera made especially for this work, in whose
+holder the wet plate has already been placed by the operator. The
+subject may be enlarged or reduced to any desired size, nearly all
+drawings being made much larger than they are desired to be reproduced
+in the plates. The exposure is much longer than in ordinary dry plate
+work, generally lasting in the neighborhood of five minutes. The
+result is a black and white negative. That is, the lines that were
+black in the drawing are absolutely clear and transparent in the
+negative, but the rest of the negative is black. From the
+photographer, the negative goes to the "negative-turning" room. Here
+the negative is coated with solutions of collodion and rubber cement,
+which makes the film exceedingly tough&mdash;so tough that it is easily
+stripped from the glass on which it was made, and is "turned" with the
+positive side up on another sheet of glass. If this were not done, the
+plate would be reversed in printing&mdash;that is, a line of type would
+read from right to left, or backward. After the negative is "turned,"
+it is ready for the etching room. Here the surface of a sheet of zinc
+about one-sixteenth <span class="pagenum"><a id="page167" name="page167"></a>(p. 167)</span>of an inch thick, which has been
+polished until it is as smooth as plate glass and without a scratch or
+a flaw of any kind, is flowed with a sensitized solution, easily
+affected by light. The negative is placed in a printing frame over the
+sensitized zinc and a print is made. That is, it is exposed to the
+sunlight or to a powerful electric light, and the light shines through
+the transparent parts of the negative, and hardens the sensitized
+surface; while the black part of the negative protects the sensitized
+surface from the action of the light. The plate is next "rolled up"
+with a lithograph roller which distributes a thin coating of etching
+ink over the entire surface. The plate is then washed off carefully by
+the operator, but the ink adheres to all portions of the plate that
+have been acted upon by the light. We now have a fully developed print
+on the highly polished surface of the zinc that is an exact
+reproduction of the original drawing. It is now necessary to make this
+print acid proof, and this is done by covering the plate with a
+coating of very fine resinous powder, called "dragon's blood," which
+adheres to the printed portions of the plate. The plate is subjected
+to enough heat to melt this powder, and is then ready for the acid
+bath.</p>
+
+<p>A strong solution of nitric acid is used for etching zinc plates. This
+acid is placed in trays, which are rocked constantly, either by power
+or by hand, while the plate is being etched. The melted <span class="pagenum"><a id="page168" name="page168"></a>(p. 168)</span>
+dragon's blood makes a perfect acid resistant and the acid, therefore,
+does not affect the print (or picture itself), but eats away the bare
+surfaces of the metal between the black lines and the dots. When this
+etching has proceeded far enough to make a plate that may be used in
+printing, the lines and dots of the picture stand up in bold relief,
+while the metal around these lines and dots has been eaten away to a
+considerable depth.</p>
+
+<p>There are many details that cannot be described in a short article,
+but these are the principal operations gone through in etching the
+plate. One very important detail in etching is to prevent
+"undercutting." It is obvious that if the acid will eat down, it will
+also eat sidewise. The acid resistant is only on the surface. If means
+were not taken to prevent it, as soon as the acid got below the
+surface, it would begin to eat in under the print and the lines and
+dots of the picture would disappear; therefore, as soon as the plate
+has had its first "bite," it is taken from the acid, dried, and
+dragon's blood is brushed against the sides of the lines. This powder
+is then melted and the plate given another etching. While the plate is
+being etched down, it is removed from the acid several times, and the
+sides of the dots and lines are again protected. After leaving the
+etching room the plate goes to the "router," an ingenious machine,
+with a cutting tool revolving at a speed of fourteen thousand
+revolutions a minute, which quickly removes <span class="pagenum"><a id="page169" name="page169"></a>(p. 169)</span>the waste metal
+in the large open places between the lines and dots. The zinc plates
+are carefully looked over by a finisher, defects are removed, and the
+metal plates are then nailed on wooden blocks, so that they will be
+"type-high," that is, of exactly the same height as the metal
+type-forms used in printing. Hand presses are a necessity in all
+photo-engraving shops, and with these several "proofs" of each plate
+are printed in order that the customer may judge of the quality of the
+plate.</p>
+
+<p>While the line, or zinc etching process is immensely useful, in
+reproducing pen-and-ink drawings, maps, wood-cut prints, etc., yet the
+half-tone process is the one that practically revolutionized all known
+methods of illustration, after it had become perfected. While zinc
+etching is limited in its capabilities to the reproduction of black
+and white subjects, practically everything in art or nature may be
+reproduced by the half-tone process. The half-tone "screen" makes it
+possible to take a photograph or wash drawing and break the flat
+surface of the picture up into lines and dots, with the white spaces
+between that are an absolute essential in relief plate printing. If a
+half-tone print taken from any magazine or periodical is examined
+closely, either with the naked eye or a magnifying glass, it will be
+seen that the entire picture is a perfect network of lines and dots,
+and that there are two sets of lines running diagonally across the
+plate at right angles to each other. In <span class="pagenum"><a id="page170" name="page170"></a>(p. 170)</span>the darker portions
+of the picture it will be seen that the lines are very heavy, with a
+small white dot in the centre of each square, made by the intersecting
+lines. In the lighter portions of the picture, these lines will be
+found to be very fine, while in the lightest parts, or in the "high
+lights," as they are called, the lines disappear and in their places
+are a mass of fine dots, not much larger than a pin point.</p>
+
+<p>To make a half-tone plate of a photograph or other subject, it is
+necessary to break the negative up into lines and dots. It is for this
+purpose that the half-tone "screen" is used. The screen consists of
+two thin pieces of plate-glass, on the surface of which a series of
+very delicate parallel black lines have been ruled running diagonally
+across the glass. When these pieces of glass are placed together, face
+to face, the parallel lines ruled on them intersect each other at
+right angles, giving a very fine "mosquito-netting" effect. The method
+of making the negative is very similar to that described in making
+line negatives, excepting that in making a half-tone negative the
+screen is placed in the plate-holder directly in front of the
+negative. The subject is then photographed, and the result is a
+negative completely covered with a mass of fine transparent lines and
+dots.</p>
+
+<p>Copper is generally used instead of zinc in making half-tone plates.
+In making a print on copper the light shines through the transparent
+lines and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page171" name="page171"></a>(p. 171)</span>dots of the negative and hardens the sensitized
+surface of the plate. The black parts of the negative between the
+transparent lines and dots protect the sensitized surface. When the
+plate, after printing, is placed under a water tap, the parts of the
+sensitized surface that have not been acted upon by light wash away,
+leaving a print that becomes acid proof after being subjected to an
+intense heat.</p>
+
+<p>The method of etching a copper plate is similar to that already
+described for etching zinc plates, excepting that sesquichloride of
+iron is used instead of nitric acid. In a half-tone the dots and lines
+are so close together that great depth is neither desirable nor
+possible, and no steps are taken to prevent undercutting.</p>
+
+<p>The half-tone plate, after it has been carried as far as possible by
+mechanical processes, is capable of great improvement in the hands of
+skilful engravers. The plate as it comes from the etching bath may be
+termed a mechanical product. Though great skill is necessary in making
+the negative, the print, and the etching, the hand-finishing gives the
+plate many of its artistic qualities. The unfinished plate is apt to
+be more or less "flat" in appearance; the high lights may not be light
+enough, while the dark portions of the plate are apt, in cases, to be
+too light. The most common methods of finishing are reëtching and
+burnishing. The finisher dips a camel's-hair brush <span class="pagenum"><a id="page172" name="page172"></a>(p. 172)</span>in acid
+and applies it to the high-light portions of the plate, or other
+places that are too dark, and allows it to act on the metal until
+these parts of the plate are lightened sufficiently. The parts of the
+plate that are too light are made darker by rubbing down the surface
+of the plate with a tool called the burnisher. The skilful, artistic
+finisher has other methods at his command of making the plate
+reproduce as accurately and as artistically as possible the original
+drawing or photograph. High lights are sometimes cut out entirely, or
+a fine engraver's tool may be "run" between the lines; while a
+"wood-engraved" finish is produced by cutting, in certain portions of
+the plate, lines similar to those used in wood engraving.</p>
+
+<p>In the price-cutting that has been going on as a result of the fierce
+competition that has existed among photo-engravers during the past few
+years, the artistic possibilities of the half-tone have been lost
+sight of to a certain extent. The product of the engravers is sold by
+the square inch, regardless of the fact that the cost of one plate may
+be double the cost of another plate of the same size, but from a
+different subject.</p>
+
+<p>A point also worth remembering is that until the plate reaches the
+finishers' hands, it has been more or less of a mechanical product;
+and that the plate is made an artistic creation by the skill, care,
+and brains of an intelligent class of men earning from $25 to $50 a
+week. Those expecting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page173" name="page173"></a>(p. 173)</span>"the best" at "the lowest price" can
+easily guess about how much of this high-priced finishing they will
+get when the price paid barely covers the cost of the mechanical
+product. Then, engravers striving for high quality in the product pay
+from twenty-five to fifty per cent higher wages, as a rule, than the
+cheap, commercial shops. But the idea of square-inch price has so
+generally permeated the buying public, that the larger and better
+shops have been compelled, to a greater or less extent, to meet the
+prices of their less skilful competitors. They are enabled to do this
+and give their customers much greater value for their money, only
+through better business methods, more modern facilities, and by
+conducting the business on a very large scale.</p>
+
+<p>The screens used in making half-tones represent an enormous outlay in
+the large shops. A comparatively small screen costs in the
+neighborhood of $100. A screen 18 × 20, ruled 120 or 133 lines to the
+inch, costs about $500. Screens are made with different numbers of
+lines to the inch, from 65, for coarse, newspaper work, up to 400. The
+screens in general use are 65, 85, 100, 110, 120, 133, 150, 166, 175,
+and 200; but intermediate sizes are also used, such as 125 and 140. A
+screen containing 200 lines to the inch is about the finest ever used
+for ordinary printing purposes, though a few screens with 250, 300,
+and 400 lines to the inch have been made. A well-equipped
+photo-engraving <span class="pagenum"><a id="page174" name="page174"></a>(p. 174)</span>establishment must have all these screens,
+and all of them in many different sizes. In the writer's shop there
+are fifteen cameras, all of them in constant use in the daytime and
+five or six of them are always in use all night. Some days the bulk of
+the work in the place will be a fine grade of magazine engraving
+calling for a 175 screen. In order to keep all the cameras at work all
+the time, a thing that is very important in a well-regulated place, it
+is necessary to have a number of 175 screens almost equal to the
+number of cameras. The same is true of most of the other screens in
+general use. Fortunately for the engraver and the consumer these
+screens practically last forever if carefully handled.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest developments in process work during the past few years
+have been in the making of color plates. Beautiful results are
+obtained in two colors by the "duograph" or "duotone" processes, the
+plates being made for two printings. The three-color process aims to
+reproduce all colors in three printings, by using inks of red, yellow,
+and blue. This process is very interesting, but somewhat intricate.
+Primarily, the results are made possible by color separations. The aim
+is to take a colored subject&mdash;an oil painting, for instance&mdash;and by
+photographing it three times, each time through a different colored
+piece of glass, to divide all the colors into what are called the
+three primary colors&mdash;red, yellow, and blue. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page175" name="page175"></a>(p. 175)</span>From each of
+these color separations a half-tone plate is made, and when these
+plates are put on the printing-press, and the impressions are printed
+over each other in yellow, red, and blue inks, respectively, the
+result is a printed picture reproducing correctly all the colors of
+the original subject.</p>
+
+<p>While many subjects may be reproduced accurately by this process, yet
+the three-color process seems inadequate to give perfectly
+satisfactory results in all cases. Nearly all three-color process
+houses are now prepared to add a fourth, or key, plate, to be printed
+in black, in case the subject seems to need it. The three-color
+process has enabled many of the leading magazines to use illustrations
+in colors, and there is not the slightest doubt but that there is a
+great future for this class of work.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page176" name="page176"></a>(p. 176)</span>THE WAX PROCESS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Robert D. Servoss</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Almost all of the maps found in text and reference books, as well as
+the geometrical diagrams used in mathematical and scientific works,
+are made by what is known as the "wax process."</p>
+
+<p>This process was invented and patented by an Englishman named Palmer
+about 1840, shortly after the discovery of the method of making
+electrotype plates for printing purposes. He announced that he would
+furnish artists with copper plates covered with a waxlike composition
+on which they could make their own drawings, in a manner similar to
+but much simpler than the method followed by the etcher on copper.
+After receiving the artist's work, the plates were to be returned to
+Palmer, who then made an ordinary electrotype of the engraving. A
+circular, issued about 1841, gives the necessary instructions for
+engraving, and the prices for the wax-coated plates and the subsequent
+electrotypes, and shows many beautiful illustrations made by artists
+of that time. It was then called the "glyphographic process."</p>
+
+<p>The process was first introduced into this country by a firm of
+printers in Buffalo, New York, and was <span class="pagenum"><a id="page177" name="page177"></a>(p. 177)</span>used by them for
+several years for illustrating the United States patent office reports
+until it was superseded upon the introduction of photo-lithography and
+the subsequent adoption by the government of a uniform standard for
+patent drawings.</p>
+
+<p>This process may be described in a general way as follows: A copper
+plate having a highly polished surface is first blackened by the
+application of a weak solution of sulphuret of potassium, or other
+chemical which will oxidize the copper. Then a composition, made by
+melting together in proper proportions, beeswax, zinc-white, and
+paraffin, is "flowed" over the blackened surface, producing an opaque
+whitish engraving ground. The thickness of the wax is varied according
+to the subject to be engraved, but in general should not exceed that
+of heavy writing paper. After it has been allowed to cool with the
+plate lying perfectly horizontal, the wax is smoothed down to an even
+thickness by a steel scraper, and the plate is then ready to receive
+the engraving.</p>
+
+<p>Taking for an example the engraving of a map, the original copy is
+either photographed on the wax surface, or is transferred to it by
+covering the back of the copy with red chalk and tracing over every
+line with a steel point. The photograph, or the tracing, on the wax
+must not be a reversed one, as might be supposed, but should "read
+right." The outlines of the map are then gone over, with an engraving
+tool which cuts out a small channel <span class="pagenum"><a id="page178" name="page178"></a>(p. 178)</span>in the wax, down to, but
+not into, the surface of the copper plate. The bottoms of these
+channels will eventually form the surface of the relief lines in the
+resultant electrotype plate, but now appear as dark lines against the
+whitish groundwork of the wax.</p>
+
+<p>The engraving tools are made in different sizes, and therefore
+channels of varying widths at the bottoms may be cut in order to
+produce lines of different sizes. In cutting lines to indicate
+rivers,&mdash;which must be thin at the source and increase in thickness as
+they approach the mouth,&mdash;tools are used in graduated sizes. The first
+one cuts its own line of equal width for a very short distance, then
+another and slightly wider tool is used, the next still wider, and so
+on until the river line is completed. In reality a series of steps,
+the work is so done that the line appears to the eye to increase in
+width evenly and gradually from a very fine beginning to a heavy
+ending. The wavy lines indicating hills and mountains are made in
+substantially the same way. Special steel punches are pressed through
+the wax to the copper to show town and capital marks, and after all
+the lines and marks are completed, the plate is ready to receive the
+lettering. The name of each individual town, city, state, or river is
+set up in printer's type and stamped one name at a time into the wax.
+The type is placed in a small tool resembling a vise, which holds it
+in perfect alignment and on a perfect <span class="pagenum"><a id="page179" name="page179"></a>(p. 179)</span>level. Tools of
+various shapes are used for stamping the names in straight and curved
+lines. It is necessary to wet the type to prevent its adhering to the
+wax.</p>
+
+<p>The plate is then carefully compared with the original copy and after
+any necessary corrections have been made it is gone over by an expert
+operator, who cuts out any of the channels which may have been
+obliterated by the burr of the wax, resulting from pressing in the
+names.</p>
+
+<p>We now have a plate in which the lines have been cut in small channels
+and the names stamped with type. This is a matrix, or mould, from
+which an electrotype of the lines now sunken in the wax may be made in
+high relief for printing, but the blank portions of the wax are so
+thin that it is first necessary to fill in all these places on the
+plates with wax in order to produce a sufficiently deep electrotype
+plate. This is done by "building up" the plate. A small hook-shaped
+tool, heated over a gas jet, is used to melt small pieces of wax which
+are run carefully around all the names and in the spaces between
+lines, thus filling up all these spaces with a round, smooth body of
+wax. From this mould an ordinary electrotype is made by the method
+described elsewhere in this book.</p>
+
+<p>All these operations require much skill and patience at every step,
+but the plates produced by the wax process are always much deeper and
+stronger than those made by any other process.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page180" name="page180"></a>(p. 180)</span>MAKING INTAGLIO PLATES<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Elmer Latham</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The method by which a photogravure plate is produced, is probably the
+least understood of all of the many photo-processes of reproduction.
+This is chiefly on account of the difficulty of the process, which is
+not an easy matter to explain in detail, and also on account of the
+secrecy with which all plate makers guard their processes.</p>
+
+<p>The reproduction of a mezzotint or line-engraved print, when made by a
+good photogravure process, produces in most cases a print which cannot
+be detected from the original. The originator of the process was
+probably Fox Talbot, an Englishman. The writer has seen one of his
+prints, made between 1855 and 1860, which was a very creditable piece
+of work. Dujardin of Paris took up Talbot's process, and after much
+modification, succeeded in developing a successful process which he is
+working to-day. All photogravure plate makers of the present time have
+more or less copied the process of Fox Talbot.</p>
+
+<p>There are three different methods of making these plates known to the
+writer. The reader probably knows that a photogravure plate is not a
+relief <span class="pagenum"><a id="page181" name="page181"></a>(p. 181)</span>plate, but an intaglio, and is printed on an
+etching-press in the same manner as an etching and requires special
+skill in printing on the part of the printer to produce the best
+results. I will give a brief explanation of the three different
+processes.</p>
+
+<p>The first is known as the transfer process. In this process a reversed
+photographic negative is made from the copy, from which a positive or
+"transparency" is made, either by contact or in the camera. A piece
+of carbon paper is then coated lightly with gelatine, sensitized with
+bichromate of potassium and allowed to dry. The paper is then placed
+in contact with the positive and printed in daylight until the image
+is imprinted on the gelatine coating of the paper, such portions of
+which as have received the most exposure from the action of light
+becoming quite insoluble. A copper plate, cleaned so that it is free
+from grease, is introduced into a large box into which has been blown
+a very finely powdered resin, which is allowed to settle somewhat
+before putting in the plate. The plate is allowed to remain in the box
+until a fine deposit of resin has settled all over it. It is then
+carefully removed and heated over a gas burner until the resin adheres
+firmly to the plate. The resin is melted only to such a point that it
+forms a fine grain all over the plate, leaving interstices of bare
+copper between. The paper, on the gelatine surface of which the
+picture <span class="pagenum"><a id="page182" name="page182"></a>(p. 182)</span>is printed, is now placed in a tray of warm water,
+and the parts of the image which have had the least exposure are
+thereby dissolved and washed away, the image being thus fully
+developed on the paper. This is placed in contact with the grained
+plate, which has been placed in the tray of water, and firmly squeezed
+in contact with the plate. The paper is stripped off, leaving the
+gelatine film on the copper. The plate is now removed from the tray
+and dried, and is then ready for etching, which is accomplished by
+placing the plate successively in several baths of acid of different
+strengths until the desired results are obtained. This process gives a
+shallow plate, of not great wearing quality, and, as a rule, requires
+a great deal of work by the engraver to bring the plate up to anything
+like the copy. The light tints come out very soft and smooth, but the
+black tones etch "flat" and lose all detail. These blacks must be put
+in by hand. The poor wearing qualities of these plates make them
+undesirable in cases where a large edition has to be printed.</p>
+
+<p>The next process is the "deposited" plate used by "Goupil" of Paris,
+in which copper is deposited by electricity upon a swelled gelatine
+film which has had a grain formed upon its surface chemically or
+otherwise. The deposition has to be continued until the plate has
+acquired the necessary thickness, which takes about three weeks; and
+this is a long time to wait in these days, when a publisher <span class="pagenum"><a id="page183" name="page183"></a>(p. 183)</span>
+usually expects his order executed in ten days. These plates are
+practically hand made. The process gives a plate that could not
+possibly be used without a great deal of retouching by an expert
+engraver. Goupil turns out a beautiful plate, due principally to his
+large force of engravers, one man working on a particular part of the
+plate, then passing it on to another who does some other portion, and
+so on, until the plate is finished. In this way each engraver becomes
+exceedingly skilful in one thing. Line engraving is reproduced by this
+process exceedingly well, but such plates, like the transfer process,
+are shallow and give out soon in the printing.</p>
+
+<p>The last process that I have to deal with is the one I am working
+myself. In this process the plates are made in two or more etchings,
+according to the requirements of the subject which is to be
+reproduced. This method produces a plate of great depth both in the
+light and black tints, and on account of the small amount of hand-work
+required after the plate is etched, the copy is followed very closely.
+With a good positive and favorable conditions, quite frequently a
+plate is made upon which the retoucher needs to do no work at all, and
+a more faithful reproduction is made than by any of the other methods
+that I have mentioned. After a good positive is procured, the copper
+plate is cleaned, and a sensitized solution of gelatine is flowed over
+the plate, dried down, and then printed <span class="pagenum"><a id="page184" name="page184"></a>(p. 184)</span>under the positive,
+with a short exposure. The plate is grained as in the transfer
+process, and is then etched.</p>
+
+<p>This first etching, on account of the short exposure, goes over the
+plate in about three minutes, and is simply intended to get the light
+tints. The plate is again cleaned off and coated, this time in a
+different manner, and given a much longer exposure under the positive.
+The next etching takes about three hours, which gives the blacks great
+depth. Comparing this with the transfer plate which has an etching of
+from fifteen to twenty minutes, the reason for the difference in the
+wearing qualities of the plate is quite evident. This process, whether
+used by myself or others, I feel free to say is the best one that has
+ever been worked, inasmuch as it gives a far more faithful
+reproduction than any of the others with a minimum of work by the
+retoucher.</p>
+
+<p>Some plate makers claim to make all their plates without any
+retouching, which cannot be done. As I have mentioned before,
+occasionally a plate can be made as good as the copy without
+hand-work. But to say that any chemical process gives such results
+continually, or that a plate cannot be improved by a skilful retoucher
+is, to say the least, misleading. All of the different processes are
+very sensitive to atmospheric influences, and no small amount of
+chemical as well as mechanical skill is required to keep things
+running smoothly; <span class="pagenum"><a id="page185" name="page185"></a>(p. 185)</span>and at certain times the best of operators
+are at a loss to remedy some slight fault that may upset things
+temporarily. Photogravure making is based upon a foundation of small
+details, that must be looked after with the utmost care, and the
+neglect of any one of which means failure at the end. So it may be
+surmised that at times the operator has trouble of his own.</p>
+
+<p>Every maker of plates, no matter which process he uses, has his
+individual ways of doing things, so that except in a general way no
+two processes are operated alike. This gives an individuality to each
+man's work, and an expert can easily tell one from another. For
+high-class illustrations, no other photographic process can compare
+with photogravure, and no doubt it will be many years before anything
+will be found to excel or even equal it. Much experimenting has been
+done with other methods, but the results have always been inferior,
+and I think it is safe to predict that the photogravure will always be
+popular.</p>
+
+<p>Etchings, mezzotints, and steel engravings are still occasionally used
+in the illustration of fine books, and brief descriptions of how they
+are made will be of interest.</p>
+
+<p>An etching is usually made on a copper plate. The plate being covered
+with a thin coating of wax, the artist works on it with an etching
+point, sketching his subject on the plate in fine lines as he would in
+making a pen-and-ink drawing, but <span class="pagenum"><a id="page186" name="page186"></a>(p. 186)</span>cutting his lines through
+to the copper. The plate is then "walled in" with a high rim of wax,
+forming a sort of tray of the plate. Into this tray is poured a
+diluted solution of nitric acid, which etches, or "bites," into the
+uncovered lines on the plate. Some artists give a plate a short
+"bite," as the etching is called, for the light lines, then cover
+these portions of the plate with wax and give the plate successive
+"bites," stopping out each part as it gains its required depth. Others
+remove the coating and "prove" the plate by taking a print from it
+after each "bite,"&mdash;each of these prints being known as a "state of
+the plate" and showing what is still required to be done. In the work
+of an etcher like Whistler the impressions of the "first state,"
+"second state," etc., are of considerable interest, as they show the
+progress of the man's work, but, except as an object of interest or as
+a curiosity, these prints can have no real value as they are
+unfinished work, simply showing the various stages in the making of a
+work of art.</p>
+
+<p>A mezzotint is also usually made on a copper plate. A texture, or
+groundwork, is worked on the copper plate with a tool resembling a
+cabinet maker's toothed plane iron, except it is rounded at the end.
+The teeth are very fine, ranging from forty to one hundred and twenty
+to the inch in different tools. This tool is called a "Bercier," or
+"rocker." The rounded edge allows the tool <span class="pagenum"><a id="page187" name="page187"></a>(p. 187)</span>to be rocked
+across the plate, the rocking motion causing the teeth to form
+indentations in the copper. The rocking has to be continued until the
+surface of the plate is completely covered, and it then presents an
+appearance like velvet. Rocking in from forty to sixty directions is
+necessary to cover the plate properly. The durability of a mezzotint
+plate depends entirely upon the pressure put upon the rocker, and the
+depth to which it penetrates the copper. After the ground is thus
+laid, the outline is sketched in on the rocked surface, which takes
+the pencil easily, and then with steel scrapers and burnishers the
+light and middle tints are worked down, leaving undisturbed the
+portions of the surface where the strongest blacks are to be. From
+time to time, a print is taken from the plate, to note the progress of
+the work, which advances slowly to the finish. On account of the
+length of time necessary for the laying of the ground and the scraping
+of the plate, many artists hesitate to attempt mezzotint plates. There
+are very few men in this country to-day who do mezzotint engraving,
+which, considering the results to be obtained, seems somewhat
+surprising.</p>
+
+<p>For flesh tones, drapery, and landscapes it has no equal. The velvety
+richness of the blacks, the beautiful gradations of the middle tones,
+and the extreme delicacy of the light tints give the artist a power of
+expression not obtainable by any other <span class="pagenum"><a id="page188" name="page188"></a>(p. 188)</span>method of engraving.
+Besides this, as the engraving is done on the bare copper, the artist
+can see at all times the progress of his work without having to take
+off the wax ground as he must in making an etching. This is a great
+advantage, for as the effect of each stroke can be plainly seen on the
+plate, the element of uncertainty which always attends the production
+of an etching is entirely eliminated, and it is then simply a question
+of skill with the scraper. The difficulty of obtaining rockers is one
+great drawback. I doubt if one could be obtained in New York to-day.
+The teeth have to be very accurately cut, and a perfect tool has a
+value to an engraver that cannot well be estimated. The lack of demand
+has prevented their manufacture in this country, but they could be
+made here by any fine tool maker.</p>
+
+<p>Steel engravings are still used to some extent in this country,
+although only in portrait work. A wax ground is laid on the plate as
+in etching. A tracing is made from the photograph, from which the
+picture is to be made, and is then transferred to the wax ground. The
+engraver then follows the lines of the tracing with an etching point,
+the hair, head, and outline of the features being gone over carefully.
+Then the plate is etched with weak nitric acid. If the face is to be
+"stippled," it is covered with fine dots made by a graver directly on
+the surface of the metal after the plate has been etched and the wax
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page189" name="page189"></a>(p. 189)</span>cleaned off. If the face is to be a mezzotint, that part of
+the work is all rocked over, and then scraped down within the etched
+outline, when the flesh is modelled as in a regular mezzotint. The
+drapery, background, etc., is usually done by a ruling machine with
+fine or coarse, waved or straight lines, as the texture may require.
+These lines are ruled through a coating of wax, and then, by etching
+and stopping out, the required results are obtained.</p>
+
+<p>This method of engraving is also giving place to process work, and in
+a few years more the steel engraved portrait will probably be a thing
+of the past.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page190" name="page190"></a>(p. 190)</span>PRINTING INTAGLIO PLATES<br>
+
+<span class="author">By George W. H. Ritchie</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The method of printing etchings, mezzotint, and other intaglio plates
+is the same to-day as it was in the time of Rembrandt and Durer. The
+modern inventor has found no way to economize time, labor, or expense
+in the work&mdash;excepting that in the case of postage stamps, bond
+certificates, and similar plates, which are printed in vast
+quantities, the work has been adapted to the steam press.</p>
+
+<p>In the olden time the engraver, or etcher, himself was to a
+considerable extent his own printer. He worked at engraving his plate
+until he needed a proof to show him how the work was progressing. Then
+he printed, or "pulled," a proof and resumed his work, taking proofs
+from time to time until he had completed the plate to his
+satisfaction. Then, if only a small edition was required, he printed
+it. Proofs taken during the making of a plate are known by plate
+engravers and printers as the "states" of a plate, and it is due to
+the whim of the etcher, the softness of the copper, and the wearing of
+the plate in printing that we have prints representing many "states"
+of a single plate <span class="pagenum"><a id="page191" name="page191"></a>(p. 191)</span>which might otherwise have had but one
+state, thus depriving one modern print collector of the privilege of
+discovering in his proof three hairs more or less in a donkey's tail
+than his rival finds in another proof, which makes the former's more
+valuable by several hundred pounds.</p>
+
+<p>One form of press is used for all manner of intaglio plate printing.
+It consists of a framework supporting two heavy iron rollers, between
+which moves a flat iron travelling plank, or bed, and on this bed the
+plate to be printed is laid. The pressure of the rollers is regulated
+by screws at each end of the top roller, which is covered with two or
+three pieces of thick felt. This top roller is revolved by handles and
+the bed moves along with it under the pressure of the roller. At one
+side of the press stands a rectangular box, or "stove," made of iron,
+or having an iron top. The top is heated by gas and on it the printer
+puts his plate while inking and wiping it. The heat thins the ink as
+it is applied, allowing it to be worked freely and to be "lifted"
+easily by the paper.</p>
+
+<p>The ink is made of fine bone dust, vegetable or other form of carbon,
+which has been carefully cleansed from foreign matter and ground to
+the necessary fineness in combination with burned linseed oil. Its
+strength and consistency should be varied according to the plate which
+is in hand, and the color also may be varied to suit the character of
+the plate by the addition of pigments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page192" name="page192"></a>(p. 192)</span>The paper used in plate printing may be one of several kinds,
+but the usual variety is a fine white paper free from spots and
+imperfections which might mar the appearance of the finished print.
+This paper is made either by hand or machinery of selected bleached
+cotton rags, and has a soft, spongy surface which yields readily under
+the pressure of the plate. Before it can be used the paper is
+moistened and allowed to stand for from one to twelve hours, or even
+longer, until it becomes evenly and thoroughly dampened,&mdash;but not
+wet,&mdash;so that it will more readily force itself into the lines of the
+plate and take therefrom and hold the ink.</p>
+
+<p>Before printing a photogravure, mezzotint, or other engraved plate the
+printer must first carefully examine it to see that it has no
+scratches, and that no dried ink remains in the lines from the last
+printing, and, in fact, that there are none of the many possible
+impedimenta which might prevent the production of a perfect print. The
+plate being in proper condition, it is then thoroughly cleansed with
+turpentine or benzine, all traces of which must be carefully wiped
+from the surface before the ink is applied. The plate is then laid on
+the heated iron box or "stove" until it has become thoroughly warmed.
+The surface of the plate is covered with ink, put on by means of an
+ink-roller, or perhaps the old-fashioned dauber, and the ink is
+thoroughly worked into the lines or <span class="pagenum"><a id="page193" name="page193"></a>(p. 193)</span>depressions in the
+plate. After this the ink on the flat surface of the plate is entirely
+removed by wiping with rags. The printer's hand, which has become more
+or less covered with ink from the rags, is then passed over a piece of
+chalk, or gilder's white, and lightly rubbed over the surface of the
+plate, to remove the last vestige of the ink, leaving a highly
+polished flat surface with the incised lines or depressions filled
+with ink to the level of the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The plate is then ready for printing and is placed on the bed of the
+press, a sheet of dampened paper laid upon it, and both are then run
+between the rollers of the press. As the top roller is encased in soft
+blankets, the soft, dampened paper is forced into the ink-filled lines
+of the plate, and when the paper is removed the ink clings to it and
+shows an exact impression of the engraving. This entire process must
+be repeated for each print made from an intaglio plate.</p>
+
+<p>While the printing of a steel engraving or photogravure is a more or
+less mechanical operation, the printing of an etching&mdash;and "dry
+points" may be included&mdash;is oftentimes as much of an art as the actual
+etching of the plate. The two styles of printing may be compared to
+two kinds of fishing,&mdash;that of fishing for flounders with a drop line,
+from a flat-bottomed boat at low tide when one must just sit tight
+until one has a bite, and then haul in the fish, bait up, drop the
+line and wait <span class="pagenum"><a id="page194" name="page194"></a>(p. 194)</span>again, as against that of angling for trout on
+an early spring day, dropping the fly in a likely spot without success
+at the first cast, persevering until rewarded by a rise and then by
+the sport of playing the fish, giving him line and reeling him in as
+about he circles and finally is landed. A good one, perchance, but the
+sport was in landing him. So it is with printing an etching. There is
+the opportunity to play with, and work hard over, a plate. Perhaps the
+etcher has not, for reasons only known to himself, put in the plate
+all that can be shown in the print by ordinary printing. The printer
+actually has to interpret in his printing the etcher's meaning, for
+the which, as a rule, he gets "more kicks than ha'pence," and in the
+end wishes he had stuck to plain plate printing as far as the profit
+is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>In the process of printing an etching, the printer first covers the
+plate with ink and then wipes it with the rags, and, if necessary,
+with the hand. It depends entirely upon the etched work of the plate
+as to how it must be wiped, and it rests with the printer to prepare a
+proof which is satisfactory to the etcher. The plate is wiped
+"closely" where the high lights are required or a tint (a thin coating
+of ink) left over certain portions where it needs to be darker. After
+this the plate is "retroussed," which is accomplished by passing a
+very soft piece of fine muslin, or a "badger blender,"&mdash;a soft brush
+used by artists,&mdash;delicately over the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page195" name="page195"></a>(p. 195)</span>work in the plate and
+drawing the ink up and over the edges of the lines. This softens and
+broadens the lines and gives a very rich effect, and, if continued
+sufficiently, fills the spaces between the lines and produces an
+almost black effect. All this work is varied according to the wishes
+of the etcher. A plate that left the etcher's hand a mere skeleton may
+be made to produce a print which is a thing of life. The possibilities
+of an etching in the hands of a skilful printer are almost limitless;
+the effects can vary with every impression, each showing a new
+picture. His processes are as interesting as those of the etcher
+himself, and it is within his capabilities to transform an etching
+from a broad daylight effect into a moonlight scene, including the
+moon, by judiciously, or injudiciously, inking and wiping the plate.</p>
+
+<p>A "dry point" plate is produced by drawing on a copper plate with a
+steel or diamond point, and without biting by acid. The lines are cut
+into the copper and a burr thrown up which holds the ink in printing,
+and produces a soft, velvety line. The method of printing such a plate
+is similar to that of an etching, but the possibilities are not as
+great in the printing, as they rest to a greater extent upon the work
+of the artist. A great depth of color, producing wonderfully rich
+effects, can be obtained and the finer lines can be made much more
+delicate than by any other method.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page196" name="page196"></a>(p. 196)</span>The printing of intaglio plates in color flourished for a
+short period in the latter portion of the eighteenth century, and the
+best prints of that time now in existence are of rare beauty and bring
+enormous prices. The process, now almost a memory, is a costly one,
+and this prevents its use in book illustration excepting for volumes
+which command a very high price. This kind of printing requires the
+plate to be actually painted by hand with inks of such colors as the
+picture may require, and the painting has to be repeated for every
+impression that is taken. The colors are put on with a "dole,"&mdash;a
+small piece of muslin turned to a point,&mdash;and great care must be taken
+that they do not overlap, or run into, each other. As each color is
+placed, the plate is wiped clean with rags as already described, and
+when all the colors have been properly placed, the plate is pulled
+through the press in the same manner as in ordinary printing.</p>
+
+<p>The successful printer of color plates must be a rare artist or else
+work under the direction of an artist. Little of this work is now done
+except in Paris and Vienna, and the limited number of color plates of
+this kind used for book illustration in this country does not warrant
+the time and expense necessary to train printers capable of doing the
+work. Even English plates are usually sent to Paris to be printed.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to describe the work of what is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page197" name="page197"></a>(p. 197)</span>termed
+artistic printing. Every plate is a subject to be treated by itself,
+and no hard and fast rule can be applied. It is really a matter of
+artistic feeling, and to revert to the simile of the angler, one
+cannot explain how a trout should be played, but can only say that it
+depends on the fish, the water, and the circumstances. A fisherman can
+<span class="italic">show</span> you, if you are on the spot, and so can the printer.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page198" name="page198"></a>(p. 198)</span>THE GELATINE PROCESS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Emil Jacobi</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Of the many photo-mechanical processes which have come into existence
+in recent years, the photo-gelatine, next to the half-tone process,
+has shown the greatest adaptability for practical use in art and
+commerce.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the name may be,&mdash;Collotype, Artotype, Albertype, Phototype,
+or Carbon-gravure,&mdash;the principle is the same; an impression is made
+in printer's ink from a photo-chemically produced design on a gelatine
+surface, either on the hand-press or on a power cylinder press similar
+to that used in lithographic printing.</p>
+
+<p>There is hardly any process which is more capable of producing fine
+works of art. It is the only true method for reproducing, in the full
+sense of the word, an etching, engraving, a drawing in pen and ink, an
+aquarelle, a painting, or objects from nature. The depth and richness
+of tone of an engraving, the delicate tints of an aquarelle or
+india-ink sketch, and the sharpness of the lines of an etching or pen
+sketch can be reproduced with such fidelity that it is often
+impossible to distinguish <span class="pagenum"><a id="page199" name="page199"></a>(p. 199)</span>the copy from the original, and
+this is achieved the more easily as the printing can be done in any
+color and on any material, be it paper, parchment, leather, or textile
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>Another great advantage of a gelatine print is its inalterability and
+durability, no chemicals being employed in transferring the picture to
+the paper. The picture itself being formed by solid pigments, such as
+are used in printer's ink or painter's colors, there is no possibility
+of its fading or changing color, which cannot be said even of platino
+prints, at present considered the most lasting of all photo-chemical
+processes.</p>
+
+<p>Like all new inventions, the photo-gelatine process, in its early
+stages, had to undergo severe trials, and for some years almost
+disappeared from public view, after many failures precipitated through
+unscrupulous promoters and inefficient persons who claimed
+impossibilities for the new process. It took years of patience and
+perseverance to regain the lost ground and overcome the opposition of
+those who had suffered by the failure of this process to produce the
+promised results; but at present it is, in Europe, one of the methods
+in most general use for illustrating, and in this country it is making
+steady progress and rapidly finding favor.</p>
+
+<p>The process, simple as it may seem to the casual observer, requires,
+more than any other photo-mechanical process, skilled hands in its
+different manipulations to keep it up to the standard of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page200" name="page200"></a>(p. 200)</span>
+perfection. The following short description will give the uninitiated
+sufficient enlightenment to think and speak intelligently about it.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation or starting point, as of all the other photo-mechanical
+processes, is a photographic negative; that is, a picture on glass or
+some other transparent substance, in which the light parts of the
+picture appear dark, and the dark parts light in transparency,
+graduated according to the different shades of tone in the original.
+The next and most prominent feature is the printing plate. A perfectly
+even glass, copper, or zinc plate is covered on the surface with a
+solution of fine gelatine and bichromate of potassium, and dried. This
+printing plate is then placed under a negative and exposed to the
+light. The action of the light on the bichromated gelatine forms the
+basis of this process. In proportion to the graduated density of the
+negative, the light acts more or less on the bichromated gelatine,
+rendering the latter, in proportion, insoluble and hardening it. After
+sufficient exposure the plate is washed out in water to eliminate the
+bichromate not acted upon by the light, and is then actually ready for
+the press.</p>
+
+<p>If the printing is to be done on a hand press, a lithographic leather
+roller is charged with printer's ink, and the plate, which has been
+fastened on a suitable bed-plate in the press, is rolled up while it
+is still moist. Those parts of the plate which were acted upon by the
+light and hardened, repel the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page201" name="page201"></a>(p. 201)</span>water and take up the ink, and
+thus all the graduating tones, up to the high lights or white parts,
+which have not been affected by the light, will take the ink
+proportionately. The white parts of the picture, where the light did
+not act upon the gelatine during the exposure under the negative,
+retain the natural property of gelatine to absorb water, and
+consequently repel the ink altogether.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing it will be easy to understand that a certain degree
+of moisture in the plate is necessary to get a correct impression.
+After the leather roller, a composition roller, such as is used in
+typographical processes, is employed to make the ink smooth and give
+the fine details not obtainable from the rough surface of a leather
+roller. A sheet of paper is then placed upon the plate and by pressure
+the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper.</p>
+
+<p>The printing, in former years, could only be done on hand presses; but
+with the introduction of improved power presses especially adapted to
+it the process itself has been so perfected that the finest work can
+be executed on them, at the same time insuring greater evenness and
+increased quantity of production, and also admitting the use of larger
+plates than would be possible on a hand press.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing impression, whenever machinery is employed to supersede
+hand-work, is that the production is increased to such an extent as to
+reduce the cost to a minimum, but in the gelatine <span class="pagenum"><a id="page202" name="page202"></a>(p. 202)</span>printing
+process, even with the aid of power presses, the rapidity of printing
+is far behind the possibilities of the lithographic or typographical
+printing press, and the process, therefore, is only applicable to
+works of art, and the better grade of illustrations in literary and
+commercial publications.</p>
+
+<p>The lesser rapidity of production and the greater cost is balanced by
+the quality, where this item comes into consideration; and where only
+small editions are required, even the cost compares favorably with
+other methods, as the initial cost of preparing the printing plate is
+small compared with the cost of photogravure or the better class of
+half-tone plate. It is only in cases of large editions of many
+thousands that the advantage of rapid printing reduces the cost of the
+initial expense. But fine art publications and illustrations will
+never be used in very large quantities, and, therefore, there is a
+large field for the photo-gelatine process in this country, where it
+is as yet so little used. In France, Germany, and Austria there are
+dozens of establishments which employ ten or more power presses for
+photo-gelatine work, while here only within the last few years has the
+process been sufficiently appreciated to warrant the introduction of a
+few steam presses; and these have to be imported from abroad at a high
+rate of duty, as the present demand for the presses does not make it
+advisable for our domestic press builders to invest in their
+construction, especially after an <span class="pagenum"><a id="page203" name="page203"></a>(p. 203)</span>isolated attempt in that
+line, misguided by inexperienced and unpractical men, which turned out
+to be a total failure.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding all these difficulties and obstacles, it is a fact
+that the photo-gelatine process has gained ground sufficiently to
+indicate a prosperous future, as its products are becoming more widely
+known and appreciated.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page204" name="page204"></a>(p. 204)</span>LITHOGRAPHY<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Charles Wilhelms</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>As an embellishment to the modern book, chromo-lithographed
+illustrations are quite popular and in some cases absolutely
+necessary, being not only attractive, but conveying an accurate idea
+of the color as well as the form of the object illustrated. Although
+the illustration is nothing more than a colored print, it may be a
+revelation to some when they learn of the numerous details incidental
+to its production.</p>
+
+<p>It may not be generally known, and yet of sufficient interest to the
+reader to state that the art of lithography, or surface printing, was
+invented accidentally. The inventor, Aloys Senefelder, had been
+engaged for years endeavoring to find some process for etching copper
+plates as a substitute for typographic printing plates; and the piece
+of stone (of a kind now known as Solenhofen lithographic stone), which
+eventually led him to the discovery of lithography had been used by
+him as a slab upon which he had been accustomed to grind his printing
+ink. The materials which he used for his acid-resisting mixture while
+etching his copper <span class="pagenum"><a id="page205" name="page205"></a>(p. 205)</span>plates were beeswax, soap, and lampblack,
+and in selecting these materials he accidentally invented the basis
+for all crayons or lithographic "tusche" or inks, now used so
+extensively for drawing on stone. It seems that Senefelder finally
+became thoroughly disheartened about his etched copper plates, mainly
+owing to the great expense and labor connected with their production,
+and was about to discontinue his efforts when the idea occurred to him
+to experiment with the stone which he had used as an ink slab for so
+many months, treating it in the same manner as the copper plates.</p>
+
+<p>He knew that the calcareous stone was easily affected by acid and that
+he could protect its surface against it by a layer of wax. After
+polishing the surface of the stone and coating it with a slight layer
+of wax, he made his drawing with a pointed tool, laying bare the
+surface of the stone where he desired the engraving. Then applying the
+acid and removing the remaining wax, he filled the etched lines with
+printing ink, cleaned the surface of the stone with water, and was
+enabled to obtain an impression on paper from it. This manner of
+treating a stone has been employed by vignette engravers for many
+years, but of late has become obsolete. The result gave encouragement
+to Senefelder and induced him to renew his experiments, when he was
+accidentally led a step farther in the direction of surface or
+chemical printing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page206" name="page206"></a>(p. 206)</span>Senefelder had just ground and polished a stone, when his
+mother entered the room and asked him to take a memorandum of some
+clothes which she was about to send away to be laundered. Having
+neither paper nor ink at hand, he hastily wrote the items with a pen,
+dipped in his acid-resisting mixture, upon the stone which had just
+been polished. When he afterwards started to wipe the writing from the
+stone, it occurred to him that it might be possible to reverse his
+process by etching the surface of the stone, leaving the writing or
+drawing in relief, which could be printed from in the same manner as
+from type. He was fairly successful in this, and after many
+disappointments and much hardship, he eventually succeeded in
+interesting a capitalist, with whose assistance he was enabled to
+establish his new relief stone process on a commercial basis.</p>
+
+<p>The process, however, was at best only an imperfect one, and it seems
+strange that the final discovery of surface or lithographic printing
+should have been so long delayed, when Senefelder was in reality so
+near it, when he first poured the acid over the stone containing his
+laundry memorandum. If he had instantly washed off the acid and
+cleaned the surface of the stone with water, he might have proceeded
+to print thousands of impressions by simply keeping the surface of the
+stone moist while passing the ink roller or dabber over it, then
+drying and taking an impression, and repeating <span class="pagenum"><a id="page207" name="page207"></a>(p. 207)</span>this
+operation indefinitely. It is not surprising, therefore, that a man of
+such persistence and capability as Senefelder should eventually
+discover the best method for drawing and printing from stone; for it
+is a fact that, since he perfected his invention, more than a hundred
+years ago, it has been hardly possible to improve on his methods, so
+completely did he cover the entire field of manipulation in this
+direction. Continuing his experiments, Senefelder finally found that
+the calcareous stone absorbed and held grease, and that it just as
+readily absorbed water, where the surface was exposed and clean; that
+any design drawn or transferred with a greasy crayon or ink upon a
+cleanly polished stone would be firmly held, after being slightly
+etched; and that after such a stone had been moistened, it could be
+inked with rollers, the ink adhering only to the greasy matter
+constituting the design (although it did not stand out in the relief)
+and that the ink rollers would not smut the stone, the ink being
+repelled by the water or moisture covering its surface. Upon this
+principle of chemical affinity, the adherence of greasy substances to
+each other and the mutual antipathy of grease and water, the art of
+lithographic printing is based.</p>
+
+<p>The methods or processes now employed in reproducing oil-paintings,
+colored photographs, or water-colors by lithography are numerous, and
+require great skill and experience, not only on the part of the
+lithographic artist, but also on the part <span class="pagenum"><a id="page208" name="page208"></a>(p. 208)</span>of the printer.
+Photography has of late years been used to a great extent in creating
+the basis of the color plates, to be afterwards perfected by the
+manipulation of the experienced chromo-lithographer.</p>
+
+<p>To insure a satisfactory result the first essential is, of course, a
+good original, which can be made in water-color, oil, or pastel. The
+number of printings to be employed should be predetermined and a color
+scale adopted. The lithographer must carefully analyze the original
+painting, making his calculations as to the best way of obtaining the
+desired color effects by a judicious selection and use of his colors,
+and the superimposing of one printing over the other, so as to obtain
+true color values. It must be remembered that, while the average
+painter has an unlimited variety of pigments at his disposal, the
+lithographer is in this respect very much at a disadvantage, not
+usually having more than from six to fourteen colors with which to
+produce a facsimile of the original.</p>
+
+<p>The first step is the making of the so-called key-plate. A piece of
+gelatine is laid on the original, which is, let us say by way of
+illustration, a water-color to be reproduced in ten printings, and a
+careful tracing of the original is made by scratching, with an
+engraving needle, the outline of each wash or touch of color composing
+the picture. This being completed, the lithographic ink (tusche) or
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page209" name="page209"></a>(p. 209)</span>transfer ink is carefully rubbed into the tracing, which is
+laid face down on a polished lithographic stone, slightly moistened,
+and passed through a hand press; thereby transferring the ink from the
+engraved lines to the polished surface of the stone. The design on the
+stone is then rolled in with black printing ink and etched, thus
+enabling the lithographer to take the necessary ten impressions of the
+key-plate. These, in their turn, are again transferred to as many
+lithographic stones. This is accomplished by dusting the impressions
+with a red powder, which adheres only to the design printed on the
+sheet. The powdered outline design is then transferred to the surface
+of the stone by passing both through a hand press. The key has been
+previously provided with register marks (a short horizontal line
+intersected by a vertical one) at top, bottom, and both sides. These
+are of the utmost importance to the prover, and finally to the
+transferrer, who prepares the work for the press, as without them it
+would be impossible to register one color over the other in its proper
+place. At any stage of the process, the register marks of all ten
+colors, which have been made in succession on a single sheet of paper,
+should coincide precisely and appear as a single mark in the form of a
+small cross.</p>
+
+<p>The lithographer now has before him the ten stones, each stamped with
+the identical network of lines in red chalk representing his key. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page210" name="page210"></a>(p. 210)</span>proceeds to draw each color-plate successively, at all times
+adhering closely to the red chalk outlines, filling in with tusche
+where full strength of the color is required and using lithographic
+crayon or the stipple process to reproduce the various gradations of
+this color in order to secure the full color value of each printing.
+The register marks are ruled in on each stone corresponding to those
+on the key, so that the prover or printer has these marks in the same
+identical position on each and every color as a guide for register.</p>
+
+<p>As each stone is finished it is etched; that is, treated with a weak
+solution of nitric acid and gum-water, in order to remove all
+accidental traces of scum from its surface, and to prepare it for
+printing. Then proofs are made, which serve as a guide to the
+lithographer during the progress of his work, and finally as a guide
+to the transferrer and to the printer. The proving is done on a hand
+press, and it is here that we have our first glimpse of chemical
+printing, which, notwithstanding its simplicity, seems so mysterious
+to one uninitiated in its secrets.</p>
+
+<p>The writer recollects his own first experience. A stone had just been
+placed fresh from the etching trough in the bed of the press, when, to
+his amazement, the prover deliberately proceeded to eliminate every
+trace of the drawing with a sponge saturated with turpentine. After
+drying the stone by means of a fan, he passed over the surface a
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page211" name="page211"></a>(p. 211)</span>sponge soaked in water, then applied black ink with a
+roller, when behold, the drawing was restored in its entirety. The
+solution is very simple: the greasy matter is absorbed and held by the
+stone and in its turn repels water and attracts grease.</p>
+
+<p>An impression is made with black printing ink on paper by passing it
+through the hand press. The black impression approved of by the
+lithographer, the stone is again cleaned with turpentine and proved in
+the color required, and so with each color-plate, until the proof is
+complete. When photography is employed, the half-tone negative takes
+the place of the key. Prints are made from a reversed negative on the
+sensitized surface of the stone, or on as many stones as the
+color-plates require, and then manipulated by the lithographer, who
+adds or modifies strength with his "tusche" or crayon, and scrapes or
+washes out lights where necessary. The various modes of procedure are
+too diverse to enter into here, but it may be well to mention that the
+principal ones are the albumen, the asphaltum, and finally the
+three-color process, the latter differing but little as far as the
+artistic part of the work is concerned from that employed for making
+relief printing plates for the typographic press.</p>
+
+<p>The original drawing plates, or stones, are not used to print from
+direct unless the edition be very small. Just as the typographic
+printer uses <span class="pagenum"><a id="page212" name="page212"></a>(p. 212)</span>electrotypes in place of the original type or
+cuts, the lithographer makes transfers from the original stones to
+print his edition and carefully preserves the original stones for
+future editions. The transfers are prepared in a very simple manner.
+The original stones are rolled over with a specially prepared transfer
+ink, and impressions are taken from them on a paper, known under the
+name of transfer paper, coated with a sizing of starch, flour, and
+glycerine. By printing from the original, only one copy can be
+produced at each impression, whereas by using transfers a number of
+copies of the original can be printed at one impression. For example,
+if the picture measures 8 × 10 inches of paper, a transfer can be made
+containing fifteen copies on one sheet measuring 30 × 40 inches. In
+this case fifteen impressions are made from the key-plate as well as
+from each of the color-plates, on the paper, and with the ink
+described above.</p>
+
+<p>The first transfer to be made is that of the key-plate. The fifteen
+impressions are laid in their proper positions on a sheet of paper of
+the required size, and are held in position on same by indentations
+made with a dull-pointed steel tool. The sheet is laid face down upon
+a cleanly polished stone, which is then repeatedly pulled through a
+hand press until all the ink has been transferred from the paper to
+the surface of the stone. The transfer paper still adhering to the
+stone is then moistened and washed off the stone, leaving the
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page213" name="page213"></a>(p. 213)</span>design completely transferred to the stone. A slight
+solution of gum arabic and water is then applied, the stone washed
+clean, and after being repeatedly rolled in with printing ink and
+etched, is ready for printing. An impression is then made in the usual
+manner from this key-transfer, which impression is coated with a
+solution of shellac. This is done for the purpose of rendering it
+impervious to the effect of the atmosphere, thus insuring against its
+stretching or shrinking. Upon this varnished key-sheet all subsequent
+transfer impressions of the ten colors are "stuck up," to use the
+technical term, and transferred to stone in the same manner as is
+employed in the making of the key-transfer. The register marks serve
+as a guide in "sticking up" the separate transfer impressions and
+insure an accurate register of the colors laid over each other during
+the process of printing. New register marks are placed upon the
+key-transfer at top, bottom, and sides similar to those on the
+original (which are removed from the transfer), and these new marks
+now appear on all color transfers to serve as a guide to the
+steam-press printer in printing his edition. He likewise uses the
+hand-press proofs of the picture as a guide in mixing his inks.</p>
+
+<p>The lithographic power printing press is constructed on the same
+general principle as the ordinary typographic press, excepting that it
+is provided with an apparatus for moistening the stone <span class="pagenum"><a id="page214" name="page214"></a>(p. 214)</span>
+previous to the application of the ink rollers. The stone containing
+the design is placed in the bed of the press, and the moisture, as
+well as the ink, is applied by means of rollers similar to those used
+in the typographic printing press. All the ten colors are now
+successively printed from the transfers on a steam press, and if it is
+a perfect job, the pictures can be cut to size and delivered to the
+publisher.</p>
+
+<p>At present the cumbrous stone and the slow-moving flat-bed press are
+being supplanted by the light and pliable aluminum plates and the
+fast-moving rotary presses. The aluminum plate has all the requisites
+for the highest grades of lithographic or surface printing, and the
+rotary press is beyond doubt a vast improvement over the flat-bed
+press, not only as to speed, but also as to the quality and uniformity
+of its product. The mode of procedure in making transfers to aluminum
+plates is much the same as that employed in making transfers to stone.
+The pliability of the aluminum plate and the ease with which it can be
+adjusted to a printing cylinder has resulted in the successful
+introduction and use of two-and three-color lithographic rotary
+presses, printing at one operation two or three colors. It has been
+demonstrated that the result is fully equal to that obtained from the
+single-color press, provided good judgment be used as to the
+succession of the colors or printings. This marks a new <span class="pagenum"><a id="page215" name="page215"></a>(p. 215)</span>
+epoch in the art of lithography and enables it to compete with the
+typographic three-color process, which has been making such wonderful
+progress during the last five years, and at one time seriously
+threatened lithography as a medium for the reproduction of certain
+classes of colored illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Our experience teaches us, however, that the surface or lithographic
+and the relief or typographic method will never seriously interfere
+with each other, but on the contrary by actively competing in all
+matter relating to the reproductive art will continue to improve their
+respective methods, and thus enable them to satisfy the continually
+increasing demands on the part of the public for colored
+illustrations, not only as to the quantity but particularly as to the
+quality thereof.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page216" name="page216"></a>(p. 216)</span>COVER DESIGNING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Amy Richards</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>So many books of the present day have decorative book covers
+especially designed to fit each book that many people who buy the
+books are beginning to ask what suggests these designs and how they
+are executed.</p>
+
+<p>Having made book-cover designs for a number of years, I have been
+asked to write a practical account of how these book covers are made,
+which will give an answer to some of these questions. This account
+will have no bearing on the designs used on hand-bound books with
+their beautiful "tooled" covers. These are a different branch of the
+art altogether from the so-called "commercial bindings" which I am
+about to describe. The designs for these tooled covers are as a rule
+made by the same hands that bind the books.</p>
+
+<p>Every year hundreds of books are published that need "commercial" book
+covers. In many cases these covers are used to help sell the book;
+that is, they must be attractive enough to draw attention to the book
+as it lies on the counter in the bookshops and other places where the
+book is on sale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page217" name="page217"></a>(p. 217)</span>Some publishers have artists, regularly employed, to make
+their own designs exclusively; but as a rule each publisher keeps in
+touch with a number of designers, sending for one or the other as the
+needs of a particular book require. When a design is needed, the
+particular sort of cover required is discussed with the publisher, the
+number of colors that can be used is mentioned, also the exact
+dimensions of the book and the material to be used in binding the
+book. Almost every designer prefers to read the manuscript of the
+book, if possible, or to have a synopsis of it, for, naturally, he can
+make a much more suitable and successful cover if he has a complete
+idea of the subject of the book.</p>
+
+<p>Having read the book, or having been told what it is about, the
+designer makes one or more rough sketches in color, giving a general
+idea of the book cover, both as to design, color scheme, and material
+to be used in binding. If one of these sketches is selected, the
+designer then makes an accurate "working" drawing, either in color, or
+black and white. If a black-and-white drawing is made, a rough color
+sketch is sent with it to indicate how the die is to be cut.</p>
+
+<p>A finished book-cover design can be made on water-color paper,
+bristol-board, or a piece of book-cover linen. This last method is
+popular with publishers, as it shows them how the cover will look when
+finished. A designer keeps sample <span class="pagenum"><a id="page218" name="page218"></a>(p. 218)</span>books of all the most
+popular bookbinding materials, which the manufacturers are glad to
+supply. A practical designer always chooses for the ground color of a
+design a cloth that is to be found at one of the regular book-cloth
+manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>When a book-cover design is finished, it is neatly mounted on
+cardboard and a careful note is written on the margin, telling how the
+design is to be executed by the binder, the kind of cloth to be used,
+and its number in a particular sample book. Unless the design is
+executed on a piece of book cloth, a sample of the cloth desired is
+pasted under the directions. The design is then cut in brass by a die
+cutter, as described in the next chapter, and the covers are stamped
+in gold or inks from this die by the binder. The design must be the
+exact size of the future book or drawn larger in exact proportion for
+reduction to the proper size.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is of course the most expensive way of reproducing a cover
+design, and a publisher generally tries to get as good an effect as
+possible without the use of gold, or he limits its use to the title
+lines or to a small part of the design. Four inks is usually the
+extreme number used, and more often only two or three are used, or
+gold and one ink.</p>
+
+<p>Several styles of decoration are used in designing book covers; but
+they may be put roughly into two classes,&mdash;those that are purely
+ornamental and those that are pictorial. Personally I <span class="pagenum"><a id="page219" name="page219"></a>(p. 219)</span>am in
+favor of the purely ornamental cover, as being more dignified; but
+there are books that seem to require a pictorial cover that is treated
+somewhat in the fashion of a decorative poster.</p>
+
+<p>A book-cover designer to be successful should be very versatile and
+able to make use of figures as well as thoroughly versed in the use of
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important parts of a book cover is the title, to which
+the amateur and inexperienced designer does not always give sufficient
+attention. The title must be clearly drawn and everything else in the
+cover made subservient to it, so that the first thing the eye falls on
+is the title. For this reason a thorough study of lettering is
+necessary for the successful cover designer, and much practice in
+order to become proficient. A very successful cover may be due simply
+to a well-selected cloth with lettering properly drawn and placed so
+that the eye is perfectly satisfied and the whole has an air of
+distinction. Each designer grows insensibly into his or her own
+particular style, which those who are interested in book covers grow
+to know; but the more varied his style the more in demand will be the
+designer.</p>
+
+<p>The designing of book covers is a minor art, but since there is a
+constant demand for ornamented covers, the more taste and skill that
+can be devoted to the making of them, the better. When one looks back
+to the covers of fifteen years <span class="pagenum"><a id="page220" name="page220"></a>(p. 220)</span>ago, one realizes what an
+advance has been made, and that the standard has been raised higher
+and higher, until at the present time many a famous illustrator or
+decorative painter occasionally turns his or her hand to the designing
+of book covers.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page221" name="page221"></a>(p. 221)</span>THE COVER STAMPS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By George Becker</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Not many years ago the crudest and most primitive devices were used in
+the production of a book cover. The artist, if such he could be
+called, who was responsible for the design, seldom went to the trouble
+of furnishing the engraver with anything more than a pencil sketch,
+which the latter transferred to a brass plate about one-quarter of an
+inch thick by coating the plate with beeswax and laying the sketch on
+it, face downward. When the paper was removed the beeswax retained the
+marks of the lead pencil. He then began the tedious process of
+outlining it by hand with a graver and afterward finished it with a
+chisel.</p>
+
+<p>But the exacting demands of modern artistic taste, the improvement of
+scientific methods and the pressure of competition have marked a
+complete transformation in the business of making dies for book
+covers. A few pencils and gravers, a vise bench, and a grindstone no
+longer make an engraving establishment. Colored sketches of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page222" name="page222"></a>(p. 222)</span>
+most painstaking execution, accompanied by a working drawing in black
+and white, have taken the place of the old pencil sketch. These
+artistic productions, having passed the ordeal of critical
+examination, are handed over to the photographer, who, if he
+understands his part, does all that the beeswax did, and a good deal
+more. He takes the black-and-white drawing above referred to and
+reproduces it, in the size desired, directly on a brass plate covered
+with a sensitive coating, and then having prepared it with acid-proof
+preparations, he passes it over to the etcher.</p>
+
+<p>The etcher in his turn, with unerring judgment in the strength of his
+acids, does what the most careful outliner could not accomplish; he
+produces a perfect facsimile of the original drawing, with all its
+artistic freedom. The process used is practically the same as the zinc
+etching process described in the chapter on half-tones and line
+plates. The plate, having been etched as deep as is safe, is then
+turned over to the router, whose business it is to cut out all the
+metal between ornaments and lettering to the proper depth. This done,
+the engraver, who in former years practically dug out the entire plate
+with his hand tools, comes in to give the finishing touches and
+correct any slight imperfection that may remain. It is of the utmost
+importance, of course, that the dies should be clear-cut and deep, to
+avoid clogging up in printing, particularly in the plates used for
+stamping <span class="pagenum"><a id="page223" name="page223"></a>(p. 223)</span>in inks. The experienced and watchful engraver is
+expected to detect any spots where the etching process has not fully
+accomplished its purpose. Lettering, especially, should be cut clear,
+deep, and free from "feather," or ragged edges.</p>
+
+<p>The above process applies to single plates or to plates intended for
+printing in one color only, or in gold. Where two or more colors are
+wanted, the photographer has to make as many prints as there are
+colors in the artist's design, as each one calls for a separate plate.
+The proceeding otherwise remains the same, excepting that to the
+engraver's task is added the necessity of making sure of a perfect
+register or fitting together of the various parts.</p>
+
+<p>The transformation in the demands of publishers and writers has become
+so great since the days of the primitive little shop above referred
+to, that a die cutter, working on those lines, would be hopelessly out
+of the race at the present day. In order to meet satisfactorily the
+artistic expectation of the present generation a first-class engraving
+establishment must have: an accomplished staff of artists, supplied
+with a library of standard authorities on the various schools of art,
+as well as a good selection of modern art publications; a skilled
+photographer with a complete photographic outfit, including, of
+course, a suitable gallery with the best obtainable light, both
+natural and artificial; and lastly a complete staff of routers and
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page224" name="page224"></a>(p. 224)</span>engravers, some of whom should be specialists in lettering,
+while others should devote their attention exclusively to figures.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the elements that go to make book-cover decoration the
+lettering is by far the most important. It should receive special
+care, as in some cases it constitutes the entire decoration. In this
+respect the critical taste of the present day shows itself even more
+strongly than in the matter of decorative ornamentation, and no amount
+of ornamentation, whatever its artistic value, can redeem a cover
+whose lettering is lacking in style, character, or typographical merit
+of some kind. Experience is such a good teacher that I can usually
+tell, by looking at a die, not only who designed the lettering, but
+also what workman engraved it.</p>
+
+<p>Some dies are intended for stamping in gold or colored leaf and
+consequently have to be heated sufficiently to cause the leaf to
+adhere to the cloth cover, while others are meant simply for black
+stamping or stamping in ink of various colors; but all are engraved on
+brass for the sake of durability. Sometimes, where very large editions
+are expected, as of school books, steel is substituted for brass.</p>
+
+<p>The die, when finished, is used by the binder in a stamping press.
+Color work calls for considerable skill on the part of the stamper,
+who should be an expert in mixing inks as the best-cut die <span class="pagenum"><a id="page225" name="page225"></a>(p. 225)</span>
+will often show poor results if not properly handled. In fact, the
+success of a book cover depends on three individuals,&mdash;the artist who
+designs it, the engraver who cuts it, and the stamper who prints it.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page226" name="page226"></a>(p. 226)</span>BOOK CLOTHS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Henry P. Kendall</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The great increase in the number of books produced each year has
+brought a corresponding development in the use of prepared cloth for
+the bindings. Previous to the beginning of the last century cloth was
+almost unknown as a material for covering a book. Books were then very
+costly. They were printed laboriously by hand, on paper also made by
+hand, and were naturally considered worthy of the most lasting
+bindings. As the life of books depends on the strength and wearing
+quality of the covers, such materials as wood, vellum, and leather,
+often reënforced with metal, were generally used.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century has marked a great progress in the variety and
+quantity, if not in the quality, of published books. Improvements in
+methods and in machinery have progressed side by side with economies
+in paper making. As the cost of producing the printed sheets became
+less, a demand arose for a correspondingly cheaper material for
+bindings. The want was satisfactorily met by the use of cloth, and
+from the day that <span class="pagenum"><a id="page227" name="page227"></a>(p. 227)</span>it was first used it has become more and
+more a factor in book manufacturing.</p>
+
+<p>When so commonplace a binding material as cloth was selected, artists
+and binders and publishers considered that ornamentation on such a
+material was almost a waste of time and money. So the libraries of our
+grandfathers contained rows of gloomy and unattractive books, bound in
+black cloth stamped in old-fashioned designs, with a back title of
+lemon gold, and it is only comparatively a few years ago that binding
+in cloth began to be considered worthy of the attention of the
+designer and the artist, but since then the demand for a more varied
+assortment and a wider choice of colors and patterns has been steadily
+growing.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider briefly the different kinds of book cloths that are
+most commonly used to-day and try to make clear to the lay reader the
+different fabrics, whose nomenclature is so frequently confused even
+by binders and publishers.</p>
+
+<p>Book cloths, from their appearance and manufacture, fall into two
+natural divisions, the first being the so-called "solid colors," in
+which the threads of the cloth are not easily distinguishable. This
+division contains two grades of cloth, generally known as common
+colors and extra colors. The standard width of all book cloths is
+thirty-eight inches. The commons and extras are sold by the roll, and
+the standard number of yards to the roll of these fabrics is
+thirty-eight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page228" name="page228"></a>(p. 228)</span>The second division consists of the so-called "linens" and
+"buckrams," in which each thread, with the imperfections and
+peculiarities of the weaving, are plainly seen and form a large part
+of their picturesque effect.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the "common colors" to be used was the black cloth
+already referred to, but they are now made in many colors, though
+chiefly in simple, pronounced shades, such as browns, blues, greens,
+and reds. These cloths have been dyed, and sized with a stiffening
+preparation. They are the cheapest of the solid colors and are used in
+various patterns, which are embossed on the surface during the process
+of manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary patterns which are in the greatest use to-day are
+designated in the trade by letters. Perhaps the most familiar is the
+"T" pattern, straight parallel ridges or striations, about forty to
+the inch, and running across the cloth from selvage to selvage. When
+properly used, these ribs run from top to bottom of a book cover. For
+this reason it is not economical to use the "T" pattern if the height
+of the cover is not a multiple of the width of the cloth, as it
+results in a waste of cloth. This explains why the cost of the book
+bound in "T" pattern is frequently somewhat higher than the same book
+bound in another pattern of the same cloth.</p>
+
+<p>A similar design is the "S" or silk pattern, made up of finer lines
+running diagonally across the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page229" name="page229"></a>(p. 229)</span>cloth, giving the surface a
+sheen somewhat resembling silk. Also in common use are a group of
+patterns composed of small irregular dots or points, the finest of
+which is known as the "C" pattern, a coarser pattern of similar
+design, the "J," and, coarser still, the "L," which has somewhat the
+appearance of the coarse grain of a morocco leather. The pattern known
+as "H" is a simple diamond made by intersecting diagonal lines similar
+to the ribs of the "T" pattern. Other patterns in less common use are
+those resembling morocco leather, pigskin, and patterns in fancy
+designs.</p>
+
+<p>Following the increased use of the common cloths, attention was given
+to the artistic effects which might be obtained by using colored inks
+and gold on lettering and design, and also to the effect obtained by
+pressure of hot binders' dies or stamps upon covers made with embossed
+cloths, which latter process is known in binding as "blanking" or
+"blind" stamping.</p>
+
+<p>With these advances in the art of cover decoration came the demand for
+the more delicate tints and richer shades of the colors, and as a
+result finer colors than could be produced in the common cloths were
+introduced to meet this demand; these fabrics were called the "extra"
+cloths. They have a solid, smooth surface, more "body," and are in
+every way firmer and better fabrics, and more costly, too, some of the
+shades <span class="pagenum"><a id="page230" name="page230"></a>(p. 230)</span>costing from twenty to forty per cent more than the
+common cloths.</p>
+
+<p>Extra cloths are used largely on the better class of bindings, such as
+the popular fiction, holiday books, scientific books, and books of
+reference, and whenever fine coloring or a better appearance is
+desired. These cloths are chiefly used in the plain fabric, which is
+known as "vellum," and in the "T," "S," and "H" patterns. The trained
+eye easily recognizes extra cloth from the common cloths, by the
+appearance of the surface; but any one may readily distinguish them by
+the appearance of the back, which in the extra cloths is not colored,
+but in the commons is the same color as the face.</p>
+
+<p>Of the second division of cloths, in which the appearance of the
+threads becomes a part of the effect, there are first the "linen"
+cloths. The name "linen" applied to this group is really a misnomer,
+for many laymen are led to think that such cloths have flax as a
+foundation and are therefore genuine linens. This is not so, for there
+is but one genuine linen book cloth to be had, and that is a coarse,
+irregularly woven cloth, dyed in dull colors, and manufactured by a
+foreign house. It is quite expensive, costing sixty cents a square
+yard, which is one of the reasons why it is seldom used.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics of the linen cloths are that the coloring
+used fills the interstices, but <span class="pagenum"><a id="page231" name="page231"></a>(p. 231)</span>allows all the threads to be
+clearly seen. The irregularities of the weaving, therefore, stand out
+plainly, and produce to a certain extent the appearance of woven linen
+fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Linen book cloths are made in two grades, and are sold by the yard
+under special names given to them by the manufacturers. The cheaper
+grade is sold under the name of "vellum de luxe," "X" grade, or
+"Oxford." A better grade of linen book cloth sells (in 1906) at about
+sixteen cents per yard under the names "art vellum," "B" grade, and
+"linen finish." It is a very durable fabric and extensively used.</p>
+
+<p>The linen cloths are made principally in the plain surface, and in the
+"T" pattern, but almost never in any other patterns, the reason for
+this being the fact that the character of the cloth is very little
+changed by the embossing, which is used with greater effect on the
+solid colors. These linen cloths are especially adapted for school and
+other books which are constantly handled, as their construction shows
+the wear less than do the solid colors.</p>
+
+<p>The buckrams might have been properly classed with the linens, as that
+is what, in fact, they are. Linen cloth observed through a microscope
+which magnifies the threads to a coarseness of about forty to the inch
+gives us the exact appearance of the buckram, which is a heavy, strong
+cloth well adapted to large books, and which <span class="pagenum"><a id="page232" name="page232"></a>(p. 232)</span>furnishes the
+most durable binding of all the book cloths. The colors of buckrams
+correspond closely with those of the linens; they are also sold under
+trade names given them by manufacturers, such as "art canvas" and "E"
+grade.</p>
+
+<p>Buckrams are sometimes embossed to imitate in part the appearance of
+an irregularly woven fabric called "crash." Crash is a special cloth
+which might properly be classed with the buckrams, and when suitably
+used is a very artistic material.</p>
+
+<p>Basket cloth is still another material which could properly be
+included with the buckrams. This grade of cloth gains its name from
+the fact that the threads are woven in squares resembling a basket
+mesh. They are made in the same coloring as the linen cloths.</p>
+
+<p>In describing the cloths above, only those of American manufacture
+have been considered. There are English cloths which correspond to
+nearly all of these fabrics, but they are little used in America on
+account of the delay in importing them and because of the duty, which
+makes the price here higher than for corresponding grades of domestic
+manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>One cannot stand before the windows of the large book stores at
+holiday time without being impressed by the possibilities offered by
+the many colors and patterns of cloths and the varied hues of inks and
+foil, in helping the artist to make books attractive to the eye, and
+suggestive of the sentiment <span class="pagenum"><a id="page233" name="page233"></a>(p. 233)</span>and motive of their contents.
+One feels that the designer of book covers has surely a wider field
+to-day than when he confined his attention entirely to making
+intricate designs for single leather-bound folios.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page234" name="page234"></a>(p. 234)</span>BOOK LEATHERS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Ellery C. Bartlett</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>There is hardly any part of the world that has not been drawn upon for
+suitable skins to be made into leather for bookbinding. The skins
+generally used are goat, seal, pigskin, cowhide, calf, and sheep, and
+they vary in quality according to the country they come from and the
+manner in which the animals are cared for, the stall-fed animals, or
+those that are protected from storm and have regular food, producing
+the best skins.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing these skins for bookbinders, great care has to be taken
+to extract as much of the natural oil as possible, as this is apt to
+discolor the gold leaf decorations put on by the artistic binder.</p>
+
+<p>Tanners usually buy skins with the hair on. They are first put into
+water, for the purpose of softening them, after which they are laid
+over a beam and a knife is drawn over them, to still further soften
+them. They are then put into vats containing slack lime-water, which
+loosens the hair and kills the animal life remaining in the skin.
+After having been in these vats for a period of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page235" name="page235"></a>(p. 235)</span>about ten
+days, they are washed in water, to remove the lime and clean the skin.
+Afterwards they are put through a process called "bating," which
+destroys any animal matter in the skins which may have escaped the
+first process, and they are then finally cleansed by a solution of
+bran and water, which also prepares them for tanning.</p>
+
+<p>After the skins have been in tan for a week or more, they are taken
+out, tacked on drying frames and all the wrinkles stretched out of
+them. When thoroughly dry, they are ready for the coloring process.
+After being colored, they are again tacked on the frames; and when
+they are thoroughly dry again they are taken to the graining room,
+where the finishing processes are done by skilled workmen, the utmost
+care being needed to produce the desired result.</p>
+
+<p>The matching of shades is a very difficult process, as the question of
+color must be decided while the skins are still wet. Weather
+conditions have a very important bearing on the manufacture of
+leather, and changes in the atmosphere often spoil all the careful
+work that has previously been put on a skin.</p>
+
+<p>The finest leather for books comes from France, although a good
+quality is made in England and Germany, and the United States is
+rapidly improving its output.</p>
+
+<p>The graining of the leather to bring out the natural grain in the
+skin, is done by hand and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page236" name="page236"></a>(p. 236)</span>sometimes by electroplate
+reproductions of the natural grain by means of the embossing press.
+When large grain is wanted, the skins are shaved only slightly on the
+back; if small grains are wanted, the skins are shaved thinner. This
+process removes all roughness from the back of the skin, leaving it
+smooth and clean.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly the binder, in preparing his covers, was compelled to pare
+the edges with a knife, which was a slow and laborious process; but
+now&mdash;thanks to the inventive American talent&mdash;he can have the whole
+skin split to any desired thickness or thinness, without injury; or,
+he can have the edges pared by cleverly devised machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Leather manufacturers are able, by using splitting machines, to split
+skins so that both parts of a skin can be used&mdash;the upper part of the
+skin being called the grain and the lower the flesh. Were this not the
+case, it would be impossible for the binder to supply the needs of his
+customers, as the output does not keep pace with the constantly
+increasing demand. In fact, binders are constantly looking for
+substitutes, but, after all, there is nothing so good as leather.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page237" name="page237"></a>(p. 237)</span>THE BINDING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Jesse Fellowes Tapley</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The changes in the methods of bookbinding during the last sixty years
+have been very great, and during the last twenty-five years the
+invention of machines for doing the work rapidly has created almost a
+revolution in the art.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty years ago the pay of journeymen bookbinders ranged from eight to
+ten dollars a week, for a day of ten hours, and the cost of binding an
+ordinary 12mo volume of 500 pages in cloth was from sixteen to
+eighteen cents. To-day the same volume can be bound for eight to ten
+cents, with the pay of the journeyman from eighteen to twenty dollars
+a week, for a day of nine hours. The pay of girls has, as a general
+thing, been proportionally increased, while the amount of work they
+can turn out with the newly invented machinery is triple as much as
+could be done by hand, and on some branches of the work it is more
+than six times as much.</p>
+
+<p>The first process of making a book is the folding. The sheets are
+usually printed so as to fold in sections of sixteen pages, with
+signature figures, as <span class="pagenum"><a id="page238" name="page238"></a>(p. 238)</span>1, 2, 3, or alphabet letters, as A, B,
+C, printed at the bottom of the first page of each section, for the
+guidance of the binder in placing the signatures in regular order for
+gathering the book.</p>
+
+<p>Usually two or four forms are printed on one sheet. One girl could
+fold by hand from 3500 to 4000 sections of 16 pages a day. With modern
+machines the range is from 17,000 to 48,000, according to the make of
+the machine and whether it is equipped with an automatic feeder or
+not.</p>
+
+<p>There are three styles of machines in general use. The point machine,
+fed by hand, has needle points on the feed board, on which is placed
+the sheet, which has proper holes made by the printing press. The next
+is called a drop-roll machine, which, if equipped with an automatic
+feeder, will fold 24,000 sections a day, delivering two sections at
+each revolution. The next is called a quadruple machine, which, with
+an automatic feeder, will fold 48,000 sections a day or as many as
+twelve girls could do by hand.</p>
+
+<p>In binderies where large editions of books are done, it would be
+almost impossible to keep the different sections from getting mixed,
+unless they were put into compact bundles and tied up until the
+complete book is folded. This is accomplished by putting a quantity of
+each section into hydraulic or screw presses, with a board at the top
+and bottom of the bundle, which is tied with a strong cord. They are
+then marked with name <span class="pagenum"><a id="page239" name="page239"></a>(p. 239)</span>and signature, and piled up until
+wanted for gathering into books.</p>
+
+<p>If the book has plates printed separately from the text, they have to
+be inserted before it can be gathered. Plating is done by girls, 5000
+being a day's work for an experienced hand.</p>
+
+<p>Gathering comes next. The sections are laid out in separate piles in
+consecutive order, and one signature taken from each pile, making a
+complete book. From 30,000 to 45,000 sections is a day's work.</p>
+
+<p>After gathering, the book is pressed to make it solid. This is done by
+passing it through a powerful press, called a smashing machine. The
+old-fashioned way was to pile the books between boards in a standing
+press, running the screw down with an iron lever, and allowing them to
+stay in same for several hours. In a modern smashing machine a book
+can be made as solid in half a minute as the standing press will make
+it by ten hours' pressing.</p>
+
+<p>From the smashing machine it goes to the collator, by whom it is
+examined to see if any signature is misplaced or left out.</p>
+
+<p>It then goes to the modern sewing machine. This is one of the most
+valuable labor-saving machines for the binder ever invented, as it
+almost, if not entirely, supersedes hand sewing on what is called
+edition work. This machine will sew from 15,000 to 18,000 signatures a
+day, and do it better <span class="pagenum"><a id="page240" name="page240"></a>(p. 240)</span>than it can be done by hand. Each
+signature is sewed independently and with from two to five stitches,
+so that if one breaks the signature is held fast by the others, while
+in hand sewing the thread goes through the whole length of the
+signature, and if by chance it is broken, the book is ruined so far as
+the sewing is concerned. In addition the machine does more work, in
+the same time, than five or six girls sewing by hand.</p>
+
+<p>After sewing, the books are prepared for trimming by "jogging up" in
+bunches of the proper thickness, for the cutting machine. If the work
+is large or the paper highly sized and slippery, a light coating of
+glue is applied to the centre of the back, to keep the signatures in
+place. In olden times books were trimmed in a press having hardwood
+jaws and wood screws near each end, worked with an iron lever. Into
+this press the books were clamped, the rough edge to be trimmed off
+projecting above the jaws. To trim the book, a plough was used, made
+of two thick side pieces of hard wood about one foot long and six
+inches high, with a long hand screw passing through them. (The end at
+the right had a handle outside of the side piece, and the end at the
+left engaged a screw in the left side piece.) At the bottom of the
+right side piece, and resting on the jaw of the press, was a
+sharp-pointed knife. The plough was worked back and forth, and at each
+motion the screw in the plough was turned enough for the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page241" name="page241"></a>(p. 241)</span>
+knife to take a shaving from the book. To keep the plough in place,
+the left-hand jaw had a deep groove on its surface, in which the
+plough worked. This was slow and hard work.</p>
+
+<p>Sometime between the years 1840 and 1850, a machine was invented in
+which books were clamped, and a heavy knife descended perpendicularly.
+This was an improvement on the old-fashioned press and plough, but it
+was found that, unless the knife was very sharp, the tendency was to
+draw the paper, and in effect jam it off rather than cut it.</p>
+
+<p>To obviate this, the next move was to arrange the knife so that it
+would give a drawing cut, or come down on a slant, rather than a rigid
+descent. This is the principle on which most book and paper cutting
+machines are made to-day.</p>
+
+<p>About 1850 a machine was invented in which a vibrating knife worked
+back and forth on the paper to be cut. This was thought at the time to
+be the best principle for a cutting machine.</p>
+
+<p>Ten or twenty years later a new machine made its appearance. This one
+had a knife held rigidly in the frame of the machine, and the books
+were clamped into a carriage drawn up by a chain against the edge of
+the knife. It was the most rapid trimmer that had appeared, and held
+its position for a good many years; but in the meantime, for general
+work, the machines with a descending slanting knife held their own and
+multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>Within a very short time a new machine has <span class="pagenum"><a id="page242" name="page242"></a>(p. 242)</span>appeared. This
+has two slanting descending knives and doubles the work of the older
+machines, as it cuts two sides at one blow, and will trim from 7000 to
+8000 ordinary books a day, against 500 or 600 by the old-fashioned
+press and plough.</p>
+
+<p>After the edges are trimmed, the book is rounded and backed. In this
+process, too, great improvement has been made. Originally this work
+was done by hand with a hammer, the rounding being accomplished by
+striking one side of the back as the book lay flat, and then the
+other, forming it at the same time by the hand, to give the back the
+convex, and the front the concave, form. Some persons are found now
+who think the hollow or concave front of the book is made by trimming
+it in that way.</p>
+
+<p>The backing process gives the groove on which the cover is hinged. In
+olden times this was done by clamping the book in a press between
+backing irons, with the back projecting enough to give the proper
+groove, and gradually drawing it over from the centre with the hammer.
+In small job shops this is the practice to-day, but in large
+establishments it has given place to modern machines. The first
+innovation was what is called the roller backer. This makes the
+groove, the book being first rounded as described. Then came the
+rounder and backer, which is run by power, and both rounds and backs
+the book at one operation.</p>
+
+<p>To show the advance made, it may be stated <span class="pagenum"><a id="page243" name="page243"></a>(p. 243)</span>that 500 books
+was a good day's work with press and hammer. With the advent of the
+roller backer 1000 was a fair day's work, but when the power machine
+was invented, the production jumped up to 4000 and over, a day.</p>
+
+<p>After the book is rounded and grooved, the back is glued and a piece
+of coarse woven cloth, wide enough to lap over each side an inch or
+more, is put on, and over this another coat of glue and a piece of
+paper the width of the back are applied.</p>
+
+<p>The book is then ready for the cover, which is put on by pasting the
+first and last leaf, drawing the cover on, and putting it in press
+between boards whose edges are bound with a brass band, the rim
+projecting above the surface of the board. This rim presses the cloth
+between the covers and the back of the book, making a hinge upon which
+the cover opens. Two men can paste and press 1500 to 2000 books a day.
+A new machine has been put on the market within a year, that, with the
+same help, will do the work at the rate of 4000 a day. This process is
+termed "casing in."</p>
+
+<p>The making of the book cover is a distinct branch in binding edition
+work. The pasteboard formerly was cut by hand shears, one piece at a
+time. It is now done by rotary shears, cutting from six to ten pieces
+as fast as the sheets of board can be fed to the machine.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth for the cover is cut to the proper size, glued by hand, the
+boards laid on by gauge, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page244" name="page244"></a>(p. 244)</span>the edges turned in with a
+folder. A man expert at the work can make from 600 to 800 covers a
+day. About fifteen years ago a machine was invented, which turns out
+from 3000 to 4500 a day. This machine is automatic in its operation,
+gluing the cloth, laying on the boards, turning in the edges, and
+delivering a more perfect cover than can be made by hand.</p>
+
+<p>Stamping the cover is a trade by itself. It requires long experience
+and skill to make an expert. There are several branches in this trade,
+such as blank or blind stamping, stamping with ink (or a colored leaf
+made to take the place of ink), and stamping with gold. Laying gold
+preparatory to stamping is a distinct branch, and is done by girls.
+This is such a delicate operation that it requires long experience.
+There has been no improvement in the principle of the stamping or
+embossing press since the first machines came into use. The die or
+stamp is held in the head of the press by clamps, and the cover is
+placed on the platen or bed of the press, which is raised up to the
+stamp by a "toggle joint" operated with a "cam."</p>
+
+<p>Since covers began to be ornamented with ink, attachments have been
+added to the presses for inking the stamps. There have also been
+invented powerful printing presses, made for stamping covers in ink.
+The process is the same as on common printing presses.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page245" name="page245"></a>(p. 245)</span>The dies used for stamping covers are cut on hardened brass,
+and are capable of standing an immense pressure. They are not set in
+chases, as are the forms on printing presses, but are glued to iron
+plates. The head of the press to which the plates are clamped is
+heated, either by running a jet of live steam through it, or by gas
+jets.</p>
+
+<p>For gilt work, or colored leaf, heat is necessary. The cover is
+prepared with a coat of size. The gold or ink leaf is then laid on and
+an impression is given with the heated die, which melts the size and
+fastens the leaf only at the point where the die strikes. The surplus
+leaf is brushed off, leaving only the design visible.</p>
+
+<p>The binding of cheap leather-covered books is essentially the same as
+with cloth. The difference is that the covers must be made by hand. No
+machine will do any part, except paring the edges of the covers. There
+are several machines that will do this work, one machine doing as much
+in a day as three men could with knife and paring stone in the old
+way.</p>
+
+<p>Edge-gilding is another distinct branch of the trade, and is generally
+done before books are rounded and backed. The books are clamped, after
+trimming, between the jaws of powerful screw presses and the edges
+scraped to make them perfectly smooth. They are then colored with a
+mixture of red chalk, or black lead, applied with a sponge, to give
+the gold a dark color. A <span class="pagenum"><a id="page246" name="page246"></a>(p. 246)</span>size made of the white of eggs is
+then applied with a brush, the gold leaf floated on, and when dry
+burnished with an agate or bloodstone. No machine has yet been
+invented that will do this work.</p>
+
+<p>Edge-marbling is another branch. A shallow trough is filled with a
+solution of gum hog or gum tragacanth of the consistency of thick
+cream. Each color, which must be ground very fine, is mixed in water
+and ox-gall, and sprinkled separately over the surface of the gum with
+brushes. The ox-gall prevents the colors from mixing together on the
+solution, every drop being distinct. If three or more colors are used,
+the first one containing a little gall, the second more than the
+first, and the third more than the second, each color will make a
+place for itself by crowding the others into a narrower space. The
+books are held firmly in a clamp, and as the edges are dipped into the
+solution they take up the colors as they lie on the surface.</p>
+
+<p>There are other edges called for besides the gilt, the marbled, or the
+plain smooth cut. The deckle edge is left uncut, just as it comes from
+the paper-maker. The uncut or rough cut is made by taking off any
+projecting edges of the leaves. There are machines for doing this, one
+having a circular knife rigged like a circular saw, the book being run
+lengthwise against it. There are also other methods of removing
+overhanging leaves, one by using hand shears, another by filing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page247" name="page247"></a>(p. 247)</span>In fine leather binding, while the preparation of the book
+for the cover is essentially the same as in cloth work, the covering
+is all hand-work, requiring experience and skill, and is a distinct
+branch of the trade.</p>
+
+<p>Finishing by hand is another, and requires long experience to become
+an expert. Gold ornamentation requires heated tools, and in the hands
+of a practised finisher beautiful designs can be worked out with quite
+a limited assortment of rolls, straight and curved lines, and a few
+sprigs, dots, and stars.</p>
+
+<p>In olden times, when all work was done by hand, the product of a
+good-sized cloth bindery was from 500 to 1000 books a day. Now, with
+modern machinery, in a well-equipped bindery, the product is from 5000
+to 10,000 copies of an ordinary 12mo book.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of other machines in use, run by power, which have
+not been enumerated in the above sketch, such as wire and thread
+stitching machines, gluing and pasting machines, brushing machines,
+and last but not least a gold-saving machine, out of whose bowels
+large binders take from $200 to $400 worth of waste gold each month.
+This waste gold comes from the surplus gold brushed from the covers
+after stamping.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page248" name="page248"></a>(p. 248)</span>SPECIAL BINDINGS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Henry Blackwell</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Much has been written about the art of special binding, and many
+lengthy treatises have been written on the various methods of early
+and modern "extra," or fine binders. It will be my province to
+describe the stages through which a book passes, from the time it is
+received in the bindery until it is shipped out of the establishment.
+I will take for my subject a rare old book that is to be rebound in a
+half-levant morocco binding. In a good shop, all books, no matter what
+the binding is to be, are treated alike in regard to workmanship,
+care, and materials. If a binder puts his name in the completed book,
+it is a sign that the book has been to the best of his ability
+honestly and well bound.</p>
+
+<p>When the customer brings the book to the binder, the style of binding,
+color of the leather, amount and kind of ornamentation, and all the
+other details are determined upon and entered carefully in a numbered
+order book, and the number of the order is marked in pencil on an
+inside leaf of the book itself, so that the original instructions may
+be referred to from time to time. This number <span class="pagenum"><a id="page249" name="page249"></a>(p. 249)</span>is usually
+left in the book after it has been finished and delivered to the
+owner, and not infrequently has been the means of identifying a lost
+or stolen volume.</p>
+
+<p>The book is then given to the first operator, usually a girl, who
+removes the cover, if there is any, and takes the book apart,
+separating carefully each of the "signatures," or sections, and
+removing the threads of the old binding. If any of the pages are
+loose, they are pasted neatly in their proper places and the "insert
+plates" (illustrations, maps, etc.), which had been printed separately
+from the text and pasted in the volume, are examined to make sure that
+they are firmly fixed. Another operator goes over the entire volume
+and cleans any of the pages that have become soiled.</p>
+
+<p>The book is then prepared for the sewing by a man who hammers the back
+until it is flat and all the edges of the signatures lie evenly. He
+then divides it into sections of half a dozen or more signatures,
+places each of these between smooth wooden boards, and puts the whole
+into an upright iron press, in which it is subjected to a great
+pressure, and where it ought to remain over night in order to make it
+entirely flat and solid. A better way of pressing a book at this stage
+of the operation is to pass it several times through a rolling
+machine, which is made for this special purpose with two heavy iron
+rollers, say twenty inches <span class="pagenum"><a id="page250" name="page250"></a>(p. 250)</span>long and ten inches in diameter.
+These machines are seldom used in America, but are invariably found in
+the equipment of binders' workshops abroad, which is perhaps one
+reason why English books are so solidly bound.</p>
+
+<p>Following the pressing, or the rolling, the book is placed, back
+uppermost, in another press, something like a wooden vise. By means of
+a handsaw, several cuts, just deep enough to cut entirely through the
+fold of each signature, are made across the back of the book. Seven of
+these saw marks are usually made, the five in the middle being for the
+cords on which the book is sewed, and the two at the ends for threads
+which help to make the sewing more secure. If the book is to have a
+binding with raised bands across the back, no actual cuts are made,
+the back being simply scratched to guide the girl in sewing, so that
+the heavy twine on which she sews will stand out on the back, forcing
+the leather up in the five middle places and forming the raised bands.</p>
+
+<p>After it has been sawed, or scratched, the book goes to a girl who
+collates it&mdash;that is, examines it thoroughly, signature by signature,
+and makes sure that everything is in its right place. If the volume is
+old or especially valuable, it is gone over page by page. The first
+and last signatures are then whip-stitched, or sewed over and over
+along the back edges, and then put in their places.</p>
+
+<p>The book is then sewn on a "sewing frame." <span class="pagenum"><a id="page251" name="page251"></a>(p. 251)</span>This is a small
+wooden table about twelve by eighteen inches, with legs only one inch
+high. At two corners there are upright wooden screws, some fifteen
+inches long with movable collars which support a crosspiece. To this
+crosspiece are fastened three stout cords, their other ends being
+attached to the table. The position of these cords are regulated to
+fit the saw marks on the back of the book, then they are tightened by
+means of the screw collars. The sections of the book are then placed
+against these cords, one by one, and the threads passed through the
+saw cuts and outside the cords, thus sewing them firmly to the back of
+the book. When several books of the same size are being bound at one
+time, the operator goes right on sewing book after book, one signature
+after the other, until she has finished a pile of books a foot or more
+high. When the sewing is finished the cords are cut so as to leave a
+free end of an inch and a half on each side of the book, and to these
+ends are fastened the boards, as described later.</p>
+
+<p>Linen or silk thread is used in sewing, the heaviness of which depends
+upon the size of the book and the thickness of the paper of the book.
+If the book has many single leaves, or illustrations, it is sometimes
+necessary to whip-stitch each signature before sewing.</p>
+
+<p>The book, or the pile of books, then passes to the "forwarder," who
+"draws off" or separates each <span class="pagenum"><a id="page252" name="page252"></a>(p. 252)</span>book from the others in the
+pile, and again hammers the book, to flatten out any "swell" which may
+be present after the sewing. He then pastes, or "tacks," the first and
+last whip-stitched signatures to the signatures next them, this
+pasting being only, say, an eighth of an inch wide along the back
+edge.</p>
+
+<p>The paper is then chosen for the "end papers," usually matching
+closely the paper of the book. They are cut a little larger than the
+paper page of the book, and pasted along the edge to the outside and
+whip-stitched signatures. Marble paper in suitable harmony or contrast
+with the leather to be used on the book is then selected for lining
+the inside of the covers cut to the same size as the "end papers," and
+pasted to them, after having been folded so that the colored sides
+come face to face.</p>
+
+<p>When all this pasting has dried thoroughly, the back of the book is
+covered with a thin coating of glue, to preserve its shape and then,
+while the back is quite flat, the front edges of the leaves are
+trimmed off evenly in a cutting machine. If this edge is to be gilded,
+special care is taken to have the edges cut smoothly.</p>
+
+<p>The back is then "rounded" by use of a hammer; if the book is to be a
+"flat back" one, the rounding is very slight. It is necessary even in
+the case of a flat back book to round it somewhat so that it will
+retain its shape when the finished book is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page253" name="page253"></a>(p. 253)</span>placed on the
+shelf. After the rounding, the top, or "head," and the bottom, or
+"tail," of the book are trimmed evenly in the cutting machine.</p>
+
+<p>The book is then ready for the gilder, who places it, with the edge
+which is to be gilded uppermost, in a press. This edge is covered with
+red chalk, which shows all the uneven places, which are then scraped
+with a steel scraper. This operation is repeated until the edge is
+very smooth, and it is then treated with a sizing made of white of egg
+and water, which is to hold the gold leaf to the edges of the leaves.
+The gold leaf is laid on the still wet edge, and when slightly dry is
+covered with a sheet of paper and rubbed down with a burnisher, and
+when entirely dry is burnished again with a smooth piece of agate or
+bloodstone.</p>
+
+<p>The boards, pieces of strong and durable binders' "boards" made of
+paper or tarred rope, are then selected and cut to fit the book,
+extending about one-eighth of an inch over the head, tail, and front
+edges of the leaves. Each of the cords, on which the book has been
+sewed, is moistened with paste, and put through two holes which are
+punched side by side in the board and within a quarter of an inch of
+the inside edge. The cord is carried down through one hole, and up
+through the other, and the remaining end is cut off and hammered down
+smooth where it stays firmly fastened by the paste. This is called
+"lacing on the boards" and when finished makes, so far as <span class="pagenum"><a id="page254" name="page254"></a>(p. 254)</span>
+strength is concerned, the cover-boards and the inside of the book
+practically one piece. The book is then given another long pressing.</p>
+
+<p>The coverer then takes the volume. He first wraps the edges with paper
+to keep them clean and then puts on the headbands. These are either
+sewn directly on to the book or may be bought ready-made, when they
+are put on with glue.</p>
+
+<p>The back is covered with a strip of coarsely woven crash lined with
+several pieces of paper. This is glued to the back to make it hard and
+solid and to prevent it from cracking, or "breaking," when the book is
+opened.</p>
+
+<p>The leather is then cut out for the corners and for the back, in the
+latter case allowance being made for its extension over and on to the
+boards to the proper distance. The back lining is trimmed off to the
+top of the headbands, and the leather is pasted on the rough side in
+position and turned in at the "head" and "tail" of the back. The five
+raised bands are then "pinched up" and the whole back is polished, or
+"crushed," with a hot polisher until the leather is smoothed down to
+the desired surface.</p>
+
+<p>In decorating the cover, or "tooling" it, as it is called, the design
+is first pressed into the leather of the back with heated tools. These
+designs, appearing "blank," or sunken, in the leather, are washed over
+with a thin coat of paste and water, followed by a sizing of albumen,
+and finally <span class="pagenum"><a id="page255" name="page255"></a>(p. 255)</span>with vaseline, to make the gold stick. Gold leaf
+is laid over the "blank" designs and the same heated tools used to
+press the gold into the leather. As many as three layers of gold are
+frequently put on in this way until the design is full and clear. The
+waste edges of the pieces of gold leaf are removed with a piece of
+soft rubber and the whole back washed with benzine to remove the
+grease of the vaseline and that of the natural leather.</p>
+
+<p>The part of the leather which projects over the sides is pasted to the
+boards, trimmed off straight, and pared down until the edges are very
+thin. Another piece of plain paper is then cut out and pasted on the
+board, covering it right up to the edges of the leather. This makes
+the side board and the leather even in height and prevents the outside
+marbled paper from showing ridges made by the edges of the leather.</p>
+
+<p>When the outside has dried, a piece of paper is pasted on the inside
+of each board. This paper has a tendency to shrink a little and to
+warp the boards, so that they will hold tightly to the inside of the
+book. If this paper were not put on the inside of the covers, the
+marbled paper on the outside might cause the boards to warp away from
+the book itself.</p>
+
+<p>The end papers are then pasted down on to the board, and when
+thoroughly dry all the leather along the inside and the outside edges
+of the cover <span class="pagenum"><a id="page256" name="page256"></a>(p. 256)</span>sides is carefully washed and polished with an
+iron polisher. The book is then placed between plates made of steel,
+either nickel or silver plated, and placed in the press to remain a
+day or two, after which the back is polished again and the sides are
+finished with gilt lines along the edges of the leather next to the
+marbled paper. Then the book is finally inspected, a silk marker
+inserted, and the volume is done and ready for delivery.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page257" name="page257"></a>(p. 257)</span>COPYRIGHTING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Frederick H. Hitchcock</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>Copyrighting a book is in most instances not a difficult matter, but
+the present United States laws are so complicated and inconsistent
+that an inexperienced author may readily fall into errors of one kind
+or another.</p>
+
+<p>In a modern publishing house, the routine work of complying with the
+provisions of the copyright laws is usually in the hands of one clerk,
+who is responsible for the preparation and filing of the necessary
+documents at the proper time and for keeping a complete record of all
+that he does. Experience soon brings such a clerk a really valuable
+knowledge of the law, but as many questions of vital importance arise
+from time to time, it is customary for one of the most responsible men
+in the concern, generally a member of the firm or an officer in the
+corporation, to exercise a general supervision of all copyright
+matters.</p>
+
+<p>When a book is ready to be sent to the bindery, the manufacturing
+department will generally order a certain number of copies to be
+finished in advance of the rest of the edition. Some of these will be
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page258" name="page258"></a>(p. 258)</span>for the travelling salesman's use, some for the publicity
+department, and at least two for copyright purposes. With the copies
+delivered to the copyright clerk, the manufacturing department will
+send one or two separate title-pages, either torn from the printed
+sheets or taken from the early proofs made by the printer. With these
+in hand and with information from the selling department as to the day
+when the book is to be published, the clerk in charge will then take
+the first step toward copyrighting it. This is the filing of the claim
+for copyright and of the title of the book.</p>
+
+<p>The Copyright Office in the Library of Congress at Washington supplies
+free upon request application blanks, and one of these must be
+carefully filled in. The information called for by this blank is as
+follows: the amount of the fees enclosed, whether a sealed copy of the
+record, or certificate as it is called, is desired, whether the volume
+is to be classed as a book, periodical, or dramatic composition, an
+abbreviated title of the book, the name of the author, or proprietor,
+the name and address of the applicant, the name of the country where
+the book was printed, whether the applicant is the author, or (having
+an assignment from the author) the proprietor, the name of the country
+of which the author is a citizen, or subject, and whether the whole or
+a part of the book is sought to be copyrighted.</p>
+
+<p>There is a blank page in the form where the print <span class="pagenum"><a id="page259" name="page259"></a>(p. 259)</span>or proof
+of the title-page must be pasted. If neither of these is available at
+the time, it is customary to use a typewritten title-page, but as the
+law distinctly calls for a "printed" title and as the courts have not
+decided whether typewriting is printing within the intention of the
+law, it is best to follow the exact letter of the law.</p>
+
+<p>The fee for filing the application or claim for copyright is fifty
+cents if the author is a citizen or resident of the United States, or
+one dollar if he is a foreigner. If a copy of the record entered at
+the Copyright Office is desired, an additional fifty cents is
+required. The fees, preferably in the form of a money-order, are
+enclosed in the envelope containing the claim, and the whole
+forwarded, postage prepaid, to the Register of Copyrights at the
+Library of Congress.</p>
+
+<p>Upon receiving these, the Copyright Office will acknowledge the
+receipt of the fees and make a record of the claim and of the title in
+books provided for the purpose. The law specifies that this record
+shall be in the following words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Library of Congress, to wit: Be it remembered that on the___day
+of________190________________ of_________has deposited in this Office
+the title of a BOOK, the title of which is in the following words, to
+wit:____________, the right whereof_______ claims as author and
+proprietor in conformity with the laws of the United States respecting
+copyrights. ______________Librarian of Congress."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page260" name="page260"></a>(p. 260)</span>It is generally the custom to obtain a copy of this record,
+which, if the fee is enclosed, is sent to the claimant as soon after
+the receipt of the application as it can be made out in the regular
+course of the business of the Copyright Office. This copy is signed by
+the Register of Copyrights and is sealed with the official seal of the
+Library of Congress. The period of protection under an original claim
+is twenty-eight years.</p>
+
+<p>It is important to remember that the application and the title are
+required by law to be delivered to the Register of Copyrights "on or
+before the day of publication in this or any other country." If
+delayed until after that day, the book cannot have the protection of
+the copyright law.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to 1891 none but citizens or residents of the United States
+could obtain copyright, but in July of that year the privilege was
+extended to the citizens, or subjects, of such other countries as
+grant to the citizens of the United States the same copyright
+privileges which they afford to their own countrymen. At the present
+time these privileged countries are Belgium, France, Great Britain and
+her possessions, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Portugal,
+Spain, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica, the Netherlands (Holland) and her
+possessions, Cuba, China, and Norway.</p>
+
+<p>The law also requires that a book desired to be copyrighted in the
+United States must be printed in this country. It is, therefore, not
+possible to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page261" name="page261"></a>(p. 261)</span>copyright a book which has been put into type
+and electrotyped in England and sent here for the presswork and
+binding. Copies of a book manufactured in this country may, however,
+be sent to England and copyrighted there.</p>
+
+<p>The second step is to send two copies of the printed book for deposit
+in the Copyright Office, and until this has been done, the copyright
+is incomplete. These copies, like the title, must be delivered on or
+before the day of publication.</p>
+
+<p>A printed receipt-form for books to be deposited is supplied by the
+Copyright Office, and it is the usual practice for the sender to fill
+in his address, and the names of the book and of the author, so that
+when the books are received, the Register of Copyrights needs only to
+date and sign the receipt-form and return it to the sender. This
+receipt-form should be enclosed with the books when they are
+forwarded. The package must be plainly addressed (the Copyright Office
+furnishes printed labels if desired) and sent, carriage prepaid,
+through the mail.</p>
+
+<p>It not infrequently happens that publication must be made before the
+two copies of a book can reach Washington. In such cases the copyright
+clerk may take the books to the nearest post-office and obtain from
+the postmaster a dated receipt for them which is equivalent to
+delivery to the Copyright Office. The package is not finally wrapped
+until the postmaster has examined it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page262" name="page262"></a>(p. 262)</span>When these steps have been properly taken, and the
+certificate, or sealed copy, of the record and the receipt for the two
+copies have been received, the copyright is secure so far as our laws
+can render it. It should be borne in mind that the Copyright Office
+does not grant a copyright in a manner similar to the granting of a
+patent right by the patent office. Its function is simply to record in
+a permanent place and in official form the claim made by the author,
+or by the proprietor, of that right. When a book is "pirated" and the
+offender sued, it must first be established by the records that the
+provisions of the law have been complied with fully and correctly. In
+this way a copyright is always subject to review by the courts.</p>
+
+<p>Every copy of a book for which copyright has been claimed must have a
+formal notice to that effect, printed on its "title-page or on the
+page following." As prescribed by law, this notice must read either
+"Entered according to the Act of Congress in the year 1906 by A. B. in
+the Office of the Library of Congress," or simply, "Copyright, 1906,
+by A. B." The omission of such a notice from the book would make it
+impossible for its owner to prevent its being reprinted. There is a
+penalty of $100 for using the notice of copyright in an uncopyrighted
+book, and when the notice is used, there is a penalty of $25, if the
+two copies as required by law are not deposited. This latter penalty
+also applies in the case of failure to deposit one copy of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page263" name="page263"></a>(p. 263)</span>a
+new edition differing from the former one, if a notice of copyright is
+used in the new edition.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain a renewal of a copyright, the claim and the title
+must be filed on a form provided for the purpose with the Register of
+Copyrights "within six months before the expiration of the first
+term," which would be sometime between twenty-seven and one-half and
+twenty-eight years from the date of filing the original title. The
+copyright period runs from the date of filing the original claim, and
+not from the time of depositing the books, and great care should be
+taken to ascertain the date of the registration of the original title,
+and to compute the time so that the filing of the application for
+renewal will surely fall within the specified six months. The renewal
+period is fourteen years, and the fees are the same as in the case of
+the original application, but a certificate, or copy of the record, of
+the renewal claim must be taken and paid for by the claimant.</p>
+
+<p>Only one copy of a book is required to be deposited to complete the
+claim for a renewal term of copyright. This copy also must be
+delivered within "six months before the expiration of the first term,"
+and should be accompanied by a receipt as in the case of the original
+deposit. In order to complete the claim, a copy of the certificate
+must be published verbatim, within two months of the date of renewal
+for four weeks in one or more newspapers printed in the United States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page264" name="page264"></a>(p. 264)</span>In obtaining international copyright, publication on the same
+day here and abroad is necessary, and this is sometimes a cause of
+considerable inconvenience in actual practice. When a New York
+publisher wishes to copyright in England a novel which he is about to
+publish, he must prepare six special copies of the finished book, bind
+them in cloth, print the copyright notice on the back of the
+title-page, and the name and address of the London firm or the
+individual who is willing to act as the English publisher of the book,
+and forward the copies to that person. At the same time he will write
+to this agent, telling him of the shipment and requesting him to enter
+the book for copyright and publish it in England on or about such a
+date. He will, of course, allow sufficient time for the books to reach
+London, and he will carefully point out in his letter any American
+holidays which occur near the probable date of publication. Upon
+receiving the books, the London agent will cable the New York
+publisher the date on which he will publish the book, taking care to
+allow an interval of a day or two, because of a possible delay.</p>
+
+<p>On the day agreed upon, the New York publisher proceeds to copyright
+and publish his book in this country in the usual manner, while the
+London agent does the same abroad, delivering to the British Museum
+one copy of the book, and to Stationer's Hall, for use in certain
+libraries, four copies. Both of them will on that day sell at least
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page265" name="page265"></a>(p. 265)</span>one or two copies which will constitute a legal publication.</p>
+
+<p>It is the custom with many publishers to establish the publication day
+of all of their books, by displaying a few copies, or by actually
+selling one or more copies to some one. In the case of a very popular
+copyrighted book which it is desirable to have the retailers all over
+the country begin to sell on the same day, it is deemed safer to make
+this technical publication before any of the books are distributed
+through the trade. A record of the first sales entered in a
+publisher's sales-book in the course of business would effectually
+prevent any one from claiming in after years a right to reprint a book
+on the ground that the claim, title, and copies were not originally
+filed until after the book had been put upon the market.</p>
+
+<p>Under a recent amendment in our law, an author of a book in a foreign
+language, who is a citizen of one of the foreign countries which
+allows to our citizens the same copyright privileges as are allowed to
+its own countrymen, is permitted to file in the Copyright Office
+within thirty days after its publication in a foreign country a copy
+of his book with a formal declaration that he is the author and that
+he intends to translate it or to print it in its original language and
+to apply for copyright in the United States. After doing this, he is
+allowed one year in which to complete his proposed translation or to
+print it in the original language and copyright it here.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page266" name="page266"></a>(p. 266)</span>Before this statute was passed, two or more persons could
+translate a foreign book, and each could copyright his own
+translation. Every copy of a book for which such protection is desired
+under this law must bear a notice stating, "Published &mdash;&mdash; Nineteen
+Hundred and &mdash;&mdash;. Privilege of copyright in the United States reserved
+under the Act approved March 3, 1905, by A. B."</p>
+
+<p>Only the author or his assignee (<span class="italic">i.e.</span> the proprietor) may secure
+copyright in a book. An author may transfer orally all or part of his
+rights before publication, but after publication it is necessary for
+him to make the assignment by some form of written instrument. In
+order to make it a valid assignment, the original instrument must be
+sent to be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within
+sixty days after its execution. The fee for recording an assignment is
+one dollar. After the original document has been recorded, it is
+signed and sealed and returned to the sender, who should preserve it
+with the certificate.</p>
+
+<p>It is a common practice to have in the contract between the author and
+his publisher a clause assigning to the publisher all of the author's
+rights for the "full term of copyright and for any and all renewals."
+The agreement, of course, includes other provisions such as for the
+payment of the usual royalties, accounting, etc. Having been made
+before publication such an assignment does not need to be recorded in
+the Copyright Office.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page267" name="page267"></a>(p. 267)</span>The history of copyright is an extremely interesting subject,
+but it cannot be properly treated in the limits of this article. It
+may be mentioned, however, that the first copyright law was enacted by
+Parliament during Queen Anne's reign and is known as "8 Anne, c. 9."
+This statute provided that an author should have complete control of
+his literary productions during a first term of fourteen years after
+publication, and a renewal term of the same length, and provided
+penalties against piracy. A great many questions concerning this law
+arose from time to time in trials before various courts, but perhaps
+the chief one of interest was that of whether the limitation of the
+period during which it granted protection had destroyed the author's
+rights which had existed previously. For fifty years after the passage
+of the law, the decisions were that the right of ownership existed for
+all time as a right in common law unaffected by the statute, but in
+1774 the highest English court held that while the rights of the
+author before the publication of his book remained unaffected, after
+publication he had no rights except during the period specified by the
+statute. This decision is still believed by many authorities to have
+been a wrong one, but it has been the basis for all subsequent
+copyright law in this country as well as in England. Therefore in the
+United States to-day, the right of ownership lies in the author until
+his work is published, but upon publication he has no <span class="pagenum"><a id="page268" name="page268"></a>(p. 268)</span>rights
+except those given him by law, and these he can obtain only by a
+strict compliance with the requirements of the law. Any one who is
+sufficiently interested to read the first hundred pages of Drone's
+"Treatise on the Law of Property in Intellectual Productions" will be
+well repaid for the effort, and will obtain considerable light upon
+how the "right of copying," or printing, a book developed, why its
+duration is not unlimited, and why we must observe certain formalities
+in order to protect our literary work by it.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page269" name="page269"></a>(p. 269)</span>PUBLICITY<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Vivian Burnett</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The duty of bringing the productions of a publishing house to the
+attention of the public is a very important one, and much depends upon
+the cleverness and energy with which it is discharged. It can easily
+be seen that no matter how good the books brought out by a firm, they
+would be likely to remain on stockroom shelves if readers were not
+properly made aware of their issue. The name "Publicity department" is
+the most descriptive title that can be given to the part of the staff
+devoting its energies to the many variations of news-spreading
+involved in this work.</p>
+
+<p>Publicity involves both editorial and commercial elements. From the
+editorial side it is of prime importance that the person in charge of
+the publicity have at the very beginning a complete and definite idea
+of the reasons that have ruled in the acceptance of a book,&mdash;what
+class of people it was published for, and just what species of a book
+it is considered to be. Is it purposed to appeal to a certain
+religious class of people? Is it for the distinctly literary? Perhaps
+it is one of those <span class="pagenum"><a id="page270" name="page270"></a>(p. 270)</span>volumes on the border line between a
+juvenile and an adult's book, which may be presented either as a
+volume for young or for grown-up folks. The publicity man must be in
+full understanding of this estimate before he can do his work
+properly. On the commercial side, he must know just the feeling of the
+trade in regard to an author and any type of book; and must be in
+close touch with the salesmen, not only at the beginning, but all
+through the life of the volume. He can learn from them what amount of
+success the author's previous books have met, and thus be enabled to
+present his volume in a way that will hitch on to a previous success
+or avoid the odium of a recent failure. Salesmen can help him to know
+the interests of every section of the country, so that advantage can
+be taken of them in bringing the book to the local bookseller's
+attention and influencing him to a special effort in its behalf.</p>
+
+<p>Few people are aware of the influence exerted by the book clerk, who
+can substitute something "just as good" much more easily than a drug
+or dry goods clerk, especially if he has a good argument to offer. The
+largest part of the publicity of a publishing house is aimed to
+influence the general reader, but more and more attention is to-day
+being paid to the salesman in the bookshop, and quite wisely, too. He
+cannot be expected to read all the books, and any effort made to give
+him an acquaintance with your books that goes beyond their <span class="pagenum"><a id="page271" name="page271"></a>(p. 271)</span>
+covers is clear gain to him, to the publisher, and distinctly to the
+book-buying public.</p>
+
+<p>Now, a book can be made or marred by the publicity it gets. If it is
+wrongly launched, it will have an uphill climb, whatever its virtues.
+This is especially true, as a result of the fact that a good deal is
+written and printed about a book before it is off press and present to
+speak for itself.</p>
+
+<p>One general rule should be most strictly adhered to in publicity, and
+that is, be honest and be sincere. Nowhere is the rule "honesty is the
+best policy" more unanimously justified. You may be as enthusiastic as
+you please, but the book should be put forward for what it really is.
+Only under such handling does it stand a chance for the full success
+its qualities warrant. This all reverts to the question of the
+editorial conception of a volume. Some books are not made for great
+sellers; they are written for the keen enjoyment of a select educated
+few; and if so presented that they fall into the hands of the popular
+novel devourer, they will surely be condemned, and the condemnation
+will reach and have its effect upon many who should legitimately have
+bought the book. On the other hand, a novel of no literary quality
+thrust into the hands of a person of bookish tastes will make an
+influential enemy, who will doubtless have among his followers many
+persons to whom the book would appeal. It is best to find out what
+people will take the book, and advertise <span class="pagenum"><a id="page272" name="page272"></a>(p. 272)</span>it to them. The
+process of emasculating your presentation of it by cutting out
+everything that would keep <span class="italic">anybody</span> from reading it is a dangerous
+one. The dislikes of the world of readers are too many for one to be
+able to dodge them all, and, after all, most of us like a positive
+rather than a negative volume. Just because many people do not read
+essays,&mdash;to take an extreme case,&mdash;is no reason for avoiding the
+statement that yours is a volume of essays. Fortunately, there are
+thousands upon thousands of people who do read essays; and if the book
+is a good book of essays, they will bring their influence&mdash;that
+word-of-mouth influence which is almost as powerful as a "puff" by
+President Roosevelt&mdash;to bear upon non-essay reading people, and you
+will be the gainer by that much for your wisdom and honesty.</p>
+
+<p>These observations are germane, and worthy consideration because
+commercialism and the endeavor to produce big sellers are always an
+influence to overstate, misstate, and be extravagant in the praise of
+a volume. But such extravagance always discounts itself in the mind of
+the reader, and experience has pretty definitely proved that what a
+prospective buyer wants is a straightforward concise indication of the
+story and its quality. A word of praise quoted from a review may help
+him make up his mind, yet he probably knows it is a pretty poor book
+of which <span class="italic">some</span> newspaper doesn't say "Holds the reader's interest
+from cover to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page273" name="page273"></a>(p. 273)</span>cover" or "We hail the author of this volume
+as one of the most promising of our American writers."</p>
+
+<p>In considering the practical details of publicity, it will be clearest
+to take them in chronological order. First: The book should be
+thoroughly and critically read. The person in charge of the publicity
+ought to have every volume put into his hands as soon as it is
+accepted. When he has read it thoroughly and has formed his idea of
+it, he discusses it thoroughly with the person responsible for its
+acceptance. From this discussion, in which the sales department is
+represented, evolves naturally the "editorial attitude" upon which
+every line of future publicity and every sentence of salesman's talk
+will be based. Without a complete understanding throughout the
+establishment of the "editorial attitude" the entire publicity will be
+aimless and unconvincing.</p>
+
+<p>The first work in publicity on a season's book is probably the
+catalogue, which must be had ready for the salesmen when they go off
+on their trips. The aim of the catalogue is to present as full an
+account of the book as possible. It is meant for the eye of an
+interested person, who can be counted upon to read rather a lengthy
+notice. Every possible detail of price, number of illustrations,
+paper, size, kind of binding, table of contents, previous works by the
+same author, are given, and thus it becomes a complete reference book.
+It is the general custom of publishing houses to <span class="pagenum"><a id="page274" name="page274"></a>(p. 274)</span>issue a
+complete catalogue in the Fall, with a supplemental catalogue in the
+Spring containing the books of the Spring season. Most firms also
+bring out a Fall list, to present their Fall books, which would be
+buried beyond notice in a bulky complete catalogue. In this Fall list
+not infrequently the Spring books are included, making what is really
+an annual catalogue. These three catalogues are essential, and they
+are as a rule supplemented by many special book lists and pamphlets. A
+holiday catalogue is a steady institution in nearly every publishing
+house. Its aim is to present to Christmas buyers the most attractive
+volumes of the house's issue, and it is usually elaborate, with many
+illustrations, a fine cover, and it is often printed in colors. Then
+there are frequently issued catalogues of books on special subjects,
+art, children's books, special editions, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The uses of catalogues are many. A large number are sent to the
+publisher's best friend, the bookseller,&mdash;sometimes imprinted with his
+name,&mdash;who distributes them. They also go out by mail to special lists
+of people who are known to be interested in books, and a large number
+are sent to persons who write asking information.</p>
+
+<p>In elaborateness the circular follows close on the catalogue, and it
+has quite as wide if not a wider field. It is large or small,
+depending upon the importance of the book. Sometimes it reaches the
+dignity of a bound pamphlet, but it is usually <span class="pagenum"><a id="page275" name="page275"></a>(p. 275)</span>a single leaf
+or at most a four-page folder. Here again, all necessary information
+of price and contents is given at length. But as the person into whose
+hands the circular falls cannot be counted on to be interested
+beforehand, the whole make-up and arrangement of the circular is
+calculated for drawing attention and fixing interest. The circular,
+therefore, must be made attractive.</p>
+
+<p>And here should be introduced a word in general on the appearance of
+the printed matter that is sent out by a publishing house. It must be
+good printing. It must be attractive printing. It is the indication to
+the people whose eyes it meets of the work of the house it advertises.
+Few people want to buy badly made books; and, unconsciously, if a
+circular or catalogue is commonplace and badly printed, those
+qualities will be attached to the book advertised. And it is quite
+true, on the other hand, that the distinction and comely appearance of
+a circular will prejudice in favor of the book. Moreover, a circular's
+service can be rendered only when it attracts attention, and what is
+spent in aiding it to catch the eye, through making it artistically
+beautiful and printing it in color, will bring its return and more in
+the added efficiency produced. There are, doubtless, people who would
+not be affected by bad printing, but people of taste, the people who
+most influence the sale of books, are sure to be antagonized.</p>
+
+<p>Probably, the most useful circular of all is the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page276" name="page276"></a>(p. 276)</span>little leaf
+or "slip" circular. It is printed on both sides, and is inserted
+between the leaves of books of similar interest to the one it
+advertises, usually about three to a book. It is made the size of the
+ordinary business envelope, for it is also used in direct
+circularization of lists and as an enclosure with bills, statements,
+and sometimes with general correspondence. Often, when advertising two
+or more books, it has four or even eight pages, though the latter
+makes it almost too bulky for insertion in books. These larger
+circulars have an order form attached giving the list of books, and a
+place for the name and address of the prospective buyer,&mdash;a device to
+make it as easy as possible for him to order his selection. When such
+circulars are inserted in books either the order form is left off, or
+something substituted in its place, for, as can readily be seen, the
+order form is a bid for direct business by the publisher which would
+naturally be obnoxious to the bookseller. Larger and more elaborate
+circulars than these as a rule are used only for direct
+circularization. The subject of circularization is much too important
+and complicated to be exhausted in a few paragraphs, or even in an
+extended article. Enough has been said here, however, at least to
+suggest the circular's field.</p>
+
+<p>The next problem in publicity to be taken up is the poster. The poster
+has had its ups and downs, and in some quarters is a somewhat
+discredited form of advertising, but it has its value. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page277" name="page277"></a>(p. 277)</span>
+booksellers always demand posters. The one great argument against them
+is that posters good enough to attract attention, that is, with a good
+design and in colors, are somewhat expensive for book advertising. If
+properly exhibited, they sell books, but the difficulty lies in the
+fact that if they are <span class="italic">too</span> attractive, they are likely to find their
+way into a poster collector's portfolio before they have been exposed
+long on the board. Yet, especially with leading books of fiction, this
+is one of the risks that must be taken, for with each such
+publication, the public eye must be caught with the fact of the book's
+issue, and for this purpose a striking poster has no equal. For
+serious books inexpensive clear type posters are quite sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>The book being now nearly off press, there will be needed some matter
+for the paper jacket that slips over and protects the cloth cover
+while the book is on the stall. Most important is the brief note on
+the front that serves to indicate the quality of the volume and thus
+guide the purchaser. On a book of fiction fifty or not more than
+seventy-five words of the very best possible presentation of the book
+is required. Here is the place where most of all the prospective
+purchaser's interest must be aroused. Here the most felicitous
+publicity inspiration is needed&mdash;and the problem is to indicate the
+story, yet not tell it, and to pique curiosity to the buying point. On
+books of a serious nature a jacket note is just as essential, if not
+more <span class="pagenum"><a id="page278" name="page278"></a>(p. 278)</span>so, but the problem is different. The prospective
+purchaser of such a book as "Irish History and the Irish Question,"
+"The Flower Garden," for example, has an interest in the subject
+already aroused. What he wishes to know is the scope of the volume and
+the manner in which the subject is treated. The note for such a
+volume, therefore, should contain a plain, straightforward statement
+of the importance of the book, the point of view taken, a brief table
+of contents indicating the most important divisions of the subject,
+and some mention of the author's special qualification for writing the
+volume. On the back of the paper "jacket" and on the little flaps that
+turn at the sides of a book, it is customary to put advertisements of
+cognate books. Often these paper jackets are treated in elaborate
+poster style, and for good reason, since as a rule they are the first
+part of a book a buyer sees, and his attention is not likely to be
+attracted if only cheap paper be used.</p>
+
+<p>The date of the book's publication has probably now been set, and the
+next step in publicity&mdash;a most important one&mdash;is the sending out of
+review copies. This is the last thing in which haphazard methods would
+be permissible. The list of newspapers who get complimentary copies
+should be carefully selected, not so much with an eye to size of
+circulation, as to quality and standing. A paper that is known to give
+attention to books is worth two that have merely large circulations
+and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page279" name="page279"></a>(p. 279)</span>no distinction; first, because the books sent will be
+appreciatively reviewed, and, second, because people in the habit of
+buying books will consult the review columns and be influenced by
+them. There are possibly one hundred and fifty or one hundred and
+seventy-five papers in the United States to whom it would be
+profitable to send a book. A great many more, however, think they
+should receive them. With even the most popular novel two hundred
+review copies is a generously sufficient number to place for review.
+In deciding where these should go, the contents of the book itself is
+of course the guide. Some books can be calculated to appeal more to
+one section of the country than to another because of their
+subject-matter. Certain classes of people&mdash;ministers, school-teachers,
+sportsmen, doctors&mdash;can sometimes be drawn upon by the judicious
+distribution of a few complimentary copies, to assist the sale of a
+book, and then there is the home of the author, where special
+attention can always be expected.</p>
+
+<p>Opinions differ as to the amount of influence exerted by reviews upon
+the fortunes of a book. It is certainly true that to trace direct
+returns from reviews is often difficult. Frequently books which are
+splendidly reviewed move slowly, and there seems no explanation of
+their failure to "catch on." They may be, and frequently are, books of
+real value and quality. The history of publishing is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page280" name="page280"></a>(p. 280)</span>full of
+such mysteries. On the other hand, <span class="italic">returns</span> are visible enough when a
+book is slated by the press; there its power is amply evident.</p>
+
+<p>The American press is notably fair, notably discriminating, and
+notably independent. It gives its own views fearlessly, and resents
+any efforts made by publishers to get their own adjective-besprinkled
+puffs printed. In rush seasons it will make use of publisher's
+description, after carefully blue-pencilling obtrusive adjectives, but
+it goes no farther. In fact, the newspaper-review part of publishing
+publicity is best left alone. The book must do the work itself.</p>
+
+<p>The book has now reached the place where that which is commonly called
+advertising should begin; that is, publicity in newspapers and
+magazines. The use of newspapers, to any great extent at least, is a
+comparatively recent development in the publishing business, dating
+back not much more than ten years. Its efficiency, that is to say, its
+proportion of return to outlay, is far from being established. While
+at the beginning of the movement great rewards were reaped, the light
+of more mature experience seems to show that those books which, under
+heavy newspaper advertising, reached editions of 100,000 to 150,000
+were really special cases,&mdash;books of a peculiarly popular, almost
+low-grade, quality, that had an exceptional public. It is sure that
+what brought success with them would not succeed with the average
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page281" name="page281"></a>(p. 281)</span>publication. For this reason, publishers to-day are by no
+means as lavish as they used to be with their appropriation for
+newspaper advertising. Yet even in this era of retrenchment a very
+large proportion of the money devoted to publicity still goes to the
+newspapers.</p>
+
+<p>While it would be foolish to attempt formulating a set of fixed rules
+for newspaper advertising, there are certain underlying principles
+that should be borne in mind.</p>
+
+<p>Books are in the class of luxuries; most books at least. There is no
+natural demand for them to assist the advertiser, such as there is for
+food-stuffs. With a book, it is the advertiser's business to persuade
+the buyer that he will be interested or instructed or amused by the
+volume to the value of his outlay, be it a quarter or fifty
+dollars,&mdash;where in the matter of necessities and food commodities the
+advertiser's task is the much more simple one of proving that his
+product is intrinsically better or better value than any similar thing
+on the market. The sale of a book depends entirely upon the almost
+artificial desire that is created for it, whereas with other things
+there is a real need, and it is necessary only to prove that the
+article fills this need. For these reasons book advertising&mdash;with
+piano, picture, music, candy, and perhaps automobile advertising&mdash;is
+difficult to carry out profitably. It is the class most expensive
+proportionately to the value of the product, for it can <span class="pagenum"><a id="page282" name="page282"></a>(p. 282)</span>
+count in only the smallest degree upon what is known as the
+"cumulative" effect of a campaign. Every advertisement of such an
+article as a breakfast food, for example, whether it be on a
+bill-board, in a newspaper, or in a circular, adds to the effect of
+every other one. The repetition of the name, whether it be consciously
+or unconsciously observed by the public, assists in forcing attention
+and thus interest, and finally results in a sale. Half a million
+dollars can be spent in making "Whipped Oats" a household word. Every
+dollar backs up every other dollar, and the demand for Whipped Oats
+will last for years. "The Return from Davy Jones," which can have at
+the very most say $5000 spent on it, benefits the very least from the
+cumulative effect, and the demand for the book is practically over in
+a year, especially if it be a popular novel. Each newspaper
+advertisement of a book must in fact bring returns to pay for itself,
+and this, of course, demands the very cleverest kind of "copy."</p>
+
+<p>Many elements enter into the popularity and sale-ability of a book,
+but no one seems to know just what they are. Even the best and most
+experienced readers fail to pick successes&mdash;let big books go by them,
+and conversely praise volumes that turn out flat failures. Yet certain
+things in the line of publicity can be counted upon to assist in
+making a volume's success. The name of a well-known author is the best
+asset a book can have. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page283" name="page283"></a>(p. 283)</span>That gets it good advance sales and a
+quick and appreciative attention from the book reviewers. In this
+respect, nothing could better exemplify the New England homely
+proverb, "Sich as has, gits." The work of publicity on a book by a
+well-known author is easy, if care is taken always to bring that
+author's name forward in connection with his previous achievements.
+This is especially true in regard to newspaper advertising.</p>
+
+<p>Doctors violently disagree over book advertising principles, and
+possibly it is best to start by saying that there <span class="italic">are</span> none and that
+each book is a rule unto itself. Certainly a close and careful study
+of a book's points and the class of people to whom it would likely
+appeal, its "editorial qualities," is the only proper basis for a
+campaign. For the average novel by a well-known author the main
+problem is to let the world know it has been issued. Therefore, in
+advertising in a newspaper, the announcement of the book's publication
+should be made in such a manner that all the readers of that paper
+will notice it. The campaign should start with what is technically
+known as a "must be seen" notice. It is the publisher's business to
+shout loud enough to be heard above the clatter of the small
+advertisements, "Just out&mdash;New book by Donan Coyle, 'The Return from
+Davy Jones.'" If some piquant description of the book follow, this
+should be sure to send all those readers of the paper interested in
+Donan Coyle to the bookshop <span class="pagenum"><a id="page284" name="page284"></a>(p. 284)</span>in search of the new volume.
+Much smaller "ads." following from time to time, that may catch the
+eye of the forgetful ones and arouse their interest by some words of
+personal or press commendation on the volume, would close a campaign
+of this kind, which would have naturally gathered in its trail many
+readers and even non-readers not distinctly interested in Donan Coyle.
+It would at least have started the mouth-to-mouth advertising of the
+book, to which paid-for advertising can after all be regarded only as
+assistant and support. In fact, when all is said and done the greatest
+service advertising does is in reminding people of books they have
+heard praised, and the best advertising is that placed on the road to
+the bookstalls, a strong argument for the poster, since it is
+exhibited in front of the bookshop, where it can catch the passer-by.
+In tune with this conception of the advertisement as an announcement
+is this general rule&mdash;advertise prominently the name of the book, and
+the author's name if it is important. These are commodities you have
+to sell, the things you wish people to ask for&mdash;just as the
+bacon-maker wants you to ask for "Blank's Bacons."</p>
+
+<p>For books that have no well-known author's name to assist them, or
+those for which a large sale cannot be forecasted at the start,&mdash;books
+that appeal to the select few,&mdash;other and more inexpensive methods
+must be pursued. In most such cases it is probable that any
+advertising in newspapers <span class="pagenum"><a id="page285" name="page285"></a>(p. 285)</span>would be unwise, and this leads to
+the subject of magazine advertising, which is much higher grade and
+more suited to such books of quality. There are many distinctly
+literary publications, the subscribers to which are always searching
+for books of a fine type&mdash;an interested clientele who will read
+advertising pages rather thoroughly, and gladly pay good prices for
+good books. Small advertisements&mdash;perhaps a page of small
+advertisements of good books&mdash;in a magazine of this class will bring
+returns, especially if the books have been well reviewed. There are
+also trade journals, which go to the booksellers, and in these the
+publisher must announce his new issues well,&mdash;describe them
+thoroughly, and give some idea of what he intends doing in the way of
+energetic general advertising. The aim of this is to influence
+booksellers to increase their orders.</p>
+
+<p>These few paragraphs only scratch the surface of a broad subject of
+extreme interest. Each publishing firm has developed through its
+experience its own principles of the psychology of public opinion, its
+own idea of the qualities a book should possess, and its own way of
+getting at the people. Results are frequently so surprising that one
+is inclined to class publishing among the games of chance. It is
+certain that everybody cannot make a success at it, and there is no
+doubt that it requires a definite endowment of genius.</p>
+
+<p>There falls to the publicity department the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page286" name="page286"></a>(p. 286)</span>writing of a
+great many letters,&mdash;numbers are in answer to questions concerning
+books and authors, but by far the larger number are in the nature of
+circulars. The personal typewritten letter or the printed typewritten
+letter that masquerades as such, has a power equal to a hundred
+circulars. It claims attention at once, if it does not declare itself
+an advertisement on the outside, where a printed circular gets swept
+into the waste-paper basket unread. It's expensive&mdash;about three cents
+a letter if done properly, but when there are special ends to be
+accomplished, such as calling the attention of the clergy to a novel
+that would suggest sermons, or the members of an Audubon society to a
+book on birds, it is the surest and most profitable method.</p>
+
+<p>It is especially in a mail order or subscription book concern that the
+circular letter is of most use. The expensive sets of such concerns,
+and the large profit figured on them, justify such a costly method of
+publicity. It is generally made more expensive by the enclosure in the
+envelope of return postal cards and other printed material.</p>
+
+<p>This subscription business is a business by itself and conducted quite
+differently from average publishing. The advertising is lavish, and
+the underlying principle of it is, that the prospective purchaser
+wishes a complete description of the wares. Attractive premium, and
+short-time low-price offers are always made, and the endeavor is to
+get the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page287" name="page287"></a>(p. 287)</span>prospective customer to permit the set of volumes to
+be sent on inspection, reliance being held in the ability to make him
+keep them through the real quality of the books, assisted by a series
+of "follow up" letters enlarging upon the virtues of the set. Lists of
+names are circularized, and "follow up" letters used here also to
+bring orders.</p>
+
+<p>An important form of publicity is that which has grown up as a result
+of the interest shown by readers, especially in America, in the
+personality of authors and the desire to know what is happening in the
+world of books. This very natural and legitimate curiosity affords the
+publisher a chance to push his products forward in an unobtrusive way.
+Because it is to all appearances unbiased, it wields quite a deal of
+influence, especially in building up the reputation of an author.
+Every paper that pretends to any literary standing prints regularly or
+occasionally a column of Literary Chat, in which is given brief news
+of authors and books. There will perhaps be a humorous anecdote of the
+author of a prominent novel, a brief summary of a book shortly to be
+issued, some comment by a well-known person on a well-known book, a
+biographical sketch of a new author, a telling extract from a book of
+serious value, a note that "The Return from Davy Jones" is in its
+<span class="italic">n</span>th edition&mdash;all of it really news and of interest. Some newspapers
+write their own chat, but the majority print, with small alteration,
+such as is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page288" name="page288"></a>(p. 288)</span>furnished by the publicity departments of
+publishing houses, which send out weekly or monthly printed or
+typewritten sheets of such brief items. In this way Donan Coyle as the
+author of "The Return from Davy Jones" is kept before the public. The
+public also has a legitimate desire to know something of the
+appearance of the author of a popular novel or important books of
+essays, and the newspaper reviewer frequently wishes to print a
+portrait with his review. Here the publicity department steps in and
+helps him, by furnishing suitable electrotype portraits upon request,
+and not infrequently, by sending out proofs with interesting notes,
+suggests the use of the portrait. The relation between a literary
+editor who wants to print the book news and a manager of publicity is
+a mutually beneficial one. If they coöperate thus, they can be of
+great assistance to each other, and in the exchange each one gets
+value received. By a thousand little methods and devices the person in
+charge of publicity can furnish desired information and get this
+undersurface publicity, and by putting out <span class="italic">bona-fide</span> news and really
+good stories about them, bring even his lesser light authors into
+prominence. In this field, as in all others, the well-known authors
+advertise themselves and set up a demand for publicity.</p>
+
+<p>The financial end of Publicity is full of complexities. The question
+of how much an expenditure per volume is warranted is one that cannot
+be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page289" name="page289"></a>(p. 289)</span>answered generally. There are many limiting and defining
+considerations. First of all, the book itself. If it is the kind to be
+a "big seller," a risk can possibly be taken on a larger advertising
+investment than would be warranted in the case of a good book of finer
+quality and limited appeal. Certain books of coarser, more obvious
+qualities have a large public if it can be reached. In such cases an
+exceptional effort will bring exceptional returns. By the risk of a
+large advertising outlay the firm may get big profits; while a flat
+failure, because the large, non-book-buying public had not been
+reached through newspaper and lavish poster advertising methods, might
+result if only a few hundreds were spent. Judgment of the finest kind
+is required here, and it cannot always decide rightly.</p>
+
+<p>How much to spend depends essentially upon the book, and there is no
+hard and fast rule. Books have been known to reach their public and
+reach good sales at an advertising outlay of about one cent per copy.
+Others have had fifty cents per copy sold spent upon them, and fallen
+flat.</p>
+
+<p>The publishing business is not one in which there are great profits,
+and the margin between the cost of manufacturing and the wholesale
+price is small. This small amount must furnish the author's royalty,
+the advertising appropriation, the publisher's cost of doing business,
+and his profit. It can be seen then that the amount of royalty paid
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page290" name="page290"></a>(p. 290)</span>on a book in a certain degree rules the amount of
+advertising that can be done,&mdash;the publisher and author are, in a
+measure, partners, and if the author demands a large royalty, he
+thereby cuts down the amount the publisher can afford to expend in
+advertising his book. The larger the appropriation for advertising,
+the larger the chance for increased sales.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to make any generalization on the amount that should
+be devoted to publicity. Taking the $1.50 novel as a standard, it
+might be said that figuring in all kinds of publicity&mdash;newspaper,
+magazine, circular, literary notices, etc.&mdash;from ten to twelve per
+cent of the wholesale price on the first edition of 10,000 would be a
+liberal allowance. On more expensive volumes, handled as subscription
+books, a much larger proportion would be the rule. On new books other
+than fiction, where the sale could not be expected to reach more than
+a few thousand, there would be no business justification in spending
+so much. Such books have more or less to make their own way.</p>
+
+<p>Publicity is an essential part of the publishing business, and the
+breadth of its field, as well as the proper way to apply its
+influence, is beginning to be more correctly understood. Fortunately,
+for all concerned, the author as well as the publisher and the
+book-buying public, it is a power that can work only for good, and in
+a good cause. It hastens the fame and the sales of a really good book,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page291" name="page291"></a>(p. 291)</span>but its power with a bad book is very small indeed. One fact
+has developed from the thousands of book advertising campaigns, and it
+is this&mdash;that you cannot force a really worthless book down the throat
+of the American reading public however much money you put into
+advertising. You may create a big sale for a very light and frothy
+story, with little to recommend it from the literary critic's point of
+view, but you can be sure, if it succeeds, your novel has certain
+positive, if rather superficial virtues, either in the story, in the
+local color, or in the method of telling. And when one contemplates
+the huge success of Mrs. Humphry Ward's and Edith Wharton's
+distinguished novels, one is obliged to accept the comforting
+conviction that the reading public of this country knows a good book
+when it sees it.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page292" name="page292"></a>(p. 292)</span>REVIEWING AND CRITICISING<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Walter Littlefield</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>About 60,000 volumes are annually published in Germany, France, Italy,
+Great Britain, and the United States. Germany heads the list, with
+something less than 25,000, and the United States ends it, with
+between five and six thousand titles, although it should be added that
+Continental figures refer to all material bearing an imprint published
+for circulation whether pamphlet or book. Aside from purely scientific
+and specialistic publications those intended for public perusal of all
+grades of literacy and intelligence may be classified as history,
+biography, travel, <span class="italic">belles-lettres</span> (including art, criticism, and
+poetry), and fiction. It is the work of the literary critic to write
+about these books in such a manner that neither the author nor the
+public may suffer injustice by their purchase or non-purchase. The
+critic must explain their purpose, point out their merits and
+imperfections, and compare their features with the features of other
+books on the same subject. In short, he should tell the public whether
+to read the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page293" name="page293"></a>(p. 293)</span>book or not. He should do so in an entertaining
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>Now the way this end is achieved in America often excites the derision
+of the literary foreigner; for although most American reviews are
+readable enough, they often lack the critical emphasis and literary
+scope and color so conspicuous in the literary criticism of the
+British and Continental reviews. But the foreigner overlooks the fact
+that American reviewers usually have something to say about every
+publication which claims to appeal to a reading public, and that many
+of these would be absolutely ignored by foreign critics, who are
+possibly right&mdash;when we consider their readers&mdash;in selecting only what
+they deem worthy of their knowledge and critical acumen. The foreign
+man-of-letters' idea of what should constitute the functions of the
+critic I find most admirably laid down in Mr. Arthur Symons's
+introduction to a new edition of Coleridge's "Biographia Literaria" in
+Everyman's Library. Mr. Symons writes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="quote">The aim of criticism is to distinguish what is essential in
+     the work of a writer; and in order to do this, its first
+     business must be to find out where he is different from all
+     other writers. It is the delight of the critic to praise;
+     but praise is scarcely a part of his duty. He may often seem
+     to find himself obliged to condemn; yet condemnation is
+     hardly a necessary part of his office. What we ask of him
+     is, that he should find out for us more than we can find out
+     for ourselves: trace what in us is a whim or leaning to its
+     remote home or centre of gravity, and explain why we are
+     <span class="pagenum"><a id="page294" name="page294"></a>(p. 294)</span>affected in this way or that way by this or that
+     writer. He studies origins in effects, and must know
+     himself, and be able to allow for his own mental and
+     emotional variations, if he is to do more than give us the
+     records of his likes and dislikes. He must have the passion
+     of the lover, and be enamored of every form of beauty; and,
+     like the lover, not of all equally, but with a general
+     allowance of those least to his liking. He will do well to
+     be not without a touch of intolerance: that intolerance
+     which, in the lover of the best, is an act of justice
+     against the second-rate. The second-rate may perhaps have
+     some reason for existence: that is doubtful; but the danger
+     of the second-rate, if it is accepted "on its own merits,"
+     as people say, is that it may come to be taken for the thing
+     it resembles, as a wavering image in water resembles the
+     rock which it reflects.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, here in America we have a sympathetic tolerance for the
+"second-rate." But such tolerance is not without its excuse. The fault
+of the uncritical element in many of the book notices which appear in
+American newspapers and magazines lies to a large extent at the door
+of the author who gives us material which humiliates and silences
+criticism, although a certain expository attention must be given for
+the very fact that the book invariably has a public awaiting it. For
+such gratuitous attention the author should be grateful. At least his
+public is not misled.</p>
+
+<p>Literary criticism is a distinct department of literature, with its
+functions and limits as clearly defined as are those of any of the
+creative departments,&mdash;history, biography, fiction. It presupposes on
+the part of the writer the possession of a knowledge of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page295" name="page295"></a>(p. 295)</span>
+permanent literature, of the rules of literary construction, of
+trained taste in selecting models, and of a quick imagination capable
+of perceiving pertinent comparisons and setting forth vivid
+impressions. Writers like Lessing, Victor Cousin, Matthew Arnold, and
+Jules Lemaître have exercised in criticism a system which is quite as
+capable of exposition and analysis as that of the historian, the poet,
+or the novelist. In America this system has also done its best,
+without entirely prostituting its art, to meet the exigencies and
+claims of pseudo-literary production and its sympathetic,
+impressionable public.</p>
+
+<p>Until within quite recent years there were only two acknowledged
+schools of criticism: the scientific and the classical. The former
+gauged the work to be criticised by rule and measure; the latter
+compared it with models which had long been established as criterions
+of good taste. Then came the impressionistic school, in which the
+critic, while not unmindful of accepted and approved rules of
+construction and expression or of classical paradigms, allowed the
+author more license, more individuality, and permitted himself the
+same freedom in noting a thing good, bad, or indifferent, because it
+so appealed to his personal taste at the time of perusal and quite
+independent of what had gone before. This impressionistic criticism is
+essentially a personal view, and without it very few current books
+could be considered critically at all.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page296" name="page296"></a>(p. 296)</span>Now of the 5000 odd books annually brought out in the United
+States there are possibly not more than 100, including half a dozen
+novels, which are worthy subjects for the professional critic. If this
+be deemed an exaggeration, one has only to look over the Publishers'
+List of twenty-five years ago and see how many books then published
+are read to-day. Why, then, do the 4900 receive any attention?</p>
+
+<p>Books, like every other commercial commodity, whether presented under
+the guise of art or science, have their production regulated by the
+law of supply and demand. The ability to read print in the United
+States is pretty general, and this ability is diffused among all sorts
+and conditions of people of vastly varied ideas as to what may give
+instruction, satisfaction, or pleasure in the form of books. We know
+that a large majority of the people who read do not read what is
+considered the best. The enormous circulation of the "Yellow Press,"
+the low literary value of books of rapidly succeeding phenomenal
+editions, prove this. Criticism, except in acknowledged "literary"
+reviews, has been obliged to take into account the mental limitations
+and tastes of the readers of the 4900 books, and so it fixes its
+standard of popular exposition and elucidation at a little above the
+average taste, and does its best to explain according to the author's
+own lights what to criticise would be remorselessly to condemn.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page297" name="page297"></a>(p. 297)</span>But do all the one hundred worthy and elect books receive
+correct treatment according to the tenets of criticism? it may be
+asked. Probably not at every hand and in all cases. And here may be
+introduced another cause of the lack of proficient literary criticism
+noticed by the literary foreigner in American magazines, and
+especially in those pages of the daily and weekly press devoted to
+books. The discussion of books which once occupied several pages in
+American monthly magazines is now principally confined to the books
+issued by the publishing house which also publishes the magazine. What
+has come to be known as the "news value" of books cannot suffer a
+review of a novel by a prominent author or of a book on a current
+political or sociological topic to appear a month or two or three
+after the publication of the book itself. The eagerness of the public
+can hardly wait for an elaborate review in the press. Thus the
+newspapers rival one another in setting before their readers the first
+"news" of the book. It is usually impossible to expect "criticism" in
+such active circumstances. The public neither expects nor desires it.
+This leads to expositions in which are incorporated generous citations
+from the book, and from this the public is invited to form its own
+opinion. When such an exposition is properly done, a reader can tell
+whether he wishes to peruse the book as a whole. In late years this
+system of exposition has been growing <span class="pagenum"><a id="page298" name="page298"></a>(p. 298)</span>in popularity,&mdash;a
+popularity no doubt augmented by the reader's increasing desire to be
+his own critic,&mdash;so now only the more important historical,
+biographical, and travellers' books receive expert criticism. Why wait
+months to get expert opinion on a popular book on Russia, Ibsen, or a
+journey in search of one of the poles, while the public is impatient
+to find out simply whether the book is entertaining? And again, how
+expert is expert opinion? I know of one famous biography of a famous
+man which, having been accepted as "the" authority for five years,
+finally had its pretensions demolished, its citations proved a mass of
+forgeries, by one tireless and persevering critic who would not accept
+the "expert" opinion which lauded it to the skies shortly after its
+publication.</p>
+
+<p>Now that criticism, or rather the lack of it, has been explained, it
+may be of some interest to learn how the vast number of books which is
+annually put forth is handled by the editors of literary reviews and
+the "book pages" of the daily press. Having for nearly ten years been
+connected with the literary supplement of a New York daily which
+prides itself on ignoring nothing which is published with the idea of
+being read, my experiences for observation have been somewhat unusual.
+The increase in the number of books, and the eagerness of the public
+to learn about them at the earliest possible moment, have caused the
+daily press to usurp some of the functions formerly <span class="pagenum"><a id="page299" name="page299"></a>(p. 299)</span>enjoyed
+by the monthly reviews. The latter do little more than mention the
+vast majority of publications and confine more and more their critical
+talents to what they consider conspicuous and distinctive literary
+productions. Purely literary periodicals have come and gone and left
+few mourners. The pages of The Bookman, for example, are no longer
+confined to literary criticism, to essays on bookish topics, to gossip
+of author and publisher.</p>
+
+<p>There are four distinct publishing periods in the book world. The
+early spring season, principally confined to those books which could
+not be made ready to meet the recent holiday season, and to routine
+books,&mdash;books which on account of copyright exigencies have to be
+published then, books which for prestige the publisher would have bear
+his imprint, etc. Then comes the late spring season, which is
+principally confined to novels of the lighter sort and to books for
+supplementary school reading for the coming autumn. Toward the end of
+August the first Holiday books usually make their appearance. They
+increase in number until the end of September, when there is a lull.
+From the middle of October until the end of November there is a
+perfect outpour of books. The months of November and December until
+Christmas Day are the busiest times in the year for the reviewer.</p>
+
+<p>As the books come in they are carefully looked <span class="pagenum"><a id="page300" name="page300"></a>(p. 300)</span>over by the
+one who is known as the "critic" of the review or paper. He has men
+and women on his lists whose pens he has tried before&mdash;they may be
+lawyers, college professors, sportsmen, society men, professional
+novel readers, etc. He considers the author of the book at hand, its
+seeming importance, etc., and despatches it to a critic. An expert
+writer of expositions is usually ready to relieve him of volumes upon
+which for some reason he does not feel justified in requesting expert
+opinion. Occasionally he makes a mistake by giving out for exposition
+a really important book. The expert who has been impatiently waiting
+for the volume points out the error. The work of a well-known novelist
+is usually sent to a critic who is familiar with former tales by the
+same author. Juveniles are handed over to one of proved sympathy with
+stories for boys and girls&mdash;one who is conservative yet quick to catch
+a new element. Books that are essentially for gifts are disposed of in
+a similar manner&mdash;to one who has proved his or her ability to set
+forth artistic features in books. New editions of classics are turned
+over to writers who are acquainted with the mechanical make-up of a
+book, so that the reader may learn whether the new edition of the
+favorite author is well bound, printed, and appropriately decorated
+and illustrated. And among the hundreds of "brief notices,"
+expositions, impressions, descriptions, and long and short essays that
+are handed in, there <span class="pagenum"><a id="page301" name="page301"></a>(p. 301)</span>are invariably some pieces of valuable
+comment which are well in keeping with the traditions of professional
+criticism. The critic usually returns the book with his article. These
+books are ultimately collected and disposed of in various ways. They
+may be sold at auction to members of the staff, which is an effective
+way of getting rid of them just before Christmas.</p>
+
+<p>Is there any likelihood of an improvement in literary criticism&mdash;any
+chance of a return by the daily press to what the Reviews of the past
+gave and those of England and the Continent still give? The standard
+of criticism is determined by two forces: the quality of books and the
+taste of would-be purchasers. If every book were really "criticised,"
+the criticisms of many would be utterly incomprehensible to many of
+their possible readers. The public gets the books it desires; the
+books receive the attention they deserve. When the standard of reading
+shall be raised, so that the public shall demand better books, it will
+be found that more books will receive "serious" attention. As it is at
+present, the public does not desire much elaborate, fine criticism.
+It, together with its favorite authors, would be sorely dissatisfied
+if it got more. It may be added that, in my humble opinion, the
+function of a critic as an arbiter of literary taste is measurably
+overestimated. Of course, a man who has won distinction as a judge of
+books and who signs his articles may have some influence. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page302" name="page302"></a>(p. 302)</span>
+But it seems to me that the function of the anonymous reviewer should
+begin and end by explaining the book and let the public be its own
+critic. It will certainly be in the end. For no critic ever killed a
+good book; none ever praised an unworthy volume into success and fame.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page303" name="page303"></a>(p. 303)</span>THE TRAVELLING SALESMAN<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Harry A. Thompson</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The increase in the visible supply of authors more than meets the
+demand. A manuscript once accepted, the publisher finds no lack of
+paper makers ready to supply him with any grade of fair white paper
+that he may wish to spoil. Printers even manifest a dignified alacrity
+to set the type and print the book, and binders are yet to be accused
+of any disinclination to cover it.</p>
+
+<p>It is only when author, paper maker, printer, and binder have done
+with their share in the exploitation of literature that the publisher
+finds that the current which had been urging him gently onward has set
+against him. Of making many books there is no end, but the profitable
+marketing of the same is vanity and vexation of spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Enter the salesman.</p>
+
+<p>He is to convince the bookseller, who is to convince the public, that
+this particular book&mdash;shall we, for our purpose, christen it "Last
+Year's Nests"?&mdash;is the great American novel (whatever that means), and
+that its influence on the reading of unborn generations will be
+measured by the rank it holds in the list of the six best sellers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page304" name="page304"></a>(p. 304)</span>The salesman is handicapped not a little by the fact that it
+is neither shoes, nor pig-iron, nor even mess-pork that he is selling,
+and, therefore, superior quality of workmanship, inferior price, and
+personal magnetism count for little. Persuasiveness, which, perhaps,
+is a part of personal magnetism, counts; so does an intelligent
+knowledge of the contents of the book; likewise hard work and tactful
+persistence; also, honesty. But opposed against the combination is the
+bookseller, on guard against overstocking, to some extent a purchaser
+of a pig in a poke, conscious that one unsold book eats up the profit
+on five copies safely disposed of.</p>
+
+<p>Time was when good salesmanship consisted in overstocking a
+bookseller; this was occasioned less by persuasiveness than by
+overpersuasiveness. Regardless of the merits of the book and with no
+more than a nodding acquaintance with its contents, a persuasive
+salesman could "load" a customer&mdash;as he called it out of the
+customer's hearing&mdash;with two hundred and fifty copies of a novel that
+had no other merit than that it had been written by a novelist whose
+previous book had met with success. The significance of these figures,
+two hundred and fifty, is to be found in the maximum discount to
+retailers of forty and ten per cent on that quantity. Latterly, the
+publisher has found that a bankrupt bookseller has few creditors
+besides publishers, and has come to a <span class="pagenum"><a id="page305" name="page305"></a>(p. 305)</span>realizing sense of the
+futility of clogging the distributing machinery. He is disposed,
+therefore, to exercise some restraint upon his salesman's ardor.
+Perhaps it were better to say that the salesman, grown wiser, is more
+disposed to aid the bookseller in his purchases to the end that no
+monuments of unsold failures will stare him in the face on his next
+visit to the customer's store. Yet even to this day, such restraint is
+tempered by a certain amount of moderation.</p>
+
+<p>All of which, while interesting to the historian of the publishing
+trade, carries us too far in advance of our text. Let us therefore
+return to "Last Year's Nests"&mdash;12mo, cloth, illustrated, gilt top,
+uncut edges, price $1.50.</p>
+
+<p>The first edition&mdash;it may be one thousand copies or ten thousand&mdash;has
+been delivered to the publisher by the beaming binder, who alone, in
+some instances, knows his profit on them. "Last Year's Nests" is by a
+well-known author, and contains some elements of popularity. The
+literary adviser has written a beautiful and scholarly appreciation of
+it, one of the lady stenographers has declared it grand, and the
+salesman, if he is given to reading anything beyond the title-page,
+says it's a corker. He starts out with it; along with a trunkful of
+other books, to be sure, but our sympathies are wholly with the
+"Nests," and it is only its career that we shall follow.</p>
+
+<p>He may be one of a force of salesmen, each of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page306" name="page306"></a>(p. 306)</span>whom has his
+own territory. One may visit only the larger cities, Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Chicago; another may take in the smaller
+towns along this route; another, the Middle West, Southern or
+Southwestern territory. Still another, the cities west of Chicago,
+including those on the Pacific coast. Houses publishing competitive
+lines and non-copyright books have other methods and machinery for
+distribution. I speak only for the copyright salesman, and not to be
+too prolix, take only the copyright novel as an illustration of the
+day's work.</p>
+
+<p>The salesman arrives at a town, say Chicago. He goes to the hotel,
+orders his trunks and sample tables sent to his room. The tables are
+set up&mdash;well-worn pine boards on trestles and covered with sheeting.
+He unpacks his trunk and arranges his books on the tables as
+effectively as his artistic sense permits. Then he visits his
+customers and makes appointments that cover a full week. Previous to
+his arrival his office had informed the booksellers of his coming,
+inclosing a catalogue. This the bookseller handed to a clerk to be
+marked up. The clerk had gone over their stock of this particular
+publisher's books and had marked opposite each title in the catalogue
+the number of copies on hand. Armed with this catalogue the bookseller
+keeps his appointment at the room of the traveller. [It ought to be
+mentioned in passing that this is a purely hypothetical case, invented
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page307" name="page307"></a>(p. 307)</span>for the purposes of illustration. The clerk who marks up the
+catalogue in advance of the salesman's arrival is as fictitious as the
+bookseller who keeps his appointment promptly. Perhaps this delightful
+uncertainty is another of the many influences that make the book
+business, from the writing of the manuscript to the reading of the
+printed book, so fascinating.]</p>
+
+<p>In the salesman's room the customer examines the new books, asks
+questions, hears arguments (many of them fearfully and wonderfully
+made), and eventually, after much debate, gives his order. Having
+ordered all the new books that he wishes, he goes over the catalogue
+and gives what is called his stock order; that is to say, he orders
+the books on which his stock is low but for which there is still a
+demand.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the salesman has reserved for his final battle the sale of
+"Last Year's Nests." As prices cut some figure in this argument, we
+are driven, for a moment, to the dry bones of prices and discounts.</p>
+
+<p>Listed in the publisher's catalogue at $1.50, the ordinary discount to
+a dealer ordering two or three copies is thirty-three and one-third
+per cent, or $1.00 net, the bookseller paying transportation charges.
+Competition, however, has increased this discount to forty per cent,
+so that we shall assume that in small quantities the book can be had
+at $.90 net. In larger quantities extra <span class="pagenum"><a id="page308" name="page308"></a>(p. 308)</span>discounts are given;
+some publishers give forty and five per cent on fifty copies and forty
+and ten per cent on one hundred copies; others increase the quantities
+to one hundred and two hundred and fifty copies respectively for the
+extra discounts. But, as has been pointed out, the growing tendency is
+not to overload the bookseller, especially in view of the fact that it
+is the publisher who loses when the bookseller assigns.</p>
+
+<p>Assuming that the "Last Year's Nests" is likely to have a large sale
+and that the salesman wishes to sell Mr. Bookseller two hundred and
+fifty copies, he quotes the extra discount of forty and ten per cent
+on that quantity. If he can persuade the bookseller to take two
+hundred and fifty copies, he has not only swollen his sales by that
+amount, but he has forced a probable retail sale of that quantity. For
+once on the bookseller's tables, the very size of the order inspires
+every clerk to help reduce the pile, not to mention the fact that the
+books are bought and must be paid for. Had the bookseller bought five
+copies, extra efforts toward sales would not be forthcoming; the
+energy would be applied to another novel. Hence the salesman's efforts
+to effect a large sale.</p>
+
+<p>There is another reason for this extra quantity. Two hundred and fifty
+copies of "Last Year's Nests," piled in a pyramid, is a gentle
+reminder to the bookseller's customers that it is a mighty important
+book. Such an argument is often more potent <span class="pagenum"><a id="page309" name="page309"></a>(p. 309)</span>than the
+disagreeing opinions of critics. Here is a case in point.</p>
+
+<p>A novelist wrote an altogether charming and spirited novel. The
+reviewers spoke well of it, but the sale of the book hung fire. It was
+the dull season,&mdash;May or June,&mdash;and there was no other novel of any
+worth in the public mind. The salesman said to his employer: "Here's a
+book that has a good chance for success. If you'll back me with some
+good advertising, I'll guarantee to make that novel sell."</p>
+
+<p>The publisher replied: "Go ahead, my son; I'll take a gamble on it."
+(They really talk that way when they travel mufti.) So the salesman
+induced the New York wholesalers to erect a pyramid of a thousand
+copies in their respective stores, guaranteeing to take back the books
+if they were not sold. This was done for the purpose of impressing the
+buyers for country stores who were flocking into New York for their
+fall purchases.</p>
+
+<p>Next the retail booksellers were asked to take, on the same terms,
+from one hundred to two hundred and fifty copies and pile them
+conspicuously in their stores. As trade was dull and there was no one
+big seller clamoring for public recognition at the time, the dealers
+were willing to assist in the work of encouraging good literature.</p>
+
+<p>Then an advertising campaign was planned. Critics there were a-plenty
+who wagged a sad head because the advertising was undignified. What
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page310" name="page310"></a>(p. 310)</span>they meant was that it was unconventional, was without the
+dignity of tradition to give it its hallmark. It had, at least, the
+novelty of originality, and answered the final test of good
+advertising in that it attracted attention. Then the sale began, and
+as soon as New York City was reporting it among the list of the six
+best sellers, the salesman took to the road to carry on the campaign.
+The result was eventually a sale reaching six figures.</p>
+
+<p>But to get back to "Last Year's Nests." It is to be published June 1.
+A few sample pages only have been printed, but blank paper fills out
+to the bulk of the book as it will be. Illustrations&mdash;if they are
+ready&mdash;are inserted, the title-page printed, and the whole is bound up
+in a sample cover. This is technically known as a dummy, and serves to
+show the prospective buyer merely the outward and visible sign of an
+inward and spiritual appeal to public favor. For the purpose of
+informing the bookseller it is worth but little more than the printed
+title or a catalogue announcement. For all $1.50 novels look alike,
+are printed on pretty much the same kind of paper, and bear covers
+differing more in degree than kind. Yet the bookseller likes to handle
+something tangible when he is making up his order, and the salesman,
+with even a dummy in his hand, finds that there is less wear and tear
+upon his imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Were he selling shoes, the salesman would, as a matter of course,
+point out the superior quality <span class="pagenum"><a id="page311" name="page311"></a>(p. 311)</span>of the goods, lay stress on
+their style and durability, and as a clincher, present the
+incontrovertible argument of low price. On no such brief can the book
+salesman rest his case. "Last Year's Nests" varies in no respect
+mechanically from any of its 12mo competitors; and if it did, it would
+make no difference. "Look at the design of the cover, see how durable
+it is," argues the salesman. "What a charming title-page, and note the
+classic proportion of the printed page to the margin," he continues.
+The startled customer, listening to such an argument, would be
+inclined to humor the salesman until he could safely get him into the
+hands of an alienist.</p>
+
+<p>Two arguments and two only comprise the salesman's stock in trade; if
+he can say that "Last Year's Nests" is by the well-known author whose
+name is a household word and whose previous book sold so many thousand
+copies, he has the bookseller on the mourner's bench; if he can (and
+he frequently does) add the clinching argument that his firm will
+advertise the book heavily, he can leave the bookseller with that
+thrill of triumph we all feel when we bend another's will to our own.</p>
+
+<p>A young and inexperienced salesman, whom we shall call Mr. Green, was
+making his Western trip. As he was waiting in a bookseller's store for
+his customer's attention, there entered a traveller of ripe years and
+experience, representing one of the larger publishing firms. Naturally
+the bookseller <span class="pagenum"><a id="page312" name="page312"></a>(p. 312)</span>gave the older salesman his instant
+attention. With no desire to eavesdrop, Mr. Green could not avoid
+overhearing the conversation.</p>
+
+<p>"Hello, Blank! Anything new?"</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, I have a big novel here by a big man. It will have a big sale,"
+and Blank mentioned the title and author.</p>
+
+<p>At this point, Green pricked up his ears. He had read the novel in
+manuscript form and his immediate thought was, "Here's where I learn
+something about the gentle art of making sales."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Blank proceeded so tell what he knew about the book. His synopsis
+was so inaccurate that Green knew that he had not read the book, but
+was glibly misquoting the publisher's announcement. Green's courage
+was fired as he reflected how much better he could have portrayed the
+chief incidents of the plot. But his triumph was momentary. Blank
+ended his argument in a voice that left no doubt of his own faith in
+the effectiveness of his logic. "And the firm is going to advertise it
+like &mdash;&mdash;."</p>
+
+<p>"Send me two hundred and fifty copies," said the customer.</p>
+
+<p>The longer Mr. Green travelled the more convinced he became that the
+old salesman knew his business. The argument of advertising carries
+with it a certain persuasiveness that the customer cannot resist. Not
+always does a liberal use of printer's ink land a book among the six
+best sellers; <span class="pagenum"><a id="page313" name="page313"></a>(p. 313)</span>but it does it so often that the rule is
+proved by the exception. A publisher once made the statement, in the
+presence of a number of men interested in the book-publishing
+business, that, by advertising, he could sell twenty thousand copies
+of any book, no matter how bad it was. The silence of the others
+indicated assent to the doctrine. But one inquiring mind broke in with
+the question, "But can you make a profit on it?"</p>
+
+<p>"Ah! That is another question," answered the publisher.</p>
+
+<p>And the ledgers of several publishers will show a loss, due to
+excessive advertising, on books that loom large in public favor. The
+author has reaped good royalties and the salesman has had no great
+draft made upon his stock of persuasive argument.</p>
+
+<p>It is under such circumstances that the traveller finds his work easy
+and his burden light. Another condition under which he meets with less
+resistance is in the instance of a second book by an author whose
+first book has met with success. The bookseller is a wary, cautious
+man; what illusions he once had have gone down the corridors of time
+along with the many books that have not helped him. For reasons that
+are not so inscrutable as they may seem to the enthusiastic salesman,
+the bookseller is disinclined to order more than a few copies of a
+first book by a new author. Perhaps the traveller has read the book
+and is surcharged with enthusiasm; he talks eloquently <span class="pagenum"><a id="page314" name="page314"></a>(p. 314)</span>and
+ably in the book's behalf; he masses argument upon argument&mdash;and in
+the end makes about as much impression as he would by shooting putty
+balls at the Sphinx. Even though the salesman's enthusiasm may find
+its justification in the reviewer's opinions and the beginning of a
+brisk sale for the book all over the country, still the reluctant
+bookseller broods moodily over the past and refuses to be stung again.
+But let the book have a large sale and then let the salesman start out
+with a second book by this author: the bookseller, with few
+exceptions, will go the limit on quantity. Unfortunately, it
+frequently happens that the public&mdash;which is a discriminating public
+or not, as you chance to look at it&mdash;does not seem possessed of the
+same blind confidence, and the result is a monument of unsold copies.</p>
+
+<p>The trade, I think, is coming more and more to be guided by the advice
+of such salesmen as have proved to be the possessors of judgment and
+honesty. By judgment is meant not merely the opinion that one forms of
+the literary value of a book, but that commercial estimate that a good
+salesman is able to make. The literary adviser can state in terms of
+literary criticism the reasons why the Ms. is worthy of publication;
+but the traveller, if he happens to be more than a mere peddler, can,
+after reading the Ms., take pencil and paper and figure out how many
+copies he can place. Publishers are growing to appreciate this quality
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page315" name="page315"></a>(p. 315)</span>in a salesman and are seeking his advice before accepting a
+Ms. Some go further and ask his assistance in the make-up of a book;
+for a good cover covers a multitude of sins.</p>
+
+<p>In former years it was considered the salesman's first duty to "load"
+the customer; that is, sell him all he could, regardless of the merits
+of the books. In those days a denial of the good old doctrine that the
+imprint could do no wrong was rank heresy. Such salesmen are no longer
+categorised with Cæsar's wife, and the new salesmanship is having its
+day. Its members are men of reading and intelligence, who have taken
+the trouble to learn something about the wares they are selling, and
+who have found that it pays to be honest. It doesn't seem to pay the
+first year; but if the salesman's judgment of books is discriminating
+and he hangs on, the booksellers soon realize that they can trust him.
+As they know little of the new books he is offering, they are inclined
+to be guided by his advice; should they find that this pays, they will
+repose more confidence in him. A traveller who, in lieu of personal
+imagination and the power of persuasion, was forced to depend upon
+hard work and the common, or garden, kind of honesty for what success
+he had on the road, was giving up his work to take an indoor position.
+On his final trip he had a "first" book by a "first" author; it was an
+unusual book and had in it possibilities of a really great sale. The
+firm publishing <span class="pagenum"><a id="page316" name="page316"></a>(p. 316)</span>the book was in the hands of an assignee.
+The outlook was not propitious for a large sale: a new book by an
+unknown author published by an assignee. But the salesman believed in
+the book, believed in it with judgment and enthusiasm. "I found," he
+said, in telling the story, "that the trade to a man believed in me.
+It affected me deeply to feel that my years of straight dealing had
+not been wasted. The booksellers backed me up, bought all the copies I
+asked them to buy,&mdash;and I asked largely,&mdash;with the result that I sold
+ten thousand copies in advance of publication. The firm has sold since
+over two hundred thousand copies of that book and its creditors
+received a hundred cents on the dollar."</p>
+
+<p>It would seem an axiom that a man selling books should have at least a
+bowing acquaintance with their contents, yet I have heard salesmen
+argue hotly in favor of the old-time salesman who sold books as he
+would sell shoes or hats. Such a one was selling a novel to a Boston
+bookseller. He had not taken the trouble to read the book, but had
+been told by his firm that it was a good story. Flushed with the
+vehemence of his own argument for a large order, he floundered about
+among such vague statements as: "You can't go to sleep until you have
+finished it! It's great! A corking story! Can't lay the book down!
+Unable to turn out the light until you have read the last line!"</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page317" name="page317"></a>(p. 317)</span>"But what's it about?" quickly interrupted the customer,
+suspecting that the traveller had not read the book.</p>
+
+<p>"It's about&mdash;it's about a dollar and a quarter," was the quick retort.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps here we find the substitute for the reading that maketh a full
+man. Repartee of this sort is disarming, and the quickness of wit that
+prompts it is not one of the least useful attributes of salesmanship.
+To carry the moral a step farther, it is only fair to say that the
+nimble salesman has had the wit to get out of the publishing business
+into another line of industry that, if reports are to be believed, has
+made him independent.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial traveller who sells books has no fault to find with the
+people with whom he deals. By the very nature of his calling the
+bookseller is a man of reading and culture; now and then among them
+you find a man of rare culture. So genuinely friendly are the
+relations existing between seller and purchaser that a travelling man
+has the feeling that he is making a pleasure trip among friends. Such
+relations are no mean asset to the salesman, although they are not
+wholly essential. For it is to the bookseller's interest at least to
+examine the samples of every publisher's representative. It is not a
+question of laying in the winter's supply of coal, or of being content
+with one good old standby line of kitchen ranges. It is books that he
+is dealing in; an article that knows no competition and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page318" name="page318"></a>(p. 318)</span>that
+has a brief career. Should my lady ask for Mark Twain's last book, it
+would be a poor bookseller who answered, "We don't sell it, but we
+have a large pile of Marie Corelli's latest." Or should the customer
+desire a copy of Henry James's recent volume, what would it profit the
+bookseller to inform her that he did not have it in stock, but he had
+something just as good?</p>
+
+<p>It is because of the immense numbers of titles the bookseller must
+carry that the salesman always finds him a willing listener. And in
+the end, even though he does not buy heavily, he must order at least a
+few each of the salable books. Such complacency on the part of the
+bookseller might argue for direct dealing on the part of the publisher
+by means of circulars and letters, thus saving the expense of a
+traveller. But firms that have tried this have had a change of heart
+and have quickly availed themselves of the traveller's services.</p>
+
+<p>He is useful in ways other than selling. If he is keen to advance his
+firm's interests,&mdash;and most of the book travellers are,&mdash;he will
+interest the bookseller's clerks in the principal books of his line.
+He will send them a copy of an important book, knowing that the clerk,
+should he become interested in the book, will personally sell many
+copies.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of credits, the travelling man is of considerable
+service to his house. He is on the spot, can size up the bookseller's
+trade, note if he <span class="pagenum"><a id="page319" name="page319"></a>(p. 319)</span>is overstocked, particularly with
+unsalable books, or "plugs," as they are called, obtain the gossip of
+the town, and in many ways can form an estimate of the bookseller's
+financial condition that is more trustworthy than any the credit man
+in the home office can get. There were a dozen publishers'
+representatives who once sat in solemn conclave discussing the
+financial responsibility of an important customer. He was suspected of
+being beyond his depth, and some of the travellers had been warned not
+to sell him. Several personally inspected his business, obtained a
+report from him and his bank, and threshed out the matter as solemnly
+and seriously as if they were the interested publishers whom they
+represented. It was decided to extend further credit to the
+bookseller; his orders were taken and sent in with full explanations.
+How many orders were rejected by the publishers I do not, of course,
+know. But the judgment of the travellers, as events proved, was
+justified.</p>
+
+<p>The publisher is learning to regard his travelling man as more than a
+salesman. He is asking him, now and then, to assist him in the
+selection of a manuscript, to aid him in planning the letter-press,
+and binding of a book. For by the very nature of his work the
+traveller is the one man in the publisher's employ who has a
+comprehensive grasp of the many branches of this alluring, but not
+very profitable, business.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page320" name="page320"></a>(p. 320)</span>SELLING AT WHOLESALE<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Joseph E. Bray</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In the process of manufacture a book passes through so many hands that
+if the finished product is exactly in accordance with the plan that
+existed in the mind of its designer, he is justified in looking upon
+it with the satisfaction felt by an artist who has worked well. After
+a book is issued, however, it is quite another and equally important a
+matter to sell it, and this part of book publication requires as much
+thought and perhaps more dogged persistence than the other. There are
+some books, such as "Ben Hur" and "David Harum," for instance, that
+make a market for themselves, and the demand for such successes,
+though starting perhaps in a rather circumscribed locality, moves
+onward and outward, gathering force all the time like an avalanche.
+These are rare exceptions, however, and for most books a market must
+be created. No matter how good the book, it is not enough to view the
+finished product with satisfaction and expect that the public will buy
+it in the proportion that it deserves. It has to be marketed like any
+other article of commerce; and a book is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page321" name="page321"></a>(p. 321)</span>only on the market
+properly when you find its selling points known to the trade, and the
+volume itself temptingly displayed on the counters in the bookstores
+everywhere, ready to become the property of any one who may be
+attracted by a reviewer's description, a clever advertisement, the
+polite recommendation of a well-posted clerk, or any other of the many
+reasons that induce people to buy books. This condition of course
+obtains in all large cities on or soon after the day of publication of
+a well-managed book&mdash;but urban publicity is not sufficient. The whole
+country must be taken care of, and the several thousand booksellers
+scattered over this great land must be placed in the same relative
+position as their brethren in the large cities. How they are supplied
+with the book, posted as to its merits, and enabled to take care of
+whatever demands arise, is the wholesale, or "jobbing," side of book
+selling.</p>
+
+<p>This class of booksellers relies mostly upon the wholesaler for
+information and supplies. Everyone knows when Winston Churchill and
+Mrs. Humphry Ward are writing books, and what they are about; but when
+a dealer in a small town gets a call for "The Sands of Time," author
+unknown, a book he has never heard of before, he usually transmits the
+order just as he has received it to his jobber, who supplies him with
+the book if it is on the market, or with the necessary information
+regarding it if he is not able to supply it. The <span class="pagenum"><a id="page322" name="page322"></a>(p. 322)</span>jobber's
+work, broadly speaking, is twofold: To see that a book for which the
+demand is certain to be large and immediate is in the hands of all his
+customers promptly after publication, and to take care of all
+inquiries that arise throughout the country for lesser-known books.
+His establishment must be a very temple of learning, and he has to
+know everything in the book world, from the plot of the latest "best
+seller" to the relative importance of a work on the differential
+calculus.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take his first duty. A book is to be published by a noted
+author, and a large sale is confidently expected. It will be widely
+advertised, and the press will feature it in the review columns. His
+first move usually is to distribute descriptive notices among his
+customers, telling them what he knows about it and inviting them to
+send in their orders. His travellers are also notified and are advised
+as to how the book is likely to be received by the people, and whether
+it is accounted better or worse than the author's previous works. The
+jobber has therefore to size up a book early in the game, without
+perhaps having seen anything relating to it except the publisher's
+advance notices. He has to be very careful not to "over-sell" the
+book, and yet at the same time he must distribute it in sufficient
+quantities, so that no sales may be lost through dealers not having
+supplies. Orders generally begin to come in quickly, and sometimes the
+advance sales of popular books are enormous. <span class="pagenum"><a id="page323" name="page323"></a>(p. 323)</span>Then comes the
+question of buying a first supply. The suave, persuasive agent of the
+publisher waits upon the jobber and tells him what a wonderful work it
+is, that the demand is without a doubt going to beat all records, and
+he had "better hurry up and place a large order before the first
+edition is exhausted," and all that kind of thing. The jobber takes
+into consideration the facts he has been able to learn concerning the
+book, and places an order accordingly. Then his own travellers are
+supplied with dummies or advance copies, and the work of arousing an
+interest in the book in all sections of the country proceeds actively.
+Not only are all the towns canvassed thoroughly, but even the smaller
+villages are visited or the modest orders solicited by mail, though
+the stocks of the local booksellers may embrace only a few of the best
+sellers.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally arranged so that the stock of the book of the kind to
+which we have alluded is delivered to the jobber on or before the day
+of publication, and he in turn tries to place it in the hands of his
+customers early, usually on or within a day or two of the date of
+issue. From Maine to California, and from the northern boundary to the
+Gulf, there is no town of importance, and no village where a bookstore
+exists, that has not copies of, or information concerning, the book
+within a short time of its coming from the press. After this is done,
+patience is necessary and a period of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page324" name="page324"></a>(p. 324)</span>comparative inactivity
+ensues. The book is before the people, and it is necessary to wait for
+their verdict. There are many ways of "puffing" a book. Clever
+advertising will do much. Window displays and all the other arts
+resorted to by bookseller and publisher sell copies; but unless the
+people take to it, unless it appeals to them, unless they talk about
+it, and pass it along, none of these ways will do more than give a
+book a very temporary period of demand. The wisest publisher sometimes
+issues books that never reach a second edition. They awaken no
+responsive echo in the hearts of the people, the stamp of public
+approval is not put upon them, and although hailed with a flourish of
+trumpets and a blast of advertising, they die an early death, the
+author and the publisher perhaps being the only people that regret
+their demise.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of a work that does meet with public approval, this
+approval is soon shown, and it is not a hard matter to care for the
+demand. The wholesaler aims to keep a stock on hand sufficiently large
+to cover all calls upon him, and does what he can to push the good
+thing along, through his salesmen and the circular literature which he
+sends out from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>There are other classes of books, however, in which the wholesaler
+must interest himself and which cannot be treated so easily; here
+perhaps his service to the community and the publishing field are the
+greatest. Only the select few among <span class="pagenum"><a id="page325" name="page325"></a>(p. 325)</span>books are big sellers;
+the majority do not sell largely, and only a very small percentage of
+the many thousands of books put forth annually make a stir in the
+world. A novel by an unknown author, a biography of an eminent man, a
+modest work of travel or adventure, technical books and those that add
+to the world's knowledge, cannot be given a wide distribution or an
+inviting display on the shelves of the trade. The smaller bookseller
+cannot afford to carry them. His profits are small and his investments
+in books of this class have to be very carefully considered. His
+margin of profit is too small for him to take more chances than he has
+to, and consequently he relies largely upon his jobber, from whom he
+in most cases picks up these books as he needs them. The wholesaler
+has to be a bureau of information concerning this part of his
+business. His mail brings him in all sorts of inquiries for books that
+have been out of print for years. Somebody wants them, can they be
+obtained by advertising for them or otherwise? The jobber must know
+this and give the information to his customer promptly. Books not yet
+published. When will they be issued? What will be the cost? An
+approximate price must be given. What are the best books on certain
+subjects, and how do they compare with other works in the same field?
+Hundreds of inquiries similar to these are constantly received.
+Sometimes titles are garbled and twisted all out of shape, taken down
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page326" name="page326"></a>(p. 326)</span>perhaps by the rural bookseller phonetically and confidently
+forwarded to the wholesaler, who will certainly know. The right book
+is usually sent, and not often is the jobber found to be at fault.
+Curiously enough, the majority of people are very careless in regard
+to titles of books, and many conundrums of this kind are daily solved
+by the trade.</p>
+
+<p>Peculiar in many ways is the book trade, and the ordinary laws of
+commercialism do not always apply to the book business. The book
+market is fickle to the utmost degree. The books that should sell
+sometimes do not "move" at all, and those that apparently have but
+little to recommend them turn out to be the best of the bunch so far
+as sales are concerned. A jobber has to be something of an optimist;
+he must keep his ear to the ground, and, like certain types of
+politicians, must be prepared to give the people what they want when
+they want it. He can of course help along the demand for good books
+and check that for poor literature, and, to his credit, he usually
+does this, but the book-buying public is truly democratic and in the
+main people are pretty definite in their wants. Oftentimes they can be
+led, but it is rarely that they will consent to be driven.</p>
+
+<p>Another important part of the jobber's business is the supplying of
+public libraries and similar institutions. Here his knowledge of books
+and the resources of his establishment are put to the severest
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page327" name="page327"></a>(p. 327)</span>test. Libraries use a vast quantity of books, and the demand
+from this source is extremely varied in character. Librarians are also
+very shrewd and careful buyers, and much work in the way of pricing of
+lists, answering inquiries, etc., is demanded. Margins of profit here
+are very small, but there is practically no loss in the matter of
+accounts, and a librarian is very satisfactory to deal with, as he
+usually knows what he wants. The popular novel has been pushed so much
+to the front of late years and advertised on such a colossal scale,
+that one not versed in the reading demands of the people might very
+well think America was reading nothing else. In the orders sent in by
+public libraries, however, "solid reading" is very largely
+represented, and, as a matter of fact, that class of literature is
+making just as great an increase in public demand as the lighter kind.</p>
+
+<p>The wholesaler therefore is a useful member of the book world and an
+important factor in the distribution of books. He must combine the
+acumen of the business man with a taste for literature for
+literature's sake, have an enormous capacity for detail but be capable
+of grasping an opportunity, possess the wisdom of Solomon, the
+patience of Job, and the tact of a diplomat. He must be, in short, a
+business man, a scholar, and a philosopher; and even with all these
+accomplishments he is not likely to endanger the peace of the
+community by accumulating an enormous fortune.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page328" name="page328"></a>(p. 328)</span>SELLING AT RETAIL<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Warren Snyder</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>It is with the finished product of author and publisher that the
+bookseller has chiefly to do. In the building of a book he does not
+come into contact with author, artist, compositor, printer, or
+publisher. If he be in a position to place large orders, his opinion
+is occasionally sought as to the advisability of bringing out a new
+edition of some book or books for which there seems to be a demand. A
+book may have reached an unusually large sale in an ordinary edition;
+he is asked if he thinks a finer and more expensive edition would be
+warrantable. He is, however, chary in most cases about expressing an
+opinion; and he never allows himself to become enthusiastic over any
+book in the presence of a publisher or a publisher's representative.
+For he feels that if he should display any eagerness, he would, in a
+measure, commit himself to placing a large order for that particular
+book.</p>
+
+<p>With books being brought out at the rate they have been for the last
+five years, the bookseller finds himself with little time or
+inclination either to read or to think about the things to come. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page329" name="page329"></a>(p. 329)</span>has enough to occupy his attention in his efforts to display
+and sell the books he already has on hand. Witness the pyramids of
+volumes towering ceilingward&mdash;many of them books that have been there
+for several moons at least; and which are likely to remain there until
+many more moons have waxed and waned.</p>
+
+<p>I often wonder if the bookseller of fifty years ago ever dreamed of
+what his successor would have to contend with in the way of new
+publications. I recall a conversation I had two or three years ago
+with a man more than seventy years of age. He had started out in his
+business life as a clerk in a bookstore and he said to me, "There are
+no booksellers to-day like there were when I was in the book business.
+Then," he continued, "a bookseller was thoroughly posted as to the
+contents of the books he had for sale; while now they know but little
+more about a book than its title." I asked him if he ever stopped to
+compare the conditions under which the bookseller of past days worked
+with those under which the bookseller of to-day had to labor. I have
+read that in 1855 there were but five hundred new books issued in the
+United States. In 1905&mdash;fifty years later&mdash;there were seventy-five
+hundred new books launched on the market. This did not include some
+six hundred reprints.</p>
+
+<p>When there was an average of less than ten new books published in a
+week, it was an easy task for <span class="pagenum"><a id="page330" name="page330"></a>(p. 330)</span>an intelligent salesperson to
+get a fair knowledge of the contents of every one. But when books are
+ground out at the rate of one hundred and fifty a week,&mdash;twenty-five a
+day,&mdash;the task becomes an impossible one. Yet I have frequently been
+asked by seemingly intelligent persons if I did not read a book before
+purchasing it. And when I have attempted to explain that it would be
+impossible for me to read all the books issued, they have not
+hesitated to convey, by word or gesture, their opinion of this
+obviously reckless way of doing business. Not long ago a man came to
+my office inquiring for the manager. When he was directed to me he
+said: "I bought a book here a few days ago, and it is imperfect. There
+are a number of pages missing, while some pages are repeated." Then,
+with a sneer, "I am surprised that a firm like this should sell
+imperfect books." I assured him that we had no intention of selling an
+imperfect book; it was an accident that sometimes happened. The wonder
+to me was that it did not happen oftener. I was sorry if he had been
+put to any inconvenience; we would cheerfully give him another copy.
+We could return the imperfect copy to the publishers who would make it
+right with us.</p>
+
+<p>"But don't you examine the books you buy to see if the pages are all
+there?"</p>
+
+<p>I told him how impossible that would be. Why, we often added as many
+as fifty thousand volumes <span class="pagenum"><a id="page331" name="page331"></a>(p. 331)</span>to our stock in a single week. He
+left me, I am sure, convinced that we were careless in our mode of
+doing business.</p>
+
+<p>Once I was called from my office to meet a lady who also had a
+grievance. She accosted me with the air of one who had been basely
+swindled. "I bought a book here yesterday," she said, "one you
+advertised as cheap. I wish to return it and get my money back. My
+husband says it is no wonder that you can sell books so cheap; this
+one is not half finished. Look at the rough edges; the leaves are not
+even cut."</p>
+
+<p>Of course I had the price of the book returned to her at once. Then I
+proceeded to show her some of the expensive and finely bound volumes
+with rough edges. I explained how the value of many of these books
+would be lessened if the leaves were trimmed. I tried to give her the
+point of view of the book collector. She was incredulous. I think,
+however, that she went away a wiser, if not a happier woman; and she
+has probably blushed many times since when recalling the incident.</p>
+
+<p>The buyer of books for a large store does not go out to look for new
+publications. He remains in his office, and the publisher sends a
+representative to see him in regard to each new book issued. In New
+York City he is called upon on an average of once a week by some one
+from each publishing house. At certain seasons of the year these
+"commercial travellers," as they prefer to be titled, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page332" name="page332"></a>(p. 332)</span>seem
+to drift in ten or a dozen at a time. They will often be found waiting
+in line outside the buyer's office, each taking his turn. Each will
+have from two to ten new books, all to be ready within the next two
+weeks.</p>
+
+<p>I have said that the bookseller of to-day has but little time to read
+about the volumes that are forthcoming. Therefore, most of the new
+books are first brought to his attention by the salesmen who come to
+solicit orders. Every book must be given some consideration; and in
+most cases some quantity of it must be ordered. It may be five copies
+or it may be five thousand. To the inexperienced it is difficult to
+explain the precise considerations that govern the amount of the
+order. Here is where the strain comes on the buyer; for the
+responsibility lies with him. Yet he must decide without having read a
+single page; and he must decide quickly&mdash;in a few minutes. Many times
+he places an order without having seen the completed book at all. Some
+pages of the text, a half-dozen illustrations, and the outside cover
+are perhaps presented to him. Even the fact that the publisher has had
+the manuscript read by three or four experts before deciding to
+publish, does not always help him. There are many miscalculations on
+the part of both buyer and publisher.</p>
+
+<p>But, you insist, how does a buyer form a judgment of the number of
+copies to buy if he does not read the book? There are many things to
+guide <span class="pagenum"><a id="page333" name="page333"></a>(p. 333)</span>him. There is the popularity of the author to be
+considered; the subject of the book; the mechanical features; the
+price; and the publisher's name and standing. If it is an author's
+first book the risk is great. If both the author and publisher are new
+the risk is still greater. For the amount of advertising that such a
+publisher is likely to do is an unknown quantity. The buyer can
+estimate pretty closely on the advertising probabilities of
+well-established firms; he knows what they are accustomed to do in
+that line.</p>
+
+<p>In the reminiscences of a bookseller who began business more than
+seventy years ago, there is a letter from his mother written in 1844,
+from which the following is an excerpt:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I will ask you once more to consider my plea regarding the policy and
+character of some portion of your business. The selecting of books for
+a reading community is a peculiar responsibility; and if the matter
+therein contained be good in its wholesale and retail consequences it
+will rise up for you, if bad, against you, even here in this partly
+Christianized America."</p>
+
+<p>But the bookman no longer has the opportunity of selecting for a
+community. The conditions are changed. In these days of extended
+advertising in newspapers and magazines, the reading public learns all
+about the new books before going near a bookstore. The demand is
+created outside the shop; the dealer must be prepared to supply it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page334" name="page334"></a>(p. 334)</span>Customers tell him not only what to keep on sale, but what
+not to keep on sale. The writer of the present article has been
+admonished not to have in stock the writings of many of the great
+authors&mdash;Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Miss Braddon,
+George Eliot, Mrs. Humphry Ward, Balzac, Byron, and many others. A
+letter received about fifteen years ago read something like this:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"I was much surprised yesterday, while passing through your bookstore,
+to find a number of immoral books there for sale. I copied down the
+names of a few of them&mdash;'An Earnest Trifler' and 'A Desperate
+Chance.'"</p>
+
+<p>There were four others the titles of which I do not recall; but the
+two mentioned made an impression on my mind, because I had read the
+first one only a short time before; and knew it to be a perfectly pure
+story. The second one happened to have been written by an acquaintance
+of mine, J. D. Jerrold Kelly, now a commander in the United States
+Navy. If he ever reads this article he will probably be informed for
+the first time that he is accused of having written an immoral story.
+The funny part of the incident was that the letter in question closed
+with the following: "I will admit that I have not read any of these
+books. I would not soil my mind by reading them; but I think the
+titles are quite sufficient to lead many a weak-minded person astray."
+I leave the reader to draw his own conclusions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page335" name="page335"></a>(p. 335)</span>I said that the bookseller does not necessarily come into
+contact with author or publisher in the building of a book. He is,
+however, frequently called upon by authors of the class that might be
+termed unsuccessful. These want his help. One came to me with a
+proposition that I take five thousand copies of a book he had written.
+"It's a wonderful book," he said. "Nothing like it has been written;
+and it's bound to make a great stir. It will revolutionize society
+completely. All it needs is for you to 'push' the sale." When I asked
+to see the book, he said it was not published yet. "I am looking for a
+publisher; and will let you see a copy as soon as it is ready. But,"
+he added, "if you would give me your order now it would be a great
+help in securing a publisher." It is scarcely necessary for me to add
+that I did not feel called upon to help him to the extent of ordering
+five thousand copies of the book without seeing it, even if society
+had to remain unrevolutionized for a while longer. I never saw the
+author again; nor have I heard of the book. Now many books must have
+been written for which no publisher could be found! The pity is that
+so many have found publishers&mdash;a statement with which I feel sure
+publishers and booksellers alike will agree.</p>
+
+<p>A year or two ago I was asked by a friend to give some advice to a
+lady who had written a book. She did not take my advice, however, when
+I gave it&mdash;I hardly expected that she would. In fact, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page336" name="page336"></a>(p. 336)</span>she
+went directly contrary to it, and practically published the book
+herself. Later she came to me with the proposition that I take her
+book and "push" it as the Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia was
+being pushed; she was sure it would have a large sale, if only I would
+advertise it in the same way that these other books were being
+advertised&mdash;full pages in the daily papers. The retail price of her
+book was, I believe, one dollar. These are but two instances; I could
+mention many more equally ridiculous. How that word "push" does grate
+on my ears! It will put me in a bad humor about as quickly as anything
+I can recall.</p>
+
+<p>My first experience in the book business was on Nassau Street, then
+one of the great book streets of New York City, if not the greatest.
+One morning shortly after the store opened an elderly couple from the
+country came in&mdash;the man evidently interested in books; but the woman
+not at all. While he was looking over the counters she remained well
+in the centre of the main aisle, a short distance behind him.
+Presently he came to a counter on which there was a placard: "Books
+fifty cents each." By some mistake an expensive volume had been laid
+with these second-hand books. The man picked it up and began leafing
+it over. Then turning to the woman he said, "That's cheap at fifty
+cents." "What's it good for?" was her query. "I wouldn't spend fifty
+cents for it." Then I heard him say, "That's worth more than <span class="pagenum"><a id="page337" name="page337"></a>(p. 337)</span>
+fifty cents. If that's the price I'll buy it." "Young man, what's the
+price of this book?" This last to me. I told him, "Nine dollars." The
+look he gave the woman was not unkindly, but it spoke volumes. He knew
+a thing or two about books; he was thoroughly conscious of his
+superiority over her, when it came to their value.</p>
+
+<p>During the last thirty years a magnificent work has been done in
+suppressing and destroying the filthy literature that was almost
+openly sold in the streets of many of our largest cities. Too much
+credit cannot be given the society that took the matter in hand. I
+believe that nearly every dealer to-day aims to keep his stock free
+from demoralizing books; but in the nature of things the line of
+demarcation cannot be drawn with entire satisfaction to all. About
+twenty years ago an itinerant dealer was arrested in a New Jersey town
+for selling a certain book. I was present at the trial, which was
+somewhat farcical. The defendant had gathered together a large number
+of catalogues to show that the book had been sold by the most
+reputable dealers in the country; and that it was included in the
+catalogues of most of the public libraries. But the judge would not
+allow this as evidence. He took the stand that the whole question
+rested upon the book itself. It did not matter what the rest of the
+world thought of the book; they were there to judge whether or not it
+was immoral. (The penalty for selling an immoral book <span class="pagenum"><a id="page338" name="page338"></a>(p. 338)</span>in New
+Jersey was, I think, at least one year's imprisonment.) The jury was
+composed of twelve yokels, eleven of them had never heard of the book,
+the twelfth said he had read it about twenty years earlier. As the
+whole thing hinged on the opinion of the jury as to its character,
+copies were supplied by the defendant, and the jury was sent into
+another room to read the book. After an hour or so they returned. All
+agreed that the story was not immoral, and the case was dismissed.</p>
+
+<p>It would be a pleasure for me to write of the many distinguished
+persons with whom I have become acquainted during my career as a
+bookseller and buyer. But were I once to begin on the subject I fear
+my readers would believe me lacking in "terminal facilities." I should
+regret, however, to have to close this article without mention of the
+many delightful friendships I have formed with authors, customers, and
+publishers. And I may add, with the men who sell to me&mdash;whom, almost
+to a man, I have found thoroughly conscientious. These are pleasant
+features that go a long way toward compensating one for being in a
+business, the profits of which, at the best, are small as compared
+with those of other lines of trade.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page339" name="page339"></a>(p. 339)</span>SELLING BY SUBSCRIPTION<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Charles S. Olcott</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>The business of selling books may be divided, in a general way, into
+two divisions, one seeking to bring the people to the books, the other
+aiming to take the books to the people. The first operates through the
+retail book stores, news-stands, department stores, and the like. The
+other employs agents, or advertises in the newspapers or magazines, to
+secure orders or "subscriptions," on receipt of which the books are
+delivered. The latter method of selling has become known as the
+"Subscription-book" business.</p>
+
+<p>The agent usually calls at the office or home of his prospective
+customer and shows samples of the text pages, illustrations, bindings,
+etc., bound together in a form known as a "prospectus." Sometimes he
+exhibits a number of different prospectuses. The customer signs an
+order blank, which the agent turns over to the publisher, who makes
+the delivery and collects the money. To cover the entire country, the
+large publisher establishes branch offices in many different cities or
+sells his books to so-called "general agents," who secure their own
+canvassers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page340" name="page340"></a>(p. 340)</span>It may be asked, why does such a method exist? Do not people
+know enough to go to the book stores and ask for what they want? And
+why go to a man and urge him to buy a book he does not want? The
+answer goes deep into human nature. People have to be urged to take
+very many things which they know they ought to have. The small boy
+knows he ought to go to school, but has to be coaxed. Parents know he
+ought to go, but compulsory education laws have been found necessary
+in many states. The churches are good, but people sometimes need
+urging even to go there. Life insurance, honestly conducted, is one of
+the greatest blessings a man can buy with money, but the principal
+expenditures of the great companies are the vast sums spent in
+pleading with the people to take advantage of it.</p>
+
+<p>Experience has proved this to be true of books. Men and women must be
+employed to show the people their value. The latest novel, if popular
+and well advertised, will sell fairly well in the retail store, but an
+encyclopædia, or any extensive set of books, must be taken directly to
+the people and explained by competent salesmen if the publishers hope
+to pay the cost of the plates within a lifetime. This is strikingly
+illustrated in the case of the "Encyclopædia Britannica." The sales in
+England of the original ninth edition were less than ten thousand
+sets. In America, where subscription methods were adopted from the
+first, and <span class="pagenum"><a id="page341" name="page341"></a>(p. 341)</span>in England, after some enterprising American
+subscription-book men took it in hand, the sales may be fairly
+estimated at something like one hundred and fifty thousand sets.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty or thirty years ago, by far the most common form of
+subscription book was the variety labelled "Manual of Business," or
+the "Complete Farm Cyclopedia," or the "Road to Heaven." The publisher
+did not advertise for customers but for agents. The books were sold
+directly to the agent, and he in turn delivered them to his customers
+and collected the money. Anybody out of employment could take up the
+business. The aim was to get as many agents as possible and sell them
+the books. The agent canvassed with a "prospectus" after committing to
+memory his little story. The subscribers signed their names in the
+back of the prospectus. Sometimes the young and inexperienced agent
+ordered as many copies as he had signatures or more. Woe unto him if
+he did, for oftentimes they would not "deliver." Many years ago I
+remember calling at a modest little home in the Middle West. While
+waiting in the parlor, I noticed how peculiarly it was furnished.
+Every corner of the little square room contained a monument of
+symmetrical design, all different, but each some three or four feet
+high, and all built of books, as a child might build a fairy castle
+out of his wooden blocks. A closer inspection showed that all the
+volumes <span class="pagenum"><a id="page342" name="page342"></a>(p. 342)</span>were copies of the same book bound in "half
+morocco"! The explanation came later when I was incidentally informed
+that "Willie had tried canvassing, but most of 'em backed out."</p>
+
+<p>This reminds one of the remark of Thoreau when, four years after the
+publication of his first book (at the author's expense), the publisher
+compelled him to remove 706 unsold copies out of the edition of 1000,
+and he had them all carted to his home. "I now have," he said, "a
+library of nearly 900 volumes, over 700 of which I wrote myself." It
+is an interesting fact in this connection that the successors of that
+publisher are to-day, fifty years later, successfully selling by
+subscription an edition of Thoreau's writings in 20 volumes, the set
+in the cheapest style of binding costing $100.</p>
+
+<p>Among the famous books sold by this method have been Blaine's "Twenty
+Years in Congress," Stanley's "In Darkest Africa," and Grant's
+"Memoirs." The handsome fortune which the publishers of the latter
+were enabled to pay to Mrs. Grant was made possible only by the
+application of the subscription method of reaching the people.</p>
+
+<p>Another form of subscription book, now fortunately obsolete, was the
+book in "parts." A "part" consisted of some twenty-four or forty-eight
+pages, or more, in paper covers. These were delivered and paid for by
+the buyer in instalments of one or two at a time until the entire
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page343" name="page343"></a>(p. 343)</span>work was complete. Then the binding order was solicited. It
+was an expensive and unsatisfactory makeshift, intended to reach those
+who could pay only a dollar or two a month. The theory was that the
+people could not be trusted, and therefore the book must be cut up and
+delivered in pieces. Later the publishers learned that "most people
+are honest," and the modern method is to deliver the complete
+publication and collect the price in monthly instalments. This plan
+has proved far more economical both to subscribers and publishers, and
+the losses are few if the management is careful and conservative. One
+house which carefully scrutinizes its orders has suffered losses of
+less than one per cent on a business of several millions of dollars
+covering a period of fifteen years.</p>
+
+<p>In late years by far the greatest part of the subscription-book
+business has been done with complete sets of books, usually the
+writings of the leading standard authors. These books are sold
+directly to the subscriber who gives a signed order, and the publisher
+makes the delivery, pays the agent a cash commission, and collects the
+payments as they fall due. The old, worthless, "made-up" books are
+rapidly disappearing, and the subscription-book of to-day is as a rule
+a vastly superior article to that of a score of years ago. In fact
+some of the oldest and most reliable publishing houses in America now
+offer their choicest output by <span class="pagenum"><a id="page344" name="page344"></a>(p. 344)</span>subscription. A large
+investment of capital in plates, illustrations, editorial work, etc.,
+such as is necessary in many of the extensive editions of standard
+works, could not be made unless there, were an assured return. The
+subscription method of selling makes such undertakings possible, and
+the result of its adoption has been the issue of many superb
+publications which never would or could have been undertaken, had the
+retail book store been the only outlet to the market. The subscription
+business has in this way proved a marked benefit to the lovers of fine
+editions of their favorite authors. The book-lover has been benefited,
+too, in the matter of prices. The agent's commission under the modern
+methods is no greater than the bookseller's profit, and no
+extraordinary allowance is made for losses, as many imagine, for the
+losses are comparatively small. The desire to extend his business
+leads the publisher to make his books more attractive, while there is
+plenty of competition to keep the prices down. It is a fact that the
+buyer is to-day getting a far better book for his money than ever
+before.</p>
+
+<p>The personnel of the canvassing force has also undergone a change. A
+business such as the best houses are now doing requires agents of
+intelligence, tact, and judgment. The callow youth cannot succeed as
+he did once. The man who has failed at everything else will fail here.
+There <span class="pagenum"><a id="page345" name="page345"></a>(p. 345)</span>are now men and women engaged in selling books by
+subscription, who possess business ability of a high order. Many of
+them have well-established lines of trade,&mdash;regular customers who
+depend upon them to supply their wants and keep them informed. The old
+jibes about the book-agent fall flat when applied to them. They do not
+bore their customers or tire them out. They serve them, and the
+customers are glad to be served by them.</p>
+
+<p>I have taken care to point out that these observations apply to the
+business as conducted by the older and more conservative book
+publishers, who value their reputation. In a consideration of the
+subject a sharp distinction should be drawn between such publishers
+and a class of irresponsible schemers who by various ingenious devices
+seek to gain the public ear and then proceed to impose upon their
+victims to the full extent of their credulity. In recent years many
+schemes have been devised,&mdash;a few honest, some about half honest, and
+the rest miserable "fakes."</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest and most successful "schemes," not dishonest but
+certainly ingenious, was that of a publisher who had a large stock of
+unmarketable books whose retail price was $6 a volume. He organized an
+association and sold memberships at $10, the membership entitling the
+subscriber to one of the $6 books and the privilege of buying
+miscellaneous books at a discount. The discounts <span class="pagenum"><a id="page346" name="page346"></a>(p. 346)</span>really were
+no greater than could have been obtained in any department store, but
+the "association" thought it had a great concession and multiplied so
+rapidly that the unmarketable book had to be reprinted again and
+again.</p>
+
+<p>The next "scheme" to come into prominence was the so-called "raised
+contract." The process was simple. The order blank read, for example,
+$5 a volume, but the publisher wanted "a few influential citizens like
+yourself" to write testimonials, and had a few copies for sale to such
+people&mdash;only a very few&mdash;at $3, merely the cost of the paper and
+binding. By paying cash you could get another reduction, and as a
+special favor from the agent still another, and so on, until you found
+the price whittled down to the ridiculously low sum of $2.65. When the
+customer woke up and found that all his neighbors were also
+"influential citizens" who had bought at the same price or possibly
+less, and that the book would be dear at $2, he mentally resolved to
+"buy no more from that house." The figures are given merely to
+illustrate the idea and are not quoted from any particular
+proposition. It is unfortunately true, however, that the plan here
+illustrated is now in daily use by many concerns, although there are
+indications that it is gradually dying as the result of overwork!</p>
+
+<p>Another scheme is to advertise a "a few slightly damaged" copies of a
+book for sale at barely the cost of the sheets&mdash;to save rebinding. A
+publisher <span class="pagenum"><a id="page347" name="page347"></a>(p. 347)</span>once confided to me that he was doing a
+"land-office business" selling "slightly damaged stock." "How do you
+damage the stock," I asked,&mdash;"throw the books across the room?" "No,"
+he replied, laughing, "we haven't time to do that."</p>
+
+<p>Some of the schemes are so ludicrous as to cause one to wonder how
+anybody can be made to believe the story. Such was the one which
+soberly informed the prospective customer that he had been selected by
+a committee of Congress as one of a few representative citizens to
+whom the United States government would be willing to sell some of its
+precious documents. He was not asked to subscribe, but merely to "let
+us know" if he didn't want it, for "another gentleman" was quite
+anxious to secure his copy, etc. Of course the fortunate
+representative citizen made haste to secure the copy which Congress
+intended him to have. I am told that the originator of this scheme
+made a fortune out of it.</p>
+
+<p>All these schemes, from the laughably absurd to the contemptibly mean,
+should be regarded merely as an excrescence upon the legitimate
+subscription-book business. They are like the "get-rich-quick" and
+"wildcat" banking schemes which flourish in prosperous times, but have
+nothing whatever in common with legitimate financial affairs. It is
+unfortunate for the book trade that these schemers selected books as
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page348" name="page348"></a>(p. 348)</span>particular kind of merchandise upon which to exercise
+their ingenuity. They admit that their agents are expected not to
+canvass the merits of the book, but to "sell their story." They might
+have done the same thing had they chosen jewelry, bric-a-brac, rugs,
+paintings, stocks, bonds, or anything else as the subject for their
+exploitation. The reliable publishers are hoping that at no distant
+date the schemers will take up some of these other lines, although
+they bear no grudge against the latter.</p>
+
+<p>If any prejudice exists in the public mind against subscription books,
+it is caused by the illegitimate use of books as a means of "fooling"
+if not of swindling the people. There are many honorable men and many
+houses of the highest class who are engaged in the subscription-book
+business. These should no more be classed with such schemers as I have
+described than Tiffany's with the diamond merchants who ornament the
+fronts of their stores with the three balls. The leading legal lights
+of the world and the gentry who frequent the police courts are all
+called lawyers; the eminent surgeon who performs marvellous operations
+involving incredible knowledge and skill and the half-breed who used
+to pull teeth in front of the circus, the brass band drowning the
+shrieks of his victims, are both called doctors. The eminent divine
+and his ignorant colored brother may both be preachers. Intelligent
+people <span class="pagenum"><a id="page349" name="page349"></a>(p. 349)</span>know how to discriminate between these, and do not
+condemn the one for the faults of the others. And so the intelligent
+and honorable book agent who represents a thoroughly reliable
+publishing house deserves to be differentiated from the fellow who
+comes with a lie on his tongue, for which an unscrupulous schemer is
+directly responsible.</p>
+
+<p>The subscription-book business, in the hands of honorable men, has
+performed a great service to the whole country, by putting good books
+into thousands and hundreds of thousands of homes, where, but for
+them, there would be little to read beyond the newspaper or the
+magazine. The best publishers have found it the most practicable
+method of distribution for their more extensive productions, and
+thousands of thoughtful men are glad of the opportunity to receive the
+representatives of such houses and to have the best of the new
+publications promptly brought to their attention.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page350" name="page350"></a>(p. 350)</span>SELLING AT AUCTION<br>
+
+<span class="author">By John Anderson, Jr.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>While the auctioneer is admitted to be an important factor in the
+handling of a book once it has become a finished product, his
+relations to it are not clearly understood, even by many of those who
+avail themselves of his services as a medium of sale or purchase. An
+endeavor shall therefore be made to present here, in the simplest
+possible way, some facts which may prove both pertinent and
+enlightening.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be presumed that the auctioneering of books began at the time
+when it first became apparent to the owners of libraries that a
+necessity existed for the establishment of a system by which they
+could reach the largest number of buyers, and bring about the quickest
+sales and returns, for these are, admittedly, the distinguishing
+features of the auction method, as opposed to all others.<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4" title="Go to footnote 4"><span class="smaller">[4]</span></a> <span class="pagenum"><a id="page351" name="page351"></a>(p. 351)</span>
+Selling to the highest bidder proved the happy solution of the
+problem, and to this day it has been universally recognized as the
+most satisfactory method of dispersion. To quote a book as having sold
+for so much at auction gives it in the minds of all true bookmen the
+best possible criterion of value. The prices obtained, though
+variable, represent a consensus of opinion, and may be considered as
+standards.</p>
+
+<p>So far as can be traced, the earliest known book auctions took place
+in Holland. The library of Marnix of St. Aldegonde was sold by
+Christopher Poret at Leyden, July 6, 1599, this being the earliest
+recorded sale. The first English book sale is supposed to have been
+that held on October 31, 1676, when the library of the then lately
+deceased Rev. Lazarus Seaman was sold at his residence in Warwick
+Court, Warwick Lane, London, by William Cooper. The earliest known
+sale in America occurred at the Crown Coffee House in Boston, on July
+2, 1717, and succeeding days, when was dispersed the library of the
+famous early New England divine, Rev. Ebenezer Pemberton. Philadelphia
+held book auction sales many years in advance of New York, the
+earliest known being that of the library of Charles Read, in 1737. The
+date of the first sale in New York is unknown, as is the name of the
+auctioneer, but an advertisement of McLaughlin &amp; Blakely, of 41 Maiden
+Lane, in a paper of May 4, 1825, reads <span class="pagenum"><a id="page352" name="page352"></a>(p. 352)</span>as follows, "From the
+long acquaintance of Mr. McLaughlin with the book auction business, he
+trusts that the firm will receive a consequent share of public
+patronage." It is known that McLaughlin &amp; Co. held unimportant book
+sales at 78 Maiden Lane in 1824, and late though this date is, it will
+have to stand as representing the earliest book auction sale in New
+York until newly discovered evidence reveals an earlier recorded
+one.<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5" title="Go to footnote 5"><span class="smaller">[5]</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It rarely happens that a really great collection of books is sold
+otherwise than at auction. The collector recognizes that the taste and
+judgment displayed by him in the acquirement of his library will, by
+the medium of the auctioneer's carefully prepared catalogue, be made
+evident to all succeeding generations of book lovers. How many would
+to-day know the names of George Brinley, John Allan, and William
+Menzies, were it not for the sale catalogues of their collections?
+They attained book-fame without having sought it.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection, an extract may be quoted from the will of Edmond
+de Goncourt, the distinguished French writer and collector:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="quote">"My wish is that my Drawings, my Prints, my Curiosities, my
+     Books&mdash;in a word, these things of Art which have been the
+     joy of my life&mdash;shall not be consigned to the cold tomb of a
+     Museum, and subjected to the stupid glance of the careless
+     passer-by; but I require that they shall all be dispersed
+     under the hammer of the auctioneer, so that the pleasure
+     which the acquiring of each one of them has given me shall
+     <span class="pagenum"><a id="page353" name="page353"></a>(p. 353)</span>be given again, in each case, to some inheritor of
+     my own tastes."</p>
+
+<p>A list of those whose libraries have been dispersed at public auction
+would contain an astonishing proportion of names great in the world's
+history. Even in cases where the collections were not directly
+dispersed by the auction method, it will be found that the bulk of the
+more important works contained therein had, at some previous period,
+passed through the auctioneer's hands.</p>
+
+<p>To unthinking minds, there exist certain prejudices against the
+auction method, doubtless due to a want of discrimination between the
+many who faithfully pursue their calling, and the few who by
+questionable dealings have dishonored and discredited themselves
+rather than their craft. Benjamin Franklin is only one among many of
+the American book auctioneers whose names were synonymous with
+integrity during the long period&mdash;nearly two hundred years&mdash;in which
+their services were employed in the dispersal of libraries. The long
+and honorable careers of certain of the English book auction
+houses&mdash;notably that of Messrs. Sotheby, Wilkinson &amp; Hodge, founded in
+1744&mdash;shows conclusively that the business itself has been accepted by
+the public, as forming an essential part in disseminating the world's
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>The auctioneer is in a position to extend many exceptional advantages
+to his customers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page354" name="page354"></a>(p. 354)</span>The quantity and variety of the books offered is far greater
+than is possible to be found in the stock of any dealer, being subject
+to constant additions and changes. The average quality is high where
+the auctioneer makes the sales of private collections a specialty, and
+much inferior where dependence is placed upon the sale of material
+received from the booksellers which they have been unable to sell
+after repeated efforts. Naturally, the better items are reserved for
+their own shelves. Among the leaders in the book auction trade, it
+will be found that a very large proportion of the material offered by
+them comes from authentic private sources, though, in many cases,
+there is a disinclination on the part of the owner to allow the use of
+his or her name in connection with the sale.</p>
+
+<p>The prices obtained for books at sales held by regular book
+auctioneers (no pretence of recognition need be accorded furniture and
+bric-a-brac auctioneers, who occasionally secure consignments of books
+from parties unaware of the existence of an establishment devoted
+exclusively to their sale) are necessarily variable, being governed,
+as is everything else, by the law of demand and supply. A particularly
+choice item will command about the same price whenever offered,&mdash;generally
+an increasing one,&mdash;but the ordinary book can often be obtained at
+bargain figures. This element of uncertainty goes far toward making
+the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page355" name="page355"></a>(p. 355)</span>auction sale so attractive to collectors with slender
+purses, as also to those who may be designated "moral book-gamblers,"
+always ready to take a chance where the outcome is problematical. Many
+fine collections have been gathered by well-informed private buyers,
+who made a point of attending auction sales, and purchasing desirable
+items, when for some reason the prices were lower than usual. Some of
+these collections have since been sold at auction, and the owners have
+netted a handsome profit on their investments.</p>
+
+<p>Many book buyers entertain erroneous ideas regarding the condition of
+the volumes sold at leading auction houses, confounding them with
+those sold at storage warehouses, furniture auction rooms, etc. The
+fact is, a very large proportion of the books, even of the older
+species, are in fine, clean condition, many being in choice bindings,
+and equal to the most fastidious requirement.</p>
+
+<p>An indication of the important relation of the book auctioneer to the
+market, as a source of supply, may be judged from the issue of a
+bulletin by the American Library Association during the past year,
+calling attention of the three thousand or more public libraries of
+the country to the advantages of purchasing at auction sales,
+recommending certain named houses, and outlining the mode of procedure
+in sending bids. It took years of hard and discouraging labor to bring
+about conditions that would warrant this recognition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="page356" name="page356"></a>(p. 356)</span>The great majority of buyers at book auctions reside in
+localities widely removed from the cities where the sales are held,
+and it is, of course, necessary that these customers should be given
+equal advantages with the home buyers in effecting purchases at sales.
+The printed catalogue is made the medium of this accomplishment. The
+books are described in detail, mention being made of the author's
+name, the title, size, binding, place, and date of publication, and
+condition (if either above or below the average). If the edition is
+special, or it is a large paper copy, this is duly set forth in the
+description. All imperfections are carefully noted. The aim of the
+auctioneer is to bring the book or set of books so clearly before the
+mind of the prospective buyer as to gain his confidence. An express
+stipulation is made in the conditions of sale that any book found to
+be otherwise than as described may be returned, but as the auctioneer
+desires to avoid this contingency, he is generally careful in his
+descriptions, and they may, as a rule, be depended upon.</p>
+
+<p>A printed slip is enclosed in each catalogue on which the intending
+purchaser notes the numbers of the lots he desires and the limit of
+price to which he is prepared to go. It is then forwarded by mail to
+the auction house, where the slips are tabulated by a clerk, the names
+and amounts being placed against each item in a specially prepared
+catalogue. Incidentally, it may be <span class="pagenum"><a id="page357" name="page357"></a>(p. 357)</span>stated that all bids are
+considered as strictly confidential.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of sale, the principal of the establishment, or one of his
+chief assistants, takes his place in the audience on an even footing
+with all other buyers, and uses the bids, as enrolled, in competition
+with such as may be offered by other attendants at the sale.</p>
+
+<p>Where two or more bids have been received on any item, the competition
+is first narrowed by the elimination of all except the two highest
+ones, and then the start is made at a figure just beyond the second
+highest. The battle between the auctioneer, acting as the
+representative of the out-of-town bidder, and some ardent book lover
+personally attending the sale, for the possession of a particularly
+coveted work, often provokes genuine enthusiasm. It is finally knocked
+down to the highest bidder at the point where competition ceases, and
+this is often much below the limit named by the buyer. The wise
+purchaser at auction, when assured of the honorable standing of the
+house with which he deals, will not hesitate in sending liberal bids,
+for by so doing he will gain much and lose little.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of conducting sales and handling bids differ somewhat in
+the various cities, but that, as above outlined, is adopted by the
+leading houses. In some concerns, the auctioneer himself executes the
+commissions from the rostrum, but when this <span class="pagenum"><a id="page358" name="page358"></a>(p. 358)</span>is done, even
+though he may be a man of the strictest integrity, the method is open
+to criticism, it being well understood that the reputation of an
+auctioneer is largely dependent on the high prices he obtains.</p>
+
+<p>There is a material difference between the English and American
+methods of cataloguing books for sale at auction. In England the
+charges are inclusive, the cost of printing, postage, etc., being
+assumed by the auctioneer, so that he finds it to his interest to
+compress catalogue descriptions into the narrowest possible compass,
+to minimize the distribution of the catalogue, and to spend as small
+an amount of money in advertising as possible. In America, the charges
+are exclusive, the commission representing the auctioneer's only
+interest, and the incidental expenses of printing, etc., are paid by
+the consignor. Because of this, a more liberal policy is pursued as to
+expenditures. Many good titles that are bunched in lots in the London
+sales are here separately catalogued, mention is made of all defects,
+and, on the average, more careful attention is paid to the details of
+the descriptions. Catalogues are given a wider circulation in America,
+and more dependence is placed on the receipt of bids from out-of-town
+buyers. New methods and channels of advertising are being constantly
+considered and utilized. It is believed that these elements, combined,
+conduce to the benefit of the consignor, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page359" name="page359"></a>(p. 359)</span>when the material
+offered possesses real interest and value.</p>
+
+<p>The auctioneer who conducts a modern high-class establishment, where a
+guaranty of intelligent service is given, can employ only the best
+available talent for cataloguing purposes, either men of proved
+ability and special knowledge, or those that show a decided aptitude
+for the work and give promise of attainment.</p>
+
+<p>Most book auction houses in this country are obliged to call in the
+services of an interpreter when a book in other than the English or
+French language is to be catalogued, but in Europe the force employed
+is, as a rule, equal to all emergencies. To illustrate the variety of
+demand made upon the modern auctioneer, in this line, it may be stated
+that the establishment with which the writer is connected, can
+catalogue items in English, French, German, Italian, Spanish,
+Portuguese, Latin, Greek, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish; in fact, nearly
+all of the European, and some of the Oriental Languages, without
+calling upon outside help.</p>
+
+<p>A book auctioneer would find it as impossible to properly handle books
+without the use of a suitable reference library, as for a carpenter to
+work without tools. In a live, up-to-date auction house, every
+bibliographical work of real value not already possessed is secured
+when found in the open markets, and consulted frequently. These
+collections often represent an expenditure <span class="pagenum"><a id="page360" name="page360"></a>(p. 360)</span>of thousands of
+dollars. Some single works call for the outlay of hundreds, but they
+are essential for the use of the expert cataloguer.</p>
+
+<p>The labor involved in handling books in connection with their sale at
+auction is very heavy. Supposing that a library of, say, five thousand
+volumes is offered for sale. It is packed by the owner, or under his
+directions, and is forwarded to the auctioneer. The boxes are opened
+and the contents placed in a special compartment. They are then
+catalogued, each item being separately handled. Another clerk then
+arranges them for exhibition on the shelves, where they remain until
+the time of sale. During the sale, they are again exhibited, and
+handled, and after it are laid aside in groups, according to their
+newly acquired ownership. When shipment is made the following day, or
+later, another handling is required. No scheme can be devised that
+will admit of less than four handlings of the entire lot. When we
+consider that in some establishments nearly a million separate items
+are received and sold each season, some idea may be formed of the
+labor involved.</p>
+
+<p>The auctioneer has been obliged to either adapt his business to modern
+conditions, even though it entails heavy expense and added burdens, or
+take a rear place in the procession. Business cannot be transacted now
+as it was even five years ago, though many attempt to do it by the
+antiquated <span class="pagenum"><a id="page361" name="page361"></a>(p. 361)</span>methods of the times "befo' de war." More books
+are sold by auction each successive year; and with the wonderful
+progress being made in the literary development of this great country,
+it is likely that the auctioneer will become in the near future an
+even more important factor in the formation and dissemination of
+libraries than ever before.</p>
+
+<p>The following extract from a magazine article on "The Book Auction,"
+written years ago by Joel Benton, may be deemed a fitting conclusion.
+He said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="quote">
+<p>"In no one place are there so many eager patrons of the book
+     auction as in New York. Here are men who can give thousands
+     of dollars for a single book, if they choose, and add it to
+     an already extremely valuable collection.</p>
+
+<p>"It is pleasant to see these men and their representatives
+     sitting in the auction room, and poring, over their
+     catalogues. There are times when they must not be disturbed,
+     or spoken to. Great issues depend upon their utmost
+     attention. Not Izaak Walton, the many rare editions of whose
+     one great book they rapturously fish for, ever fished more
+     intently for trout and grayling than they for the beauties
+     of thought and of the printer's art.</p>
+
+<p>"No idyls of the brook call your chronic book buyer to bask
+     in green meadows, and under cerulean skies while the auction
+     season lasts. The pine floor, the gaslight, and the voice of
+     the auctioneer hold him. His house may overflow with
+     thousands of unshelved volumes. Naught cares he. It is not
+     because he is short of reading that he buys. It is because
+     he is drawn by that fascinating, never-to-be-accounted-for,
+     and inexpressible ardor of the pursuit. I have a friend who
+     says he would rather attend a book auction than spend an
+     evening with the President, or with our greatest general, or
+     with a literary lion like Tennyson or Browning."<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page362" name="page362"></a>(p. 362)</span>SELECTING FOR A PUBLIC LIBRARY<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Arthur E. Bostwick</span></h2>
+
+
+<p>In selecting books for a public library, the two things generally
+taken into account are the public desire and the public need. The
+different values attached to each of these two factors may be said to
+determine the policy of the library in book-buying. The extreme cases,
+where full force is given to one factor while the other is entirely
+disregarded, do not, of course, exist. Libraries do not purchase every
+book that is asked for, without considering whether such purchases are
+right and proper. Nor do they, on the other hand, disregard popular
+demand altogether and purchase from a list made up solely with regard
+to what the community ought to read rather than what it wants to read.
+Between these two extremes, however, there may be an indefinite number
+of means. A librarian may, for instance, purchase chiefly books in
+general demand, exercising judgment in disregarding such requests as
+he may deem improper. Or he may buy chiefly those books that in his
+opinion should be read in his community, listening to the voice of the
+public only when it <span class="pagenum"><a id="page363" name="page363"></a>(p. 363)</span>becomes importunate. Several
+considerations may have part in influencing his course in this regard.
+In the first place, a library with plenty of money at command may in a
+measure follow both plans; in other words, it may buy not only all the
+good books that the public wants to read, but those also that it
+should read. The more limited the appropriation for book purchase, the
+more pressing becomes the need that the librarian should decide on a
+precise policy. Again, a library whose books are for general
+circulation would naturally give more heed to popular demand than a
+reference library used chiefly by students. Further, an endowed
+institution, not dependent on public support, could afford to
+disregard the public wishes to an extent impossible in the case of a
+library whose expenses are paid by the municipality from the proceeds
+of taxation. Above and beyond all these considerations, the personal
+equation comes in, sometimes very powerfully. It often seems as if
+some library authorities regard popular favor as an actual mark of
+discredit, while others look upon it almost as a condition precedent
+to purchase. Take, as an example, the so-called "fiction question,"
+over which most libraries, and some of their patrons, are at present
+more or less exercised. There can be no doubt of the popular regard
+for this form of literature, especially for the current novel or
+romance. Some libraries would sternly discourage this preference and
+refuse to purchase <span class="pagenum"><a id="page364" name="page364"></a>(p. 364)</span>fiction less than one year old, while
+others do not hesitate to buy, within the limits of their purses, all
+such books as would be likely to interest or entertain the average
+reader of taste and intelligence. The views of the selector regarding
+the relative importance of the library's duties as an educator and an
+entertainer must also affect his views.</p>
+
+<p>It has been tacitly assumed that the selection is made by one person.
+As a matter of fact, however, the final approval is generally given by
+a book committee of some kind, usually a committee of the library
+trustees or persons responsible to them, often with the help of
+outside advisers. The weight of the librarian's views with this body
+will depend on various circumstances. Sometimes he has his own way;
+sometimes his wishes are practically disregarded. Moreover, the
+composition of such a body varies so that any continuous policy is
+difficult for it.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to all these facts, it is probable that no two libraries in the
+United States, even when they are closely related by classification,
+as when both are branch libraries for circulation, state libraries,
+public reference libraries, or university libraries, are pursuing
+exactly the same policy in book purchase, although, as has been said,
+their various policies are always compounded of different proportions
+of these two factors,&mdash;regard for the wishes and demands of their
+users, and consideration of what is right and proper for those users,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page365" name="page365"></a>(p. 365)</span>from whatever standpoint. The stickler for uniformity will
+lament this diversity, but it is probably a good thing. In many
+libraries, there are as many minds as there are men, and it cannot be
+and ought not to be otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>Now, how does the person, or the body, that is responsible for the
+selection of books for a library ascertain the facts on which, as has
+been said, the selection must be based? It is usually not difficult to
+find out what the public wants. Its demands almost overwhelm the
+assistant at the desk. Some libraries provide special blank forms on
+which these requests may be noted. They are often capricious;
+sometimes they do not represent the dominant public wish. The voice of
+one insistent person asking for his book day after day may impress
+itself on the mind more forcibly than the many diffident murmurs of a
+considerable number. In libraries that possess a system of branches,
+there is little difficulty in recognizing a general public demand.
+Such a demand will be reported from a large number of branch libraries
+at once, in which case the chances of mistake will be small. In the
+New York Public Library many useful suggestions are gained through the
+operation of the inter-branch loan system, whereby a user of one
+branch may send for a book contained in any other branch. Books so
+asked for are reported at the central headquarters, and if they are
+not in the library at all, the request is regarded as a suggestion for
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page366" name="page366"></a>(p. 366)</span>purchase. Should such requests come from users of several
+branches at once, the desired book is very likely to be purchased.
+Often the demand is general rather than specific, as for "a book about
+the Caucasus" or for "more works on surveying," and sometimes they are
+vague or misleading, titles being wrong and authors' names spelled
+phonetically; yet the work made necessary in looking up these demands
+is more than repaid by the knowledge that it may result in making the
+library of more value to the public.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases the librarian desires not only to respond to the public
+want, but even to anticipate it. He does not wait to see whether a new
+book on Japan will be in demand, because he is sure that such will be
+the case. He does not hesitate to order a new book by Kipling or Mrs.
+Humphry Ward as soon as he sees its title in the publisher's
+announcements. The necessity for some other anticipatory orders may be
+less evident, and this kind of work requires good judgment and
+discrimination; but in general if a book is to be purchased on
+publication, it cannot be on the library shelves too soon after the
+date of issue. In any case, where it is desirable and proper to please
+the public, double pleasure can be given by promptness; hence the
+importance of being a little before, rather than a little behind, the
+popular desire.</p>
+
+<p>All this calls for little but quick and discriminating
+observation,&mdash;the ability to feel and read the <span class="pagenum"><a id="page367" name="page367"></a>(p. 367)</span>public pulse
+in matters literary. It is in regard to the second and more important
+factor that failure waits most insistently on the librarian. What are
+the public's needs, as distinguished from its desires? What ought it
+to read? Here steps in the "categorical imperative" with a vengeance.
+The librarian, when he thinks of his duty along this line, begins to
+shudder as he realizes his responsibility as an educator, as a mentor,
+as a trainer of literary taste. Probably in some instances he takes
+himself too seriously. But, no matter how lightly he may bear these
+responsibilities, every selector of books for a public library
+realizes that he must give some consideration to this question. In the
+first place, there are general needs; there are certain standard books
+that must be on the shelves of every well-ordered library, no matter
+whether they are read or not. It is his business to provide and
+recommend them. What are these standards? No two lists are alike. They
+start together: "the Bible and Shakespeare"&mdash;and then off they go in
+divergent paths! Secondly, there are special needs dependent on
+locality or on the race or temperament of the users of a particular
+library. The determination of these needs in itself is a task of no
+small magnitude; their legitimate satisfaction is sometimes difficult
+in the extreme. To take a concrete instance, the librarian may
+discover that there is in his vicinity a little knot of people who
+meet occasionally to talk over current questions, <span class="pagenum"><a id="page368" name="page368"></a>(p. 368)</span>not
+formally, but half by accident. They would be benefited, and would be
+greatly interested, in the right sort of books on economics, but they
+have scarcely heard that there is such a subject. That the public
+library might be interested in them and might aid them would never
+occur to any of them. The discovery of such people, the determination
+of just what books they need, and the successful bringing together of
+man and book&mdash;all these are the business of the librarian, and it is a
+part of his work that cannot be separated from that of book selection.</p>
+
+<p>In much of this work the librarian of a large library must depend to a
+great extent on others. Both the desires and the needs of those who
+use his library he must learn from the reports of subordinates and
+from outside friends. The librarian of a small library can ascertain
+much personally; but both librarians are largely dependent upon expert
+opinion in their final selections. After concluding that the library
+must have an especially full and good collection of books on pottery,
+the selector must go to some one who knows, to find out what are the
+best works on this subject. When there is a good list, he must know
+where to find it, or at least where to go to find out where it is. He
+must consult all the current publishers' lists as they appear, and
+scan each catalogue of bargains. His list of books wanted for purchase
+should far exceed his ability to buy, for then he must, perforce,
+<span class="pagenum"><a id="page369" name="page369"></a>(p. 369)</span>exercise his judgment and pick out the best. If, after all,
+the collection of books in his library is not such as to meet the
+approval of the public, he must bow meekly under the weight of its
+scorn.</p>
+
+<p>The deluge of books that falls daily from the presses is almost past
+comprehension. The number of intelligent readers, thanks to the
+opportunities given by our public libraries, is increasing in due
+proportion. To select from the stream what is properly fitted to the
+demands of this rapidly growing host is a task not to be lightly
+performed. That the authorities of our libraries do not shrink from it
+is fortunate indeed; that the result is no worse than it is, is a fact
+on which the reading public must doubtless be congratulated.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><span class="pagenum"><a id="page370" name="page370"></a>(p. 370)</span>RARE AND SECOND-HAND BOOKS<br>
+
+<span class="author">By Charles E. Goodspeed</span>.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Books are much more indestructible than is generally supposed.
+Furniture, clothing, and most of the appurtenances of the house
+disappear rapidly with time, but books, by the nature of their
+component material and construction, have a longer life. At least this
+may be said of books printed before the present era of paper making.
+Since the invention of printing in the fifteenth century, the product
+of the myriad presses, principally in Europe, has been enormous, and
+the output of books in the four hundred odd years of printing defies
+computation. While many have been destroyed by use, fire, or other
+agencies, an immense number exists at the present time, and their
+disposal, made necessary through death or the breaking up of
+households, is a matter of practical consideration. As it is usually
+impossible for the owner to find individual customers, the second-hand
+book-dealer becomes a necessity. The usefulness of the dealer to the
+community depends upon his honesty, intelligence, and industry; upon
+his honesty, in giving a fair price to the owner, on his intelligence
+in finding customers for books apart from general <span class="pagenum"><a id="page371" name="page371"></a>(p. 371)</span>interest,
+and on his industry in so conducting his business that his stock may
+not become a mass of ill-assorted rubbish.</p>
+
+<p>The small collection of books in the ordinary household (averaging
+usually not over a few hundred volumes), contains, it is safe to say,
+a large percentage of no commercial value. The rest may be valued
+either for rarity, for the place which they may fill in some
+collection, or for the intrinsic excellence of the edition. Customers
+for the rarities are found amongst numerous collectors, and to a more
+limited extent in the large public libraries. Many individual buyers
+prefer the sterling editions printed on rag paper by the old masters
+of the craft to books of modern production, and so create a market for
+good old editions. Modern editions of standard authors are produced so
+cheaply, however, that an old edition will bring but a small price
+unless it has some distinguishing merit.</p>
+
+<p>These points should be borne in mind by those who have books to sell.
+They should remember, also, that the public is to-day no longer
+interested in many subjects on which books were printed in the past.
+It should also be known that the arts, the sciences, and the
+professions, have made such advances that old books on these subjects
+are of little more value than waste paper, excepting in the few
+notable cases of books which are of historical importance to the
+student as landmarks of <span class="pagenum"><a id="page372" name="page372"></a>(p. 372)</span>progress. The omission of these
+works, of obsolete fiction, and the books of the hour, reduce the bulk
+of the ordinary collection to a small value.</p>
+
+<p>It may then properly be asked where the valuable books come from, and
+how are they obtained? It may safely be stated that most rarities
+to-day are discovered in out-of-the-way places, in old collections or
+libraries, attics, or from sources which have not been investigated by
+the keen-eyed collectors and dealers. There are comparatively few
+houses, at least in the most thickly settled parts of this country,
+which have no books, and in a considerable number of these collections
+there are at least some books which have a degree of rarity and a
+special commercial value. The large private libraries are also
+constantly being dispersed, and, excepting always the books which are
+being absorbed by the permanent collections of public institutions,
+form a constant supply, passing from the owner to dealer, from him to
+a new owner, only to find their way eventually to the market again.</p>
+
+<p>Books are not valuable merely because of age (excepting those printed
+in the fifteenth century), nor solely on account of their rarity. It
+is quite apparent that a rare book for which there is no demand can
+have no value. It is the combination of desirability and rarity which
+gives value, and that value fluctuates with the demand, being subject
+to the caprice of the collector or the fashion of the day. This may be
+illustrated by the collecting <span class="pagenum"><a id="page373" name="page373"></a>(p. 373)</span>of first editions. Thirty
+years ago the first editions of modern authors brought small prices;
+twenty years later they were eagerly sought for; while now a reaction
+is taking place, and only the great rarities in this line find a ready
+sale.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the books which are most quickly sold in this
+country are those relating to American history, particularly those on
+the discovery and settlement of the continent, the Indians, the
+American Revolution, navy, local history, and genealogy, etc. Books on
+these subjects which are really rare, find a ready sale.</p>
+
+<p>First editions of the early books in <span class="italic">belles-lettres</span>, books with
+presentation inscriptions from their authors, books containing unusual
+examples of early engravers, or those made famous by the illustrative
+work of such artists as Rowlandson, Leech, and Cruikshank; these are a
+few of the lines in which there are numerous collectors, but it should
+be understood that they are only a few of the more conspicuous out of
+hundreds of similar lines of interest. The number of collectors is
+multiplying with the increase of the country's wealth, and there is a
+growing tendency for collectors to take up new subjects, which very
+much broadens the interest in the books of bygone days. To enumerate
+these subjects at length would be but to detail the personal interests
+and hobbies of thousands of cultivated collectors. It may be safely
+prophesied that books which are regarded <span class="pagenum"><a id="page374" name="page374"></a>(p. 374)</span>to-day as rare and
+desirable by any considerable number of collectors will, on the whole,
+command a steady increase in value. The tendency, however, is strongly
+toward a decrease in the value of books of moderate value and a large
+increase in the value of especially desirable items. The accounts
+given in the daily press of the finding of valuable books are the
+innocent means of misleading a great many people, who labor under the
+delusion that because one early edition of a book commands a large
+price, another edition of about the same time must necessarily have
+the same value. This is one of many errors which the public entertains
+regarding rare books. Not only does a few years' difference in the
+date of publication mean the difference between a large value and none
+at all, but often two editions, apparently the same, bearing identical
+title-pages, possess differences in text, which are known only to the
+expert, but which make a vast difference in their value. Books
+otherwise valuable, but containing material defects (such as lack of
+pages or portions of pages), are thereby very much reduced in value;
+in fact, the value of an imperfect book is usually but a small
+fraction of that of a perfect example. Not only do these grosser
+defects reduce the value, but it sometimes happens that the mere
+absence of a half title, or advertising leaves, or even the flyleaves,
+will make a considerable difference. Such points also as the size of
+the copy, whether it is <span class="pagenum"><a id="page375" name="page375"></a>(p. 375)</span>in original binding or not, or, if
+rebound, whether the edges have been trimmed by the binder,&mdash;these all
+have an important bearing upon prices. As a rule, the nearer the book
+is to the original state in which it left the publisher's hands, the
+more valuable it will be.</p>
+
+<p>The art of the second-hand bookseller requires a knowledge of the
+science of bibliography, and painstaking attention to the details and
+orderly arrangement of stock, with a classification by subjects. Other
+things are desirable, but these are indispensable. The stock of
+second-hand books should be kept in such a manner that any book
+inquired for can be instantly located. Nothing is more irritating both
+to the dealer and to the customer than an unsuccessful search for a
+book known to be in stock. There are probably very few books which at
+some time will not be desired by some person; in fact, a large portion
+of the books in a dealer's stock would be instantly sold if he could
+understand the particular feature which would be of interest to the
+possible customer. Usually, the feature is there, and the customer
+exists. It is the bookseller's business to find both.</p>
+
+<p>There is no business in which a thorough knowledge of the stock and a
+painstaking attention to small details are of more importance than in
+the selling of books, and without them the second-hand bookseller's
+establishment degenerates to the level of the junk shop.<a href="#toc"><span class="smaller">[Back to Contents]</span></a></p>
+
+<p class="p4"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a><strong>Footnote 1:</strong> The word "typographer" is used to differentiate between
+the compositor and the printer, the latter being the one who does the
+presswork.<a href="#footnotetag1"><span class="smaller">(Back to main text)</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a><strong>Footnote 2:</strong> If the book is to be illustrated, the author or publisher
+should be particular to indicate the position of all cuts by pasting
+proofs of them on the margin of the galley-proofs nearest the place
+desired. The time occupied by the "make-up" in "overrunning" matter
+for the insertion of cuts is charged as "author's time," and they can
+be inserted at less expense in the galley-proofs while making-up the
+type into pages than at any other time. All alterations, so far as
+practicable, for the same reason, should also be made in the
+galley-proofs, especially those which involve an increase or decrease
+in the amount of matter, since changes of this nature made in the
+page-proof necessitate the added expense of a rearrangement of the
+made-up pages of type.<a href="#footnotetag2"><span class="smaller">(Back to main text)</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a><strong>Footnote 3:</strong> If one sheet of paper were run through the press before
+"making ready," it would not receive any impression, there being a
+space equal to the thickness of ten sheets of paper between the
+cylinder and the surface of the type. A bunch of six or eight sheets
+is therefore run through to get an impression for "make-ready"
+purposes.<a href="#footnotetag3"><span class="smaller">(Back to main text)</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a><strong>Footnote 4:</strong> "But it was soon perceived, that when necessity or
+inclination determined the disposal of libraries, the auction method
+was on the whole by far the best, producing as it did, and still does,
+competition amongst a larger circle of intending purchasers, with a
+better result than would have been obtained by selling <span class="italic">en
+bloc</span>."&mdash;<span class="smcap">John Lawler</span>, in "Book Auctions in England in the Seventeenth
+Century."<a href="#footnotetag4"><span class="smaller">(Back to main text)</span></a></p>
+
+<p><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a><strong>Footnote 5:</strong> "Seventy Years of Book Auctions in New York," Robert F.
+Roden.<a href="#footnotetag5"><span class="smaller">(Back to main text)</span></a></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Building of a Book, by Various
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,9390 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Building of a Book, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Building of a Book
+       A Series of Practical Articles Written by Experts in the
+       Various Departments of Book Making and Distributing
+
+Author: Various
+
+Commentator: Theodore L. De Vinne
+
+Editor: Frederick H. Hitchcock
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2007 [EBook #23754]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BUILDING OF A BOOK ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Christine P.
+Travers and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Transcriber's note: Obvious printer's errors have been corrected, all
+other inconsistencies are as in the original. The author's spelling has
+been maintained.]
+
+
+
+
+                    THE BUILDING OF A BOOK
+
+
+                A SERIES OF PRACTICAL ARTICLES
+              WRITTEN BY EXPERTS IN THE VARIOUS
+          DEPARTMENTS OF BOOK MAKING AND DISTRIBUTING
+
+
+                    WITH AN INTRODUCTION
+                   BY THEODORE L. DE VINNE
+
+
+                          EDITED BY
+                   FREDERICK H. HITCHCOCK
+
+
+                [Illustration: Editor's arm.]
+
+
+
+
+                     THE GRAFTON PRESS
+                PUBLISHERS       NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+                     Copyright, 1906,
+                  By THE GRAFTON PRESS.
+                Published December, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+                       DEDICATED
+                TO READERS AND LOVERS
+                 OF BOOKS THROUGHOUT
+                      THE COUNTRY
+
+
+
+
+FOREWORD
+
+
+"The Building of a Book" had its origin in the wish to give practical,
+non-technical information to readers and lovers of books. I hope it
+will also be interesting and valuable to those persons who are
+actually engaged in book making and selling.
+
+All of the contributors are experts in their respective departments,
+and hence write with authority. I am exceedingly grateful to them for
+their very generous efforts to make the book a success.
+
+                                        THE EDITOR.
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES AND CONTRIBUTORS
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     1
+        By THEODORE L. DE VINNE, of Theodore L.
+        De Vinne & Company, Printers, New York.
+
+    THE AUTHOR                                                       4
+        By GEORGE W. CABLE, Author of "Grandissimes,"
+        "The Cavalier," and other books. Resident of
+        Northampton, Massachusetts.
+
+    THE LITERARY AGENT                                               9
+        By PAUL R. REYNOLDS, Literary Agent, New York,
+        representing several English publishing houses and
+        American authors.
+
+    THE LITERARY ADVISER                                            16
+        By FRANCIS W. HALSEY, formerly Editor of the
+        _New York Times Saturday Review of Books_, and
+        literary adviser for D. Appleton & Company. Now
+        literary adviser for Funk & Wagnalls Company, New York.
+
+    THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT                                    25
+        By LAWTON L. WALTON, in charge of the
+        manufacturing department of The Macmillan Company,
+        Publishers, New York.
+
+    THE MAKING OF TYPE                                              31
+        By L. BOYD BENTON, Mechanical Manager of the
+        Jersey City factory of the American Type Founders'
+        Company.
+
+    HAND COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING                              41
+        By J. STEARNS CUSHING, of J. S. Cushing &
+        Company, Norwood, Massachusetts, one of the three
+        concerns forming the Norwood Press.
+
+    COMPOSITION BY THE LINOTYPE MACHINE                             53
+        By FREDERICK J. WARBURTON, Treasurer of the
+        Mergenthaler Linotype Machine Company.
+
+    COMPOSITION BY THE MONOTYPE MACHINE                             66
+        By PAUL NATHAN, a member of Wood & Nathan,
+        New York, selling agents for the Lanston Monotype
+        Machine.
+
+    PROOF-READING                                                   77
+        By GEORGE L. MILLER, with the Charles Francis
+        Press, New York.
+
+    PAPER MAKING                                                    89
+        By HERBERT W. MASON, of S. D. Warren & Company,
+        Paper Makers, Boston, Massachusetts.
+
+    PRESSWORK                                                       99
+        By WALTER J. BERWICK, of Berwick & Smith
+        Company, Norwood, Massachusetts, one of the three
+        concerns constituting the Norwood Press.
+
+    THE PRINTING PRESS                                             112
+        By OTTO L. RAABE, with R. Hoe & Company, New
+        York, Printing Press Manufacturers.
+
+    PRINTING INK                                                   139
+        By JAMES A. ULLMAN, of Sigmund Ullman Company,
+        Ink Makers, New York.
+
+    THE PRINTER'S ROLLER                                           144
+        By ALBERT S. BURLINGHAM, President of the
+        National Roller Company, New York.
+
+    THE ILLUSTRATOR                                                154
+        By CHARLES D. WILLIAMS, Artist, New York.
+
+    HALF-TONE, LINE, AND COLOR PLATES                              164
+        By EMLYN M. GILL, President of the Gill
+        Engraving Company, New York.
+
+    THE WAX PROCESS                                                176
+        By ROBERT D. SERVOSS, Engraver of maps,
+        etc., by the wax process, New York.
+
+    MAKING INTAGLIO PLATES                                         180
+        By ELMER LATHAM, Manager of the mechanical
+        department of M. Kramer & Company, Photogravure
+        Makers, Brooklyn, New York.
+
+    PRINTING INTAGLIO PLATES                                       190
+        By GEORGE W. H. RITCHIE, Printer of
+        photogravure plates, etchings, etc., New York.
+
+    THE GELATINE PROCESS                                           198
+        By EMIL JACOBI, Manager of the factory
+        of the Campbell Art Company, New York, and
+        Elizabeth, New Jersey.
+
+    LITHOGRAPHY                                                    204
+        By CHARLES WILHELMS, late of
+        Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Printing
+        Company, Brooklyn, New York.
+
+    COVER DESIGNING                                                216
+        By AMY RICHARDS, Artist, New York, her
+        specialty being cover designs.
+
+    THE COVER STAMPS                                               221
+        By GEORGE BECKER, of Becker Brothers
+        Company, Die Cutters, New York.
+
+    BOOK CLOTHS                                                    226
+        By HENRY P. KENDALL, of the Holliston Mills,
+        Book Cloth Manufacturers, Norwood, Massachusetts.
+
+    BOOK LEATHERS                                                  234
+        By ELLERY C. BARTLETT, of Louis Dejonge &
+        Company, Dressers and Importers of Book Leathers,
+        New York.
+
+    THE BINDING                                                    237
+        By JESSE FELLOWES TAPLEY, President of
+        J. F. Tapley Company, Binders, New York.
+
+    SPECIAL BINDINGS                                               248
+        By HENRY BLACKWELL, Fine Binder, New York.
+
+    COPYRIGHTING                                                   257
+        By FREDERICK H. HITCHCOCK, Member of the
+        New York Bar; President of The Grafton Press,
+        Publishers, New York.
+
+    PUBLICITY                                                      269
+        By VIVIAN BURNETT, formerly in charge of
+        the Publicity Department of McClure, Phillips
+        & Company, Publishers, New York.
+
+    REVIEWING AND CRITICISING                                      292
+        By WALTER LITTLEFIELD, a Member of the Staff
+        of the _New York Times Saturday Review of Books_,
+        and literary correspondent of the _Chicago
+        Record-Herald_, and other papers.
+
+    THE TRAVELLING SALESMAN                                        303
+        By HARRY A. THOMPSON, formerly representing
+        John Lane, and Small, Maynard & Company, Publishers.
+        Now one of the Associate Editors of the _Saturday
+        Evening Post_, Philadelphia.
+
+    SELLING AT WHOLESALE                                           320
+        By JOSEPH E. BRAY, formerly with A. C.
+        McClurg & Company, Wholesalers, Chicago. Now with
+        the Outing Publishing Company, New York.
+
+    SELLING AT RETAIL                                              328
+        By WARREN SNYDER, Manager of the Book Stores
+        of John Wanamaker, Philadelphia and New York.
+
+    SELLING BY SUBSCRIPTION                                        339
+        By CHARLES S. OLCOTT, Manager of the
+        Subscription Department of Messrs. Houghton,
+        Mifflin & Company, New York.
+
+    SELLING AT AUCTION                                             350
+        By JOHN ANDERSON, Jr., President of the
+        Anderson Auction Company, New York.
+
+    SELECTING FOR A PUBLIC LIBRARY                                 362
+        By ARTHUR E. BOSTWICK, Chief of the
+        Circulation Department of the New York Public Library.
+
+    RARE AND SECOND-HAND BOOKS                                     370
+        By CHARLES E. GOODSPEED, Dealer in Rare and
+        Second-hand Books, Boston.
+
+
+
+
+THE BUILDING OF A BOOK
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+By Theodore L. De Vinne.
+
+
+To the hasty observer printing seems the simplest of arts or crafts.
+The small boy who has been taught to spell can readily arrange
+lettered blocks of wood in readable words, and that arrangement is
+rated by many as the great feature of printing. With his toy
+printing-press he can stamp paper upon inked type in so deft a manner
+that admiring friends may say the print is good enough for anybody.
+The elementary processes of printing are indeed so simple that they
+might have justified Dogberry in adding typography to the
+accomplishments of the "reading and writing that come by nature." With
+this delusion comes the desire for amateur performance. Men who would
+not undertake to make a coat or a pair of shoes are confident of their
+ability to make or to direct the making of a book.
+
+In real practice this apparent simplicity disappears. Commercial
+printing is never done quickly or cheaply by amateur methods. The
+printing-house that undertakes to print miscellaneous books for
+publishers must be provided with tons of type of different faces and
+sizes. It needs type-making and type-setting machines of great
+complexity, printing-presses of great size and cost, and much curious
+machinery in the departments of electrotyping and bookbinding; but
+these machines, intended to relieve the drudgery of monotonous manual
+labor, do not supplant the necessity for a higher skill in
+craftsmanship. They really make that craftsmanship more difficult.
+
+The difficulty of good book-making is greater now than ever.
+Improvements made during the last century in processes of engraving
+and the making of ink and paper and the increasing exactions of
+critical readers and reviewers, compel a closer attention to the petty
+detail of manufacture. The novice soon finds that some of the methods
+recently introduced are incompatible with other methods. For the
+production of a superior book practical experience and theoretical
+study of all processes are needed to harmonize their antagonisms. One
+has but to read over the headlines of the foregoing table of contents
+to note how many different arts, crafts, and sciences are required in
+the construction of a well-made book. A reading of these articles
+makes one understand the scope and limitations of each art and the
+necessity for its proper adjustment in its relation to the
+workmanship of other crafts with which it may be associated.
+
+For this purpose this book has been prepared. It is believed that a
+compilation of the experience of men eminent in their respective
+departments will be a useful guide to the amateur in authorship or the
+novice in publication.
+
+
+
+
+THE AUTHOR
+
+By George W. Cable.
+
+
+In a certain fine and true sense books of imaginative writing--and the
+present writer cannot undertake to speak of any others--are not built,
+but born. Nevertheless, there has always been an unlucky tendency on
+the part both of writers and readers to overstate this non-mechanical
+nature of poetic works, whether in prose or verse, and to give the
+processes of this production that air of mystery--not to say
+miracle--in which art is always tempted to veil its methods. There is
+an anatomy of the book, which is not its life, but is just as real as
+its life, and only less essential. There is an architecture awaiting
+the book while it is still in its author's brain; and for want of due
+regard to this architecture's laws, for want of a sound and shapely
+anatomy, many a book misses the success--not commercial only, but
+spiritual as well--which the amount of toil and talent spent on it
+ought to earn. And now that reading has become so democratic that the
+fortunes of a book of the imagination are largely in the hands of the
+Crowd, which cares nothing and feels nothing as to grace of form and
+tone in what it reads, the commercial risk in the physical deformities
+of a book is not so great as the risk of its spiritual failure. Now,
+too, that the magazines have made it so very desirable to the author
+that his work should be printed first in them, their mechanical
+limitations, which are legion, bear upon the author and often seem to
+him (and his personal friends) to bear cruelly. This difficulty is not
+a flattering or gentle discipline, nor are its discriminations always
+good or always bad. It works almost as crudely as that of the stage
+works on the theatrical dramatist. A cunning subservience to it covers
+a multitude of sins, and often achieves for the literary craftsman
+place and preference over the truer artist, if he overlooks the need
+of being also a craftsman. Yet it is the hard demand, not of the
+magazines alone, but of every highest interest, that the cure for this
+injustice be found in the truest artist making himself also the
+cunningest craftsman. "He that would be first among you let him be the
+servant of all."
+
+Well, then, what are some of these mechanical rules of construction?
+The space here allowed--see there, for instance!--gives room for but a
+hint or two; but, first of all, an author should know before the
+actual constructure of his creation begins to rise, how long it is to
+be. Of course he would like to say he cannot tell; that he is in the
+hands of his muse, and all that; but the truth is, his "artistic
+temperament" is trying to shirk the drudgery of the engineering
+problem involved. It is far better for him as an artist that he should
+thoroughly solve that problem; it will take time and labor, but it
+need not waste them. The length of his work will, or should, depend
+upon the breadth of it; by which we mean that a certain fulness of
+treatment involves a certain length. For instance, one cannot
+reasonably hope to keep a story short if it is about several persons
+and involves a conflict of their characters or fates. That is the
+second necessity; the length must be planned in proportion to the
+breadth. But, thirdly, both length and breadth should be governed by
+the importance, the dignity, the substantial value, the business, the
+substance, the spiritual stuff, of which the projected book is to
+consist. Hence the writer of true literary conscience will put the
+first, as above named, last, and the last first: spiritual substance,
+then breadth, then length.
+
+In order to make fairly sure of these essentials, as well as for other
+reasons, the author should have a clear determination of all the main
+features of the structure he proposes to raise. Especially the bridge
+should not be itself begun until its builder knows very definitely
+where and how it is to reach the other shore; nothing between the
+beginning and the end is so important to be sure about from the
+beginning, as the end. There is a great difference among writers as
+to the sense of need for a complete preliminary framework on which to
+build. But beyond doubt many feeble, many abortive, results come of
+having too little preparatory framework, too slender a scenario, to
+use a playwright's word which authors and editors are borrowing more
+and more.
+
+It seems good that a literary artist should always write for himself.
+Yet, of course, he should write unselfishly; we may say he would do
+well always to aim at the entertainment of the noblest minds, even
+when he does not exhort their loftiest moods. But he certainly
+achieves much besides if, while he does these things, at the same time
+and in the same doing he entertains the great commonalty of readers.
+If he does this, and all the more if he has the rare genius to do all
+these in one, his books, we may almost say, _ought_ to go first
+through the magazines. If he wants them to do so, then it will be a
+godsend to himself as well as to the editors if he will lay his plans,
+as far as they have any arithmetical character (and they can have
+much), according to the magazines' mechanical exigencies. He should
+know just how much of any magazine page his own typewritten pages will
+occupy; how many of its own pages that magazine commonly allows to
+writings of the kind he proposes to offer--how many yearly, and how
+many monthly; and so on. It is well that he should know the best time
+of the magazine's business year in which to seek to arrange with
+them. To a certain degree magazines actually "lay in stock" for a
+coming season and after that, for a time, are languid buyers.
+
+Be it understood that these remarks are as impromptu as a letter, and
+are intended only as hints and pointers. Yet much as they leave
+unstated, let a word be said as to the relation of the author to his
+book after he and all the later artisans of it have done their several
+parts in its building, and it is built. The care of the edifice ought
+still to be, far more than it commonly is, in the author's hands. The
+publisher has the fortunes of hundreds of works to promote and keep in
+repair; the author has but his own. Even an author may say that any
+publisher is glad to have suggestions from any author as to plans for
+keeping the children of that author's own brain alive in the world.
+
+
+
+
+THE LITERARY AGENT
+
+By Paul R. Reynolds.
+
+
+The work of the literary agent in the building of a book may be
+roughly divided into two parts, first, in relation to the author, and
+second, in relation to the publisher. When the author has finished his
+manuscript, he brings it to the literary agent to be placed. The
+literary agent reads it and decides what house is most likely to
+publish such a book. He does not offer a book on Nervous Disorders to
+a house which never publishes that kind of book. He does not offer a
+sensational novel to a conservative house. He offers a book on
+Political Economy to a house which publishes that class of book and
+which is in touch with the people who buy books of that order. Among a
+number of houses which bring out books of any definite class, he can
+select the house that is most energetic in pushing its books, that has
+behind it a prestige and name which will help its publications, and
+which possesses the requisite skill to lay its wares before the public
+advantageously. The success of many a book has depended more on the
+shrewdness of the publisher in laying it before the public in
+attractive and seductive guise than either the public or the author
+often realize.
+
+If the publisher accepts the manuscript offered to him by the literary
+agent, the latter arranges terms with the publisher, making as good a
+business arrangement as all the conditions justify. He draws up the
+contract with the publisher, and after the book is published, he
+collects the royalties from the publisher as they fall due. He enables
+the author to avoid any house that has a reputation for sharp
+practices. Knowing the personnel of the different houses, he knows the
+proper man to approach in offering his book, and he is of aid to the
+author in blowing his trumpet for him, telling what his previous work
+has been, in a way that the author, sensitive as he often is, cannot
+properly do. In short, the agent takes off the author's shoulders all
+the business end of publishing, leaving him free to devote himself to
+his own proper vocation without the vexatious business worries which
+he finds all the more vexatious because he has not had any training or
+experience in coping with them.
+
+I think the literary agent can be, and as time goes on, will be, of
+increasing use to the publisher. The literary agent, if he understands
+his business, takes up no manuscript in which he does not believe.
+When he brings the publisher a manuscript, it is because he thinks
+there is money in such manuscript for the publisher, for the author,
+and as far as commission is concerned, for himself. While it is an
+advantage to the author that he should have the judgment of the agent,
+because the agent looks at any manuscript from a cold-blooded business
+point of view, it is also of advantage to the publisher to know that
+the agent, free from the confidence and perhaps the bias that the
+author has about his own wares, is offering him any individual
+manuscript because he (the agent) believes it will sell. The result is
+that the publisher gets to know that the agent won't offer him a
+manuscript that is not up to a certain standard, and which, even
+though it should in the end not prove suitable to this publisher's
+special list, must receive careful consideration. In this way the
+agent becomes of use to the publisher because he tries never to offer
+him anything that is mere trash or that simply wastes the publisher's
+time. Some time ago a publishing house wrote to an agent telling him
+they wanted a certain kind of novel for the next season, and
+describing, with a good deal of particularity, the kind of book they
+wanted. The agent, after thinking the matter over, submitted two
+manuscripts. The publisher considered them and accepted both. In such
+a case the agent had certainly been of great use to the publisher. He
+had given him what he was looking for, and had saved him the nuisance
+and the actual expense of reading through a large number of
+manuscripts before finding the right one.
+
+It may be admitted frankly that the agent is sometimes accused of
+asking more for his wares than they are worth. In reply to this
+accusation it may be said that asking is not getting, and the agent
+who asks more than the market justifies, and thereby spoils the
+chances of a satisfactory arrangement, is not serving the best
+interests of his client. On the other hand, he will get the best price
+obtainable in the market, taking into consideration the character of
+the publishing house, its prestige and ability in pushing books, and
+as he is offering and selling every day he can generally obtain a
+better price and make a better arrangement than the author can.
+Realizing that the author and publishers are partners in an enterprise
+whose success depends upon a frank and clear understanding, he will do
+his best to make such relations friendly and harmonious and to the
+mutual advantage of both parties to the contract, never forgetting,
+however, that his especial client is the author, and that it is his
+duty to represent the author's interests.
+
+One of the notable features of the times is the growth of magazines.
+The arrangement for the serialization of a long story in a magazine,
+the placing of short stories and articles in magazines, the selling of
+stories, articles, and books in England, and arranging the
+simultaneous issue in both countries,--all this involves an immense
+amount of detail which one has to encounter fully to realize.
+Sometimes, where an author is putting out a good many manuscripts, the
+complications are numerous and perplexing. In the case of one author
+living abroad whom we will call Smith, a book was arranged with a
+house A, and a second with a house B. The author was taken ill, could
+not finish the first book in time so that A had to postpone it till
+the next year, and this meant that B had to postpone his book. Then a
+publishing house took a story which the same author had sold direct to
+it for magazine publication, without reserving book rights, and
+brought such story out in book form. This meant another complication.
+After B had postponed his book twice the author produced another book
+which he thought better than the second book, and wished published
+before B's book. Four times B was asked to postpone his book and each
+time agreed to, though not without certain _quid pro quos_. All these
+matters the agent had to straighten out, while the author was living
+three thousand miles away.
+
+The agent can also be of use to the author because he looks at any
+manuscript in an objective rather than in a subjective way. The
+author, who has toiled and striven over the child of his brain,
+regards it as fathers generally regard their children. Sometimes he
+cannot see its faults, sometimes he misjudges its virtues. It is too
+much a part of himself to be regarded coldly and calmly. When the
+publisher makes an offer for a book the author may with hasty disdain
+wish to reject it as entirely inadequate, or he may wish to accept it
+with eager haste, so glad is he for the chance of seeing the book in
+print. In this state of hasty acceptance or hasty rejection, the agent
+can look upon an offer calmly and dispassionately, to be accepted or
+rejected as the author's best interests shall dictate. Then again, as
+time goes on, more and more authors must live at a distance from the
+great centres. Some of them live in the uttermost parts of the earth.
+One author wrote recently to his agent from the wilds of Africa,
+saying, "I have found a nicely secluded spot, surrounded by gorillas
+and chimpanzees." To such authors it is essential that they should
+have an agent who is in touch with the publishers who are publishing
+their works.
+
+Then again, the agent can be of use to the author in sparing him some
+of the bitterness that the author feels when his manuscript is
+rejected. Who that has read it can ever forget the story of how
+Hawthorne, while still struggling for success, submitted a collection
+of short stories to a publisher, and of how the publisher, not having
+much capital, laid the manuscript aside, intending to publish it when
+things were a little easier; and how Hawthorne, after months of dreary
+waiting, wrote an angry letter to the publisher, and when he got the
+manuscript back, in bitter, hopeless rage burned it up? Years
+afterward the publisher admitted that the manuscript contained some of
+the most exquisite work Hawthorne had ever written. This story
+emphasizes the intense sensitiveness of the author about his work.
+Often after two or three rejections he will give the manuscript up as
+hopeless and of no value, while it may be that he has only failed to
+find the house that is looking for that kind of book. An agent, if he
+has once taken the book up, does not drop it so quickly. Only recently
+an agent sold a book which had been declined by fifteen houses to the
+sixteenth. He is willing to persevere with a manuscript and with an
+author, in spite of rebuffs and discouragement, if he believes that
+the author has merit; and if he is willing to persevere with an author
+in the day of small things, he will reap his reward later on.
+
+In conclusion the writer believes that the agent, as he has tried to
+indicate, can perform a definite and valuable service to both author
+and publisher by helping the author to bring his wares to the man who
+will publish them most advantageously, and by obtaining for the author
+the prices that such wares are worth in the open market, and he can
+help the publisher by acting as a sifter and bringing before the
+publisher and editor manuscripts that are really worthy of
+consideration.
+
+
+
+
+THE LITERARY ADVISER
+
+By Francis W. Halsey.
+
+
+The position of literary adviser to a publishing house differs in its
+duties, according as the adviser may be employed in a house highly
+organized, or in one that is not. When the organization is such that
+the duties in the various departments are not well differentiated, the
+adviser's work will be likely to involve many things that properly
+belong to the manufacturing and advertising departments. These
+conditions, however, if they exist at all, will be found in the
+smaller houses, or in houses which, as to personnel, are undergoing
+reorganization; they are, and ought to be, exceptional.
+
+The adviser's actual duties should pertain almost exclusively to the
+manuscripts, and to the relations of the house with those who produce
+them. In this way, the adviser acts as an intermediary between the
+publisher and the author. This relation seems, on the surface, to be
+somewhat delicate, and it usually is confidential, but most men find
+the occupation an agreeable one. Authors as a class, so far from being
+an irritable race, will usually be found, at least in their relations
+to publishers, not only interesting men and women, but candid and
+reasonable human beings. Probably the most delightful rewards of the
+literary adviser's calling come from the opportunities it gives him to
+extend his friendships among charming people.
+
+Any house which is large enough to employ a literary adviser will
+probably receive, in the course of a year, at least one thousand
+unsolicited manuscripts, which will come from every part of the
+country. They will naturally be of widely varying degrees of
+excellence; quite two-thirds of them will be fiction, and a
+considerable number will bear convincing evidence of having already
+been for some time in search of a publisher. Testimony from various
+houses has at different times been given as to the percentage of
+volunteered manuscripts which eventually find acceptance. It does not
+materially vary, being from one to two per cent. Some years ago, in
+order to test this estimate, I went carefully over the unsolicited
+manuscripts which had reached a large publishing house during a period
+of several months, and found that exactly one and one-half per cent of
+them had been published.
+
+This small showing should not imply that the remaining ninety-eight or
+ninety-nine per cent could in fairness be called worthless. With
+occasional exceptions, rejected manuscripts have been prepared with
+considerable intelligence; knowledge of themes is shown in them;
+there is some real literary skill in evidence, and particular care has
+been taken to secure legibility, about nine-tenths of them being in
+typewritten form. What they lack is certain other qualities more vital
+in the formation of a judgment as to their availability. In the case
+of fiction, they lack novelty of treatment, or for some other reason
+fail to be interesting, and in general there has not been infused into
+them the real breath of life. When they deal with serious subjects,
+they often cover ground which has been better covered before, or they
+attempt to achieve the not-worth-while, or the impossible.
+
+There is always a small number of manuscripts against which no other
+objection can be raised than that it would be impossible to secure
+from the public an adequate return in sales for the expenditure
+necessary in the manufacture and distribution of the books. One of the
+pathetic sides of the publishing business is the fact that manuscripts
+of this kind cannot oftener, in this day and generation, secure the
+amount of attention they deserve from the reading public. When a sale
+of one or two thousand copies would be necessary to make good the cost
+of publication, the publisher is confronted with the fact that he
+could not secure a sale exceeding five hundred. Indeed, when one
+considers the almost certain fate that awaits them, pathos of the most
+genuine kind is closely associated with volunteered manuscripts--those,
+I mean, which come from new writers. Hardly any form of endeavor to
+which educated minds devote themselves should more often awaken
+sympathetic feeling. Those who produce them almost always have their
+rewards far to seek, and seeking will not find them, and yet they
+"wrought in sad sincerity."
+
+The public is familiar with stories of successful books which, in the
+course of their peregrinations, were several times rejected by
+publishers. This, doubtless, has been the experience of all authors
+who have made notable successes with first books, and it doubtless
+always will be the experience of new authors. But along with this we
+must set down the further, but consoling fact, that probably no
+meritorious manuscript, possessing the possibilities of a great sale,
+ever yet failed ultimately to find a publisher. The best proof of this
+seems to be the absence of any notable instance of a book which, after
+being rejected by all the regular houses, finally was brought out
+privately, or at the author's expense, and then made a hit.
+
+It is a common impression that manuscripts are not carefully read in
+publishing houses. Again and again has this fiction been exploded by
+houses whose word should be accepted as final, but it now and then
+lifts up its head as if untouched before. Of course there are
+manuscripts which no one ever reads completely through from beginning
+to end, chapter by chapter, and page by page, simply because it has
+been found not to be necessary to do so. Every conscientious reader,
+however,--and most readers known to me have been nothing if not
+conscientious,--reads at least far enough into a manuscript to learn
+if there be anything in it that in the least degree is promising. He
+understands full well the danger of overlooking a meritorious work,
+and experience has taught him to be careful. Moreover, he is usually
+fired with the worthy ambition to make a discovery; but he acts
+according to his light only, and hence makes mistakes. The conditions
+in which his work is done, however, preclude the possibility of
+careless reading.
+
+It is doubtless true--indeed, I believe the records of every
+publishing house in the country will sustain this statement--that
+while no house has failed at some time in its career to reject at
+least one manuscript that was afterwards a highly successful book,
+mistakes of this kind have been extremely few; whereas the mistakes
+made by the same houses in accepting manuscripts that were afterward
+found to be unprofitable have been numerous. A further fact, which is
+seldom borne in mind, although it ought always to be remembered in any
+discussion of literary success, is that highly successful books
+usually bring to their publishers as much surprise as they do to any
+one else. This is distinctly true of novels by new writers, whose
+"big-sellers" have seldom or never been anticipated. It is well known
+in the trade that at least two, and probably a half-dozen, books
+highly successful during the past ten years, and all the works of new
+writers, were sent to press for the first edition, with a printing
+order for only two thousand copies.
+
+The public has gotten very much into the habit of judging the fortunes
+of a publishing house by the successful fiction which it puts forth,
+and this is also true of many men in the trade, whose means of knowing
+better ought to be ample. Probably the literary gossip prevalent in
+newspapers and periodicals is largely responsible for this habit. The
+facts are, however, that, from these books alone, no publishing house
+in this country is, or could be, well sustained. Unless there be in
+the background some other publishing enterprise that is producing
+constant revenue from year to year, mere fiction will accomplish
+little to make or save the publisher. The real sources of stability
+lie elsewhere, far beyond the ken of the superficial observer, and
+they are very commonly overlooked. In one instance, this mainstay is
+religious books; in another a cyclopaedia; in another medical books, or
+educational; in another a dictionary; in another a periodical; and
+fortunate the house that has not one, but two or three, such sources
+of prosperity.
+
+It might be set down as an axiomatic statement that no large
+publishing house in this country could possibly live exclusively from
+what are known as miscellaneous books, by which is meant current
+fiction and other ephemeral publications. The worst thing about such
+books is that they create no assets; their life is short, and once it
+is ended, the plates have value only as old metal. A house, therefore,
+in publishing this class of books finds that each season it must begin
+all over again the work of creating business for itself. Books of the
+more substantial kind, however, whether they be religious,
+educational, scientific, medical, or in other senses books of
+reference, do not perish with the passing of a season. Once the right
+kinds have been found, they are good for at least ten years, and not
+infrequently for a generation.
+
+But this is wandering somewhat away from the subject of the literary
+adviser. His duties primarily are to preserve and to create good-will
+from authors toward the house which employs him, for that good-will is
+an asset of the first importance to a publishing house. Other kinds of
+good-will at the same time are essential to its fortunes,--notably the
+good-will of the bookseller and that of the book buyer,--but behind
+these, and primarily as the source of these, lies the good-will of the
+author. Houses now known to be the most prosperous in this country
+possess this good-will in abundance. So, too, the houses which are
+destined to much longer life are those which, by all legitimate
+means, shall seek to preserve and increase that good-will. Equally
+true is it, that the houses which in future shall fail will be those
+which do not cultivate and cherish the good-will of authors as the
+most valuable asset they can ever hope to possess.
+
+It is because of this possession that a publisher gets an author's
+book. It was by this means that he got the books he already has, and
+by this will he get those which will make him successful in the
+future. His books being good, it is through them that the bookseller's
+good-will is acquired, and through them also that the publisher will
+secure the good-will of the book buyer. No wiser words on this subject
+have been uttered in our generation than those which may be found,
+here and there, in "A Publisher's Confession," which I hope was
+written, as reputed, by Walter H. Page, for it is certainly sound
+enough and sane enough to be his:--
+
+     "The successful publisher sustains a relation to the
+     successful author that is not easily transferable. It is a
+     personal relation. A great corporation cannot take a real
+     publisher's place in his attitude to the author he serves."
+
+     "Every great publishing house has been built on the strong
+     friendships between writers and publishers. There is in
+     fact, no other sound basis to build on; for the publisher
+     cannot do his highest duty to any author whose work he does
+     not appreciate and with whom he is not in sympathy. Now,
+     when a man has an appreciation of your work, and sympathy
+     for it, he wins you. This is the simplest of all
+     psychological laws,--the simplest of all laws of friendship,
+     and one of the soundest."
+
+     "Mere printers and salesmen have not often built publishing
+     houses. For publishing houses have this distinction over
+     most other commercial institutions--they rest on the
+     friendship of the most interesting persons in the world, the
+     writers of good books."
+
+     "And--in all the noisy babble of commercialism--the writers
+     of our own generation who are worth most on a publisher's
+     list respond to the true publishing personality as readily
+     as writers did before the day of commercial methods. All the
+     changes that have come into the profession have not, after
+     all, changed its real character, as it is practised on its
+     higher levels. And this rule will hold true--that no
+     publishing house can win and keep a place on the highest
+     level that does not have at least one man who possesses this
+     true publishing personality."
+
+These are golden words. Men who knew them as self-evident truths laid
+the foundations, and in a few instances reared the superstructures, of
+the most famous publishing houses known to modern literature. Let us
+in part call the roll, restricting it to the dead: James T. Fields,
+the first Charles Scribner, George P. Putnam, Fletcher Harper, William
+H. Appleton, Daniel Macmillan, and the second John Murray. These men
+were more than publishers, adding as they did to that vocation the
+duties of the literary adviser, and becoming the ablest of their kind.
+Well may the literary adviser of our day, who is seldom himself a
+publisher, read the story of their lives and take heart from it in the
+discharge of his own duties.
+
+
+
+
+THE MANUFACTURING DEPARTMENT
+
+By Lawton L. Walton.
+
+
+The manufacture of a book consists primarily of the processes of
+typography,[1] or type composition, or the setting up of
+type--presswork or printing--photo-engraving or other methods of
+reproduction--designing--die-cutting--and binding, all of which are
+involved in transforming a manuscript into the completed book as it
+reaches the reader.
+
+                   [Footnote 1: The word "typographer" is used to
+                   differentiate between the compositor and the
+                   printer, the latter being the one who does the
+                   presswork.]
+
+In the machinery of a modern publishing house the manufacturing man is
+the person who follows these processes in their devious volutions and
+evolutions, until the finished production comes from the binder's
+hands.
+
+After a manuscript has been accepted by a publishing house, it is
+turned over to the manufacturing man with such general instructions
+regarding the make-up of the book, as may have been considered or
+discussed with the author, who invariably and sometimes unfortunately,
+has some preconceived notion of what his book should look like.
+
+The manufacturing man then selects what he considers a suitable style
+and size of type and size of letter-press page for the book, and sends
+the manuscript to the typographer with instructions to set up a few
+sample pages, and to make an estimate of the number of pages that the
+book will make, so as to verify his own calculations in this respect.
+
+If these sample pages do not prove satisfactory, others are set up,
+until a page is arrived at finally that will meet all the requirements
+that the publisher deems necessary. This is then invariably submitted
+to the author for his approval.
+
+This detail settled, the typographer is now instructed to proceed with
+the composition and to send proofs to the author. Sometimes a book is
+set up at once in page form but more often first proofs are sent out
+in galley strips, on which the author makes his corrections before the
+matter is apportioned into pages; another proof in page form is sent
+to the author on the return of which the typographer casts the
+electrotype plates from which the book is printed, unless, as in rare
+instances, the book is to be printed from the type, when no
+electrotype plates are made.
+
+The manufacturing man keeps in touch with this work in its various
+stages as it proceeds, and as soon as the number of pages that the
+book will make can definitely be determined, he places an order for
+the paper on which it is to be printed.
+
+Meanwhile, if the book is to be illustrated, an illustrator must be
+engaged, and furnished with a set of early proofs of the book from
+which to select the points or situations to illustrate. When the
+drawings are finally approved they are carefully looked over, marked
+to show the sizes at which they are to be reproduced, and sent to the
+engraver for reproduction.
+
+Upon receipt of the reproductions from the engraver, the proofs are
+carefully compared with the originals, and if the work has been
+satisfactorily performed, the cuts are sent to the typographer or the
+printer for insertion in their proper places in the plates or type
+matter of the book.
+
+The matter of the paper on which the book is to be printed has now to
+be considered: First, the size of the page, _i.e._ the apportionment
+of the margins around the page of letter-press, is decided. Second,
+the quality of paper to be used, and the surface or finish is then
+selected; and finally, the bulk or thickness that the book must be, to
+make a volume of proper proportions, is determined. The paper is then
+ordered, to be delivered to the printer who will print the book.
+
+Time was when paper was made by hand in certain fixed sizes, and the
+size of the book was determined by the number of times the sheet of
+paper was folded, and the letter-press page was adapted to the size
+of the paper. In these days of machinery, when paper can be made in
+any size of sheet desired, the process is reversed: the size of the
+letter-press page is determined and the size of the sheet of paper
+adapted thereto. Upon receipt of the paper the printer sends a
+full-sized dummy of it to the manufacturing man so that he may compare
+it with the order that was given to the paper dealer. The book is then
+put to press, and as soon as the printing has been completed, the
+printed sheets are delivered to the binder.
+
+If the book is to have a decorative cover, a designer has been
+employed to furnish a suitable cover design. When the design has been
+approved, it is turned over to the die cutter to cut the brass dies
+used by the binder in stamping the design on the cover of the book.
+
+The dies when finished are sent with the design to the binder to be
+copied. He stamps off some sample covers until the result called for
+by the designer has been attained and is then ready to proceed with
+the operation of binding the book, as soon as the printed sheets have
+been delivered to him from the printer.
+
+The binder is usually supplied by the printer with a small number of
+advance copies of the book, before the complete run of the sheets has
+been delivered. These advance copies are bound up at once and
+delivered to the manufacturing man so that any faults or errors may
+be caught and improvements be made before the entire edition of the
+book is bound.
+
+Printed paper wrappers for the book have been made and supplied to the
+binder for wrapping each copy, and as soon as the books are bound,
+they are wrapped and delivered at the publisher's stock rooms.
+
+The manufacturing man sees that early copies of each new book, for
+copyright purposes, are furnished to the proper department that
+attends to that detail, and that early copies also are supplied to the
+publicity department, to place with editors for special or advance
+reviews.
+
+The manufacturing man also provides the travelling representatives of
+his house with adequate dummies (_i.e._ partly completed copies) of
+all new books as soon as the important details of their make-up have
+been decided.
+
+This brief outline covers all of the steps in the process of the
+evolution of a book. Reams, however, could be devoted to the
+innumerable details that interweave and overlap each other with which
+the manufacturing man has to contend, when, as is often the case in
+our larger publishing houses, he has from forty to fifty books, and
+sometimes more, in process of manufacture at one time. I know of no
+man to whom disappointment comes more often than to him,--from the
+delays due to causes wholly unavoidable, to the blunders of stupid
+workmen and the broken promises of others; but these are all
+forgotten when the completed book, that he has worried over in its
+course through the press, in many instances for months, reaches his
+hands completed, "a thing of beauty."
+
+
+
+
+THE MAKING OF TYPE
+
+By L. Boyd Benton.
+
+
+Type are made of type metal, a mixture of tin, antimony, lead, and
+copper. As antimony expands in solidifying, advantage is taken of this
+quality, and the mixture is so proportioned that the expansion of the
+antimony will practically counteract the shrinkage of the other
+ingredients. The proportion of the mixture is varied according to the
+size and style of type and to the purposes for which it is used.
+
+Type are cast separately in moulds, a "matrix" at the end of the mould
+forming the letter or other character.
+
+Machinery is used very largely in modern type-making. The steps of its
+manufacture are in this order: drawing the design, producing of a
+metal pattern therefrom, placing the pattern either in the engraving
+machine to produce steel punches and type-metal originals, or in the
+matrix-engraving machine to produce matrices, adjusting the matrix to
+the mould, and finally, casting the type.
+
+The design for a new style of type is made generally with pen and
+ink, the capital letters being drawn about an inch high and the others
+in predetermined proportions. When the design is for a plain text
+letter, similar to that with which this book is printed, it is
+essential to have the letters proportioned and shaped in such a manner
+as will cause the least strain on the eye in reading, and, at the same
+time, produce a pleasing effect when the page is viewed as a whole.
+When the printed page conveys information to the reader, without
+attracting attention to itself, it is ideal.
+
+While this is true in regard to a design for a text letter, the design
+for a display type is often made to attract attention, not only to
+itself, but to what it proclaims, by its boldness and beauty and
+sometimes even by its ugliness.
+
+After the design has been drawn, it is placed in a "delineating
+machine," where an enlarged outline pencil copy, or tracing, is made,
+so large that all errors are easily seen and corrected. New designs
+may, however, be drawn in outline by hand on the enlarged scale, thus
+rendering unnecessary both the pen-and-ink drawing and the tracing.
+
+With the aid of the delineating machine, the operator, besides being
+able to produce an accurately enlarged outline pencil tracing of a
+design, is also enabled, by various adjustments, to change the form of
+the pencil tracing in such a manner that it becomes proportionately
+more condensed or extended, and even italicized or back-sloped. That
+is, from a single design, say Gothic, pencil tracings can be made
+condensed, extended, italicized, and back-sloped, as well as an
+enlarged facsimile.
+
+The next operation consists in placing the enlarged outline pencil
+drawing in a machine which enables the operator to reproduce the
+outline drawing, reduced in size, on a metal plate, evenly covered
+with wax, with the line traced entirely through the wax. The plate is
+then covered with a thin layer of copper, electrically deposited, and
+is "backed up" with metal, and trimmed and finished, similar to an
+ordinary electrotype plate of a page of type. A copper-faced metal
+plate is thus produced, on which are the raised outlines of a letter.
+This is called the "pattern." From this pattern all regular type sizes
+may be cut. It determines the shape of the letter, but the size and
+variations from the pattern are determined later by the adjustments of
+the engraving machine in which it is used.
+
+The pattern is now sent to the engraving room. Machines have
+superseded the old-fashioned way of cutting punches and originals by
+hand, and they have enormously increased the production of new type
+faces. Whereas in the old days it took about eighteen months to bring
+out a new Roman face, or style of letters, in seven different sizes,
+to-day it can be done in about five weeks. The reason is that formerly
+only one artist, known as a punch-cutter, could work on a single face,
+and he had to cut all the sizes, otherwise there were noticeable
+differences in style. By machine methods, where all sizes can be cut
+simultaneously, it is only a question of having the requisite number
+of engraving machines.
+
+As to the quality of machine work, it is superior to hand work both in
+accuracy and uniformity. The artist formerly cut the punches, or
+originals, by hand under a magnifying glass, and the excellence of his
+work was really marvellous. However, when changing from one size to
+another, there were often perceptible variations in the shapes of the
+letters, or the sizes were not always evenly graded. By the machine
+method the workman uses the long end of a lever, as explained below,
+and has therefore a greater chance of doing accurate work. In addition
+to this, a rigid pattern forms the shape of the letter, and to it all
+sizes must conform.
+
+Another gain the machine has over hand-cutting is its greater range.
+When the old-time artist made an unusually small size of type for
+Bible use, he did it with great strain on his eyes and nerves. At any
+moment his tool might slip and spoil the work. With the machine, on
+the other hand, and with no physical strain whatever, experimental
+punches have been cut so small as to be legible only with a
+microscope--too small, in fact, to print. At present there are two
+styles of engraving machines employed,--one cutting the letter in
+relief,--called a "punch" if cut in steel, and an "original" if cut in
+type metal,--and the other cutting a letter in intaglio,--called a
+"matrix." Both machines are constructed on the principle of the lever,
+the long arm following the pattern, while the short arm moves either
+the work against the cutting tool, or the cutting tool against the
+work. The adjustments are such that the operator is enabled to engrave
+the letter proportionately more extended or condensed, and lighter or
+heavier in face, than the pattern. All these variations are necessary
+for the production of a properly graded modern series containing the
+usual sizes. In fact, on account of the laws of optics, which cannot
+be gone into here, only one size of a series is cut in absolutely
+exact proportion to the patterns.
+
+As it is impossible to describe these machines clearly without the aid
+of many diagrams and much technical language, only a brief description
+of their operation will be given.
+
+When the letters are to be engraved in steel, blocks or "blanks" are
+cut from soft steel and finished to the proper size. A blank is then
+fastened in the "holder," the machine for cutting the letter in relief
+adjusted to the proper leverage, and the pattern clamped to the "bed."
+The long arm of the lever, containing the proper "tracer" or follower,
+is moved by the operator around the outside of the pattern on the
+copper-faced metal plate, causing the blank to be moved by the
+shorter arm around and against a rotating cutting tool. This operation
+is repeated several times with different sizes of tracers and
+different adjustments to enable the cutting tool to cut at different
+depths, until finally a steel letter in relief is produced, engraved
+the reverse of the pattern and very much smaller. After being hardened
+and polished, this is called a steel punch, and, when driven into a
+flat piece of copper, it produces what is known as a "strike" or
+unfinished matrix.
+
+If in the same machine type metal is used for blanks, the resulting
+originals are placed in a "flask," or holder, and submerged in a bath,
+where they receive on the face of the letter a thick coating of
+nickel, electrically deposited. As soon as the deposit is of
+sufficient thickness, they are removed and the soft metal letters
+withdrawn, leaving a deep facsimile impression in the deposited metal,
+which also is an unfinished matrix.
+
+The machine for engraving a matrix in intaglio is operated in much the
+same manner as that for engraving a punch in relief. The same patterns
+are used, but the operator traces on the inside of the raised outline
+instead of on the outside. Besides following the outline, the operator
+guides the tracers over all the surface of the pattern within the
+outlines; otherwise the letter would appear in the matrix in outline
+only. The matrices are cut in steel and in watchmakers' nickel, and
+the work is so accurately done that about half the labor of finishing
+is saved.
+
+It will be noted from the foregoing that all three processes of
+engraving end in the production of an unfinished matrix.
+
+The adjusting of the matrix to the mould is technically called
+"fitting," and requires great skill. If type are cast from unfitted
+matrices, be the letters ever so cleverly designed and perfectly cut,
+when assembled in the printed page they will present a very ragged
+appearance. Some letters will appear slanting backward, others
+forward, some be above the line, others below; some will perforate the
+paper, while others will not print at all; the distances between the
+letters will everywhere be unequal, and some will print on but one
+edge. Indeed, a single letter may have half of these faults, but when
+the matrices are properly fitted, the printed page presents a smooth
+and even appearance.
+
+The mould for this purpose is made of hardened steel, and in it is
+formed the body of the type. The printing end is formed in the matrix.
+The mould is provided at one end with guides and devices for holding
+the matrix snugly against it while the type is being cast, and for
+withdrawing the matrix and opening the mould when the type is
+discharged. At the opposite end from the matrix is an opening through
+which the melted metal enters. The moulds are made adjustable so that
+each character is cast the proper width, the opening of course being
+wider for a "W" than for an "i." Only one mould is necessary for one
+size of type, and with it all the matrices for that size may be used.
+Commercially, however, it is often necessary to make several moulds of
+the same size in order to produce the requisite amount of type.
+
+After the adjustments are made, the casting of the type follows. Type
+are now cast in a machine which is automatic, after it is once
+adjusted to cast a given letter. The melted type metal is forced by a
+pump into the mould and the matrix, and when solidified, the type is
+ejected from the mould and moved between knives which trim all four
+sides. The type are delivered side by side on a specially grooved
+piece of wood, three feet long, called a "stick," on which they are
+removed from the machine for inspection. Type are cast at the rate of
+from ten to two hundred per minute, according to the size, the speed
+being limited only by the time it takes the metal to solidify. To
+accelerate this, a stream of cold water is forced through passages
+surrounding the mould, and a jet of cold air is blown against the
+outside.
+
+The automatic casting machine performs six different operations.
+Formerly, all of them, except the casting itself, were done by hand,
+and each type was handled separately, except in the operation of
+dressing, or the final finishing, where they were handled in lines of
+about three feet in length.
+
+After the type have been delivered to the inspector, they are examined
+under a magnifying glass and all imperfect type are thrown out. The
+perfect type are then delivered to "fonting" room, where they are
+weighed, counted, and put up in suitable packages in proper proportion
+of one letter with another, ready for the printer.
+
+Formerly the various sizes of type were indicated by names which had
+developed with the history of type making. It was a source of
+considerable annoyance to printers that these old standards were not
+accurate, and that two types of supposedly the same size, and sold
+under the same name, by different makers, varied so much that they
+could not be used side by side. Of recent years the "point" system, by
+which each size bears a proportionate relation to every other size,
+has done much to remedy this trouble, and now nearly all type is made
+on that basis. An American point is practically one seventy-second of
+an inch. Actually it is .013837 inch. It was based on the pica size
+most extensively in use in this country. This pica was divided into
+twelve equal parts and each part called a point. All the other sizes
+were made to conform to multiples of this point. The point is so near
+a seventy-second of an inch that printers frequently calculate the
+length of the pages by counting the lines, the basis being twelve
+lines of 6 point, nine lines of 8 point, eight lines of 9 point, and
+six lines of 12 point to the inch. This calculation is really quite
+accurate.
+
+The following table will show the old and new names for the various
+sizes:--
+
+  3-1/2 Point,      Brilliant.
+  4-1/2 Point,      Diamond.
+  5 Point,          Pearl.
+  5-1/2 Point,      Agate.
+  6 Point,          Nonpareil.
+  7 Point,          Minion.
+  8 Point,          Brevier.
+  9 Point,          Bourgeois.
+  10 Point,         Long Primer.
+  11 Point,         Small Pica.
+  12 Point,         Pica.
+  14 Point,         2-line Minion or English.
+  16 Point,         2-line Brevier.
+  18 Point,         Great Primer.
+  20 Point,         2-line Long Primer or Paragon.
+  22 Point,         2-line Small Pica.
+  24 Point,         2-line Pica.
+  28 Point,         2-line English.
+  30 Point,         5-line Nonpareil.
+  32 Point,         4-line Brevier.
+  36 Point,         2-line Great Primer.
+  40 Point,         Double Paragon.
+  42 Point,         7-line Nonpareil.
+  44 Point,         4-line Small Pica or Canon.
+  48 Point,         4-line Pica.
+  54 Point,         9-line Nonpareil.
+  60 Point,         5-line Pica.
+  72 Point,         6-line Pica.
+
+
+
+
+HAND COMPOSITION AND ELECTROTYPING
+
+By J. Stearns Cushing.
+
+
+The form of the book, the size of the type page, and the size and
+style of the type having been determined, the manuscript is handed to
+the foreman of the composing room, with all the collected directions
+in regard to it. He fills out a scheme of the work which tells the
+whole story,--somewhat as shown in illustration opposite page 42.
+
+Under the heading "Remarks," in the scheme shown, are noted general
+directions as to capitalization, punctuation, and spelling (whether
+Webster, Worcester, or English spelling--which means generally not
+much more than the insertion of the "u" in words like "favor,"
+"honor," etc., and the use of "s" instead of "z" in words like
+"recognize," "authorize," etc.). Sometimes these directions are given
+by the publisher, sometimes by the author, but more often by the
+superintendent or foreman of the printing-office. The office generally
+has a fairly well established system, which is followed in the absence
+of other orders. It is rarely the case that it is not the wisest
+course, if one is dealing with a reputable firm of printers, to leave
+all such details, except deciding the dictionary to be followed, to
+them. It is their business, and they will, if allowed, pursue a
+consistent and uniform plan, whereas few authors and fewer publishers
+are able, or take the pains, to do this. Too often the author has a
+few peculiar ideas as to punctuation or capitalization, which he
+introduces just frequently enough to upset the consistent plan of the
+printer. He will neither leave the responsibility to the latter nor
+will he assume it himself, and the natural result is a lack of
+uniformity which might have been avoided if the printer had been
+allowed to guide this part of the work without interference.
+
+The compositors who are to set the type are selected according to the
+difficulty of the matter in hand, and each one is given a few pages of
+the "copy," or manuscript. The portion thus given each compositor is
+called a "take," and its length is determined by circumstances. For
+instance, if time is an object, small takes are given, in order that
+the next step in the forwarding of the work may be started promptly
+and without the delay which would be occasioned by waiting for the
+compositor to set up a longer take.
+
+When the compositor has finished his take, the copy and type are
+passed to a boy, who "locks up" the type on the galley--a flat brass
+tray with upright sides on which the compositor has placed his
+type--and takes a proof of it upon a galley-or "roller"-press. This is
+the proof known as a "galley-proof," and is, in book work, printed on
+a strip of paper about 7 x 25 inches in size, leaving room for a
+generous margin to accommodate proof-readers' and authors'
+corrections, alterations, or additions.
+
+[Illustration: MEMORANDUM No.
+
+  Date: ____
+  Name and Address of Author: ____
+  Name and Address of Publisher: ____
+  Uniform with ____
+  Size of Page: ____
+  Type,--Old Style or Modern face: ____
+  Text in ____ leaded with ____
+  Foot-notes ____ in leaded with ____
+  Extract in ____ leaded with ____
+  Other Types: ____
+  Running Titles in ____
+  Left-hand Running Title: ____
+  Right-hand Running Title: ____
+
+  PROOFS to be sent as follows:
+
+  1st Rev. and Copy to ____
+  2d Rev. and Old Rev. to ____
+
+  (Put Changes of Orders as to Proofs in this column.)
+
+  F. Proofs: ____
+  When begun: ____ When to be completed: ____
+  REMARKS. ____]
+
+[Illustration: Example of a proof-read page of "Address at Gettysburg".]
+
+The galley-proof, with the corresponding copy, is then handed to the
+proof-reader, who is assisted by a "copy-holder" (an assistant who
+reads the copy aloud) in comparing it with the manuscript and marking
+typographical errors and departures from copy on its margin. Thence
+the proof passes back again to the compositor, who corrects the type
+in accordance with the proof-reader's markings. Opposite page 44 is a
+specimen of a page proof before correction and after the changes
+indicated have been made.
+
+New proofs are taken of the corrected galley, and these are revised by
+a proof-reader in order to be sure that the compositor has made all
+the corrections marked and to mark anew any he may have overlooked or
+wrongly altered. If many such occur, the proof is again passed to the
+compositor for further correction and the taking of fresh proofs. The
+reviser having found the proof reasonably correct, and having marked
+on its margin any noticed errors remaining, and also having "Queried"
+to the author any doubtful points to which it is desirable that the
+latter's attention should be drawn, the proof--known as the "first
+revise"--and the manuscript are sent to the author for his reading and
+correction or alteration.[2]
+
+                   [Footnote 2: If the book is to be illustrated, the
+                   author or publisher should be particular to
+                   indicate the position of all cuts by pasting proofs
+                   of them on the margin of the galley-proofs nearest
+                   the place desired. The time occupied by the
+                   "make-up" in "overrunning" matter for the insertion
+                   of cuts is charged as "author's time," and they can
+                   be inserted at less expense in the galley-proofs
+                   while making-up the type into pages than at any
+                   other time. All alterations, so far as practicable,
+                   for the same reason, should also be made in the
+                   galley-proofs, especially those which involve an
+                   increase or decrease in the amount of matter, since
+                   changes of this nature made in the page-proof
+                   necessitate the added expense of a rearrangement of
+                   the made-up pages of type.]
+
+On the return of the galley-proofs to the printer, the changes
+indicated on the margins are made by compositors selected for the
+purpose, and the galleys of type and the proofs are then turned over
+by them to the "make-up." The "make-up" inserts the cuts, divides the
+matter into page lengths, and adds the running titles and folios at
+the heads of the pages.
+
+At this stage the separate types composing the page are held in place
+and together by strong twine called "page cord," which is wound around
+the whole page several times, the end being so tucked in at the corner
+as to prevent its becoming unfastened prematurely. The page thus held
+together is quite secure against being "pied" if proper care is
+exercised in handling it, and it can be put on a hand-press and
+excellent proofs readily taken from it. A loosely tied page, however,
+may allow the letters to spread apart at the ends of the lines, or the
+type to get "off its feet," or may show lines slightly curved or
+letters out of alignment. The proof of a page displaying such
+conditions often causes the author, unlearned in printers' methods,
+much perturbation of mind and unnecessary fear that his book is going
+to be printed with these defects. These should in reality be no cause
+for worry, since by a later operation, that of "locking-up" the "form"
+in which the pages will be placed before they are sent to the
+electrotyping department, the types readily and correctly adjust
+themselves.
+
+Proofs of these twine-bound pages are taken on a hand-press, passed to
+the reviser for comparison with the galley-proofs returned by the
+author, and if the latter has expressed a wish to see a second revise
+of the proofs, they are again sent to him. For such a "second revise"
+and any further revises an extra charge is made. The proofs to which
+an author is regularly entitled are a duplicate set of the first
+revise, a duplicate set of "F"-proofs,--to be mentioned later,--and
+one set of proofs of the electrotype plates; though it may be added
+that the last is not at all essential and is seldom called for.
+
+Usually the author does not require to see another proof after the
+second revise, which he returns to the printer with his final changes
+and the direction that the pages may be "corrected and cast," that
+is, put into the permanent form of electrotype plates. Some authors,
+however, will ask to see and will make alterations in revise after
+revise, even to the sixth or seventh, and could probably find
+something to change in several more if the patience or pocketbook of
+the publisher would permit it. All the expense of overhauling,
+correcting, and taking additional proofs of the pages is charged by
+the printer as "author's time." It is possible for an author to make
+comparatively few and simple changes each time he receives a new
+revise, but yet have a much larger bill for author's changes than
+another who makes twice or thrice as many alterations at one time on
+the galley-proof, and only requires another proof in order that he may
+verify the correctness of the printer's work. The moral is obvious.
+
+After the pages have been cast, further alterations, while entirely
+possible, are quite expensive and necessarily more or less injurious
+to the plates.
+
+The author having given the word to "cast," the pages of type are laid
+on a smooth, level table of iron or marble called an "imposing stone."
+They are then enclosed--either two or three or four pages together,
+according to their size--in iron frames called "chases," in which they
+are squarely and securely "locked up," the type having first been
+levelled down by light blows of a mallet on a block of smooth, hard
+wood called a "planer." This locking-up of the pages in iron frames
+naturally corrects the defects noted in the twine-bound pages, and not
+only brings the type into proper alignment and adjustment, but
+prevents the probability of types becoming displaced or new errors
+occurring through types dropping out of the page and being wrongly
+replaced.
+
+When the locking-up process is completed, the iron chase and type
+embraced by it is called a "form." A proof of this form is read and
+examined by a proof-reader with the utmost care, with a view to
+eliminating any remaining errors or defective types or badly adjusted
+lines, and to making the pages as nearly typographically perfect as
+possible. It is surprising how many glaring errors, which have eluded
+all readers up to this time, are discovered by the practised eye of
+the final proof-reader.
+
+The form having received this most careful final reading, the proof is
+passed back to the "stone-hands"--those who lock up and correct the
+forms--for final correction and adjustment, after which several more
+sets of proofs are taken, called "F"-proofs (variously and correctly
+understood as standing for "final," "file," or "foundry" proofs). A
+set of F-proofs is sent to the author to keep on file, occasionally
+one is sent to the publisher, and one set is always retained in the
+proof-room of the printing-office. These proofs are characterized by
+heavy black borders which enclose each page, and which frequently
+render nervous authors apprehensive lest their books are to appear in
+this funereal livery. These black borders are the prints of the
+"guard-lines," which, rising to the level of the type, form a
+protection to the pages and the plates in their progress through the
+electrotyping department; but before the plates are finished up and
+made ready for the pressroom, the guard-lines, which have been moulded
+with the type, are removed.
+
+After several sets of F-proofs have been taken, the form is carried to
+the moulding or "battery" room of the electrotyping department, where
+it leaves its perfect impress in the receptive wax. Thence it will
+later be returned to the composing room and taken apart and the type
+distributed, soon to be again set up in new combinations of letters
+and words. The little types making a page of verse to-day may do duty
+to-morrow in a page of a text-book in the higher mathematics.
+
+After the type form has been warmed by placing it upon a steam table,
+an impression of it is taken in a composition resembling wax which is
+spread upon a metal slab to the thickness of about one-twelfth of an
+inch. Both the surface of the type and of the wax are thoroughly
+coated with plumbago or black lead, which serves as a lubricant to
+prevent the wax from adhering to the type.
+
+As the blank places in the form would not provide sufficient depth in
+the plate, it is necessary to build them up in the wax mould by
+dropping more melted wax in such places to a height corresponding to
+the depth required in the plate, which is, of course, the reverse of
+the mould, and will show corresponding depressions wherever the mould
+has raised parts. If great care is not taken in this operation of
+"building-up," wax is apt to flow over into depressions in the mould,
+thereby effacing from it a part of the impression, and the plate
+appears later without the letters or words thus unintentionally
+blotted out. The reviser of the plate-proofs must watch carefully for
+such cases.
+
+The mould is now thoroughly brushed over again with a better quality
+of black lead than before, and this furnishes the necessary metallic
+surface without which the copper would not deposit. Then it is
+"stopped out" by going over its edges with a hot iron, which melts the
+wax, destroys the black-lead coating, and confines the deposit of
+copper to its face.
+
+After carefully clearing the face of the mould of all extraneous
+matter by a stream of water from a force-pump, it is washed with a
+solution of iron filings and blue vitriol which forms a primary copper
+facing. It is then suspended by a copper-connecting strip in a bath
+containing a solution of sulphate of copper, water, and sulphuric
+acid. Through the instrumentality of this solution, and the action of
+a current of electricity from a dynamo, copper particles separate
+from sheets of copper (called "anodes," which are also suspended in
+the bath) and deposit into the face of the mould, thus exactly
+reproducing the elevations and depressions of the form of type or
+illustrations of which the mould is an impression. After remaining in
+the bath about two hours, when the deposit of copper should be about
+as thick as a visiting card, the mould is taken from the bath and the
+copper shell removed from the wax by pouring boiling hot water upon
+it. A further washing in hot lye, and a bath in an acid pickle,
+completely removes every vestige of wax from the shell. The back of
+the shell is now moistened with soldering fluid and covered with a
+layer of tin-foil, which acts as a solder between the copper and the
+later backing of lead.
+
+The shells are now placed face downward in a shallow pan, and melted
+lead is poured upon them until of a sufficient depth; then the whole
+mass is cooled off, and the solid lead plate with copper face is
+removed from the pan and carried to the finishing room, where it is
+planed down to a standard thickness of about one-seventh of an inch.
+The various pages in the cast are sawed apart, the guard-lines
+removed, side and foot edges bevelled, head edge trimmed square, and
+the open or blank parts of the plate lowered by a routing machine to a
+sufficient depth to prevent their showing later on the printed sheet.
+
+Then a proof taken from the plates is carefully examined for
+imperfections, and the plates are corrected or repaired accordingly,
+and are now ready for the press.
+
+Although, owing to the expense and to the fact that the plate is more
+or less weakened thereby, it is desirable to avoid as much as possible
+making alterations in the plates, they can be made, and the following
+is the course generally pursued. If the change involves but a letter
+or two, the letters in the plate are cut out and new type letters are
+inserted; but if the alteration involves a whole word or more, it is
+inadvisable to insert the lead type, owing to its being softer and
+less durable than the copper-faced plate, and it will therefore soon
+show more wear than the rest of the page; and so it is customary to
+reset and electrotype so much of the page as is necessary to
+incorporate the proposed alteration, and then to substitute this part
+of the page for the part to be altered, by cutting out the old and
+soldering in the new piece, which must of course exactly correspond in
+size.
+
+As a patched plate is apt at any time to go to pieces on the press,
+and may destroy other plates around it, or may even damage the press
+itself, it is generally considered best to cast a new plate from the
+patched one. This does not, however, apply to plates in which only
+single letters or words have been inserted, but to those which have
+been cut apart their whole width for the insertion of one or more
+lines.
+
+The plates having been finally approved, they are made up in groups
+(or "signatures") of sixteen, and packed in strong boxes for future
+storage. Each box generally contains three of these groups, or
+forty-eight plates, and is plainly marked with the title of the book
+and the numbers of the signatures contained therein.
+
+The longevity of good electrotype plates is dependent upon the care
+with which they are handled and the quality of paper printed from
+them; but with smooth book paper and good treatment it is entirely
+possible to print from them a half million impressions without their
+showing any great or material wear.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION BY THE LINOTYPE MACHINE
+
+By Frederick J. Warburton.
+
+
+The Linotype, pronounced by _London Engineering_ "the most wonderful
+machine of the century," was not the product of a day. Its creator,
+whose early training had never touched the printer's art, was
+fortunately led to the study of that art, through the efforts of
+others, whose education had prepared them to look for a better method
+of producing print than that which had been in use since the days of
+Gutenberg; but his invention abolished at one stroke composition and
+distribution; introduced for the first time the line, instead of the
+letter, as the unit of composition; brought into the art the idea of
+automatically and instantly producing by a keyboard solid lines of
+composed and justified type, to be once used and then melted down;
+rendered it possible to secure for each issue new and sharp faces;
+abolished the usual investment for type; cheapened the cost of
+standing matter; removed all danger of "pieing," and at the same time
+reduced greatly the cost of composition. The story is an interesting
+one.
+
+In the autumn of 1876, Charles T. Moore, a native of Virginia,
+exhibited to a company of Washington reporters a printing machine upon
+which he had been working for many years, and which he believed to be
+then substantially complete. It was a machine of very moderate
+dimensions, requiring a small motive power, and which bore upon a
+cylinder in successive rows the characters required for printed
+matter. By the manipulation of finger keys, while the cylinder was
+kept in continuous forward motion, the characters were printed in
+lithographic ink upon a paper ribbon, in proper relation to each
+other; this ribbon was afterwards cut into lengths, arranged in the
+form of a page, "justified," to a certain extent, by cutting between
+and separating the words, and then transferred to a lithographic
+stone, from which the print was made. Such print was not, of course,
+of the highest character, but it was a beginning; and the machines
+were used in Washington and New York, mainly in the transcription of
+stenographic notes taken in law cases and in the proceedings of
+legislative committees. A number of these machines was built, but
+mechanical difficulties became so frequent that the parties interested
+resolved, very wisely, before proceeding to build upon a large scale,
+to put the machine into the hands of a thorough mechanical expert, so
+that it might be tried out and a determination reached as to whether
+or not it was a commercially practical one. At the head of the little
+company of men who nurtured this enterprise and contributed most
+largely by their labors and means to its development, were James O.
+Clephane, a well-known law and convention reporter, and Andrew Devine,
+then the Senate reporter of the Associated Press. In their search for
+an expert, a Baltimore manufacturer named Hahl, who had constructed
+some of these machines, was consulted, and upon his recommendation his
+cousin, Ottmar Mergenthaler, was selected to undertake the work, and
+thus the future inventor of the Linotype was discovered.
+
+Mergenthaler was born in 1854, in Wuertemberg, Germany, had been a
+watchmaker, and at this time was employed upon the finer parts of the
+mechanical work done in Hahl's shop. The contract was that
+Mergenthaler was to give his services at a rate of wages considerably
+beyond what he was then receiving, and Hahl was to charge a reasonable
+price for the use of his shop and the cost of material. The task
+undertaken, however, proved to be a far larger one than had been
+anticipated, and the means of the promoters were exhausted long before
+the modifications and improvements continually presented had been
+worked out. The circle of contributors was therefore necessarily
+widened, and indeed that process went on for years, enough, could they
+have been foreseen, to have dismayed and disheartened those who were
+there "in the beginning." Mergenthaler and Moore, assisted by the
+practical suggestions of Clephane and Devine, continued to work upon
+the problem for about two years, by which time the lithographic
+printing machine had become one which indented the characters in a
+papier-mache strip, and this being cut up and adjusted upon a flat
+surface in lines, the way was prepared for casting in type metal. The
+next step of importance was the production of the "bar indenting
+machine," a machine which carried a series of metal bars, bearing upon
+their edges male printing characters, the bars being provided with
+springs for "justifying" purposes. The papier-mache matrix lines
+resulting from pressure against the characters were secured upon a
+backing sheet, over this sheet was laid a gridiron frame containing a
+series of slots, and into these slots type metal was poured by hand to
+form slugs bearing the characters from which to print. This system was
+immediately followed by a machine which cast the slugs automatically,
+one line at a time, from the matrix sheets.
+
+It was in this work that Mergenthaler received the education which
+resulted in his great invention and in due time he presented his plans
+for a machine which was known as the "Band" machine. In this machine
+the characters required for printing were indented in the edges of a
+series of narrow brass bands, each band containing a full alphabet,
+and hanging, with spacers, side by side in the machine. The bands
+tapered in thickness from top to bottom, the characters being arranged
+upon them in the order of the width-space which they occupied. By
+touching the keys of a keyboard similar to a typewriter, the bands
+dropped successively, bringing the characters required into line at a
+given point; a casting mechanism was then brought in contact with this
+line of characters, molten metal forced against it through a mould of
+the proper dimensions, and a slug with a printing surface upon its
+face was thus formed. This was recognized as a great advance and was
+hailed with delight by the now largely increased company. The
+necessary funds were provided and the building of the new machine
+undertaken. But Mergenthaler continued active, and before a second of
+the "Band" machines could be built, he had devised a plan for dealing
+with the letters by means of independent matrices. These matrices were
+pieces of brass measuring 1-1/4 inches by 3/4 of an inch and of the
+necessary thickness to accommodate the character, which it bore upon
+its edge in intaglio; they were stored in the newly devised machine in
+vertical copper tubes, from the bases of which they were drawn, as
+required, by a mechanism actuated by finger keys, caught by the "ears"
+as they dropped upon a miniature railway, and by a blast of air
+carried one by one to the assembling point. Wedge spacers being
+dropped in between the words, the line was carried to the front of the
+mould, where "justification" and casting took place.
+
+Success seemed at last to have been reached, and now the problem was,
+first, how to obtain means to build machines, and second, how to
+persuade printers to use them. The first of these was the easier,
+although no slight task; the second was one of great difficulty. The
+field for the machine then in sight was the newspaper, and the
+newspaper must appear daily. The old method of printing from founder's
+type, set for the most part by hand, was doing the work; a
+revolutionary method by which the type was to be made and set by
+machine, although promising great economies, was a dangerous
+innovation and one from which publishers naturally shrank. They could
+see the fate which awaited them if they adopted the new system and it
+proved unsuccessful. However, a number of newspaper men, after a
+careful investigation of the whole subject, determined to make the
+trial; and the leaders of these were Whitelaw Reid of the _New York
+Tribune_, Melvin Stone of the _Chicago News_ (to whom succeeded Victor
+F. Lawson), and Walter N. Haldeman of the _Louisville Courier-Journal_.
+Into these offices, then, the Linotype went. To Mr. Reid belongs the
+honor of giving the machine a name--line of type--Linotype, and of
+first using it to print a daily newspaper. Of the machine last
+described, two hundred were built, but before they were half marketed,
+the ingenious Mergenthaler presented a new form, which showed so
+great an advance that it was perforce adopted, and the machines then
+in use, although they gave excellent results, were in course of time
+displaced. The new machine did away with the air blast, the matrices
+being carried to the assembling point by gravity from magazines to be
+hereafter described, and the distributing elevator was displaced by an
+"arm" which lifted the lines of matrices, after the casting process,
+to the top of the machine to be returned to their places.
+
+The improvements made in the Linotype since Mergenthaler's time (who
+died in 1899 at the early age of forty-five) have been very great;
+indeed, almost a new machine has been created in doing what was
+necessary to adapt it to the more and more exacting work which it was
+called upon to perform in the offices of the great American book
+publishers. These improvements have been largely the work of, or the
+following out of suggestions made by, Philip T. Dodge, the patent
+attorney of the parties interested in the enterprise from the
+beginning, and later the president of the Mergenthaler Linotype
+Company. They went on year after year under the supervision of a corps
+of gifted mechanical experts, the chief of whom was John R. Rogers,
+the inventor of the Typograph, until from the machine of Mergenthaler,
+supplying through its ninety keys as many characters, a machine
+appeared yielding three hundred and sixty different characters from
+the like keyboard. The magazines, too, were capable of being charged
+with matrices representing any face from Agate (5-point) to English
+(14-point), and even larger faces for display advertising and for
+initial letters, by special contrivances which cannot be described
+without carrying this article beyond reasonable limits. Among the
+ingenious devices added are: the Rogers systems of setting rule and
+figure tables, box heads, etc.; the reversal of the line so as to set
+Hebrew characters in their proper relation; the production of
+printers' rules of any pattern; the making of ornamental borders; a
+device for the casting of the same line an indefinite number of times
+from one setting. The machine was also greatly simplified in its
+construction.
+
+The amount of money expended in the enterprise before the point of
+profit was reached was very great; it aggregated many millions of
+dollars; but the promoters had faith in the success of the machine and
+taxed themselves ungrudgingly. Among those who contributed largely to
+the ultimate result by substantial aid and wise counsel in the conduct
+of the business the name of D. O. Mills should be particularly
+mentioned.
+
+It was Mergenthaler's great good fortune to have had as his supporters
+many men of the character of those mentioned above, and in thus being
+relieved of all financial anxiety and permitted to work out thoroughly
+and without delay every idea that suggested itself either to him or
+to the ingenious men who had been drawn into the enterprise. His
+profits, too, were proportionate to the company's success, and
+although he did not live to enjoy them for his natural term of years,
+he had the satisfaction of knowing that a handsome income would
+continue to flow into the hands of his wife and children.
+
+The company's principal works are situated in the Borough of Brooklyn,
+New York City, and have a space devoted to manufacturing purposes of
+about one hundred and sixty thousand square feet. Approximately one
+hundred Linotypes, besides a large number of smaller machines and a
+vast quantity of supplies, are turned out from there every month; but
+the growing demand from abroad for American-built machines has led to
+the consideration of plans for an entirely new establishment, to be
+built in accordance with the latest modes of factory construction.
+About ten thousand Linotypes are now in daily use.
+
+The machine as at present built is shown in part by the accompanying
+cut, and its operation may be briefly described as follows:--
+
+The Linotype machine contains, as its fundamental elements, several
+hundred single matrices, which consist of flat plates of brass having
+on one edge a female letter or matrix proper, and in the upper end a
+series of teeth, used for selecting and distributing them to their
+proper places in the magazine. These matrices are held in the
+magazine of the machine, a channel of it being devoted to each
+separate character, and there are also channels which carry quads of
+definite thickness for use in tabular work, etc. The machine is so
+organized that on manipulating the finger keys, matrices are selected
+in the order in which their characters are to appear in print, and
+they are assembled in line side by side at the point marked _G_ in the
+illustration, with wedge-shaped spaces between the words. This series
+of assembled matrices forms a line matrix, or, in other words, a line
+of female type adapted to form a line of raised printed characters on
+a slug which is cast against them. After the matrix line has been
+composed, it is automatically transferred to the face of a slotted
+mould, as shown at _K_, and while in this position the wedge spaces
+are pushed up through the line, and in this manner exact and
+instantaneous justification is secured. Behind the mould there is a
+melting pot, _M_, heated by a flame from a gas or oil burner, and
+containing a constant supply of molten metal. The pot has a perforated
+mouth which fits against and closes the rear side of the mould, and it
+contains a pump plunger mechanically actuated. After the matrix line
+is in place against the front of the mould, the plunger falls and
+forces the molten metal through the mouth pot into the mould, against
+and into the characters in the matrix line. The metal instantly
+solidifies, forming a slug having on its edge raised characters
+formed by the matrices. The mould wheel next makes a partial
+revolution, turning the mould from its original horizontal position to
+a vertical one in front of an ejector blade, which, advancing from the
+rear through the mould, pushes the slug from the latter into the
+receiving galley at the front. A vibrating arm advances the slugs
+laterally in the galley, assembling them in column or page form ready
+for use. To insure absolute accuracy in the height and thickness of
+the slugs, knives are arranged to act upon the base and side faces as
+they are being carried toward the galley. After the matrices have
+served their purpose in front of the mould, they are shifted laterally
+until the teeth in their upper ends engage the horizontal ribs on the
+bar _R_; this bar then rises, as shown by the dotted lines, lifting
+the matrices to the distributor at the top of the machine, but leaving
+the wedge spacers, _I_, behind, to be shifted to their box, _H_. The
+teeth in the top of each matrix are arranged in a special order,
+according to the character it contains, the number or relation of its
+teeth differing from that of a matrix containing any other character,
+and this difference insures proper distribution. A distributor bar,
+_T_, is fixed horizontally over the upper end of the magazine and
+bears on its lower edge longitudinal ribs or teeth, adapted to engage
+the teeth of the matrices and hold the latter in suspension as they
+are carried along the bar over the mouths of the magazine channels by
+means of screws which engage their edges. Each matrix remains in
+engagement with the bar until it arrives at the required point,
+directly over its own channel, and at this point for the first time
+its teeth bear such relation to those on the bar that it is permitted
+to disengage and fall into the channel. It is to be particularly noted
+that the matrices pursue a circulatory course through the machine,
+starting singly from the bottom of the magazine and passing thence to
+the line being composed, thence in the line to the mould, and finally
+back singly to the top of the magazine. This circulation permits the
+operations of composing one line, casting from a second, and
+distributing a third, to be carried on concurrently, and enables the
+machine to run at a speed exceeding that at which an operator can
+finger the keys. A change from one face of type to any other is
+effected by simply drawing off one magazine and substituting another
+containing the face required, so that the variety of faces needs to be
+limited only by the number of them which the printer chooses to carry
+in his stock.
+
+[Illustration: A Linotype Matrix.]
+
+[Illustration: Diagram of the Linotype Machine.]
+
+[Illustration: Linotype Slugs.]
+
+[Illustration: The Linotype Melting Pot and Mold Wheel.]
+
+Matrices are also made bearing two characters, as the ordinary body
+character and the corresponding italics, or a body character and a
+small capital or a black face, and either of these is brought into use
+as desired by the touching of a key, so that if, for instance, it is
+required to print a word in italics or black face at any part of the
+line being composed, it is effected in this way, and composition in
+the body letter is resumed by releasing the key.
+
+The latest pattern of machine is supplied with two magazines,
+superimposed one above the other, each with its own distributing
+apparatus. The operator can elect, by moving a lever, from which
+magazine the letter wanted will fall--the same keyboard serving for
+both. It is thus possible to set two sizes of type from one machine,
+each matrix showing two characters as described above.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION BY THE MONOTYPE MACHINE
+
+By Paul Nathan.
+
+
+Though for more than half a century machines adapted for the setting
+of type have been in use, it is only within a few years that the
+average printer of books has been enabled to avail himself of the
+services of a mechanical substitute for the hand compositor. The fact
+seems to be that despite the ingenuity that was brought to bear upon
+the problem, the pioneer inventors were satisfied to obtain speed,
+with its resultant economy, at the expense of the quality of the
+finished product. Thus, until comparatively recently, machine
+composition was debarred from the establishments of the makers of fine
+books, and found its chief field of activity in the office of
+newspaper publishers and others to whom a technically perfect output
+was not essential so long as a distinct saving of time and labor could
+be assured. Thanks, however, to persistent effort on the part of those
+inventors who would not be satisfied until a machine was evolved which
+should equal in its output the work of the hand compositor, the
+problem has been triumphantly solved, and to-day the very finest
+examples of the printed book owe their being to the mechanical
+type-setter.
+
+The claim is made for one of these machines, the monotype, that, so
+far from lowering the standard of composition, its introduction into
+the offices of the leading book printers of the world has had the
+contrary effect, and that it is only the work of the most skilful hand
+compositor which can at every point be compared with that turned out
+by the machine. The fact that the type for some recent books of the
+very highest class, so-called "editions de luxe," has been cast and
+set by the monotype machine would seem to afford justification for
+this claim, extravagant as at first glance it may appear.
+
+The monotype machine is, to use a Hibernicism, two machines, which,
+though quite separate and unrelated, are yet mutually interdependent
+and necessary the one to the other. One of these is the composing
+machine, or keyboard, the other the caster, or type-founder. To begin
+with the former: this is in appearance not unlike a large typewriter
+standing upon an iron pedestal, the keyboard which forms its principal
+feature having two hundred and twenty-five keys corresponding to as
+many different characters. This keyboard is generally placed in some
+such position in the printing office as conduces to the health and
+comfort of the operator, for there is no more noise or disagreeable
+consequence attendant on its operation than in the case of the
+familiar typewriter, which it so markedly resembles.
+
+It has been said that the machines are interdependent; yet they are
+entirely independent as to time and place. The keyboard, as a matter
+of fact, acts as a sort of go-between betwixt the operator and the
+casting-machine, setting the latter the task it has to perform and
+indicating to it the precise manner of its performance. A roll of
+paper, which as the keyboard is operated continuously unwinds and is
+rewound, forms the actual means of communication between the two
+machines. The operator, as he (or she, for in increasing numbers women
+are being trained as monotype operators) sits facing the keyboard, has
+before him, conveniently hanging from an adjustable arm, the "copy"
+that has to be set in type. As he reads it he manipulates the keys
+precisely as does an operator on a typewriter, but each key as it is
+depressed, in place of writing a letter, punches certain round holes
+in the roll of paper. Enough keys are depressed to form a word, then
+one is touched to form a space, and so on until just before the end of
+the line is reached (the length of this line, or the "measure," as it
+is termed, has at the outset been determined upon by the setting of an
+indicator) a bell rings, and the operator knows that he must prepare
+to finish the line with a completed word or syllable and then proceed
+to justify it. "Justification," as it is termed, is perhaps the
+most difficult function of either the hand or the machine compositor.
+On the deftness with which this function is discharged depends almost
+entirely the typographic excellence of the printed page. To justify is
+to so increase the distance between the words by the introduction of
+type-metal "spaces" as to enable the characters to exactly fill the
+line. To make these spaces as nearly equal as possible is the aim of
+every good printer, and in proportion as he succeeds in his endeavor
+the printed page will please the eye and be free from those
+irregularities of "white space," which detract from its legibility as
+well as from its artistic appearance.
+
+[Illustration: The Monotype Keyboard.]
+
+[Illustration: The Monotype Caster.]
+
+That the monotype should not only "justify" each line automatically,
+but justify with a mathematical exactness impossible of attainment by
+the more or less rough-and-ready methods of the most careful human
+type-setter is at first thought a little bewildering. The fact
+remains, however, that it does so, and another triumph is to be
+recorded for man's "instruments of precision."
+
+Monotype justification is effected as follows: an ingenious
+registering device waits, as it were, on all the movements of the
+operator, with the result that when he has approached as close to the
+end of the line as he dare go, he has merely to glance at a
+cylindrical dial in front of him. The pointer on this dial signifies
+to him which of the "justifying keys" he must depress. He touches
+them in accordance therewith, and the line is justified, or rather it
+_will_ be justified when, as will be seen later on, the casting
+machine takes up its part of the work. That is the outward
+manifestation; it remains to be seen in what manner the machine
+accomplishes its task. Firstly, the machine automatically notes the
+exact width of the space left over at the line's end; then, also
+automatically, it records the number of spaces between the words
+already set which form the incompleted line; finally, it divides the
+residuary space into as many parts as there are word-spaces, and
+allots to each of these one of the parts. Thus if there is one-tenth
+of an inch to spare at the end of the line and ten word-spaces, then
+one-hundredth of an inch added to each of these spaces will justify
+the line with mathematical accuracy. But the machine will do something
+more wonderful than this. It will separately justify separate parts of
+the same line. The utility of this is comprehended when it is pointed
+out that when the "copy" to be set consists of what is technically
+termed "tabular" matter, the various columns of figures or so forth
+composing it are not composed vertically but horizontally and so each
+section must of necessity be justified separately.
+
+Should the compositor be required to "over-run illustrations," as the
+term goes, in other words to leave a space in which the "block" for a
+cut may be inserted, so that it may have type all around it or on one
+side of it only, the machine offers no difficulty at all. All that the
+operator has to do in this case is to carry the composition of each
+line as far as necessary and then complete it with a row of "quads,"
+or spaces. Thus, when the composition is cast by the casting-machine
+the space into which the block is to fit is occupied by a square of
+"quads." These have only to be lifted out, the block inserted, and the
+trick is done.
+
+We will then imagine that the operator has finished his task. Of the
+bank of two hundred and twenty-five keys in front of him (the
+equivalent of a full "font" of type, with figures, italics, and
+symbols complete), he has depressed in turn those necessary to spell
+out the words of his copy, he has put a space between the words he has
+justified in accordance with the dictates of the justifying dial, has
+arranged the spaces for the insertion of blocks or illustrations, and
+as the result of his labors he has merely a roll of perforated paper
+not unlike that which operates the now familiar pianola or
+piano-player. Yet this roll of paper is the informing spirit, as it
+were, of the machine. Its production is the only portion of the work
+of the monotype for which a human directing agency is necessary, every
+other function being purely automatic.
+
+The roll of perforated ribbon is lifted off the keyboard and put in
+place on the casting-and setting-machine. As it is swiftly unwound it
+delivers to the casting-machine the message with which the operator
+has charged it. Through the perforations he has made compressed air is
+forced. Now, as has been explained, the holes correspond to the
+characters or typographic symbols of the "copy," and the jet of air
+forced through them sets in motion the machinery, which controls what
+is known as the "matrix-case," a rectangular metal frame about five
+inches square, which contains two hundred and twenty-five matrices, or
+little blocks of hardened copper, each one of which is a mould
+corresponding to a character on the keyboard. This frame is mounted
+horizontally on a slide, which by an ingenious mechanical movement
+brings any one of the two hundred and twenty-five matrices over what
+is termed the mould. The particular matrix thus placed in position is
+determined by those particular holes punched in the paper ribbon at
+the keyboard, through which the compressed air is at that precise
+moment being forced.
+
+The mould referred to is closed by the matrix, a jet of molten metal
+is forced in, and in an instant the type is cast, its face being
+formed by the matrix, its body or shank by the mould. The cast type is
+ejected and takes its place in the galley, to be followed by another
+and that by yet others in their regular rotation. It must, however, be
+pointed out that the composition emerges from the machine hind part
+foremost and upside down as it were. This enables the justification
+holes, which were originally punched at the _end_ and not at the
+beginning of each line, to direct the proper casting of the spaces in
+the lines to which they correspond.
+
+It will be seen, therefore, that the casting portion of the monotype
+machine is actually automatic. It performs all its operations without
+human assistance or direction. Occasionally it will stop of its own
+accord and refuse to work, but this merely means that it has found
+something amiss with the perforated instructions, a mistake as to the
+length of a line or so forth, and it refuses to continue until the
+workman in charge of it puts the error right, then it starts on again
+and continues on its even course, casting letters and spaces and
+punctuation marks, and arranging them first in words, then in lines,
+next in paragraphs, and finally in a column on the galley.
+
+The casting-machine works at so high a rate of speed (casting from one
+hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty characters per minute) that
+it can in its output keep well ahead of the operator on the keyboard.
+This, however, so far from being an inconvenience or leading to any
+loss of time, is an advantage, for four casting-machines, which can
+easily be looked after by one man and a boy, can cope with the work of
+five keyboard operators, or if all are engaged on the same character
+of composition two casters can attend to the output of three
+keyboards. This suggests a reference to the facilities offered by the
+machine for the production of matter composed in various faces of
+type. The machine casts practically all sizes in general use from
+five-point, or "pearl," to fourteen point, or "English." Owing to the
+number of characters included in the matrix-case, it can at the same
+time set upper and lower case, small capitals, and upper and lower
+case italics, or any similar combination of two or even three
+different faced alphabets. To change from one complete set of matrices
+to another is a simple operation, performed in about a minute of time,
+while the changing of mould, which insures a corresponding change in
+the size of the "body" of the type, takes about ten minutes.
+
+To return, however, to the perforated roll of paper, which it must be
+imagined has passed entirely through the casting-machine and has been
+automatically re-rolled. Its present function has come to an end, and
+it is now lifted out of its position on the machine and placed away
+for future reference in a drawer or cabinet. This is a by no means
+unimportant feature of the Monotype, for it is thus no longer
+necessary to preserve the heavy, cumbrous, and expensive "plates" of a
+book in anticipation of a second edition being called for at some
+future time. As a matter of fact, indeed, "plates," or electrotypes of
+monotyped matter, are by no means a necessity. Many thousand
+impressions can with safety be printed from the types themselves, and
+these latter at the conclusion of the job can be remelted and new type
+cast from the resultant metal. The paper rolls, occupying but a few
+square inches of space, can be kept, and when the time arrives may be
+passed through the casting-machine again, to supply a new printing
+surface identical in every respect with the original.
+
+But the galley of monotyped composition has been waiting during this
+digression. It is lifted off the machine by the attendant and a rough
+proof pulled, which is corrected by the proof-reader. The advantage of
+the individual types is then apparent, for the composition is
+corrected and otherwise handled precisely as would be the case had the
+matter been set entirely by hand. Indeed, the operation consumes even
+less time, for the discarded characters, instead of being placed back
+carefully in their proper compartments in the case for future use, are
+merely thrown aside by the corrector, to find their way eventually
+into the melting pot. It may be added, however, that the Monotype
+itself furnishes the types used in the correction of its
+matter--"sorts," as they are termed by the printer. These are cast by
+the machine during the times when it is not employed upon more
+important work.
+
+Indeed, an attachment has recently been added to the machine, whereby
+its use as a type-caster is still further extended. As has been
+mentioned, the machine casts and composes type of any sized face, from
+five to fourteen point. With, however, the attachment referred to, it
+can now cast for the use of the hand compositor complete fonts of type
+up to and including thirty-six point in size, so that an entire book,
+title-page included, nowadays often owes its typographical "dress" to
+the ingenious machine known as "The Lanston Monotype."
+
+
+
+
+PROOF-READING
+
+By George L. Miller.
+
+
+When part of a book has been set up in type, in what is called "galley
+form," an impression is taken, technically known as "first proof," and
+this proof is handed to the proof-reader. This long-suffering
+individual lives in a chronic state of warfare with the compositors on
+the one hand and the author on the other. His first duty is to see
+that the proof agrees with the author's manuscript, that nothing has
+been omitted, and nothing inserted that is not in the copy. He must
+see, further, that the spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar,
+and so forth, are correct, and the book set according to the "style"
+ordered. He first of all, therefore, compares the proof with the
+manuscript, or an assistant reads the manuscript aloud, the
+proof-reader listening intently for any variation from the proof
+before him and marking any errors he may find.
+
+Now this seems easy enough, and if every author prepared his copy
+carefully, so that there could be no possible mistake as to his
+meaning, nothing would be easier; but in practice a number of
+questions arise which would never be thought of by an outsider. On a
+new work being put in hand, some half-dozen compositors are given a
+few sheets of copy apiece, and if the proof-reader happens to be
+readily accessible he is bombarded within the first half-hour or so
+with, "How am I to spell centre?" "Has travelling one or two l's?"
+"Shall I capitalize the word State?" "Shall I spell out two hundred?"
+"Do you want ships' names in Italic?" and so on and so on. As to
+punctuation, every compositor thinks he knows better than proof-reader
+and author combined and follows his own sweet will. As every error on
+the first proof must be corrected by the compositor at his own
+expense, here arises the cause of war mentioned in our opening
+paragraph.
+
+Much has been written about printers' errors and the mistakes of "the
+intelligent compositor." Aside from those caused by illegible
+manuscript, mistakes arise from faulty "distribution," that is to say,
+the type has been thrown into the wrong boxes. Thus we get _c_ for
+_e_, _h_ for _n_, _y_ for _p_, etc., these boxes being contiguous and
+the letters of the same thickness; if, for instance, the compositor
+picked up _u_ instead of _t_ the difference in thickness would at once
+be noticed by him and the mistake rectified. Then letters are
+sometimes set upside down and we find letters of a different "face"
+which have got into the case by mistake. In type set on machine,
+errors arise from striking adjacent keys, or some matrix will stick
+in the channel and make its appearance later, sometimes even in the
+next line. But the chief source of error is illegible or carelessly
+prepared manuscript, and to the author's slips of the pen must be
+added in these days the slips of the typewriter.
+
+It is quite possible for a man to be an expert in astronomy, medicine,
+or natural history and yet have hazy ideas on spelling and
+punctuation. "When in doubt use a dash" is an old standing joke, but
+some authors use dashes all the time, making them do duty for commas,
+semicolons, and periods. They will write indifferently 4 or four and
+frequently their capital _a_'s _c_'s, _m_'s, and _n_'s cannot be
+distinguished from the small letters. They will commence a story
+telling that the "Captain" did so and so, and lo, on the next page the
+"captain" sinks into a common noun; and so with "Father," "mother,"
+"Aunt," "uncle," etc. Just see what the story would look like if set
+according to copy!
+
+Now the proof-reader is expected to rectify all this, thereby drawing
+on his head the wrath of the compositor, who says "he followed the
+copy," and occasionally incurring the wrath of the author as well for
+departing therefrom. Sometimes instructions are given that the
+author's spelling, punctuation, etc., are to be carefully followed,
+when of course no question can arise; and the proof-reader will query
+on the proof submitted to the author anything which does not seem to
+him to be correct.
+
+The great newspapers and magazines have what they call a "style sheet"
+for the guidance of their compositors and proof-readers and insist on
+its being faithfully followed. Only by this means could uniformity in
+the appearance of the paper be secured. In this style sheet careful
+and minute directions are given for the use of capital letters, the
+use of Italic, spelling out of numbers, compound words, etc. In the
+Government printing-office in Washington they have a style book of
+some two hundred pages. Some book printing-offices have what they call
+"the style of the office," which will be followed if no instructions
+are received from the author to the contrary, while some publishing
+houses with connections in England insist on English spelling being
+followed in all their books, as books with American spelling will not
+sell over there.
+
+Here is an outline of an "office style":--
+
+"Spell and divide words according to Webster's dictionary.
+
+"Capitalize President and all Secretaries of State, Senator,
+Congressman, Governor, Government (of U.S. or other country), King,
+Emperor, Republican (and all political parties), all pronouns relating
+to the Deity, Legislature, State, Nation, Street, Avenue, (Hudson)
+River.
+
+"Use small capitals for B.C., A.D., A.M., and P.M.
+
+"Use Italics for names of ships, names of characters in plays, names
+of newspapers and magazines, and all foreign words.
+
+"Use quotation marks for names of books.
+
+"Spell out all numbers under 100.
+
+"Compound co-operate, to-day, to-morrow.
+
+"Use period after per cent., and Roman numerals I. VI., etc.
+
+"Bible references in this style: 2 Kings vii. 29.
+
+"All poetical quotations to be in smaller type than text."
+
+Now, some authors will not accept the above style and insist on one
+entirely different. Many will accept Webster's spelling but draw the
+line at _theater_, which they want spelt _theatre_, and balk at
+_skillfully_ and _skillful_ or _installment_. They will order spelling
+according to the Standard Dictionary, yet will not accept _sulfur_,
+_rime_, or _worshiping_. One man wants all his numbers in figures, and
+another does not like compound words. Still another abhors dashes or
+colons, or quotation marks, and yet another will not have Italic type
+used in his work.
+
+So it frequently happens that a proof-reader will have passing through
+his hands three or four books in entirely different styles, each of
+which he must bear in mind and conform to if he would avoid trouble.
+But whatever style be adopted, it is essential that it be strictly
+adhered to throughout the work; therefore in large printing-offices
+where there are many proof-readers care is always taken that, however
+many compositors may be engaged in setting up the work, the same
+reader handles it from start to finish.
+
+If the proof-reader finds any passages whose meaning is not clear, or
+sentences of faulty construction, he will call the author's attention
+thereto. He will also call attention to Biblical or poetical
+quotations which he may know to be incorrect. Many authors will quote
+Scripture or poetry from memory, which is found to vary in many
+respects from the original on verification. And then they complain
+because "the printer did not set it up right,"--when they are charged
+for corrections. But why should the compositor bear the expense of
+correction--or the master-printer for that matter--when the copy was
+clearly wrong in the first instance? A moment's thought will show the
+injustice of such a procedure.
+
+From what we have said may be seen the importance of the reading of
+"first proof." Many offices have the proofs read twice, first without
+referring to the copy, when the more glaring errors may be corrected
+at leisure, and then again carefully read by copy. The proofs are then
+returned to the compositors for correction, each man correcting the
+portion he set up.
+
+A second proof is now taken which is put in the hands of another
+proof-reader (or "reviser") for revision. His business is to see that
+the corrections of the first reader have all been duly made. Should
+he find any palpable errors that have been overlooked by the first
+reader, he will call his attention thereto and on approval mark them.
+It may be necessary to return the proofs again to the compositors for
+correction, and even a third time. When found to be what is called
+"clean," they are sent to the author (usually in duplicate) along with
+the copy.
+
+And now the author sees himself in print, perhaps for the first time.
+He will notice that his work presents a different appearance from what
+it did in manuscript. Here and there a passage can be improved, a
+phrase polished, an idea amplified--the same man will think
+differently at different times; and lo, here, the stupid printer has
+made him speak of a marine landscape when he wrote Maine landscape!
+(That proof-reader must be disciplined.) And here a sentence has been
+left out which he wrote on the back of his copy and has been skipped
+by compositor, copy-holder, proof-reader, and reviser alike! Then the
+queries of the proof-reader must be answered, and a few commas here
+and there would improve things,--and so he proceeds to mark up his
+proofs, for all of which corrections he has to pay at so much per
+hour--second cause of war.
+
+The proofs are now returned to the printer and corrected, and a revise
+(after passing through the proof-reader's hands) sent to the author,
+which process may be repeated _ad infinitum_, until the author gives
+the order to make up into pages.
+
+The type is now handed over to the "make-up," and inasmuch as his work
+must be carefully revised by the proof-reader, we may describe it
+here. Having first of all made a gauge showing the size of the
+page--supposing the page to be seven inches deep, he will cut a notch
+in a thin piece of wood showing that size--he must "cast off" or
+estimate how the pages are going to "break." There must not be any
+short lines, or "widows" as the printers call them,--that is, the
+concluding lines of paragraphs which are not full length,--at the
+heads of pages. The first line of a paragraph should not appear at the
+bottom of a page (but this rule is more honored in the breach than the
+observance), and the concluding page of a chapter should not be less
+than one-quarter page in length. These difficulties are avoided by
+"saving" a line here and there,--that is, where the last line of a
+paragraph consists of only one or two words, in squeezing them into
+the line above, or by "making" lines, which is accomplished by
+spreading long lines out and driving one or two words over. Any line
+containing one word only at the end of a paragraph ought to overlap
+the indention of the first line of the next paragraph. Such a word as
+"is" or "it" will not do so and should be turned back to the line
+above. Then again, where cuts or illustrations are inserted in the
+text a page will sometimes break in the middle of a cut, which, as
+Euclid says, is impossible, therefore the cut must be moved, sometimes
+necessitating slight alterations in the text, _e.g._ "The following
+illustration" must be altered to "The illustration on the next page,"
+or "The illustration above," as the case may be. And here we may
+remark that all cuts or illustrations should be made and furnished to
+the printer in time to be inserted in the first proof. The writer
+calls to mind an instance where the cuts arrived after the whole book
+had been made up into pages, necessitating a re-make-up at
+considerable expense.
+
+Proofs of the pages being furnished to the proof-reader, he first of
+all compares them with the author's last galley proof to see that
+nothing has been omitted (frequently lines fall off the ends of
+galleys), that they are in due sequence and "join up," and that the
+author's last corrections have been made. He then sees to the
+pagination, the running heads at top of each page, and sees that the
+foot-notes have been inserted in the pages where they belong and
+verifies the reference marks. The author will probably have used the *
+[symbol: dagger][symbol: double-dagger] Sec. and they will have been so
+set up, as they appeared on each page of the original manuscript. But
+when in type and made up into pages they will probably fall
+differently, the note bearing the Sec. mark may come on the following
+page and of course must be altered to an *, a corresponding change
+being made in the text. A much better plan is to number foot-notes 1,
+2, 3 and so on, when no alteration on making-up will be required.
+
+The proof-reader must also look after the "widows" and other matters
+before mentioned. If the book is set in linotype, the make-up will
+have been unable to make these changes. He will simply allow the
+proper space and the changes required will be marked by the
+proof-reader and a number of pages corrected at a time. This is a
+point of economy.
+
+All corrections having been made and revised, proofs are submitted to
+the author for his final approval. The author may find it advisable to
+make alterations even after his book is made up into pages,
+necessitating further revises; but everything finally being in order,
+he gives the order to print or to electrotype.
+
+If the pages are to be electrotyped or made into plates, they are
+"locked up" in an iron frame called a "chase," two or four together,
+and proofs are given to the proof-reader for a final reading.
+
+If the book is to be printed from the type, the pages are "imposed" in
+sheets of eight, sixteen, or thirty-two, so arranged that the folios
+will be in order when the sheet is folded up. They now make what is
+called a "form," and a proof of this--known as the "stone proof"--is
+taken for final reading.
+
+The proof-reader now reads the work all through, looking carefully to
+the spelling, punctuation, and grammar, as in reading "first proof,"
+and more especially looking out for bad or imperfect letters. If many
+corrections have been made, the type is very apt to be broken and the
+spacing between words to become irregular. All imperfect letters must
+be replaced and bad spacing rectified. Then again, commas, hyphens,
+periods, and thin letters, such as _l_, _f_, or _t_, are apt to slip
+out of place at the ends of lines. And here a serious source of error
+may be mentioned which can be found out only by reading the whole page
+over. In type set on the linotype machine every line is one solid
+piece of metal. Any correction to be made involves resetting the whole
+line. Now the compositor in inserting the new line is very apt to take
+out a line _beginning with the same word_, replacing it with the new
+one, thus making a very serious blunder, and of course the
+proof-reader or author who sees the next proof has no intimation that
+the wrong line has been tampered with. On reading the page over,
+however, it will be noticed that something is wrong, previous proofs
+can be referred to, and the mistake rectified.
+
+The proofs having been finally read, revised, and marked O. K., the
+pages are sent to the foundry or to press, as the case may be.
+
+But the proof-reader has not done with them yet. If the book is
+electrotyped, the plates may turn out faulty; sometimes the type will
+sink in places under the enormous pressure applied in moulding. It is
+therefore highly advisable that proofs should be taken of the plates
+and gone over for imperfections; this may save valuable time later
+when the book is on the press. Some authors don't mind the expense of
+making changes in their work even after the pages are cast.
+
+The proof-reader only takes leave of the book when it is on the press
+and all is ready to go ahead and print. A sheet is submitted to him
+which he must _vise_ for bad letters, see that nothing has fallen out
+in transit to the pressroom, and that the pressman has not taken out
+any cuts to underlay and reinserted them upside down. He will also
+verify the folios again (if the book is printed from plates this will
+be the first opportunity of doing so) and see that the pages join up
+to what has gone before. Here his work ends.
+
+
+
+
+PAPER MAKING
+
+By Herbert W. Mason.
+
+
+The word "paper" derives its name from the ancient Greek word
+"papyrus," the name of the material used in ancient times for writing
+purposes, and manufactured by the Egyptians from the papyrus plant,
+and which was, up to the eighth century, the best-known writing
+material. Probably the earliest manufacturers of paper were the
+Chinese, who used the mulberry tree and other like plants for this
+purpose, and may be called the inventors of our modern paper
+manufacturing, as they have practised the art of paper making for
+almost two thousand years.
+
+In the ordinary book papers of to-day the materials used are largely
+rags and wood fibres. "Esparto," a Spanish grass, is used in England
+to a great extent, but it is too expensive to import to this country,
+and is, therefore, not used here. Many other materials could be used
+to advantage, such as "bagasse," the waste material of sugar cane, and
+corn stalks, both of which make good book paper; also hemp, wild
+clover, and other plants which have a good fibre.
+
+Only two kinds of rags are used, linen and cotton, of both of which
+there are several grades. Linen rags make a very strong paper, and are
+mostly used in manufacturing fine writing papers, ledgers, and covers
+for books where strength is necessary. Cotton rags may be divided into
+three distinct kinds, whites, blues, and colors, and these in turn are
+subdivided into several grades. Most of the blue rags are now imported
+from Germany, Belgium, and France; none from Japan as formerly. The
+whites and colors are bought in this country.
+
+Wood fibres are divided into two classes, the harder woods, such as
+spruce, fir, etc., and the softer, such as poplar, cottonwood, etc.
+There are three ways of reducing or disintegrating wood fibres: first,
+by sulphurous acid or bi-sulphite of lime fumes, which gives the name
+"sulphite fibre"; second, by caustic soda, which is called "soda
+fibre"; and third, by grinding. The last is usually only used for
+stock in very low grades of paper, such as newspaper and wrapping
+paper; it is rarely used for book paper. Many persons think that this
+ground wood, which is merely spruce ground very fine into pulp, is
+used in book papers; but if it were, the paper would not last long,
+and would almost immediately discolor on exposure to light and air.
+There is a theory that no paper made from wood fibres is lasting, and
+that therefore high grades of paper for fine books should be made
+only of rags, but this is erroneous, for wood stock and rag stock
+nowadays are treated and prepared in the same way, and only
+practically pure cellulose matter goes into the paper. It would be a
+different matter, however, if _ground_ wood were used for fine papers,
+for in this stock the cellulose matter is not separated.
+
+Rags are usually purchased by the paper manufacturer in solid bales,
+which have been graded into whites, blues, or colors. After being
+opened, they are thrown into a thrashing machine, which thrashes and
+shakes out the greater part of the loose dust and dirt. Later, they
+are sorted more carefully by hand into several grades, according to
+their colors and cleanliness. All the woollens, gunny, buttons, hooks
+and eyes, silks, and foreign materials are thrown aside. As the rags
+are usually too large to be thrown into the boilers to be cooked, they
+are cut into very small pieces by means of sharp revolving knives, to
+which they are fed rapidly from an endless belt. When cut, they are
+packed into a revolving kettle or boiler, called a "rotary," and
+cooked with caustic soda and lime for several hours, to disintegrate
+the fibres, separate the cellulose matter, and "start" the colors. The
+rags, after coming out of the boiler, look very dark, and are all
+mashed together. They are then thrown into a tub of water and revolved
+horizontally by means of a large wheel fitted with radial knives,
+which tear and bruise them while water continually runs in and out,
+carrying away the dirt. In a few hours the rags look much cleaner, and
+a small amount of chlorate of lime and sulphuric acid is run in to
+bleach them white. After having been thoroughly stirred for a while,
+the stock is run into what is called a drainer, where it is allowed to
+stand for several hours to drain off as much water as possible. Liquid
+chloride of lime, which is used for bleaching, and sulphuric acid is
+then run over the fibre, which in turn is drained and washed off
+again. By this time the pulp is white enough to be sent to the
+beaters, to be prepared for the paper machines, and is called
+"half-stock."
+
+Wood fibres for book papers are usually treated in the same general
+way as rags. First, the logs are peeled and are cut into suitable
+lengths to be thrown into a wood chopper and cut up in very small
+pieces. If the wood is treated by sulphurous acid or bi-sulphite of
+lime fumes, it is called the "sulphite process"; if by caustic soda,
+the "soda process." This wood is cooked in large upright kettles
+called "digesters." In one case the sulphite fumes are allowed to
+permeate through the wood under a high pressure, and in the other the
+caustic soda is put in "straight," and the wood is cooked under a high
+pressure of steam. This is done to dissolve out all the gum and
+resins, in order to leave the pure cellulose matter. After the cooking
+is done, the stock has to be bleached in very much the same way as
+the rags and washed thoroughly before it is ready for the "beaters."
+
+For "beating," the stock is thrown into a large revolving tub. Rag and
+wood fibre may be mixed in different proportions, according to the
+grade of the paper wanted. The stock is then washed a little to be
+sure that it is clean and white. Water at first is mixed in with the
+fibre until it is so diluted that it will flow freely; then it is
+beaten for several hours by means of an iron wheel covered with iron
+or steel knives about one-quarter of an inch thick, which revolves
+over an iron bed-plate with similar knives. During this beating
+process, clay is mixed with the stock, mainly to give the paper a
+well-filled and better appearance, and not, as most people think, to
+add weight, although this is sometimes an object. Sizing material is
+also added, which helps to keep the fibres together and hold the ink
+in printing. If it is desired to give the paper a white shade, a small
+amount of aniline blue or pink is mixed in; otherwise it is called
+"natural" or "unblued."
+
+The beating part of the process of paper making is the most important.
+The stock has to be beaten up so that all the fibres are separated and
+broken into just the right lengths according to the weight and
+strength of the paper to be made. The harder the roll is set down on
+the bed plate, the shorter the fibre will be and _vice versa_, but if
+the roll is not put down hard, the stock has to be beaten so much
+longer.
+
+"Machining" may be divided into five processes:--
+
+_First._ When the stock leaves the beater it is run into a large
+"stuff" chest, and is continually being stirred so that it will not be
+lumpy. By this time the pulp is about as clean as possible and is
+ready for the paper machines. The first thing to be done on the
+machine is to dilute the stock with pure water to the consistency of
+buttermilk, according to the thickness of the paper required. Then
+this liquid stock runs through what are called "sand settlers," which
+are supposed to collect what dirt, iron, etc., remain.
+
+_Second._ From the sand settlers the stock runs on to a screen,
+through which it is drawn by means of suction. This process prevents
+fibres which are lumpy and too long from getting on to the machine,
+and allows only those of a certain size and length to go forward to be
+made into paper. An endless and very fine wire cloth, which is
+continually moving at the same rate of speed as the rest of the paper
+machine, takes the stock after it has been screened. This is the first
+step toward making the material into actual paper. Thick rubber straps
+on each side of the wire determine the width of the paper. This wire
+shakes a little in order to weave the fibres together while in a state
+of suspension. At this period the stock looks like thick cream, but
+soon changes its appearance to the form of a sheet more or less solid
+on coming to the end of the wire, where there is what is called a
+"dandy,"--a roll covered with similar wire cloth pressing lightly on
+the paper as it runs along the wire. Designs in relief on the surface
+of this roll produce the well-known marks called "water marks." Just
+beyond the "dandy," underneath the wire, is a suction box which draws
+enough of the water out so that the paper can go through the "couch"
+roll at the end of the wire without being crumbled.
+
+[Illustration: Cross-section of a Paper Machine.]
+
+_Third._ The couch roll is a small hard roll covered with a thick felt
+called a "jacket," and is used on the paper machine to prevent the
+paper from being crushed, for it presses out much of the water and
+flattens the paper so that it will pass from the wire to the felts
+without breaking and through the press rolls without crushing. From
+this couch roll the paper leaves the wire and is carried along on an
+endless woollen felt to the press rolls, which are made of hard
+rubber, steel, or brass. These rolls press the fibres together well,
+squeezing out more of the water and flattening the sheet.
+
+_Fourth._ From the press felts the paper is carried to the "dryer
+felts," which in turn carry the paper to the "dryers," which revolve
+and by means of the felt carry the paper along to the next dryer, and
+so on. The dryers are hollow iron or steel cylinders, heated by means
+of the exhaust steam from the engines which run the machine. More or
+less steam is allowed to run into the dryers, according to the quality
+of paper being made.
+
+_Fifth._ As soon as the paper has been carried over all the dryers,
+during which time it becomes, perfectly dry, it is run through a set
+of so-called steel "chilled rolls," at the end of the machine, which
+are under pressure and which give the paper a fairly smooth surface
+for ordinary type printing. If a rough surface is desired, the paper
+is simply wound on reels from the dryers.
+
+Super-calendered papers are those which have a high finish and smooth
+surface, and are used for cuts, lithographic work, magazine papers,
+and ordinary illustrations. To calender paper, it is run through a
+series of alternate "chilled" and "paper" rolls. The chilled rolls are
+made of steel and have a very smooth and even surface. The "paper"
+roll is made of circular discs of thin, but strong manila paper,
+clamped together on an iron shaft, and then put under hydraulic
+pressure, this pressure being increased constantly until it reaches
+one hundred tons of pressure to the inch. The rolls are sometimes kept
+under this pressure for five or six weeks, and then are turned on a
+lathe into a true and smooth cylinder, and finally burnished by being
+revolved against each other.
+
+A "cotton" roll, used at times in place of the "paper" roll, is made
+in the same manner, except it is made of pieces of cotton cloth
+instead of thin manila paper. There is a heavy pressure on these
+rolls, and the paper goes through at a high rate of speed. When an
+especially smooth surface is wanted, steam is run on the paper as it
+unwinds, dampening it and giving the web a surface like that on ironed
+linen.
+
+"Coated" paper is treated differently, being covered with a fine
+coating, which, after super-calendering, gives the paper a glazed and
+smooth surface for fine half-tone illustrations. Clay, mixed with
+casein, the product of skimmed milk, or glue, is the chief material
+used for coating. It is put on the paper by means of large brushes.
+Then it is dried by fans and passed through a long passageway heated
+by steam to a high temperature. After being reeled, it is allowed to
+stand for a while to harden; then is run several times through the
+calenders to get the smooth surface. If a high, glazed finish is
+necessary, steam is put on while running through the calenders. This
+gives a very bright surface for fine lithographic work. For the best
+coated papers, instead of clay, sulphate of lime and sometimes
+sulphate of barium is used, with glue or casein. Formaldehyde, a
+chemical compound, is used to prevent decomposition in the coating
+materials; and soda or borax is used to "cut" or dissolve the casein
+or glue.
+
+If the paper is to be printed "from the web," that is, from the roll,
+it first has to be trimmed to the correct width, then wound tightly
+under a high pressure to a certain thickness, then the rolls are
+packed up in wrapping paper ready to be shipped. Some rolls contain as
+much as five miles of paper. When the paper is to be put up in
+sheets, it has to be cut to exactly the correct width and length on
+the cutting machine. It is all very carefully sorted--the imperfect
+sheets being thrown out--counted and packed in wooden cases, or done
+up with strong wrapping paper in bundles, ready to be sent to the
+printer.
+
+
+
+
+PRESSWORK
+
+By Walter J. Berwick.
+
+
+Books are printed in "forms," or sheets, of four, eight, twelve,
+twenty-four, or thirty-two pages at a time, the number being
+determined to a great extent by the size of the type page and by the
+class of the work.
+
+An ordinary twelvemo book, without illustrations in the text, is
+usually printed in forms of thirty-two pages, on what is known as a
+single-cylinder flat-bed press, which prints only one side of the
+paper at an impression. For large editions, the size of the sheet of
+paper is sometimes doubled and sixty-four pages printed at a time. The
+class of work in question may also be printed on perfecting presses
+which print both sides of the paper at one time, and in this way as
+many as one hundred and twenty-eight pages are frequently printed on
+one sheet, there being sixty-four pages on each side. Large editions
+of books having small pages, such as small Bibles, are often printed
+two hundred and fifty-six pages (one hundred and twenty-eight on each
+side) at one time.
+
+High grade, illustrated books are always printed on one side of the
+sheet at a time, the reverse side being printed after the first
+impression has dried properly. Thus a smooch, or "offset," the result
+of handling the paper before the ink has become dry, is prevented.
+
+For convenience, I shall describe the process of printing a book from
+electrotype plates on a press which prints thirty-two pages at a time
+and on only one side of the paper.
+
+Before ordering his paper, the publisher must first determine the size
+of the paper page of his proposed book, and from this arrive at the
+necessary size of the sheets of paper. He must also determine the
+thickness of the paper needed to give the finished book its proper
+bulk.
+
+If the book is to be trimmed on top, bottom, and front, about
+one-eighth of an inch must be allowed on top and front for the binder
+to trim off, and about one-fourth of an inch on the bottom. The
+dimensions from back to front, including the amount left for the
+"trim," should be multiplied by eight; and the page dimension the
+other way, including the trim, by four. This would give the size of
+paper needed. As an illustration, if the trimmed size of a book is
+7-7/8 x 5-3/8 inches, the paper should be 32 x 44 inches. If the book
+is printed 16 pages at a time, the paper should be 22 x 44; and if 64
+pages at a time, 44 x 64.
+
+The quality of the paper and the size of the sheet being decided upon,
+and the number of pages known, any large paper house can tell the
+weight necessary to give the required thickness to the book.
+
+On receipt of the printing order, with directions as to whether the
+book is to be trimmed or not, the printer first makes up what is
+called a "form" of so-called "patent" blocks on which the stereotype
+or electrotype plates are placed during the printing of the book.
+These blocks are made of wood or iron planed to an even thickness of
+about three-fourths of an inch, so that when an electrotype plate is
+placed upon one, it will take only a few thicknesses of thin paper
+between it and the electrotyped page to make the whole "type-high,"
+that is, as high as an ordinary piece of type.
+
+Two adjacent edges of these blocks are bound with strips of brass,
+which project above the block and are turned over slightly, so as to
+receive the two bevelled edges of the electrotype plate. The other two
+edges are provided with movable clamps, which are screwed tight
+against the flat edges of the electrotype plate by means of ratchets,
+thus holding the plate firmly in its place.
+
+In practice, the longer of the two brass-bound edges is called the
+"back" of the block and the shorter one the "head," the other long
+edge being known as the "front" and the other short edge, the "foot."
+These terms, as a matter of fact, originated from the use of the same
+words in describing the printed page of a book, the "back"
+corresponding with the side of the page next to the binding of the
+book, the "head" being the top of the book, and so on.
+
+One-half of a set of blocks--thirty-two being a set in this case--are
+made with the backs on the left and one-half with the backs on the
+right edge of the block. The common way is to place thirty-two of
+these blocks, in four rows of eight blocks each, in a "chase," or iron
+frame, with a cross-bar in the centre. Thus sixteen blocks are on each
+side of the cross-bar, and all have their backs toward it. The form
+then appears like this:--
+
+[Illustration: Blocks, cross-bar.]
+
+Strips of wood, called "furniture," are then used to fill up the
+spaces between the blocks, care being taken to see that all the backs,
+fronts, and heads are in uniform positions. As some people prefer the
+printed pages of a book to be near the centre of the paper pages,
+while others like the head and back margins to be much narrower than
+the margins at the front and foot, the distances between the blocks
+must be arranged according to the taste of the publisher or the
+author.
+
+After the blocks have been spaced as desired, and the spaces filled
+with furniture, the form is "locked up," or tightened securely, with
+wedge-shaped pieces of iron called "quoins," and it is then placed in
+position on the bed of the press, securely fastened by screw clamps,
+and "making ready" for printing is begun.
+
+Notwithstanding the care that has been taken to have all the "patent"
+blocks and the electrotype plates of even and uniform thickness, there
+is almost never a case where a form can be put on the press and
+printed off properly without considerable work being required to make
+the surface of the plates absolutely flat so that the entire printed
+part of the page will receive the same amount of ink and will press
+evenly on the paper.
+
+The first step in making a press "ready" is to place a sheet of heavy
+cardboard around the cylinder, and over it draw a smooth piece of
+muslin or cotton cloth. This is called the "packing." In many of the
+best offices this sheet of heavy cardboard is not used, but in its
+place is a patent make-ready called "Tympalyn."
+
+Over this a thick sheet of manila paper is shrunk, it being pasted
+under clamps on the front of the cylinder, and carried around and
+fastened to hooks on a rod on the back. The rod is then turned until
+the sheet is perfectly tight and smooth.
+
+While the pressman is laying out his plates the feeder should be
+cutting thin sheets of paper the size of one of the plates. Some of
+these papers are cut about one inch shorter than the plates for
+"bevels," and these are pasted on the middle of the full-size pieces.
+These bevels and the larger "blank" sheets are to go between the
+plates and the blocks to overcome any variation there may be in the
+thickness and to make the surface of the form as nearly level as
+possible. The "bevels" raise the centres very slightly above the edges
+of the plate, thus reducing the pressure of the cylinder at the points
+of contact and departure, and saving the plates from wear.
+
+The cylinder being properly packed, and the form of blocks fastened on
+the press so that the impression of the form will come in the middle
+of the paper sheets, it is necessary to know whether the binder is to
+fold the sheets by hand or by machine, and if the latter, what kind of
+machine, as different ones require different "imposition" or
+arrangement of pages. This being decided, the plates are fastened on
+the blocks so arranged that when the sheet is cut and folded the pages
+of the book will run consecutively. Before levelling up the form with
+the bevels and blank sheets, the plates of all open or short pages, if
+any, are replaced with solid pages, as these sheets and underlay are
+to remain through the printing of all the forms of the book. The
+rollers are now put in the press and adjusted to just touch the inking
+table, the ink put on the rollers and distributed, and one impression
+printed on one of several sheets of thin paper which are run through
+the press together.[3] This printed sheet is then turned face down by
+the pressman and any unevenness of the impression noted. One of the
+printed pages is taken as a standard and by removing as many pieces of
+the thin sheets as necessary from under the plates where the
+impression is too heavy, and by adding where it is not heavy enough,
+the surface of the form is finally "evened," or made as nearly equal
+as possible.
+
+                   [Footnote 3: If one sheet of paper were run through
+                   the press before "making ready," it would not
+                   receive any impression, there being a space equal
+                   to the thickness of ten sheets of paper between the
+                   cylinder and the surface of the type. A bunch of
+                   six or eight sheets is therefore run through to get
+                   an impression for "make-ready" purposes.]
+
+After this another impression is taken, and of this sheet an
+"underlay" is made to further "even up" the form. The low places in
+the individual plates are carefully marked with crayon or a soft
+pencil on the impression, and the spots so marked are covered with a
+piece of thin paper. The printed pages are then cut out a little
+larger than the type page, and placed under the plates from which
+they were printed. The plates of the solid pages, which had been
+substituted for the open pages, are now removed, and the open pages
+are put back in their places on the form.
+
+Up to this point, all the "making ready" which has been done, is of
+permanent use in printing all of the forms of the book in question.
+The work that follows has to be done on each form as it is put on the
+press.
+
+More thin sheets of paper are now run through the press, the number
+run through together being one less than were printed for the
+underlay. These printed sheets are used for "overlays," which are very
+much like an underlay except that much more care is taken in marking
+any uneven places. A thinner paper is used to bring up the low places
+in the plates. An impression of the form is then made on the manila
+paper sheet which had, as before mentioned, been drawn around the
+cylinder, and on this printed manila sheet this overlay is pasted, the
+impression on the manila paper being a guide for the placing of the
+overlay.
+
+Another overlay is now made in the same way as the first; only it will
+now be found, if the work has been properly done, that there will be
+only a few spots to be covered with tissue. After this overlay has
+been made and the necessary pieces pasted over the first one, a thin
+sheet of manila is smoothly and tightly drawn around the cylinder,
+covering completely the thick manila sheet with the pasted overlays on
+it. The form is then ready to print.
+
+While the feeder, as the man who feeds the paper into the press is
+called, has been "filling in" the overlay, the pressman should have
+been getting "register,"--that is, moving the plates so that the
+headlines and the sides of the plates align properly, and that when
+both sides of the paper have been printed, the pages will exactly back
+each other. The ink fountain should also have been so regulated by
+means of thumb-screws that the right amount of ink will run on the
+rollers and be distributed evenly over the form. Where too much ink
+shows on the printed sheet, the thumb-screws on the fountain are
+tightened a little, to decrease the flow, and where not enough ink
+shows the thumb-screws are loosened to increase its flow. This process
+is repeated until the "color" is all right. The grippers, which seize
+and carry the sheets of paper through the press, the reels, cylinder
+bands, and many other things have also to be adjusted. These cannot
+well be described, but have to be learned by actual experience.
+
+The "making ready" and watching the sheets as they come from the press
+to see that the "color" does not vary, is the skilful part of the
+process. The feeding can be done by a bright boy after a few weeks'
+experience, but is now done automatically by machines to a great
+extent.
+
+While the press was being made ready, another set of men in charge of
+the paper have taken it out of the cases or bundles, counted out the
+number of sheets required for each form, piled it on hand trucks,
+keeping that required for each form separate, and have delivered it to
+the press. If a machine feeder is used, the paper is piled on the
+elevator of the feeder, from which it is automatically taken, one
+sheet at a time, and delivered on endless tapes to gauges on the feed
+board of the press, thus bringing every sheet in the same position
+each time. The number of sheets required for the order are printed
+from one form on one side and then from another form on the other
+side.
+
+From the preceding it can be seen that to get a press ready may be a
+matter of hours, while, in the case of ordinary book work, a press
+generally prints from 1200 to 2000 impressions and more per hour.
+
+The principal difference between making ready a form on a flat-bed
+perfecting press with two cylinders and on a single-cylinder press is
+in extra work necessary to obtain correct registering of the plates
+and in preventing an offset of the fresh ink on the second cylinder.
+Otherwise, a perfecting press is very much like two cylinder presses
+joined together. It has two sets of rollers, two ink fountains, two
+cylinders, two forms, etc., but only one feed board and one delivery.
+The sheet is fed to one cylinder and printed, taken from this
+cylinder by the second and printed on the second side, and delivered
+on the "fly board" ready to go to the shipping department.
+
+The process of making ready forms containing illustrations is
+practically the same as for plain ones, except that a new underlay is
+made for each form, and much more care and skill must be used on the
+cuts themselves. It frequently happens that one or even two days are
+spent making ready a form of half-tone cuts, before the actual
+printing, which takes perhaps half a day to do, can be begun.
+
+In most offices, a special "cut overlay" is made for forms with cuts,
+or illustrations. The cut is placed on a hand press before the form is
+made up, and proofs on four different thicknesses of paper are made.
+The heaviest paper is used as a bottom sheet, and the others are
+pasted on it. Out of the next to the thickest paper of all, the solid
+blacks are cut and pasted accurately on the same places on the bottom
+sheet. From the second or next thinner sheet, the medium shades
+including the solid blacks are cut and pasted on the bottom sheet,
+thus building up the blacks and strong shadows. From the thinnest
+sheet of all, the high lights and very light shades are cut, and the
+rest of the sheet is pasted on the bottom one. In this way the solid
+blacks and dark shadows on the cut have three thicknesses on the
+overlay; the next shades two, and the light shades one, where the high
+lights are cut out altogether. This is the common form of "cut
+overlay" used in most offices; but there are many other kinds, some
+being made on metal by chemical action. All kinds are fastened
+carefully over the impression of the cut made on the heavy manila
+sheet covering the cylinder, and the cut must not be moved on the form
+after the overlay has been fastened on the cylinder, or the effect of
+all the work will be entirely lost.
+
+One of the great troubles which the printer has to contend with, is
+electricity in the paper. The pressman is unaware of its presence
+until he lifts a printed sheet from the pile and receives a slight
+shock, and finds the sheets stick together. In the case of a cut form,
+the ink is almost sure to be offset, and in printing the second side
+of the paper the feeder will have to stop frequently to separate the
+sheets. Much money has been spent and many devices originated to
+overcome this trouble. Ink manufacturers make a liquid preparation to
+be applied to the packing. A row of lighted gas-jets placed near the
+point where the sheet goes on to the "flyboard," a heated steam-pipe,
+and many other things have been used, but a new device by which
+electricity is generated and carried into the press, and there
+neutralizes the electricity in the paper, is the best of them all.
+
+The printed sheets are counted automatically by the press, and as fast
+as enough accumulate, they are piled on hand trucks and removed to the
+shipping room. Here they are "jogged up" so that the edges are even
+and are counted again by hand. If they are to be shipped away, they
+are tied up in bundles or nailed in cases and marked for shipment. If
+the bindery is connected with the pressroom, they are simply jogged,
+counted, and piled on trucks and delivered in this way.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRINTING PRESS
+
+By Otto L. Raabe.
+
+
+Throughout the stages of development of the book-printing press the
+chief object has been to lessen the cost of printing. Whether the
+direct purpose of an improvement has been to increase the working
+speed of the press, to lessen the necessary operating power, to
+simplify the mechanism, to strengthen the parts, to lighten the
+pressman's labor, or to better the quality of printing, the ultimate
+aim has always been the same. It has been the constant incentive to
+invention and the standard for judging the adaptability of a press.
+
+The first printing press was the "wooden screw" press, which came into
+use about the middle of the fifteenth century, and was built upon the
+same mechanical principle as the linen presses in the homes of the
+well-to-do. This was the press used by Gutenberg.
+
+It consisted of two upright timbers held together at the top and the
+bottom by crosspieces of wood and with two intermediate cross-timbers.
+One of these intermediate cross-timbers supported a wooden or stone
+"bed" on which the form of type was placed, and through the other
+passed a large wooden screw, the lower point of which was attached to
+the centre of a flat, wooden plate, called the "platen." The lower
+side of the platen was covered with a soft "packing" or "blanket" of
+cloth. After the type had been inked, a sheet of paper was laid on it.
+This paper had previously been dampened so that it would take a better
+impression of the type. The screw was then turned down until the
+platen pressed the paper against the inked type, and produced a
+printed sheet.
+
+The form of type was incased in a frame called a "coffin." These
+coffins and the type within them were very heavy, but they had to be
+lifted in and out of the press by hand. After each impression the
+platen was screwed upward so that the sheet of paper which had been
+printed could be removed and hung up to dry.
+
+This simple form of press continued in use without material change
+until the early part of the seventeenth century. The first
+improvements on it came about 1620, and consisted of a device for
+rolling in and out the wooden or stone bed on which the type rested
+instead of lifting it by hand, of a new form of iron hand-lever for
+turning the screw, and of an iron screw in place of the wooden one.
+These were the inventions of William Janson Blaeuw, a printer of
+Amsterdam. Blaeuw's press was introduced into England and used there
+as well as on the continent. It was substantially the same press as
+that on which Benjamin Franklin worked when in London in 1735.
+
+After this first type of printing press had been in use for three and
+a half centuries, a much-improved form was invented by the Earl of
+Stanhope in 1798. The frame of his press was made of iron, cast in one
+piece; the bed, the impression plate, or "platen," and the other large
+parts were also of cast iron, while the working parts were of iron,
+steel, or brass. The iron impression screw was retained, but connected
+to it was a combination of levers whereby its power was greatly
+increased. This enabled the printing of larger forms and the use of a
+thinner and harder "packing," or "tympan," between the platen and the
+sheet of paper to be printed, resulting in a sharper and clearer
+impression. Much less exertion was required to work the lever, and at
+first, on this account, a printer, who was accustomed to use all his
+physical force on the old screw press, found it difficult to work on
+the new one.
+
+This improved style of press was received with so much favor by
+printers that several persons took up its manufacture, and competition
+soon reduced its cost and brought it into general use for printing
+newspapers as well as books. The process of printing remained about
+the same as in the earlier presses. Two men were required to work it.
+One spread the ink on a wooden block, rolling over it with two
+leather-covered balls, about six inches in diameter, stuffed with
+wool or horsehair, and fastened to round wooden handles. Holding one
+of these inking balls in each hand, he then rolled one upon the other
+to distribute the ink evenly over both of them, and applied the ink to
+the face of the type by rocking the balls over it until the entire
+form was inked. While this was being done, the other man was placing
+the sheet of paper on the "tympan." This was a light frame, in two
+parts, really forming two frames, one inside the other, and both
+covered with parchment. There was a woollen or felt blanket between
+them, and the two frames were held together by hooks. The outer frame
+was hinged at its lower end to the outer end of the bed of the press,
+and when ready to receive the paper, it stood in a nearly upright
+position at about right angles to the bed. On the frame were two or
+four pins, upon which the sheet of paper was impaled.
+
+Attached to the upper end of the inner frame by hinges was a thin and
+narrow frame, called the "frisket," of the same length and width as
+the inner tympan frame. This frisket was covered with strong paper in
+which were openings, cut a little larger than the size of the pages of
+the type-form. When the sheets of paper had been placed upon the
+tympan frame, the frisket was folded down upon it, and the two were
+then turned down over the form of type. The bed was then "run in"
+under the platen by means of a crank at the side of the press, and
+the platen was screwed down to make the impression. After the
+impression had been taken, the platen was screwed up, the bed "run
+out," the tympan frame and frisket lifted, and the printed sheet taken
+off.
+
+The introduction of this Stanhope press gave a great impetus to the
+development of the printing press in other countries as well as in
+England, and many varieties were devised during the thirty years
+following. Although as early as 1811 Koenig had made a cylinder press
+which had proved fairly successful, the better grades of printing
+could be obtained only by the flat pressure of the hand-presses. In
+some of these hand presses, the platen, or upper impression plate, was
+moved into position over the bed and remained stationary while the bed
+with the type-form upon it was forced upward to make the impression.
+In others, the platen was hinged to the bed, but in all of them the
+mechanism was complicated.
+
+The "Columbian" press, devised by George Clymer, of Philadelphia, in
+1816, gained considerable distinction both in this country and in
+England, where it was introduced in 1818. It differed from the
+Stanhope in that the screw was dispensed with, the platen being
+depressed by a combination of levers and lifted by the aid of a
+weighted balance-lever.
+
+The reduction of the hand-lever movement to its simplest and most
+powerful form is now seen in the Washington hand press, devised by
+Samuel Rust, of New York, in 1827. His patent was later purchased by
+R. Hoe & Co., who made nearly seven thousand of these presses in
+different sizes and still make many of a greatly strengthened pattern
+for taking fine proofs from photo-engraved plates. Some of these
+presses made before 1850 are still in use, and occasionally one hears
+of a Washington hand press being used for printing upon handmade paper
+an edition of a small and limited number of copies of a book. Of all
+the hand presses, this is the only one that has survived to the
+present day.
+
+With the introduction of other means for applying power than the
+hand-lever, a distinction came to be drawn between printing _presses_
+and printing _machines_. The term "machine" might perhaps be more
+appropriately used for the huge printing presses of the present day,
+yet, as the first essential is the impression power, all other
+features being subordinate, the term "press" is still the proper one
+to apply, even to the greatest combination of printing units yet
+devised.
+
+The "bed and platen" system of printing as first used in hand presses
+occupies such an important place in the history of the book-printing
+press that a further description of its career is necessary.
+
+In December, 1806, Friedrich Koenig, a Saxon, who later gave to the
+world the first practical cylinder press, went from Germany to England
+to seek assistance in carrying out his plans for the construction of
+a greatly improved printing press, having failed in his efforts in his
+own country and in Russia. He succeeded in enlisting the support of
+Thomas Bensley, a London printer, and constructed a press in which all
+the operations but laying on and taking off of the sheet were
+performed mechanically.
+
+An accurate description of this press is not extant, but it is known
+to have consisted of a large wooden frame, a platen worked by a
+vertical screw and gears, a type-bed drawn forward and backward by
+means of straps fastened to a large roller underneath the bed, a
+tympan frame and frisket arranged to open and close automatically with
+the movement of the bed, and an inking apparatus, consisting of an
+ink-box with a narrow slit in the bottom through which the ink was
+forced by a piston upon a roller below, from which it was transmitted
+by two intermediate rollers to another and lower roller which inked
+the form as it passed underneath. The two intermediate rollers had an
+alternating, lateral motion which spread or distributed the ink
+sideways before it reached the lowest roller.
+
+This press was the first to have ink-distributing rollers and the
+first to be run by steam power. In April, 1811, the "Annual Register"
+for 1810 was printed on it by Mr. Bensley at the rate of eight hundred
+impressions an hour. Nothing further is recorded about this press, and
+it was probably abandoned as being too complicated.
+
+In the following year, Koenig's first cylinder press was completed, to
+be followed two years later by an improved cylinder press made for the
+_London Times_, which will be referred to farther on.
+
+In his experiments, the Earl of Stanhope had tried, without success,
+to find a substitute for inking-balls by making rollers covered with
+different kinds of skins. He also tried other materials, such as
+cloth, silk, etc., but the unavoidable seam and the impossibility of
+keeping these materials soft and pliable defeated his purpose. About
+1813 inking-rollers made of a composition of glue and molasses came
+into general use, and this important invention was of great assistance
+in the further improvement of the printing press.
+
+Other cylinder presses with mechanical inking appliances were devised
+and patented, the most notable of which were those of Rutt, Bacon,
+Cowper, Applegath, and Napier, but the mechanical imperfections of
+these presses unfitted them for the better grades of book printing.
+
+Further efforts were, therefore, directed to increasing the output of
+the bed and platen presses by the application of improved inking
+devices, sheet-feeding, and impression mechanisms. About 1825 there
+was constructed by D. Napier, a machinist in London, a press
+containing such appliances which produced six to seven hundred
+impressions an hour. Other presses constructed upon the same
+principle, but with two type-beds, two sets of friskets, two inking
+mechanisms--and only one platen, in the centre of the press--were made
+by Hopkinson & Cope and by Napier, and were known as "double platen
+machines," though this is really a misnomer as there was only one
+platen.
+
+Napier's invention achieved the greatest popularity and came into
+general use. At each end of his press there was an inking device, a
+type-bed, and a frisket, each set of which operated alternately with
+the other, but either could be made inoperative if the "feeder," or
+"layer-on," failed to place the sheet in time. Four boys, besides the
+printer, were required--two to lay on, and two to take off the sheets.
+
+When the type-bed and the frisket carrying the sheet of paper were in
+position under the platen, the latter was drawn downward to make the
+impression by means of a "toggle" joint which acted upon two strong
+rods, one on each side, and was then raised again by a counterbalance
+weight. Owing to the awkward method of handling the paper, the working
+speed of the press was necessarily slow, and the size of the sheets
+limited to double royal, or 25 x 40 inches.
+
+The best presses of this type were those devised and patented by Isaac
+Adams, of Boston, in 1830 and 1836, and by Otis Tufts, also of Boston,
+in 1834. R. Hoe & Co., of New York, acquired Adams' business in 1858
+and continued the manufacture of his presses. Over one thousand in
+many different sizes were made by this firm, the largest printing a
+sheet 33 x 46 inches at a working speed of one thousand impressions an
+hour. The last Adams press was made in 1882, but quite a number are
+still in use in prominent printing-offices in New York, Boston, and a
+few other cities, where the results on fine book work are still
+considered better than from the faster cylinder presses. The
+mechanical principle employed in the Adams press for exerting a flat,
+parallel pressure has now been generally adopted for heavy stamping
+and embossing presses.
+
+To go back to the early part of the nineteenth century, when Koenig
+found his bed and platen press impracticable, he immediately set to
+work, assisted by one of his countrymen, Andreas Bauer, a mechanic who
+had helped him formerly, and in the latter part of 1812, the first
+flat-bed cylinder press was erected by them in Bensley's office. The
+cylinder of this press had three impression surfaces with spaces
+between them, and each covered with a soft blanket. With each forward
+movement of the type-bed the cylinder made one-third of a revolution
+and then came to a standstill, while the bed returned to its
+starting-point. The spaces between the impression surfaces allowed the
+type-form to pass under the cylinder without touching the blankets. At
+the end of the cylinder and at equal distances along its circumference
+were hinged three frisket frames, each fitted with tapes having reel
+springs at one end. The frisket frame of the uppermost impression
+surface rested in a vertically inclined position against the high
+framework of the inking mechanism. The sheet of paper was placed upon
+the blanket, and the cylinder then turned forward, drawing the frisket
+frame down with it, while the tapes, kept taut by the reel springs,
+adjusted themselves to the curvature of the cylinder and held the
+sheet upon it. After one-third of a revolution, the cylinder came to a
+stop to let the type-bed return. On the next forward movement of the
+bed and the next one-third of a revolution of the cylinder, the
+impression was made, and on the next repetition of these movements,
+the sheet was taken off by hand, and the cylinder returned to its
+original position to have another sheet placed on the first frisket.
+At every complete revolution of the cylinder and three complete
+reciprocating movements of the bed, three sheets were printed.
+
+The inking mechanism was similar to that employed on the bed and
+platen press, but the mechanism for forcing the ink through the slit
+in the bottom of the fountain was improved. The inking-rollers were
+covered with leather as before. The type-bed was moved by a very
+ingenious mechanism which is in use even at the present time, and is
+described farther on, when the two-revolution press is mentioned. The
+different parts were not connected with each other, the cylinder, the
+type-bed, the inking-rollers, and the fountain being operated
+independently by separate driving mechanisms. This press printed eight
+hundred sheets an hour, on one side. A part of Clarkson's "Life of
+William Penn" was printed on this press, and was the first book ever
+printed on a cylinder press.
+
+Printers and publishers were sceptical as to the practical value of
+this novel invention, but Mr. John Walter, the proprietor of the
+_London Times_, with better foresight than the others, and needing
+increased facilities for printing his paper, contracted for two
+presses, each to have two impression cylinders. These were constructed
+for him with great secrecy in a building adjoining the pressroom of
+the _Times_, and on November 28, 1814, the entire edition of that
+paper was printed on them,--the first cylinder presses driven by steam
+power.
+
+The mechanical principles were the same as in the first cylinder
+press. There were two impression cylinders, but only one type-bed, and
+the latter had, therefore, to travel a greater distance than in the
+single-cylinder press. This made it impossible to obtain quite double
+the output of the single-cylinder press, but each of these new presses
+produced eleven hundred impressions an hour, a very respectable
+performance for that early stage. The threefold motion of the
+cylinders was retained, but the frisket frames were displaced, and
+tapes running over rollers and underneath the cylinders held the
+sheets against the impression surfaces. An improvement was also made
+in the inking mechanism by the addition of an intermediate roller
+between the fountain and the upper distributing cylinder roller.
+
+The next step in advance was the construction of the first of the
+so-called perfecting presses, which was patented, December 24, 1814,
+and erected in Mr. Bensley's office in 1815 or 1816. This press had
+two type-beds and two impression cylinders, one of each near either
+end of the press. The cylinders instead of having a threefold motion
+revolved continuously. The circumference of each corresponded
+approximately to the distance traversed by one of the beds. The part
+of the cylinder which made the impression was a little larger in
+diameter than the remainder, the low portion giving the necessary room
+for the type-bed to return without touching it. The board from which
+the sheets were "fed" was near the centre of the press, and at the top
+adjoining the feed board was an endless belt made of cloth as wide as
+the board and running with an intermittent motion over two rollers.
+
+The sheet of paper was laid upon this belt, which then moved forward,
+carrying the sheet between the tapes and leading it to the top of,
+down and around, the first cylinder where it received the first
+impression. Thence the sheet was conveyed by the tapes to the top of
+and around the second impression cylinder and was printed on the
+reverse side, that is "perfected," and it was then taken from the
+lower side of the second cylinder by hand and laid upon a board in the
+centre of the press, between the two impression cylinders and
+underneath the feed board. This press printed both sides of a sheet
+21 x 34-1/2 inches at a speed of nine hundred to one thousand an hour.
+
+Shortly afterward a single-cylinder press was constructed upon the
+same principle, the forerunner of what is now known as the single
+large or drum cylinder press.
+
+Within the next few years, Applegath and Cowper greatly simplified the
+presses in the _Times_ and in Bensley's office by removing many of the
+gear wheels. They also invented the first inking-table, a flat, iron
+plate attached to the type-bed which enabled the rollers to distribute
+the ink more evenly than before. They placed rollers at an angle
+across the ink-table and introduced the revolving roller and the
+scraping blade in the ink-fountain.
+
+More important, however, were Napier's inventions about 1824, of
+"grippers" which seized the sheet of paper at its front edge and drew
+it from the feed board, while the cylinder was in motion, and of a
+method of alternately depressing and raising the impression cylinders
+on the forward and backward stroke of the type-bed, making it
+unnecessary to have a part of the cylinders of smaller diameter than
+the rest to allow the type to pass under it as the bed returned. This
+made it possible to use cylinders of a smaller diameter. These
+improvements were first embodied in a perfecting press made for
+Hansard, a London printer.
+
+Although a number of presses were already being operated by steam
+power, Hansard, in his description of the Napier bed and platen press
+(the "Nay-Peer," he called it) finds a peculiar advantage in that "it
+supersedes the necessity of steam power, as the motion of this machine
+is gained by two men turning a fly-wheel which acts as the impelling
+power."
+
+I have described the development of the printing press up to this
+state with considerable detail, because it discloses the main
+principles of the book press of the present day. During the first
+quarter of the last century, the manufacture of cylinder presses was
+confined to England, not only because London was then the leading
+centre of civilization, but because nowhere else could be found the
+mechanical facilities for constructing the large metal frames and
+parts. Koenig left London for his native land in 1817, dejected by the
+treatment he had received at the hands of Bensley, both in financial
+matters and in the attempts to disparage his achievements. He was
+followed two years later by his friend Bauer, and together they
+founded the firm of Koenig & Bauer at Oberzell, where it still thrives
+as one of the largest factories in Germany.
+
+It was not long, however, before the United States took the lead in
+the number of presses manufactured as well as in their improvement,
+and the present high state of efficiency of American presses makes
+them models which are copied in all other countries. These
+improvements and the perfections of details often presented problems
+which were more difficult to solve than those of the earlier
+inventors, and thousands of patents have been granted to Americans for
+new and ingenious devices.
+
+The firm of R. Hoe & Co., which as early as 1822 was already engaged
+in the manufacture of hand-presses in New York, commenced about 1832
+to manufacture flat-bed cylinder presses, beginning with the single
+large or drum cylinder press which was followed soon afterward by the
+single small cylinder and the double small cylinder press, the
+flat-bed perfecting press, the stop-cylinder press, the two-revolution
+press, and the rotary book press. They also made and are still making
+large newspaper and color presses which are used all over the
+civilized world, but of these we will not treat here.
+
+As stated at the beginning of this article the chief object in press
+making has always been to lessen the cost of printing, but after
+increased speed had been attained, there came a demand for a press
+that would produce the finest quality of printing without sacrificing
+the quantity produced.
+
+To meet this no press has ever surpassed the stop cylinder. It has
+been made in several different sizes, the largest having a type-bed
+45 x 65 inches. Resting upon and attached to a heavy iron foundation
+are two iron side frames which are securely braced together by an
+upper iron frame, called the "rib." This upper frame contains four
+tracks faced with hard steel, on which run a series of friction
+rollers, supporting the iron type-bed. Attached to the front of the
+type-bed is an iron plate, called the ink-table, its surface level
+with the surface of the type-form as it lies upon the bed.
+
+At the front of the press is the ink-fountain and a number of steel
+and composition rollers, called the "distributing rollers." The ink is
+delivered a little at a time from the fountain to the revolving
+distributing rollers, and from them to the ink-table which moves under
+the rollers with the motion of the type-bed. By this means the ink is
+distributed upon the entire surface of the ink-table in a thin, even
+film. From the ink-table the ink is taken by a set of six rollers,
+called the "form rollers." Resting on the form rollers and moving in
+contact with them are additional rollers which help to distribute the
+ink still finer before it reaches the type.
+
+The impression cylinder is located at a distance from the front of the
+press of about two-thirds of the entire length of the press. The
+circumference of the cylinder is equal to the distance that the
+type-bed travels in one direction. When the type-bed moves from the
+front to the rear, the cylinder rotates in unison with it, and thus
+the cylinder makes one revolution. While the bed returns the cylinder
+does not move.
+
+Near the rear of the press is a large wooden board extending across
+the press and lying in a slightly inclined position with its lower
+edge almost directly above the centre of the impression cylinder. This
+is the "feed board" upon which the sheets of paper lie before they are
+printed. The impression cylinder has a set of grippers, and when the
+cylinder is at rest, these grippers are close to the edge of the feed
+board and stand open to receive the edge of the sheet of paper.
+Extending a little over the front of the feed board are two gauges
+against which the front edge of the sheet of paper is placed, while
+one side edge of the sheet is placed against a gauge at the side of
+the feed board. Just an instant before the cylinder commences to
+rotate, the grippers seize the front edge of the sheet, and the gauges
+lift out of the way. The cylinder then carries the sheet around, meets
+the moving inked form, and makes the impression. Before the cylinder
+completes its revolution, the grippers open and release the sheet, and
+at the same instant another set of grippers on an adjoining cylinder,
+called the "delivery cylinder," seize the sheet. From this delivery
+cylinder the sheet runs down over a set of strings, and is lifted off
+the strings by a sort of fan, or "sheet flier," and deposited on a
+table at the rear of the press. This method of delivering the sheets
+is known as the cylinder or rear delivery. This press may also be
+fitted for "front delivery." By this method the sheet of paper after
+being printed is carried around on the impression cylinder until the
+front edge comes again to the feeding point. Just as the impression
+cylinder comes to a stop, a set of grippers seize the front edge of
+the printed sheet, draw it over and away from the impression cylinder,
+and deposit it, with the printed side up, upon a table near the front
+of the press and above the ink-fountain and distributing rollers.
+
+The average speed of one of these presses is from one thousand to
+fifteen hundred impressions an hour, depending upon the desired
+quality of the work.
+
+Notwithstanding the excellent qualities of the stop-cylinder press,
+commercial necessities often demand a sacrifice of quality to speed,
+and this has brought the two-revolution press into very general use.
+As the name implies, the cylinder makes two revolutions, one to print
+the sheet, and the other, an idle one, to allow the bed to return.
+While the bed is returning, the impression cylinder is lifted to clear
+the type-form. As the cylinder rotates continually at a uniform speed,
+the type-bed must also travel at a constant speed. The reversal of the
+movements of the bed must, therefore, take place in a short space of
+time.
+
+The study of inventors has been concentrated upon this subject more
+than upon any other connected with flat-bed presses, and hundreds of
+patents for "bed motions" have been taken out. Considering the fact
+that in the larger presses the weight of the bed and form is about one
+and a half tons and that this weight moving at a speed of about six
+feet in a second must be brought to a full stop and put into motion
+again in the opposite direction at full speed in about one-quarter of
+a second, it is obvious that the problem was not an easy one,
+especially when the reversal of the bed must be accomplished without a
+jar or vibration. The mechanism employed has always been a driving
+gear and one or two toothed racks. In Koenig's original movement, the
+driving gear on the end of a rising and falling shaft ran on top of a
+rack attached to the bottom of the bed in order to drive the bed in
+one direction, and then descending around the end of the rack ran in
+the bottom to the same rack to drive the bed in the other direction
+and ascending at the other end to repeat the movement. This, as
+already stated, has proven a very efficient mechanism and is employed,
+with improvements, by some of the press manufacturers of the present
+time.
+
+In a pamphlet entitled "A Short History of the Printing Press" (New
+York, 1902), by Robert Hoe, the writer describes a method of reversing
+the bed. Although somewhat technical, it seems desirable to quote him
+as follows: "As early as 1847, Hoe & Co. patented an entirely new
+bed-driving mechanism. To a hanger fixed on the lower side of the bed
+were attached two racks facing each other, but not in the same
+vertical plane, and separated by a distance equal to the diameter of
+the driving wheel, which was on a horizontal shaft and movable
+sideways so as to engage in either one or other of the racks. By this
+means, a uniform movement was obtained in each direction. The reversal
+of the bed was accomplished by a roller at either end of the bed
+entering a recess in a disc on the driving shaft, which in a
+half-revolution brought the bed to a stop and started it in the
+opposite direction. This involved a new principle; a crank action
+operating directly upon the bed from a shaft having a fixed centre,
+and within recent years modifications of this patent have been
+successfully employed to drive the type-bed at a high velocity and
+reverse it without a shock or vibration."
+
+This invention appears to have been the forerunner of the more recent
+improvements in bed motions. A notable one is that employed in the
+Miehle presses, which have gained much celebrity, run at a high rate
+of speed, and are used in many printing-offices in this and other
+countries. The reversal of the bed movement is accomplished by a
+so-called "true crank" movement and with an absence of jar and
+vibration never before obtained in any other than the stop-cylinder
+presses.
+
+At the present time, the latest development in printing presses is Hoe
+& Co.'s new two-revolution press, in which, also, the reversal of the
+bed is accomplished by the true crank movement, but with an
+improvement which brings it to an easy stop and returns it without the
+least vibration.
+
+On all two-revolution presses there are employed, to assist in the
+reversal of the bed, air-chambers or cylinders, without which the
+reversing mechanisms could not withstand the enormous strain to which
+they are subjected. These are iron cylinders, closed at one end,
+approximately six inches in diameter and eighteen inches long, and
+varying in size according to the size of the press. Some presses have
+two and others four of these cylinders, one or two at each end. The
+open ends of the cylinders are toward the bed, and attached to the bed
+are two or four pistons which enter the air-chambers as the bed nears
+the end of its stroke. The compression of the air in the cylinders
+makes a cushion and checks the momentum of the moving bed. The pistons
+can be adjusted to regulate the air compression to suit the velocity
+of the bed and the weight of the form, which vary in different kinds
+of work.
+
+The delivery of the printed sheets is performed either by a delivery
+cylinder or by a front delivery with the printed side of the paper
+uppermost as already described for the stop-cylinder presses. Grippers
+are not used in the front delivery carriage, as the sheet is
+discharged from the cylinder by its continuous rotation.
+
+The average running speed of a two-revolution press is about one-third
+greater than that of a stop cylinder, or about eighteen hundred
+impressions an hour, as against from one thousand to thirteen hundred
+and fifty impressions from the stop cylinder, this being the
+comparison in presses of the average size, printing sheets about
+33 x 46 inches. The driving power required is in the proportion of
+about five for the two-revolution press to three for the stop
+cylinder, and the wear and tear is in about the same proportion.
+
+Another press, which is still employed to a small extent for
+book-work, is the flat-bed perfecting press. This press is virtually
+two two-revolution presses combined into one, with the advantage that
+they require only one man as "feeder," but with the disadvantage that
+they produce only about two-thirds as much work as two separate
+single-cylinder, two-revolution presses. Their greatest disadvantage
+lies in the difficulty of preventing the fresh ink on the side of the
+sheet first printed from "setting off" on the packing of the cylinder
+which prints the reverse or second side. Mechanisms are employed to
+move the "tympan sheet" or outside covering of the second cylinder
+along at fixed intervals, but they are complicated and troublesome.
+These presses are expensive and cumbersome, and can generally be used
+only for inferior grades of work in large editions. Under the care of
+a skilful and painstaking pressman, good work can be produced from
+them, but fine book-work is always done on stop-cylinder and
+two-revolution, single-cylinder presses, which have now been brought
+to a high state of perfection.
+
+Nearly a hundred years ago Hansard wrote, "The printing machine in its
+present state appears susceptible of little improvement." He was, in
+truth, right so far as the main principles of the flat-bed cylinder
+press are concerned, but there have been immense improvements in many
+of the details. With the introduction of automatic sheet-feeding
+devices, and improvements in the driving, inking, and delivery
+arrangements, mechanical ingenuity seems to have been exhausted. The
+temptation is strong to apply Hansard's prediction to the flat-bed
+cylinder press of the present day, but with the many surprises that
+meet us in other fields this would border on temerity.
+
+Already there have been great advances in adapting the entirely rotary
+principle to the printing of high-grade work, although its use is
+still restricted to the production of large editions.
+
+As early as 1852 Hoe & Co. made a rotary press for D. Appleton & Co.,
+especially for printing the famous Webster spelling-book. The types
+were locked up on the cylinders in curved beds, called "turtles," and
+the sheets were delivered by a sheet-flier. Probably thirty million
+copies were printed on this press, which was dismantled nearly
+twenty-six years ago.
+
+In 1886 this same concern made a press which is still used for
+printing some of the forms of the _Century Magazine_. This press had
+two pairs of cylinders, and curved electrotype plates were used on it.
+The paper was in a roll at one end, and at the other end there were
+delivered, to each revolution of the cylinders, eight eight-page
+signatures already folded to the size of the _Century_ page. This was
+the first rotary press made for a good grade of book-work. Two similar
+presses were afterward made for _Harper's Weekly_ and for the _Strand
+Magazine_ of London.
+
+What is known as the rotary art press was made in 1890 for printing
+the fine half-tone illustrations in the _Century Magazine_.
+
+This has one plate cylinder and one impression cylinder, and curved
+electrotype plates are used. The sheets are "fed" by hand in the usual
+manner, and are printed on one side at a time and delivered by a
+sheet-flier. It produces as much work as four flat-bed cylinder
+presses and of better quality. The plates are inked by sixteen
+rollers. The performance of this press is another demonstration of the
+superiority of the rotary over the flat-bed principle of printing.
+
+Since then hundreds of rotary presses have been made for magazine and
+book printing, most of them equipped with attachments for folding the
+sheets as they are printed, and all having a high rate of speed. C.
+B. Cottrell & Co. have made many rotary presses for magazine printing,
+most of which deliver the sheets flat, without folding, and most of
+them made to suit some predetermined size or sizes of sheets or pages.
+
+In the evolution of the printing press there are three sharply defined
+stages: first, the flat impression surface and the flat printing
+surface, requiring the exertion of all of the impressing power upon
+the entire surfaces; second, the cylindrical impression surface and
+the flat printing surface, requiring the exertion of all of the
+impressing power upon only a narrow line or a small portion of the
+printing surface; third, a cylindrical impression surface and a
+cylindrical printing surface, still further reducing the area upon
+which all the impressing power is exerted.
+
+Just as the second stage has, particularly for book-work, virtually
+superseded the first, so the third is destined to supersede the
+second. It is only an adaptation of the means to the ends. The
+mechanical principles of the rotary press are, in fact, simpler than
+those of the flat-bed cylinder press, and it may be said that so far
+as the purely mechanical part of the press is concerned, they have
+been fully developed, but much still remains to be done in other
+directions. The variety in the sizes of the pages of different books,
+the smallness of the editions, and the fact that the finer grades of
+paper, especially coated paper, cannot be obtained in roll form, are
+obstacles to be removed. As most book forms are electrotyped for
+flat-bed presses, and as it requires but little additional expense to
+curve the plates, this one item is not much of an obstacle to
+overcome. It is, however, still difficult to curve the plates
+perfectly, and the pressmen, even if they can produce excellent work
+from flat-bed presses, require considerable training if they have had
+no experience on rotary presses. All these difficulties are sure to be
+overcome in time.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING INK
+
+By James A. Ullman.
+
+
+The process of making printing ink consists of grinding a pigment,
+black, white, or colored, into a suitable varnish. The pigment is that
+constituent which makes the impression visible, while the varnish is
+the vehicle which carries the pigment during the operation of grinding
+and during its distribution on the press to the type, from the type to
+the paper, and ultimately binds it to the paper.
+
+A complete factory for the production of printing ink consequently
+consists of three distinct plants,--one for the production of the
+varnishes, one for the manufacture of the pigments, and one for the
+grinding of the pigments into the varnishes.
+
+Roughly speaking, the varnishes are divided into three classes, the
+first and second of which are the varnishes proper, _i.e._ the resin
+and the linseed varnishes, while the third class consists of dryers,
+etc., whose purpose is to influence the drying and consistency of the
+inks.
+
+Taking up first the proper varnishes, we find that these are produced
+by the destructive distillation of resin in huge cast-iron stills. By
+this process, the solid resin of colophony is split up into water,
+various resinic acids or naphthas, and resin oils of various specific
+gravities and consistencies, all of which are separated from each
+other into separate containers which are ready to receive them. As one
+distillation is not sufficient to purify the resin oils from the water
+and acid, which would not only give the resulting ink an obnoxious
+odor but be detrimental to type, plates, etc., the distillation is
+repeated a number of times until the oils become perfectly pure. The
+grades of varnishes made from these resin oils are used for the
+cheaper classes of printing inks, not only on account of their lower
+cost, but because they are more suitable for the class of work for
+which such inks are used.
+
+The linseed varnishes are made by boiling refined linseed oils at a
+very high temperature. The linseed oil loses its acrid elements by
+volatilization, and gradually becomes thick and viscous, the various
+"numbers" or consistencies of these varnishes being dependent upon the
+length of time during which the oil is subjected to the process, and
+to the temperature applied.
+
+The dryers are made by adding to the linseed oil during the boiling,
+suitable oxidizing agents, such as compounds of lead or manganese, by
+means of which the oil is chemically affected, _i.e._ it is oxidized.
+Such dryers, when added to printing ink, attracts the oxygen of the
+air and transfer it by catalytic action to the varnish of the ink,
+thus causing it to oxidize more rapidly, or to become, as it is
+commonly called, dry.
+
+Having disposed of the manufacture of the varnishes and dryers, we now
+come to the manufacture of pigments. This is such a large field that
+it can be only cursorily covered within the limits of a short article.
+The pigments are of many kinds and classes. The blacks alone would
+form a large chapter by themselves; yet all of them consist of carbon,
+produced by the combustion of hydrocarbons of various kinds, and
+according to their origin they are the so-called carbon blacks, lamp
+blacks, spirit blacks, oil blacks, Frankfort blacks, etc., each of
+which has its distinct and peculiar properties and value for its
+specific purpose.
+
+The other pigments fall naturally into two divisions,--chemical colors
+and the so-called "lakes." The chemical colors are in general of
+mineral origin, produced by the action of one chemical upon the other,
+or in some cases by physical or chemical action upon earths and ores.
+In the first group, we have such colors as vermilions, white lead,
+chrome yellows, the ferrocyanide blues (Milori blues, bronze blues,
+Prussian blues, Chinese blues, Antwerp blues, Paris blues, Berlin
+blues), ultramarines, etc.; in the second group, such colors as
+cyanides, umbers, Indian red, and many others.
+
+The lakes are principally formed by the use of coal-tar derivatives,
+and are usually incorrectly grouped as anilines. They are produced by
+precipitating water-soluble dyes upon a suitable substratum or base.
+Their shades, strength, brilliancy, permanency, and working qualities
+are dependent upon the nature of the dye itself, upon the nature and
+percentage of the substratum or base, and also upon the suitable
+selection and manipulation of the precipitating agents. This class of
+colors is to-day by far the most important of all, since through great
+progress made in chemistry in recent years, it is possible to make
+them of the greatest possible strength and permanency, together with a
+brilliancy of shade which was for many years an ideal earnestly
+striven for, but apparently impossible to accomplish.
+
+Having thus considered the products which are the principal raw
+materials of printing ink, we now come to the ink itself. Being
+provided with all the varnishes, pigments, dryers, etc., of suitable
+qualities and shades, it is necessary to combine them in proper
+proportions, after selecting such as will be mutually compatible, and
+to grind them to the utmost fineness. The machinery to accomplish this
+purpose consists, first, of mixers, in which the ingredients are
+thoroughly incorporated with each other. This being done, the
+resulting mixture or "pulp," as it is called, is ground upon mills
+formed of rollers or cylinders, which are set in close contact by
+means of screws and made to revolve by power. Between these rollers
+the pulp is passed again and again, the number of times being
+dependent upon the consistency of the ink and the nature of the
+pigments, until it is ground or comminuted to the utmost fineness. The
+result is printing ink as it is known to the printer, varying in
+consistency, strength, intensity, permanency, brilliancy, drying, and
+other working qualities, according to the nature of the various
+varnishes, dryers, and pigments with which it is made.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRINTER'S ROLLER
+
+By Albert S. Burlingham.
+
+
+Notwithstanding the fact that no one thing connected with the art of
+printing has done more toward the advancement of that art than the
+simple inking appliance familiarly and commonly known as "the
+printer's roller,"--without which, indeed, the evolution of the power
+printing press from the primitive hand machines of the fathers would
+not have been possible,--it is an inexplicable truth that historians
+and encyclopaedia makers who have made investigation of the origin and
+progress of the art seem to have attached so little of importance to
+the invention or introduction of the composition roller that only
+meagre and casual reference is made to it. Even its predecessor, the
+"ink-ball," receives but scant courtesy at the hands of these
+chroniclers, for while they enter into the minutest detail (and
+properly so) in investigating as to whom the world is indebted for the
+idea of movable types and the invention of the printing press, they
+have not thought it worth their while to rescue from oblivion the
+suggester or adapter or constructor--whatever he may have been--of
+the device by which those types were inked to receive the impression
+from that press, and without which neither types nor press would have
+been of any avail.
+
+It seems to be established beyond doubt, however, that the first
+suggestion of a roller to take the place of the ink-balls in applying
+ink to type forms was that of William Nicholson, with whom, also, the
+idea of the cylinder press originated, in 1790. He recognized the fact
+that no power press on the cylinder principle could be of practical
+use without an inking apparatus different from the primitive
+ink-balls. These were hollowed-out blocks of beech, mounted with a
+handle, the cavity stuffed with wool and covered with untanned
+sheepskin which had been well trodden until it was soft and pliable.
+
+The early printing presses were made of wood, and two men were
+required to work a press--one to make the impressions and one to ink
+the forms with the balls. The ink was contained in a receptacle called
+the ink-table. It was enclosed on three sides, and was attached firmly
+to one post, or cheek, of the press, on which were the racks for
+holding the ink-balls when not in use. A beechen implement, resembling
+somewhat our potato masher, and called the "brayer," was used to
+manipulate the ink as it lay on the table; an iron shovel, known as
+the "slicer," being used to portion out from the mass of ink such
+quantities as were needed from time to time for the brayer.
+
+It required much strength to manipulate the ink-balls properly, and
+thus it was a man's work. Taking up ink with them from the table, the
+operator vigorously beat the balls together with a rolling movement,
+turning them a little at a time so as to make the ink cover the entire
+surface and distribute it perfectly thereon. Then the type-forms were
+beaten with them until they were properly inked. The work of printing
+off an edition was divided between the two men, one manipulating the
+ink-balls for an hour, and then taking his turn at the press, while
+for the next hour his fellow-workman attended to the inking.
+
+William Nicholson, seeing at once that the idea of a cylinder press
+could never be worked out to practical perfection with such a process
+of inking as that, built up an inking roller with manifold layers of
+cloth, which he covered with the trodden sheep-pelt surface used in
+the ink-balls, the distribution of the ink on the roller to be made by
+contact with a revolving cylinder of wood. The idea was there, but
+that it would have had the intended result was never known, for
+although Nicholson's press contained nearly all the principles on
+which the cylinder presses of our day are constructed, it lacked one
+vital feature--the attaching of the type-forms to the cylinders--and
+was consequently not of any practical use.
+
+The Earl of Stanhope, who, in 1798, invented the first iron frame and
+"platen" press, with the improvement of levers in addition to screws
+to give the impression, coupled with his object Nicholson's idea of an
+inking roller or revolving cylinder. He spent large sums in trying to
+find a substance that he could utilize for that purpose. He
+investigated with the skins of many animals, domestic and wild, and
+tanned and dressed in various ways. Different textures of cloth and
+varieties of silk were used, but without success. The seam that was
+necessary down the entire length of the roller was one great
+impediment to success, and even if that could have been overcome, the
+proper softness and pliability of surface for receiving and depositing
+the ink evenly and smoothly on the type could not be obtained from any
+of the processes experimented with; and Stanhope's improvement in
+printing presses was still subject to the inconvenience of the ancient
+ink-balls.
+
+In 1807 a printer named Maxwell made a sheepskin roller which he
+introduced into Philadelphia. It failed of success, and the printers
+returned to the ink-balls. This Maxwell roller was reintroduced by
+Fanshaw, a New York printer, in 1815, but the printers of that city
+rejected it.
+
+The inventors in England were still busily engaged in trying to solve
+the problem of the cylinder press that Nicholson had more than
+suggested in 1790, and the one great obstacle to success was the
+absence of a proper substance for supplying the need of an inking
+roller, the difficulty of the type and cylinder having been overcome
+by the invention of the "turtle" form. In 1813 a man whose name one
+historian gives as B. Foster, another as T. B. Foster, and to whom
+another refers as "Forster, an ingenious printer, employed by S.
+Hamilton, at Weymouth, England," one day visited the Staffordshire
+pottery. In a coloring process in use there Forster, or Foster,
+noticed a peculiar composition that covered the surface of the
+potter's "dabber." It was moist, pliable, and elastic. The historians
+do not say so, but we may well imagine that this "ingenious printer,"
+seeing in that composition what he believed to be the long-sought
+substance that would do away with the sheep pelt as an inking device,
+with all that implied to the progress of the art of printing, must
+have awaited with feelings of acute anxiety the answer of the potter
+to his query as to what that composition was.
+
+And what was it? "Glue and treacle,"--two of the simplest of articles,
+and the easiest to obtain. The printer experimented with them, and
+although he was the first to put to practical use in the art of
+printing the thing that revolutionized it and advanced it to its
+present state of wonderful perfection, yet so far as the printed
+chronicle of him goes, we do not know what his Christian name was, or
+whether his surname was Foster or Forster; and one chronicler states
+that it was in 1813, and another that it was in 1815, that he
+discovered roller composition to his fellow-printers.
+
+The collateral evidence, however, is to the effect that it was in
+1813. Forster (admitting that to have been his name), proved the
+availability of glue and molasses as an inking surface, not by using
+it in the form of a roller, but by coating a canvas with it, and using
+the canvas thus prepared in place of the sheep pelt on inking balls.
+From this the press inventors got the idea of coating a wooden
+cylinder with the composition. Applegath & Cowper, inventors of the
+Applegath cylinder press, were the first to adapt it in roller form,
+and for a time held a patent on the use of it; but the courts of
+England decided that there could be no patent on the composition, and
+substitutes for the manufacture of rollers having been devised which
+were no infringement on Applegath & Cowper's moulds, the compound came
+into open use, and Koenig, who had so improved and perfected
+Nicholson's ideas and plans for a power cylinder press, was able, in
+1814, by the adaptation of the glue and molasses roller, to print the
+first edition of a newspaper that was ever run from a cylinder
+press--the historic edition of _The London Times_. The problem of the
+inking apparatus solved, there was no longer any limit to the exercise
+of inventive genius in the advancement of the printing art; and it
+is, therefore, to the printer's roller, more than to any one thing,
+that that art owes its wonderful preeminence to-day.
+
+There is no record in any of the histories of printing, or in
+encyclopaedias, of who it was that introduced the composition roller
+into use in this country, or any reference to the date when it came
+into service. De Vinne, in his "Typographia," published in 1876, says
+that ink-balls were in use here "fifty years ago," or in 1826; but it
+must have been only in isolated and out-of-the-way rural printing
+offices, for it can hardly be supposed that Yankee "go-aheadativeness"
+would have failed to recognize at once the importance of the
+discovery, or have long delayed its general adoption, although the
+hand press, with many improvements, remained the universal printing
+machine in the United States until 1822, when the Treadwell power
+press gave the first impulse to more rapid printing. The Treadwell was
+not a cylinder press, but its invention would have been of no
+consequence without the composition roller. It is certain, however,
+that more than sixty years ago the melting pot and roller mould had
+become an important adjunct to every rural printing office, and the
+making of a new roller was an event in the routine of the
+establishment. The orthodox mixture for the composition in the
+printing office where the writer of this was the "devil" forty-seven
+years ago was "a pint of sugar-house molasses to every pound of the
+best glue, with a tablespoonful of tar to every three pints and three
+pounds." And that was the customary composition of that day among
+country printers.
+
+There is a tradition among printers and roller-makers that the first
+roller turned out in this country was moulded in a stove pipe; but
+whether it was or not, and no matter who the first roller-maker might
+have been, it is a fact that the advance in the art of roller-making
+has had to be rapid in order to keep pace with the vast improvements
+in the cylinder press which the first composition called into use, and
+the old-fashioned glue and molasses rollers would be now of no more
+service to them than would the primitive ink-balls which the roller
+replaced. A comparison between the mode of making a roller in the
+early days of the business and the methods in use to-day will be of
+interest.
+
+In the old days the composition was cooked in a caldron over a coal
+fire, with water between two jackets to make the steam that forced the
+melting. The cast-iron moulds were placed near a stove to give them
+the necessary warmth of inner surface, a warm mould being required to
+give a good "face" to the roller in the casting. While cooking, the
+composition was constantly stirred with a stick to assist in the
+proper assimilation of the ingredients. After it had reached the
+proper stage, it was strained from the melting kettle into pouring
+kettles, similar to ordinary milk pails. The composition was poured
+from the top. Naturally, this let into the moulds, with the
+composition, the air bubbles and froth that were always present, which
+caused imperfections in the rollers. After pouring, it was necessary
+to let the moulds stand all night, so the composition might become
+sufficiently cool to permit the "drawing" of the rollers. This was
+effected by placing a stick against the iron journal at one end of the
+roller core and pushing until the roller was forced out of the mould.
+
+But the roller factory of to-day is quite a different affair. Instead
+of separate moulds standing about a stove to get ready for the
+pouring, there are moulds in nests, or cylinders, resembling a Gatling
+gun, or a tubular boiler. There will perhaps be twenty roller moulds
+in a nest. The cylinders are balanced in the centre on journals, thus
+enabling the workman to place them at any angle desired, for purposes
+of oiling the moulds and loading them with the roller cores. The
+cylinders have hot and cold water contact, by which they may be
+surrounded by either at will. To warm the moulds the cylinder is put
+in an upright position, and hot water circulated about it the required
+length of time.
+
+The composition--which is something more than the old-time glue and
+molasses--is prepared for pouring by melting in a double-jacketed
+steam kettle, the stirring being done by a mixer run by steam power.
+When ready, the composition is drawn off from the bottom of the
+cooking kettles into pouring kettles which have air-tight hoods. To
+these a hose is attached, the other end of the hose being connected
+with a tank which is charged with air by a pump. The hose being then
+attached to the cylinder, the air is introduced from the tank into the
+pouring kettle, forcing the composition upward into the cylinder, and
+all air from the moulds. This insures a perfect roller.
+
+When the composition has reached the top of the roller stocks, the
+valve at the bottom of the cylinder is closed, and the process is
+continued to the next cylinder ready for pouring. The cooling of the
+cylinders is effected by turning the cold water current around them,
+and a nest of moulds may be filled and emptied four or five times a
+day. After the cooling, the bottom plate of the cylinder is removed;
+the rollers drop out, are trimmed, and are ready for the shipping box.
+
+
+
+
+THE ILLUSTRATOR
+
+By Charles D. Williams.
+
+
+It is only in comparatively modern times that the art of illustration
+has received the encouragement that makes for perfection. For this,
+the cheapening of the manufacturing cost in printing is mainly
+responsible. An illustration proper should always accompany text and
+in days past the making of a book was so costly in itself that the
+possibility of illustration was almost beyond thought. Only the
+wealthy could afford illustrated books and as their reading was very
+limited, naturally illustration was crowded to the wall. Those with
+money to spend on pictures preferred decorations or portraits,
+consequently the endeavors of artists were aimed at supplying what
+suited the tastes of buyers. Illustration is and always has been the
+art of the people. It makes clearer to the imagination their stories
+and their songs, it mirrors their manner of life, interests, and
+pursuits in a way that brightens what would otherwise often be
+commonplace.
+
+Art seems to entwine itself about the strongest figures in a
+community, absorbing with its nourishment the ethical qualities of
+the leader. Thus we have Michael Angelo in a community ruled by the
+church, creating, at its demands, a "Day of Judgment," a "Magdalen at
+the Cross," a "Moses," and Velasquez, evolving a marvellous technique
+while immortalizing in wonderful portraits the vanity of his Spanish
+lords.
+
+So that at the present day, with the people in ascendency, what is
+more probable than the perfect development of the art which most
+appeals to their tastes? Every day, artists of the highest
+intelligence find in illustration an opportunity to give the best that
+is in them, and the chances that illustration will reach the heights
+of perfection attained by other branches of art are exceedingly good.
+
+The opportunities for an illustrator are without end, and the problems
+are beyond number. It is a difficult performance to hand out, to
+order, pictures in which human emotions stand counterfeited. In the
+fact that illustration springs from and stands with the written tale
+and must finally serve its proper place between board covers, the man
+who labors at it finds some of his work already finished for him by
+the author. But it is a saving that tantalizes more than it assists.
+
+The technical equipment of the artist must twist into realistic
+semblance, clear to the eye, the imaginary product of the author. He
+must not add to it nor take away from it--even for the sake of beauty
+in his picture--one iota of the facts given him. His imagination,
+grasping all the ideas of the author, must assemble them and find a
+place for each one, good, bad, and indifferent, and present them to
+the reader in a form that will command his approval.
+
+The artist cannot tease the mind with the vague influence of
+description, as can the author, nor can he veil his products with the
+pleasing glamour of unreality. Without haze his work stands forth,
+bold facts in half-tone reproduction and printer's ink, fighting an
+uncertain fight at best with the imagination of the reader.
+
+People will have illustrations, though. If the pictures do not
+literally fill the bill, they nevertheless please. Something definite,
+carrying a story idea, is always acceptable.
+
+Something which excites the imagination invariably challenges
+interest, and the illustrator who is true to his calling and above
+shirking his task enhances the interesting features of a book a
+thousand fold, if he spares no pains in arriving at an actual
+expression of the author's intention.
+
+The knowledge that an illustrator brings to his work should be as
+broad and varied as human history. Above and beyond his ability to
+draw or execute in a manner technically pleasing, should stand his
+knowledge of people, places, and events. It should include all Things,
+Ologies, and Isms. A living Index he must be, knowing just enough to
+readily discover more, and with this knowledge he must make others
+feel and imagine.
+
+If the author would tell of wars, Trojan, Egyptian, or Siamese, the
+illustrator must follow him and be truthful. He must know enough of
+Troy, Egypt, or Siam to make clear to the reader the face, form, and
+clothes of the characters, their weapons of bloodshed, their way of
+killing, how they marched to do it and through what manner of country.
+He must know or find out all these things, and within all his pictures
+must carry the spirit of terror and murder that stalked at the time,
+so carefully expressed that the terror and murder will be of that
+particular epoch and no other. All this must be shown as clearly as
+that the characters belong to their helmets or shields, their war
+chariots or bamboo lances. Simple the task may seem in these days of
+public libraries and ready reference, yet it is a most nerve-racking
+business, this placing an embossed helm or set of greaves on the hero
+of a story, so that he may stand out a Roman, and when the labor is
+finished having him stare genially out at you, insistently proclaiming
+the masquerade, and seemingly proud of his resemblance to a St. Louis
+button salesman.
+
+When all is said and done the illustrator's strongest asset is spirit.
+Technique and a grain of insight will help a man over many a rut in
+portraiture, and a knowledge of patting clay and using a chisel has
+saved many a sculptor, but technical equipment alone never made an
+illustrator, because he deals too directly with life in action. Slack
+drawing and impatience of method will always be pardoned in an
+illustrator, if his picture convinces.
+
+Let a writer tell of a pair in love and the illustrator pictures their
+kiss; if he convinces the reader that the kiss is in earnest, the
+drawing may be full of faults, but the point is made and nothing more
+is asked, save that "she" be pretty and "he" manly. Consider the
+difficulty of this trick of convincing, when the words of love
+carefully weighed and prepared by the author and set into the
+atmosphere of a scene equally well prepared will often occasion
+derisive smiles. So it may be explained that the purpose of
+illustration is to carry the spirit of action rather than to serve as
+a basis for deft expression of technical skill, and illustration will
+reach its highest development along the lines which give it an excuse
+for its existence.
+
+The mechanical processes for the reproduction of illustrations have
+served to develop various methods of drawing the original picture. The
+half-tone screen in connection with photography has made possible an
+almost exact copy of the artist's work, and at very small cost.
+Formerly an illustration was drawn on a wood block and turned over to
+a wood engraver, who laboriously cut it into the block and as he cut
+away the drawing as he worked it was impossible to compare his
+reproduction with the original. It can be readily seen that only a
+very good engraver was to be trusted to reproduce anything of value,
+and as there were never very many engravers of the first class,
+artists' work usually suffered. Half-tone engraving reproduces a
+drawing by photography and necessarily shows much of the individual
+method of the artist. Zinc etching of pen-and-ink drawings is even
+more exact in its results. Lately, methods of reproducing colored
+originals and paintings have been brought forward, and the results are
+surprisingly good. Scientific photography is at the bottom of this,
+and the old method of lithography, which demanded ten or twelve
+printings in reproduction, and then fell short, seems to have seen the
+last day on which it will break the heart of the artist.
+
+Because of the sun and the dry plate, illustrators had to find inks
+and methods which would aid the engraver as much as possible. The use
+of opaque white as a ground for the mixture of tones, with its
+resultant bluish cast in black-and-white drawing, has almost
+disappeared. The camera will not find gradations in blue and artists
+have found it better to use pure india ink washed out in water,
+allowing the white of the paper to serve for high lights. Of course,
+opaque has its uses, but it is only after much experience and many
+disappointments that an artist can learn just where to use it and how.
+Pen-and-ink drawings and crayon drawings on rough paper in which the
+crayon is applied direct, and not rubbed, will always please the
+engraver most and return the best reproductions; but in this case
+cleverness and technique demand the greater notice from the artist if
+he would have the result interesting. A successful pen drawing is an
+achievement almost equal to an etching and it is unfortunate,
+considering the ease with which it may be successfully engraved, that
+good pen drawing is so rare.
+
+Black-and-white oil offers an inviting field to the illustrator who
+aims at a sense of completeness in his work. Honestly handled, there
+is no other method of working that can convey an equal feeling of
+solidity and earnestness. By its use an artist can suggest all the
+qualities of a full-color painting and impress one with the
+last-forever look that thought and study gives to earnest work.
+
+Most drawings for reproduction are worked in wash--why, it is hard to
+say. Oil will shine and reflect lights, and the engraver has this to
+overcome; but, barring the lightness and appearance of ease that wash
+suggests, there is no very apparent difference in the reproductions,
+and oil has the advantage of greater simplicity in detail.
+
+For deftness and brilliancy illustrations finished in crayon rubbed
+into tones easily surpass those done by other methods, but the process
+has the disadvantage of appearing thin in the reproduction, unless
+the plate is very carefully tooled and printed.
+
+When the illustrator has chosen his subject and decided on the method
+of treatment that will best serve the demands of the story to be
+pictured, fully half his labor is completed.
+
+The preliminary sketches necessary to the condensing of his ideas open
+the door to the real pleasure in his work--standing up a model and
+creating therefrom a character is pure joy, and it is for this alone
+that the illustrator toils through the dry dust of reference libraries
+and costume shops.
+
+Models are either a great aid or a great drawback in the picturing of
+characters, for while they assist the artist by simplifying the labor
+of drawing, they often handicap him by intruding their own personality
+into the work, thereby spoiling the sense of character aimed at. When
+an illustrator allows this to happen, it does not matter how beautiful
+or accurate his sketch may be, he fails in the first essential of his
+craft, entering forthwith into the field occupied by painters and
+decorators, who can do the same thing very much better. So, while the
+model is often a necessary appendage to the construction of a
+character, it is imperative that the spirit and sense spring from the
+artist, whose business is, not to reproduce the model, but to use it
+sparingly as he would a book of reference.
+
+The illustrator finds that the speech an author puts into the mouths
+of his characters is the best index to their personality. They may be
+described as tall or short, dark or light, stout or thin, and their
+creator may explain their capacities for love, hate, villany, or
+dissipation, but it is only the words with which they express their
+ideas that really describes them. His description of the beauty of a
+girl will not be accepted on trust. He must supply her with deportment
+and breeding before her beauty can be truly imagined. Thus it may be
+explained that the measure of an author's conception and clearness
+often determines the qualities in an illustration. The true
+illustrator is sensitive to faults in the delineation of character,
+and, although he may not be aware of it, his work will show it. Of
+course it often happens that an artist is taken up with ideas of
+technique and, author or no author, will make his pictures in just
+such a way; but such work is hardly illustration and serves itself
+better standing alone.
+
+And thus it goes throughout the scene to be pictured--place, time, and
+people, all must be imagined twice and equally clear, by both the
+author and the illustrator, before the reader will agree.
+
+To the illustrator, hampered by given quantities, falls the most
+difficult task in this duet of imagination, and he can at best hope
+only for the reader's approval, as all credit for conception goes to
+the author. It is on this approval, though, that he builds, for if he
+succeeds in making things clearer to the reader's imagination, he has
+accomplished what he set out to do and has proved himself worth his
+hire.
+
+So the aims of illustration are set forth, but whether the laborer
+completes his work well or ill, whether he brings great ability or
+only honest intention to its accomplishment, he is engaged in a
+business as fascinating as it is uncertain. Failure only drives him to
+another try, and success is always just around the corner. The
+illustrator who would live by his work must live with it. If he has a
+thought in his mind that does not deal in some form with illustrations
+and half-tone plates, he is wasting that thought and his time besides.
+
+
+
+
+HALF-TONE, LINE, AND COLOR PLATES
+
+By Emlyn M. Gill.
+
+
+Practically all book illustrations, as well as those in catalogues and
+periodicals of all kinds, are made by some method of photo-engraving.
+Wood engraving is almost a thing of the past, and many who are in a
+position to know predict that after the present generation of wood
+engravers has passed out of existence, artistic wood engraving will be
+a lost art. It is certain that there is now no younger school of wood
+engravers growing up to take the place of the engravers whose work in
+the leading magazines, up to a few years ago, made them famous.
+
+The quickly made and comparatively inexpensive process plates have not
+only taken the place of wood engraving, but have increased the field
+of illustration to a very large extent. They have made possible
+hundreds and even thousands of publications which could not have
+existed in the old days of expensive wood engraving. The use of
+photo-engraved plates has increased enormously each year during the
+past twenty years, and with this increased use has come the inevitable
+decrease in cost, so that illustrations are no longer much of a
+luxury to the publisher.
+
+Photography is the basis of all the mechanical processes that come
+under the general head of photo-engraving. These processes are
+generally called mechanical, yet, as in photography, great skill is
+required to produce the best results. The higher grades of half-tone
+work require much careful finishing, which is all done by hand, and
+which, moreover, must be done by a skilful, intelligent, and artistic
+engraver. Practically all things may be reproduced successfully by
+photo-engraving, but the vast majority of subjects that go to the
+photo-engraver are either photographs or drawings.
+
+All methods of relief plate photo-engraving come under two general
+heads: "Half-tone" and "line engraving," the latter being very
+generally known as "zinc etching." Zinc etching is the simplest method
+of photo-engraving and should be thoroughly understood before one
+begins to inquire into the intricacies of the half-tone process. It is
+used to reproduce what is known as "black and white" work, or line
+drawings. Any drawing or print having black lines or dots on a white
+background, without any middle shades, may be engraved by this
+process. The old-fashioned "wet-plate" photography is used in making
+practically all process plates, either in line or half-tone.
+
+I will describe briefly all the operations gone through in making a
+line plate, taking for a subject a map drawn in black ink on white
+paper or a head drawn by Charles Dana Gibson,--subjects wide apart in
+an artistic way, but of absolutely equal values so far as making the
+plate is concerned. The drawing is first put on a copy board in front
+of a camera made especially for this work, in whose holder the wet
+plate has already been placed by the operator. The subject may be
+enlarged or reduced to any desired size, nearly all drawings being
+made much larger than they are desired to be reproduced in the plates.
+The exposure is much longer than in ordinary dry plate work, generally
+lasting in the neighborhood of five minutes. The result is a black and
+white negative. That is, the lines that were black in the drawing are
+absolutely clear and transparent in the negative, but the rest of the
+negative is black. From the photographer, the negative goes to the
+"negative-turning" room. Here the negative is coated with solutions of
+collodion and rubber cement, which makes the film exceedingly
+tough--so tough that it is easily stripped from the glass on which it
+was made, and is "turned" with the positive side up on another sheet
+of glass. If this were not done, the plate would be reversed in
+printing--that is, a line of type would read from right to left, or
+backward. After the negative is "turned," it is ready for the etching
+room. Here the surface of a sheet of zinc about one-sixteenth of an
+inch thick, which has been polished until it is as smooth as plate
+glass and without a scratch or a flaw of any kind, is flowed with a
+sensitized solution, easily affected by light. The negative is placed
+in a printing frame over the sensitized zinc and a print is made. That
+is, it is exposed to the sunlight or to a powerful electric light, and
+the light shines through the transparent parts of the negative, and
+hardens the sensitized surface; while the black part of the negative
+protects the sensitized surface from the action of the light. The
+plate is next "rolled up" with a lithograph roller which distributes a
+thin coating of etching ink over the entire surface. The plate is then
+washed off carefully by the operator, but the ink adheres to all
+portions of the plate that have been acted upon by the light. We now
+have a fully developed print on the highly polished surface of the
+zinc that is an exact reproduction of the original drawing. It is now
+necessary to make this print acid proof, and this is done by covering
+the plate with a coating of very fine resinous powder, called
+"dragon's blood," which adheres to the printed portions of the plate.
+The plate is subjected to enough heat to melt this powder, and is then
+ready for the acid bath.
+
+A strong solution of nitric acid is used for etching zinc plates. This
+acid is placed in trays, which are rocked constantly, either by power
+or by hand, while the plate is being etched. The melted dragon's
+blood makes a perfect acid resistant and the acid, therefore, does not
+affect the print (or picture itself), but eats away the bare surfaces
+of the metal between the black lines and the dots. When this etching
+has proceeded far enough to make a plate that may be used in printing,
+the lines and dots of the picture stand up in bold relief, while the
+metal around these lines and dots has been eaten away to a
+considerable depth.
+
+There are many details that cannot be described in a short article,
+but these are the principal operations gone through in etching the
+plate. One very important detail in etching is to prevent
+"undercutting." It is obvious that if the acid will eat down, it will
+also eat sidewise. The acid resistant is only on the surface. If means
+were not taken to prevent it, as soon as the acid got below the
+surface, it would begin to eat in under the print and the lines and
+dots of the picture would disappear; therefore, as soon as the plate
+has had its first "bite," it is taken from the acid, dried, and
+dragon's blood is brushed against the sides of the lines. This powder
+is then melted and the plate given another etching. While the plate is
+being etched down, it is removed from the acid several times, and the
+sides of the dots and lines are again protected. After leaving the
+etching room the plate goes to the "router," an ingenious machine,
+with a cutting tool revolving at a speed of fourteen thousand
+revolutions a minute, which quickly removes the waste metal in the
+large open places between the lines and dots. The zinc plates are
+carefully looked over by a finisher, defects are removed, and the
+metal plates are then nailed on wooden blocks, so that they will be
+"type-high," that is, of exactly the same height as the metal
+type-forms used in printing. Hand presses are a necessity in all
+photo-engraving shops, and with these several "proofs" of each plate
+are printed in order that the customer may judge of the quality of the
+plate.
+
+While the line, or zinc etching process is immensely useful, in
+reproducing pen-and-ink drawings, maps, wood-cut prints, etc., yet the
+half-tone process is the one that practically revolutionized all known
+methods of illustration, after it had become perfected. While zinc
+etching is limited in its capabilities to the reproduction of black
+and white subjects, practically everything in art or nature may be
+reproduced by the half-tone process. The half-tone "screen" makes it
+possible to take a photograph or wash drawing and break the flat
+surface of the picture up into lines and dots, with the white spaces
+between that are an absolute essential in relief plate printing. If a
+half-tone print taken from any magazine or periodical is examined
+closely, either with the naked eye or a magnifying glass, it will be
+seen that the entire picture is a perfect network of lines and dots,
+and that there are two sets of lines running diagonally across the
+plate at right angles to each other. In the darker portions of the
+picture it will be seen that the lines are very heavy, with a small
+white dot in the centre of each square, made by the intersecting
+lines. In the lighter portions of the picture, these lines will be
+found to be very fine, while in the lightest parts, or in the "high
+lights," as they are called, the lines disappear and in their places
+are a mass of fine dots, not much larger than a pin point.
+
+To make a half-tone plate of a photograph or other subject, it is
+necessary to break the negative up into lines and dots. It is for this
+purpose that the half-tone "screen" is used. The screen consists of
+two thin pieces of plate-glass, on the surface of which a series of
+very delicate parallel black lines have been ruled running diagonally
+across the glass. When these pieces of glass are placed together, face
+to face, the parallel lines ruled on them intersect each other at
+right angles, giving a very fine "mosquito-netting" effect. The method
+of making the negative is very similar to that described in making
+line negatives, excepting that in making a half-tone negative the
+screen is placed in the plate-holder directly in front of the
+negative. The subject is then photographed, and the result is a
+negative completely covered with a mass of fine transparent lines and
+dots.
+
+Copper is generally used instead of zinc in making half-tone plates.
+In making a print on copper the light shines through the transparent
+lines and dots of the negative and hardens the sensitized surface of
+the plate. The black parts of the negative between the transparent
+lines and dots protect the sensitized surface. When the plate, after
+printing, is placed under a water tap, the parts of the sensitized
+surface that have not been acted upon by light wash away, leaving a
+print that becomes acid proof after being subjected to an intense
+heat.
+
+The method of etching a copper plate is similar to that already
+described for etching zinc plates, excepting that sesquichloride of
+iron is used instead of nitric acid. In a half-tone the dots and lines
+are so close together that great depth is neither desirable nor
+possible, and no steps are taken to prevent undercutting.
+
+The half-tone plate, after it has been carried as far as possible by
+mechanical processes, is capable of great improvement in the hands of
+skilful engravers. The plate as it comes from the etching bath may be
+termed a mechanical product. Though great skill is necessary in making
+the negative, the print, and the etching, the hand-finishing gives the
+plate many of its artistic qualities. The unfinished plate is apt to
+be more or less "flat" in appearance; the high lights may not be light
+enough, while the dark portions of the plate are apt, in cases, to be
+too light. The most common methods of finishing are reetching and
+burnishing. The finisher dips a camel's-hair brush in acid and
+applies it to the high-light portions of the plate, or other places
+that are too dark, and allows it to act on the metal until these parts
+of the plate are lightened sufficiently. The parts of the plate that
+are too light are made darker by rubbing down the surface of the plate
+with a tool called the burnisher. The skilful, artistic finisher has
+other methods at his command of making the plate reproduce as
+accurately and as artistically as possible the original drawing or
+photograph. High lights are sometimes cut out entirely, or a fine
+engraver's tool may be "run" between the lines; while a
+"wood-engraved" finish is produced by cutting, in certain portions of
+the plate, lines similar to those used in wood engraving.
+
+In the price-cutting that has been going on as a result of the fierce
+competition that has existed among photo-engravers during the past few
+years, the artistic possibilities of the half-tone have been lost
+sight of to a certain extent. The product of the engravers is sold by
+the square inch, regardless of the fact that the cost of one plate may
+be double the cost of another plate of the same size, but from a
+different subject.
+
+A point also worth remembering is that until the plate reaches the
+finishers' hands, it has been more or less of a mechanical product;
+and that the plate is made an artistic creation by the skill, care,
+and brains of an intelligent class of men earning from $25 to $50 a
+week. Those expecting "the best" at "the lowest price" can easily
+guess about how much of this high-priced finishing they will get when
+the price paid barely covers the cost of the mechanical product. Then,
+engravers striving for high quality in the product pay from
+twenty-five to fifty per cent higher wages, as a rule, than the cheap,
+commercial shops. But the idea of square-inch price has so generally
+permeated the buying public, that the larger and better shops have
+been compelled, to a greater or less extent, to meet the prices of
+their less skilful competitors. They are enabled to do this and give
+their customers much greater value for their money, only through
+better business methods, more modern facilities, and by conducting the
+business on a very large scale.
+
+The screens used in making half-tones represent an enormous outlay in
+the large shops. A comparatively small screen costs in the
+neighborhood of $100. A screen 18 x 20, ruled 120 or 133 lines to the
+inch, costs about $500. Screens are made with different numbers of
+lines to the inch, from 65, for coarse, newspaper work, up to 400. The
+screens in general use are 65, 85, 100, 110, 120, 133, 150, 166, 175,
+and 200; but intermediate sizes are also used, such as 125 and 140. A
+screen containing 200 lines to the inch is about the finest ever used
+for ordinary printing purposes, though a few screens with 250, 300,
+and 400 lines to the inch have been made. A well-equipped
+photo-engraving establishment must have all these screens, and all of
+them in many different sizes. In the writer's shop there are fifteen
+cameras, all of them in constant use in the daytime and five or six of
+them are always in use all night. Some days the bulk of the work in
+the place will be a fine grade of magazine engraving calling for a 175
+screen. In order to keep all the cameras at work all the time, a thing
+that is very important in a well-regulated place, it is necessary to
+have a number of 175 screens almost equal to the number of cameras.
+The same is true of most of the other screens in general use.
+Fortunately for the engraver and the consumer these screens
+practically last forever if carefully handled.
+
+The greatest developments in process work during the past few years
+have been in the making of color plates. Beautiful results are
+obtained in two colors by the "duograph" or "duotone" processes, the
+plates being made for two printings. The three-color process aims to
+reproduce all colors in three printings, by using inks of red, yellow,
+and blue. This process is very interesting, but somewhat intricate.
+Primarily, the results are made possible by color separations. The aim
+is to take a colored subject--an oil painting, for instance--and by
+photographing it three times, each time through a different colored
+piece of glass, to divide all the colors into what are called the
+three primary colors--red, yellow, and blue. From each of these color
+separations a half-tone plate is made, and when these plates are put
+on the printing-press, and the impressions are printed over each other
+in yellow, red, and blue inks, respectively, the result is a printed
+picture reproducing correctly all the colors of the original subject.
+
+While many subjects may be reproduced accurately by this process, yet
+the three-color process seems inadequate to give perfectly
+satisfactory results in all cases. Nearly all three-color process
+houses are now prepared to add a fourth, or key, plate, to be printed
+in black, in case the subject seems to need it. The three-color
+process has enabled many of the leading magazines to use illustrations
+in colors, and there is not the slightest doubt but that there is a
+great future for this class of work.
+
+
+
+
+THE WAX PROCESS
+
+By Robert D. Servoss.
+
+
+Almost all of the maps found in text and reference books, as well as
+the geometrical diagrams used in mathematical and scientific works,
+are made by what is known as the "wax process."
+
+This process was invented and patented by an Englishman named Palmer
+about 1840, shortly after the discovery of the method of making
+electrotype plates for printing purposes. He announced that he would
+furnish artists with copper plates covered with a waxlike composition
+on which they could make their own drawings, in a manner similar to
+but much simpler than the method followed by the etcher on copper.
+After receiving the artist's work, the plates were to be returned to
+Palmer, who then made an ordinary electrotype of the engraving. A
+circular, issued about 1841, gives the necessary instructions for
+engraving, and the prices for the wax-coated plates and the subsequent
+electrotypes, and shows many beautiful illustrations made by artists
+of that time. It was then called the "glyphographic process."
+
+The process was first introduced into this country by a firm of
+printers in Buffalo, New York, and was used by them for several years
+for illustrating the United States patent office reports until it was
+superseded upon the introduction of photo-lithography and the
+subsequent adoption by the government of a uniform standard for patent
+drawings.
+
+This process may be described in a general way as follows: A copper
+plate having a highly polished surface is first blackened by the
+application of a weak solution of sulphuret of potassium, or other
+chemical which will oxidize the copper. Then a composition, made by
+melting together in proper proportions, beeswax, zinc-white, and
+paraffin, is "flowed" over the blackened surface, producing an opaque
+whitish engraving ground. The thickness of the wax is varied according
+to the subject to be engraved, but in general should not exceed that
+of heavy writing paper. After it has been allowed to cool with the
+plate lying perfectly horizontal, the wax is smoothed down to an even
+thickness by a steel scraper, and the plate is then ready to receive
+the engraving.
+
+Taking for an example the engraving of a map, the original copy is
+either photographed on the wax surface, or is transferred to it by
+covering the back of the copy with red chalk and tracing over every
+line with a steel point. The photograph, or the tracing, on the wax
+must not be a reversed one, as might be supposed, but should "read
+right." The outlines of the map are then gone over, with an engraving
+tool which cuts out a small channel in the wax, down to, but not
+into, the surface of the copper plate. The bottoms of these channels
+will eventually form the surface of the relief lines in the resultant
+electrotype plate, but now appear as dark lines against the whitish
+groundwork of the wax.
+
+The engraving tools are made in different sizes, and therefore
+channels of varying widths at the bottoms may be cut in order to
+produce lines of different sizes. In cutting lines to indicate
+rivers,--which must be thin at the source and increase in thickness as
+they approach the mouth,--tools are used in graduated sizes. The first
+one cuts its own line of equal width for a very short distance, then
+another and slightly wider tool is used, the next still wider, and so
+on until the river line is completed. In reality a series of steps,
+the work is so done that the line appears to the eye to increase in
+width evenly and gradually from a very fine beginning to a heavy
+ending. The wavy lines indicating hills and mountains are made in
+substantially the same way. Special steel punches are pressed through
+the wax to the copper to show town and capital marks, and after all
+the lines and marks are completed, the plate is ready to receive the
+lettering. The name of each individual town, city, state, or river is
+set up in printer's type and stamped one name at a time into the wax.
+The type is placed in a small tool resembling a vise, which holds it
+in perfect alignment and on a perfect level. Tools of various shapes
+are used for stamping the names in straight and curved lines. It is
+necessary to wet the type to prevent its adhering to the wax.
+
+The plate is then carefully compared with the original copy and after
+any necessary corrections have been made it is gone over by an expert
+operator, who cuts out any of the channels which may have been
+obliterated by the burr of the wax, resulting from pressing in the
+names.
+
+We now have a plate in which the lines have been cut in small channels
+and the names stamped with type. This is a matrix, or mould, from
+which an electrotype of the lines now sunken in the wax may be made in
+high relief for printing, but the blank portions of the wax are so
+thin that it is first necessary to fill in all these places on the
+plates with wax in order to produce a sufficiently deep electrotype
+plate. This is done by "building up" the plate. A small hook-shaped
+tool, heated over a gas jet, is used to melt small pieces of wax which
+are run carefully around all the names and in the spaces between
+lines, thus filling up all these spaces with a round, smooth body of
+wax. From this mould an ordinary electrotype is made by the method
+described elsewhere in this book.
+
+All these operations require much skill and patience at every step,
+but the plates produced by the wax process are always much deeper and
+stronger than those made by any other process.
+
+
+
+
+MAKING INTAGLIO PLATES
+
+By Elmer Latham.
+
+
+The method by which a photogravure plate is produced, is probably the
+least understood of all of the many photo-processes of reproduction.
+This is chiefly on account of the difficulty of the process, which is
+not an easy matter to explain in detail, and also on account of the
+secrecy with which all plate makers guard their processes.
+
+The reproduction of a mezzotint or line-engraved print, when made by a
+good photogravure process, produces in most cases a print which cannot
+be detected from the original. The originator of the process was
+probably Fox Talbot, an Englishman. The writer has seen one of his
+prints, made between 1855 and 1860, which was a very creditable piece
+of work. Dujardin of Paris took up Talbot's process, and after much
+modification, succeeded in developing a successful process which he is
+working to-day. All photogravure plate makers of the present time have
+more or less copied the process of Fox Talbot.
+
+There are three different methods of making these plates known to the
+writer. The reader probably knows that a photogravure plate is not a
+relief plate, but an intaglio, and is printed on an etching-press in
+the same manner as an etching and requires special skill in printing
+on the part of the printer to produce the best results. I will give a
+brief explanation of the three different processes.
+
+The first is known as the transfer process. In this process a reversed
+photographic negative is made from the copy, from which a positive or
+"transparency" is made, either by contact or in the camera. A piece of
+carbon paper is then coated lightly with gelatine, sensitized with
+bichromate of potassium and allowed to dry. The paper is then placed
+in contact with the positive and printed in daylight until the image
+is imprinted on the gelatine coating of the paper, such portions of
+which as have received the most exposure from the action of light
+becoming quite insoluble. A copper plate, cleaned so that it is free
+from grease, is introduced into a large box into which has been blown
+a very finely powdered resin, which is allowed to settle somewhat
+before putting in the plate. The plate is allowed to remain in the box
+until a fine deposit of resin has settled all over it. It is then
+carefully removed and heated over a gas burner until the resin adheres
+firmly to the plate. The resin is melted only to such a point that it
+forms a fine grain all over the plate, leaving interstices of bare
+copper between. The paper, on the gelatine surface of which the
+picture is printed, is now placed in a tray of warm water, and the
+parts of the image which have had the least exposure are thereby
+dissolved and washed away, the image being thus fully developed on the
+paper. This is placed in contact with the grained plate, which has
+been placed in the tray of water, and firmly squeezed in contact with
+the plate. The paper is stripped off, leaving the gelatine film on the
+copper. The plate is now removed from the tray and dried, and is then
+ready for etching, which is accomplished by placing the plate
+successively in several baths of acid of different strengths until the
+desired results are obtained. This process gives a shallow plate, of
+not great wearing quality, and, as a rule, requires a great deal of
+work by the engraver to bring the plate up to anything like the copy.
+The light tints come out very soft and smooth, but the black tones
+etch "flat" and lose all detail. These blacks must be put in by hand.
+The poor wearing qualities of these plates make them undesirable in
+cases where a large edition has to be printed.
+
+The next process is the "deposited" plate used by "Goupil" of Paris,
+in which copper is deposited by electricity upon a swelled gelatine
+film which has had a grain formed upon its surface chemically or
+otherwise. The deposition has to be continued until the plate has
+acquired the necessary thickness, which takes about three weeks; and
+this is a long time to wait in these days, when a publisher usually
+expects his order executed in ten days. These plates are practically
+hand made. The process gives a plate that could not possibly be used
+without a great deal of retouching by an expert engraver. Goupil turns
+out a beautiful plate, due principally to his large force of
+engravers, one man working on a particular part of the plate, then
+passing it on to another who does some other portion, and so on, until
+the plate is finished. In this way each engraver becomes exceedingly
+skilful in one thing. Line engraving is reproduced by this process
+exceedingly well, but such plates, like the transfer process, are
+shallow and give out soon in the printing.
+
+The last process that I have to deal with is the one I am working
+myself. In this process the plates are made in two or more etchings,
+according to the requirements of the subject which is to be
+reproduced. This method produces a plate of great depth both in the
+light and black tints, and on account of the small amount of hand-work
+required after the plate is etched, the copy is followed very closely.
+With a good positive and favorable conditions, quite frequently a
+plate is made upon which the retoucher needs to do no work at all, and
+a more faithful reproduction is made than by any of the other methods
+that I have mentioned. After a good positive is procured, the copper
+plate is cleaned, and a sensitized solution of gelatine is flowed over
+the plate, dried down, and then printed under the positive, with a
+short exposure. The plate is grained as in the transfer process, and
+is then etched.
+
+This first etching, on account of the short exposure, goes over the
+plate in about three minutes, and is simply intended to get the light
+tints. The plate is again cleaned off and coated, this time in a
+different manner, and given a much longer exposure under the positive.
+The next etching takes about three hours, which gives the blacks great
+depth. Comparing this with the transfer plate which has an etching of
+from fifteen to twenty minutes, the reason for the difference in the
+wearing qualities of the plate is quite evident. This process, whether
+used by myself or others, I feel free to say is the best one that has
+ever been worked, inasmuch as it gives a far more faithful
+reproduction than any of the others with a minimum of work by the
+retoucher.
+
+Some plate makers claim to make all their plates without any
+retouching, which cannot be done. As I have mentioned before,
+occasionally a plate can be made as good as the copy without
+hand-work. But to say that any chemical process gives such results
+continually, or that a plate cannot be improved by a skilful retoucher
+is, to say the least, misleading. All of the different processes are
+very sensitive to atmospheric influences, and no small amount of
+chemical as well as mechanical skill is required to keep things
+running smoothly; and at certain times the best of operators are at a
+loss to remedy some slight fault that may upset things temporarily.
+Photogravure making is based upon a foundation of small details, that
+must be looked after with the utmost care, and the neglect of any one
+of which means failure at the end. So it may be surmised that at times
+the operator has trouble of his own.
+
+Every maker of plates, no matter which process he uses, has his
+individual ways of doing things, so that except in a general way no
+two processes are operated alike. This gives an individuality to each
+man's work, and an expert can easily tell one from another. For
+high-class illustrations, no other photographic process can compare
+with photogravure, and no doubt it will be many years before anything
+will be found to excel or even equal it. Much experimenting has been
+done with other methods, but the results have always been inferior,
+and I think it is safe to predict that the photogravure will always be
+popular.
+
+Etchings, mezzotints, and steel engravings are still occasionally used
+in the illustration of fine books, and brief descriptions of how they
+are made will be of interest.
+
+An etching is usually made on a copper plate. The plate being covered
+with a thin coating of wax, the artist works on it with an etching
+point, sketching his subject on the plate in fine lines as he would in
+making a pen-and-ink drawing, but cutting his lines through to the
+copper. The plate is then "walled in" with a high rim of wax, forming
+a sort of tray of the plate. Into this tray is poured a diluted
+solution of nitric acid, which etches, or "bites," into the uncovered
+lines on the plate. Some artists give a plate a short "bite," as the
+etching is called, for the light lines, then cover these portions of
+the plate with wax and give the plate successive "bites," stopping out
+each part as it gains its required depth. Others remove the coating
+and "prove" the plate by taking a print from it after each
+"bite,"--each of these prints being known as a "state of the plate"
+and showing what is still required to be done. In the work of an
+etcher like Whistler the impressions of the "first state," "second
+state," etc., are of considerable interest, as they show the progress
+of the man's work, but, except as an object of interest or as a
+curiosity, these prints can have no real value as they are unfinished
+work, simply showing the various stages in the making of a work of
+art.
+
+A mezzotint is also usually made on a copper plate. A texture, or
+groundwork, is worked on the copper plate with a tool resembling a
+cabinet maker's toothed plane iron, except it is rounded at the end.
+The teeth are very fine, ranging from forty to one hundred and twenty
+to the inch in different tools. This tool is called a "Bercier," or
+"rocker." The rounded edge allows the tool to be rocked across the
+plate, the rocking motion causing the teeth to form indentations in
+the copper. The rocking has to be continued until the surface of the
+plate is completely covered, and it then presents an appearance like
+velvet. Rocking in from forty to sixty directions is necessary to
+cover the plate properly. The durability of a mezzotint plate depends
+entirely upon the pressure put upon the rocker, and the depth to which
+it penetrates the copper. After the ground is thus laid, the outline
+is sketched in on the rocked surface, which takes the pencil easily,
+and then with steel scrapers and burnishers the light and middle tints
+are worked down, leaving undisturbed the portions of the surface where
+the strongest blacks are to be. From time to time, a print is taken
+from the plate, to note the progress of the work, which advances
+slowly to the finish. On account of the length of time necessary for
+the laying of the ground and the scraping of the plate, many artists
+hesitate to attempt mezzotint plates. There are very few men in this
+country to-day who do mezzotint engraving, which, considering the
+results to be obtained, seems somewhat surprising.
+
+For flesh tones, drapery, and landscapes it has no equal. The velvety
+richness of the blacks, the beautiful gradations of the middle tones,
+and the extreme delicacy of the light tints give the artist a power of
+expression not obtainable by any other method of engraving. Besides
+this, as the engraving is done on the bare copper, the artist can see
+at all times the progress of his work without having to take off the
+wax ground as he must in making an etching. This is a great advantage,
+for as the effect of each stroke can be plainly seen on the plate, the
+element of uncertainty which always attends the production of an
+etching is entirely eliminated, and it is then simply a question of
+skill with the scraper. The difficulty of obtaining rockers is one
+great drawback. I doubt if one could be obtained in New York to-day.
+The teeth have to be very accurately cut, and a perfect tool has a
+value to an engraver that cannot well be estimated. The lack of demand
+has prevented their manufacture in this country, but they could be
+made here by any fine tool maker.
+
+Steel engravings are still used to some extent in this country,
+although only in portrait work. A wax ground is laid on the plate as
+in etching. A tracing is made from the photograph, from which the
+picture is to be made, and is then transferred to the wax ground. The
+engraver then follows the lines of the tracing with an etching point,
+the hair, head, and outline of the features being gone over carefully.
+Then the plate is etched with weak nitric acid. If the face is to be
+"stippled," it is covered with fine dots made by a graver directly on
+the surface of the metal after the plate has been etched and the wax
+cleaned off. If the face is to be a mezzotint, that part of the work
+is all rocked over, and then scraped down within the etched outline,
+when the flesh is modelled as in a regular mezzotint. The drapery,
+background, etc., is usually done by a ruling machine with fine or
+coarse, waved or straight lines, as the texture may require. These
+lines are ruled through a coating of wax, and then, by etching and
+stopping out, the required results are obtained.
+
+This method of engraving is also giving place to process work, and in
+a few years more the steel engraved portrait will probably be a thing
+of the past.
+
+
+
+
+PRINTING INTAGLIO PLATES
+
+By George W. H. Ritchie.
+
+
+The method of printing etchings, mezzotint, and other intaglio plates
+is the same to-day as it was in the time of Rembrandt and Durer. The
+modern inventor has found no way to economize time, labor, or expense
+in the work--excepting that in the case of postage stamps, bond
+certificates, and similar plates, which are printed in vast
+quantities, the work has been adapted to the steam press.
+
+In the olden time the engraver, or etcher, himself was to a
+considerable extent his own printer. He worked at engraving his plate
+until he needed a proof to show him how the work was progressing. Then
+he printed, or "pulled," a proof and resumed his work, taking proofs
+from time to time until he had completed the plate to his
+satisfaction. Then, if only a small edition was required, he printed
+it. Proofs taken during the making of a plate are known by plate
+engravers and printers as the "states" of a plate, and it is due to
+the whim of the etcher, the softness of the copper, and the wearing of
+the plate in printing that we have prints representing many "states"
+of a single plate which might otherwise have had but one state, thus
+depriving one modern print collector of the privilege of discovering
+in his proof three hairs more or less in a donkey's tail than his
+rival finds in another proof, which makes the former's more valuable
+by several hundred pounds.
+
+One form of press is used for all manner of intaglio plate printing.
+It consists of a framework supporting two heavy iron rollers, between
+which moves a flat iron travelling plank, or bed, and on this bed the
+plate to be printed is laid. The pressure of the rollers is regulated
+by screws at each end of the top roller, which is covered with two or
+three pieces of thick felt. This top roller is revolved by handles and
+the bed moves along with it under the pressure of the roller. At one
+side of the press stands a rectangular box, or "stove," made of iron,
+or having an iron top. The top is heated by gas and on it the printer
+puts his plate while inking and wiping it. The heat thins the ink as
+it is applied, allowing it to be worked freely and to be "lifted"
+easily by the paper.
+
+The ink is made of fine bone dust, vegetable or other form of carbon,
+which has been carefully cleansed from foreign matter and ground to
+the necessary fineness in combination with burned linseed oil. Its
+strength and consistency should be varied according to the plate which
+is in hand, and the color also may be varied to suit the character of
+the plate by the addition of pigments.
+
+The paper used in plate printing may be one of several kinds, but the
+usual variety is a fine white paper free from spots and imperfections
+which might mar the appearance of the finished print. This paper is
+made either by hand or machinery of selected bleached cotton rags, and
+has a soft, spongy surface which yields readily under the pressure of
+the plate. Before it can be used the paper is moistened and allowed to
+stand for from one to twelve hours, or even longer, until it becomes
+evenly and thoroughly dampened,--but not wet,--so that it will more
+readily force itself into the lines of the plate and take therefrom
+and hold the ink.
+
+Before printing a photogravure, mezzotint, or other engraved plate the
+printer must first carefully examine it to see that it has no
+scratches, and that no dried ink remains in the lines from the last
+printing, and, in fact, that there are none of the many possible
+impedimenta which might prevent the production of a perfect print. The
+plate being in proper condition, it is then thoroughly cleansed with
+turpentine or benzine, all traces of which must be carefully wiped
+from the surface before the ink is applied. The plate is then laid on
+the heated iron box or "stove" until it has become thoroughly warmed.
+The surface of the plate is covered with ink, put on by means of an
+ink-roller, or perhaps the old-fashioned dauber, and the ink is
+thoroughly worked into the lines or depressions in the plate. After
+this the ink on the flat surface of the plate is entirely removed by
+wiping with rags. The printer's hand, which has become more or less
+covered with ink from the rags, is then passed over a piece of chalk,
+or gilder's white, and lightly rubbed over the surface of the plate,
+to remove the last vestige of the ink, leaving a highly polished flat
+surface with the incised lines or depressions filled with ink to the
+level of the surface.
+
+The plate is then ready for printing and is placed on the bed of the
+press, a sheet of dampened paper laid upon it, and both are then run
+between the rollers of the press. As the top roller is encased in soft
+blankets, the soft, dampened paper is forced into the ink-filled lines
+of the plate, and when the paper is removed the ink clings to it and
+shows an exact impression of the engraving. This entire process must
+be repeated for each print made from an intaglio plate.
+
+While the printing of a steel engraving or photogravure is a more or
+less mechanical operation, the printing of an etching--and "dry
+points" may be included--is oftentimes as much of an art as the actual
+etching of the plate. The two styles of printing may be compared to
+two kinds of fishing,--that of fishing for flounders with a drop line,
+from a flat-bottomed boat at low tide when one must just sit tight
+until one has a bite, and then haul in the fish, bait up, drop the
+line and wait again, as against that of angling for trout on an early
+spring day, dropping the fly in a likely spot without success at the
+first cast, persevering until rewarded by a rise and then by the sport
+of playing the fish, giving him line and reeling him in as about he
+circles and finally is landed. A good one, perchance, but the sport
+was in landing him. So it is with printing an etching. There is the
+opportunity to play with, and work hard over, a plate. Perhaps the
+etcher has not, for reasons only known to himself, put in the plate
+all that can be shown in the print by ordinary printing. The printer
+actually has to interpret in his printing the etcher's meaning, for
+the which, as a rule, he gets "more kicks than ha'pence," and in the
+end wishes he had stuck to plain plate printing as far as the profit
+is concerned.
+
+In the process of printing an etching, the printer first covers the
+plate with ink and then wipes it with the rags, and, if necessary,
+with the hand. It depends entirely upon the etched work of the plate
+as to how it must be wiped, and it rests with the printer to prepare a
+proof which is satisfactory to the etcher. The plate is wiped
+"closely" where the high lights are required or a tint (a thin coating
+of ink) left over certain portions where it needs to be darker. After
+this the plate is "retroussed," which is accomplished by passing a
+very soft piece of fine muslin, or a "badger blender,"--a soft brush
+used by artists,--delicately over the work in the plate and drawing
+the ink up and over the edges of the lines. This softens and broadens
+the lines and gives a very rich effect, and, if continued
+sufficiently, fills the spaces between the lines and produces an
+almost black effect. All this work is varied according to the wishes
+of the etcher. A plate that left the etcher's hand a mere skeleton may
+be made to produce a print which is a thing of life. The possibilities
+of an etching in the hands of a skilful printer are almost limitless;
+the effects can vary with every impression, each showing a new
+picture. His processes are as interesting as those of the etcher
+himself, and it is within his capabilities to transform an etching
+from a broad daylight effect into a moonlight scene, including the
+moon, by judiciously, or injudiciously, inking and wiping the plate.
+
+A "dry point" plate is produced by drawing on a copper plate with a
+steel or diamond point, and without biting by acid. The lines are cut
+into the copper and a burr thrown up which holds the ink in printing,
+and produces a soft, velvety line. The method of printing such a plate
+is similar to that of an etching, but the possibilities are not as
+great in the printing, as they rest to a greater extent upon the work
+of the artist. A great depth of color, producing wonderfully rich
+effects, can be obtained and the finer lines can be made much more
+delicate than by any other method.
+
+The printing of intaglio plates in color flourished for a short period
+in the latter portion of the eighteenth century, and the best prints
+of that time now in existence are of rare beauty and bring enormous
+prices. The process, now almost a memory, is a costly one, and this
+prevents its use in book illustration excepting for volumes which
+command a very high price. This kind of printing requires the plate to
+be actually painted by hand with inks of such colors as the picture
+may require, and the painting has to be repeated for every impression
+that is taken. The colors are put on with a "dole,"--a small piece of
+muslin turned to a point,--and great care must be taken that they do
+not overlap, or run into, each other. As each color is placed, the
+plate is wiped clean with rags as already described, and when all the
+colors have been properly placed, the plate is pulled through the
+press in the same manner as in ordinary printing.
+
+The successful printer of color plates must be a rare artist or else
+work under the direction of an artist. Little of this work is now done
+except in Paris and Vienna, and the limited number of color plates of
+this kind used for book illustration in this country does not warrant
+the time and expense necessary to train printers capable of doing the
+work. Even English plates are usually sent to Paris to be printed.
+
+It is difficult to describe the work of what is termed artistic
+printing. Every plate is a subject to be treated by itself, and no
+hard and fast rule can be applied. It is really a matter of artistic
+feeling, and to revert to the simile of the angler, one cannot explain
+how a trout should be played, but can only say that it depends on the
+fish, the water, and the circumstances. A fisherman can _show_ you, if
+you are on the spot, and so can the printer.
+
+
+
+
+THE GELATINE PROCESS
+
+By Emil Jacobi.
+
+
+Of the many photo-mechanical processes which have come into existence
+in recent years, the photo-gelatine, next to the half-tone process,
+has shown the greatest adaptability for practical use in art and
+commerce.
+
+Whatever the name may be,--Collotype, Artotype, Albertype, Phototype,
+or Carbon-gravure,--the principle is the same; an impression is made
+in printer's ink from a photo-chemically produced design on a gelatine
+surface, either on the hand-press or on a power cylinder press similar
+to that used in lithographic printing.
+
+There is hardly any process which is more capable of producing fine
+works of art. It is the only true method for reproducing, in the full
+sense of the word, an etching, engraving, a drawing in pen and ink, an
+aquarelle, a painting, or objects from nature. The depth and richness
+of tone of an engraving, the delicate tints of an aquarelle or
+india-ink sketch, and the sharpness of the lines of an etching or pen
+sketch can be reproduced with such fidelity that it is often
+impossible to distinguish the copy from the original, and this is
+achieved the more easily as the printing can be done in any color and
+on any material, be it paper, parchment, leather, or textile goods.
+
+Another great advantage of a gelatine print is its inalterability and
+durability, no chemicals being employed in transferring the picture to
+the paper. The picture itself being formed by solid pigments, such as
+are used in printer's ink or painter's colors, there is no possibility
+of its fading or changing color, which cannot be said even of platino
+prints, at present considered the most lasting of all photo-chemical
+processes.
+
+Like all new inventions, the photo-gelatine process, in its early
+stages, had to undergo severe trials, and for some years almost
+disappeared from public view, after many failures precipitated through
+unscrupulous promoters and inefficient persons who claimed
+impossibilities for the new process. It took years of patience and
+perseverance to regain the lost ground and overcome the opposition of
+those who had suffered by the failure of this process to produce the
+promised results; but at present it is, in Europe, one of the methods
+in most general use for illustrating, and in this country it is making
+steady progress and rapidly finding favor.
+
+The process, simple as it may seem to the casual observer, requires,
+more than any other photo-mechanical process, skilled hands in its
+different manipulations to keep it up to the standard of perfection.
+The following short description will give the uninitiated sufficient
+enlightenment to think and speak intelligently about it.
+
+The foundation or starting point, as of all the other photo-mechanical
+processes, is a photographic negative; that is, a picture on glass or
+some other transparent substance, in which the light parts of the
+picture appear dark, and the dark parts light in transparency,
+graduated according to the different shades of tone in the original.
+The next and most prominent feature is the printing plate. A perfectly
+even glass, copper, or zinc plate is covered on the surface with a
+solution of fine gelatine and bichromate of potassium, and dried. This
+printing plate is then placed under a negative and exposed to the
+light. The action of the light on the bichromated gelatine forms the
+basis of this process. In proportion to the graduated density of the
+negative, the light acts more or less on the bichromated gelatine,
+rendering the latter, in proportion, insoluble and hardening it. After
+sufficient exposure the plate is washed out in water to eliminate the
+bichromate not acted upon by the light, and is then actually ready for
+the press.
+
+If the printing is to be done on a hand press, a lithographic leather
+roller is charged with printer's ink, and the plate, which has been
+fastened on a suitable bed-plate in the press, is rolled up while it
+is still moist. Those parts of the plate which were acted upon by the
+light and hardened, repel the water and take up the ink, and thus all
+the graduating tones, up to the high lights or white parts, which have
+not been affected by the light, will take the ink proportionately. The
+white parts of the picture, where the light did not act upon the
+gelatine during the exposure under the negative, retain the natural
+property of gelatine to absorb water, and consequently repel the ink
+altogether.
+
+From the foregoing it will be easy to understand that a certain degree
+of moisture in the plate is necessary to get a correct impression.
+After the leather roller, a composition roller, such as is used in
+typographical processes, is employed to make the ink smooth and give
+the fine details not obtainable from the rough surface of a leather
+roller. A sheet of paper is then placed upon the plate and by pressure
+the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper.
+
+The printing, in former years, could only be done on hand presses; but
+with the introduction of improved power presses especially adapted to
+it the process itself has been so perfected that the finest work can
+be executed on them, at the same time insuring greater evenness and
+increased quantity of production, and also admitting the use of larger
+plates than would be possible on a hand press.
+
+The prevailing impression, whenever machinery is employed to supersede
+hand-work, is that the production is increased to such an extent as to
+reduce the cost to a minimum, but in the gelatine printing process,
+even with the aid of power presses, the rapidity of printing is far
+behind the possibilities of the lithographic or typographical printing
+press, and the process, therefore, is only applicable to works of art,
+and the better grade of illustrations in literary and commercial
+publications.
+
+The lesser rapidity of production and the greater cost is balanced by
+the quality, where this item comes into consideration; and where only
+small editions are required, even the cost compares favorably with
+other methods, as the initial cost of preparing the printing plate is
+small compared with the cost of photogravure or the better class of
+half-tone plate. It is only in cases of large editions of many
+thousands that the advantage of rapid printing reduces the cost of the
+initial expense. But fine art publications and illustrations will
+never be used in very large quantities, and, therefore, there is a
+large field for the photo-gelatine process in this country, where it
+is as yet so little used. In France, Germany, and Austria there are
+dozens of establishments which employ ten or more power presses for
+photo-gelatine work, while here only within the last few years has the
+process been sufficiently appreciated to warrant the introduction of a
+few steam presses; and these have to be imported from abroad at a high
+rate of duty, as the present demand for the presses does not make it
+advisable for our domestic press builders to invest in their
+construction, especially after an isolated attempt in that line,
+misguided by inexperienced and unpractical men, which turned out to be
+a total failure.
+
+Notwithstanding all these difficulties and obstacles, it is a fact
+that the photo-gelatine process has gained ground sufficiently to
+indicate a prosperous future, as its products are becoming more widely
+known and appreciated.
+
+
+
+
+LITHOGRAPHY
+
+By Charles Wilhelms.
+
+
+As an embellishment to the modern book, chromo-lithographed
+illustrations are quite popular and in some cases absolutely
+necessary, being not only attractive, but conveying an accurate idea
+of the color as well as the form of the object illustrated. Although
+the illustration is nothing more than a colored print, it may be a
+revelation to some when they learn of the numerous details incidental
+to its production.
+
+It may not be generally known, and yet of sufficient interest to the
+reader to state that the art of lithography, or surface printing, was
+invented accidentally. The inventor, Aloys Senefelder, had been
+engaged for years endeavoring to find some process for etching copper
+plates as a substitute for typographic printing plates; and the piece
+of stone (of a kind now known as Solenhofen lithographic stone), which
+eventually led him to the discovery of lithography had been used by
+him as a slab upon which he had been accustomed to grind his printing
+ink. The materials which he used for his acid-resisting mixture while
+etching his copper plates were beeswax, soap, and lampblack, and in
+selecting these materials he accidentally invented the basis for all
+crayons or lithographic "tusche" or inks, now used so extensively for
+drawing on stone. It seems that Senefelder finally became thoroughly
+disheartened about his etched copper plates, mainly owing to the great
+expense and labor connected with their production, and was about to
+discontinue his efforts when the idea occurred to him to experiment
+with the stone which he had used as an ink slab for so many months,
+treating it in the same manner as the copper plates.
+
+He knew that the calcareous stone was easily affected by acid and that
+he could protect its surface against it by a layer of wax. After
+polishing the surface of the stone and coating it with a slight layer
+of wax, he made his drawing with a pointed tool, laying bare the
+surface of the stone where he desired the engraving. Then applying the
+acid and removing the remaining wax, he filled the etched lines with
+printing ink, cleaned the surface of the stone with water, and was
+enabled to obtain an impression on paper from it. This manner of
+treating a stone has been employed by vignette engravers for many
+years, but of late has become obsolete. The result gave encouragement
+to Senefelder and induced him to renew his experiments, when he was
+accidentally led a step farther in the direction of surface or
+chemical printing.
+
+Senefelder had just ground and polished a stone, when his mother
+entered the room and asked him to take a memorandum of some clothes
+which she was about to send away to be laundered. Having neither paper
+nor ink at hand, he hastily wrote the items with a pen, dipped in his
+acid-resisting mixture, upon the stone which had just been polished.
+When he afterwards started to wipe the writing from the stone, it
+occurred to him that it might be possible to reverse his process by
+etching the surface of the stone, leaving the writing or drawing in
+relief, which could be printed from in the same manner as from type.
+He was fairly successful in this, and after many disappointments and
+much hardship, he eventually succeeded in interesting a capitalist,
+with whose assistance he was enabled to establish his new relief stone
+process on a commercial basis.
+
+The process, however, was at best only an imperfect one, and it seems
+strange that the final discovery of surface or lithographic printing
+should have been so long delayed, when Senefelder was in reality so
+near it, when he first poured the acid over the stone containing his
+laundry memorandum. If he had instantly washed off the acid and
+cleaned the surface of the stone with water, he might have proceeded
+to print thousands of impressions by simply keeping the surface of the
+stone moist while passing the ink roller or dabber over it, then
+drying and taking an impression, and repeating this operation
+indefinitely. It is not surprising, therefore, that a man of such
+persistence and capability as Senefelder should eventually discover
+the best method for drawing and printing from stone; for it is a fact
+that, since he perfected his invention, more than a hundred years ago,
+it has been hardly possible to improve on his methods, so completely
+did he cover the entire field of manipulation in this direction.
+Continuing his experiments, Senefelder finally found that the
+calcareous stone absorbed and held grease, and that it just as readily
+absorbed water, where the surface was exposed and clean; that any
+design drawn or transferred with a greasy crayon or ink upon a cleanly
+polished stone would be firmly held, after being slightly etched; and
+that after such a stone had been moistened, it could be inked with
+rollers, the ink adhering only to the greasy matter constituting the
+design (although it did not stand out in the relief) and that the ink
+rollers would not smut the stone, the ink being repelled by the water
+or moisture covering its surface. Upon this principle of chemical
+affinity, the adherence of greasy substances to each other and the
+mutual antipathy of grease and water, the art of lithographic printing
+is based.
+
+The methods or processes now employed in reproducing oil-paintings,
+colored photographs, or water-colors by lithography are numerous, and
+require great skill and experience, not only on the part of the
+lithographic artist, but also on the part of the printer. Photography
+has of late years been used to a great extent in creating the basis of
+the color plates, to be afterwards perfected by the manipulation of
+the experienced chromo-lithographer.
+
+To insure a satisfactory result the first essential is, of course, a
+good original, which can be made in water-color, oil, or pastel. The
+number of printings to be employed should be predetermined and a color
+scale adopted. The lithographer must carefully analyze the original
+painting, making his calculations as to the best way of obtaining the
+desired color effects by a judicious selection and use of his colors,
+and the superimposing of one printing over the other, so as to obtain
+true color values. It must be remembered that, while the average
+painter has an unlimited variety of pigments at his disposal, the
+lithographer is in this respect very much at a disadvantage, not
+usually having more than from six to fourteen colors with which to
+produce a facsimile of the original.
+
+The first step is the making of the so-called key-plate. A piece of
+gelatine is laid on the original, which is, let us say by way of
+illustration, a water-color to be reproduced in ten printings, and a
+careful tracing of the original is made by scratching, with an
+engraving needle, the outline of each wash or touch of color composing
+the picture. This being completed, the lithographic ink (tusche) or
+transfer ink is carefully rubbed into the tracing, which is laid face
+down on a polished lithographic stone, slightly moistened, and passed
+through a hand press; thereby transferring the ink from the engraved
+lines to the polished surface of the stone. The design on the stone is
+then rolled in with black printing ink and etched, thus enabling the
+lithographer to take the necessary ten impressions of the key-plate.
+These, in their turn, are again transferred to as many lithographic
+stones. This is accomplished by dusting the impressions with a red
+powder, which adheres only to the design printed on the sheet. The
+powdered outline design is then transferred to the surface of the
+stone by passing both through a hand press. The key has been
+previously provided with register marks (a short horizontal line
+intersected by a vertical one) at top, bottom, and both sides. These
+are of the utmost importance to the prover, and finally to the
+transferrer, who prepares the work for the press, as without them it
+would be impossible to register one color over the other in its proper
+place. At any stage of the process, the register marks of all ten
+colors, which have been made in succession on a single sheet of paper,
+should coincide precisely and appear as a single mark in the form of a
+small cross.
+
+The lithographer now has before him the ten stones, each stamped with
+the identical network of lines in red chalk representing his key. He
+proceeds to draw each color-plate successively, at all times adhering
+closely to the red chalk outlines, filling in with tusche where full
+strength of the color is required and using lithographic crayon or the
+stipple process to reproduce the various gradations of this color in
+order to secure the full color value of each printing. The register
+marks are ruled in on each stone corresponding to those on the key, so
+that the prover or printer has these marks in the same identical
+position on each and every color as a guide for register.
+
+As each stone is finished it is etched; that is, treated with a weak
+solution of nitric acid and gum-water, in order to remove all
+accidental traces of scum from its surface, and to prepare it for
+printing. Then proofs are made, which serve as a guide to the
+lithographer during the progress of his work, and finally as a guide
+to the transferrer and to the printer. The proving is done on a hand
+press, and it is here that we have our first glimpse of chemical
+printing, which, notwithstanding its simplicity, seems so mysterious
+to one uninitiated in its secrets.
+
+The writer recollects his own first experience. A stone had just been
+placed fresh from the etching trough in the bed of the press, when, to
+his amazement, the prover deliberately proceeded to eliminate every
+trace of the drawing with a sponge saturated with turpentine. After
+drying the stone by means of a fan, he passed over the surface a
+sponge soaked in water, then applied black ink with a roller, when
+behold, the drawing was restored in its entirety. The solution is very
+simple: the greasy matter is absorbed and held by the stone and in its
+turn repels water and attracts grease.
+
+An impression is made with black printing ink on paper by passing it
+through the hand press. The black impression approved of by the
+lithographer, the stone is again cleaned with turpentine and proved in
+the color required, and so with each color-plate, until the proof is
+complete. When photography is employed, the half-tone negative takes
+the place of the key. Prints are made from a reversed negative on the
+sensitized surface of the stone, or on as many stones as the
+color-plates require, and then manipulated by the lithographer, who
+adds or modifies strength with his "tusche" or crayon, and scrapes or
+washes out lights where necessary. The various modes of procedure are
+too diverse to enter into here, but it may be well to mention that the
+principal ones are the albumen, the asphaltum, and finally the
+three-color process, the latter differing but little as far as the
+artistic part of the work is concerned from that employed for making
+relief printing plates for the typographic press.
+
+The original drawing plates, or stones, are not used to print from
+direct unless the edition be very small. Just as the typographic
+printer uses electrotypes in place of the original type or cuts, the
+lithographer makes transfers from the original stones to print his
+edition and carefully preserves the original stones for future
+editions. The transfers are prepared in a very simple manner. The
+original stones are rolled over with a specially prepared transfer
+ink, and impressions are taken from them on a paper, known under the
+name of transfer paper, coated with a sizing of starch, flour, and
+glycerine. By printing from the original, only one copy can be
+produced at each impression, whereas by using transfers a number of
+copies of the original can be printed at one impression. For example,
+if the picture measures 8 x 10 inches of paper, a transfer can be made
+containing fifteen copies on one sheet measuring 30 x 40 inches. In
+this case fifteen impressions are made from the key-plate as well as
+from each of the color-plates, on the paper, and with the ink
+described above.
+
+The first transfer to be made is that of the key-plate. The fifteen
+impressions are laid in their proper positions on a sheet of paper of
+the required size, and are held in position on same by indentations
+made with a dull-pointed steel tool. The sheet is laid face down upon
+a cleanly polished stone, which is then repeatedly pulled through a
+hand press until all the ink has been transferred from the paper to
+the surface of the stone. The transfer paper still adhering to the
+stone is then moistened and washed off the stone, leaving the design
+completely transferred to the stone. A slight solution of gum arabic
+and water is then applied, the stone washed clean, and after being
+repeatedly rolled in with printing ink and etched, is ready for
+printing. An impression is then made in the usual manner from this
+key-transfer, which impression is coated with a solution of shellac.
+This is done for the purpose of rendering it impervious to the effect
+of the atmosphere, thus insuring against its stretching or shrinking.
+Upon this varnished key-sheet all subsequent transfer impressions of
+the ten colors are "stuck up," to use the technical term, and
+transferred to stone in the same manner as is employed in the making
+of the key-transfer. The register marks serve as a guide in "sticking
+up" the separate transfer impressions and insure an accurate register
+of the colors laid over each other during the process of printing. New
+register marks are placed upon the key-transfer at top, bottom, and
+sides similar to those on the original (which are removed from the
+transfer), and these new marks now appear on all color transfers to
+serve as a guide to the steam-press printer in printing his edition.
+He likewise uses the hand-press proofs of the picture as a guide in
+mixing his inks.
+
+The lithographic power printing press is constructed on the same
+general principle as the ordinary typographic press, excepting that it
+is provided with an apparatus for moistening the stone previous to
+the application of the ink rollers. The stone containing the design is
+placed in the bed of the press, and the moisture, as well as the ink,
+is applied by means of rollers similar to those used in the
+typographic printing press. All the ten colors are now successively
+printed from the transfers on a steam press, and if it is a perfect
+job, the pictures can be cut to size and delivered to the publisher.
+
+At present the cumbrous stone and the slow-moving flat-bed press are
+being supplanted by the light and pliable aluminum plates and the
+fast-moving rotary presses. The aluminum plate has all the requisites
+for the highest grades of lithographic or surface printing, and the
+rotary press is beyond doubt a vast improvement over the flat-bed
+press, not only as to speed, but also as to the quality and uniformity
+of its product. The mode of procedure in making transfers to aluminum
+plates is much the same as that employed in making transfers to stone.
+The pliability of the aluminum plate and the ease with which it can be
+adjusted to a printing cylinder has resulted in the successful
+introduction and use of two-and three-color lithographic rotary
+presses, printing at one operation two or three colors. It has been
+demonstrated that the result is fully equal to that obtained from the
+single-color press, provided good judgment be used as to the
+succession of the colors or printings. This marks a new epoch in the
+art of lithography and enables it to compete with the typographic
+three-color process, which has been making such wonderful progress
+during the last five years, and at one time seriously threatened
+lithography as a medium for the reproduction of certain classes of
+colored illustrations.
+
+Our experience teaches us, however, that the surface or lithographic
+and the relief or typographic method will never seriously interfere
+with each other, but on the contrary by actively competing in all
+matter relating to the reproductive art will continue to improve their
+respective methods, and thus enable them to satisfy the continually
+increasing demands on the part of the public for colored
+illustrations, not only as to the quantity but particularly as to the
+quality thereof.
+
+
+
+
+COVER DESIGNING
+
+By Amy Richards.
+
+
+So many books of the present day have decorative book covers
+especially designed to fit each book that many people who buy the
+books are beginning to ask what suggests these designs and how they
+are executed.
+
+Having made book-cover designs for a number of years, I have been
+asked to write a practical account of how these book covers are made,
+which will give an answer to some of these questions. This account
+will have no bearing on the designs used on hand-bound books with
+their beautiful "tooled" covers. These are a different branch of the
+art altogether from the so-called "commercial bindings" which I am
+about to describe. The designs for these tooled covers are as a rule
+made by the same hands that bind the books.
+
+Every year hundreds of books are published that need "commercial" book
+covers. In many cases these covers are used to help sell the book;
+that is, they must be attractive enough to draw attention to the book
+as it lies on the counter in the bookshops and other places where the
+book is on sale.
+
+Some publishers have artists, regularly employed, to make their own
+designs exclusively; but as a rule each publisher keeps in touch with
+a number of designers, sending for one or the other as the needs of a
+particular book require. When a design is needed, the particular sort
+of cover required is discussed with the publisher, the number of
+colors that can be used is mentioned, also the exact dimensions of the
+book and the material to be used in binding the book. Almost every
+designer prefers to read the manuscript of the book, if possible, or
+to have a synopsis of it, for, naturally, he can make a much more
+suitable and successful cover if he has a complete idea of the subject
+of the book.
+
+Having read the book, or having been told what it is about, the
+designer makes one or more rough sketches in color, giving a general
+idea of the book cover, both as to design, color scheme, and material
+to be used in binding. If one of these sketches is selected, the
+designer then makes an accurate "working" drawing, either in color, or
+black and white. If a black-and-white drawing is made, a rough color
+sketch is sent with it to indicate how the die is to be cut.
+
+A finished book-cover design can be made on water-color paper,
+bristol-board, or a piece of book-cover linen. This last method is
+popular with publishers, as it shows them how the cover will look when
+finished. A designer keeps sample books of all the most popular
+bookbinding materials, which the manufacturers are glad to supply. A
+practical designer always chooses for the ground color of a design a
+cloth that is to be found at one of the regular book-cloth
+manufacturers.
+
+When a book-cover design is finished, it is neatly mounted on
+cardboard and a careful note is written on the margin, telling how the
+design is to be executed by the binder, the kind of cloth to be used,
+and its number in a particular sample book. Unless the design is
+executed on a piece of book cloth, a sample of the cloth desired is
+pasted under the directions. The design is then cut in brass by a die
+cutter, as described in the next chapter, and the covers are stamped
+in gold or inks from this die by the binder. The design must be the
+exact size of the future book or drawn larger in exact proportion for
+reduction to the proper size.
+
+Gold is of course the most expensive way of reproducing a cover
+design, and a publisher generally tries to get as good an effect as
+possible without the use of gold, or he limits its use to the title
+lines or to a small part of the design. Four inks is usually the
+extreme number used, and more often only two or three are used, or
+gold and one ink.
+
+Several styles of decoration are used in designing book covers; but
+they may be put roughly into two classes,--those that are purely
+ornamental and those that are pictorial. Personally I am in favor of
+the purely ornamental cover, as being more dignified; but there are
+books that seem to require a pictorial cover that is treated somewhat
+in the fashion of a decorative poster.
+
+A book-cover designer to be successful should be very versatile and
+able to make use of figures as well as thoroughly versed in the use of
+ornament.
+
+One of the most important parts of a book cover is the title, to which
+the amateur and inexperienced designer does not always give sufficient
+attention. The title must be clearly drawn and everything else in the
+cover made subservient to it, so that the first thing the eye falls on
+is the title. For this reason a thorough study of lettering is
+necessary for the successful cover designer, and much practice in
+order to become proficient. A very successful cover may be due simply
+to a well-selected cloth with lettering properly drawn and placed so
+that the eye is perfectly satisfied and the whole has an air of
+distinction. Each designer grows insensibly into his or her own
+particular style, which those who are interested in book covers grow
+to know; but the more varied his style the more in demand will be the
+designer.
+
+The designing of book covers is a minor art, but since there is a
+constant demand for ornamented covers, the more taste and skill that
+can be devoted to the making of them, the better. When one looks back
+to the covers of fifteen years ago, one realizes what an advance has
+been made, and that the standard has been raised higher and higher,
+until at the present time many a famous illustrator or decorative
+painter occasionally turns his or her hand to the designing of book
+covers.
+
+
+
+
+THE COVER STAMPS
+
+By George Becker.
+
+
+Not many years ago the crudest and most primitive devices were used in
+the production of a book cover. The artist, if such he could be
+called, who was responsible for the design, seldom went to the trouble
+of furnishing the engraver with anything more than a pencil sketch,
+which the latter transferred to a brass plate about one-quarter of an
+inch thick by coating the plate with beeswax and laying the sketch on
+it, face downward. When the paper was removed the beeswax retained the
+marks of the lead pencil. He then began the tedious process of
+outlining it by hand with a graver and afterward finished it with a
+chisel.
+
+But the exacting demands of modern artistic taste, the improvement of
+scientific methods and the pressure of competition have marked a
+complete transformation in the business of making dies for book
+covers. A few pencils and gravers, a vise bench, and a grindstone no
+longer make an engraving establishment. Colored sketches of most
+painstaking execution, accompanied by a working drawing in black and
+white, have taken the place of the old pencil sketch. These artistic
+productions, having passed the ordeal of critical examination, are
+handed over to the photographer, who, if he understands his part, does
+all that the beeswax did, and a good deal more. He takes the
+black-and-white drawing above referred to and reproduces it, in the
+size desired, directly on a brass plate covered with a sensitive
+coating, and then having prepared it with acid-proof preparations, he
+passes it over to the etcher.
+
+The etcher in his turn, with unerring judgment in the strength of his
+acids, does what the most careful outliner could not accomplish; he
+produces a perfect facsimile of the original drawing, with all its
+artistic freedom. The process used is practically the same as the zinc
+etching process described in the chapter on half-tones and line
+plates. The plate, having been etched as deep as is safe, is then
+turned over to the router, whose business it is to cut out all the
+metal between ornaments and lettering to the proper depth. This done,
+the engraver, who in former years practically dug out the entire plate
+with his hand tools, comes in to give the finishing touches and
+correct any slight imperfection that may remain. It is of the utmost
+importance, of course, that the dies should be clear-cut and deep, to
+avoid clogging up in printing, particularly in the plates used for
+stamping in inks. The experienced and watchful engraver is expected
+to detect any spots where the etching process has not fully
+accomplished its purpose. Lettering, especially, should be cut clear,
+deep, and free from "feather," or ragged edges.
+
+The above process applies to single plates or to plates intended for
+printing in one color only, or in gold. Where two or more colors are
+wanted, the photographer has to make as many prints as there are
+colors in the artist's design, as each one calls for a separate plate.
+The proceeding otherwise remains the same, excepting that to the
+engraver's task is added the necessity of making sure of a perfect
+register or fitting together of the various parts.
+
+The transformation in the demands of publishers and writers has become
+so great since the days of the primitive little shop above referred
+to, that a die cutter, working on those lines, would be hopelessly out
+of the race at the present day. In order to meet satisfactorily the
+artistic expectation of the present generation a first-class engraving
+establishment must have: an accomplished staff of artists, supplied
+with a library of standard authorities on the various schools of art,
+as well as a good selection of modern art publications; a skilled
+photographer with a complete photographic outfit, including, of
+course, a suitable gallery with the best obtainable light, both
+natural and artificial; and lastly a complete staff of routers and
+engravers, some of whom should be specialists in lettering, while
+others should devote their attention exclusively to figures.
+
+Of all the elements that go to make book-cover decoration the
+lettering is by far the most important. It should receive special
+care, as in some cases it constitutes the entire decoration. In this
+respect the critical taste of the present day shows itself even more
+strongly than in the matter of decorative ornamentation, and no amount
+of ornamentation, whatever its artistic value, can redeem a cover
+whose lettering is lacking in style, character, or typographical merit
+of some kind. Experience is such a good teacher that I can usually
+tell, by looking at a die, not only who designed the lettering, but
+also what workman engraved it.
+
+Some dies are intended for stamping in gold or colored leaf and
+consequently have to be heated sufficiently to cause the leaf to
+adhere to the cloth cover, while others are meant simply for black
+stamping or stamping in ink of various colors; but all are engraved on
+brass for the sake of durability. Sometimes, where very large editions
+are expected, as of school books, steel is substituted for brass.
+
+The die, when finished, is used by the binder in a stamping press.
+Color work calls for considerable skill on the part of the stamper,
+who should be an expert in mixing inks as the best-cut die will
+often show poor results if not properly handled. In fact, the success
+of a book cover depends on three individuals,--the artist who designs
+it, the engraver who cuts it, and the stamper who prints it.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK CLOTHS
+
+By Henry P. Kendall.
+
+
+The great increase in the number of books produced each year has
+brought a corresponding development in the use of prepared cloth for
+the bindings. Previous to the beginning of the last century cloth was
+almost unknown as a material for covering a book. Books were then very
+costly. They were printed laboriously by hand, on paper also made by
+hand, and were naturally considered worthy of the most lasting
+bindings. As the life of books depends on the strength and wearing
+quality of the covers, such materials as wood, vellum, and leather,
+often reenforced with metal, were generally used.
+
+The nineteenth century has marked a great progress in the variety and
+quantity, if not in the quality, of published books. Improvements in
+methods and in machinery have progressed side by side with economies
+in paper making. As the cost of producing the printed sheets became
+less, a demand arose for a correspondingly cheaper material for
+bindings. The want was satisfactorily met by the use of cloth, and
+from the day that it was first used it has become more and more a
+factor in book manufacturing.
+
+When so commonplace a binding material as cloth was selected, artists
+and binders and publishers considered that ornamentation on such a
+material was almost a waste of time and money. So the libraries of our
+grandfathers contained rows of gloomy and unattractive books, bound in
+black cloth stamped in old-fashioned designs, with a back title of
+lemon gold, and it is only comparatively a few years ago that binding
+in cloth began to be considered worthy of the attention of the
+designer and the artist, but since then the demand for a more varied
+assortment and a wider choice of colors and patterns has been steadily
+growing.
+
+Let us consider briefly the different kinds of book cloths that are
+most commonly used to-day and try to make clear to the lay reader the
+different fabrics, whose nomenclature is so frequently confused even
+by binders and publishers.
+
+Book cloths, from their appearance and manufacture, fall into two
+natural divisions, the first being the so-called "solid colors," in
+which the threads of the cloth are not easily distinguishable. This
+division contains two grades of cloth, generally known as common
+colors and extra colors. The standard width of all book cloths is
+thirty-eight inches. The commons and extras are sold by the roll, and
+the standard number of yards to the roll of these fabrics is
+thirty-eight.
+
+The second division consists of the so-called "linens" and "buckrams,"
+in which each thread, with the imperfections and peculiarities of the
+weaving, are plainly seen and form a large part of their picturesque
+effect.
+
+The first of the "common colors" to be used was the black cloth
+already referred to, but they are now made in many colors, though
+chiefly in simple, pronounced shades, such as browns, blues, greens,
+and reds. These cloths have been dyed, and sized with a stiffening
+preparation. They are the cheapest of the solid colors and are used in
+various patterns, which are embossed on the surface during the process
+of manufacture.
+
+The ordinary patterns which are in the greatest use to-day are
+designated in the trade by letters. Perhaps the most familiar is the
+"T" pattern, straight parallel ridges or striations, about forty to
+the inch, and running across the cloth from selvage to selvage. When
+properly used, these ribs run from top to bottom of a book cover. For
+this reason it is not economical to use the "T" pattern if the height
+of the cover is not a multiple of the width of the cloth, as it
+results in a waste of cloth. This explains why the cost of the book
+bound in "T" pattern is frequently somewhat higher than the same book
+bound in another pattern of the same cloth.
+
+A similar design is the "S" or silk pattern, made up of finer lines
+running diagonally across the cloth, giving the surface a sheen
+somewhat resembling silk. Also in common use are a group of patterns
+composed of small irregular dots or points, the finest of which is
+known as the "C" pattern, a coarser pattern of similar design, the
+"J," and, coarser still, the "L," which has somewhat the appearance of
+the coarse grain of a morocco leather. The pattern known as "H" is a
+simple diamond made by intersecting diagonal lines similar to the ribs
+of the "T" pattern. Other patterns in less common use are those
+resembling morocco leather, pigskin, and patterns in fancy designs.
+
+Following the increased use of the common cloths, attention was given
+to the artistic effects which might be obtained by using colored inks
+and gold on lettering and design, and also to the effect obtained by
+pressure of hot binders' dies or stamps upon covers made with embossed
+cloths, which latter process is known in binding as "blanking" or
+"blind" stamping.
+
+With these advances in the art of cover decoration came the demand for
+the more delicate tints and richer shades of the colors, and as a
+result finer colors than could be produced in the common cloths were
+introduced to meet this demand; these fabrics were called the "extra"
+cloths. They have a solid, smooth surface, more "body," and are in
+every way firmer and better fabrics, and more costly, too, some of the
+shades costing from twenty to forty per cent more than the common
+cloths.
+
+Extra cloths are used largely on the better class of bindings, such as
+the popular fiction, holiday books, scientific books, and books of
+reference, and whenever fine coloring or a better appearance is
+desired. These cloths are chiefly used in the plain fabric, which is
+known as "vellum," and in the "T," "S," and "H" patterns. The trained
+eye easily recognizes extra cloth from the common cloths, by the
+appearance of the surface; but any one may readily distinguish them by
+the appearance of the back, which in the extra cloths is not colored,
+but in the commons is the same color as the face.
+
+Of the second division of cloths, in which the appearance of the
+threads becomes a part of the effect, there are first the "linen"
+cloths. The name "linen" applied to this group is really a misnomer,
+for many laymen are led to think that such cloths have flax as a
+foundation and are therefore genuine linens. This is not so, for there
+is but one genuine linen book cloth to be had, and that is a coarse,
+irregularly woven cloth, dyed in dull colors, and manufactured by a
+foreign house. It is quite expensive, costing sixty cents a square
+yard, which is one of the reasons why it is seldom used.
+
+The chief characteristics of the linen cloths are that the coloring
+used fills the interstices, but allows all the threads to be clearly
+seen. The irregularities of the weaving, therefore, stand out plainly,
+and produce to a certain extent the appearance of woven linen fabrics.
+
+Linen book cloths are made in two grades, and are sold by the yard
+under special names given to them by the manufacturers. The cheaper
+grade is sold under the name of "vellum de luxe," "X" grade, or
+"Oxford." A better grade of linen book cloth sells (in 1906) at about
+sixteen cents per yard under the names "art vellum," "B" grade, and
+"linen finish." It is a very durable fabric and extensively used.
+
+The linen cloths are made principally in the plain surface, and in the
+"T" pattern, but almost never in any other patterns, the reason for
+this being the fact that the character of the cloth is very little
+changed by the embossing, which is used with greater effect on the
+solid colors. These linen cloths are especially adapted for school and
+other books which are constantly handled, as their construction shows
+the wear less than do the solid colors.
+
+The buckrams might have been properly classed with the linens, as that
+is what, in fact, they are. Linen cloth observed through a microscope
+which magnifies the threads to a coarseness of about forty to the inch
+gives us the exact appearance of the buckram, which is a heavy, strong
+cloth well adapted to large books, and which furnishes the most
+durable binding of all the book cloths. The colors of buckrams
+correspond closely with those of the linens; they are also sold under
+trade names given them by manufacturers, such as "art canvas" and "E"
+grade.
+
+Buckrams are sometimes embossed to imitate in part the appearance of
+an irregularly woven fabric called "crash." Crash is a special cloth
+which might properly be classed with the buckrams, and when suitably
+used is a very artistic material.
+
+Basket cloth is still another material which could properly be
+included with the buckrams. This grade of cloth gains its name from
+the fact that the threads are woven in squares resembling a basket
+mesh. They are made in the same coloring as the linen cloths.
+
+In describing the cloths above, only those of American manufacture
+have been considered. There are English cloths which correspond to
+nearly all of these fabrics, but they are little used in America on
+account of the delay in importing them and because of the duty, which
+makes the price here higher than for corresponding grades of domestic
+manufacture.
+
+One cannot stand before the windows of the large book stores at
+holiday time without being impressed by the possibilities offered by
+the many colors and patterns of cloths and the varied hues of inks and
+foil, in helping the artist to make books attractive to the eye, and
+suggestive of the sentiment and motive of their contents. One feels
+that the designer of book covers has surely a wider field to-day than
+when he confined his attention entirely to making intricate designs
+for single leather-bound folios.
+
+
+
+
+BOOK LEATHERS
+
+By Ellery C. Bartlett.
+
+
+There is hardly any part of the world that has not been drawn upon for
+suitable skins to be made into leather for bookbinding. The skins
+generally used are goat, seal, pigskin, cowhide, calf, and sheep, and
+they vary in quality according to the country they come from and the
+manner in which the animals are cared for, the stall-fed animals, or
+those that are protected from storm and have regular food, producing
+the best skins.
+
+In preparing these skins for bookbinders, great care has to be taken
+to extract as much of the natural oil as possible, as this is apt to
+discolor the gold leaf decorations put on by the artistic binder.
+
+Tanners usually buy skins with the hair on. They are first put into
+water, for the purpose of softening them, after which they are laid
+over a beam and a knife is drawn over them, to still further soften
+them. They are then put into vats containing slack lime-water, which
+loosens the hair and kills the animal life remaining in the skin.
+After having been in these vats for a period of about ten days, they
+are washed in water, to remove the lime and clean the skin. Afterwards
+they are put through a process called "bating," which destroys any
+animal matter in the skins which may have escaped the first process,
+and they are then finally cleansed by a solution of bran and water,
+which also prepares them for tanning.
+
+After the skins have been in tan for a week or more, they are taken
+out, tacked on drying frames and all the wrinkles stretched out of
+them. When thoroughly dry, they are ready for the coloring process.
+After being colored, they are again tacked on the frames; and when
+they are thoroughly dry again they are taken to the graining room,
+where the finishing processes are done by skilled workmen, the utmost
+care being needed to produce the desired result.
+
+The matching of shades is a very difficult process, as the question of
+color must be decided while the skins are still wet. Weather
+conditions have a very important bearing on the manufacture of
+leather, and changes in the atmosphere often spoil all the careful
+work that has previously been put on a skin.
+
+The finest leather for books comes from France, although a good
+quality is made in England and Germany, and the United States is
+rapidly improving its output.
+
+The graining of the leather to bring out the natural grain in the
+skin, is done by hand and sometimes by electroplate reproductions of
+the natural grain by means of the embossing press. When large grain is
+wanted, the skins are shaved only slightly on the back; if small
+grains are wanted, the skins are shaved thinner. This process removes
+all roughness from the back of the skin, leaving it smooth and clean.
+
+Formerly the binder, in preparing his covers, was compelled to pare
+the edges with a knife, which was a slow and laborious process; but
+now--thanks to the inventive American talent--he can have the whole
+skin split to any desired thickness or thinness, without injury; or,
+he can have the edges pared by cleverly devised machinery.
+
+Leather manufacturers are able, by using splitting machines, to split
+skins so that both parts of a skin can be used--the upper part of the
+skin being called the grain and the lower the flesh. Were this not the
+case, it would be impossible for the binder to supply the needs of his
+customers, as the output does not keep pace with the constantly
+increasing demand. In fact, binders are constantly looking for
+substitutes, but, after all, there is nothing so good as leather.
+
+
+
+
+THE BINDING
+
+By Jesse Fellowes Tapley.
+
+
+The changes in the methods of bookbinding during the last sixty years
+have been very great, and during the last twenty-five years the
+invention of machines for doing the work rapidly has created almost a
+revolution in the art.
+
+Fifty years ago the pay of journeymen bookbinders ranged from eight to
+ten dollars a week, for a day of ten hours, and the cost of binding an
+ordinary 12mo volume of 500 pages in cloth was from sixteen to
+eighteen cents. To-day the same volume can be bound for eight to ten
+cents, with the pay of the journeyman from eighteen to twenty dollars
+a week, for a day of nine hours. The pay of girls has, as a general
+thing, been proportionally increased, while the amount of work they
+can turn out with the newly invented machinery is triple as much as
+could be done by hand, and on some branches of the work it is more
+than six times as much.
+
+The first process of making a book is the folding. The sheets are
+usually printed so as to fold in sections of sixteen pages, with
+signature figures, as 1, 2, 3, or alphabet letters, as A, B, C,
+printed at the bottom of the first page of each section, for the
+guidance of the binder in placing the signatures in regular order for
+gathering the book.
+
+Usually two or four forms are printed on one sheet. One girl could
+fold by hand from 3500 to 4000 sections of 16 pages a day. With modern
+machines the range is from 17,000 to 48,000, according to the make of
+the machine and whether it is equipped with an automatic feeder or
+not.
+
+There are three styles of machines in general use. The point machine,
+fed by hand, has needle points on the feed board, on which is placed
+the sheet, which has proper holes made by the printing press. The next
+is called a drop-roll machine, which, if equipped with an automatic
+feeder, will fold 24,000 sections a day, delivering two sections at
+each revolution. The next is called a quadruple machine, which, with
+an automatic feeder, will fold 48,000 sections a day or as many as
+twelve girls could do by hand.
+
+In binderies where large editions of books are done, it would be
+almost impossible to keep the different sections from getting mixed,
+unless they were put into compact bundles and tied up until the
+complete book is folded. This is accomplished by putting a quantity of
+each section into hydraulic or screw presses, with a board at the top
+and bottom of the bundle, which is tied with a strong cord. They are
+then marked with name and signature, and piled up until wanted for
+gathering into books.
+
+If the book has plates printed separately from the text, they have to
+be inserted before it can be gathered. Plating is done by girls, 5000
+being a day's work for an experienced hand.
+
+Gathering comes next. The sections are laid out in separate piles in
+consecutive order, and one signature taken from each pile, making a
+complete book. From 30,000 to 45,000 sections is a day's work.
+
+After gathering, the book is pressed to make it solid. This is done by
+passing it through a powerful press, called a smashing machine. The
+old-fashioned way was to pile the books between boards in a standing
+press, running the screw down with an iron lever, and allowing them to
+stay in same for several hours. In a modern smashing machine a book
+can be made as solid in half a minute as the standing press will make
+it by ten hours' pressing.
+
+From the smashing machine it goes to the collator, by whom it is
+examined to see if any signature is misplaced or left out.
+
+It then goes to the modern sewing machine. This is one of the most
+valuable labor-saving machines for the binder ever invented, as it
+almost, if not entirely, supersedes hand sewing on what is called
+edition work. This machine will sew from 15,000 to 18,000 signatures a
+day, and do it better than it can be done by hand. Each signature is
+sewed independently and with from two to five stitches, so that if one
+breaks the signature is held fast by the others, while in hand sewing
+the thread goes through the whole length of the signature, and if by
+chance it is broken, the book is ruined so far as the sewing is
+concerned. In addition the machine does more work, in the same time,
+than five or six girls sewing by hand.
+
+After sewing, the books are prepared for trimming by "jogging up" in
+bunches of the proper thickness, for the cutting machine. If the work
+is large or the paper highly sized and slippery, a light coating of
+glue is applied to the centre of the back, to keep the signatures in
+place. In olden times books were trimmed in a press having hardwood
+jaws and wood screws near each end, worked with an iron lever. Into
+this press the books were clamped, the rough edge to be trimmed off
+projecting above the jaws. To trim the book, a plough was used, made
+of two thick side pieces of hard wood about one foot long and six
+inches high, with a long hand screw passing through them. (The end at
+the right had a handle outside of the side piece, and the end at the
+left engaged a screw in the left side piece.) At the bottom of the
+right side piece, and resting on the jaw of the press, was a
+sharp-pointed knife. The plough was worked back and forth, and at each
+motion the screw in the plough was turned enough for the knife to
+take a shaving from the book. To keep the plough in place, the
+left-hand jaw had a deep groove on its surface, in which the plough
+worked. This was slow and hard work.
+
+Sometime between the years 1840 and 1850, a machine was invented in
+which books were clamped, and a heavy knife descended perpendicularly.
+This was an improvement on the old-fashioned press and plough, but it
+was found that, unless the knife was very sharp, the tendency was to
+draw the paper, and in effect jam it off rather than cut it.
+
+To obviate this, the next move was to arrange the knife so that it
+would give a drawing cut, or come down on a slant, rather than a rigid
+descent. This is the principle on which most book and paper cutting
+machines are made to-day.
+
+About 1850 a machine was invented in which a vibrating knife worked
+back and forth on the paper to be cut. This was thought at the time to
+be the best principle for a cutting machine.
+
+Ten or twenty years later a new machine made its appearance. This one
+had a knife held rigidly in the frame of the machine, and the books
+were clamped into a carriage drawn up by a chain against the edge of
+the knife. It was the most rapid trimmer that had appeared, and held
+its position for a good many years; but in the meantime, for general
+work, the machines with a descending slanting knife held their own and
+multiplied.
+
+Within a very short time a new machine has appeared. This has two
+slanting descending knives and doubles the work of the older machines,
+as it cuts two sides at one blow, and will trim from 7000 to 8000
+ordinary books a day, against 500 or 600 by the old-fashioned press
+and plough.
+
+After the edges are trimmed, the book is rounded and backed. In this
+process, too, great improvement has been made. Originally this work
+was done by hand with a hammer, the rounding being accomplished by
+striking one side of the back as the book lay flat, and then the
+other, forming it at the same time by the hand, to give the back the
+convex, and the front the concave, form. Some persons are found now
+who think the hollow or concave front of the book is made by trimming
+it in that way.
+
+The backing process gives the groove on which the cover is hinged. In
+olden times this was done by clamping the book in a press between
+backing irons, with the back projecting enough to give the proper
+groove, and gradually drawing it over from the centre with the hammer.
+In small job shops this is the practice to-day, but in large
+establishments it has given place to modern machines. The first
+innovation was what is called the roller backer. This makes the
+groove, the book being first rounded as described. Then came the
+rounder and backer, which is run by power, and both rounds and backs
+the book at one operation.
+
+To show the advance made, it may be stated that 500 books was a good
+day's work with press and hammer. With the advent of the roller backer
+1000 was a fair day's work, but when the power machine was invented,
+the production jumped up to 4000 and over, a day.
+
+After the book is rounded and grooved, the back is glued and a piece
+of coarse woven cloth, wide enough to lap over each side an inch or
+more, is put on, and over this another coat of glue and a piece of
+paper the width of the back are applied.
+
+The book is then ready for the cover, which is put on by pasting the
+first and last leaf, drawing the cover on, and putting it in press
+between boards whose edges are bound with a brass band, the rim
+projecting above the surface of the board. This rim presses the cloth
+between the covers and the back of the book, making a hinge upon which
+the cover opens. Two men can paste and press 1500 to 2000 books a day.
+A new machine has been put on the market within a year, that, with the
+same help, will do the work at the rate of 4000 a day. This process is
+termed "casing in."
+
+The making of the book cover is a distinct branch in binding edition
+work. The pasteboard formerly was cut by hand shears, one piece at a
+time. It is now done by rotary shears, cutting from six to ten pieces
+as fast as the sheets of board can be fed to the machine.
+
+The cloth for the cover is cut to the proper size, glued by hand, the
+boards laid on by gauge, and the edges turned in with a folder. A man
+expert at the work can make from 600 to 800 covers a day. About
+fifteen years ago a machine was invented, which turns out from 3000 to
+4500 a day. This machine is automatic in its operation, gluing the
+cloth, laying on the boards, turning in the edges, and delivering a
+more perfect cover than can be made by hand.
+
+Stamping the cover is a trade by itself. It requires long experience
+and skill to make an expert. There are several branches in this trade,
+such as blank or blind stamping, stamping with ink (or a colored leaf
+made to take the place of ink), and stamping with gold. Laying gold
+preparatory to stamping is a distinct branch, and is done by girls.
+This is such a delicate operation that it requires long experience.
+There has been no improvement in the principle of the stamping or
+embossing press since the first machines came into use. The die or
+stamp is held in the head of the press by clamps, and the cover is
+placed on the platen or bed of the press, which is raised up to the
+stamp by a "toggle joint" operated with a "cam."
+
+Since covers began to be ornamented with ink, attachments have been
+added to the presses for inking the stamps. There have also been
+invented powerful printing presses, made for stamping covers in ink.
+The process is the same as on common printing presses.
+
+The dies used for stamping covers are cut on hardened brass, and are
+capable of standing an immense pressure. They are not set in chases,
+as are the forms on printing presses, but are glued to iron plates.
+The head of the press to which the plates are clamped is heated,
+either by running a jet of live steam through it, or by gas jets.
+
+For gilt work, or colored leaf, heat is necessary. The cover is
+prepared with a coat of size. The gold or ink leaf is then laid on and
+an impression is given with the heated die, which melts the size and
+fastens the leaf only at the point where the die strikes. The surplus
+leaf is brushed off, leaving only the design visible.
+
+The binding of cheap leather-covered books is essentially the same as
+with cloth. The difference is that the covers must be made by hand. No
+machine will do any part, except paring the edges of the covers. There
+are several machines that will do this work, one machine doing as much
+in a day as three men could with knife and paring stone in the old
+way.
+
+Edge-gilding is another distinct branch of the trade, and is generally
+done before books are rounded and backed. The books are clamped, after
+trimming, between the jaws of powerful screw presses and the edges
+scraped to make them perfectly smooth. They are then colored with a
+mixture of red chalk, or black lead, applied with a sponge, to give
+the gold a dark color. A size made of the white of eggs is then
+applied with a brush, the gold leaf floated on, and when dry burnished
+with an agate or bloodstone. No machine has yet been invented that
+will do this work.
+
+Edge-marbling is another branch. A shallow trough is filled with a
+solution of gum hog or gum tragacanth of the consistency of thick
+cream. Each color, which must be ground very fine, is mixed in water
+and ox-gall, and sprinkled separately over the surface of the gum with
+brushes. The ox-gall prevents the colors from mixing together on the
+solution, every drop being distinct. If three or more colors are used,
+the first one containing a little gall, the second more than the
+first, and the third more than the second, each color will make a
+place for itself by crowding the others into a narrower space. The
+books are held firmly in a clamp, and as the edges are dipped into the
+solution they take up the colors as they lie on the surface.
+
+There are other edges called for besides the gilt, the marbled, or the
+plain smooth cut. The deckle edge is left uncut, just as it comes from
+the paper-maker. The uncut or rough cut is made by taking off any
+projecting edges of the leaves. There are machines for doing this, one
+having a circular knife rigged like a circular saw, the book being run
+lengthwise against it. There are also other methods of removing
+overhanging leaves, one by using hand shears, another by filing.
+
+In fine leather binding, while the preparation of the book for the
+cover is essentially the same as in cloth work, the covering is all
+hand-work, requiring experience and skill, and is a distinct branch of
+the trade.
+
+Finishing by hand is another, and requires long experience to become
+an expert. Gold ornamentation requires heated tools, and in the hands
+of a practised finisher beautiful designs can be worked out with quite
+a limited assortment of rolls, straight and curved lines, and a few
+sprigs, dots, and stars.
+
+In olden times, when all work was done by hand, the product of a
+good-sized cloth bindery was from 500 to 1000 books a day. Now, with
+modern machinery, in a well-equipped bindery, the product is from 5000
+to 10,000 copies of an ordinary 12mo book.
+
+There are a number of other machines in use, run by power, which have
+not been enumerated in the above sketch, such as wire and thread
+stitching machines, gluing and pasting machines, brushing machines,
+and last but not least a gold-saving machine, out of whose bowels
+large binders take from $200 to $400 worth of waste gold each month.
+This waste gold comes from the surplus gold brushed from the covers
+after stamping.
+
+
+
+
+SPECIAL BINDINGS
+
+By Henry Blackwell.
+
+
+Much has been written about the art of special binding, and many
+lengthy treatises have been written on the various methods of early
+and modern "extra," or fine binders. It will be my province to
+describe the stages through which a book passes, from the time it is
+received in the bindery until it is shipped out of the establishment.
+I will take for my subject a rare old book that is to be rebound in a
+half-levant morocco binding. In a good shop, all books, no matter what
+the binding is to be, are treated alike in regard to workmanship,
+care, and materials. If a binder puts his name in the completed book,
+it is a sign that the book has been to the best of his ability
+honestly and well bound.
+
+When the customer brings the book to the binder, the style of binding,
+color of the leather, amount and kind of ornamentation, and all the
+other details are determined upon and entered carefully in a numbered
+order book, and the number of the order is marked in pencil on an
+inside leaf of the book itself, so that the original instructions may
+be referred to from time to time. This number is usually left in the
+book after it has been finished and delivered to the owner, and not
+infrequently has been the means of identifying a lost or stolen
+volume.
+
+The book is then given to the first operator, usually a girl, who
+removes the cover, if there is any, and takes the book apart,
+separating carefully each of the "signatures," or sections, and
+removing the threads of the old binding. If any of the pages are
+loose, they are pasted neatly in their proper places and the "insert
+plates" (illustrations, maps, etc.), which had been printed separately
+from the text and pasted in the volume, are examined to make sure that
+they are firmly fixed. Another operator goes over the entire volume
+and cleans any of the pages that have become soiled.
+
+The book is then prepared for the sewing by a man who hammers the back
+until it is flat and all the edges of the signatures lie evenly. He
+then divides it into sections of half a dozen or more signatures,
+places each of these between smooth wooden boards, and puts the whole
+into an upright iron press, in which it is subjected to a great
+pressure, and where it ought to remain over night in order to make it
+entirely flat and solid. A better way of pressing a book at this stage
+of the operation is to pass it several times through a rolling
+machine, which is made for this special purpose with two heavy iron
+rollers, say twenty inches long and ten inches in diameter. These
+machines are seldom used in America, but are invariably found in the
+equipment of binders' workshops abroad, which is perhaps one reason
+why English books are so solidly bound.
+
+Following the pressing, or the rolling, the book is placed, back
+uppermost, in another press, something like a wooden vise. By means of
+a handsaw, several cuts, just deep enough to cut entirely through the
+fold of each signature, are made across the back of the book. Seven of
+these saw marks are usually made, the five in the middle being for the
+cords on which the book is sewed, and the two at the ends for threads
+which help to make the sewing more secure. If the book is to have a
+binding with raised bands across the back, no actual cuts are made,
+the back being simply scratched to guide the girl in sewing, so that
+the heavy twine on which she sews will stand out on the back, forcing
+the leather up in the five middle places and forming the raised bands.
+
+After it has been sawed, or scratched, the book goes to a girl who
+collates it--that is, examines it thoroughly, signature by signature,
+and makes sure that everything is in its right place. If the volume is
+old or especially valuable, it is gone over page by page. The first
+and last signatures are then whip-stitched, or sewed over and over
+along the back edges, and then put in their places.
+
+The book is then sewn on a "sewing frame." This is a small wooden
+table about twelve by eighteen inches, with legs only one inch high.
+At two corners there are upright wooden screws, some fifteen inches
+long with movable collars which support a crosspiece. To this
+crosspiece are fastened three stout cords, their other ends being
+attached to the table. The position of these cords are regulated to
+fit the saw marks on the back of the book, then they are tightened by
+means of the screw collars. The sections of the book are then placed
+against these cords, one by one, and the threads passed through the
+saw cuts and outside the cords, thus sewing them firmly to the back of
+the book. When several books of the same size are being bound at one
+time, the operator goes right on sewing book after book, one signature
+after the other, until she has finished a pile of books a foot or more
+high. When the sewing is finished the cords are cut so as to leave a
+free end of an inch and a half on each side of the book, and to these
+ends are fastened the boards, as described later.
+
+Linen or silk thread is used in sewing, the heaviness of which depends
+upon the size of the book and the thickness of the paper of the book.
+If the book has many single leaves, or illustrations, it is sometimes
+necessary to whip-stitch each signature before sewing.
+
+The book, or the pile of books, then passes to the "forwarder," who
+"draws off" or separates each book from the others in the pile, and
+again hammers the book, to flatten out any "swell" which may be
+present after the sewing. He then pastes, or "tacks," the first and
+last whip-stitched signatures to the signatures next them, this
+pasting being only, say, an eighth of an inch wide along the back
+edge.
+
+The paper is then chosen for the "end papers," usually matching
+closely the paper of the book. They are cut a little larger than the
+paper page of the book, and pasted along the edge to the outside and
+whip-stitched signatures. Marble paper in suitable harmony or contrast
+with the leather to be used on the book is then selected for lining
+the inside of the covers cut to the same size as the "end papers," and
+pasted to them, after having been folded so that the colored sides
+come face to face.
+
+When all this pasting has dried thoroughly, the back of the book is
+covered with a thin coating of glue, to preserve its shape and then,
+while the back is quite flat, the front edges of the leaves are
+trimmed off evenly in a cutting machine. If this edge is to be gilded,
+special care is taken to have the edges cut smoothly.
+
+The back is then "rounded" by use of a hammer; if the book is to be a
+"flat back" one, the rounding is very slight. It is necessary even in
+the case of a flat back book to round it somewhat so that it will
+retain its shape when the finished book is placed on the shelf. After
+the rounding, the top, or "head," and the bottom, or "tail," of the
+book are trimmed evenly in the cutting machine.
+
+The book is then ready for the gilder, who places it, with the edge
+which is to be gilded uppermost, in a press. This edge is covered with
+red chalk, which shows all the uneven places, which are then scraped
+with a steel scraper. This operation is repeated until the edge is
+very smooth, and it is then treated with a sizing made of white of egg
+and water, which is to hold the gold leaf to the edges of the leaves.
+The gold leaf is laid on the still wet edge, and when slightly dry is
+covered with a sheet of paper and rubbed down with a burnisher, and
+when entirely dry is burnished again with a smooth piece of agate or
+bloodstone.
+
+The boards, pieces of strong and durable binders' "boards" made of
+paper or tarred rope, are then selected and cut to fit the book,
+extending about one-eighth of an inch over the head, tail, and front
+edges of the leaves. Each of the cords, on which the book has been
+sewed, is moistened with paste, and put through two holes which are
+punched side by side in the board and within a quarter of an inch of
+the inside edge. The cord is carried down through one hole, and up
+through the other, and the remaining end is cut off and hammered down
+smooth where it stays firmly fastened by the paste. This is called
+"lacing on the boards" and when finished makes, so far as strength
+is concerned, the cover-boards and the inside of the book practically
+one piece. The book is then given another long pressing.
+
+The coverer then takes the volume. He first wraps the edges with paper
+to keep them clean and then puts on the headbands. These are either
+sewn directly on to the book or may be bought ready-made, when they
+are put on with glue.
+
+The back is covered with a strip of coarsely woven crash lined with
+several pieces of paper. This is glued to the back to make it hard and
+solid and to prevent it from cracking, or "breaking," when the book is
+opened.
+
+The leather is then cut out for the corners and for the back, in the
+latter case allowance being made for its extension over and on to the
+boards to the proper distance. The back lining is trimmed off to the
+top of the headbands, and the leather is pasted on the rough side in
+position and turned in at the "head" and "tail" of the back. The five
+raised bands are then "pinched up" and the whole back is polished, or
+"crushed," with a hot polisher until the leather is smoothed down to
+the desired surface.
+
+In decorating the cover, or "tooling" it, as it is called, the design
+is first pressed into the leather of the back with heated tools. These
+designs, appearing "blank," or sunken, in the leather, are washed over
+with a thin coat of paste and water, followed by a sizing of albumen,
+and finally with vaseline, to make the gold stick. Gold leaf is laid
+over the "blank" designs and the same heated tools used to press the
+gold into the leather. As many as three layers of gold are frequently
+put on in this way until the design is full and clear. The waste edges
+of the pieces of gold leaf are removed with a piece of soft rubber and
+the whole back washed with benzine to remove the grease of the
+vaseline and that of the natural leather.
+
+The part of the leather which projects over the sides is pasted to the
+boards, trimmed off straight, and pared down until the edges are very
+thin. Another piece of plain paper is then cut out and pasted on the
+board, covering it right up to the edges of the leather. This makes
+the side board and the leather even in height and prevents the outside
+marbled paper from showing ridges made by the edges of the leather.
+
+When the outside has dried, a piece of paper is pasted on the inside
+of each board. This paper has a tendency to shrink a little and to
+warp the boards, so that they will hold tightly to the inside of the
+book. If this paper were not put on the inside of the covers, the
+marbled paper on the outside might cause the boards to warp away from
+the book itself.
+
+The end papers are then pasted down on to the board, and when
+thoroughly dry all the leather along the inside and the outside edges
+of the cover sides is carefully washed and polished with an iron
+polisher. The book is then placed between plates made of steel, either
+nickel or silver plated, and placed in the press to remain a day or
+two, after which the back is polished again and the sides are finished
+with gilt lines along the edges of the leather next to the marbled
+paper. Then the book is finally inspected, a silk marker inserted, and
+the volume is done and ready for delivery.
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHTING
+
+By Frederick H. Hitchcock.
+
+
+Copyrighting a book is in most instances not a difficult matter, but
+the present United States laws are so complicated and inconsistent
+that an inexperienced author may readily fall into errors of one kind
+or another.
+
+In a modern publishing house, the routine work of complying with the
+provisions of the copyright laws is usually in the hands of one clerk,
+who is responsible for the preparation and filing of the necessary
+documents at the proper time and for keeping a complete record of all
+that he does. Experience soon brings such a clerk a really valuable
+knowledge of the law, but as many questions of vital importance arise
+from time to time, it is customary for one of the most responsible men
+in the concern, generally a member of the firm or an officer in the
+corporation, to exercise a general supervision of all copyright
+matters.
+
+When a book is ready to be sent to the bindery, the manufacturing
+department will generally order a certain number of copies to be
+finished in advance of the rest of the edition. Some of these will be
+for the travelling salesman's use, some for the publicity department,
+and at least two for copyright purposes. With the copies delivered to
+the copyright clerk, the manufacturing department will send one or two
+separate title-pages, either torn from the printed sheets or taken
+from the early proofs made by the printer. With these in hand and with
+information from the selling department as to the day when the book is
+to be published, the clerk in charge will then take the first step
+toward copyrighting it. This is the filing of the claim for copyright
+and of the title of the book.
+
+The Copyright Office in the Library of Congress at Washington supplies
+free upon request application blanks, and one of these must be
+carefully filled in. The information called for by this blank is as
+follows: the amount of the fees enclosed, whether a sealed copy of the
+record, or certificate as it is called, is desired, whether the volume
+is to be classed as a book, periodical, or dramatic composition, an
+abbreviated title of the book, the name of the author, or proprietor,
+the name and address of the applicant, the name of the country where
+the book was printed, whether the applicant is the author, or (having
+an assignment from the author) the proprietor, the name of the country
+of which the author is a citizen, or subject, and whether the whole or
+a part of the book is sought to be copyrighted.
+
+There is a blank page in the form where the print or proof of the
+title-page must be pasted. If neither of these is available at the
+time, it is customary to use a typewritten title-page, but as the law
+distinctly calls for a "printed" title and as the courts have not
+decided whether typewriting is printing within the intention of the
+law, it is best to follow the exact letter of the law.
+
+The fee for filing the application or claim for copyright is fifty
+cents if the author is a citizen or resident of the United States, or
+one dollar if he is a foreigner. If a copy of the record entered at
+the Copyright Office is desired, an additional fifty cents is
+required. The fees, preferably in the form of a money-order, are
+enclosed in the envelope containing the claim, and the whole
+forwarded, postage prepaid, to the Register of Copyrights at the
+Library of Congress.
+
+Upon receiving these, the Copyright Office will acknowledge the
+receipt of the fees and make a record of the claim and of the title in
+books provided for the purpose. The law specifies that this record
+shall be in the following words:--
+
+"Library of Congress, to wit: Be it remembered that on the___day
+of________190________________ of_________has deposited in this Office
+the title of a BOOK, the title of which is in the following words, to
+wit:____________, the right whereof_______ claims as author and
+proprietor in conformity with the laws of the United States respecting
+copyrights. ______________Librarian of Congress."
+
+It is generally the custom to obtain a copy of this record, which, if
+the fee is enclosed, is sent to the claimant as soon after the receipt
+of the application as it can be made out in the regular course of the
+business of the Copyright Office. This copy is signed by the Register
+of Copyrights and is sealed with the official seal of the Library of
+Congress. The period of protection under an original claim is
+twenty-eight years.
+
+It is important to remember that the application and the title are
+required by law to be delivered to the Register of Copyrights "on or
+before the day of publication in this or any other country." If
+delayed until after that day, the book cannot have the protection of
+the copyright law.
+
+Prior to 1891 none but citizens or residents of the United States
+could obtain copyright, but in July of that year the privilege was
+extended to the citizens, or subjects, of such other countries as
+grant to the citizens of the United States the same copyright
+privileges which they afford to their own countrymen. At the present
+time these privileged countries are Belgium, France, Great Britain and
+her possessions, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Denmark, Portugal,
+Spain, Mexico, Chile, Costa Rica, the Netherlands (Holland) and her
+possessions, Cuba, China, and Norway.
+
+The law also requires that a book desired to be copyrighted in the
+United States must be printed in this country. It is, therefore, not
+possible to copyright a book which has been put into type and
+electrotyped in England and sent here for the presswork and binding.
+Copies of a book manufactured in this country may, however, be sent to
+England and copyrighted there.
+
+The second step is to send two copies of the printed book for deposit
+in the Copyright Office, and until this has been done, the copyright
+is incomplete. These copies, like the title, must be delivered on or
+before the day of publication.
+
+A printed receipt-form for books to be deposited is supplied by the
+Copyright Office, and it is the usual practice for the sender to fill
+in his address, and the names of the book and of the author, so that
+when the books are received, the Register of Copyrights needs only to
+date and sign the receipt-form and return it to the sender. This
+receipt-form should be enclosed with the books when they are
+forwarded. The package must be plainly addressed (the Copyright Office
+furnishes printed labels if desired) and sent, carriage prepaid,
+through the mail.
+
+It not infrequently happens that publication must be made before the
+two copies of a book can reach Washington. In such cases the copyright
+clerk may take the books to the nearest post-office and obtain from
+the postmaster a dated receipt for them which is equivalent to
+delivery to the Copyright Office. The package is not finally wrapped
+until the postmaster has examined it.
+
+When these steps have been properly taken, and the certificate, or
+sealed copy, of the record and the receipt for the two copies have
+been received, the copyright is secure so far as our laws can render
+it. It should be borne in mind that the Copyright Office does not
+grant a copyright in a manner similar to the granting of a patent
+right by the patent office. Its function is simply to record in a
+permanent place and in official form the claim made by the author, or
+by the proprietor, of that right. When a book is "pirated" and the
+offender sued, it must first be established by the records that the
+provisions of the law have been complied with fully and correctly. In
+this way a copyright is always subject to review by the courts.
+
+Every copy of a book for which copyright has been claimed must have a
+formal notice to that effect, printed on its "title-page or on the
+page following." As prescribed by law, this notice must read either
+"Entered according to the Act of Congress in the year 1906 by A. B. in
+the Office of the Library of Congress," or simply, "Copyright, 1906,
+by A. B." The omission of such a notice from the book would make it
+impossible for its owner to prevent its being reprinted. There is a
+penalty of $100 for using the notice of copyright in an uncopyrighted
+book, and when the notice is used, there is a penalty of $25, if the
+two copies as required by law are not deposited. This latter penalty
+also applies in the case of failure to deposit one copy of a new
+edition differing from the former one, if a notice of copyright is
+used in the new edition.
+
+In order to obtain a renewal of a copyright, the claim and the title
+must be filed on a form provided for the purpose with the Register of
+Copyrights "within six months before the expiration of the first
+term," which would be sometime between twenty-seven and one-half and
+twenty-eight years from the date of filing the original title. The
+copyright period runs from the date of filing the original claim, and
+not from the time of depositing the books, and great care should be
+taken to ascertain the date of the registration of the original title,
+and to compute the time so that the filing of the application for
+renewal will surely fall within the specified six months. The renewal
+period is fourteen years, and the fees are the same as in the case of
+the original application, but a certificate, or copy of the record, of
+the renewal claim must be taken and paid for by the claimant.
+
+Only one copy of a book is required to be deposited to complete the
+claim for a renewal term of copyright. This copy also must be
+delivered within "six months before the expiration of the first term,"
+and should be accompanied by a receipt as in the case of the original
+deposit. In order to complete the claim, a copy of the certificate
+must be published verbatim, within two months of the date of renewal
+for four weeks in one or more newspapers printed in the United States.
+
+In obtaining international copyright, publication on the same day here
+and abroad is necessary, and this is sometimes a cause of considerable
+inconvenience in actual practice. When a New York publisher wishes to
+copyright in England a novel which he is about to publish, he must
+prepare six special copies of the finished book, bind them in cloth,
+print the copyright notice on the back of the title-page, and the name
+and address of the London firm or the individual who is willing to act
+as the English publisher of the book, and forward the copies to that
+person. At the same time he will write to this agent, telling him of
+the shipment and requesting him to enter the book for copyright and
+publish it in England on or about such a date. He will, of course,
+allow sufficient time for the books to reach London, and he will
+carefully point out in his letter any American holidays which occur
+near the probable date of publication. Upon receiving the books, the
+London agent will cable the New York publisher the date on which he
+will publish the book, taking care to allow an interval of a day or
+two, because of a possible delay.
+
+On the day agreed upon, the New York publisher proceeds to copyright
+and publish his book in this country in the usual manner, while the
+London agent does the same abroad, delivering to the British Museum
+one copy of the book, and to Stationer's Hall, for use in certain
+libraries, four copies. Both of them will on that day sell at least
+one or two copies which will constitute a legal publication.
+
+It is the custom with many publishers to establish the publication day
+of all of their books, by displaying a few copies, or by actually
+selling one or more copies to some one. In the case of a very popular
+copyrighted book which it is desirable to have the retailers all over
+the country begin to sell on the same day, it is deemed safer to make
+this technical publication before any of the books are distributed
+through the trade. A record of the first sales entered in a
+publisher's sales-book in the course of business would effectually
+prevent any one from claiming in after years a right to reprint a book
+on the ground that the claim, title, and copies were not originally
+filed until after the book had been put upon the market.
+
+Under a recent amendment in our law, an author of a book in a foreign
+language, who is a citizen of one of the foreign countries which
+allows to our citizens the same copyright privileges as are allowed to
+its own countrymen, is permitted to file in the Copyright Office
+within thirty days after its publication in a foreign country a copy
+of his book with a formal declaration that he is the author and that
+he intends to translate it or to print it in its original language and
+to apply for copyright in the United States. After doing this, he is
+allowed one year in which to complete his proposed translation or to
+print it in the original language and copyright it here.
+
+Before this statute was passed, two or more persons could translate a
+foreign book, and each could copyright his own translation. Every copy
+of a book for which such protection is desired under this law must
+bear a notice stating, "Published ---- Nineteen Hundred and ----.
+Privilege of copyright in the United States reserved under the Act
+approved March 3, 1905, by A. B."
+
+Only the author or his assignee (_i.e._ the proprietor) may secure
+copyright in a book. An author may transfer orally all or part of his
+rights before publication, but after publication it is necessary for
+him to make the assignment by some form of written instrument. In
+order to make it a valid assignment, the original instrument must be
+sent to be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within
+sixty days after its execution. The fee for recording an assignment is
+one dollar. After the original document has been recorded, it is
+signed and sealed and returned to the sender, who should preserve it
+with the certificate.
+
+It is a common practice to have in the contract between the author and
+his publisher a clause assigning to the publisher all of the author's
+rights for the "full term of copyright and for any and all renewals."
+The agreement, of course, includes other provisions such as for the
+payment of the usual royalties, accounting, etc. Having been made
+before publication such an assignment does not need to be recorded in
+the Copyright Office.
+
+The history of copyright is an extremely interesting subject, but it
+cannot be properly treated in the limits of this article. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the first copyright law was enacted by
+Parliament during Queen Anne's reign and is known as "8 Anne, c. 9."
+This statute provided that an author should have complete control of
+his literary productions during a first term of fourteen years after
+publication, and a renewal term of the same length, and provided
+penalties against piracy. A great many questions concerning this law
+arose from time to time in trials before various courts, but perhaps
+the chief one of interest was that of whether the limitation of the
+period during which it granted protection had destroyed the author's
+rights which had existed previously. For fifty years after the passage
+of the law, the decisions were that the right of ownership existed for
+all time as a right in common law unaffected by the statute, but in
+1774 the highest English court held that while the rights of the
+author before the publication of his book remained unaffected, after
+publication he had no rights except during the period specified by the
+statute. This decision is still believed by many authorities to have
+been a wrong one, but it has been the basis for all subsequent
+copyright law in this country as well as in England. Therefore in the
+United States to-day, the right of ownership lies in the author until
+his work is published, but upon publication he has no rights except
+those given him by law, and these he can obtain only by a strict
+compliance with the requirements of the law. Any one who is
+sufficiently interested to read the first hundred pages of Drone's
+"Treatise on the Law of Property in Intellectual Productions" will be
+well repaid for the effort, and will obtain considerable light upon
+how the "right of copying," or printing, a book developed, why its
+duration is not unlimited, and why we must observe certain formalities
+in order to protect our literary work by it.
+
+
+
+
+PUBLICITY
+
+By Vivian Burnett.
+
+
+The duty of bringing the productions of a publishing house to the
+attention of the public is a very important one, and much depends upon
+the cleverness and energy with which it is discharged. It can easily
+be seen that no matter how good the books brought out by a firm, they
+would be likely to remain on stockroom shelves if readers were not
+properly made aware of their issue. The name "Publicity department" is
+the most descriptive title that can be given to the part of the staff
+devoting its energies to the many variations of news-spreading
+involved in this work.
+
+Publicity involves both editorial and commercial elements. From the
+editorial side it is of prime importance that the person in charge of
+the publicity have at the very beginning a complete and definite idea
+of the reasons that have ruled in the acceptance of a book,--what
+class of people it was published for, and just what species of a book
+it is considered to be. Is it purposed to appeal to a certain
+religious class of people? Is it for the distinctly literary? Perhaps
+it is one of those volumes on the border line between a juvenile and
+an adult's book, which may be presented either as a volume for young
+or for grown-up folks. The publicity man must be in full understanding
+of this estimate before he can do his work properly. On the commercial
+side, he must know just the feeling of the trade in regard to an
+author and any type of book; and must be in close touch with the
+salesmen, not only at the beginning, but all through the life of the
+volume. He can learn from them what amount of success the author's
+previous books have met, and thus be enabled to present his volume in
+a way that will hitch on to a previous success or avoid the odium of a
+recent failure. Salesmen can help him to know the interests of every
+section of the country, so that advantage can be taken of them in
+bringing the book to the local bookseller's attention and influencing
+him to a special effort in its behalf.
+
+Few people are aware of the influence exerted by the book clerk, who
+can substitute something "just as good" much more easily than a drug
+or dry goods clerk, especially if he has a good argument to offer. The
+largest part of the publicity of a publishing house is aimed to
+influence the general reader, but more and more attention is to-day
+being paid to the salesman in the bookshop, and quite wisely, too. He
+cannot be expected to read all the books, and any effort made to give
+him an acquaintance with your books that goes beyond their covers is
+clear gain to him, to the publisher, and distinctly to the book-buying
+public.
+
+Now, a book can be made or marred by the publicity it gets. If it is
+wrongly launched, it will have an uphill climb, whatever its virtues.
+This is especially true, as a result of the fact that a good deal is
+written and printed about a book before it is off press and present to
+speak for itself.
+
+One general rule should be most strictly adhered to in publicity, and
+that is, be honest and be sincere. Nowhere is the rule "honesty is the
+best policy" more unanimously justified. You may be as enthusiastic as
+you please, but the book should be put forward for what it really is.
+Only under such handling does it stand a chance for the full success
+its qualities warrant. This all reverts to the question of the
+editorial conception of a volume. Some books are not made for great
+sellers; they are written for the keen enjoyment of a select educated
+few; and if so presented that they fall into the hands of the popular
+novel devourer, they will surely be condemned, and the condemnation
+will reach and have its effect upon many who should legitimately have
+bought the book. On the other hand, a novel of no literary quality
+thrust into the hands of a person of bookish tastes will make an
+influential enemy, who will doubtless have among his followers many
+persons to whom the book would appeal. It is best to find out what
+people will take the book, and advertise it to them. The process of
+emasculating your presentation of it by cutting out everything that
+would keep _anybody_ from reading it is a dangerous one. The dislikes
+of the world of readers are too many for one to be able to dodge them
+all, and, after all, most of us like a positive rather than a negative
+volume. Just because many people do not read essays,--to take an
+extreme case,--is no reason for avoiding the statement that yours is a
+volume of essays. Fortunately, there are thousands upon thousands of
+people who do read essays; and if the book is a good book of essays,
+they will bring their influence--that word-of-mouth influence which is
+almost as powerful as a "puff" by President Roosevelt--to bear upon
+non-essay reading people, and you will be the gainer by that much for
+your wisdom and honesty.
+
+These observations are germane, and worthy consideration because
+commercialism and the endeavor to produce big sellers are always an
+influence to overstate, misstate, and be extravagant in the praise of
+a volume. But such extravagance always discounts itself in the mind of
+the reader, and experience has pretty definitely proved that what a
+prospective buyer wants is a straightforward concise indication of the
+story and its quality. A word of praise quoted from a review may help
+him make up his mind, yet he probably knows it is a pretty poor book
+of which _some_ newspaper doesn't say "Holds the reader's interest
+from cover to cover" or "We hail the author of this volume as one of
+the most promising of our American writers."
+
+In considering the practical details of publicity, it will be clearest
+to take them in chronological order. First: The book should be
+thoroughly and critically read. The person in charge of the publicity
+ought to have every volume put into his hands as soon as it is
+accepted. When he has read it thoroughly and has formed his idea of
+it, he discusses it thoroughly with the person responsible for its
+acceptance. From this discussion, in which the sales department is
+represented, evolves naturally the "editorial attitude" upon which
+every line of future publicity and every sentence of salesman's talk
+will be based. Without a complete understanding throughout the
+establishment of the "editorial attitude" the entire publicity will be
+aimless and unconvincing.
+
+The first work in publicity on a season's book is probably the
+catalogue, which must be had ready for the salesmen when they go off
+on their trips. The aim of the catalogue is to present as full an
+account of the book as possible. It is meant for the eye of an
+interested person, who can be counted upon to read rather a lengthy
+notice. Every possible detail of price, number of illustrations,
+paper, size, kind of binding, table of contents, previous works by the
+same author, are given, and thus it becomes a complete reference book.
+It is the general custom of publishing houses to issue a complete
+catalogue in the Fall, with a supplemental catalogue in the Spring
+containing the books of the Spring season. Most firms also bring out a
+Fall list, to present their Fall books, which would be buried beyond
+notice in a bulky complete catalogue. In this Fall list not
+infrequently the Spring books are included, making what is really an
+annual catalogue. These three catalogues are essential, and they are
+as a rule supplemented by many special book lists and pamphlets. A
+holiday catalogue is a steady institution in nearly every publishing
+house. Its aim is to present to Christmas buyers the most attractive
+volumes of the house's issue, and it is usually elaborate, with many
+illustrations, a fine cover, and it is often printed in colors. Then
+there are frequently issued catalogues of books on special subjects,
+art, children's books, special editions, etc.
+
+The uses of catalogues are many. A large number are sent to the
+publisher's best friend, the bookseller,--sometimes imprinted with his
+name,--who distributes them. They also go out by mail to special lists
+of people who are known to be interested in books, and a large number
+are sent to persons who write asking information.
+
+In elaborateness the circular follows close on the catalogue, and it
+has quite as wide if not a wider field. It is large or small,
+depending upon the importance of the book. Sometimes it reaches the
+dignity of a bound pamphlet, but it is usually a single leaf or at
+most a four-page folder. Here again, all necessary information of
+price and contents is given at length. But as the person into whose
+hands the circular falls cannot be counted on to be interested
+beforehand, the whole make-up and arrangement of the circular is
+calculated for drawing attention and fixing interest. The circular,
+therefore, must be made attractive.
+
+And here should be introduced a word in general on the appearance of
+the printed matter that is sent out by a publishing house. It must be
+good printing. It must be attractive printing. It is the indication to
+the people whose eyes it meets of the work of the house it advertises.
+Few people want to buy badly made books; and, unconsciously, if a
+circular or catalogue is commonplace and badly printed, those
+qualities will be attached to the book advertised. And it is quite
+true, on the other hand, that the distinction and comely appearance of
+a circular will prejudice in favor of the book. Moreover, a circular's
+service can be rendered only when it attracts attention, and what is
+spent in aiding it to catch the eye, through making it artistically
+beautiful and printing it in color, will bring its return and more in
+the added efficiency produced. There are, doubtless, people who would
+not be affected by bad printing, but people of taste, the people who
+most influence the sale of books, are sure to be antagonized.
+
+Probably, the most useful circular of all is the little leaf or
+"slip" circular. It is printed on both sides, and is inserted between
+the leaves of books of similar interest to the one it advertises,
+usually about three to a book. It is made the size of the ordinary
+business envelope, for it is also used in direct circularization of
+lists and as an enclosure with bills, statements, and sometimes with
+general correspondence. Often, when advertising two or more books, it
+has four or even eight pages, though the latter makes it almost too
+bulky for insertion in books. These larger circulars have an order
+form attached giving the list of books, and a place for the name and
+address of the prospective buyer,--a device to make it as easy as
+possible for him to order his selection. When such circulars are
+inserted in books either the order form is left off, or something
+substituted in its place, for, as can readily be seen, the order form
+is a bid for direct business by the publisher which would naturally be
+obnoxious to the bookseller. Larger and more elaborate circulars than
+these as a rule are used only for direct circularization. The subject
+of circularization is much too important and complicated to be
+exhausted in a few paragraphs, or even in an extended article. Enough
+has been said here, however, at least to suggest the circular's field.
+
+The next problem in publicity to be taken up is the poster. The poster
+has had its ups and downs, and in some quarters is a somewhat
+discredited form of advertising, but it has its value. The
+booksellers always demand posters. The one great argument against them
+is that posters good enough to attract attention, that is, with a good
+design and in colors, are somewhat expensive for book advertising. If
+properly exhibited, they sell books, but the difficulty lies in the
+fact that if they are _too_ attractive, they are likely to find their
+way into a poster collector's portfolio before they have been exposed
+long on the board. Yet, especially with leading books of fiction, this
+is one of the risks that must be taken, for with each such
+publication, the public eye must be caught with the fact of the book's
+issue, and for this purpose a striking poster has no equal. For
+serious books inexpensive clear type posters are quite sufficient.
+
+The book being now nearly off press, there will be needed some matter
+for the paper jacket that slips over and protects the cloth cover
+while the book is on the stall. Most important is the brief note on
+the front that serves to indicate the quality of the volume and thus
+guide the purchaser. On a book of fiction fifty or not more than
+seventy-five words of the very best possible presentation of the book
+is required. Here is the place where most of all the prospective
+purchaser's interest must be aroused. Here the most felicitous
+publicity inspiration is needed--and the problem is to indicate the
+story, yet not tell it, and to pique curiosity to the buying point. On
+books of a serious nature a jacket note is just as essential, if not
+more so, but the problem is different. The prospective purchaser of
+such a book as "Irish History and the Irish Question," "The Flower
+Garden," for example, has an interest in the subject already aroused.
+What he wishes to know is the scope of the volume and the manner in
+which the subject is treated. The note for such a volume, therefore,
+should contain a plain, straightforward statement of the importance of
+the book, the point of view taken, a brief table of contents
+indicating the most important divisions of the subject, and some
+mention of the author's special qualification for writing the volume.
+On the back of the paper "jacket" and on the little flaps that turn at
+the sides of a book, it is customary to put advertisements of cognate
+books. Often these paper jackets are treated in elaborate poster
+style, and for good reason, since as a rule they are the first part of
+a book a buyer sees, and his attention is not likely to be attracted
+if only cheap paper be used.
+
+The date of the book's publication has probably now been set, and the
+next step in publicity--a most important one--is the sending out of
+review copies. This is the last thing in which haphazard methods would
+be permissible. The list of newspapers who get complimentary copies
+should be carefully selected, not so much with an eye to size of
+circulation, as to quality and standing. A paper that is known to give
+attention to books is worth two that have merely large circulations
+and no distinction; first, because the books sent will be
+appreciatively reviewed, and, second, because people in the habit of
+buying books will consult the review columns and be influenced by
+them. There are possibly one hundred and fifty or one hundred and
+seventy-five papers in the United States to whom it would be
+profitable to send a book. A great many more, however, think they
+should receive them. With even the most popular novel two hundred
+review copies is a generously sufficient number to place for review.
+In deciding where these should go, the contents of the book itself is
+of course the guide. Some books can be calculated to appeal more to
+one section of the country than to another because of their
+subject-matter. Certain classes of people--ministers, school-teachers,
+sportsmen, doctors--can sometimes be drawn upon by the judicious
+distribution of a few complimentary copies, to assist the sale of a
+book, and then there is the home of the author, where special
+attention can always be expected.
+
+Opinions differ as to the amount of influence exerted by reviews upon
+the fortunes of a book. It is certainly true that to trace direct
+returns from reviews is often difficult. Frequently books which are
+splendidly reviewed move slowly, and there seems no explanation of
+their failure to "catch on." They may be, and frequently are, books of
+real value and quality. The history of publishing is full of such
+mysteries. On the other hand, _returns_ are visible enough when a book
+is slated by the press; there its power is amply evident.
+
+The American press is notably fair, notably discriminating, and
+notably independent. It gives its own views fearlessly, and resents
+any efforts made by publishers to get their own adjective-besprinkled
+puffs printed. In rush seasons it will make use of publisher's
+description, after carefully blue-pencilling obtrusive adjectives, but
+it goes no farther. In fact, the newspaper-review part of publishing
+publicity is best left alone. The book must do the work itself.
+
+The book has now reached the place where that which is commonly called
+advertising should begin; that is, publicity in newspapers and
+magazines. The use of newspapers, to any great extent at least, is a
+comparatively recent development in the publishing business, dating
+back not much more than ten years. Its efficiency, that is to say, its
+proportion of return to outlay, is far from being established. While
+at the beginning of the movement great rewards were reaped, the light
+of more mature experience seems to show that those books which, under
+heavy newspaper advertising, reached editions of 100,000 to 150,000
+were really special cases,--books of a peculiarly popular, almost
+low-grade, quality, that had an exceptional public. It is sure that
+what brought success with them would not succeed with the average
+publication. For this reason, publishers to-day are by no means as
+lavish as they used to be with their appropriation for newspaper
+advertising. Yet even in this era of retrenchment a very large
+proportion of the money devoted to publicity still goes to the
+newspapers.
+
+While it would be foolish to attempt formulating a set of fixed rules
+for newspaper advertising, there are certain underlying principles
+that should be borne in mind.
+
+Books are in the class of luxuries; most books at least. There is no
+natural demand for them to assist the advertiser, such as there is for
+food-stuffs. With a book, it is the advertiser's business to persuade
+the buyer that he will be interested or instructed or amused by the
+volume to the value of his outlay, be it a quarter or fifty
+dollars,--where in the matter of necessities and food commodities the
+advertiser's task is the much more simple one of proving that his
+product is intrinsically better or better value than any similar thing
+on the market. The sale of a book depends entirely upon the almost
+artificial desire that is created for it, whereas with other things
+there is a real need, and it is necessary only to prove that the
+article fills this need. For these reasons book advertising--with
+piano, picture, music, candy, and perhaps automobile advertising--is
+difficult to carry out profitably. It is the class most expensive
+proportionately to the value of the product, for it can count in
+only the smallest degree upon what is known as the "cumulative" effect
+of a campaign. Every advertisement of such an article as a breakfast
+food, for example, whether it be on a bill-board, in a newspaper, or
+in a circular, adds to the effect of every other one. The repetition
+of the name, whether it be consciously or unconsciously observed by
+the public, assists in forcing attention and thus interest, and
+finally results in a sale. Half a million dollars can be spent in
+making "Whipped Oats" a household word. Every dollar backs up every
+other dollar, and the demand for Whipped Oats will last for years.
+"The Return from Davy Jones," which can have at the very most say
+$5000 spent on it, benefits the very least from the cumulative effect,
+and the demand for the book is practically over in a year, especially
+if it be a popular novel. Each newspaper advertisement of a book must
+in fact bring returns to pay for itself, and this, of course, demands
+the very cleverest kind of "copy."
+
+Many elements enter into the popularity and sale-ability of a book,
+but no one seems to know just what they are. Even the best and most
+experienced readers fail to pick successes--let big books go by them,
+and conversely praise volumes that turn out flat failures. Yet certain
+things in the line of publicity can be counted upon to assist in
+making a volume's success. The name of a well-known author is the best
+asset a book can have. That gets it good advance sales and a quick
+and appreciative attention from the book reviewers. In this respect,
+nothing could better exemplify the New England homely proverb, "Sich
+as has, gits." The work of publicity on a book by a well-known author
+is easy, if care is taken always to bring that author's name forward
+in connection with his previous achievements. This is especially true
+in regard to newspaper advertising.
+
+Doctors violently disagree over book advertising principles, and
+possibly it is best to start by saying that there _are_ none and that
+each book is a rule unto itself. Certainly a close and careful study
+of a book's points and the class of people to whom it would likely
+appeal, its "editorial qualities," is the only proper basis for a
+campaign. For the average novel by a well-known author the main
+problem is to let the world know it has been issued. Therefore, in
+advertising in a newspaper, the announcement of the book's publication
+should be made in such a manner that all the readers of that paper
+will notice it. The campaign should start with what is technically
+known as a "must be seen" notice. It is the publisher's business to
+shout loud enough to be heard above the clatter of the small
+advertisements, "Just out--New book by Donan Coyle, 'The Return from
+Davy Jones.'" If some piquant description of the book follow, this
+should be sure to send all those readers of the paper interested in
+Donan Coyle to the bookshop in search of the new volume. Much smaller
+"ads." following from time to time, that may catch the eye of the
+forgetful ones and arouse their interest by some words of personal or
+press commendation on the volume, would close a campaign of this kind,
+which would have naturally gathered in its trail many readers and even
+non-readers not distinctly interested in Donan Coyle. It would at
+least have started the mouth-to-mouth advertising of the book, to
+which paid-for advertising can after all be regarded only as assistant
+and support. In fact, when all is said and done the greatest service
+advertising does is in reminding people of books they have heard
+praised, and the best advertising is that placed on the road to the
+bookstalls, a strong argument for the poster, since it is exhibited in
+front of the bookshop, where it can catch the passer-by. In tune with
+this conception of the advertisement as an announcement is this
+general rule--advertise prominently the name of the book, and the
+author's name if it is important. These are commodities you have to
+sell, the things you wish people to ask for--just as the bacon-maker
+wants you to ask for "Blank's Bacons."
+
+For books that have no well-known author's name to assist them, or
+those for which a large sale cannot be forecasted at the start,--books
+that appeal to the select few,--other and more inexpensive methods
+must be pursued. In most such cases it is probable that any
+advertising in newspapers would be unwise, and this leads to the
+subject of magazine advertising, which is much higher grade and more
+suited to such books of quality. There are many distinctly literary
+publications, the subscribers to which are always searching for books
+of a fine type--an interested clientele who will read advertising
+pages rather thoroughly, and gladly pay good prices for good books.
+Small advertisements--perhaps a page of small advertisements of good
+books--in a magazine of this class will bring returns, especially if
+the books have been well reviewed. There are also trade journals,
+which go to the booksellers, and in these the publisher must announce
+his new issues well,--describe them thoroughly, and give some idea of
+what he intends doing in the way of energetic general advertising. The
+aim of this is to influence booksellers to increase their orders.
+
+These few paragraphs only scratch the surface of a broad subject of
+extreme interest. Each publishing firm has developed through its
+experience its own principles of the psychology of public opinion, its
+own idea of the qualities a book should possess, and its own way of
+getting at the people. Results are frequently so surprising that one
+is inclined to class publishing among the games of chance. It is
+certain that everybody cannot make a success at it, and there is no
+doubt that it requires a definite endowment of genius.
+
+There falls to the publicity department the writing of a great many
+letters,--numbers are in answer to questions concerning books and
+authors, but by far the larger number are in the nature of circulars.
+The personal typewritten letter or the printed typewritten letter that
+masquerades as such, has a power equal to a hundred circulars. It
+claims attention at once, if it does not declare itself an
+advertisement on the outside, where a printed circular gets swept into
+the waste-paper basket unread. It's expensive--about three cents a
+letter if done properly, but when there are special ends to be
+accomplished, such as calling the attention of the clergy to a novel
+that would suggest sermons, or the members of an Audubon society to a
+book on birds, it is the surest and most profitable method.
+
+It is especially in a mail order or subscription book concern that the
+circular letter is of most use. The expensive sets of such concerns,
+and the large profit figured on them, justify such a costly method of
+publicity. It is generally made more expensive by the enclosure in the
+envelope of return postal cards and other printed material.
+
+This subscription business is a business by itself and conducted quite
+differently from average publishing. The advertising is lavish, and
+the underlying principle of it is, that the prospective purchaser
+wishes a complete description of the wares. Attractive premium, and
+short-time low-price offers are always made, and the endeavor is to
+get the prospective customer to permit the set of volumes to be sent
+on inspection, reliance being held in the ability to make him keep
+them through the real quality of the books, assisted by a series of
+"follow up" letters enlarging upon the virtues of the set. Lists of
+names are circularized, and "follow up" letters used here also to
+bring orders.
+
+An important form of publicity is that which has grown up as a result
+of the interest shown by readers, especially in America, in the
+personality of authors and the desire to know what is happening in the
+world of books. This very natural and legitimate curiosity affords the
+publisher a chance to push his products forward in an unobtrusive way.
+Because it is to all appearances unbiased, it wields quite a deal of
+influence, especially in building up the reputation of an author.
+Every paper that pretends to any literary standing prints regularly or
+occasionally a column of Literary Chat, in which is given brief news
+of authors and books. There will perhaps be a humorous anecdote of the
+author of a prominent novel, a brief summary of a book shortly to be
+issued, some comment by a well-known person on a well-known book, a
+biographical sketch of a new author, a telling extract from a book of
+serious value, a note that "The Return from Davy Jones" is in its
+_n_th edition--all of it really news and of interest. Some newspapers
+write their own chat, but the majority print, with small alteration,
+such as is furnished by the publicity departments of publishing
+houses, which send out weekly or monthly printed or typewritten sheets
+of such brief items. In this way Donan Coyle as the author of "The
+Return from Davy Jones" is kept before the public. The public also has
+a legitimate desire to know something of the appearance of the author
+of a popular novel or important books of essays, and the newspaper
+reviewer frequently wishes to print a portrait with his review. Here
+the publicity department steps in and helps him, by furnishing
+suitable electrotype portraits upon request, and not infrequently, by
+sending out proofs with interesting notes, suggests the use of the
+portrait. The relation between a literary editor who wants to print
+the book news and a manager of publicity is a mutually beneficial one.
+If they cooeperate thus, they can be of great assistance to each other,
+and in the exchange each one gets value received. By a thousand little
+methods and devices the person in charge of publicity can furnish
+desired information and get this undersurface publicity, and by
+putting out _bona-fide_ news and really good stories about them, bring
+even his lesser light authors into prominence. In this field, as in
+all others, the well-known authors advertise themselves and set up a
+demand for publicity.
+
+The financial end of Publicity is full of complexities. The question
+of how much an expenditure per volume is warranted is one that cannot
+be answered generally. There are many limiting and defining
+considerations. First of all, the book itself. If it is the kind to be
+a "big seller," a risk can possibly be taken on a larger advertising
+investment than would be warranted in the case of a good book of finer
+quality and limited appeal. Certain books of coarser, more obvious
+qualities have a large public if it can be reached. In such cases an
+exceptional effort will bring exceptional returns. By the risk of a
+large advertising outlay the firm may get big profits; while a flat
+failure, because the large, non-book-buying public had not been
+reached through newspaper and lavish poster advertising methods, might
+result if only a few hundreds were spent. Judgment of the finest kind
+is required here, and it cannot always decide rightly.
+
+How much to spend depends essentially upon the book, and there is no
+hard and fast rule. Books have been known to reach their public and
+reach good sales at an advertising outlay of about one cent per copy.
+Others have had fifty cents per copy sold spent upon them, and fallen
+flat.
+
+The publishing business is not one in which there are great profits,
+and the margin between the cost of manufacturing and the wholesale
+price is small. This small amount must furnish the author's royalty,
+the advertising appropriation, the publisher's cost of doing business,
+and his profit. It can be seen then that the amount of royalty paid
+on a book in a certain degree rules the amount of advertising that
+can be done,--the publisher and author are, in a measure, partners,
+and if the author demands a large royalty, he thereby cuts down the
+amount the publisher can afford to expend in advertising his book. The
+larger the appropriation for advertising, the larger the chance for
+increased sales.
+
+It is difficult to make any generalization on the amount that should
+be devoted to publicity. Taking the $1.50 novel as a standard, it
+might be said that figuring in all kinds of publicity--newspaper,
+magazine, circular, literary notices, etc.--from ten to twelve per
+cent of the wholesale price on the first edition of 10,000 would be a
+liberal allowance. On more expensive volumes, handled as subscription
+books, a much larger proportion would be the rule. On new books other
+than fiction, where the sale could not be expected to reach more than
+a few thousand, there would be no business justification in spending
+so much. Such books have more or less to make their own way.
+
+Publicity is an essential part of the publishing business, and the
+breadth of its field, as well as the proper way to apply its
+influence, is beginning to be more correctly understood. Fortunately,
+for all concerned, the author as well as the publisher and the
+book-buying public, it is a power that can work only for good, and in
+a good cause. It hastens the fame and the sales of a really good book,
+but its power with a bad book is very small indeed. One fact has
+developed from the thousands of book advertising campaigns, and it is
+this--that you cannot force a really worthless book down the throat of
+the American reading public however much money you put into
+advertising. You may create a big sale for a very light and frothy
+story, with little to recommend it from the literary critic's point of
+view, but you can be sure, if it succeeds, your novel has certain
+positive, if rather superficial virtues, either in the story, in the
+local color, or in the method of telling. And when one contemplates
+the huge success of Mrs. Humphry Ward's and Edith Wharton's
+distinguished novels, one is obliged to accept the comforting
+conviction that the reading public of this country knows a good book
+when it sees it.
+
+
+
+
+REVIEWING AND CRITICISING
+
+By Walter Littlefield.
+
+
+About 60,000 volumes are annually published in Germany, France, Italy,
+Great Britain, and the United States. Germany heads the list, with
+something less than 25,000, and the United States ends it, with
+between five and six thousand titles, although it should be added that
+Continental figures refer to all material bearing an imprint published
+for circulation whether pamphlet or book. Aside from purely scientific
+and specialistic publications those intended for public perusal of all
+grades of literacy and intelligence may be classified as history,
+biography, travel, _belles-lettres_ (including art, criticism, and
+poetry), and fiction. It is the work of the literary critic to write
+about these books in such a manner that neither the author nor the
+public may suffer injustice by their purchase or non-purchase. The
+critic must explain their purpose, point out their merits and
+imperfections, and compare their features with the features of other
+books on the same subject. In short, he should tell the public whether
+to read the book or not. He should do so in an entertaining manner.
+
+Now the way this end is achieved in America often excites the derision
+of the literary foreigner; for although most American reviews are
+readable enough, they often lack the critical emphasis and literary
+scope and color so conspicuous in the literary criticism of the
+British and Continental reviews. But the foreigner overlooks the fact
+that American reviewers usually have something to say about every
+publication which claims to appeal to a reading public, and that many
+of these would be absolutely ignored by foreign critics, who are
+possibly right--when we consider their readers--in selecting only what
+they deem worthy of their knowledge and critical acumen. The foreign
+man-of-letters' idea of what should constitute the functions of the
+critic I find most admirably laid down in Mr. Arthur Symons's
+introduction to a new edition of Coleridge's "Biographia Literaria" in
+Everyman's Library. Mr. Symons writes:--
+
+     The aim of criticism is to distinguish what is essential in
+     the work of a writer; and in order to do this, its first
+     business must be to find out where he is different from all
+     other writers. It is the delight of the critic to praise;
+     but praise is scarcely a part of his duty. He may often seem
+     to find himself obliged to condemn; yet condemnation is
+     hardly a necessary part of his office. What we ask of him
+     is, that he should find out for us more than we can find out
+     for ourselves: trace what in us is a whim or leaning to its
+     remote home or centre of gravity, and explain why we are
+     affected in this way or that way by this or that writer. He
+     studies origins in effects, and must know himself, and be
+     able to allow for his own mental and emotional variations,
+     if he is to do more than give us the records of his likes
+     and dislikes. He must have the passion of the lover, and be
+     enamored of every form of beauty; and, like the lover, not
+     of all equally, but with a general allowance of those least
+     to his liking. He will do well to be not without a touch of
+     intolerance: that intolerance which, in the lover of the
+     best, is an act of justice against the second-rate. The
+     second-rate may perhaps have some reason for existence: that
+     is doubtful; but the danger of the second-rate, if it is
+     accepted "on its own merits," as people say, is that it may
+     come to be taken for the thing it resembles, as a wavering
+     image in water resembles the rock which it reflects.
+
+Obviously, here in America we have a sympathetic tolerance for the
+"second-rate." But such tolerance is not without its excuse. The fault
+of the uncritical element in many of the book notices which appear in
+American newspapers and magazines lies to a large extent at the door
+of the author who gives us material which humiliates and silences
+criticism, although a certain expository attention must be given for
+the very fact that the book invariably has a public awaiting it. For
+such gratuitous attention the author should be grateful. At least his
+public is not misled.
+
+Literary criticism is a distinct department of literature, with its
+functions and limits as clearly defined as are those of any of the
+creative departments,--history, biography, fiction. It presupposes on
+the part of the writer the possession of a knowledge of permanent
+literature, of the rules of literary construction, of trained taste in
+selecting models, and of a quick imagination capable of perceiving
+pertinent comparisons and setting forth vivid impressions. Writers
+like Lessing, Victor Cousin, Matthew Arnold, and Jules Lemaitre have
+exercised in criticism a system which is quite as capable of
+exposition and analysis as that of the historian, the poet, or the
+novelist. In America this system has also done its best, without
+entirely prostituting its art, to meet the exigencies and claims of
+pseudo-literary production and its sympathetic, impressionable public.
+
+Until within quite recent years there were only two acknowledged
+schools of criticism: the scientific and the classical. The former
+gauged the work to be criticised by rule and measure; the latter
+compared it with models which had long been established as criterions
+of good taste. Then came the impressionistic school, in which the
+critic, while not unmindful of accepted and approved rules of
+construction and expression or of classical paradigms, allowed the
+author more license, more individuality, and permitted himself the
+same freedom in noting a thing good, bad, or indifferent, because it
+so appealed to his personal taste at the time of perusal and quite
+independent of what had gone before. This impressionistic criticism is
+essentially a personal view, and without it very few current books
+could be considered critically at all.
+
+Now of the 5000 odd books annually brought out in the United States
+there are possibly not more than 100, including half a dozen novels,
+which are worthy subjects for the professional critic. If this be
+deemed an exaggeration, one has only to look over the Publishers' List
+of twenty-five years ago and see how many books then published are
+read to-day. Why, then, do the 4900 receive any attention?
+
+Books, like every other commercial commodity, whether presented under
+the guise of art or science, have their production regulated by the
+law of supply and demand. The ability to read print in the United
+States is pretty general, and this ability is diffused among all sorts
+and conditions of people of vastly varied ideas as to what may give
+instruction, satisfaction, or pleasure in the form of books. We know
+that a large majority of the people who read do not read what is
+considered the best. The enormous circulation of the "Yellow Press,"
+the low literary value of books of rapidly succeeding phenomenal
+editions, prove this. Criticism, except in acknowledged "literary"
+reviews, has been obliged to take into account the mental limitations
+and tastes of the readers of the 4900 books, and so it fixes its
+standard of popular exposition and elucidation at a little above the
+average taste, and does its best to explain according to the author's
+own lights what to criticise would be remorselessly to condemn.
+
+But do all the one hundred worthy and elect books receive correct
+treatment according to the tenets of criticism? it may be asked.
+Probably not at every hand and in all cases. And here may be
+introduced another cause of the lack of proficient literary criticism
+noticed by the literary foreigner in American magazines, and
+especially in those pages of the daily and weekly press devoted to
+books. The discussion of books which once occupied several pages in
+American monthly magazines is now principally confined to the books
+issued by the publishing house which also publishes the magazine. What
+has come to be known as the "news value" of books cannot suffer a
+review of a novel by a prominent author or of a book on a current
+political or sociological topic to appear a month or two or three
+after the publication of the book itself. The eagerness of the public
+can hardly wait for an elaborate review in the press. Thus the
+newspapers rival one another in setting before their readers the first
+"news" of the book. It is usually impossible to expect "criticism" in
+such active circumstances. The public neither expects nor desires it.
+This leads to expositions in which are incorporated generous citations
+from the book, and from this the public is invited to form its own
+opinion. When such an exposition is properly done, a reader can tell
+whether he wishes to peruse the book as a whole. In late years this
+system of exposition has been growing in popularity,--a popularity no
+doubt augmented by the reader's increasing desire to be his own
+critic,--so now only the more important historical, biographical, and
+travellers' books receive expert criticism. Why wait months to get
+expert opinion on a popular book on Russia, Ibsen, or a journey in
+search of one of the poles, while the public is impatient to find out
+simply whether the book is entertaining? And again, how expert is
+expert opinion? I know of one famous biography of a famous man which,
+having been accepted as "the" authority for five years, finally had
+its pretensions demolished, its citations proved a mass of forgeries,
+by one tireless and persevering critic who would not accept the
+"expert" opinion which lauded it to the skies shortly after its
+publication.
+
+Now that criticism, or rather the lack of it, has been explained, it
+may be of some interest to learn how the vast number of books which is
+annually put forth is handled by the editors of literary reviews and
+the "book pages" of the daily press. Having for nearly ten years been
+connected with the literary supplement of a New York daily which
+prides itself on ignoring nothing which is published with the idea of
+being read, my experiences for observation have been somewhat unusual.
+The increase in the number of books, and the eagerness of the public
+to learn about them at the earliest possible moment, have caused the
+daily press to usurp some of the functions formerly enjoyed by the
+monthly reviews. The latter do little more than mention the vast
+majority of publications and confine more and more their critical
+talents to what they consider conspicuous and distinctive literary
+productions. Purely literary periodicals have come and gone and left
+few mourners. The pages of The Bookman, for example, are no longer
+confined to literary criticism, to essays on bookish topics, to gossip
+of author and publisher.
+
+There are four distinct publishing periods in the book world. The
+early spring season, principally confined to those books which could
+not be made ready to meet the recent holiday season, and to routine
+books,--books which on account of copyright exigencies have to be
+published then, books which for prestige the publisher would have bear
+his imprint, etc. Then comes the late spring season, which is
+principally confined to novels of the lighter sort and to books for
+supplementary school reading for the coming autumn. Toward the end of
+August the first Holiday books usually make their appearance. They
+increase in number until the end of September, when there is a lull.
+From the middle of October until the end of November there is a
+perfect outpour of books. The months of November and December until
+Christmas Day are the busiest times in the year for the reviewer.
+
+As the books come in they are carefully looked over by the one who is
+known as the "critic" of the review or paper. He has men and women on
+his lists whose pens he has tried before--they may be lawyers, college
+professors, sportsmen, society men, professional novel readers, etc.
+He considers the author of the book at hand, its seeming importance,
+etc., and despatches it to a critic. An expert writer of expositions
+is usually ready to relieve him of volumes upon which for some reason
+he does not feel justified in requesting expert opinion. Occasionally
+he makes a mistake by giving out for exposition a really important
+book. The expert who has been impatiently waiting for the volume
+points out the error. The work of a well-known novelist is usually
+sent to a critic who is familiar with former tales by the same author.
+Juveniles are handed over to one of proved sympathy with stories for
+boys and girls--one who is conservative yet quick to catch a new
+element. Books that are essentially for gifts are disposed of in a
+similar manner--to one who has proved his or her ability to set forth
+artistic features in books. New editions of classics are turned over
+to writers who are acquainted with the mechanical make-up of a book,
+so that the reader may learn whether the new edition of the favorite
+author is well bound, printed, and appropriately decorated and
+illustrated. And among the hundreds of "brief notices," expositions,
+impressions, descriptions, and long and short essays that are handed
+in, there are invariably some pieces of valuable comment which are
+well in keeping with the traditions of professional criticism. The
+critic usually returns the book with his article. These books are
+ultimately collected and disposed of in various ways. They may be sold
+at auction to members of the staff, which is an effective way of
+getting rid of them just before Christmas.
+
+Is there any likelihood of an improvement in literary criticism--any
+chance of a return by the daily press to what the Reviews of the past
+gave and those of England and the Continent still give? The standard
+of criticism is determined by two forces: the quality of books and the
+taste of would-be purchasers. If every book were really "criticised,"
+the criticisms of many would be utterly incomprehensible to many of
+their possible readers. The public gets the books it desires; the
+books receive the attention they deserve. When the standard of reading
+shall be raised, so that the public shall demand better books, it will
+be found that more books will receive "serious" attention. As it is at
+present, the public does not desire much elaborate, fine criticism.
+It, together with its favorite authors, would be sorely dissatisfied
+if it got more. It may be added that, in my humble opinion, the
+function of a critic as an arbiter of literary taste is measurably
+overestimated. Of course, a man who has won distinction as a judge of
+books and who signs his articles may have some influence. But it
+seems to me that the function of the anonymous reviewer should begin
+and end by explaining the book and let the public be its own critic.
+It will certainly be in the end. For no critic ever killed a good
+book; none ever praised an unworthy volume into success and fame.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAVELLING SALESMAN
+
+By Harry A. Thompson.
+
+
+The increase in the visible supply of authors more than meets the
+demand. A manuscript once accepted, the publisher finds no lack of
+paper makers ready to supply him with any grade of fair white paper
+that he may wish to spoil. Printers even manifest a dignified alacrity
+to set the type and print the book, and binders are yet to be accused
+of any disinclination to cover it.
+
+It is only when author, paper maker, printer, and binder have done
+with their share in the exploitation of literature that the publisher
+finds that the current which had been urging him gently onward has set
+against him. Of making many books there is no end, but the profitable
+marketing of the same is vanity and vexation of spirit.
+
+Enter the salesman.
+
+He is to convince the bookseller, who is to convince the public, that
+this particular book--shall we, for our purpose, christen it "Last
+Year's Nests"?--is the great American novel (whatever that means), and
+that its influence on the reading of unborn generations will be
+measured by the rank it holds in the list of the six best sellers.
+
+The salesman is handicapped not a little by the fact that it is
+neither shoes, nor pig-iron, nor even mess-pork that he is selling,
+and, therefore, superior quality of workmanship, inferior price, and
+personal magnetism count for little. Persuasiveness, which, perhaps,
+is a part of personal magnetism, counts; so does an intelligent
+knowledge of the contents of the book; likewise hard work and tactful
+persistence; also, honesty. But opposed against the combination is the
+bookseller, on guard against overstocking, to some extent a purchaser
+of a pig in a poke, conscious that one unsold book eats up the profit
+on five copies safely disposed of.
+
+Time was when good salesmanship consisted in overstocking a
+bookseller; this was occasioned less by persuasiveness than by
+overpersuasiveness. Regardless of the merits of the book and with no
+more than a nodding acquaintance with its contents, a persuasive
+salesman could "load" a customer--as he called it out of the
+customer's hearing--with two hundred and fifty copies of a novel that
+had no other merit than that it had been written by a novelist whose
+previous book had met with success. The significance of these figures,
+two hundred and fifty, is to be found in the maximum discount to
+retailers of forty and ten per cent on that quantity. Latterly, the
+publisher has found that a bankrupt bookseller has few creditors
+besides publishers, and has come to a realizing sense of the futility
+of clogging the distributing machinery. He is disposed, therefore, to
+exercise some restraint upon his salesman's ardor. Perhaps it were
+better to say that the salesman, grown wiser, is more disposed to aid
+the bookseller in his purchases to the end that no monuments of unsold
+failures will stare him in the face on his next visit to the
+customer's store. Yet even to this day, such restraint is tempered by
+a certain amount of moderation.
+
+All of which, while interesting to the historian of the publishing
+trade, carries us too far in advance of our text. Let us therefore
+return to "Last Year's Nests"--12mo, cloth, illustrated, gilt top,
+uncut edges, price $1.50.
+
+The first edition--it may be one thousand copies or ten thousand--has
+been delivered to the publisher by the beaming binder, who alone, in
+some instances, knows his profit on them. "Last Year's Nests" is by a
+well-known author, and contains some elements of popularity. The
+literary adviser has written a beautiful and scholarly appreciation of
+it, one of the lady stenographers has declared it grand, and the
+salesman, if he is given to reading anything beyond the title-page,
+says it's a corker. He starts out with it; along with a trunkful of
+other books, to be sure, but our sympathies are wholly with the
+"Nests," and it is only its career that we shall follow.
+
+He may be one of a force of salesmen, each of whom has his own
+territory. One may visit only the larger cities, Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Chicago; another may take in the smaller
+towns along this route; another, the Middle West, Southern or
+Southwestern territory. Still another, the cities west of Chicago,
+including those on the Pacific coast. Houses publishing competitive
+lines and non-copyright books have other methods and machinery for
+distribution. I speak only for the copyright salesman, and not to be
+too prolix, take only the copyright novel as an illustration of the
+day's work.
+
+The salesman arrives at a town, say Chicago. He goes to the hotel,
+orders his trunks and sample tables sent to his room. The tables are
+set up--well-worn pine boards on trestles and covered with sheeting.
+He unpacks his trunk and arranges his books on the tables as
+effectively as his artistic sense permits. Then he visits his
+customers and makes appointments that cover a full week. Previous to
+his arrival his office had informed the booksellers of his coming,
+inclosing a catalogue. This the bookseller handed to a clerk to be
+marked up. The clerk had gone over their stock of this particular
+publisher's books and had marked opposite each title in the catalogue
+the number of copies on hand. Armed with this catalogue the bookseller
+keeps his appointment at the room of the traveller. [It ought to be
+mentioned in passing that this is a purely hypothetical case, invented
+for the purposes of illustration. The clerk who marks up the
+catalogue in advance of the salesman's arrival is as fictitious as the
+bookseller who keeps his appointment promptly. Perhaps this delightful
+uncertainty is another of the many influences that make the book
+business, from the writing of the manuscript to the reading of the
+printed book, so fascinating.]
+
+In the salesman's room the customer examines the new books, asks
+questions, hears arguments (many of them fearfully and wonderfully
+made), and eventually, after much debate, gives his order. Having
+ordered all the new books that he wishes, he goes over the catalogue
+and gives what is called his stock order; that is to say, he orders
+the books on which his stock is low but for which there is still a
+demand.
+
+Perhaps the salesman has reserved for his final battle the sale of
+"Last Year's Nests." As prices cut some figure in this argument, we
+are driven, for a moment, to the dry bones of prices and discounts.
+
+Listed in the publisher's catalogue at $1.50, the ordinary discount to
+a dealer ordering two or three copies is thirty-three and one-third
+per cent, or $1.00 net, the bookseller paying transportation charges.
+Competition, however, has increased this discount to forty per cent,
+so that we shall assume that in small quantities the book can be had
+at $.90 net. In larger quantities extra discounts are given; some
+publishers give forty and five per cent on fifty copies and forty and
+ten per cent on one hundred copies; others increase the quantities to
+one hundred and two hundred and fifty copies respectively for the
+extra discounts. But, as has been pointed out, the growing tendency is
+not to overload the bookseller, especially in view of the fact that it
+is the publisher who loses when the bookseller assigns.
+
+Assuming that the "Last Year's Nests" is likely to have a large sale
+and that the salesman wishes to sell Mr. Bookseller two hundred and
+fifty copies, he quotes the extra discount of forty and ten per cent
+on that quantity. If he can persuade the bookseller to take two
+hundred and fifty copies, he has not only swollen his sales by that
+amount, but he has forced a probable retail sale of that quantity. For
+once on the bookseller's tables, the very size of the order inspires
+every clerk to help reduce the pile, not to mention the fact that the
+books are bought and must be paid for. Had the bookseller bought five
+copies, extra efforts toward sales would not be forthcoming; the
+energy would be applied to another novel. Hence the salesman's efforts
+to effect a large sale.
+
+There is another reason for this extra quantity. Two hundred and fifty
+copies of "Last Year's Nests," piled in a pyramid, is a gentle
+reminder to the bookseller's customers that it is a mighty important
+book. Such an argument is often more potent than the disagreeing
+opinions of critics. Here is a case in point.
+
+A novelist wrote an altogether charming and spirited novel. The
+reviewers spoke well of it, but the sale of the book hung fire. It was
+the dull season,--May or June,--and there was no other novel of any
+worth in the public mind. The salesman said to his employer: "Here's a
+book that has a good chance for success. If you'll back me with some
+good advertising, I'll guarantee to make that novel sell."
+
+The publisher replied: "Go ahead, my son; I'll take a gamble on it."
+(They really talk that way when they travel mufti.) So the salesman
+induced the New York wholesalers to erect a pyramid of a thousand
+copies in their respective stores, guaranteeing to take back the books
+if they were not sold. This was done for the purpose of impressing the
+buyers for country stores who were flocking into New York for their
+fall purchases.
+
+Next the retail booksellers were asked to take, on the same terms,
+from one hundred to two hundred and fifty copies and pile them
+conspicuously in their stores. As trade was dull and there was no one
+big seller clamoring for public recognition at the time, the dealers
+were willing to assist in the work of encouraging good literature.
+
+Then an advertising campaign was planned. Critics there were a-plenty
+who wagged a sad head because the advertising was undignified. What
+they meant was that it was unconventional, was without the dignity of
+tradition to give it its hallmark. It had, at least, the novelty of
+originality, and answered the final test of good advertising in that
+it attracted attention. Then the sale began, and as soon as New York
+City was reporting it among the list of the six best sellers, the
+salesman took to the road to carry on the campaign. The result was
+eventually a sale reaching six figures.
+
+But to get back to "Last Year's Nests." It is to be published June 1.
+A few sample pages only have been printed, but blank paper fills out
+to the bulk of the book as it will be. Illustrations--if they are
+ready--are inserted, the title-page printed, and the whole is bound up
+in a sample cover. This is technically known as a dummy, and serves to
+show the prospective buyer merely the outward and visible sign of an
+inward and spiritual appeal to public favor. For the purpose of
+informing the bookseller it is worth but little more than the printed
+title or a catalogue announcement. For all $1.50 novels look alike,
+are printed on pretty much the same kind of paper, and bear covers
+differing more in degree than kind. Yet the bookseller likes to handle
+something tangible when he is making up his order, and the salesman,
+with even a dummy in his hand, finds that there is less wear and tear
+upon his imagination.
+
+Were he selling shoes, the salesman would, as a matter of course,
+point out the superior quality of the goods, lay stress on their
+style and durability, and as a clincher, present the incontrovertible
+argument of low price. On no such brief can the book salesman rest his
+case. "Last Year's Nests" varies in no respect mechanically from any
+of its 12mo competitors; and if it did, it would make no difference.
+"Look at the design of the cover, see how durable it is," argues the
+salesman. "What a charming title-page, and note the classic proportion
+of the printed page to the margin," he continues. The startled
+customer, listening to such an argument, would be inclined to humor
+the salesman until he could safely get him into the hands of an
+alienist.
+
+Two arguments and two only comprise the salesman's stock in trade; if
+he can say that "Last Year's Nests" is by the well-known author whose
+name is a household word and whose previous book sold so many thousand
+copies, he has the bookseller on the mourner's bench; if he can (and
+he frequently does) add the clinching argument that his firm will
+advertise the book heavily, he can leave the bookseller with that
+thrill of triumph we all feel when we bend another's will to our own.
+
+A young and inexperienced salesman, whom we shall call Mr. Green, was
+making his Western trip. As he was waiting in a bookseller's store for
+his customer's attention, there entered a traveller of ripe years and
+experience, representing one of the larger publishing firms. Naturally
+the bookseller gave the older salesman his instant attention. With no
+desire to eavesdrop, Mr. Green could not avoid overhearing the
+conversation.
+
+"Hello, Blank! Anything new?"
+
+"Yes, I have a big novel here by a big man. It will have a big sale,"
+and Blank mentioned the title and author.
+
+At this point, Green pricked up his ears. He had read the novel in
+manuscript form and his immediate thought was, "Here's where I learn
+something about the gentle art of making sales."
+
+Mr. Blank proceeded so tell what he knew about the book. His synopsis
+was so inaccurate that Green knew that he had not read the book, but
+was glibly misquoting the publisher's announcement. Green's courage
+was fired as he reflected how much better he could have portrayed the
+chief incidents of the plot. But his triumph was momentary. Blank
+ended his argument in a voice that left no doubt of his own faith in
+the effectiveness of his logic. "And the firm is going to advertise it
+like ----."
+
+"Send me two hundred and fifty copies," said the customer.
+
+The longer Mr. Green travelled the more convinced he became that the
+old salesman knew his business. The argument of advertising carries
+with it a certain persuasiveness that the customer cannot resist. Not
+always does a liberal use of printer's ink land a book among the six
+best sellers; but it does it so often that the rule is proved by the
+exception. A publisher once made the statement, in the presence of a
+number of men interested in the book-publishing business, that, by
+advertising, he could sell twenty thousand copies of any book, no
+matter how bad it was. The silence of the others indicated assent to
+the doctrine. But one inquiring mind broke in with the question, "But
+can you make a profit on it?"
+
+"Ah! That is another question," answered the publisher.
+
+And the ledgers of several publishers will show a loss, due to
+excessive advertising, on books that loom large in public favor. The
+author has reaped good royalties and the salesman has had no great
+draft made upon his stock of persuasive argument.
+
+It is under such circumstances that the traveller finds his work easy
+and his burden light. Another condition under which he meets with less
+resistance is in the instance of a second book by an author whose
+first book has met with success. The bookseller is a wary, cautious
+man; what illusions he once had have gone down the corridors of time
+along with the many books that have not helped him. For reasons that
+are not so inscrutable as they may seem to the enthusiastic salesman,
+the bookseller is disinclined to order more than a few copies of a
+first book by a new author. Perhaps the traveller has read the book
+and is surcharged with enthusiasm; he talks eloquently and ably in
+the book's behalf; he masses argument upon argument--and in the end
+makes about as much impression as he would by shooting putty balls at
+the Sphinx. Even though the salesman's enthusiasm may find its
+justification in the reviewer's opinions and the beginning of a brisk
+sale for the book all over the country, still the reluctant bookseller
+broods moodily over the past and refuses to be stung again. But let
+the book have a large sale and then let the salesman start out with a
+second book by this author: the bookseller, with few exceptions, will
+go the limit on quantity. Unfortunately, it frequently happens that
+the public--which is a discriminating public or not, as you chance to
+look at it--does not seem possessed of the same blind confidence, and
+the result is a monument of unsold copies.
+
+The trade, I think, is coming more and more to be guided by the advice
+of such salesmen as have proved to be the possessors of judgment and
+honesty. By judgment is meant not merely the opinion that one forms of
+the literary value of a book, but that commercial estimate that a good
+salesman is able to make. The literary adviser can state in terms of
+literary criticism the reasons why the Ms. is worthy of publication;
+but the traveller, if he happens to be more than a mere peddler, can,
+after reading the Ms., take pencil and paper and figure out how many
+copies he can place. Publishers are growing to appreciate this quality
+in a salesman and are seeking his advice before accepting a Ms. Some
+go further and ask his assistance in the make-up of a book; for a good
+cover covers a multitude of sins.
+
+In former years it was considered the salesman's first duty to "load"
+the customer; that is, sell him all he could, regardless of the merits
+of the books. In those days a denial of the good old doctrine that the
+imprint could do no wrong was rank heresy. Such salesmen are no longer
+categorised with Caesar's wife, and the new salesmanship is having its
+day. Its members are men of reading and intelligence, who have taken
+the trouble to learn something about the wares they are selling, and
+who have found that it pays to be honest. It doesn't seem to pay the
+first year; but if the salesman's judgment of books is discriminating
+and he hangs on, the booksellers soon realize that they can trust him.
+As they know little of the new books he is offering, they are inclined
+to be guided by his advice; should they find that this pays, they will
+repose more confidence in him. A traveller who, in lieu of personal
+imagination and the power of persuasion, was forced to depend upon
+hard work and the common, or garden, kind of honesty for what success
+he had on the road, was giving up his work to take an indoor position.
+On his final trip he had a "first" book by a "first" author; it was an
+unusual book and had in it possibilities of a really great sale. The
+firm publishing the book was in the hands of an assignee. The outlook
+was not propitious for a large sale: a new book by an unknown author
+published by an assignee. But the salesman believed in the book,
+believed in it with judgment and enthusiasm. "I found," he said, in
+telling the story, "that the trade to a man believed in me. It
+affected me deeply to feel that my years of straight dealing had not
+been wasted. The booksellers backed me up, bought all the copies I
+asked them to buy,--and I asked largely,--with the result that I sold
+ten thousand copies in advance of publication. The firm has sold since
+over two hundred thousand copies of that book and its creditors
+received a hundred cents on the dollar."
+
+It would seem an axiom that a man selling books should have at least a
+bowing acquaintance with their contents, yet I have heard salesmen
+argue hotly in favor of the old-time salesman who sold books as he
+would sell shoes or hats. Such a one was selling a novel to a Boston
+bookseller. He had not taken the trouble to read the book, but had
+been told by his firm that it was a good story. Flushed with the
+vehemence of his own argument for a large order, he floundered about
+among such vague statements as: "You can't go to sleep until you have
+finished it! It's great! A corking story! Can't lay the book down!
+Unable to turn out the light until you have read the last line!"
+
+"But what's it about?" quickly interrupted the customer, suspecting
+that the traveller had not read the book.
+
+"It's about--it's about a dollar and a quarter," was the quick retort.
+
+Perhaps here we find the substitute for the reading that maketh a full
+man. Repartee of this sort is disarming, and the quickness of wit that
+prompts it is not one of the least useful attributes of salesmanship.
+To carry the moral a step farther, it is only fair to say that the
+nimble salesman has had the wit to get out of the publishing business
+into another line of industry that, if reports are to be believed, has
+made him independent.
+
+The commercial traveller who sells books has no fault to find with the
+people with whom he deals. By the very nature of his calling the
+bookseller is a man of reading and culture; now and then among them
+you find a man of rare culture. So genuinely friendly are the
+relations existing between seller and purchaser that a travelling man
+has the feeling that he is making a pleasure trip among friends. Such
+relations are no mean asset to the salesman, although they are not
+wholly essential. For it is to the bookseller's interest at least to
+examine the samples of every publisher's representative. It is not a
+question of laying in the winter's supply of coal, or of being content
+with one good old standby line of kitchen ranges. It is books that he
+is dealing in; an article that knows no competition and that has a
+brief career. Should my lady ask for Mark Twain's last book, it would
+be a poor bookseller who answered, "We don't sell it, but we have a
+large pile of Marie Corelli's latest." Or should the customer desire a
+copy of Henry James's recent volume, what would it profit the
+bookseller to inform her that he did not have it in stock, but he had
+something just as good?
+
+It is because of the immense numbers of titles the bookseller must
+carry that the salesman always finds him a willing listener. And in
+the end, even though he does not buy heavily, he must order at least a
+few each of the salable books. Such complacency on the part of the
+bookseller might argue for direct dealing on the part of the publisher
+by means of circulars and letters, thus saving the expense of a
+traveller. But firms that have tried this have had a change of heart
+and have quickly availed themselves of the traveller's services.
+
+He is useful in ways other than selling. If he is keen to advance his
+firm's interests,--and most of the book travellers are,--he will
+interest the bookseller's clerks in the principal books of his line.
+He will send them a copy of an important book, knowing that the clerk,
+should he become interested in the book, will personally sell many
+copies.
+
+In the matter of credits, the travelling man is of considerable
+service to his house. He is on the spot, can size up the bookseller's
+trade, note if he is overstocked, particularly with unsalable books,
+or "plugs," as they are called, obtain the gossip of the town, and in
+many ways can form an estimate of the bookseller's financial condition
+that is more trustworthy than any the credit man in the home office
+can get. There were a dozen publishers' representatives who once sat
+in solemn conclave discussing the financial responsibility of an
+important customer. He was suspected of being beyond his depth, and
+some of the travellers had been warned not to sell him. Several
+personally inspected his business, obtained a report from him and his
+bank, and threshed out the matter as solemnly and seriously as if they
+were the interested publishers whom they represented. It was decided
+to extend further credit to the bookseller; his orders were taken and
+sent in with full explanations. How many orders were rejected by the
+publishers I do not, of course, know. But the judgment of the
+travellers, as events proved, was justified.
+
+The publisher is learning to regard his travelling man as more than a
+salesman. He is asking him, now and then, to assist him in the
+selection of a manuscript, to aid him in planning the letter-press,
+and binding of a book. For by the very nature of his work the
+traveller is the one man in the publisher's employ who has a
+comprehensive grasp of the many branches of this alluring, but not
+very profitable, business.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING AT WHOLESALE
+
+By Joseph E. Bray.
+
+
+In the process of manufacture a book passes through so many hands that
+if the finished product is exactly in accordance with the plan that
+existed in the mind of its designer, he is justified in looking upon
+it with the satisfaction felt by an artist who has worked well. After
+a book is issued, however, it is quite another and equally important a
+matter to sell it, and this part of book publication requires as much
+thought and perhaps more dogged persistence than the other. There are
+some books, such as "Ben Hur" and "David Harum," for instance, that
+make a market for themselves, and the demand for such successes,
+though starting perhaps in a rather circumscribed locality, moves
+onward and outward, gathering force all the time like an avalanche.
+These are rare exceptions, however, and for most books a market must
+be created. No matter how good the book, it is not enough to view the
+finished product with satisfaction and expect that the public will buy
+it in the proportion that it deserves. It has to be marketed like any
+other article of commerce; and a book is only on the market properly
+when you find its selling points known to the trade, and the volume
+itself temptingly displayed on the counters in the bookstores
+everywhere, ready to become the property of any one who may be
+attracted by a reviewer's description, a clever advertisement, the
+polite recommendation of a well-posted clerk, or any other of the many
+reasons that induce people to buy books. This condition of course
+obtains in all large cities on or soon after the day of publication of
+a well-managed book--but urban publicity is not sufficient. The whole
+country must be taken care of, and the several thousand booksellers
+scattered over this great land must be placed in the same relative
+position as their brethren in the large cities. How they are supplied
+with the book, posted as to its merits, and enabled to take care of
+whatever demands arise, is the wholesale, or "jobbing," side of book
+selling.
+
+This class of booksellers relies mostly upon the wholesaler for
+information and supplies. Everyone knows when Winston Churchill and
+Mrs. Humphry Ward are writing books, and what they are about; but when
+a dealer in a small town gets a call for "The Sands of Time," author
+unknown, a book he has never heard of before, he usually transmits the
+order just as he has received it to his jobber, who supplies him with
+the book if it is on the market, or with the necessary information
+regarding it if he is not able to supply it. The jobber's work,
+broadly speaking, is twofold: To see that a book for which the demand
+is certain to be large and immediate is in the hands of all his
+customers promptly after publication, and to take care of all
+inquiries that arise throughout the country for lesser-known books.
+His establishment must be a very temple of learning, and he has to
+know everything in the book world, from the plot of the latest "best
+seller" to the relative importance of a work on the differential
+calculus.
+
+Let us take his first duty. A book is to be published by a noted
+author, and a large sale is confidently expected. It will be widely
+advertised, and the press will feature it in the review columns. His
+first move usually is to distribute descriptive notices among his
+customers, telling them what he knows about it and inviting them to
+send in their orders. His travellers are also notified and are advised
+as to how the book is likely to be received by the people, and whether
+it is accounted better or worse than the author's previous works. The
+jobber has therefore to size up a book early in the game, without
+perhaps having seen anything relating to it except the publisher's
+advance notices. He has to be very careful not to "over-sell" the
+book, and yet at the same time he must distribute it in sufficient
+quantities, so that no sales may be lost through dealers not having
+supplies. Orders generally begin to come in quickly, and sometimes the
+advance sales of popular books are enormous. Then comes the question
+of buying a first supply. The suave, persuasive agent of the publisher
+waits upon the jobber and tells him what a wonderful work it is, that
+the demand is without a doubt going to beat all records, and he had
+"better hurry up and place a large order before the first edition is
+exhausted," and all that kind of thing. The jobber takes into
+consideration the facts he has been able to learn concerning the book,
+and places an order accordingly. Then his own travellers are supplied
+with dummies or advance copies, and the work of arousing an interest
+in the book in all sections of the country proceeds actively. Not only
+are all the towns canvassed thoroughly, but even the smaller villages
+are visited or the modest orders solicited by mail, though the stocks
+of the local booksellers may embrace only a few of the best sellers.
+
+It is generally arranged so that the stock of the book of the kind to
+which we have alluded is delivered to the jobber on or before the day
+of publication, and he in turn tries to place it in the hands of his
+customers early, usually on or within a day or two of the date of
+issue. From Maine to California, and from the northern boundary to the
+Gulf, there is no town of importance, and no village where a bookstore
+exists, that has not copies of, or information concerning, the book
+within a short time of its coming from the press. After this is done,
+patience is necessary and a period of comparative inactivity ensues.
+The book is before the people, and it is necessary to wait for their
+verdict. There are many ways of "puffing" a book. Clever advertising
+will do much. Window displays and all the other arts resorted to by
+bookseller and publisher sell copies; but unless the people take to
+it, unless it appeals to them, unless they talk about it, and pass it
+along, none of these ways will do more than give a book a very
+temporary period of demand. The wisest publisher sometimes issues
+books that never reach a second edition. They awaken no responsive
+echo in the hearts of the people, the stamp of public approval is not
+put upon them, and although hailed with a flourish of trumpets and a
+blast of advertising, they die an early death, the author and the
+publisher perhaps being the only people that regret their demise.
+
+In the case of a work that does meet with public approval, this
+approval is soon shown, and it is not a hard matter to care for the
+demand. The wholesaler aims to keep a stock on hand sufficiently large
+to cover all calls upon him, and does what he can to push the good
+thing along, through his salesmen and the circular literature which he
+sends out from time to time.
+
+There are other classes of books, however, in which the wholesaler
+must interest himself and which cannot be treated so easily; here
+perhaps his service to the community and the publishing field are the
+greatest. Only the select few among books are big sellers; the
+majority do not sell largely, and only a very small percentage of the
+many thousands of books put forth annually make a stir in the world. A
+novel by an unknown author, a biography of an eminent man, a modest
+work of travel or adventure, technical books and those that add to the
+world's knowledge, cannot be given a wide distribution or an inviting
+display on the shelves of the trade. The smaller bookseller cannot
+afford to carry them. His profits are small and his investments in
+books of this class have to be very carefully considered. His margin
+of profit is too small for him to take more chances than he has to,
+and consequently he relies largely upon his jobber, from whom he in
+most cases picks up these books as he needs them. The wholesaler has
+to be a bureau of information concerning this part of his business.
+His mail brings him in all sorts of inquiries for books that have been
+out of print for years. Somebody wants them, can they be obtained by
+advertising for them or otherwise? The jobber must know this and give
+the information to his customer promptly. Books not yet published.
+When will they be issued? What will be the cost? An approximate price
+must be given. What are the best books on certain subjects, and how do
+they compare with other works in the same field? Hundreds of inquiries
+similar to these are constantly received. Sometimes titles are garbled
+and twisted all out of shape, taken down perhaps by the rural
+bookseller phonetically and confidently forwarded to the wholesaler,
+who will certainly know. The right book is usually sent, and not often
+is the jobber found to be at fault. Curiously enough, the majority of
+people are very careless in regard to titles of books, and many
+conundrums of this kind are daily solved by the trade.
+
+Peculiar in many ways is the book trade, and the ordinary laws of
+commercialism do not always apply to the book business. The book
+market is fickle to the utmost degree. The books that should sell
+sometimes do not "move" at all, and those that apparently have but
+little to recommend them turn out to be the best of the bunch so far
+as sales are concerned. A jobber has to be something of an optimist;
+he must keep his ear to the ground, and, like certain types of
+politicians, must be prepared to give the people what they want when
+they want it. He can of course help along the demand for good books
+and check that for poor literature, and, to his credit, he usually
+does this, but the book-buying public is truly democratic and in the
+main people are pretty definite in their wants. Oftentimes they can be
+led, but it is rarely that they will consent to be driven.
+
+Another important part of the jobber's business is the supplying of
+public libraries and similar institutions. Here his knowledge of books
+and the resources of his establishment are put to the severest test.
+Libraries use a vast quantity of books, and the demand from this
+source is extremely varied in character. Librarians are also very
+shrewd and careful buyers, and much work in the way of pricing of
+lists, answering inquiries, etc., is demanded. Margins of profit here
+are very small, but there is practically no loss in the matter of
+accounts, and a librarian is very satisfactory to deal with, as he
+usually knows what he wants. The popular novel has been pushed so much
+to the front of late years and advertised on such a colossal scale,
+that one not versed in the reading demands of the people might very
+well think America was reading nothing else. In the orders sent in by
+public libraries, however, "solid reading" is very largely
+represented, and, as a matter of fact, that class of literature is
+making just as great an increase in public demand as the lighter kind.
+
+The wholesaler therefore is a useful member of the book world and an
+important factor in the distribution of books. He must combine the
+acumen of the business man with a taste for literature for
+literature's sake, have an enormous capacity for detail but be capable
+of grasping an opportunity, possess the wisdom of Solomon, the
+patience of Job, and the tact of a diplomat. He must be, in short, a
+business man, a scholar, and a philosopher; and even with all these
+accomplishments he is not likely to endanger the peace of the
+community by accumulating an enormous fortune.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING AT RETAIL
+
+By Warren Snyder.
+
+
+It is with the finished product of author and publisher that the
+bookseller has chiefly to do. In the building of a book he does not
+come into contact with author, artist, compositor, printer, or
+publisher. If he be in a position to place large orders, his opinion
+is occasionally sought as to the advisability of bringing out a new
+edition of some book or books for which there seems to be a demand. A
+book may have reached an unusually large sale in an ordinary edition;
+he is asked if he thinks a finer and more expensive edition would be
+warrantable. He is, however, chary in most cases about expressing an
+opinion; and he never allows himself to become enthusiastic over any
+book in the presence of a publisher or a publisher's representative.
+For he feels that if he should display any eagerness, he would, in a
+measure, commit himself to placing a large order for that particular
+book.
+
+With books being brought out at the rate they have been for the last
+five years, the bookseller finds himself with little time or
+inclination either to read or to think about the things to come. He
+has enough to occupy his attention in his efforts to display and sell
+the books he already has on hand. Witness the pyramids of volumes
+towering ceilingward--many of them books that have been there for
+several moons at least; and which are likely to remain there until
+many more moons have waxed and waned.
+
+I often wonder if the bookseller of fifty years ago ever dreamed of
+what his successor would have to contend with in the way of new
+publications. I recall a conversation I had two or three years ago
+with a man more than seventy years of age. He had started out in his
+business life as a clerk in a bookstore and he said to me, "There are
+no booksellers to-day like there were when I was in the book business.
+Then," he continued, "a bookseller was thoroughly posted as to the
+contents of the books he had for sale; while now they know but little
+more about a book than its title." I asked him if he ever stopped to
+compare the conditions under which the bookseller of past days worked
+with those under which the bookseller of to-day had to labor. I have
+read that in 1855 there were but five hundred new books issued in the
+United States. In 1905--fifty years later--there were seventy-five
+hundred new books launched on the market. This did not include some
+six hundred reprints.
+
+When there was an average of less than ten new books published in a
+week, it was an easy task for an intelligent salesperson to get a
+fair knowledge of the contents of every one. But when books are ground
+out at the rate of one hundred and fifty a week,--twenty-five a
+day,--the task becomes an impossible one. Yet I have frequently been
+asked by seemingly intelligent persons if I did not read a book before
+purchasing it. And when I have attempted to explain that it would be
+impossible for me to read all the books issued, they have not
+hesitated to convey, by word or gesture, their opinion of this
+obviously reckless way of doing business. Not long ago a man came to
+my office inquiring for the manager. When he was directed to me he
+said: "I bought a book here a few days ago, and it is imperfect. There
+are a number of pages missing, while some pages are repeated." Then,
+with a sneer, "I am surprised that a firm like this should sell
+imperfect books." I assured him that we had no intention of selling an
+imperfect book; it was an accident that sometimes happened. The wonder
+to me was that it did not happen oftener. I was sorry if he had been
+put to any inconvenience; we would cheerfully give him another copy.
+We could return the imperfect copy to the publishers who would make it
+right with us.
+
+"But don't you examine the books you buy to see if the pages are all
+there?"
+
+I told him how impossible that would be. Why, we often added as many
+as fifty thousand volumes to our stock in a single week. He left me,
+I am sure, convinced that we were careless in our mode of doing
+business.
+
+Once I was called from my office to meet a lady who also had a
+grievance. She accosted me with the air of one who had been basely
+swindled. "I bought a book here yesterday," she said, "one you
+advertised as cheap. I wish to return it and get my money back. My
+husband says it is no wonder that you can sell books so cheap; this
+one is not half finished. Look at the rough edges; the leaves are not
+even cut."
+
+Of course I had the price of the book returned to her at once. Then I
+proceeded to show her some of the expensive and finely bound volumes
+with rough edges. I explained how the value of many of these books
+would be lessened if the leaves were trimmed. I tried to give her the
+point of view of the book collector. She was incredulous. I think,
+however, that she went away a wiser, if not a happier woman; and she
+has probably blushed many times since when recalling the incident.
+
+The buyer of books for a large store does not go out to look for new
+publications. He remains in his office, and the publisher sends a
+representative to see him in regard to each new book issued. In New
+York City he is called upon on an average of once a week by some one
+from each publishing house. At certain seasons of the year these
+"commercial travellers," as they prefer to be titled, seem to drift
+in ten or a dozen at a time. They will often be found waiting in line
+outside the buyer's office, each taking his turn. Each will have from
+two to ten new books, all to be ready within the next two weeks.
+
+I have said that the bookseller of to-day has but little time to read
+about the volumes that are forthcoming. Therefore, most of the new
+books are first brought to his attention by the salesmen who come to
+solicit orders. Every book must be given some consideration; and in
+most cases some quantity of it must be ordered. It may be five copies
+or it may be five thousand. To the inexperienced it is difficult to
+explain the precise considerations that govern the amount of the
+order. Here is where the strain comes on the buyer; for the
+responsibility lies with him. Yet he must decide without having read a
+single page; and he must decide quickly--in a few minutes. Many times
+he places an order without having seen the completed book at all. Some
+pages of the text, a half-dozen illustrations, and the outside cover
+are perhaps presented to him. Even the fact that the publisher has had
+the manuscript read by three or four experts before deciding to
+publish, does not always help him. There are many miscalculations on
+the part of both buyer and publisher.
+
+But, you insist, how does a buyer form a judgment of the number of
+copies to buy if he does not read the book? There are many things to
+guide him. There is the popularity of the author to be considered;
+the subject of the book; the mechanical features; the price; and the
+publisher's name and standing. If it is an author's first book the
+risk is great. If both the author and publisher are new the risk is
+still greater. For the amount of advertising that such a publisher is
+likely to do is an unknown quantity. The buyer can estimate pretty
+closely on the advertising probabilities of well-established firms; he
+knows what they are accustomed to do in that line.
+
+In the reminiscences of a bookseller who began business more than
+seventy years ago, there is a letter from his mother written in 1844,
+from which the following is an excerpt:--
+
+"I will ask you once more to consider my plea regarding the policy and
+character of some portion of your business. The selecting of books for
+a reading community is a peculiar responsibility; and if the matter
+therein contained be good in its wholesale and retail consequences it
+will rise up for you, if bad, against you, even here in this partly
+Christianized America."
+
+But the bookman no longer has the opportunity of selecting for a
+community. The conditions are changed. In these days of extended
+advertising in newspapers and magazines, the reading public learns all
+about the new books before going near a bookstore. The demand is
+created outside the shop; the dealer must be prepared to supply it.
+
+Customers tell him not only what to keep on sale, but what not to keep
+on sale. The writer of the present article has been admonished not to
+have in stock the writings of many of the great authors--Darwin,
+Huxley, Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Miss Braddon, George Eliot, Mrs.
+Humphry Ward, Balzac, Byron, and many others. A letter received about
+fifteen years ago read something like this:--
+
+"I was much surprised yesterday, while passing through your bookstore,
+to find a number of immoral books there for sale. I copied down the
+names of a few of them--'An Earnest Trifler' and 'A Desperate
+Chance.'"
+
+There were four others the titles of which I do not recall; but the
+two mentioned made an impression on my mind, because I had read the
+first one only a short time before; and knew it to be a perfectly pure
+story. The second one happened to have been written by an acquaintance
+of mine, J. D. Jerrold Kelly, now a commander in the United States
+Navy. If he ever reads this article he will probably be informed for
+the first time that he is accused of having written an immoral story.
+The funny part of the incident was that the letter in question closed
+with the following: "I will admit that I have not read any of these
+books. I would not soil my mind by reading them; but I think the
+titles are quite sufficient to lead many a weak-minded person astray."
+I leave the reader to draw his own conclusions.
+
+I said that the bookseller does not necessarily come into contact with
+author or publisher in the building of a book. He is, however,
+frequently called upon by authors of the class that might be termed
+unsuccessful. These want his help. One came to me with a proposition
+that I take five thousand copies of a book he had written. "It's a
+wonderful book," he said. "Nothing like it has been written; and it's
+bound to make a great stir. It will revolutionize society completely.
+All it needs is for you to 'push' the sale." When I asked to see the
+book, he said it was not published yet. "I am looking for a publisher;
+and will let you see a copy as soon as it is ready. But," he added,
+"if you would give me your order now it would be a great help in
+securing a publisher." It is scarcely necessary for me to add that I
+did not feel called upon to help him to the extent of ordering five
+thousand copies of the book without seeing it, even if society had to
+remain unrevolutionized for a while longer. I never saw the author
+again; nor have I heard of the book. Now many books must have been
+written for which no publisher could be found! The pity is that so
+many have found publishers--a statement with which I feel sure
+publishers and booksellers alike will agree.
+
+A year or two ago I was asked by a friend to give some advice to a
+lady who had written a book. She did not take my advice, however, when
+I gave it--I hardly expected that she would. In fact, she went
+directly contrary to it, and practically published the book herself.
+Later she came to me with the proposition that I take her book and
+"push" it as the Century Dictionary and Encyclopedia was being pushed;
+she was sure it would have a large sale, if only I would advertise it
+in the same way that these other books were being advertised--full
+pages in the daily papers. The retail price of her book was, I
+believe, one dollar. These are but two instances; I could mention many
+more equally ridiculous. How that word "push" does grate on my ears!
+It will put me in a bad humor about as quickly as anything I can
+recall.
+
+My first experience in the book business was on Nassau Street, then
+one of the great book streets of New York City, if not the greatest.
+One morning shortly after the store opened an elderly couple from the
+country came in--the man evidently interested in books; but the woman
+not at all. While he was looking over the counters she remained well
+in the centre of the main aisle, a short distance behind him.
+Presently he came to a counter on which there was a placard: "Books
+fifty cents each." By some mistake an expensive volume had been laid
+with these second-hand books. The man picked it up and began leafing
+it over. Then turning to the woman he said, "That's cheap at fifty
+cents." "What's it good for?" was her query. "I wouldn't spend fifty
+cents for it." Then I heard him say, "That's worth more than fifty
+cents. If that's the price I'll buy it." "Young man, what's the price
+of this book?" This last to me. I told him, "Nine dollars." The look
+he gave the woman was not unkindly, but it spoke volumes. He knew a
+thing or two about books; he was thoroughly conscious of his
+superiority over her, when it came to their value.
+
+During the last thirty years a magnificent work has been done in
+suppressing and destroying the filthy literature that was almost
+openly sold in the streets of many of our largest cities. Too much
+credit cannot be given the society that took the matter in hand. I
+believe that nearly every dealer to-day aims to keep his stock free
+from demoralizing books; but in the nature of things the line of
+demarcation cannot be drawn with entire satisfaction to all. About
+twenty years ago an itinerant dealer was arrested in a New Jersey town
+for selling a certain book. I was present at the trial, which was
+somewhat farcical. The defendant had gathered together a large number
+of catalogues to show that the book had been sold by the most
+reputable dealers in the country; and that it was included in the
+catalogues of most of the public libraries. But the judge would not
+allow this as evidence. He took the stand that the whole question
+rested upon the book itself. It did not matter what the rest of the
+world thought of the book; they were there to judge whether or not it
+was immoral. (The penalty for selling an immoral book in New Jersey
+was, I think, at least one year's imprisonment.) The jury was composed
+of twelve yokels, eleven of them had never heard of the book, the
+twelfth said he had read it about twenty years earlier. As the whole
+thing hinged on the opinion of the jury as to its character, copies
+were supplied by the defendant, and the jury was sent into another
+room to read the book. After an hour or so they returned. All agreed
+that the story was not immoral, and the case was dismissed.
+
+It would be a pleasure for me to write of the many distinguished
+persons with whom I have become acquainted during my career as a
+bookseller and buyer. But were I once to begin on the subject I fear
+my readers would believe me lacking in "terminal facilities." I should
+regret, however, to have to close this article without mention of the
+many delightful friendships I have formed with authors, customers, and
+publishers. And I may add, with the men who sell to me--whom, almost
+to a man, I have found thoroughly conscientious. These are pleasant
+features that go a long way toward compensating one for being in a
+business, the profits of which, at the best, are small as compared
+with those of other lines of trade.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING BY SUBSCRIPTION
+
+By Charles S. Olcott.
+
+
+The business of selling books may be divided, in a general way, into
+two divisions, one seeking to bring the people to the books, the other
+aiming to take the books to the people. The first operates through the
+retail book stores, news-stands, department stores, and the like. The
+other employs agents, or advertises in the newspapers or magazines, to
+secure orders or "subscriptions," on receipt of which the books are
+delivered. The latter method of selling has become known as the
+"Subscription-book" business.
+
+The agent usually calls at the office or home of his prospective
+customer and shows samples of the text pages, illustrations, bindings,
+etc., bound together in a form known as a "prospectus." Sometimes he
+exhibits a number of different prospectuses. The customer signs an
+order blank, which the agent turns over to the publisher, who makes
+the delivery and collects the money. To cover the entire country, the
+large publisher establishes branch offices in many different cities or
+sells his books to so-called "general agents," who secure their own
+canvassers.
+
+It may be asked, why does such a method exist? Do not people know
+enough to go to the book stores and ask for what they want? And why go
+to a man and urge him to buy a book he does not want? The answer goes
+deep into human nature. People have to be urged to take very many
+things which they know they ought to have. The small boy knows he
+ought to go to school, but has to be coaxed. Parents know he ought to
+go, but compulsory education laws have been found necessary in many
+states. The churches are good, but people sometimes need urging even
+to go there. Life insurance, honestly conducted, is one of the
+greatest blessings a man can buy with money, but the principal
+expenditures of the great companies are the vast sums spent in
+pleading with the people to take advantage of it.
+
+Experience has proved this to be true of books. Men and women must be
+employed to show the people their value. The latest novel, if popular
+and well advertised, will sell fairly well in the retail store, but an
+encyclopaedia, or any extensive set of books, must be taken directly to
+the people and explained by competent salesmen if the publishers hope
+to pay the cost of the plates within a lifetime. This is strikingly
+illustrated in the case of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." The sales in
+England of the original ninth edition were less than ten thousand
+sets. In America, where subscription methods were adopted from the
+first, and in England, after some enterprising American
+subscription-book men took it in hand, the sales may be fairly
+estimated at something like one hundred and fifty thousand sets.
+
+Twenty or thirty years ago, by far the most common form of
+subscription book was the variety labelled "Manual of Business," or
+the "Complete Farm Cyclopedia," or the "Road to Heaven." The publisher
+did not advertise for customers but for agents. The books were sold
+directly to the agent, and he in turn delivered them to his customers
+and collected the money. Anybody out of employment could take up the
+business. The aim was to get as many agents as possible and sell them
+the books. The agent canvassed with a "prospectus" after committing to
+memory his little story. The subscribers signed their names in the
+back of the prospectus. Sometimes the young and inexperienced agent
+ordered as many copies as he had signatures or more. Woe unto him if
+he did, for oftentimes they would not "deliver." Many years ago I
+remember calling at a modest little home in the Middle West. While
+waiting in the parlor, I noticed how peculiarly it was furnished.
+Every corner of the little square room contained a monument of
+symmetrical design, all different, but each some three or four feet
+high, and all built of books, as a child might build a fairy castle
+out of his wooden blocks. A closer inspection showed that all the
+volumes were copies of the same book bound in "half morocco"! The
+explanation came later when I was incidentally informed that "Willie
+had tried canvassing, but most of 'em backed out."
+
+This reminds one of the remark of Thoreau when, four years after the
+publication of his first book (at the author's expense), the publisher
+compelled him to remove 706 unsold copies out of the edition of 1000,
+and he had them all carted to his home. "I now have," he said, "a
+library of nearly 900 volumes, over 700 of which I wrote myself." It
+is an interesting fact in this connection that the successors of that
+publisher are to-day, fifty years later, successfully selling by
+subscription an edition of Thoreau's writings in 20 volumes, the set
+in the cheapest style of binding costing $100.
+
+Among the famous books sold by this method have been Blaine's "Twenty
+Years in Congress," Stanley's "In Darkest Africa," and Grant's
+"Memoirs." The handsome fortune which the publishers of the latter
+were enabled to pay to Mrs. Grant was made possible only by the
+application of the subscription method of reaching the people.
+
+Another form of subscription book, now fortunately obsolete, was the
+book in "parts." A "part" consisted of some twenty-four or forty-eight
+pages, or more, in paper covers. These were delivered and paid for by
+the buyer in instalments of one or two at a time until the entire
+work was complete. Then the binding order was solicited. It was an
+expensive and unsatisfactory makeshift, intended to reach those who
+could pay only a dollar or two a month. The theory was that the people
+could not be trusted, and therefore the book must be cut up and
+delivered in pieces. Later the publishers learned that "most people
+are honest," and the modern method is to deliver the complete
+publication and collect the price in monthly instalments. This plan
+has proved far more economical both to subscribers and publishers, and
+the losses are few if the management is careful and conservative. One
+house which carefully scrutinizes its orders has suffered losses of
+less than one per cent on a business of several millions of dollars
+covering a period of fifteen years.
+
+In late years by far the greatest part of the subscription-book
+business has been done with complete sets of books, usually the
+writings of the leading standard authors. These books are sold
+directly to the subscriber who gives a signed order, and the publisher
+makes the delivery, pays the agent a cash commission, and collects the
+payments as they fall due. The old, worthless, "made-up" books are
+rapidly disappearing, and the subscription-book of to-day is as a rule
+a vastly superior article to that of a score of years ago. In fact
+some of the oldest and most reliable publishing houses in America now
+offer their choicest output by subscription. A large investment of
+capital in plates, illustrations, editorial work, etc., such as is
+necessary in many of the extensive editions of standard works, could
+not be made unless there, were an assured return. The subscription
+method of selling makes such undertakings possible, and the result of
+its adoption has been the issue of many superb publications which
+never would or could have been undertaken, had the retail book store
+been the only outlet to the market. The subscription business has in
+this way proved a marked benefit to the lovers of fine editions of
+their favorite authors. The book-lover has been benefited, too, in the
+matter of prices. The agent's commission under the modern methods is
+no greater than the bookseller's profit, and no extraordinary
+allowance is made for losses, as many imagine, for the losses are
+comparatively small. The desire to extend his business leads the
+publisher to make his books more attractive, while there is plenty of
+competition to keep the prices down. It is a fact that the buyer is
+to-day getting a far better book for his money than ever before.
+
+The personnel of the canvassing force has also undergone a change. A
+business such as the best houses are now doing requires agents of
+intelligence, tact, and judgment. The callow youth cannot succeed as
+he did once. The man who has failed at everything else will fail here.
+There are now men and women engaged in selling books by subscription,
+who possess business ability of a high order. Many of them have
+well-established lines of trade,--regular customers who depend upon
+them to supply their wants and keep them informed. The old jibes about
+the book-agent fall flat when applied to them. They do not bore their
+customers or tire them out. They serve them, and the customers are
+glad to be served by them.
+
+I have taken care to point out that these observations apply to the
+business as conducted by the older and more conservative book
+publishers, who value their reputation. In a consideration of the
+subject a sharp distinction should be drawn between such publishers
+and a class of irresponsible schemers who by various ingenious devices
+seek to gain the public ear and then proceed to impose upon their
+victims to the full extent of their credulity. In recent years many
+schemes have been devised,--a few honest, some about half honest, and
+the rest miserable "fakes."
+
+One of the earliest and most successful "schemes," not dishonest but
+certainly ingenious, was that of a publisher who had a large stock of
+unmarketable books whose retail price was $6 a volume. He organized an
+association and sold memberships at $10, the membership entitling the
+subscriber to one of the $6 books and the privilege of buying
+miscellaneous books at a discount. The discounts really were no
+greater than could have been obtained in any department store, but the
+"association" thought it had a great concession and multiplied so
+rapidly that the unmarketable book had to be reprinted again and
+again.
+
+The next "scheme" to come into prominence was the so-called "raised
+contract." The process was simple. The order blank read, for example,
+$5 a volume, but the publisher wanted "a few influential citizens like
+yourself" to write testimonials, and had a few copies for sale to such
+people--only a very few--at $3, merely the cost of the paper and
+binding. By paying cash you could get another reduction, and as a
+special favor from the agent still another, and so on, until you found
+the price whittled down to the ridiculously low sum of $2.65. When the
+customer woke up and found that all his neighbors were also
+"influential citizens" who had bought at the same price or possibly
+less, and that the book would be dear at $2, he mentally resolved to
+"buy no more from that house." The figures are given merely to
+illustrate the idea and are not quoted from any particular
+proposition. It is unfortunately true, however, that the plan here
+illustrated is now in daily use by many concerns, although there are
+indications that it is gradually dying as the result of overwork!
+
+Another scheme is to advertise a "a few slightly damaged" copies of a
+book for sale at barely the cost of the sheets--to save rebinding. A
+publisher once confided to me that he was doing a "land-office
+business" selling "slightly damaged stock." "How do you damage the
+stock," I asked,--"throw the books across the room?" "No," he replied,
+laughing, "we haven't time to do that."
+
+Some of the schemes are so ludicrous as to cause one to wonder how
+anybody can be made to believe the story. Such was the one which
+soberly informed the prospective customer that he had been selected by
+a committee of Congress as one of a few representative citizens to
+whom the United States government would be willing to sell some of its
+precious documents. He was not asked to subscribe, but merely to "let
+us know" if he didn't want it, for "another gentleman" was quite
+anxious to secure his copy, etc. Of course the fortunate
+representative citizen made haste to secure the copy which Congress
+intended him to have. I am told that the originator of this scheme
+made a fortune out of it.
+
+All these schemes, from the laughably absurd to the contemptibly mean,
+should be regarded merely as an excrescence upon the legitimate
+subscription-book business. They are like the "get-rich-quick" and
+"wildcat" banking schemes which flourish in prosperous times, but have
+nothing whatever in common with legitimate financial affairs. It is
+unfortunate for the book trade that these schemers selected books as
+the particular kind of merchandise upon which to exercise their
+ingenuity. They admit that their agents are expected not to canvass
+the merits of the book, but to "sell their story." They might have
+done the same thing had they chosen jewelry, bric-a-brac, rugs,
+paintings, stocks, bonds, or anything else as the subject for their
+exploitation. The reliable publishers are hoping that at no distant
+date the schemers will take up some of these other lines, although
+they bear no grudge against the latter.
+
+If any prejudice exists in the public mind against subscription books,
+it is caused by the illegitimate use of books as a means of "fooling"
+if not of swindling the people. There are many honorable men and many
+houses of the highest class who are engaged in the subscription-book
+business. These should no more be classed with such schemers as I have
+described than Tiffany's with the diamond merchants who ornament the
+fronts of their stores with the three balls. The leading legal lights
+of the world and the gentry who frequent the police courts are all
+called lawyers; the eminent surgeon who performs marvellous operations
+involving incredible knowledge and skill and the half-breed who used
+to pull teeth in front of the circus, the brass band drowning the
+shrieks of his victims, are both called doctors. The eminent divine
+and his ignorant colored brother may both be preachers. Intelligent
+people know how to discriminate between these, and do not condemn the
+one for the faults of the others. And so the intelligent and honorable
+book agent who represents a thoroughly reliable publishing house
+deserves to be differentiated from the fellow who comes with a lie on
+his tongue, for which an unscrupulous schemer is directly responsible.
+
+The subscription-book business, in the hands of honorable men, has
+performed a great service to the whole country, by putting good books
+into thousands and hundreds of thousands of homes, where, but for
+them, there would be little to read beyond the newspaper or the
+magazine. The best publishers have found it the most practicable
+method of distribution for their more extensive productions, and
+thousands of thoughtful men are glad of the opportunity to receive the
+representatives of such houses and to have the best of the new
+publications promptly brought to their attention.
+
+
+
+
+SELLING AT AUCTION
+
+By John Anderson, Jr.
+
+
+While the auctioneer is admitted to be an important factor in the
+handling of a book once it has become a finished product, his
+relations to it are not clearly understood, even by many of those who
+avail themselves of his services as a medium of sale or purchase. An
+endeavor shall therefore be made to present here, in the simplest
+possible way, some facts which may prove both pertinent and
+enlightening.
+
+It is to be presumed that the auctioneering of books began at the time
+when it first became apparent to the owners of libraries that a
+necessity existed for the establishment of a system by which they
+could reach the largest number of buyers, and bring about the quickest
+sales and returns, for these are, admittedly, the distinguishing
+features of the auction method, as opposed to all others.[4] Selling
+to the highest bidder proved the happy solution of the problem, and to
+this day it has been universally recognized as the most satisfactory
+method of dispersion. To quote a book as having sold for so much at
+auction gives it in the minds of all true bookmen the best possible
+criterion of value. The prices obtained, though variable, represent a
+consensus of opinion, and may be considered as standards.
+
+                   [Footnote 4: "But it was soon perceived, that when
+                   necessity or inclination determined the disposal of
+                   libraries, the auction method was on the whole by
+                   far the best, producing as it did, and still does,
+                   competition amongst a larger circle of intending
+                   purchasers, with a better result than would have
+                   been obtained by selling _en bloc_."--JOHN LAWLER,
+                   in "Book Auctions in England in the Seventeenth
+                   Century."]
+
+So far as can be traced, the earliest known book auctions took place
+in Holland. The library of Marnix of St. Aldegonde was sold by
+Christopher Poret at Leyden, July 6, 1599, this being the earliest
+recorded sale. The first English book sale is supposed to have been
+that held on October 31, 1676, when the library of the then lately
+deceased Rev. Lazarus Seaman was sold at his residence in Warwick
+Court, Warwick Lane, London, by William Cooper. The earliest known
+sale in America occurred at the Crown Coffee House in Boston, on July
+2, 1717, and succeeding days, when was dispersed the library of the
+famous early New England divine, Rev. Ebenezer Pemberton. Philadelphia
+held book auction sales many years in advance of New York, the
+earliest known being that of the library of Charles Read, in 1737. The
+date of the first sale in New York is unknown, as is the name of the
+auctioneer, but an advertisement of McLaughlin & Blakely, of 41 Maiden
+Lane, in a paper of May 4, 1825, reads as follows, "From the long
+acquaintance of Mr. McLaughlin with the book auction business, he
+trusts that the firm will receive a consequent share of public
+patronage." It is known that McLaughlin & Co. held unimportant book
+sales at 78 Maiden Lane in 1824, and late though this date is, it will
+have to stand as representing the earliest book auction sale in New
+York until newly discovered evidence reveals an earlier recorded
+one.[5]
+
+                   [Footnote 5: "Seventy Years of Book Auctions in New
+                   York," Robert F. Roden.]
+
+It rarely happens that a really great collection of books is sold
+otherwise than at auction. The collector recognizes that the taste and
+judgment displayed by him in the acquirement of his library will, by
+the medium of the auctioneer's carefully prepared catalogue, be made
+evident to all succeeding generations of book lovers. How many would
+to-day know the names of George Brinley, John Allan, and William
+Menzies, were it not for the sale catalogues of their collections?
+They attained book-fame without having sought it.
+
+In this connection, an extract may be quoted from the will of Edmond
+de Goncourt, the distinguished French writer and collector:--
+
+     "My wish is that my Drawings, my Prints, my Curiosities, my
+     Books--in a word, these things of Art which have been the
+     joy of my life--shall not be consigned to the cold tomb of a
+     Museum, and subjected to the stupid glance of the careless
+     passer-by; but I require that they shall all be dispersed
+     under the hammer of the auctioneer, so that the pleasure
+     which the acquiring of each one of them has given me shall
+     be given again, in each case, to some inheritor of my own
+     tastes."
+
+A list of those whose libraries have been dispersed at public auction
+would contain an astonishing proportion of names great in the world's
+history. Even in cases where the collections were not directly
+dispersed by the auction method, it will be found that the bulk of the
+more important works contained therein had, at some previous period,
+passed through the auctioneer's hands.
+
+To unthinking minds, there exist certain prejudices against the
+auction method, doubtless due to a want of discrimination between the
+many who faithfully pursue their calling, and the few who by
+questionable dealings have dishonored and discredited themselves
+rather than their craft. Benjamin Franklin is only one among many of
+the American book auctioneers whose names were synonymous with
+integrity during the long period--nearly two hundred years--in which
+their services were employed in the dispersal of libraries. The long
+and honorable careers of certain of the English book auction
+houses--notably that of Messrs. Sotheby, Wilkinson & Hodge, founded in
+1744--shows conclusively that the business itself has been accepted by
+the public, as forming an essential part in disseminating the world's
+literature.
+
+The auctioneer is in a position to extend many exceptional advantages
+to his customers.
+
+The quantity and variety of the books offered is far greater than is
+possible to be found in the stock of any dealer, being subject to
+constant additions and changes. The average quality is high where the
+auctioneer makes the sales of private collections a specialty, and
+much inferior where dependence is placed upon the sale of material
+received from the booksellers which they have been unable to sell
+after repeated efforts. Naturally, the better items are reserved for
+their own shelves. Among the leaders in the book auction trade, it
+will be found that a very large proportion of the material offered by
+them comes from authentic private sources, though, in many cases,
+there is a disinclination on the part of the owner to allow the use of
+his or her name in connection with the sale.
+
+The prices obtained for books at sales held by regular book
+auctioneers (no pretence of recognition need be accorded furniture and
+bric-a-brac auctioneers, who occasionally secure consignments of books
+from parties unaware of the existence of an establishment devoted
+exclusively to their sale) are necessarily variable, being governed,
+as is everything else, by the law of demand and supply. A particularly
+choice item will command about the same price whenever offered,--generally
+an increasing one,--but the ordinary book can often be obtained at
+bargain figures. This element of uncertainty goes far toward making
+the auction sale so attractive to collectors with slender purses, as
+also to those who may be designated "moral book-gamblers," always
+ready to take a chance where the outcome is problematical. Many fine
+collections have been gathered by well-informed private buyers, who
+made a point of attending auction sales, and purchasing desirable
+items, when for some reason the prices were lower than usual. Some of
+these collections have since been sold at auction, and the owners have
+netted a handsome profit on their investments.
+
+Many book buyers entertain erroneous ideas regarding the condition of
+the volumes sold at leading auction houses, confounding them with
+those sold at storage warehouses, furniture auction rooms, etc. The
+fact is, a very large proportion of the books, even of the older
+species, are in fine, clean condition, many being in choice bindings,
+and equal to the most fastidious requirement.
+
+An indication of the important relation of the book auctioneer to the
+market, as a source of supply, may be judged from the issue of a
+bulletin by the American Library Association during the past year,
+calling attention of the three thousand or more public libraries of
+the country to the advantages of purchasing at auction sales,
+recommending certain named houses, and outlining the mode of procedure
+in sending bids. It took years of hard and discouraging labor to bring
+about conditions that would warrant this recognition.
+
+The great majority of buyers at book auctions reside in localities
+widely removed from the cities where the sales are held, and it is, of
+course, necessary that these customers should be given equal
+advantages with the home buyers in effecting purchases at sales. The
+printed catalogue is made the medium of this accomplishment. The books
+are described in detail, mention being made of the author's name, the
+title, size, binding, place, and date of publication, and condition
+(if either above or below the average). If the edition is special, or
+it is a large paper copy, this is duly set forth in the description.
+All imperfections are carefully noted. The aim of the auctioneer is to
+bring the book or set of books so clearly before the mind of the
+prospective buyer as to gain his confidence. An express stipulation is
+made in the conditions of sale that any book found to be otherwise
+than as described may be returned, but as the auctioneer desires to
+avoid this contingency, he is generally careful in his descriptions,
+and they may, as a rule, be depended upon.
+
+A printed slip is enclosed in each catalogue on which the intending
+purchaser notes the numbers of the lots he desires and the limit of
+price to which he is prepared to go. It is then forwarded by mail to
+the auction house, where the slips are tabulated by a clerk, the names
+and amounts being placed against each item in a specially prepared
+catalogue. Incidentally, it may be stated that all bids are
+considered as strictly confidential.
+
+At the time of sale, the principal of the establishment, or one of his
+chief assistants, takes his place in the audience on an even footing
+with all other buyers, and uses the bids, as enrolled, in competition
+with such as may be offered by other attendants at the sale.
+
+Where two or more bids have been received on any item, the competition
+is first narrowed by the elimination of all except the two highest
+ones, and then the start is made at a figure just beyond the second
+highest. The battle between the auctioneer, acting as the
+representative of the out-of-town bidder, and some ardent book lover
+personally attending the sale, for the possession of a particularly
+coveted work, often provokes genuine enthusiasm. It is finally knocked
+down to the highest bidder at the point where competition ceases, and
+this is often much below the limit named by the buyer. The wise
+purchaser at auction, when assured of the honorable standing of the
+house with which he deals, will not hesitate in sending liberal bids,
+for by so doing he will gain much and lose little.
+
+The methods of conducting sales and handling bids differ somewhat in
+the various cities, but that, as above outlined, is adopted by the
+leading houses. In some concerns, the auctioneer himself executes the
+commissions from the rostrum, but when this is done, even though he
+may be a man of the strictest integrity, the method is open to
+criticism, it being well understood that the reputation of an
+auctioneer is largely dependent on the high prices he obtains.
+
+There is a material difference between the English and American
+methods of cataloguing books for sale at auction. In England the
+charges are inclusive, the cost of printing, postage, etc., being
+assumed by the auctioneer, so that he finds it to his interest to
+compress catalogue descriptions into the narrowest possible compass,
+to minimize the distribution of the catalogue, and to spend as small
+an amount of money in advertising as possible. In America, the charges
+are exclusive, the commission representing the auctioneer's only
+interest, and the incidental expenses of printing, etc., are paid by
+the consignor. Because of this, a more liberal policy is pursued as to
+expenditures. Many good titles that are bunched in lots in the London
+sales are here separately catalogued, mention is made of all defects,
+and, on the average, more careful attention is paid to the details of
+the descriptions. Catalogues are given a wider circulation in America,
+and more dependence is placed on the receipt of bids from out-of-town
+buyers. New methods and channels of advertising are being constantly
+considered and utilized. It is believed that these elements, combined,
+conduce to the benefit of the consignor, when the material offered
+possesses real interest and value.
+
+The auctioneer who conducts a modern high-class establishment, where a
+guaranty of intelligent service is given, can employ only the best
+available talent for cataloguing purposes, either men of proved
+ability and special knowledge, or those that show a decided aptitude
+for the work and give promise of attainment.
+
+Most book auction houses in this country are obliged to call in the
+services of an interpreter when a book in other than the English or
+French language is to be catalogued, but in Europe the force employed
+is, as a rule, equal to all emergencies. To illustrate the variety of
+demand made upon the modern auctioneer, in this line, it may be stated
+that the establishment with which the writer is connected, can
+catalogue items in English, French, German, Italian, Spanish,
+Portuguese, Latin, Greek, Dutch, Swedish, and Danish; in fact, nearly
+all of the European, and some of the Oriental Languages, without
+calling upon outside help.
+
+A book auctioneer would find it as impossible to properly handle books
+without the use of a suitable reference library, as for a carpenter to
+work without tools. In a live, up-to-date auction house, every
+bibliographical work of real value not already possessed is secured
+when found in the open markets, and consulted frequently. These
+collections often represent an expenditure of thousands of dollars.
+Some single works call for the outlay of hundreds, but they are
+essential for the use of the expert cataloguer.
+
+The labor involved in handling books in connection with their sale at
+auction is very heavy. Supposing that a library of, say, five thousand
+volumes is offered for sale. It is packed by the owner, or under his
+directions, and is forwarded to the auctioneer. The boxes are opened
+and the contents placed in a special compartment. They are then
+catalogued, each item being separately handled. Another clerk then
+arranges them for exhibition on the shelves, where they remain until
+the time of sale. During the sale, they are again exhibited, and
+handled, and after it are laid aside in groups, according to their
+newly acquired ownership. When shipment is made the following day, or
+later, another handling is required. No scheme can be devised that
+will admit of less than four handlings of the entire lot. When we
+consider that in some establishments nearly a million separate items
+are received and sold each season, some idea may be formed of the
+labor involved.
+
+The auctioneer has been obliged to either adapt his business to modern
+conditions, even though it entails heavy expense and added burdens, or
+take a rear place in the procession. Business cannot be transacted now
+as it was even five years ago, though many attempt to do it by the
+antiquated methods of the times "befo' de war." More books are sold
+by auction each successive year; and with the wonderful progress being
+made in the literary development of this great country, it is likely
+that the auctioneer will become in the near future an even more
+important factor in the formation and dissemination of libraries than
+ever before.
+
+The following extract from a magazine article on "The Book Auction,"
+written years ago by Joel Benton, may be deemed a fitting conclusion.
+He said:--
+
+     "In no one place are there so many eager patrons of the book
+     auction as in New York. Here are men who can give thousands
+     of dollars for a single book, if they choose, and add it to
+     an already extremely valuable collection.
+
+     "It is pleasant to see these men and their representatives
+     sitting in the auction room, and poring, over their
+     catalogues. There are times when they must not be disturbed,
+     or spoken to. Great issues depend upon their utmost
+     attention. Not Izaak Walton, the many rare editions of whose
+     one great book they rapturously fish for, ever fished more
+     intently for trout and grayling than they for the beauties
+     of thought and of the printer's art.
+
+     "No idyls of the brook call your chronic book buyer to bask
+     in green meadows, and under cerulean skies while the auction
+     season lasts. The pine floor, the gaslight, and the voice of
+     the auctioneer hold him. His house may overflow with
+     thousands of unshelved volumes. Naught cares he. It is not
+     because he is short of reading that he buys. It is because
+     he is drawn by that fascinating, never-to-be-accounted-for,
+     and inexpressible ardor of the pursuit. I have a friend who
+     says he would rather attend a book auction than spend an
+     evening with the President, or with our greatest general, or
+     with a literary lion like Tennyson or Browning."
+
+
+
+
+SELECTING FOR A PUBLIC LIBRARY
+
+By Arthur E. Bostwick.
+
+
+In selecting books for a public library, the two things generally
+taken into account are the public desire and the public need. The
+different values attached to each of these two factors may be said to
+determine the policy of the library in book-buying. The extreme cases,
+where full force is given to one factor while the other is entirely
+disregarded, do not, of course, exist. Libraries do not purchase every
+book that is asked for, without considering whether such purchases are
+right and proper. Nor do they, on the other hand, disregard popular
+demand altogether and purchase from a list made up solely with regard
+to what the community ought to read rather than what it wants to read.
+Between these two extremes, however, there may be an indefinite number
+of means. A librarian may, for instance, purchase chiefly books in
+general demand, exercising judgment in disregarding such requests as
+he may deem improper. Or he may buy chiefly those books that in his
+opinion should be read in his community, listening to the voice of the
+public only when it becomes importunate. Several considerations may
+have part in influencing his course in this regard. In the first
+place, a library with plenty of money at command may in a measure
+follow both plans; in other words, it may buy not only all the good
+books that the public wants to read, but those also that it should
+read. The more limited the appropriation for book purchase, the more
+pressing becomes the need that the librarian should decide on a
+precise policy. Again, a library whose books are for general
+circulation would naturally give more heed to popular demand than a
+reference library used chiefly by students. Further, an endowed
+institution, not dependent on public support, could afford to
+disregard the public wishes to an extent impossible in the case of a
+library whose expenses are paid by the municipality from the proceeds
+of taxation. Above and beyond all these considerations, the personal
+equation comes in, sometimes very powerfully. It often seems as if
+some library authorities regard popular favor as an actual mark of
+discredit, while others look upon it almost as a condition precedent
+to purchase. Take, as an example, the so-called "fiction question,"
+over which most libraries, and some of their patrons, are at present
+more or less exercised. There can be no doubt of the popular regard
+for this form of literature, especially for the current novel or
+romance. Some libraries would sternly discourage this preference and
+refuse to purchase fiction less than one year old, while others do
+not hesitate to buy, within the limits of their purses, all such books
+as would be likely to interest or entertain the average reader of
+taste and intelligence. The views of the selector regarding the
+relative importance of the library's duties as an educator and an
+entertainer must also affect his views.
+
+It has been tacitly assumed that the selection is made by one person.
+As a matter of fact, however, the final approval is generally given by
+a book committee of some kind, usually a committee of the library
+trustees or persons responsible to them, often with the help of
+outside advisers. The weight of the librarian's views with this body
+will depend on various circumstances. Sometimes he has his own way;
+sometimes his wishes are practically disregarded. Moreover, the
+composition of such a body varies so that any continuous policy is
+difficult for it.
+
+Owing to all these facts, it is probable that no two libraries in the
+United States, even when they are closely related by classification,
+as when both are branch libraries for circulation, state libraries,
+public reference libraries, or university libraries, are pursuing
+exactly the same policy in book purchase, although, as has been said,
+their various policies are always compounded of different proportions
+of these two factors,--regard for the wishes and demands of their
+users, and consideration of what is right and proper for those users,
+from whatever standpoint. The stickler for uniformity will lament
+this diversity, but it is probably a good thing. In many libraries,
+there are as many minds as there are men, and it cannot be and ought
+not to be otherwise.
+
+Now, how does the person, or the body, that is responsible for the
+selection of books for a library ascertain the facts on which, as has
+been said, the selection must be based? It is usually not difficult to
+find out what the public wants. Its demands almost overwhelm the
+assistant at the desk. Some libraries provide special blank forms on
+which these requests may be noted. They are often capricious;
+sometimes they do not represent the dominant public wish. The voice of
+one insistent person asking for his book day after day may impress
+itself on the mind more forcibly than the many diffident murmurs of a
+considerable number. In libraries that possess a system of branches,
+there is little difficulty in recognizing a general public demand.
+Such a demand will be reported from a large number of branch libraries
+at once, in which case the chances of mistake will be small. In the
+New York Public Library many useful suggestions are gained through the
+operation of the inter-branch loan system, whereby a user of one
+branch may send for a book contained in any other branch. Books so
+asked for are reported at the central headquarters, and if they are
+not in the library at all, the request is regarded as a suggestion for
+purchase. Should such requests come from users of several branches at
+once, the desired book is very likely to be purchased. Often the
+demand is general rather than specific, as for "a book about the
+Caucasus" or for "more works on surveying," and sometimes they are
+vague or misleading, titles being wrong and authors' names spelled
+phonetically; yet the work made necessary in looking up these demands
+is more than repaid by the knowledge that it may result in making the
+library of more value to the public.
+
+In some cases the librarian desires not only to respond to the public
+want, but even to anticipate it. He does not wait to see whether a new
+book on Japan will be in demand, because he is sure that such will be
+the case. He does not hesitate to order a new book by Kipling or Mrs.
+Humphry Ward as soon as he sees its title in the publisher's
+announcements. The necessity for some other anticipatory orders may be
+less evident, and this kind of work requires good judgment and
+discrimination; but in general if a book is to be purchased on
+publication, it cannot be on the library shelves too soon after the
+date of issue. In any case, where it is desirable and proper to please
+the public, double pleasure can be given by promptness; hence the
+importance of being a little before, rather than a little behind, the
+popular desire.
+
+All this calls for little but quick and discriminating
+observation,--the ability to feel and read the public pulse in
+matters literary. It is in regard to the second and more important
+factor that failure waits most insistently on the librarian. What are
+the public's needs, as distinguished from its desires? What ought it
+to read? Here steps in the "categorical imperative" with a vengeance.
+The librarian, when he thinks of his duty along this line, begins to
+shudder as he realizes his responsibility as an educator, as a mentor,
+as a trainer of literary taste. Probably in some instances he takes
+himself too seriously. But, no matter how lightly he may bear these
+responsibilities, every selector of books for a public library
+realizes that he must give some consideration to this question. In the
+first place, there are general needs; there are certain standard books
+that must be on the shelves of every well-ordered library, no matter
+whether they are read or not. It is his business to provide and
+recommend them. What are these standards? No two lists are alike. They
+start together: "the Bible and Shakespeare"--and then off they go in
+divergent paths! Secondly, there are special needs dependent on
+locality or on the race or temperament of the users of a particular
+library. The determination of these needs in itself is a task of no
+small magnitude; their legitimate satisfaction is sometimes difficult
+in the extreme. To take a concrete instance, the librarian may
+discover that there is in his vicinity a little knot of people who
+meet occasionally to talk over current questions, not formally, but
+half by accident. They would be benefited, and would be greatly
+interested, in the right sort of books on economics, but they have
+scarcely heard that there is such a subject. That the public library
+might be interested in them and might aid them would never occur to
+any of them. The discovery of such people, the determination of just
+what books they need, and the successful bringing together of man and
+book--all these are the business of the librarian, and it is a part of
+his work that cannot be separated from that of book selection.
+
+In much of this work the librarian of a large library must depend to a
+great extent on others. Both the desires and the needs of those who
+use his library he must learn from the reports of subordinates and
+from outside friends. The librarian of a small library can ascertain
+much personally; but both librarians are largely dependent upon expert
+opinion in their final selections. After concluding that the library
+must have an especially full and good collection of books on pottery,
+the selector must go to some one who knows, to find out what are the
+best works on this subject. When there is a good list, he must know
+where to find it, or at least where to go to find out where it is. He
+must consult all the current publishers' lists as they appear, and
+scan each catalogue of bargains. His list of books wanted for purchase
+should far exceed his ability to buy, for then he must, perforce,
+exercise his judgment and pick out the best. If, after all, the
+collection of books in his library is not such as to meet the approval
+of the public, he must bow meekly under the weight of its scorn.
+
+The deluge of books that falls daily from the presses is almost past
+comprehension. The number of intelligent readers, thanks to the
+opportunities given by our public libraries, is increasing in due
+proportion. To select from the stream what is properly fitted to the
+demands of this rapidly growing host is a task not to be lightly
+performed. That the authorities of our libraries do not shrink from it
+is fortunate indeed; that the result is no worse than it is, is a fact
+on which the reading public must doubtless be congratulated.
+
+
+
+
+RARE AND SECOND-HAND BOOKS
+
+By Charles E. Goodspeed.
+
+
+Books are much more indestructible than is generally supposed.
+Furniture, clothing, and most of the appurtenances of the house
+disappear rapidly with time, but books, by the nature of their
+component material and construction, have a longer life. At least this
+may be said of books printed before the present era of paper making.
+Since the invention of printing in the fifteenth century, the product
+of the myriad presses, principally in Europe, has been enormous, and
+the output of books in the four hundred odd years of printing defies
+computation. While many have been destroyed by use, fire, or other
+agencies, an immense number exists at the present time, and their
+disposal, made necessary through death or the breaking up of
+households, is a matter of practical consideration. As it is usually
+impossible for the owner to find individual customers, the second-hand
+book-dealer becomes a necessity. The usefulness of the dealer to the
+community depends upon his honesty, intelligence, and industry; upon
+his honesty, in giving a fair price to the owner, on his intelligence
+in finding customers for books apart from general interest, and on
+his industry in so conducting his business that his stock may not
+become a mass of ill-assorted rubbish.
+
+The small collection of books in the ordinary household (averaging
+usually not over a few hundred volumes), contains, it is safe to say,
+a large percentage of no commercial value. The rest may be valued
+either for rarity, for the place which they may fill in some
+collection, or for the intrinsic excellence of the edition. Customers
+for the rarities are found amongst numerous collectors, and to a more
+limited extent in the large public libraries. Many individual buyers
+prefer the sterling editions printed on rag paper by the old masters
+of the craft to books of modern production, and so create a market for
+good old editions. Modern editions of standard authors are produced so
+cheaply, however, that an old edition will bring but a small price
+unless it has some distinguishing merit.
+
+These points should be borne in mind by those who have books to sell.
+They should remember, also, that the public is to-day no longer
+interested in many subjects on which books were printed in the past.
+It should also be known that the arts, the sciences, and the
+professions, have made such advances that old books on these subjects
+are of little more value than waste paper, excepting in the few
+notable cases of books which are of historical importance to the
+student as landmarks of progress. The omission of these works, of
+obsolete fiction, and the books of the hour, reduce the bulk of the
+ordinary collection to a small value.
+
+It may then properly be asked where the valuable books come from, and
+how are they obtained? It may safely be stated that most rarities
+to-day are discovered in out-of-the-way places, in old collections or
+libraries, attics, or from sources which have not been investigated by
+the keen-eyed collectors and dealers. There are comparatively few
+houses, at least in the most thickly settled parts of this country,
+which have no books, and in a considerable number of these collections
+there are at least some books which have a degree of rarity and a
+special commercial value. The large private libraries are also
+constantly being dispersed, and, excepting always the books which are
+being absorbed by the permanent collections of public institutions,
+form a constant supply, passing from the owner to dealer, from him to
+a new owner, only to find their way eventually to the market again.
+
+Books are not valuable merely because of age (excepting those printed
+in the fifteenth century), nor solely on account of their rarity. It
+is quite apparent that a rare book for which there is no demand can
+have no value. It is the combination of desirability and rarity which
+gives value, and that value fluctuates with the demand, being subject
+to the caprice of the collector or the fashion of the day. This may be
+illustrated by the collecting of first editions. Thirty years ago the
+first editions of modern authors brought small prices; twenty years
+later they were eagerly sought for; while now a reaction is taking
+place, and only the great rarities in this line find a ready sale.
+
+At the present time the books which are most quickly sold in this
+country are those relating to American history, particularly those on
+the discovery and settlement of the continent, the Indians, the
+American Revolution, navy, local history, and genealogy, etc. Books on
+these subjects which are really rare, find a ready sale.
+
+First editions of the early books in _belles-lettres_, books with
+presentation inscriptions from their authors, books containing unusual
+examples of early engravers, or those made famous by the illustrative
+work of such artists as Rowlandson, Leech, and Cruikshank; these are a
+few of the lines in which there are numerous collectors, but it should
+be understood that they are only a few of the more conspicuous out of
+hundreds of similar lines of interest. The number of collectors is
+multiplying with the increase of the country's wealth, and there is a
+growing tendency for collectors to take up new subjects, which very
+much broadens the interest in the books of bygone days. To enumerate
+these subjects at length would be but to detail the personal interests
+and hobbies of thousands of cultivated collectors. It may be safely
+prophesied that books which are regarded to-day as rare and desirable
+by any considerable number of collectors will, on the whole, command a
+steady increase in value. The tendency, however, is strongly toward a
+decrease in the value of books of moderate value and a large increase
+in the value of especially desirable items. The accounts given in the
+daily press of the finding of valuable books are the innocent means of
+misleading a great many people, who labor under the delusion that
+because one early edition of a book commands a large price, another
+edition of about the same time must necessarily have the same value.
+This is one of many errors which the public entertains regarding rare
+books. Not only does a few years' difference in the date of
+publication mean the difference between a large value and none at all,
+but often two editions, apparently the same, bearing identical
+title-pages, possess differences in text, which are known only to the
+expert, but which make a vast difference in their value. Books
+otherwise valuable, but containing material defects (such as lack of
+pages or portions of pages), are thereby very much reduced in value;
+in fact, the value of an imperfect book is usually but a small
+fraction of that of a perfect example. Not only do these grosser
+defects reduce the value, but it sometimes happens that the mere
+absence of a half title, or advertising leaves, or even the flyleaves,
+will make a considerable difference. Such points also as the size of
+the copy, whether it is in original binding or not, or, if rebound,
+whether the edges have been trimmed by the binder,--these all have an
+important bearing upon prices. As a rule, the nearer the book is to
+the original state in which it left the publisher's hands, the more
+valuable it will be.
+
+The art of the second-hand bookseller requires a knowledge of the
+science of bibliography, and painstaking attention to the details and
+orderly arrangement of stock, with a classification by subjects. Other
+things are desirable, but these are indispensable. The stock of
+second-hand books should be kept in such a manner that any book
+inquired for can be instantly located. Nothing is more irritating both
+to the dealer and to the customer than an unsuccessful search for a
+book known to be in stock. There are probably very few books which at
+some time will not be desired by some person; in fact, a large portion
+of the books in a dealer's stock would be instantly sold if he could
+understand the particular feature which would be of interest to the
+possible customer. Usually, the feature is there, and the customer
+exists. It is the bookseller's business to find both.
+
+There is no business in which a thorough knowledge of the stock and a
+painstaking attention to small details are of more importance than in
+the selling of books, and without them the second-hand bookseller's
+establishment degenerates to the level of the junk shop.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Building of a Book, by Various
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