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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895, by 
+Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895
+       Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
+       Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
+       1895-1896, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1898,
+       pages 519-744
+
+Author: Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2007 [EBook #23691]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Carlo
+Traverso, Diane Monico, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by the
+Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895
+
+BY
+
+JESSE WALTER FEWKES
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                    Page
+Introductory note                                    527
+Plan of the expedition                               529
+Ruins in Verde valley                                536
+  Classification of the ruins                        536
+  Cavate dwellings                                   537
+  Montezuma Well                                     546
+  Cliff houses of the Red-rocks                      548
+  Ruins near Schürmann's ranch                       550
+  Palatki                                            553
+  Honanki                                            558
+  Objects found at Palatki and Honanki               569
+  Conclusions regarding the Verde valley ruins       573
+Ruins in Tusayan                                     577
+  General features                                   577
+  The Middle Mesa ruins                              582
+    Shuñopovi                                        582
+    Mishoñinovi                                      582
+    Chukubi                                          583
+    Payüpki                                          583
+  The East Mesa ruins                                585
+    Küchaptüvela and Kisakobi                        585
+    Küküchomo                                        586
+    Kachinba                                         589
+    Tukinobi                                         589
+  Jeditoh valley ruins                               589
+  Awatobi                                            592
+    Characteristics of the ruin                      592
+    Nomenclature of Awatobi                          594
+    Historical knowledge of Awatobi                  595
+    Legend of the destruction of Awatobi             603
+    Evidences of fire in the destruction             606
+    The ruins of the mission                         606
+    The kivas of Awatobi                             611
+    Old Awatobi                                      614
+    Rooms of the western mound                       614
+    Smaller Awatobi                                  617
+    Mortuary remains                                 617
+    Shrines                                          619
+    Pottery                                          621
+    Stone implements                                 625
+    Bone objects                                     627
+    Miscellaneous objects                            628
+      Ornaments in the form of birds and shells      628
+      Clay bell                                      628
+      Textile fabrics                                629
+      Prayer-sticks--Pigments                        630
+      Objects showing Spanish influence              631
+  The ruins of Sikyatki                              631
+    Traditional knowledge of the pueblo              631
+    Nomenclature                                     636
+    Former inhabitants of Sikyatki                   636
+    General features                                 637
+    The acropolis                                    643
+    Modern gardens                                   646
+    The cemeteries                                   646
+    Pottery                                          650
+      Characteristics--Mortuary pottery              650
+      Coiled and indented ware                       651
+      Smooth undecorated ware                        652
+      Polished decorated ware                        652
+    Paleography of the pottery                       657
+      General features                               657
+      Human figures                                  660
+      The human hand                                 666
+      Quadrupeds                                     668
+      Reptiles                                       671
+      Tadpoles                                       677
+      Butterflies or moths                           678
+      Dragon-flies                                   680
+      Birds                                          682
+      Vegetal designs                                698
+      The sun                                        699
+      Geometric figures                              701
+        Interpretation of the figures                701
+        Crosses                                      702
+        Terraced figures                             703
+        The crook                                    703
+        The germinative symbol                       704
+        Broken lines                                 704
+      Decorations on the exterior of food bowls      705
+    Pigments                                         728
+    Stone objects                                    729
+    Obsidian                                         732
+    Necklaces, gorgets, and other ornaments          733
+    Tobacco pipes                                    733
+    Prayer-sticks                                    736
+    Marine shells and other objects                  739
+    Perishable contents of mortuary food bowls       741
+FOOTNOTES
+APPENDIX                                             743
+INDEX                                                745
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PLATE                                                             Page
+XCI_a_.   Cavate dwellings--Rio Verde                              537
+XCI_b_.   Cavate dwellings--Oak creek                              539
+XCII.     Entrances to cavate ruins                                541
+XCIII.    Bowlder with pictographs near Wood's ranch               545
+XCIV.     Montezuma Well                                           547
+XCV.      Cliff house, Montezuma Well                              549
+XCVI.     Ruin on the brink of Montezuma Well                      551
+XCVII.    Pictographs near Cliff ranch, Verde valley               553
+XCVIII.   The Red-rocks; Temple canyon                             555
+XCIX.     Palatki (Ruin I)                                         557
+C.        Palatki (Ruin I)                                         559
+CI.       Front wall of Palatki (Ruin II)                          561
+CII       Honanki (Ruin II)                                        563
+CIII.     Walls of Honanki                                         565
+CIV.      Approach to main part of Honanki                         567
+CV.       Map of the ruins of Tusayan                              583
+CVI.      The ruins of Küküchomo                                   587
+CVII.     Ground plan of Awatobi                                   603
+CVIII.    Ruins of San Bernardino de Awatobi                       607
+CIX.      Excavations in the western mound of Awatobi              615
+CX.       Excavated room in the western mound of Awatobi           617
+CXI.      Vase and mugs from the western mounds of Awatobi         618
+CXII.     Paint pots, vase, and dipper from Awatobi                620
+CXIII.    Pottery from intramural burial at Awatobi                622
+CXIV.     Bone implements from Awatobi and Sikyatki                626
+CXV.      Sikyatki mounds from the Kanelba trail                   637
+CXVI.     Ground plan of Sikyatki                                  639
+CXVII.    Excavated rooms on the acropolis of Sikyatki             643
+CXVIII.   Plan of excavated rooms on the acropolis of Sikyatki     644
+CXIX.     Coiled and indented pottery from Sikyatki                650
+CXX.      Saucers and slipper bowls from Sikyatki                  652
+CXXI.     Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          654
+CXXII.    Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          654
+CXXIII.   Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          657
+CXXIV.    Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          660
+CXXV.     Flat dippers and medicine box from Sikyatki              662
+CXXVI.    Double-lobe vases from Sikyatki                          664
+CXXVII.   Unusual forms of vases from Sikyatki                     666
+CXXVIII.  Medicine box and pigment pots from Sikyatki              668
+CXXIX.    Designs on food bowls from Sikyatki                      670
+CXXX.     Food bowls with figures of quadrupeds from Sikyatki      672
+CXXXI.    Ornamented ladles from Sikyatki                          674
+CXXXII.   Food bowls with figures of reptiles from Sikyatki        676
+CXXXIII.  Bowls and dippers with figures of tadpoles, birds,
+            etc., from Sikyatki                                    676
+CXXXIV.   Food bowls with figures of sun, butterfly, and flower,
+            from Sikyatki                                          676
+CXXXV.    Vases with figures of butterflies from Sikyatki          678
+CXXXVI.   Vases with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki   678
+CXXXVII.  Vessels with figures of human hand, birds, turtle,
+            etc., from Sikyatki                                    680
+CXXXVIII. Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki           682
+CXXXIX.   Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki           684
+CXL.      Figures of birds from Sikyatki                           686
+CXLI.     Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               688
+CXLII.    Vases, bowls, and ladle with figures of feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               688
+CXLIII.   Vase with figures of birds from Sikyatki                 690
+CXLIV.    Vase with figures of birds from Sikyatki                 690
+CXLV.     Vases with figures of birds from Sikyatki                690
+CXLVI.    Bowls and potsherd with figures of birds from Sikyatki   692
+CXLVII.   Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki           692
+CXLVIII.  Food bowls with symbols of feathers from Sikyatki        694
+CXLIX.    Food bowls with symbols of feathers from Sikyatki        694
+CL.       Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki              696
+CLI.      Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki              696
+CLII.     Food bowls with bird, feather, and flower symbols from
+            Sikyatki                                               698
+CLIII.    Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               698
+CLIV.     Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               700
+CLV.      Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               700
+CLVI.     Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               700
+CLVII.    Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki              702
+CLVIII.   Food bowls with figures of sun and related symbols
+            from Sikyatki                                          702
+CLIX.     Cross and related designs from Sikyatki                  704
+CLX.      Cross and other symbols from Sikyatki                    704
+CLXI.     Star, sun, and related symbols from Sikyatki             704
+CLXII.    Geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki                    706
+CLXIII.   Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki    708
+CLXIV.    Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki    710
+CLXV.     Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki    714
+CLXVI.    Linear figures on food bowls from Sikyatki               718
+CLXVII.   Geometric ornamentation from Awatobi                     722
+CLXVIII.  Geometric ornamentation from Awatobi                     726
+CLXIX.    Arrowshaft smoothers, selenite, and symbolic corn from
+            Sikyatki                                               728
+CLXX.     Corn grinder from Sikyatki                               730
+CLXXI.    Stone implements from Palatki, Awatobi, and Sikyatki     732
+CLXXII.   Paint grinder, fetish, lignite, and kaolin disks from
+            Sikyatki                                               734
+CLXXIII.  Pipes, bell, clay birds, and shells from Awatobi and
+            Sikyatki                                               736
+CLXXIV.   Pahos or prayer-sticks from Sikyatki                     738
+CLXXV.    Pahos or prayer-sticks from Sikyatki                     738
+
+FIGURE
+245.      Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde                     540
+246.      Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek                           552
+247.      Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins I and II)                  554
+248.      Ground plan of Honanki                                   559
+249.      The main ruin of Honanki                                 562
+250.      Structure of wall of Honanki                             564
+251.      Stone implement from Honanki                             571
+252.      Tinder tube from Honanki                                 572
+253.      Küküchomo                                                587
+254.      Defensive wall on the East Mesa                          588
+255.      Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi                 608
+256.      Structure of house wall of Awatobi                       615
+257.      Alosaka shrine at Awatobi                                620
+258.      Shrine at Awatobi                                        621
+259.      Shrine at Awatobi                                        621
+260.      Shrine at Awatobi                                        621
+261.      Clay bell from Awatobi                                   629
+262.      The acropolis of Sikyatki                                644
+263.      War god shooting an animal (fragment of food bowl)       665
+264.      Mountain sheep                                           669
+265.      Mountain lion                                            670
+266.      Plumed serpent                                           672
+267.      Unknown reptile                                          674
+268.      Unknown reptile                                          675
+269.      Unknown reptile                                          676
+270.      Outline of plate CXXXV, _b_                              678
+271.      Butterfly design on upper surface of plate CXXXV, _b_    679
+272.      Man-eagle                                                683
+273.      Pendent feather ornaments on a vase                      690
+274.      Upper surface of vase with bird decoration               691
+275.      Kwataka eating an animal                                 692
+276.      Decoration on the bottom of plate CXLVI, _f_             694
+277.      Oblique parallel line decoration                         706
+278.      Parallel lines fused at one point                        706
+279.      Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement                   706
+280.      Parallel lines connected by middle bar                   707
+281.      Parallel lines of different width; serrate margin        707
+282.      Parallel lines of different width; median serrate        707
+283.      Parallel lines of different width; marginal serrate      707
+284.      Parallel lines and triangles                             708
+285.      Line with alternate triangles                            708
+286.      Single line with alternate spurs                         708
+287.      Single line with hourglass figures                       708
+288.      Single line with triangles                               709
+289.      Single line with alternate triangles and ovals           709
+290.      Triangles and quadrilaterals                             709
+291.      Triangle with spurs                                      709
+292.      Rectangle with single line                               709
+293.      Double triangle; multiple lines                          710
+294.      Double triangle; terraced edges                          710
+295.      Single line; closed fret                                 710
+296.      Single line; open fret                                   711
+297.      Single line; broken fret                                 711
+298.      Single line; parts displaced                             711
+299.      Open fret; attachment displaced                          711
+300.      Simple rectangular design                                711
+301.      Rectangular S-form                                       712
+302.      Rectangular S-form with crooks                           712
+303.      Rectangular S-form with triangles                        712
+304.      Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles               712
+305.      S-form with interdigitating spurs                        713
+306.      Square with rectangles and parallel lines                713
+307.      Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers               713
+308.      Crook, feathers, and parallel lines                      713
+309.      Crooks and feathers                                      714
+310.      Rectangle, triangles, and feathers                       714
+311.      Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers                   714
+312.      Double key                                               715
+313.      Triangular terrace                                       715
+314.      Crook, serrate end                                       715
+315.      Key pattern; rectangle and triangles                     716
+316.      Rectangle and crook                                      716
+317.      Crook and tail-feathers                                  716
+318.      Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs                   717
+319.      W-pattern; terminal crooks                               717
+320.      W-pattern; terminal rectangles                           717
+321.      W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks                  718
+322.      W-pattern; terminal spurs                                718
+323.      W-pattern; bird form                                     719
+324.      W-pattern; median triangle                               719
+325.      Double triangle; two breath feathers                     720
+326.      Double triangle; median trapezoid                        720
+327.      Double triangle; median rectangle                        720
+328.      Double compound triangle; median rectangle               720
+329.      Double triangle; median triangle                         721
+330.      Double compound triangle                                 721
+331.      Double rectangle; median rectangle                       721
+332.      Double rectangle; median triangle                        721
+333.      Double triangle with crooks                              722
+334.      W-shape figure; single line with feathers                722
+335.      Compound rectangles, triangles, and feathers             722
+336.      Double triangle                                          722
+337.      Double triangle and feathers                             723
+338.      Twin triangles                                           723
+339.      Triangle with terraced appendages                        723
+340.      Mosaic pattern                                           723
+341.      Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel lines            724
+342.      Continuous crooks                                        724
+343.      Rectangular terrace pattern                              724
+344.      Terrace pattern with parallel lines                      725
+345.      Terrace pattern                                          725
+346.      Triangular pattern with feathers                         725
+347.      S-pattern                                                726
+348.      Triangular and terrace figures                           726
+349.      Crook, terrace, and parallel lines                       726
+350.      Triangles, squares, and terraces                         726
+351.      Bifurcated rectangular design                            727
+352.      Lines of life and triangles                              727
+353.      Infolded triangles                                       727
+354.      Human hand                                               728
+355.      Animal paw, limb, and triangle                           728
+356.      Kaolin disk                                              729
+357.      Mortuary prayer-stick                                    736
+
+
+
+
+ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895
+
+By JESSE WALTER FEWKES
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+
+About the close of May, 1895, I was invited to make a collection of
+objects for the National Museum, illustrating the archeology of the
+Southwest, especially that phase of pueblo life pertaining to the
+so-called cliff houses. I was specially urged to make as large a
+collection as possible, and the choice of locality was generously left
+to my discretion.
+
+Leaving Washington on the 25th of May, I obtained a collection and
+returned with it to that city on the 15th of September, having spent
+three months in the field. The material brought back by the expedition
+was catalogued under 966 entries, numbering somewhat over a thousand
+specimens. The majority of these objects are fine examples of mortuary
+pottery of excellent character, fully 500 of which are decorated.
+
+I was particularly fortunate in my scientific collaborators. Mr F. W.
+Hodge, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, joined me at Sikyatki, and
+remained with the expedition until it disbanded, at the close of
+August. Much of my success in the work at that ruin was due to his
+advice and aid. He was constantly at the excavations, and the majority
+of the beautiful specimens were taken out of the graves by him. It is
+with the greatest pleasure that I am permitted to express my
+appreciation of his assistance in my archeological investigations at
+Sikyatki. Mr G. P. Winship, now librarian of the John Carter Brown
+Library at Providence, visited our camp at the ruin mentioned, and
+remained with us a few weeks, rendering important aid and adding an
+enthusiastic student to our number. Mr James S. Judd was a volunteer
+assistant while we were at Sikyatki, aiding me in many ways,
+especially in the management of our camp. I need only to refer to the
+beautiful drawings which accompany this memoir to show how much I am
+indebted to Mrs Hodge for faithful colored figures of the remarkable
+pottery uncovered from the Tusayan sands. My party included Mr S.
+Goddard, of Prescott, Arizona, who served as cook and driver, and Mr
+Erwin Baer, of the same city, as photographer. The manual work at the
+ruins was done by a number of young Indians from the East Mesa, who
+very properly were employed on the Moki reservation. An all too
+prevalent and often unjust criticism that Indians will not work if
+paid for their labor, was not voiced by any of our party. They gave
+many a weary hour's labor in the hot sun, in their enthusiasm to make
+the collection as large as possible.
+
+On my return to Washington I was invited to prepare a preliminary
+account of my work in the field, which the Secretary of the
+Smithsonian Institution did me the honor to publish in his report for
+1895. This report was of a very general character, and from necessity
+limited in pages; consequently it presented only the more salient
+features of my explorations.
+
+The following account was prepared as a more exhaustive discussion of
+the results of my summer's work. The memoir is much more extended than
+I had expected to make it when I accepted the invitation to collect
+archeological objects for the Museum, and betrays, I fear,
+imperfections due to the limited time spent in the field. The main
+object of the expedition was a collection of specimens, the majority
+of which, now on exhibition in the National Museum, tell their own
+story regarding its success.
+
+I am under deep obligations to the officers of the Smithsonian
+Institution, the National Museum, and the Bureau of American Ethnology
+for many kindnesses, and wish especially to express my thanks to Mr S.
+P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for the
+opportunity to study the ancient ruins of Tusayan. Nothing had a
+greater influence on my final decision to abandon other congenial work
+and undertake this, than my profound respect for the late Dr G. Brown
+Goode, who suggested the expedition to me and urged me to plan and
+undertake it.
+
+                           JESSE WALTER FEWKES.
+
+_Washington, May, 1897._
+
+
+
+
+PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION
+
+
+It seemed to me in making a plan for archeological field work in 1895,
+that the prehistoric cliff houses, cave dwellings, and ruined pueblos
+of Arizona afforded valuable opportunities for research, and past
+experience induced me to turn my steps more especially to the northern
+and northeastern parts of the territory.[1] The ruins of ancient
+habitations in these regions had been partially, and, I believe,
+unsatisfactorily explored, especially those in a limited area called
+Tusayan, now inhabited by the Moki or Hopi Indians. These agricultural
+people claim to be descendants of those who once lived in the now
+deserted villages of that province.
+
+I had some knowledge of the ethnology of the Hopi, derived from
+several summers' field work among them, and I believed this
+information could be successfully utilized in an attempt to solve
+certain archeological questions which presented themselves.[2] I
+desired, among other things, to obtain new information on the former
+extension, in one direction, of the ancestral abodes of certain clans
+of the sedentary people of Tusayan which are now limited to six
+pueblos in the northeastern part of the territory. In carrying out
+this general plan I made an examination of cliff dwellings and other
+ruins in Verde valley, and undertook an exploration of two old pueblos
+near the Hopi villages. The reason which determined my choice of the
+former as a field for investigation was a wish to obtain archeological
+data bearing on certain Tusayan traditions. It is claimed by the
+traditionists of Walpi, especially those of the Patki[3] or
+Water-house phratry, that their ancestors came from a land far to the
+south of Tusayan, to which they give the name Palatkwabi. The
+situation of this mythic place is a matter of considerable conjecture,
+but it was thought that an archeological examination of the country at
+or near the headwaters of the Rio Verde and its tributaries might shed
+light on this tradition.
+
+It is not claimed, however, that all the ancestors of the Tusayan
+people migrated from the south, nor do I believe that those who came
+from that direction necessarily passed through Verde valley. Some, no
+doubt, came from Tonto Basin, but I believe it can be shown that a
+continuous line of ruins, similar in details of architecture, extend
+along this river from its junction with Salt river to well-established
+prehistoric dwelling places of the Hopi people. Similar lines may
+likewise be traced along other northern tributaries of the Salt or the
+Gila, which may be found to indicate early migration stages.
+
+The ruins of Verde valley were discovered in 1854 by Antoine Leroux, a
+celebrated guide and trapper of his time, and were thus described by
+Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner in the following year:
+
+     The river banks were covered with ruins of stone houses and
+     regular fortifications; which, he [Leroux] says, appeared to
+     have been the work of civilized men, but had not been
+     occupied for centuries. They were built upon the most
+     fertile tracts of the valley, where were signs of acequias
+     and of cultivation. The walls were of solid masonry, of
+     rectangular form, some twenty or thirty paces in length, and
+     yet remaining ten or fifteen feet in height. The buildings
+     were of two stories, with small apertures or loopholes for
+     defence when besieged.... In other respects, however, Leroux
+     says that they reminded him of the great pueblos of the
+     Moquinos.[4]
+
+A fragment of folklore, which is widely distributed among both the
+aboriginal peoples of Gila valley and the modern Tusayan Indians,
+recounts how the latter were at one time in communication with the
+people of the south, and traditions of both distinctly connect the
+sedentary people of Tusayan with those who formerly inhabited the
+great pueblos, now in ruins, dotting the plain in the delta between
+Gila and Salt rivers. That archeology might give valuable information
+on this question had long been my conviction, and was the main
+influence which led me to the studies recorded in the following pages.
+
+An examination of a map of Arizona will show that one of the pathways
+or feasible routes of travel possible to have been used in any
+connection between the pueblos of the Gila and those of northern
+Arizona would naturally be along Rio Verde valley. Its tributaries
+rise at the foot of San Francisco mountains, and the main river
+empties into the Salt, traversing from north to south a comparatively
+fertile valley, in the main advantageous for the subsistence of
+semisedentary bands in their migrations. Here was a natural highway
+leading from the Gila pueblos, now in ruins, to the former villages in
+the north.
+
+The study of the archeology of Verde valley had gone far enough to
+show that the banks of the river were formerly the sites of many and
+populous pueblos, while the neighboring mesas from one end to another
+are riddled with cavate dwellings or crowned with stone buildings.
+Northward from that famous crater-like depression in the Verde region,
+the so-called Montezuma Well on Beaver creek, one of the affluents of
+the Rio Verde, little archeological exploration had been attempted.
+There was, in other words, a break in the almost continuous series of
+ruins from Tusayan as far south as the Gila. Ruined towns had been
+reported as existing not far southward from San Francisco
+mountains,[5] and from there by easy stages the abodes of a former
+race had been detected at intervals all the way to the Tusayan
+pueblos. At either end the chain of ruins between the Tusayan towns
+and the Gila ruins was unbroken, but middle links were wanting. All
+conditions imply former habitations in this untrodden hiatus, the
+region between the Verde and the Tusayan series, ending near the
+present town of Flagstaff, Arizona; but southward from that town the
+country was broken and impassable, a land where the foot of the
+archeologist had not trodden. Remains of human habitations had,
+however, been reported by ranchmen, but these reports were vague and
+unsatisfactory. So far as they went they confirmed my suspicions, and
+there were other significant facts looking the same way. The color of
+the red cliffs fulfilled the Tusayan tradition of Palatkwabi, or their
+former home in the far south. Led by all these considerations, before
+I took to the field I had long been convinced that this must have been
+one of the homes of certain Hopi clans, and when the occasion
+presented itself I determined to follow the northward extension of the
+ancient people of the Verde into these rugged rocks. By my discoveries
+in this region of ruins indicative of dwellings of great size in
+ancient times I have supplied the missing links in the chain of
+ancient dwellings extending from the great towns of the Gila to the
+ruins west of the modern Tusayan towns. If this line of ruins,
+continuous from Gila valley to Tusayan and beyond, be taken in
+connection with legends ascribing Casa Grande to the Hopi and those of
+certain Tusayan clans which tell of the homes of their ancestors in
+the south, a plausible explanation is offered for the many
+similarities between two apparently widely different peoples, and the
+theory of a kinship between southern and northern sedentary tribes of
+Arizona does not seem as unlikely as it might otherwise appear.
+
+The reader will notice that I accept without question the belief that
+the so-called cliff dwellers were not a distinct people, but a
+specially adaptive condition of life of a race whose place of
+habitation was determined by its environment. We are considering a
+people who sometimes built dwellings in caverns and sometimes in the
+plains, but often in both places at the same epoch. Moreover, as long
+ago pointed out by other students, the existing Pueblo Indians are
+descendants of a people who at times lived in cliffs, and some of the
+Tusayan clans have inhabited true cliff houses in the historic period.
+By intermarriage with nomadic races and from other causes the
+character of Pueblo consanguinity is no doubt somewhat different from
+that of their ancient kin, but the character of the culture, as shown
+by a comparison of cliff-house and modern objects, has not greatly
+changed.
+
+While recognizing the kinship of the Pueblos and the Cliff villagers,
+this resemblance is not restricted to any one pueblo or group of
+modern pueblos to the exclusion of others. Of all modern
+differentiations of this ancient substratum of culture of which cliff
+villages are one adaptive expression, the Tusayan Indians are the
+nearest of all existing people of the Southwest[6] to the ancient
+people of Arizona.
+
+The more southerly ruins of Tusayan, which I have been able
+satisfactorily to identify and to designate by a Hopi name, are those
+called Homolobi, situated not far from Winslow, Arizona, near where
+the railroad crosses the Little Colorado. These ruins are claimed by
+the Hopi as the former residences of their ancestors, and were halting
+places in the migration of certain clans from the south. They were
+examined by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+in 1893,[7] but no report on them has yet been published.
+
+While, however, the Homolobi group of ruins is the most southerly to
+which I have been able to affix a Hopi name, others still more to the
+southward are claimed by certain of their traditions.[8] The Hopi
+likewise regard as homes of their ancestors certain habitations, now
+in ruins, near San Francisco mountains. In a report on his exploration
+of Zuñi and Little Colorado rivers in 1852, Captain L. Sitgreaves
+called attention to several interesting ruins, one of which was not
+far from the "cascades" of the latter river. After ascending the
+plateau, which he found covered with volcanic detritus, he discovered
+that "all the prominent points" were "occupied by the ruins of stone
+houses, which were in some instances three stories in height. They are
+evidently," he says, "the remains of a large town, as they occurred at
+intervals for an extent of eight or nine miles, and the ground was
+thickly strewn with fragments of pottery in all directions."
+
+In 1884 a portion of Colonel James Stevenson's expedition, under F. D.
+Bickford, examined the cliff houses in Walnut canyon, and in 1886
+Major J. W. Powell and Colonel Stevenson found scattered ruins north
+of San Francisco mountains having one, two, or three rooms, each
+"built of basaltic cinders and blocks of lava." These explorers
+likewise reported ruins of extensive dwellings in the same region
+made of sandstone and limestone. At about 25 miles north of the
+mountains mentioned they discovered a small volcanic cone of cinders
+and basalt, which was formerly the site of a village or pueblo built
+around a crater, and estimated that this little pueblo contained 60 or
+70 rooms, with a plaza occupying one-third of an acre of surface.[9]
+
+Twelve miles eastward from San Francisco mountains they found another
+cinder cone resembling a dome, and on its southern slope, in a
+coherent cinder mass, were many chambers, of which one hundred and
+fifty are said to have been excavated. They mention the existence on
+the summit of this cone of a plaza inclosed by a rude wall of volcanic
+cinders, with a carefully leveled floor. The former inhabitants of
+these rooms apparently lived in underground chambers hewn from the
+volcanic formation. Eighteen miles farther eastward was another ruined
+village built about the crater of a volcanic cone. Several villages
+were discovered in this locality and many natural caves which had been
+utilized as dwellings by inclosing them in front with walls of
+volcanic rocks and cinders. These cavate rooms were arranged tier
+above tier in a very irregular way.
+
+At this place three distinct kinds of ruins were found--cliff
+villages, cave dwellings, and pueblos. Eight miles southeastward from
+Flagstaff, in Oak creek canyon, a cliff house of several hundred rooms
+was discovered. It was concluded that all these ruins were abandoned
+at a comparatively recent date, or not more than three or four
+centuries ago, and the Havasupai Indians of Cataract canyon were
+regarded as descendants of the former inhabitants of these villages.
+The situation of some of these ruins and the published descriptions
+would indicate that some of them were similar to those described and
+figured by Sitgreaves,[10] to which reference has already been made.
+
+In 1896 two amateur explorers, George Campbell and Everett Howell, of
+Flagstaff, reported that they had found, about eighteen miles from
+that place, several well-preserved cliff towns and a remarkable tunnel
+excavation. The whole region in the immediate neighborhood of San
+Francisco mountains appears, therefore, to have been populated in
+ancient times by an agricultural people, and legends ascribe some of
+these ruins to ancestors of the Hopi Indians.
+
+There are several ruins due south of Tusayan which have not been
+investigated, but which would furnish important contributions to a
+study of Hopi migrations. Near Saint Johns, Arizona, likewise, there
+are ruins of considerable size, possibly referable to the Cibolan
+series; and south of Holbrook, which lies about due south of Walpi,
+there are ruins, the pottery from which I have examined and found to
+be of the black-and-white ware typical of the Cliff people. Perhaps,
+however, no ruined pueblo presents more interesting problems than the
+magnificent Pueblo Grande or Kintiel, about 20 miles north of Navaho
+Springs. This large ruin, lying between the Cibolan and Tusayan
+groups, has been referred to both of these provinces, and would, if
+properly excavated, shed much light on the archeology of the two
+provinces.[11] Kinnazinde lies not far from Kintiel.
+
+The ruins reported from Tonto Basin, of which little is known, may
+later be found to be connected with early migrations of those Hopi
+clans which claim southern origin. From what I can judge by the
+present appearance of ruins just north of the Mogollon mountains, in a
+direct line between Tonto Basin and the present Tusayan towns, there
+is nothing to show the age of these ruined villages, and it is quite
+likely that they may have been inhabited in the middle of the
+sixteenth century. While it is commonly agreed that the province of
+"Totonteac," which figures extensively in certain early Spanish
+narratives, was the same as Tusayan, the linguistic similarity of the
+word to "tonto" has been suggested by others. In the troublesome years
+between 1860 and 1870 the Hopi, decimated by disease and harried by
+nomads, sent delegates to Prescott asking to be removed to Tonto
+Basin, and it is not improbable that in making this reasonable request
+they simply wished to return to a place which they associated with
+their ancestors, who had been driven out by the Apache. Totonteac[12]
+is ordinarily thought to be the same as Tusayan, but it may have
+included some of the southern pueblos now in ruins west of Zuñi.
+
+Having determined that the line of Verde ruins was continued into the
+Red-rock country, it was desirable to see how the latter compared with
+those nearer Tusayan. This necessitated reexamination of many ruins in
+Verde valley, which was my aim during the most of June. I followed
+this valley from the cavate dwellings near Squaw mountain past the
+great ruin in the neighborhood of Old Camp Verde, the unique Montezuma
+Well, to the base of the Red-rocks. Throughout this region I saw, as
+had been expected, no change in the character of the ruins great
+enough to indicate that they originally were inhabited by peoples
+racially different. Stopped from further advance by a barrier of
+rugged cliffs, I turned westward along their base until I found
+similar ruins, which were named Palatki and Honanki. Having satisfied
+myself that there was good evidence that the numbers of ancient
+people were as great here as at any point in the Verde valley and that
+their culture was similar, I continued the work with an examination of
+the ruins north of the Red-rocks, where there is substantial evidence
+that these were likewise of the same general character.
+
+The last two months of the summer, July and August, 1895, were devoted
+to explorations of two Tusayan ruins, called Awatobi and Sikyatki. In
+this work, apparently unconnected with that already outlined, I still
+had in mind the light to be shed on the problem of Tusayan origin. The
+question which presented itself was: How are these ruins related to
+the modern pueblos? Awatobi was a historic ruin, destroyed in 1700,
+and therefore somewhat influenced by the Spaniards. Many of the
+survivors became amalgamated with pueblos still inhabited. Its kinship
+with the surviving villagers was clear. Sikyatki, however, was
+overthrown in prehistoric times, and at its destruction part of its
+people went to Awatobi. Its culture was prehistoric. The discovery of
+what these two ruins teach, by bringing prehistoric Tusayan culture
+down to the present time and comparing them with the ruins of Verde
+valley and southern Arizona, is of great archeological interest.
+
+While engaged in preparing this report, having in fact written most of
+it, I received Mr Cosmos Mindeleff's valuable article on the Verde
+ruins,[13] in which special attention is given to the cavate lodges
+and villages of this interesting valley. This contribution anticipates
+many of my observations on these two groups of aboriginal habitations,
+and renders it unnecessary to describe them in the detailed manner I
+had planned. I shall therefore touch but briefly on these ruins,
+paying special attention to the cliff houses of Verde valley, situated
+in the Red-rock country. This variety of dwelling was overlooked in
+both Mearns' and Mindeleff's classifications, from the fact that it
+seems to be confined to the region of the valley characterized by the
+red-rock formation, which appears not to have been explored by them.
+The close resemblance of these cliff houses to those of the region
+north of Tusayan is instructive, in view of the ground, well taken, I
+believe, by Mr Mindeleff, that there is a close likeness between the
+Verde ruins and those farther north, especially in Tusayan.
+
+
+
+
+RUINS IN VERDE VALLEY
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE RUINS
+
+
+The ruined habitations in the valley of the Rio Verde may be
+considered under three divisions or types, differing in form, but
+essentially the same in character. In adopting this classification,
+which is by no means restricted to this single valley, I do not claim
+originality, but follow that used by the best writers on this subject.
+My limitation of the types and general definitions may, however, be
+found to differ somewhat from those of my predecessors.
+
+The three groups of ruins in our Southwest are the following:
+
+  I--Pueblos, or Independent habitations.
+ II--Cliff Houses        }
+III--Cavate Dwellings    } Dependent habitations.
+
+In the first group are placed those ancient or modern habitations
+which are isolated, on all sides, from cliffs. They may be situated in
+valleys or on elevations or mesas; they may be constructed of clay,
+adobe, or stone of various kinds, but are always isolated from cliffs.
+They are single or multiple chambered, circular or rectangular in
+shape, and may have been built either as permanent habitations or as
+temporary outlooks. Their main feature is freedom, on all sides except
+the foundation, from cliffs or walls of rock in place.
+
+The second group includes those not isolated from natural cliffs, but
+with some part of their lateral walls formed by natural rock in situ,
+and are built ordinarily in caverns with overhanging roofs, which the
+highest courses of their walls do not join. Generally erected in
+caves, their front walls never close the entrances to those caverns.
+This kind of aboriginal buildings may, like the former, vary in
+structural material; but, so far as I know, they are not, for obvious
+reasons, made of adobe alone.
+
+The third kind of pueblo dwellings are called cavate dwellings or
+lodges, a group which includes that peculiar kind of aboriginal
+dwelling where the rooms are excavated from the cliff wall, forming
+caves, where natural rock is a support or more often serves as the
+wall itself of the dwelling. The entrance may be partially closed by
+masonry, the floor laid with flat stones, and the sides plastered with
+clay; but never in this group is there a roof distinct from the top of
+the cave.
+
+Naturally cavate dwellings grade into cliff houses, but neither of
+these types can be confounded with the first group, which affords us
+no difficulty in identification. All these kinds of dwellings were
+made by people of the same culture, the character of the habitation
+depending on geological environment.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCI^_a_
+
+CAVATE DWELLINGS--RIO VERDE]
+
+In Verde valley, villages, cliff houses, and cavate dwellings exist
+together, and were, I believe, contemporaneously inhabited by a people
+of the same culture.
+
+These types of ancient habitations are not believed to stand in the
+relationship of sequence in development; nor is one simpler or less
+difficult of construction than the others. Cliff houses display no
+less skill and daring than do the villages in the plain, called
+pueblos. The cavate dwellings are likewise a form of habitation which
+shows considerable workmanship, and are far from caves like those
+inhabited by "cave men." These dwellings were laboriously excavated
+with rude implements; had floors, banquettes, windows, walled
+recesses, and the like. It is hardly proper to regard them, as less
+difficult to construct than pueblos or cliff houses.
+
+Cavate dwellings, like villages or cliff houses, may be single or
+multiple, single or many chambered, and a cluster of these troglodytic
+dwellings was, in fact, as truly a village as a pueblo or cliff house.
+The same principle of seeking safety by crowding together held in all
+three instances; and this very naturally, for the culture of the
+inhabitants was identical. I shall consider only two of the three
+types of dwellings in Verde valley, namely, the second and third
+groups.
+
+It has, I think, been conclusively shown by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, so
+far as types of the first group of ruins on the Verde are concerned,
+that they practically do not differ from the modern Tusayan pueblos.
+The remaining types, when rightly interpreted, furnish evidence of no
+less important character. Notwithstanding Mindeleff's excellent
+descriptions of the cavate dwellings of this region, already cited, I
+have thought it well to bring into prominence certain features which
+seem to me to indicate that this form of aboriginal dwelling was high
+in its development, showing considerable skill in its construction,
+and was fashioned on the same general plan as the others. For this
+demonstration I have chosen one of the most striking clusters in Verde
+valley.
+
+
+CAVATE DWELLINGS
+
+The most accessible cavate dwellings in Verde valley (plate XCI _a_)
+are situated on the left bank of the river, about eight miles
+southward from Camp Verde and three miles from the mouth of Clear
+creek. The general characteristics of this group have been well
+described by Mr Mindeleff in the Thirteenth Annual Report of the
+Bureau, so that I need but refer to a few additional observations made
+on these interesting habitations.[14]
+
+These cavate lodges afford a fair idea of the best known of these
+prehistoric dwellings in this part of Arizona. Although Verde valley
+has many fine ranches, the land in immediate proximity to these ruins
+is uncultivated. The nearest habitation, however, is not far away, and
+it is not difficult to find guides to these caves, so well known are
+they to the inhabitants of this part of the valley. It did not take
+long to learn that any investigations which I might attempt there had
+been anticipated by other archeologists and laymen, for many of the
+rooms had been rifled of their contents and their walls thrown down,
+while it was also evident that some careful excavations had been made.
+
+There is, however, abundant opportunity for more detailed scientific
+work than has yet been attempted on these ruins, and what has thus far
+been accomplished has been more in the nature of reconnoissance. The
+cemeteries and burial places of the prehistoric people of the cavate
+dwellings are yet to be discovered, and it is probable, judging from
+experience gained at other ruins, that when they are found and
+carefully investigated much light will be thrown on the character of
+ancient cave life.
+
+The entrances to the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw mountain are
+visible from the road for quite a distance, appearing as rows of holes
+in the steep walls of the cliff on the opposite or left bank of the
+Rio Verde. Owing to their proximity to the river, from which the
+precipice in which they are situated rises almost vertically, we were
+unable to camp under them, but remained on the right bank of the
+river, where a level plain extends for some distance, bordering the
+river and stretching back to the distant cliffs. We pitched our camp
+on a bluff, about 30 feet above the river, in full sight of the cave
+entrances, near a small stone inclosure which bears quite a close
+resemblance to a Tusayan shrine.
+
+Aboriginal people had evidently cultivated the plain where we camped,
+for there are many evidences of irrigating ditches and even walls of
+former houses. At present, however, this once highly cultivated field
+lies unused, and is destitute of any valuable plants save the scanty
+grass which served to eke out the fodder of our horses.
+
+At the time of my visit the water of Rio Verde at this point was
+confined to a very narrow channel under the bluff near its right bank,
+but the appearance of its bed showed that in heavy freshets during the
+rainy season the water filled the interval between the base of the
+cliffs in which the cavate dwellings are situated and the bluffs which
+form the right bank.
+
+In visits to the caves it was necessary, on account of the site of the
+camp, to ford the stream each time and to climb to their level over
+fallen stones, a task of no slight difficulty. The water in places was
+shallow and the current only moderately rapid. Considering the fact
+that it furnished potable liquid for ourselves and horses, and that
+the line of trees which skirted the bluff was available for firewood,
+our camp compared well with many which we subsequently made in our
+summer's explorations.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCI^_b_
+
+CAVATE DWELLINGS--OAK CREEK]
+
+The section of the cliff which was examined embraced the northern
+series of these caves, extending from a promontory forming one side of
+a blind or box canyon to nearly opposite our camp. Adjacent to this
+series of rooms, but farther down the river, on the same side, there
+are two narrow side canyons, in both of which are also numerous caves,
+in all respects similar to the series we chose for examination. At
+several points on the summit of the cliffs, above the caves, large
+rectangular ruins, with fallen walls, were discovered; these ruins
+are, however, in no respect peculiar, but closely resemble those
+ordinarily found in a similar position throughout this region and
+elsewhere in Arizona and New Mexico. From their proximity to the caves
+it would seem that the cavate dwellings, and the pueblos on the
+summits of the mesas in which they are found, had been inhabited by
+one people; but better evidence that such is true is drawn from the
+character of the architecture and the nature of the art remains common
+to both.
+
+Let us first consider the series of caves from a point opposite our
+camp to the promontory which forms a pinnacle at the mouth of the
+first of the two side caverns--a row of caves the entrances to which
+are shown in the accompanying illustration (plate XCII). I have
+lettered these rooms, as indicated by their entrances, _a_ to _l_,
+beginning with the opening on the left.
+
+The rock in which these caves have been hewn is very soft, and almost
+white in color, save for a slightly reddish brown stratum just below
+the line of entrances to the cavate chambers. Although, as a general
+thing, the wall of the cliff is almost perpendicular, and the caves at
+points inaccessible, entrance to the majority of them can be effected
+by mounting the heaps of small stones forming the débris, which has
+fallen even to the bed of the river at various places, and by
+following a ledge which connects the line of entrances. The easiest
+approach mounts a steep decline, not far from the promontory at the
+lower level of the line, which conducts to a ledge running along in
+front of the caves about 150 feet above the bed of the stream. Roughly
+speaking, this ledge is about 100 feet below the summit of the cliff.
+It was impossible to reach several of the rooms, and it is probable
+that when the caves were inhabited access to any one of them was even
+more difficult than at present.
+
+Judging from the number of rooms, the cliffs on the left bank of the
+Verde must have had a considerable population when inhabited. These
+caverns, no doubt, swarmed with human beings, and their inaccessible
+position furnished the inhabitants with a safe refuge from enemies, or
+an advantageous outlook or observation shelter for their fields on the
+opposite side of the stream. The soft rock of which the mesa is formed
+is easily worked, and there are abundant evidences, from the marks of
+tools employed, that the greater part of each cave was pecked out by
+hand. Fragments of wood were very rarely seen in these cliff dugouts;
+and although there is much adobe plastering, only in a few instances
+were the mouths of the caves walled or a doorway of usual shape
+present. The last room at the southern end, near the promontory at the
+right of the entrance to a side canyon, has walls in front resembling
+those of true cliff houses and pueblos in the Red-rock country farther
+northward, as will be shown in subsequent pages.
+
+This group of cavate dwellings, while a good example of the cavern
+type of ruins, is so closely associated, both in geographical position
+and in archeological remains, with other types in Verde valley, that
+we are justified in referring them to one and the same people. The
+number of these troglodytic dwelling places on the Verde is very
+large; indeed the mesas may be said to be fairly honeycombed with
+subterranean habitations. Confined as a general thing to the softer
+strata of rock, which from its character was readily excavated, they
+lie side by side at the same general level, and are entered from a
+projecting ledge, formed by the top of the talus which follows the
+level of their entrances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 245--Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde]
+
+This ledge is easily accessible in certain places from the river bed,
+where stones have fallen to the base of the cliff; but at most points
+no approach is possible, and in their impregnable position the
+inhabitants could easily defend themselves from hostile peoples.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCII
+
+ENTRANCES TO CAVATE RUINS]
+
+Whether the rock had recesses in it before the caves were enlarged
+would seem to be answered in the affirmative, for similar caves
+without evidences of habitations were observed. These, however, are as
+a rule small, and wherever available the larger caverns have been
+appropriated and enlarged by stone implements, as shown by the pecking
+on the walls. The enlargement of these caverns, however, would not be
+a difficult task, for the rock is very soft and easily worked.
+
+Entering one of these cavate rooms the visitor finds himself in a dark
+chamber, as a rule with side openings or passageways into adjoining
+rooms. Broad lateral banquettes are prominent features in the most
+complicated caves, and there are many recesses and small closets or
+cists.
+
+The ramifications formed by lateral rooms are often extensive, and the
+chambers communicate with others so dark that we can hardly regard
+them as once inhabited. In these dimly lighted rooms the walls were
+blackened with smoke, as if from former fires, and in many of the
+largest the position of fireplaces could plainly be discovered. As a
+type of one of the more complicated I have chosen that figured to
+illustrate the arrangement of these cavate dwellings (figure 245).
+Many are smaller, others have more lateral chambers, but one type is
+characteristic of all.
+
+A main room (_A_, figure 245), or that first entered from outside, is
+roughly rectangular in shape, 12 feet long by 6 feet wide, and about 6
+feet high. The floor, however, was covered with very dry débris which
+had blown in from the exterior or, in some instances, fallen from the
+roof. That part of the floor which was exposed shows that it was
+roughly plastered, sometimes paved or formed of solid rock.
+
+On three sides of this room there is a step 2 feet high, to platforms,
+three in number, one in the rear and one on each side. These platforms
+are 5, 6, and 6 feet 6 inches wide, respectively, and of the same
+length as the corresponding sides of the central room. It would appear
+that these platforms are characteristic architectural features of
+these habitations, and we find them reproduced in some of the rooms of
+the cliff houses of the Red-rocks, while Nordenskiöld has described a
+kindred feature in the kivas of the Mesa Verde ruins. A somewhat
+similar elevation of the floor in modern Tusayan kivas forms what may
+be called the spectator's part, in front of the ladder as one
+descends, and the same feature is common to many older Hopi
+dwellings.[15]
+
+Beginning with the lateral platforms (_B_, figure 245) we first note,
+as we step upon it at _c_, about midway of its length, a small
+circular depression in the floor of the central room extending
+slightly beneath the platform, as indicated by the dotted line. It is
+possible that this niche was a receptacle for important household
+objects, although it may have been a fireplace.
+
+In a corner of the right platform a round cist, partially hewn out of
+the rock, was found, but its walls (_a_, figure 245) were badly broken
+down by some former explorer. The floor of this recess lies below that
+of the platform, while the cist itself (_D_) reminds one of the closed
+or walled structures, so commonly found in the Verde, attached to the
+side of the cliff. On the lateral wall of this chamber, at about the
+height of the head, a row of small holes had been drilled into the
+solid wall. These holes (_d_, _d_, _d_) are almost too small for the
+insertion of roof beams, and were probably made for pegs on which to
+rest a beam for hanging blankets and other textile fabrics when not in
+use. The roof of the cave was the natural rock, and showed over its
+whole surface marks of a pecking implement.
+
+The left chamber is 6 feet 6 inches broad, and from one corner,
+opposite the doorway, a low passageway leads into a circular chamber,
+6 feet in diameter, with its floor below the platform of the lateral
+room. Between the chamber, on the left of the entrance, and the open
+air, the wall of solid rock is broken by a slit-like crevice, which
+allows the light to enter, and no doubt served as a window. A recess,
+the floor of which is elevated, on a platform opposite the doorway, is
+5 feet broad, and has a small circular depression in one corner. The
+floor and upraise of this recess is plastered with adobe, which in
+several places is smooth and well made.
+
+In comparing the remaining cavate dwellings of this series with that
+described, we find every degree of complication in the arrangement of
+rooms, from a simple cave, or irregular hole in the side of the cliff,
+to squared chambers with lateral rooms. The room _I_,[16] for
+instance, is rectangular, 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, with an entrance
+the same width as that of the room itself.
+
+In room _III_, however, the external opening is very small, and there
+is a low, narrow ledge, or platform, opposite the doorway. There is
+likewise in this room a small shelf in the left-hand wall. In _IV_
+there is a raised platform on two adjacent sides of the square room,
+and the doorway is an irregular orifice broken through the wall to the
+open air.
+
+Room _IV_ is a subterranean chamber, most of the floor of which is
+littered with large fragments of rock which have fallen from the roof.
+It has numerous small recesses in the wall resembling cubby-holes
+where household utensils of various kinds were undoubtedly formerly
+kept. This room is instructive, in that the entrance is partially
+closed by two walls of masonry, which do not join. The stones are
+laid in adobe in which fragments of pottery were detected. These
+unjoined walls leave a doorway which is thus flanked on each side by
+stone masonry, recalling in every particular the well-known walls of
+cliff houses. Here, in fact, we have so close a resemblance to the
+masonry of true cliff houses that we can hardly doubt that the
+excavators of the cavate dwellings were, in reality, people similar to
+those who built the cliff houses of Verde valley.
+
+Room _VIII_ is a simple cave hewn out of the rock, with a chamber
+behind it, entered by a passageway made of masonry, which partially
+fills a larger opening. The doorway through this masonry is small
+below, but broadens above in much the same manner as some of the
+doorways in Tusayan of today.
+
+Continuing along the left bank of the river, from the row of cavate
+rooms, just described, on the first mesa, we round a promontory and
+enter a small canyon,[17] which is perforated on each side with
+numerous other cavate dwellings, large and small, all of the same
+general character as the type described. Here, likewise, are small
+external openings which evidently communicated with subterranean
+chambers, but many of them are so elevated that access to them from
+the floor of the canyon or from the cliff above is not possible. A
+marked feature of the whole series is the existence here and there of
+small, often inaccessible, stone cists of masonry plastered to the
+side of the rocky cliff like swallows' nests.
+
+All of these cists which are accessible had been opened and plundered
+before my visit, but there yet remain a few which are still intact and
+would repay examination and study. Similar walled-up cists are
+likewise found, as we shall see later, in the cliff-houses of the
+Red-rock country, hence are not confined to the Verde system of ruins.
+
+Cavate dwellings similar to those here described are reported to exist
+in the canyons of upper Salado, Gala, and Zuñi rivers, and we may with
+reason suspect that the distribution[18] of cavate dwellings is as
+wide as that of the pueblos themselves, the sole requisite being a
+soft tufaceous rock, capable of being easily worked by people with
+stone implements. In none of the different regions in which they exist
+is there any probability that these caves were made by people
+different in culture from pueblo or cliff dwellers. They are much more
+likely to have been permanent than temporary habitations of the same
+culture stock of Indians who availed themselves of rock shelters
+wherever the nature of the cliff permitted excavation in its walls.
+
+That the cavate lodges are simple "horticultural outlooks" is an
+important suggestion, but one might question whether they were
+conveniently placed for that purpose. So far as overlooking the
+opposite plain (which had undoubtedly been cultivated in ancient
+times) is concerned, the position of some of them may be regarded good
+for that purpose, but certainly not so commanding as that of the hill
+or mesa above, where well-marked ruins still exist.
+
+The position of the cavate dwellings is a disadvantageous one to reach
+any cultivated fields if defenders were necessary. When the Tusayan
+Indian today moves to his _kisi_ or summer brush house shelter he
+practically camps in his corn or near it, in easy reach to drive away
+crows, or build wind-breaks to shelter the tender sprouts; but to go
+to their cornfields the inhabitants of the cavate dwellings I have
+described were forced to cross a river before the farm was reached.
+That these cavate dwellings were lookouts none can deny, but I incline
+to a belief that this does not tell the whole story if we limit them
+to such use. It is not wholly clear to me that they were not likewise
+an asylum for refuge, possibly not inhabited continuously, but a very
+welcome retreat when the agriculturist was sorely pressed by enemies.
+Following the analogy of a Hopi custom of building temporary booths
+near their fields, may we not suppose that the former inhabitants of
+Verde valley may have erected similar shelters in their cornfields
+during summer months, retiring to the cavate dwellings and the mesa
+tops in winter? All available evidence would indicate that the cavate
+dwellings were permanent habitations.[19]
+
+There are several square ruins on top of the mesa above the cavate
+dwellings. The walls of these were massive, but they are now very much
+broken down, and the adobe plastering is so eroded from the masonry
+that I regard them of considerable antiquity. They do not differ from
+other similar ruins, so common elsewhere in New Mexico and Arizona,
+and are identical with others in the Verde region. I visited several
+of these ruins, but made no excavations in them, nor added any new
+data to our knowledge of this type of aboriginal buildings. The
+pottery picked up on the surface resembles that of the ruins of the
+Little Colorado and Gila.
+
+The dwellings which I have mentioned above are said[20] to be
+duplicated at many other points in the watershed of the Verde, and
+many undescribed ruins of this nature were reported to me by ranchmen.
+I do not regard them as older than the adjacent ruins on the mesa
+above or the plains below them, much less as productions of people of
+different stages of culture, for everything about them suggests
+contemporaneous occupancy.
+
+From what little I saw of the village sites on the Verde I believe
+that Mindeleff is correct in considering that these ruins represent
+a comparatively late period of pueblo architecture. The character
+of the cliff houses of the Red-rocks shows no very great antiquity of
+occupancy. While it is not possible to give any approximate date when
+they were inhabited, their general appearance indicates that they are
+not more than two centuries old. There is, however, no reference to
+them in the early Spanish history of the Southwest.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIII
+
+BOWLDER WITH PICTOGRAPHS NEAR WOOD'S RANCH]
+
+Few pictographs were found in the immediate neighborhood of the cavate
+dwellings; indeed the rock in their vicinity is too soft to preserve
+for any considerable time any great number of these rock etchings.
+Examples of ancient paleography were, however, discovered a short
+distance higher up the river on malpais rock, which is harder and less
+rapidly eroded. A half-buried bowlder (plate XCIII) near Wood's ranch
+was found to be covered with the well-known spirals with zigzag
+attachments, horned animals resembling antelopes, growing corn, rain
+clouds, and similar figures. These pictographs occur on a black,
+superficial layer of lava rock, or upon lighter stone with a malpais
+layer, which had been pecked through, showing a lighter color beneath.
+There is little doubt that many examples of aboriginal pictography
+exist in this neighborhood, which would reward exploration with
+interesting data. The Verde pictographs can not be distinguished, so
+far as designs are concerned, from many found elsewhere in Colorado,
+Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona.
+
+An instructive pictograph, different from any which I have elsewhere
+seen, was discovered on the upturned side of a bowlder not far from
+Hance's ranch, near the road from Camp Verde to the cavate dwellings.
+The bowlder upon which they occur lies on top of a low hill, to the
+left of the road, near the river. It consists of a rectangular network
+of lines, with attached key extensions, crooks, and triangles, all
+pecked in the surface. This dĉdalus of lines arises from grooves,
+which originate in two small, rounded depressions in the rock, near
+which is depicted the figure of a mountain lion. The whole pictograph
+is 3-1/2 feet square, and legible in all its parts.
+
+The intent of the ancient scribe is not wholly clear, but it has been
+suggested that he sought to represent the nexus of irrigating ditches
+in the plain below. It might have been intended as a chart of the
+neighboring fields of corn, and it is highly suggestive, if we adopt
+either of these explanations or interpretations, that a figure of the
+mountain lion is found near the depressions, which may provisionally
+be regarded as representing ancient reservoirs. Among the Tusayan
+Indians the mountain lion is looked on as a guardian of cultivated
+fields, which he is said to protect, and his stone image is sometimes
+placed there for the same purpose.
+
+In the vicinity of the pictograph last described other bowlders, of
+which there are many, were found to be covered with smaller rock
+etchings in no respect characteristic, and there is a remnant of an
+ancient shrine a few yards away from the bowlder upon which they
+occur.
+
+
+MONTEZUMA WELL
+
+One of the most interesting sites of ancient habitation in Verde
+valley is known as Montezuma Well, and it is remarkable how little
+attention has been paid to it by archeologists.[21] Dr Mearns, in his
+article on the ancient dwellings of Verde valley, does not mention the
+well, and Mindeleff simply refers to the brief description by Dr
+Hoffman in 1877. These ruins are worthy of more study than I was able
+to give them, for like many other travelers I remained but a short
+time in the neighborhood. It is possible, however, that some of my
+hurried observations at this point may be worthy of record.
+
+Montezuma Well (plate XCIV) is an irregular, circular depression,
+closely resembling a volcanic crater, but evidently, as Dr Hoffman
+well points out, due to erosion rather than to volcanic agencies. As
+one approaches it from a neighboring ranch the road ascends a low
+elevation, and when on top the visitor finds that the crater occupies
+the whole interior of the hill. The exact dimensions I did not
+accurately determine, but the longest diameter of the excavation is
+estimated at about 400 feet; its depth possibly 70 feet. On the
+eastern side this depression is separated from Beaver creek by a
+precipitous wall which can not be scaled from that side. At the time
+of my visit there was considerable water in the "well," which was
+reported to be very deep, but did not cover the whole bottom. It is
+possible to descend to the water at one point on the eastern side,
+where a trail leads to the water's edge.
+
+There appears to be a subterranean waterway under the eastern rim of
+the well, and the water from the spring rushes through this passage
+into Beaver creek. At the time of my visit this outflow was very
+considerable, and in the rainy season it must be much greater. The
+well is never dry, and is supplied by perennial subterranean springs
+rather than by surface drainage.
+
+The geological agency which has been potent in giving the remarkable
+crater-like form to Montezuma Well was correctly recognized by Dr
+Hoffman[22] and others as the solvent or erosive power of the spring.
+There is no evidence of volcanic formation in the neighborhood, and
+the surrounding rocks are limestones and sandstones. Not far from
+Navaho springs there is a similar circular depression, called Jacob's
+Well, but which was dry when visited by me. This may later be found to
+have been formed in a similar way. At several places in Arizona there
+are formations of like geological character.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIV
+
+MONTEZUMA WELL]
+
+The walls of Montezuma Well are so nearly perpendicular that descent
+to the edge of the water is difficult save by a single trail which
+follows the detritus to a cave on one side. In this cave, the roof of
+which is not much higher than the water level, there are fragments
+of masonry, as if structures of some kind had formerly been erected in
+it. I have regarded this cave rather as a place of religious rites
+than of former habitation, possibly a place of retreat for ancient
+priests when praying for rain or moisture, or a shrine for the deposit
+of prayer offerings to rain or water gods.
+
+Several isolated cliff dwellings are built at different levels in the
+sides of the cliffs. One of the best of these is diametrically
+opposite the cave mentioned above, a few feet below the rim of the
+depression. While this house was entered with little difficulty, there
+were others which I did not venture to visit.
+
+The accompanying illustration (plate XCV) gives an idea of the general
+appearance of one of these cliff houses of Montezuma Well. It is built
+under an overhanging archway of rock in a deep recess, with masonry on
+three sides. The openings are shown, one of which overlooks the
+spring; the other is an entrance at one side. The face of masonry on
+the front is not plastered, and if it was formerly rough cast the mud
+has been worn away, leaving the stones exposed. The side wall, which
+has been less exposed to the elements, still retains the plastering,
+which is likewise found on the inner walls where it is quite smooth in
+places.
+
+The number of cliff rooms in the walls of the well is small and their
+capacity, if used as dwellings, very limited. There are, however,
+ruins of pueblos of some size on the edge of the well.
+
+One of the largest of these, shown in the accompanying illustration
+(plate XCVI), is situated on the neck of land separating the well from
+the valley of Beaver creek. This pueblo was rectangular in form, of
+considerable size, built of stones, and although at present almost
+demolished, shows perfectly the walls of former rooms. Fragments of
+ancient pottery would seem to indicate that the people who once
+inhabited this pueblo were in no respect different from other
+sedentary occupants of Verde valley. From their housetops they had a
+wide view over the creek on one side and the spring on the other,
+defending, by the site of their village, the one trail by which
+descent to the well was possible.
+
+The remarkable geological character of Montezuma Well, and the spring
+within it, would have profoundly impressed itself on the folklore of
+any people of agricultural bent who lived in its neighborhood after
+emigrating to more arid lands. About a month after my visit to this
+remarkable spring I described the place to some of the old priests at
+Walpi and showed them sketches of the ruins. These priests seemed to
+have legendary knowledge of a place somewhat like it where they said
+the Great Plumed Snake had one of his numerous houses. They reminded
+me of a legend they had formerly related to me of how the Snake arose
+from a great cavity or depression in the ground, and how, they had
+heard, water boiled out of that hole into a neighboring river. The
+Hopi have personal knowledge of Montezuma Well, for many of their
+number have visited Verde valley, and they claim the ruins there as
+the homes of their ancestors. It would not be strange, therefore, if
+this marvelous crater was regarded by them as a house of Palülükoñ,
+their mythic Plumed Serpent.
+
+Practically little is known of the pictography of this part of the
+Verde valley people, although it has an important bearing on the
+distribution of the cliff dwellers of the Southwest. There is evidence
+of at least two kinds of petroglyphs, indicative of two distinct
+peoples. One of these was of the Apache Mohave; the other, the
+agriculturists who built the cliff homes and villages of the plain.
+Those of the latter are almost identical with the work of the Pueblo
+peoples in the cliff dweller stage, from southern Utah and Colorado to
+the Mexican boundary. It is not a difficult task to distinguish the
+pictography of these two peoples, wherever found. The pictographs of
+the latter are generally pecked into the rock with a sharpened
+implement, probably of stone, while those of the former are usually
+scratched or painted on the surface of the rocks. Their main
+differences, however, are found in the character of the designs and
+the objects represented. This difference can be described only by
+considering individual rock drawings, but the practiced eye may
+readily distinguish the two kinds at a glance. The pictographs which
+are pecked in the cliff are, as a rule, older than those which are
+drawn or scratched, and resemble more closely those widely spread in
+the Pueblo area, for if the cliff-house people ever made painted
+pictographs, as there is every reason to believe they did, time has
+long ago obliterated them.
+
+The pictured rocks (plate XCVII) near Cliff's ranch, on Beaver creek,
+four miles from Montezuma Well, have a great variety of objects
+depicted upon them. These rocks, which rise from the left bank of the
+creek opposite Cliff's ranch, bear over a hundred different rock
+pictures, figures of which are seen in the accompanying illustration.
+The rock surface is a layer of black malpais, through which the totem
+signatures have been pecked, showing the light stone beneath, and thus
+rendering them very conspicuous. Among these pictographs many familiar
+forms are recognizable, among them being the crane or blue heron,
+bears' and badgers' paws, turtles, snakes, antelopes, earth symbols,
+spirals, and meanders.
+
+Among these many totems there was an unusual pictograph in the form of
+the figure 8, above which was a bear's paw accompanied by a human
+figure so common in southwestern rock etchings. A square figure with
+interior parallel squares extending to the center is also found, as
+elsewhere, in cliff-dweller pictography.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCV
+
+CLIFF HOUSE, MONTEZUMA WELL]
+
+
+CLIFF HOUSES OF THE RED-ROCKS
+
+After the road from old Camp Verde to Flagstaff passes a deserted
+cabin at Beaver Head, it winds up a steep hill of lava or malpais to
+the top of the Mogollones. If, instead of ascending this hill, one
+turns to the left, taking an obscure road across the river bed,
+which is full of rough lava blocks, and in June, when I traveled its
+course, was without water, he soon finds himself penetrating a rugged
+country with bright-red cliffs on his right (plate XCVIII). Continuing
+through great parks and plains he finally descends to the well-wooded
+valley of Oak creek, an affluent of Rio Verde. Here he finds evidences
+of aboriginal occupancy on all sides--ruins of buildings, fortified
+hilltops, pictographs, and irrigating ditches--testifying that there
+was at one time a considerable population in this valley. The fields
+of the ancient inhabitants have now given place to many excellent
+ranches, one of the most flourishing of which is not far from a lofty
+butte of red rock called the Court-house, which from its great size is
+a conspicuous object for miles around. In many of these canyons there
+are evidences of a former population, but the country is as yet almost
+unexplored; there are many difficult places to pass, yet once near the
+base of the rocks a way can be picked from the mouth of one canyon to
+another. It does not take long to discover that this now uninhabited
+region contains, like that along the Verde and its tributaries, many
+ancient dwellings, for there is scarcely a single canyon leading into
+these red cliffs in which evidences of former human habitations are
+not found in the form of ruins. There is little doubt that these
+unfrequented canyons have many and extensive cliff houses, the
+existence of which has thus far escaped the explorer. The sandstone of
+which they are composed is much eroded into caves with overhanging
+roofs, forming admirable sites for cliff houses as distinguished from
+cavate dwellings like those we have described. They are the only
+described ruins of a type hitherto thought to be unrepresented in the
+valley of the Verde.[23]
+
+In our excursion into the Red-rock country we were obliged to make our
+own wagon road, as no vehicle had ever penetrated the rugged canyons
+visited by us. It was necessary to carry our drinking water with us
+from Oak creek, which fact impeded our progress and limited the time
+available in our reconnoissance. There was, however, in the pool near
+the ruins of Honanki enough water for our horses, and at the time we
+were there a limited amount of grass for fodder was found. I was told
+that later in the season both forage and water are abundant, so that
+these prime necessities being met, there is no reason why successful
+archeological investigations may not be successfully conducted in this
+part of the Verde region.
+
+The limited population of this portion of the country rendered it
+difficult to get laborers at the time I made my reconnoissance, so
+that it would be advisable for one who expects to excavate the ruins
+in this region to take with him workmen from the settled portions of
+the valley.
+
+
+RUINS NEAR SCHÜRMANN'S RANCH
+
+The valley of Oak creek, near Court-house butte, especially in the
+vicinity of Schürmann's ranch, is dotted with fortifications, mounds
+indicative of ruins, and like evidences of aboriginal occupancy. There
+is undoubted proof that the former occupants of this plain constructed
+elaborate irrigating ditches, and that the waters of Oak creek were
+diverted from the stream and conducted over the adjoining valleys.
+There are several fortified hills in this locality. One of the best of
+these defensive works crowned a symmetrical mountain near Schürmann's
+house. The top of this mesa is practically inaccessible from any but
+the southern side, and was found to have a flat surface covered with
+scattered cacti and scrub cedar, among which were walls of houses
+nowhere rising more than two feet. The summit is perhaps 200 feet
+above the valley, and the ground plan of the former habitations
+extends over an area 100 feet in length, practically occupying the
+whole of the summit. Although fragments of pottery are scarce, and
+other evidences of long habitation difficult to find, the house walls
+give every evidence of being extremely ancient, and most of the rooms
+are filled with red soil out of which grow trees of considerable age.
+
+Descending from this ruin-capped mesa, I noticed on the first terrace
+the remains of a roundhouse, or lookout, in the middle of which a
+cedar tree had taken root and was growing vigorously. Although the
+walls of this structure do not rise above the level of the ground,
+there is no doubt that they are the remains of either a lookout or
+circular tower formerly situated at this point.
+
+Many similar ruins are found throughout this vicinity, yet but little
+more is known of them than that they antedate the advent of white men.
+The majority of them were defensive works, built by the house
+dwellers, and their frequency would indicate either considerable
+population or long occupancy. Although many of those on the hilltops
+differ somewhat from the habitations in the valleys, I think there is
+little doubt that both were built by the same people.[24] There are
+likewise many caves in this region, which seem to have been camping
+places, for their walls are covered with soot and their floors strewn
+with charred mescal, evidences, probably, of Apache occupancy. This
+whole section of country was a stronghold of this ferocious tribe
+within the last few decades, which may account for the modern
+appearance of many of the evidences of aboriginal habitation.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVI
+
+RUIN ON THE BRINK OF MONTEZUMA WELL]
+
+There are some good pictographs on the foundation rocks of that great
+pinnacle of red rock, called the Court-house, not far from Schürmann's
+ranch.[25] Some of these are Apache productions, and the neighboring
+caves evidently formed shelters for these nomads, as ash pit and
+half-burnt logs would seem to show. This whole land was a stronghold
+of the Apache up to a recent date, and from it they were dislodged,
+many of the Indians being killed or removed by authority of the
+Government.
+
+From the geological character of the Red-rocks I was led to suspect
+that cavate dwellings were not to be expected. The stone is hard and
+not readily excavated by the rude implements with which the aborigines
+of the region were supplied. But the remarkable erosion shown in this
+rock elsewhere had formed many deep caverns or caves, with
+overreaching roofs, very favorable for the sites of cliff houses. My
+hurried examination confirmed my surmises, for we here found dwellings
+of this kind, so similar to the type best illustrated in Mancos canyon
+of southern Colorado. There were several smoke-blackened caves without
+walls of masonry, but with floors strewn with charred wood, showing
+Apache occupancy. No cavate dwellings were found in the section of the
+Red-rocks visited by our party.
+
+The two largest of the Red-rock cliff houses to which I shall refer
+were named Honanki or Bear-house and Palatki or Red-house. The former
+of these, as I learned from the names scribbled on its walls, had
+previously been visited by white men, but so far as I know it has
+never been mentioned in archeological literature. My attention was
+called to it by Mr Schürmann, at whose hospitable ranch I outfitted
+for my reconnoissance into the Red-rock country. The smaller ruin,
+Palatki, we discovered by chance during our visit, and while it is
+possible that some vaquero in search of a wild steer may have visited
+the neighborhood before us, there is every reason to believe that the
+ruin had escaped even the notice of these persons, and, like Honanki,
+was unknown to the archeologist.
+
+The two ruins, Honanki and Palatki, are not the only ones in the lone
+canyon where we encamped. Following the canyon a short distance from
+its entrance, there was found to open into it from the left a
+tributary, or so-called box canyon, the walls of which are very
+precipitous. Perched on ledges of the cliffs there are several rows of
+fortifications or walls of masonry extending for many yards. It was
+impossible for us to enter these works, even after we had clambered up
+the side of the precipice to their level, so inaccessible were they to
+our approach. These "forts" were probably for refuge, but they are ill
+adapted as points of observation on account of the configuration of
+the canyon. Their masonry, as examined at a distance with a field
+glass, resembles that of Palatki and Honanki.
+
+I was impressed by the close resemblance between the large cliff
+houses of the Red-rocks, with their overhanging roof of rock, and
+those of the San Juan and its tributaries in northern New Mexico.
+While it is recognized that cliff houses have been reported from Verde
+valley, I find them nowhere described, and our lack of information
+about them, so far as they are concerned, may have justified
+Nordenskiöld's belief that "the basin of the Colorado actually
+contains almost all the cliff dwellings of the United States." As the
+Gila flows into the Colorado near its mouth, the Red-rock ruins may in
+a sense be included in the Colorado basin, but there are many and
+beautiful cliff houses higher up near the sources of the Gila and its
+tributary, the Salt. In calling attention to the characteristic cliff
+dwellings of the Red-rocks I am making known a new region of ruins
+closely related to those of Canyon de Tségi, or Chelly, the San Juan
+and its tributaries.
+
+Although the cliff houses of Verde valley had been known for many
+years, and the ruins here described are of the same general character,
+anyone who examines Casa Montezuma, on Beaver creek, and compares it
+with Honanki, will note differences of an adaptive nature. The one
+feature common to Honanki and the "Cliff Palace" of Mancos canyon is
+the great overhanging roof of the cavern, which, in that form, we miss
+in Casa Montezuma (figure 246).[26]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 246--Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek]
+
+We made two camps in the Red-rock country, one at the mouth of a wild
+canyon near an older camp where a well had been dug and the cellar of
+an American house was visible. This camp was fully six miles from
+Schürmann's ranch and was surrounded by some of the wildest scenery
+that I had ever witnessed. The accompanying view (plate XCVIII) was
+taken from a small elevation near by, and gives a faint idea of the
+magnificent mountains by which we were surrounded. The colors of the
+rocks are variegated, so that the gorgeous cliffs appear to be banded,
+rising from 800 to 1,000 feet sheer on all sides. These rocks had
+weathered into fantastic shapes suggestive of cathedrals, Greek
+temples, and sharp steeples of churches extending like giant needles
+into the sky. The scenery compares very favorably with that of the
+Garden of the Gods, and is much more extended. This place, I have no
+doubt, will sooner or later become popular with the sightseer, and I
+regard the discovery of these cliffs one of the most interesting of my
+summer's field work.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVII
+
+PICTOGRAPHS NEAR CLIFF RANCH, VERDE VALLEY]
+
+On the sides of these inaccessible cliffs we noticed several cliff
+houses, but so high were they perched above us that they were almost
+invisible. To reach them at their dizzy altitude was impossible, but
+we were able to enter some caves a few hundred feet above our camp,
+finding in them nothing but charred mescal and other evidences of
+Apache camps. Their walls and entrances are blackened with smoke, but
+no sign of masonry was detected.
+
+We moved our camp westward from this canyon (which, from a great cliff
+resembling the Parthenon, I called Temple canyon), following the base
+of the precipitous mountains to a second canyon, equally beautiful but
+not so grand, and built our fire in a small grove of scrub oak and
+cottonwood. In this lonely place Lloyd had lived over a winter,
+watching his stock, and had dug a well and erected a corral. We
+adopted his name for this camp and called it Lloyd canyon. There was
+no water in the well, but a few rods beyond it there was a pool, from
+which we watered our horses. On the first evening at this camp we
+sighted a bear, which gave the name Honanki, "Bear-house," to the
+adjacent ruined dwellings.
+
+The enormous precipice of red rock west of our camp at Lloyd's corral
+hid Honanki from view at first, but we soon found a trail leading
+directly to it, and during our short stay in this neighborhood we
+remained camped near the cottonwoods at the entrance to the canyon,
+not far from the abandoned corral. Our studies of Honanki led to the
+discovery of Palatki (figure 247), which we investigated on our return
+to Temple canyon. I will, therefore, begin my description of the
+Red-rock cliff houses with those last discovered, which, up to the
+visit which I made, had never been studied by archeologists.
+
+
+PALATKI
+
+There are two neighboring ruins which I shall include in my
+consideration of Palatki, and these for convenience may be known as
+Ruin I and Ruin II, the former situated a little eastward from the
+latter. They are but a short distance apart, and are in the same box
+canyon. Ruin I (plate XCIX) is the better preserved, and is a fine
+type of the compact form of cliff dwellings in the Red-rock country.
+
+This ruin is perched on the top of a talus which has fallen from the
+cliff above, and is visible for some distance above the trees, as one
+penetrates the canyon. It is built to the side of a perpendicular
+wall of rock which, high above its tallest walls, arches over it,
+sheltering the walls from rain or eroding influences. From the dry
+character of the earth on the floors I suspect that for years not a
+drop of water has penetrated the inclosures, although they are now
+roofless.
+
+A highly characteristic feature of Ruin I is the repetition of rounded
+or bow-shape front walls, occurring several times in their length, and
+arranged in such a way as to correspond roughly to the inclosures
+behind them. By this arrangement the size of the rooms was increased
+and possibly additional solidity given to the wall itself. This
+departure from a straight wall implies a degree of architectural
+skill, which, while not peculiar to the cliff dwellings of the
+Red-rocks, is rarely found in southern cliff houses. The total length
+of the front wall of the ruin, including the part which has fallen, is
+approximately 120 feet, and the altitude of the highest wall is not
+far from 30 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 247--Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins I and II)]
+
+From the arrangement of openings in the front wall at the highest part
+there is good evidence of the former existence of two stories. At
+several points the foundation of the wall is laid on massive bowlders,
+which contribute to the height of the wall itself. The masonry is made
+up of irregular or roughly squared blocks of red stone laid in red
+clay, both evidently gathered in the immediate neighborhood of the
+ruin. The building stones vary in size, but are as a rule flat, and
+show well directed fractures as if dressed by hammering. In several
+places there still remains a superficial plastering, which almost
+conceals the masonry. The blocks of stone in the lower courses are
+generally more massive than those higher up; this feature, however,
+whether considered as occurring here or in the cliff houses of Mesa
+Verde, as pointed out by Nordenskiöld, seems to me not to indicate
+different builders, but is due simply to convenience. There appears to
+be no regularity in the courses of component blocks of stone, and when
+necessity compelled, as in the courses laid on bowlders, which serve
+as a foundation, thin wedges of stone, or spalls, were inserted in the
+crevices. The walls are vertical, but the corners are sometimes far
+from perpendicular.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVIII
+
+THE RED ROCKS; TEMPLE CANYON]
+
+The interior of the ruin is divided into a number of inclosures by
+partitions at right angles to the front wall, fastening it to the face
+of the cliff. This I have lettered, beginning at the extreme right
+inclosure with _A_. The inclosure has bounding walls, built on a
+bowlder somewhat more than six feet high. It has no external
+passageway, and probably the entrance was from the roof. This
+inclosure communicates by a doorway directly with the adjoining
+chamber, _B_. The corner of this room, or the angle made by the
+lateral with the front walls, is rounded, a constant feature in
+well-built cliff houses. No windows exist, and the upper edge of both
+front and lateral walls is but slightly broken.
+
+The front wall of inclosure _B_ bulges into bow-shape form, and was
+evidently at least two stories high. This wall is a finely laid
+section of masonry, composed of large, rough stones in the lower
+courses, upon which smaller, roughly hewn stones are built. It is
+probable, from the large amount of débris in the neighborhood, that
+formerly there were rows of single-story rooms in front of what are
+now the standing walls, but the character of their architecture is
+difficult to determine with certainty. Their foundations, although
+partially covered, are not wholly concealed.
+
+The front wall of inclosure _B_ is pierced by three openings, the
+largest of which is a square passageway into the adjoining room, and
+is situated in the middle of the curved wall. A wooden lintel, which
+had been well hewn with stone implements, still remains in place above
+this passageway, and under it the visitor passes through a low opening
+which has the appearance of having been once a doorway. Above this
+entrance, on each side, in the wall, is a square hole, which
+originally may have been the points of support of floor beams.
+Formerly, likewise, there was a large square opening above the middle
+passageway, but this has been closed with masonry, leaving in place
+the wooden beam which once supported the wall above. The upper edge of
+the front wall of inclosure _B_ is level, and is but little broken
+except in two places, where there are notches, one above each of the
+square holes already mentioned. It is probable that these depressions
+were intended for the ends of the beams which once supported a
+combined roof and floor.
+
+On the perpendicular wall which forms the rear of inclosure _B_, many
+feet above the top of the standing front walls, there are several
+pictographs of Apache origin. The height of these above the level of
+the former roof would appear to indicate the existence of a third
+story, for the hands which drew them must have been at least 15 feet
+above the present top of the standing wall.
+
+The front of _C_ is curved like that of inclosure _B_, and is much
+broken near the foundations, where there is a passageway. There is a
+small hole on each side of a middle line, as in _B_, situated at about
+the same level as the floor, indicating the former position of a beam.
+Within the ruin there is a well-made partition separating inclosures
+_B_ and _C_.
+
+The size of room _D_ is much less than that of _B_ or _C_, but, with
+the exception of a section at the left, the front wall has fallen. The
+part which remains upright, however, stands like a pinnacle,
+unconnected with the face of the cliff or with the second-story wall
+of inclosure _C_. It is about 20 feet in height, and possibly its
+altitude appears greater than it really is from the fact that its
+foundations rest upon a bowlder nearly six feet high (plate CX).
+
+The foundations of rooms _E_ and _F_ (plate C) are built on a lower
+level than those of _B_ and _C_ or _D_, and their front walls, which
+are really low, are helped out by similar bowlders, which serve as
+foundations. The indications are that both these inclosures were
+originally one story in height, forming a wing to the central section
+of the ruin, which had an additional tier of rooms. There is an
+entrance to _F_ at the extreme left, and the whole room was lower than
+the floor of the lower stories of _B_, _C_, and _D_.
+
+The most conspicuous pictograph on the cliff above Ruin I of Palatki,
+is a circular white figure, seen in the accompanying illustration.
+This pictograph is situated directly above the first room on the
+right, _A_, and was apparently made with chalk, so elevated that at
+present it is far above the reach of a person standing on any of the
+walls. From its general character I am led to believe that it was made
+by the Apache and not by the builders of the pueblo.
+
+There were no names of white visitors anywhere on the walls of
+Palatki, which, so far as it goes, affords substantial support of my
+belief that we were the first white men to visit this ruin. While it
+can not be positively asserted that we were the original discoverers
+of this interesting building, there is no doubt that I was the first
+to describe it and to call attention to its highly characteristic
+architectural plan.
+
+The walls of Palatki are not so massive as those of the neighboring
+Honanki, and the number of rooms in both ruins which form Palatki is
+much smaller. Each of these components probably housed not more than a
+few families, while several phratries could readily be accommodated in
+Honanki.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIX
+
+PALATKI (RUIN I)]
+
+The second Palatki ruin is well preserved, and as a rule the rooms,
+especially those in front, have suffered more from vandalism and from
+the elements than have those of Ruin I. The arrangement of the rooms
+is somewhat different from that of the more exposed eastern ruin, to
+which it undoubtedly formerly belonged.
+
+Ruin II lies in a deep recess or cave, the roof of which forms a
+perfect arch above the walls. It is situated a few hundred feet to the
+west, and is easily approached by following the fallen débris at the
+foot of a perpendicular cliff. The front walls have all fallen,
+exposing the rear wall of what was formerly a row of rooms, as shown
+in the accompanying illustration (plate CI). There are evidences that
+this row of rooms was but a single story in height, while those behind
+it have indications of three stories. Ruin II is more hidden by the
+trees and by its obscure position in a cavern than the former, but the
+masonry in both is of the same general character.
+
+On approaching Ruin II from Ruin I there is first observed a well-made
+though rough wall, as a rule intact, along which the line of roof and
+flooring can readily be traced (plate CI). In front of this upright
+wall are fragments of other walls, some standing in unconnected
+sections, others fallen, their fragments extending down the sides of
+the talus among the bushes. It was observed that this wall is broken
+by an entrance which passes into a chamber, which may be called _A_,
+and two square holes are visible, one on each side, above it. These
+holes were formerly filled by two logs, which once supported the floor
+of a second chamber, the line of which still remains on the upright
+wall. The small square orifice directly above the entrance is a
+peephole.
+
+In examining the character of the wall it will be noticed that its
+masonry is in places rough cast, and that there was little attempt at
+regularity in the courses of the component stones, which are neither
+dressed nor aligned, although the wall is practically vertical.
+
+At one point, in full view of the observer, a log is apparently
+inserted in the wall, and if the surrounding masonry be examined it
+will be found that an opening below it had been filled in after the
+wall was erected. It is evident, from its position relatively to the
+line indicating the roof, that this opening was originally a
+passageway from one room to another. Passing back of the standing wall
+an inclosure (room _A_) is entered, one side of which is the rock of
+the cliff, while the other three bounding walls are built of masonry,
+20 feet high. This inclosure was formerly divided into an upper and a
+lower room by a partition, which served as the roof of the lower and
+the floor of the upper chambers. Two beams stretched across this
+inclosure about six feet above the débris of the present floor, and
+the openings in the walls, where these beams formerly rested, are
+readily observed. In the same way the beam-holes of the upper story
+may also be easily seen on the top of the wall. Between the rear wall
+of this inclosure and the perpendicular cliff there was a recess which
+appears to have been a dark chamber, probably designed for use as a
+storage room or granary. The configuration of the cliff, which forms
+the major part of the inclosing wall of this chamber, imparts to it an
+irregular or roughly triangular form.
+
+The entire central portion of the ruin is very much broken down, and
+the floor is strewn to a considerable depth with the débris of fallen
+walls. On both sides there are nicely aligned, smoothly finished
+walls, with traces of beams on the level of former floors. Some of
+these bounding walls are curved; others are straight, and in places
+they rise 20 feet. Marks of fire are visible everywhere; most of the
+beams have been wrenched from their places, as a result of which the
+walls have been much mutilated, badly cracked, or thrown down.
+
+There are no pictographs near this ruin, and no signs of former visits
+by white men.
+
+Midway between Honanki and the second Palatki ruin a small ancient
+house of the same character as the latter was discovered. This ruin is
+very much exposed, and therefore the walls are considerably worn, but
+six well-marked inclosures, indicative of former rooms, were readily
+made out. No overarching rock shielded this ruin from the elements,
+and rubble from fallen walls covers the talus upon which it stands.
+The adobe mortar between the stones is much worn, and no fragment of
+plastering is traceable within or without. This evidence of the great
+weathering of the walls of the ruin is not considered indicative of
+greater age than the better preserved ruins in the neighborhood, but
+rather of exposure to the action of the elements. Not only are the
+walls in a very poor condition, but also the floors show, from the
+absence of dry soil upon them, that the whole ruin has suffered
+greatly from the same denudation. There are no fragments of pottery
+about it, and small objects indicating former habitation are also
+wanting. A cedar had taken root where the floor once was, and its
+present great size shows considerable age. If any pictographs formerly
+existed in the adjacent cliff they have disappeared. There is likewise
+no evidence that the Apache had ever sought it for shelter, or if they
+had, their occupancy occurred so long ago that time has effaced all
+evidence of their presence.
+
+
+HONANKI
+
+The largest ruin visited in the Red-rock country was called, following
+Hopi etymology, Honanki; but the nomenclature was adopted not because
+it was so called by the Hopi, but following the rule elsewhere
+suggested.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. C
+
+PALATKI (RUIN I)]
+
+This ruin lies under a lofty buttress of rock westward from Lloyd's
+canyon, which presented the only available camping place in its
+neighborhood. At the time of my visit there was but scanty water in
+the canyon and that not potable except for stock. We carried with us
+all the water we used, and when this was exhausted were obliged to
+retrace our steps to Oak creek. There are groves of trees in the
+canyon and evidences that at some seasons there is an abundant water
+supply. A corral had been made and a well dug near its mouth, but with
+these exceptions there were no evidences of previous occupancy by
+white men. We had hardly pitched our camp before tracks of large game
+were noticed, and before we left we sighted a bear which had come down
+to the water to drink, but which beat a hasty retreat at our approach.
+As previously stated, the knowledge of this ruin was communicated to
+me by Mr Schürmann.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 248--Ground plan of Honanki]
+
+The Honanki ruin (figure 248) extends along the base of the cliff for
+a considerable distance, and may for convenience of description be
+divided into two sections, which, although generally similar, differ
+somewhat in structural features. The former is lineal in its
+arrangement, and consists of a fringe of houses extending along the
+base of the cliff at a somewhat lower level than the other. The walls
+of this section were for the greater part broken, and at no place
+could anything more than the foundation of the front wall be detected,
+although fragments of masonry strewed the sides of the declivity near
+its base. The house walls which remain are well-built parallel spurs
+constructed at right angles to the cliff, which served as the rear of
+all the chambers. At the extreme right end of this row of rooms,
+situated deep in a large cavern with overhanging roof, portions of a
+rear wall of masonry are well preserved, and the lateral walls of one
+or two chambers in this portion of the ruin are still intact.
+Straggling along from that point, following the contour of the base of
+the cliff under which it lies, there extends a long row of rooms, all
+destitute of a front wall.
+
+The first division (plate CII), beginning with the most easterly of
+the series, is quite hidden at one end in a deep cavern. At this point
+the builders, in order to obtain a good rear wall to their rooms,
+constructed a line of masonry parallel with the face of the cliff. At
+right angles to this construction, at the eastern extremity, there are
+remnants of a lateral wall, but the remainder had tumbled to the
+ground. The standing wall of _z_ is not continuous with that of the
+next room, _y_, and apparently was simply the rear of a large room
+with the remains of a lateral wall at right angles to it. The other
+walls of this chamber had tumbled into a deep gorge, overgrown with
+bushes which conceal the fragments. This building is set back deeply
+in the cave, and is isolated from the remaining parts of the ruin,
+although at the level which may have been its roof there runs a kind
+of gallery formed by a ledge of rock, plastered with adobe, which
+formerly connected the roof with the rest of the pueblo. This ledge
+was a means of intercommunication, and a continuation of the same
+ledge, in rooms _s_, _t_, and _u_, supported the rafters of these
+chambers. At _u_ there are evidences of two stories or two tiers of
+rooms, but those in front have fallen to the ground.
+
+The standing wall at _u_ is about five feet high, connected with the
+face of the cliff by masonry. The space between it and the cliff was
+not large enough for a habitable chamber, and was used probably as a
+storage place. In front of the standing wall of room _u_ there was
+another chamber, the walls of which now strew the talus of the cliff.
+
+The highest and best preserved room of the second series of chambers
+at Honanki is that designated _p_, at a point where the ruin reached
+an elevation of 20 feet. Here we have good evidence of rooms of two
+stories, as indicated by the points of insertion of the beams of a
+floor, at the usual levels above the ground. In fact, it is probable
+that the whole section of the ruin was two stories high throughout,
+the front walls having fallen along the entire length. From the last
+room on the left to the eastern extremity of the line of houses which
+leads to the main ruin of Honanki, no ground plans were detected at
+the base of the cliffs, but fallen rocks and scattered débris are
+strewn over the whole interval.
+
+The eastern part of the main ruin of Honanki, however, lies but a
+short distance west of that described, and consists of many similar
+chambers, arranged side by side. These are lettered in the diagram _h_
+to _u_, beginning with _h_, which is irregularly circular in form, and
+ends with a high wall, the first to be seen as one approaches the ruin
+from Lloyd canyon. This range of houses is situated on a lower
+foundation and at a lower level than that of the main quarter of
+Honanki, and a trail runs along so close to the rooms that the whole
+series is easily visited without much climbing. No woodwork remains in
+any of these rooms, and the masonry is badly broken in places either
+by natural agencies or through vandalism.
+
+Beginning with _h_, the round room, which adjoins the main quarter of
+Honanki, we find much in its shape to remind us of a kiva. The walls
+are in part built on foundations of large bowlders, one of which
+formed the greater part of the front wall. This circular room was
+found to be full of fallen débris, and could not be examined without
+considerable excavation. If it were a kiva, which I very much doubt,
+it is an exception among the Verde valley ruins, where no true kiva
+has yet been detected.[27]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CI
+
+FRONT WALL OF PALATKI (RUIN II)]
+
+Following _h_ there is an inclosure which originally may have been a
+habitable room, as indicated by the well-constructed front wall, but
+it is so filled with large stones that it is difficult to examine its
+interior. On one side the wall, which is at right angles to the face
+of the cliff, is 10 feet high, and the front wall follows the surface
+of a huge bowlder which serves as its foundation.
+
+Room _i_ is clearly defined, and is in part inclosed by a large rock,
+on top of which there still remains a fragment of a portion of the
+front wall. A spur of masonry connects this bowlder with the face of
+the cliff, indicating all that remains of the former division between
+rooms _i_ and _j_. An offshoot from this bowlder, in the form of a
+wall 10 feet high, formerly inclosed one side of a room. In the rear
+of chamber _j_ there are found two receptacles or spaces left between
+the rear wall and the face of the cliff, while the remaining wall,
+which is 10 feet high, is a good specimen of pueblo masonry.
+
+The two side walls of room _k_ are well preserved, but the chamber
+resembles the others of the series in the absence of a front wall. In
+this room, however, there remains what may have been the fragment of a
+rear wall parallel with the face of the cliff. This room has also a
+small cist of masonry in one corner, which calls to mind certain
+sealed cavities in the cavate dwellings.
+
+The two side walls of _m_ and _n_ are respectively eight and ten feet
+high. There is nothing exceptional in the standing walls of room _o_,
+one of which, five feet in altitude, still remains erect. Room _p_ has
+a remnant of a rear wall plastered to the face of the cliff.
+
+Room _r_ (plate CIII) is a finely preserved chamber, with lateral
+walls 20 feet high, of well-constructed masonry, that in the rear,
+through which there is an opening leading into a dark chamber,
+occupying the space between it and the cliff. It is braced by
+connecting walls at right angles to the face of the solid rock.
+
+At _s_, the face of the cliff forms a rear wall of the room, and one
+of the side walls is fully 20 feet high. The points of insertion of
+the flooring are well shown, about 10 feet from the ground, proving
+that the ruin at this point was at least two stories high.
+
+Two walled inclosures, one within the other, characterize room _u_. On
+the cliff above it there is a series of simple pictographs, consisting
+of short parallel lines pecked into the rock, and are probably of
+Apache origin. This room closes the second series, along the whole
+length of which, in front of the lateral walls which mark different
+chambers, there are, at intervals, piles of débris, which enabled an
+approximate determination of the situation of the former front wall,
+fragments of the foundations of which are traceable in situ in several
+places.
+
+The hand of man and the erosion of the elements have dealt harshly
+with this portion of Honanki, for not a fragment of timber now remains
+in its walls. This destruction, so far as human agency is concerned,
+could not have been due to white men, but probably to the Apache, or
+possibly to the cliff villagers themselves at the time of or shortly
+after the abandonment of the settlement.
+
+From the second section of Honanki we pass to the third and
+best-preserved portion of the ruins (figure 249), indicated in the
+diagram from _a_ to _g_. To this section I have referred as the "main
+ruin," for it was evidently the most populous quarter of the ancient
+cliff dwelling. It is better preserved than the remainder of Honanki,
+and is the only part in which all four walls of the chambers still
+remain erect. Built at a higher level than the series of rooms already
+considered, it must have towered above them, and possibly served as a
+place of retreat when danger beset the more exposed quarters of the
+village.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 249--The main ruin of Honanki]
+
+Approaching the main ruin of Honanki (plate CIV) from the east, or
+the parts already described, one passes between the buttress on which
+the front wall of the rounded room _h_ is built and a fragment of
+masonry on the left, by a natural gateway through which the trail is
+very steep. On the right there towers above the visitor a
+well-preserved wall of masonry, the front of room _a_, and he soon
+passes abreast of the main portion of the ruin of Honanki. This
+section is built in a huge cavern, the overhanging roof of which, is
+formed by natural rock, arching far above the tops of the highest
+walls of the pueblo and suggesting the surroundings of the "Cliff
+Palace" of Mesa Verde, so well described by the late Baron G.
+Nordenskiöld in his valuable monograph on the ruins of that section of
+southern Colorado. The main ruin of Honanki is one of the largest and
+best preserved architectural monuments of the former people of Verde
+valley that has yet been described. Although somewhat resembling its
+rival, the well-known "Casa Montezuma" of Beaver creek, its
+architecture is dissimilar on account of the difference in the form of
+the cavern in which it is built and the geological character of the
+surrounding cliffs. Other Verde ruins may have accommodated more
+people, when inhabited, but none of its type south of Canyon de Chelly
+have yet been described which excel it in size and condition of
+preservation. I soon found that our party were not the first whites
+who had seen this lonely village, as the names scribbled on its walls
+attested; but so far as I know it had not previously been visited by
+archeologists.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CII
+
+HONANKI (RUIN II)]
+
+In the main portion of Honanki we found that the two ends of the
+crescentic row of united rooms which compose it are built on rocky
+elevations, with foundations considerably higher than those of the
+rooms in the middle portion of the ruins. The line of the front wall
+is, therefore, not exactly crescentic, but irregularly curved (figure
+249), conforming to the rear of the cavern in which the houses are
+situated. About midway in the curve of the front walls two walls
+indicative of former rooms extend at an angle of about 25° to the main
+front wall. All the component rooms of the main part of Honanki can be
+entered, some by external passageways, others by doorways
+communicating with adjacent chambers. None of the inclosures have
+roofs or upper floors, although indications of the former existence of
+both these structural features may readily be seen in several places.
+Although wooden beams are invariably wanting, fragments of these still
+project from the walls, almost always showing on their free ends,
+inside the rooms, the effect of fire. I succeeded in adding to the
+collection a portion of one of these beams, the extremity of which had
+been battered off, evidently with a stone implement. In the alkaline
+dust which covered the floor several similar specimens were seen.
+
+The stones which form the masonry of the wall (figure 250) were not,
+as a rule, dressed or squared before they were laid with adobe mortar,
+but were generally set in place in the rough condition in which they
+may still be obtained anywhere under the cliff.
+
+All the mortar used was of adobe or the tenacious clay which serves so
+many purposes among the Pueblos. The walls of the rooms were plastered
+with a thick layer of the same material. The rear wall of each room is
+the natural rock of the cliff, which rises vertically and has a very
+smooth surface. The great natural archway which covers the whole
+pueblo protects it from wind and rain, and as a consequence, save on
+the front face, there are few signs of natural erosion. The hand of
+man, however, has dealt rudely with this venerable building, and many
+of the walls, especially of rooms which formerly stood before the
+central portion, lie prone upon the earth; but so securely were the
+component stones held together by the adobe that even after their fall
+sections of masonry still remain intact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 250--Structure of wall of Honanki]
+
+There are seven walled inclosures in the main part of Honanki, and as
+each of these was formerly at least two stories high there is
+substantial evidence of the former existence of fourteen rooms in this
+part of the ruin. There can be little doubt that there were other
+rooms along the front of the central portion, and the fallen walls
+show them to have been of large size. It would likewise appear that
+the middle part was higher than the two wings, which would increase
+the number of chambers, so that with these additions it may safely be
+said that this part of Honanki alone contained not far from twenty
+rooms.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIII
+
+WALLS OF HONANKI]
+
+The recess in the cliff in which the ruin is situated is lower in the
+middle than at either side, where there are projecting ledges of rock
+which were utilized by the builders in the construction of the
+foundations, the line of the front wall following the inequalities of
+the ground. It thus results that rooms _g_, _a_, _b_, and a part of
+_c_, rise from a foundation about breast high, or a little higher than
+the base of rooms _d_, _e_, and _f_.
+
+The front wall of _a_ has for its foundation a spur or ledge of rock,
+which is continued under _b_ and a part of _c_. The corner or angle of
+this wall, facing the round chamber, is curved in the form of a tower,
+a considerable section of its masonry being intact. Near the
+foundation and following the inequalities of the rock surface the
+beginning of a wall at right angles to the face of the ruin at this
+point is seen. A small embrasure, high above the base of the front
+wall, on the side by which one approaches the ruin from the east, and
+two smaller openings on the same level, looking out over the valley,
+suggest a floor and lookouts. The large square orifice in the middle
+of the face of the wall has a wooden lintel, still in place; the
+opening is large enough for use as a door or passageway. The upper
+edge of the front wall is somewhat irregular, but a notch in it above
+the square opening is conspicuous.
+
+The rear wall of room _a_ was the face of the cliff, formed of solid
+rock without masonry and very much blackened by smoke from former
+fires. As, however, there is evidence that since its destruction or
+abandonment by its builders this ruin has been occupied as a camping
+place by the Apache, it is doubtful to which race we should ascribe
+this discoloration of the walls by soot.
+
+On the ground floor there is a passageway into chamber _b_, which is
+considerably enlarged, although the position of the lintel is clearly
+indicated by notches in the wall. The beam which was formed there had
+been torn from its place and undoubtedly long ago used for firewood by
+nomadic visitors. The open passageway, measured externally, is about
+15 feet above the foundation of the wall, through which it is broken,
+and about 8 feet below the upper edge of the wall.
+
+Room _b_ is an irregular, square chamber, two stories high,
+communicating with _a_ and _c_ by passages which are enlarged by
+breakage in the walls. A small hole in the front wall, about 6 feet
+from the floor, opens externally to the air. The walls are, in
+general, about 2 feet thick, and are composed of flat red stones laid
+in clay of the same color. The cliff forms the rear wall of the
+chamber. The clay at certain places in the walls, especially near the
+insertions of the beams and about the window openings, appears to have
+been mixed with a black pitch, which serves to harden the mixture.
+
+Room _c_ is the first of a series of chambers, with external
+passageways, but its walls are very much broken down, and the openings
+thereby enlarged. The front wall is almost straight and in one place
+stands 30 feet, the maximum height of the standing wall of the ruins.
+In one corner a considerable quantity of ashes and many evidences of
+fire, some of which may be ascribed to Apache occupants, was detected.
+A wooden beam, marking the line of the floor of a second story, was
+seen projecting from the front wall, and there are other evidences of
+a floor at this level. Large beams apparently extended from the front
+wall to the rear of the chamber, where they rested on a ledge in the
+cliff, and over these smaller sticks were laid side by side and at
+right angles to the beams. These in turn supported either flat stones
+or a layer of mud or clay. The method of construction of one of these
+roofs is typical of a Tusayan kiva, where ancient architectural forms
+are adhered to and best preserved.
+
+The entrance to room _d_ is very much enlarged by the disintegration
+of the wall, and apparently there was at this point a difference in
+level of the front wall, for there is evidence of rooms in advance of
+those connected with the chambers described, as shown by a line of
+masonry, still standing, parallel to the front face of inclosures _c_
+and _d_.
+
+Room _e_ communicates by a doorway with the chamber marked _f_, and
+there is a small window in the same partition. This room had a raised
+banquette on the side toward the cliff, recalling an arrangement of
+the floor similar to that in the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw
+mountain which I have described. This platform is raised about three
+feet above the remainder of the floor of _f_, and, like it, is strewn
+with large slabs of stone, which have fallen from the overhanging
+roof. In the main floor, at one corner, near the platform, there is a
+rectangular box-like structure made of thin slabs of stone set on
+edge, suggesting the grinding bins of the Pueblos. Room _f_
+communicates with _g_ by a passageway which has a stone lintel. The
+holes in the walls, in which beams were once inserted, are seen in
+several places at different levels above the floor. The ends of
+several beams, one extremity of which is invariably charred, were
+found set in the masonry, and others were dug from the débris in the
+floor.
+
+As a result of the curve in the front wall of the ruin at that point,
+the shape of room _f_ is roughly quadrate, with banquettes on two
+sides. There are six large beam holes in the walls, and the position
+of the first floor is well shown on the face of the partition,
+separating _f_ from _g_. The passageway from one of these rooms to the
+other is slightly arched.
+
+Room _g_ is elongated, without an external entrance, and communicates
+with _f_ by a small opening, through which it is very difficult to
+crawl. Its longest dimension is almost at right angles to the front
+face of the remaining rooms, and it is raised above them by its
+foundation on an elevated rock like that of _a_, _b_, and _c_. There
+is a small, square, external opening which may have served as the
+position of a former beam or log. The upper level of the front wall is
+more or less broken down in places, and formerly may have been much
+higher. Beyond _g_ a spur of masonry is built at right angles to the
+cliff, inclosing a rectangular chamber at the end of the ruin which
+could not be entered. Possibly in former times it was accessible by
+means of a ladder from the roof, whence communication with other
+portions of the structure was also had.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIV
+
+APPROACH TO MAIN PART OF HONANKI]
+
+A short distance beyond the westernmost rooms of Honanki, almost
+covered with bushes and adjoining the base of the cliff, there is a
+large ash heap in which are many fragments of pottery and the bones of
+various animals. It is probable that excavation in this quarter would
+reveal many interesting objects. In the cliffs above this ash heap,
+far beyond reach, there is a walled niche which has never been
+disturbed. This structure is similar to those near the cavate
+dwellings, and when opened will probably be found to contain buried
+mortuary objects of interesting character. I did not disturb this
+inclosure, inasmuch as I had no ladders or ropes with which to
+approach it.
+
+It is very difficult to properly estimate, from the number of rooms in
+a cliff house, the former population, and as a general thing the
+tendency is rather to overstate than to fall short of the true total.
+In a pueblo like Hano, on the first or east mesa of Tusayan, for
+instance, there are many uninhabited rooms, and others serve as
+storage chambers, while in places the pueblo has so far fallen into
+ruin as to be uninhabitable. If a pueblo is very much concentrated the
+population varies at different seasons of the year. In summer it is
+sparsely inhabited; in winter it is rather densely populated. While
+Palatki and Honanki together had rooms sufficient to house 500 people,
+I doubt whether their aggregate population, ever exceeded 200. This
+estimate, of course, is based on the supposition that these villages
+were contemporaneously inhabited.
+
+The evidences all point to a belief, however, that they were both
+permanent dwelling places and not temporary resorts at certain seasons
+of the year.
+
+The pictographs on the face of the cliff above Honanki are for the
+greater part due to the former Apache occupants of the rooms, and are
+situated high above the tops of the walls of the ruin. They are, as a
+rule, drawn with white chalk, which shows very clearly on the red
+rock, and are particularly numerous above room _g_. The figure of a
+circle, with lines crossing one another diametrically and continued as
+rays beyond the periphery, possibly represent the sun. Many spiral
+figures, almost constant pictographs in cliff ruins, are found in
+several places. Another strange design, resembling some kind of
+insect, is very conspicuous.
+
+A circle painted green and inclosed in a border of yellow is
+undoubtedly of Apache origin. There is at one point a row of small
+pits, arranged in line, suggesting a score or enumeration of some
+kind, and a series of short parallel lines of similar import was found
+not far away. This latter method of recording accounts is commonly
+used at the present time in Tusayan, both in houses and on cliffs; and
+one of the best of these, said to enumerate the number of Apache
+killed by the Hopi in a raid many years ago, may be seen above the
+trail by which the visitor enters the pueblo of Hano on the East Mesa.
+The names of several persons scratched on the face of the cliff
+indicate that Americans had visited Honanki before me.
+
+The majority of the paleoglyphs at both Palatki and Honanki are of
+Apache origin, and are of comparatively modern date, as would
+naturally be expected. In some instances their colors are as fresh as
+if made a few years ago, and there is no doubt that they were drawn
+after the building was deserted by its original occupants. The
+positions of the pictographs on the cliffs imply that they were drawn
+before the roofs and flooring had been destroyed, thus showing how
+lately the ruin preserved its ancient form. In their sheltered
+position there seems to be no reason why the ancient pictographs
+should not have been preserved, and the fact that so few of the
+figures pecked in the cliff now remain is therefore instructive.
+
+One of the first tendencies of man in visiting a ruin is to inscribe
+his name on its walls or on neighboring cliffs. This is shared by both
+Indians and whites, and the former generally makes his totem on the
+rock surface, or adds that of his gods, the sun, rain-cloud, or
+katcinas. Inscriptions recording events are less common, as they are
+more difficult to indicate with exactitude in this system of
+pictography. The majority of ancient pictographs in the Red-rock
+country, like those I have considered in other parts of Verde valley,
+are identical with picture writings now made in Tusayan, and are
+recognized and interpreted without hesitation by the Hopi Indians. In
+their legends, in which the migrations of their ancestors are
+recounted, the traditionists often mention the fact that their
+ancestors left their totem signatures at certain points in their
+wanderings. The Patki people say that you will find on the rocks of
+Palatkwabi, the "Red Land of the South" from which they came, totems
+of the rain-cloud, sun, crane, parrot, etc. If we find these markings
+in the direction which they are thus definitely declared to exist, and
+the Hopi say similar pictures were made by their ancestors, there
+seems no reason to question such circumstantial evidence that some of
+the Hopi clans once came from this region.[28]
+
+One of the most interesting of the pictographs pecked in the rock is a
+figure which, variously modified, is a common decoration on
+cliff-dweller pottery from the Verde valley region to the ruins of the
+San Juan and its tributaries. This figure has the form of two
+concentric spirals, the ends of which do not join. As this design
+assumes many modifications, it may be well to consider a few forms
+which it assumes on the pottery of the cliff people and on that of
+their descendants, the Pueblos.
+
+The so-called black-and-white ware, or white pottery decorated with
+black lines, which is so characteristic of the ceramics of the
+cliff-dwellers, is sometimes, as we shall see, found in ruins like
+Awatobi and Sikyatki; but it is so rare, as compared with other
+varieties, that it may be regarded as intrusive.
+
+One of the simplest forms of the broken-line motive is a Greek fret,
+in which there is a break in the component square figures or where the
+line is noncontinuous. In the simplest form, which appears prominently
+on modern pottery, but which is rare or wanting on true
+black-and-white ware, we have two crescentic figures, the concavities
+of which face in different directions, but the horns overlap. This is
+a symbol which the participants in the dance called the Húmiskatcina
+still paint with pigments on their breasts, and which is used on
+shields and various religious paraphernalia.
+
+A study of any large collection of decorated Pueblo ware, ancient or
+modern, will show many modifications of this broken line, a number of
+which I shall discuss more in detail when pottery ornamentation is
+considered. A design so distinctive and so widespread as this must
+certainly have a symbolic interpretation. The concentric spirals with
+a broken line, the Hopi say, are symbols of the whirlpool, and it is
+interesting to find in the beautiful plates of Chavero's _Antigüedades
+Mexicanas_ that the water in the lagoon surrounding the ancient Aztec
+capital was indicated by the Nahuatl Indians with similar symbols.
+
+
+OBJECTS FOUND AT PALATKI AND HONANKI
+
+The isolation of these ruins and the impossibility of obtaining
+workmen, combined with the brief visit which I was able to make to
+them, rendered it impossible to collect very many specimens of ancient
+handiwork. The few excavations which were made were limited almost
+wholly to Honanki, and from their success I can readily predict a rich
+harvest for anyone who may attempt systematic work in this virgin
+field. We naturally chose the interior of the rooms for excavation,
+and I will say limited our work to these places. Every chamber was
+more or less filled with débris--fragments of overturned walls,
+detached rock from the cliff above, dry alkaline soil, drifted sand,
+dust, and animal excreta. In those places where digging was possible
+we found the dust and guano so dry and alkaline that it was next to
+impossible to work for any length of time in the rooms, for the air
+became so impure that the workmen could hardly breathe, especially
+where the inclosing walls prevented ventilation. Notwithstanding this
+obstacle, however, we removed the accumulated débris down to the floor
+in one or two chambers, and examined with care the various objects of
+aboriginal origin which were revealed.
+
+In studying the specimens found in cliff-houses due attention has not
+always been given to the fact that occupants have oftentimes camped in
+them subsequently to their abandonment by the original builders. As a
+consequence of this temporary habitation objects owned by unrelated
+Indians have frequently been confused with those of the cliff-dwellers
+proper. We found evidences that both Honanki and Palatki had been
+occupied by Apache Mohave people for longer or shorter periods of
+time, and some of the specimens were probably left there by these
+inhabitants.
+
+The ancient pottery found in the rooms, although fragmentary, is
+sufficiently complete to render a comparison with known ceramics from
+the Verde ruins. Had we discovered the cemeteries, for which we
+zealously searched in vain, no doubt entire vessels, deposited as
+mortuary offerings, would have been found; but the kind of ware of
+which they were made would undoubtedly have been the same as that of
+the fragments.
+
+No pottery distinctively different from that which has already been
+reported from the Verde valley ruins was found, and the majority
+resembled so closely in texture and symbolism that of the cliff houses
+of the San Juan, in northern New Mexico and southern Utah, that they
+may be regarded as practically identical.
+
+The following varieties of pottery were found at Honanki:
+
+  I. Coiled ware.
+ II. Indented ware.
+III. Smooth ware.
+ IV. Smooth ware painted white, with black geometric figures.
+  V. Smooth red ware, with black decoration.
+
+By far the largest number of fragments belong to the first division,
+and these, as a rule, are blackened by soot, as if used in cooking.
+The majority are parts of large open-mouth jars with flaring rims,
+corrugated or often indented with the thumb-nail or some hard
+substance, the coil becoming obscure on the lower surface. The inside
+of these jars is smooth, but never polished, and in one instance the
+potter used the corrugations of the coil as an ornamental motive. The
+paste of which this coiled ware was composed is coarse, with
+argillaceous grains scattered through it; but it was well fired and is
+still hard and durable. When taken in connection with its tenuity,
+these features show a highly developed potter's technique. A single
+fragment is ornamented with an S-shape coil of clay fastened to the
+corrugations in much the same way as in similar ware from the ruins
+near the Colorado Chiquito.
+
+The fragments of smooth ware show that they, too, had been made
+originally in the same way as coiled ware, and that their outer as
+well as their inner surface had been rubbed smooth before firing. As a
+rule, however, they are coarse in texture and have little symmetry of
+form. Fragments identified as parts of bowls, vases, jars, and dippers
+are classed under this variety. As a rule they are badly or unevenly
+fired, although evidently submitted to great heat. There was seldom an
+effort made to smooth the outer surface to a polish, and no attempt at
+pictorial ornamentation was made.
+
+The fragments represented in classes IV and V were made of a much
+finer clay, and the surface bears a gloss, almost a glaze. The
+ornamentation on the few fragments which were found is composed of
+geometric patterns, and is identical with the sherds from other ruins
+of Verde valley. A fragment each of a dipper and a ladle, portions of
+a red bowl, and a rim of a large vase of the same color were picked up
+near the ruin. Most of the fragments, however, belong to the first
+classes--the coiled and indented wares.
+
+There was no evidence that the former inhabitants of these buildings
+were acquainted with metals. The ends of the beams had been hacked off
+evidently with blunt stone axes, aided by fire, and the lintels of the
+houses were of split logs which showed no evidence that any metal
+implement was used in fashioning them. We found, however, several
+stone tools, which exhibit considerable skill in the art of stone
+working. These include a single ax, blunt at one end, sharpened at the
+other, and girt by a single groove. The variety of stone from which
+the ax was made does not occur in the immediate vicinity of the ruin.
+There were one or two stone hammers, grooved for hafting, like the ax.
+A third stone maul, being grooveless, was evidently a hand tool for
+breaking other stones or for grinding pigments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 251--Stone implement from Honanki]
+
+Perhaps the most interesting stone implement which was found was
+uncovered in the excavation of one of the middle rooms of the western
+part of the ruin, about three feet below the surface. It consists of a
+wooden handle rounded at each end and slightly curved, with a
+sharpened stone inserted midway of its length and cemented to the wood
+with pitch or asphaltum. The stone of this implement would hardly bear
+rough usage, or sustain, without fracture, a heavy blow. The edge is
+tolerably sharp, and it therefore may have been used in skinning
+animals. Judging from the form of the handle, the implement is better
+suited for use as a scraper than for any other purpose which has
+occurred to me (figure 251).
+
+The inhabitants of the two ruins of the Red-rocks used obsidian
+arrowpoints with shafts of reeds, and evidently highly regarded
+fragments of the former material for knives, spearheads, and one or
+two other purposes.
+
+The stone metates from these ruins are in no respect characteristic,
+and several fine specimens were found in place on the floors of the
+rooms. One of these was a well-worn specimen of lava, which must have
+been brought from a considerable distance, since none of that
+material occurs in the neighborhood. The existence of these grinding
+stones implies the use of maize as food, and this evidence was much
+strengthened by the finding of corncobs, kernels of corn, and charred
+fragments at several points below the surface of the débris in the
+chambers of Honanki. One of these grinding stones was found set in the
+floor of one of the rooms in the same way that similar metates may be
+seen in Walpi today.
+
+Of bone implements, our limited excavations revealed only a few
+fragments. Leg bones of the turkey were used for awls, bodkins,
+needles, and similar objects. In general character the implements of
+this kind which were found are almost identical in form with the bone
+implements from Awatobi and Sikyatki, which are later figured and
+described. Although the bone implements unearthed were not numerous,
+we were well repaid for our excavations by finding an ancient
+fireboard, identical with those now used at Tusayan in the ceremony of
+kindling "new fire," and probably universally used for that purpose in
+former times. The only shell was a fragment of a bracelet made from a
+_Pectunculus_, a Pacific coast mollusk highly esteemed in ancient
+times among prehistoric Pueblos. The majority of the wooden objects
+found showed marks of fire, which were especially evident on the ends
+of the roof and floor beams projecting from the walls.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 252--Tinder tube from Honanki]
+
+A considerable collection of objects made of wickerwork and woven
+vegetal fiber was found in the alkaline dust and ashes of the Red-rock
+cliff houses, and while there is some difficulty here as elsewhere, in
+deciding whether certain specimens belonged to the original builders
+or to later temporary occupants, there is little doubt that most of
+them were the property of the latter.
+
+There were many specimens of basketry found on the surface of the
+rubbish of the floors which, from the position of their occurrence and
+from their resemblance to the wickerwork still used by the Apache,
+seem without doubt to have been left there by temporary occupants of
+the rooms. There were likewise many wisps of yucca fiber tied in knots
+which must probably be regarded as of identical origin. The _Yucca
+baccata_ affords the favorite fiber used by the natives at the present
+time, and it appears to have been popular for that purpose among the
+ancients.
+
+Several specimens of sandals, some of which are very much worn on the
+soles, were found buried at the floor level. These are all of the same
+kind, and are made of yucca leaves plaited in narrow strips. The mode
+of attachment to the foot was evidently by a loop passing over the
+toes. Hide and cloth sandals have as yet not been reported from the
+Red-rock ruins of Verde valley. These sandals belonged to the original
+occupants of the cliff houses.
+
+Fabrics made of cotton are common in the ruins of the Red-rocks, and
+at times this fiber was combined with yucca. Some of the specimens of
+cotton cloth were finely woven and are still quite strong, although
+stained dark or almost black. Specimens of netting are also common,
+and an open-mesh legging, similar to the kind manufactured in ancient
+times by the Hopi and still worn by certain personators in their
+sacred dances, were taken from the western room of Honanki. There were
+also many fragments of rope, string, cord, and loosely twisted bands,
+resembling head bands for carrying burdens.
+
+A reed (figure 252) in which was inserted a fragment of cotton fiber
+was unlike anything yet reported from cliff houses, and as the end of
+the cotton which projected beyond the cavity of the reed was charred,
+it possibly was used as a slow-match or tinder-box.
+
+Several shell and turquois beads were found, but my limited studies of
+the cliff-houses revealed only a few other ornaments, among them being
+beads of turkey-bone and a single wristlet fashioned from a
+_Pectunculus_. One or two fragments of prayer-sticks were discovered
+in a rock inclosure in a cleft to the west of the ruin.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE VERDE VALLEY RUINS
+
+The ruins of the Verde region closely resemble those of Tusayan, and
+seem to support the claim of the Hopi that some of their ancestors
+formerly lived in that region. This is true more especially of the
+villages of the plains and mesa tops, for neither cave-houses nor
+cavate dwellings are found in the immediate vicinity of the inhabited
+Tusayan pueblos. The objects taken from the ruins are similar to those
+found universally over the pueblo area, and from them alone we can not
+say more than that they probably indicate the same substratum of
+culture as that from which modern pueblo life with its many
+modifications has sprung.
+
+The symbolism of the decorations on the fragments of pottery found in
+the Verde ruins is the same as that of the ancient pueblos of the
+Colorado Chiquito, and it remains to be shown whether the ancestors of
+these were Hopi or Zuñi. I believe it will be found that they were
+both, or that when the villages along the Colorado Chiquito[29] were
+abandoned part of the inhabitants went to the mesas of Tusayan and
+others migrated farther up the river to the Zuñi villages.
+
+Two centers of distribution of cliff houses occur in our Southwest:
+those of the upper tributaries of the Colorado in the north and the
+cliff houses of the affluents of the Salt and the Gila in the south.
+The watershed of the Rio Grande is, so far as is known, destitute of
+this kind of aboriginal dwellings. Between the two centers of
+distribution lie the pueblos of the Little Colorado and its
+tributaries, the home of the ancestors of the Hopi and the Zuñi. The
+many resemblances between the cliff houses of the north and those of
+the south indicate that the stage of culture of both was uniform, and
+probably the same conditions of environment led both peoples to build
+similar dwellings. All those likenesses which can be found between the
+modern Zuñi and the Hopi to the former cliff peoples of the San Juan
+region in the north, apply equally to those of the upper Salado and
+the Gila and their tributaries to the south; and so far as arguments
+of a northern origin of either, built on architectural or
+technological resemblances, are concerned, they are not conclusive,
+since they are also applicable to the cliff peoples of the south. The
+one important difference between the northern and the southern tier of
+cliff houses is the occurrence of the circular kiva, which has never
+been reported south of the divide between the Little Colorado and the
+Gila-Salado drainage. If a kiva was a feature in southern cliff
+houses, which I doubt, it appears to have been a rectangular chamber
+similar to a dwelling room. The circular kiva exists in neither the
+modern Hopi nor the Zuñi pueblos, and it has not been found in
+adjacent Tusayan ruins; therefore, if these habitations were
+profoundly influenced by settlers from the north, it is strange that
+such a radical change in the form of this room resulted. The arguments
+advanced that one of the two component stocks of the Zuñi, and that
+the aboriginal, came from the cliff peoples of the San Juan, are not
+conclusive, although I have no doubt that the Zuñi may have received
+increment from that direction.
+
+Cushing has, I believe, furnished good evidence that some of the
+ancestors of the Zuñi population came from the south and southwest;
+and that some of these came from pueblos now in ruins on the Little
+Colorado is indicated by the great similarity in the antiquities of
+ancient Zuñi and the Colorado Chiquito ruins. Part of the Patki people
+of the Hopi went to Zuñi and part to Tusayan, from the same abandoned
+pueblo, and the descendants of this family in Walpi still recognize
+this ancient kinship; but I do not know, and so far as can be seen
+there is no way of determining, the relative antiquity of the pueblos
+in Zuñi valley and those on the lower Colorado.
+
+The approximate date of the immigration of the Patki people to Tusayan
+is as yet a matter of conjecture. It may have been in prehistoric
+times, or more likely at a comparatively late period in the history of
+the people. It seems well substantiated, however, that when this
+Water-house people joined the other Hopi, the latter inhabited pueblos
+and were to all intents a pueblo people. If this hypothesis be a
+correct one, the Snake, Horn, and Bear peoples, whom the southern
+colonists found in Tusayan, had a culture of their own similar to that
+of the people from the south. Whence that culture came must be
+determined by studies of the component clans of the Hopi before the
+arrival of the Patki people.[30]
+
+The origin of the round shape of the estufa, according to Nordenskiöld
+(p. 168), is most easily explained on the hypothesis that it is a
+reminiscence of the cliff-dwellers' nomadic period. "There must be
+some very cogent reason for the employment of this shape," he says,
+"for the construction of a cylindrical chamber within a block of
+rectangular rooms involves no small amount of labor. We know how
+obstinately primitive nations cling to everything connected with their
+religious ideas. Then what is more natural than the retention, for the
+room where religious ceremonies were performed, of the round shape
+characteristic of the original dwelling place, the nomadic hut? This
+assumption is further corroborated by the situation of the hearth and
+the structure of the roof of the estufa, when we find points of
+analogy to the method employed by certain nomadic Indians in the
+erection of their huts." This theory of the origin of the round form
+of dwelling and its retention in the architecture of the kiva,
+advanced by Nordenskiöld in 1893, has much in its favor, but the
+rectangular form, which, so far as known, is the only shape of these
+sacred rooms in the Tusayan region, is still unexplained. From
+Castañeda's narrative of the Coronado expedition it appears that in
+the middle of the sixteenth century the eastern pueblos had both
+square and round estufas or kivas, and that these kivas belonged to
+the men while the rooms of the pueblo were in the possession of the
+women. The apparent reason why we find no round rooms or kivas in the
+southern cliff houses and in Tusayan may be due to several causes.
+Local conditions, including the character of the building sites on the
+Hopi mesa, made square rooms more practical, or the nomadic stage was
+so far removed that the form of the inclosure in which the ancients
+held their rites had not been preserved. Moreover, some of the most
+ancient and secret observances at Walpi, as the Flute ceremony, are
+not performed in special kivas, but take place in ordinary living
+rooms.
+
+As in all the other ruins of Verde valley, circular kivas are absent
+in the Red-rock country, and this fact, which has attracted the
+attention of several observers, is, I believe, very significant.
+Although as yet our knowledge of the cliff houses of the upper Gila
+and Salado and their numerous tributaries is very fragmentary, and
+generalization on that account unsafe, it may be stated provisionally
+that no circular kivas have yet been found in any ruins of the
+Gila-Salado watershed. This form of kiva, however, is an essential
+feature of the cliff dwellings of Rio Colorado, especially of those
+along its affluents in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico.
+Roughly speaking, then, the circular kiva is characteristic of the
+ruins of this region and of certain others in the valley of the Rio
+Grande, where they still survive in inhabited pueblos.
+
+Circular ruins likewise are limited in their distribution in the
+Southwest, and it is an interesting fact that the geographic
+distribution of ancient pueblos of this form is in a general way the
+same as that of circular kivas. There are, of course, many exceptions,
+but so far as I know these can readily be explained. No ruins of
+circular dwellings occur in the Gila-Salado drainage area, where
+likewise no circular kivas have been observed. Moreover, the circular
+form of dwelling and kiva is distinctively characteristic of
+prehistoric peoples east of Tusayan, and the few instances of their
+occurrence on its eastern border can readily be explained as
+extra-Hopi.
+
+The explanation of these circular kivas advanced by Nordenskiöld and
+the Mindeleffs, that they are survivals of round habitations of
+nomads, has much to commend it; but whether sufficient or not, the
+geographic limitation of these structures tells in favor of the
+absence of any considerable migration of the prehistoric peoples of
+the upper Colorado and Rio Grande watersheds southward into the
+drainage area of the Gila-Salado. Had the migration been in that
+direction it may readily be believed that the round kiva and the
+circular form of dwelling would have been brought with it.
+
+The round kiva has been regarded as a survival of the form of the
+original homes of the nomad, when he became a sedentary agriculturist
+by conquest and marriage.
+
+The presence of rectangular kivas in the same areas in which round
+kivas occur does not necessarily militate against this theory, nor
+does it oblige us to offer an explanation of a necessarily radical
+change in architecture if we would derive it from a circular form. It
+would indeed be very unusual to find such a change in a structure
+devoted to religious purposes where conservatism is so strong. The
+rectangular kiva is the ancient form, or rather the original form; the
+round kiva is not a development from it, but an introduction from an
+alien people. It never penetrated southward of the Colorado and upper
+Rio Grande drainage areas because the element which introduced it in
+the north was never strong enough to influence the house builders of
+the Gila-Salado and tributary valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+RUINS IN TUSAYAN
+
+GENERAL FEATURES
+
+
+No region of our Southwest presents more instructive antiquities than
+the ancient province of Tusayan, more widely known as the Moki
+reservation. In the more limited use of the term, Tusayan is applied
+to the immediate surroundings of the Hopi pueblos, to which "province"
+it was given in the middle of the sixteenth century. In a broader
+sense the name would include an as yet unbounded country claimed by
+the component clans of this people as the homes of their ancestors.
+
+The general character and distribution of Tusayan ruins (plate XVI)
+has been ably presented by Mr Victor Mindeleff in a previous
+report.[31] While this memoir is not regarded as exhaustive, it
+considers most of the large ruins in immediate proximity to the three
+mesas on which the pueblos inhabited by the Hopi are situated. It is
+not my purpose here to consider all Tusayan ruins, even if I were able
+to do so, but to supplement with additional data the observations
+already published on two of the most noteworthy pueblo settlements.
+Broadly speaking, I have attempted archeological excavations in order
+to obtain more light on the nature of prehistoric life in Tusayan. It
+may be advantageous, however, to refer briefly to some of the ruins
+thus far discovered in the Tusayan region as preliminary to more
+systematic descriptions of the two which I have chosen for special
+description.
+
+The legends of the surviving Hopi contain constant references to
+former habitations of different clans in the country round about their
+present villages. These clans, which by consolidation make up the
+present population of the Hopi pueblos, are said to have originally
+entered Tusayan from regions as far eastward as the Rio Grande, and
+from the southern country included within the drainage of the Gila,
+the Salt, and their affluents. Other increments are reputed to have
+come from the northward and the westward, so that the people we now
+find in Tusayan are descendants from an aggregation of stocks from
+several directions, some of them having migrated from considerable
+distances. Natives of other regions have settled among the ancient
+Hopi, built pueblos, and later returned to their former homes; and the
+Hopi in turn have sent colonists into the eastern pueblo country.
+
+These legends of former movements of the tribal clans of Tusayan are
+supplemented and supported by historical documents, and we know from
+this evidence that there has been a continual interchange between the
+people of Tusayan and almost every large pueblo of New Mexico and
+Arizona. Some of the ruins of this region were abandoned in historic
+times; others are prehistoric; many were simply temporary halting
+places in Hopi migrations, and were abandoned as the clans drifted
+together in friendship or destroyed as a result of internecine
+conflicts.
+
+There is documentary evidence that in the years following the great
+rebellion of the Pueblo tribes in 1680, which were characterized by
+catastrophes of all kinds among the Rio Grande villagers, many Tanoan
+people fled to Tusayan to escape from their troubles. According to
+Niel, 4,000 Tanoan refugees, under Frasquillo, loaded with booty which
+they had looted from the churches, went to Oraibi by way of Zuñi, and
+there established a "kingdom," with their chief as ruler. How much
+reliance may be placed on this account is not clear to me, but there
+is no doubt that many Tanoan people joined the Hopi about this time,
+and among them were the Asa people, the ancestors of the present
+inhabitants of Hano pueblo, and probably the accolents of Payüpki. The
+ease with which two Franciscan fathers, in 1742, persuaded 441 of
+these to return to the Rio Grande, implies that they were not very
+hostile to Christianity, and it is possible that one reason they
+sought Tusayan in the years after the Spaniards were expelled may have
+been their friendship for the church party.
+
+With the exception of Oraibi, not one of the present inhabited pueblos
+of Tusayan occupies the site on which it stood in the sixteenth
+century, and the majority of them do not antedate the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. The villages have shifted their positions but
+retained their names.
+
+At the time of the advent of Tobar, in 1540, there was but one of the
+present three villages of East Mesa. This was Walpi, and at the period
+referred to it was situated on the terrace below the site of the
+present town, near the northwestern base of the mesa proper. Two
+well-defined ruins, called Kisakobi and Küchaptüvela, are now pointed
+out as the sites of Old Walpi. Of these Küchaptüvela is regarded as
+the older.
+
+Judging by their ruins these towns were of considerable size. From
+their exposed situation they were open to the inroads of predatory
+tribes, and from these hostile raids their abandonment became
+necessary. From Küchaptüvela the ancient Walpians moved to a point
+higher on the mesa, nearer its western limit, and built Kisakobi,
+where the pueblo stood in the seventeenth century. There is evidence
+that a Spanish mission was erected at this point, and the place is
+sometimes called Nüshaki, a corruption of "Missa-ki," Mass-house. From
+this place the original nucleus of Walpians moved to the present site
+about the close of the seventeenth century. Later the original
+population was joined by other phratries, some of which, as the Asa,
+had lived in the cliff-houses of Tségi, or Canyon de Chelly, as late
+as the beginning of the eighteenth century. This, however, is not the
+place to trace the composition of the different modern villages.
+
+Sichomovi was a colony from Walpi, founded about 1750, and Hano was
+built not earlier than 1700. The former was settled by the Badger
+people, later joined by a group of Tanoan clans called the Asa, from
+the Rio Grande, who were invited to Tusayan to aid the Hopi in
+resisting the invasions of northern nomads.
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century the population of the province
+of Tusayan was for the first time distributed in the seven pueblos now
+inhabited. No village has been deserted since that time, nor has any
+new site been occupied.
+
+In order that the reader may have an idea of the Tusayan pueblos at
+the time mentioned, an account of them from a little-known description
+by Morfi in 1782 is introduced:[32]
+
+     _Morfi's account of the Tusayan pueblos_
+
+     Quarenta y seis leguas al Poniente de Zuñi, con alguna
+     inclinacion al N. O. están los tres primeros pueblos de la
+     provincia de Moqui, que en el dia en el corto distrito de
+     4-1/2 leguas (112 recto) tiene siete pueblos en tres mesas ó
+     peñoles que corren linea recta de Oriente á Poniente.
+
+     _Tanos_[33]
+
+     En la punta occidental de la primera, y en la mas estrecho
+     de su eminencia están situados tres de los quales el primero
+     es el de Tanos (alli dicen Tegüas), cuyas moradores tienen
+     idioma particular y distinto del Moquino. Es pueblo regular
+     con un plaza en el centro, y un formacion de calles. Tendrá
+     110 familias.
+
+     El segundo[34] pueblo dista del precedente como un tiro de
+     piedra, es de fundacion moderna, y se compondrá de mas 15
+     familias que se retiraron aqui de:
+
+     _Gualpi_
+
+     Gualpi que dista del anterior un tiro de fusil, es mas
+     grande y populoso que los dos anteriores, puede tener hasta
+     200 familias. Estas tres pueblos tienen poco caballada, y
+     algunas vacas; pero mucho ganado lanar.
+
+     _Mosasnabi_[35]
+
+     Al poniente de esta mesa, y á legua y media de distancia
+     está la segunda, cuyo intermedio es un (112 v.) arenal, que
+     ertrando un poco en ella la divide en dos brazas. En el
+     septentrional, que es el mas inmediata á Gualpi hay dos
+     anillos distantes entre si un tiro de piedra. En la cima del
+     primero está situado el pueblo de Mosasnabi compuesto de 50
+     familias poco mas ó menos.
+
+     _Xipaolabi_[36]
+
+     En la cumbre del secundo cerrito se fundó el quinto pueblo
+     llamado Xipaolabi, que tendrá solo 14 familias: está casi
+     arruinado, porque sus vecinos se han trasladado al brazo
+     austral de la mesa y formaron el sexto pueblo llamado:
+
+     _Xongopabi_[37]
+
+     Xongopabi goza mejor situacion que todos los demas, tienen
+     tres quarteles mui bien dispuestos y en ellas unas 60
+     familias. Estos tres pueblos tienen mas caballada que los
+     primeros y mucho ganado menor.
+
+
+     _Oraybe_
+
+     Dos y media leguas al Poniente de esta mesa, está la
+     tercera, y en sucima el septimo pueblo que llaman Oraybe. Es
+     como la capital de la provincia, el mayor y mas bien formado
+     de toda ella, y acaso de todas las provincias internas.
+     Tiene once quarteles ó manzanas bien largas y dispuestos con
+     calles á cordel yá (113 r.) todos vientos, y puede llegar su
+     poblacion á 800 familias. Tienen buena caballada, mucho
+     ganado menor y algun vacuno. Aunque no gozan sino una
+     pequeña fuente de buena agua, distante del pueblo mas de una
+     milla al Norte, han construido para suplir esta escasez, en
+     la misma mesa, y mui inmediato à las casas seis cisternas
+     grandes donde recoger la agua de las lluvias y nieves.
+
+The distribution of the population of Tusayan in the seven pueblos
+mentioned above remained practically the same during the century
+between 1782 and 1882. Summer settlements for farming purposes were
+inhabited by the Oraibi for brief periods. Between the years 1880 and
+1890 a beginning of a new distribution of Hopi families began, when
+one or two of the less timid erected houses near Coyote spring, at the
+East Mesa. The Tewa, represented by Polaka and Jakwaina, took the lead
+in this movement. From 1890 to the present time a large number of
+Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano families have built houses in the foothills
+of the East Mesa and in the plain beyond the "wash." A large
+schoolhouse has been erected at Sun spring and a considerable number
+of East Mesa villagers have abandoned their mesa dwellings. In this
+shifting of the population the isolated house is always adopted and
+the aboriginal method of roof building is abandoned. The indications
+are that in a few years the population of the East Mesa will be
+settled in unconnected farmhouses with little resemblance to the
+ancient communal pueblo.
+
+This movement is shared to a less extent by the Middle Mesa and Oraibi
+people. On my first visit to the pueblos of these mesas, in 1890,
+there was not a single permanent dwelling save in the ancient pueblos;
+but now numerous small farmhouses have been erected at or near the
+springs in the foothills. I mention these facts as a matter of record
+of progress in the life of these people in adapting themselves to the
+new conditions or influences by which they are surrounded. I believe
+that if this exodus of Hopi families from the old pueblo to the plain
+continues during the next two decades as it has in the last ten years,
+there are children now living in Walpi who will some day see it
+uninhabited.
+
+This disintegration of the Hopi phratries, by which families are
+separated from one another, is, I believe, a return to the prehistoric
+distribution of the clans, and as Walpi grew into a pueblo by a union
+of kindred people, so now it is again being divided and distributed,
+still preserving family ties in new clusters or groupings. It is thus
+not impossible that the sites of certain old ruins, as Sikyatki,
+deserted for many years, will again be built upon if better suited for
+new modes of life. The settlement near Coyote spring, for instance, is
+not far from the old site of a former home of the Tanoan families, who
+went to Tusayan in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and the
+people who inhabit these new houses are all Tanoan descendants of the
+original contingent.
+
+In order to become familiar with the general character of Tusayan
+ruins, I made a brief reconnoissance of those mentioned in the
+following list, from which I selected Awatobi and Sikyatki as places
+for a more exhaustive exploration. This list is followed by a brief
+mention of those which I believe would offer fair opportunities for a
+continuation of the work inaugurated. The ruins near Oraibi were not
+examined and are therefore omitted, not that they are regarded as less
+important, but because I was unable to undertake a study of them in
+the limited time at my disposal. There are also many ruins in Tusayan,
+north of the inhabited pueblos, which have never been described, and
+would well repay extended investigation. Some of these, as the ruins
+at the sacred spring called Kishuba, are of the utmost traditional
+importance.
+
+     I. _Middle Mesa ruins_--(1) Old Shuñopovi; (2) Old
+     Mishoñinovi; (3) Shitaumû; (4) Chukubi; (5) Payüpki.
+
+     II. _East Mesa ruins_--(1) Kisakobi; (2) Küchaptüvela; (3)
+     Küküchomo; (4) Tukinobi; (5) Kachinba; (6) Sikyatki.
+
+     III. _Ruins in Keam's canyon_.
+
+     IV. _Jeditoh valley ruins_--(1) Bat-house; (2) Jeditoh,
+     Kawaika; (3) Horn-house; (4) Awatobi; Smaller Awatobi.
+
+This method of classification is purely geographical, and is adopted
+simply for convenience; but there are one or two facts worthy of
+mention in regard to the distribution of ruins in these four sections.
+The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, are, as a rule, situated on the
+eastern side of their respective mesas, or on the cliffs or hills
+which border the adjacent plains on the west. This uniformity is
+thought to have resulted from a desire to occupy a sunny site for
+warmth and for other reasons.
+
+The pueblos at or nearest the southern ends of the mesas were found to
+be best suited for habitation, consequently the present towns occupy
+those sites, or, as in the case of the Jeditoh series, the pueblo at
+that point was the last abandoned. The reason for this is thought to
+be an attempt to concentrate on the most inaccessible sites available,
+which implies inroads of hostile peoples. For the same reason,
+likewise, the tendency was to move from the foothills to the mesa tops
+when these invasions began.
+
+Early settlers near East Mesa appeared to have chosen exposed sites
+for their pueblos. This would imply that they feared no invasion, and
+legendary history indicates that the first pueblos were erected before
+the hostile Ute, Apache, and Navaho appeared. The early settlements on
+Middle Mesa were also apparently not made with an absorbing idea of
+inaccessibility. All the Jeditoh villages, however, were on the mesa
+tops, these sites having been selected evidently with a view to
+protection, since they were not convenient to the farms.
+
+For many reasons it would seem that the people who occupied the now
+ruined Jeditoh villages were later arrivals in Tusayan than those of
+East and Middle Mesas, and that, as a rule, they came from the
+eastward, while those of Middle Mesa arrived from the south. The first
+colonists of all, however, appear to have been the East Mesa clans,
+the Bear and Snake families. If this conjecture be true, we may
+believe that the oldest pueblos in Tusayan were probably the house
+groups of the Snake clan of East Mesa, for whom their traditionists
+claim a northern origin.
+
+
+THE MIDDLE MESA RUINS
+
+SHUÑOPOVI
+
+The site of Old Shuñopovi (plate CV) at the advent of the first
+Spaniards, and for a century or more afterward, was at the foot of the
+mesa on which the present village stands. The site of the old pueblo
+is easily detected by the foundations of the ancient houses and their
+overturned walls, surrounded by mounds of soil filled with fragments
+of the finest pottery.
+
+The old village was situated on a ridge of foothills east of the
+present town and near the spring, which is still used. On the highest
+point of the ridge there rise to a considerable height the massive
+walls of the old Spanish mission church, forming an inclosure, now
+used as a sheep corral. The cemeteries are near by, close to the outer
+walls, and among a clump of peach trees about half a mile east of the
+old houses. The pottery,[38] as shown by the fragments, is of the
+finest old Tusayan ware, cream and red being the predominating colors,
+while fragments of coiled and black-and-white ware are likewise
+common.
+
+
+MISHOÑINOVI
+
+The ruins of Old Mishoñinovi lie west of the present pueblo in the
+foothills, not far from the two rocky pinnacles at that point and
+adjacent to a spring. In strolling over the site of the old town I
+have noted its ground plan, and have picked up many sherds which
+indicate that the pottery made at that place was the fine cream-color
+ware for which Tusayan has always been famous. The site offers unusual
+opportunities for archeological studies, but excavation there is not
+practicable on account of the opposition of the chiefs.
+
+Old Mishoñinovi was a pueblo of considerable size, and was probably
+inhabited up to the close of the seventeenth century. It was probably
+on this site that the early Spanish explorers found the largest pueblo
+of the Middle Mesa. The ruin of Shitaimovi, in the foothills near
+Mishoñinovi, mentioned by Mindeleff, was not visited by our party.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CV.
+
+SKETCH MAP OF THE MESA COUNTRY
+OCCUPIED BY THE
+HOPI INDIANS]
+
+
+CHUKUBI
+
+The ruin of Chukubi bears every evidence of antiquity. It is situated
+on one of the eastward projecting spurs of Middle Mesa, midway between
+Payüpki and Shipaulovi, near an excellent spring at the base of the
+mesa.
+
+Chukubi was built in rectangular form, with a central plaza surrounded
+by rooms, two deep. There are many indications of outlying chambers,
+some of which are arranged in rows. The house walls are almost wholly
+demolished, and in far poorer state of preservation than those of the
+neighboring ruin of Payüpki. The evidence now obtainable indicates
+that it was an ancient habitation of a limited period of occupancy. It
+is said to have been settled by the Patuñ or Squash people, whose
+original home was far to the south, on Little Colorado river. A fair
+ground plan is given by Mindeleff in his memoir on Pueblo
+Architecture; but so far as known no studies of the pottery of this
+pueblo have ever been made.
+
+
+PAYÜPKI
+
+One of the best-preserved ruins on Middle Mesa is called Payüpki by
+the Hopi, and is interesting in connection with the traditions of the
+migration of peoples from the Rio Grande, which followed the
+troublesome years at the close of the seventeenth century. In the
+reconquest of New Mexico by the Spaniards we can hardly say that
+Tusayan was conquered; the province was visited and nominally
+subjugated after the great rebellion, but with the exception of
+repeated expeditions, which were often repulsed, the Hopi were
+practically independent and were so regarded. No adequate punishment
+was inflicted on the inhabitants of Walpi for the destruction of the
+town of Awatobi, and although there were a few military expeditious to
+Tusayan no effort at subjugation was seriously made.
+
+Tusayan was regarded as an asylum for the discontented or apostate,
+and about the close of the seventeenth century many people from the
+Rio Grande fled there for refuge. Some of these refugees appear to
+have founded pueblos of their own; others were amalgamated with
+existing villages. Payüpki seems to have been founded about this
+period, for we find no account of it before this time, and it is not
+mentioned in connection with ancient migrations. In 1706 Holguin is
+said to have attacked the "Tanos" village between Walpi and Oraibi and
+forced the inhabitants to give hostages, but he was later set upon by
+the Tano and driven back to Zuñi. It would hardly seem possible that
+the pueblo mentioned could have been Hano, for this village does not
+lie between Oraibi and Walpi and could not have been surrounded in the
+way indicated in the account. Payüpki, however, not only lay on the
+trail between Walpi and Oraibi--about midway, as the chronicler
+states--but was so situated on a projecting promontory that it could
+easily have been surrounded and isolated from the other pueblos.
+
+The Hopi legends definitely assert that the Payüpki people came from
+the "great river," the Rio Grande, and spoke a language allied to that
+of the people of Hano. They were probably apostates, who came from the
+east about 1680, but did not seem to agree well with the people of the
+Middle Mesa, and about 1750 returned to the river and were domiciled
+in Sandia, where their descendants still live. The name Payüpki is
+applied by the Hopi to the pueblo of Sandia as well as to the ruin on
+the Middle Mesa. The general appearance of the ruin of Payüpki
+indicates that it was not long inhabited, and that it was abandoned at
+a comparatively recent date. The general plan is not that common to
+ancient Tusayan ruins, but more like that of Hano and Sichomovi, which
+were erected about the time Payüpki was built. Many fragments of a
+kind of pottery which in general appearance is foreign to Tusayan, but
+which resembles the Rio Grande ware, were found on the mounds, and the
+walls are better preserved than those of the ancient Tusayan ruins.
+
+A notable absence of fragments of obsidian, the presence of which in
+abundance is characteristic of ancient ruins, was observed on the site
+of Payüpki. All these evidences substantiate the Hopi legend that the
+Tanoan inhabitants of the village of Middle Mesa, above the trail from
+Walpi to Oraibi, made but a short stay in Tusayan.[39]
+
+There is good documentary evidence that Sandia was settled by Tanoan
+people from Tusayan. Morfi in 1782 so states,[40] and in a copy of the
+acts of possession of the pueblo grants of 1748 we find still further
+proof of the settlement of "Moquinos" in Sandia.[41]
+
+When Otermin returned to New Mexico in his attempted reconquest, in
+1681, he reached Isleta on December 6, and on the 8th Dominguez
+encamped in sight of Sandia, but found the inhabitants had fled. The
+discord following this event drove the few surviving families of the
+Tiwa on their old range to Tusayan, for they were set upon by Keres
+and Jemez warriors on the plea that they received back the Spaniards.
+Possibly these families formed the nucleus of Payüpki. It was about
+this time, also, if we can believe Niel's story, that 4,000 Tanos went
+to Tusayan. It would thus appear that the Hopi Payüpki was settled in
+the decade 1680-1690.
+
+
+THE EAST MESA RUINS
+
+KÜCHAPTÜVELA AND KISAKOBI
+
+The two ruins of Küchaptüvela and Kisakobi mark the sites of Walpi
+during the period of Spanish exploration and occupancy between 1540
+and 1700. The former was the older. In all probability the latter had
+a mission church and was inhabited at the time of the great rebellion
+in 1680, having been founded about fifty years previously.
+
+The former or more ancient[42] pueblo was situated on the first or
+lowest terrace of East Mesa, below the present pueblo, on the northern
+and western sides. The name Küchaptüvela signifies "Ash-hill terrace,"
+and probably the old settlement, like the modern, was known as Walpi,
+"Place-of-the-gap," referring to the gap or notch (_wala_) in the mesa
+east of Hano.
+
+Old Walpi is said to have been abandoned because it was in the shade
+of the mesa, but doubtless the true cause of its removal was that the
+site was too much exposed, commanded as it was by the towering mesa
+above it, and easily approached on three sides. The Walpi which was
+contemporary with Sikyatki was built in an exposed location, for at
+that time the Hopi were comparatively secure from invaders. Later,
+however, Apache, Ute, and Navaho began to raid their fields, and the
+Spaniards came in their midst again and again, forcing them to work
+like slaves. A more protected site was necessary, and late in the
+seventeenth century the Walpians began to erect houses on the mesa,
+which formed the nucleus of the present town. The standing walls of
+Old Walpi are buried in the débris, but the plans of the rooms may
+readily be traced. Comparatively speaking, it was a large, compact,
+well-built pueblo, and, from the great piles of débris in the
+neighborhood, would seem to have been occupied during several
+generations.
+
+The pottery found in the neighborhood is the fine, ancient Tusayan
+ware, like that of Sikyatki and Shuñopovi. Extended excavations would
+reveal, I am sure, many beautiful objects and shed considerable light
+on the obscure history of Walpi and its early population.
+
+After moving from Old Walpi it seems that the people first built
+houses on the terrace above, or on the platform extending westward
+from the western limits of the summit of East Mesa. The whole top of
+that part of the mesa is covered with house walls, showing the former
+existence of a large pueblo. Here, no doubt, if we can trust
+tradition, the mission of Walpi was built, and I have found in the
+débris fragments of pottery similar to that used in Mexico, and very
+different from ancient or modern Pueblo ware. But even Kisakobi[43]
+was not a safe site for the Walpians to choose for their village, so
+after they destroyed the mission and killed the priest they moved up
+to their present site and abandoned both of their former villages.
+
+It is said that with this removal of the villagers there were found to
+be no easy means of climbing the precipitous walls, and that the
+stairway trails were made as late as the beginning of the present
+century. In those early days there was a ladder near where the
+stairway trail is now situated, and some of the older men of Walpi
+have pointed out to me where this ladder formerly stood.
+
+The present plan of Walpi shows marked differences from that made
+twenty years ago, and several houses between the stairway trail and
+the Wikwaliobi kiva, on the edge of the mesa, which have now fallen
+into ruin, were inhabited when I first visited Walpi in 1890. The
+buildings between the Snake kiva and the Nacab kiva are rapidly
+becoming unsafe for habitation, and most of these rooms will soon be
+deserted. As many Walpi families are building new houses on the plain,
+it needs no prophet to predict that the desertion of the present site
+of Walpi will progress rapidly in the next few years, and possibly by
+the end of our generation the pueblo may be wholly deserted--one more
+ruin added to the multitudes in the Southwest.
+
+The site of Old Walpi, at Küchaptüvela, is the scene of an interesting
+rite in the New-fire ceremony at Walpi, for not far from it is a
+shrine dedicated to a supernatural being called Tüwapoñtumsi,
+"Earth-altar-woman." This shrine, or house, as it is called, is about
+230 feet from the ruin, among the neighboring bowlders, and consists
+of four flat slabs set upright, forming an inclosure in which stands a
+log of fossil wood.
+
+The ceremonials at Old Walpi in the New-fire rites are described in my
+account[44] of this observance, and from their nature I suspect that
+the essential part of this episode is the deposit of offerings at this
+shrine. The circuits about the old ruin are regarded as survivals of
+the rites which took place in former times at Old Walpi. The ruin was
+spoken of in the ceremony as the _Sipapüni_, the abode of the dead who
+had become _katcinas_, to whom the prayers said in the circuits were
+addressed.
+
+
+KÜKÜCHOMO
+
+The two conical mounds on the mesa above Sikyatki are often referred
+to that ancient pueblo, but from their style of architecture and from
+other considerations I am led to connect them with other phratries of
+Tusayan. From limited excavations made in these mounds in 1891, I was
+led to believe that they were round pueblos, similar to those east of
+Tusayan, and that they were temporary habitations, possibly vantage
+points, occupied for defense. Plate CVI illustrates their general
+appearance, while the rooms of which they are composed are shown in
+figure 253. At the place where the mesa narrows between these mounds
+and the pueblos to the west, a wall was built from one edge of the
+mesa to the other to defend the trail on this side. This wall appears
+to have had watch towers or houses at intervals, which are now in
+ruins, as shown in figure 254.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVI
+
+THE RUINS OF KÜKÜCHOMO]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 253--Küküchomo]
+
+The legends concerning the ancient inhabitants of Küküchomo are
+conflicting. The late A. M. Stephen stated that tradition ascribes
+them to the Coyote and Pikya (Corn) peoples, with whom the denizens of
+Sikyatki made friendship, and whom the latter induced to settle there
+to protect them from the Walpians. He regarded them as the last
+arrivals of the Water-house phratry, while the Coyote people came from
+the north at nearly the same time. From his account it would appear
+that the twin mounds, Küküchomo, were abandoned before the destruction
+of Sikyatki. The Coyote people were, I believe, akin to the Kokop or
+Firewood phratry, and as the pueblo of Sikyatki was settled by the
+latter, it is highly probable that the inhabitants of the two villages
+were friendly and naturally combined against the Snake pueblo of
+Walpi. I believe, however, there is some doubt that any branch of the
+Patki people settled in Küküchomo, and the size of the town as
+indicated by the ruin was hardly large enough to accommodate more than
+one clan. Still, as there are two Küküchomo ruins, there may have been
+a different family in each of the two house clusters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 254--Defensive wall on the East Mesa]
+
+It has been said that in ancient times, before the twin mounds of
+Küküchomo were erected, the people of Sikyatki were greatly harassed
+by the young slingers and archers of Walpi, who would come across to
+the edge of the high cliff and assail them with impunity. Anyone,
+however, who contemplates the great distance from Sikyatki to the edge
+of the mesa may well doubt whether it was possible for the Walpi
+bowmen to inflict much harm in that way.
+
+Moreover, if the word "slingers" is advisedly chosen, it introduces a
+kind of warfare which is not mentioned in other Tusayan legends,
+although apparently throwing stones at their enemies was practiced
+among Pueblos of other stocks in early historic times.[45]
+
+We may suppose, however, that the survivors of both Küküchomo and
+Sikyatki sought refuge in Awatobi after the prehistoric destruction of
+their pueblos, for both were peopled by clans which came from the
+east, and naturally went to that village, the founders of which
+migrated from the same direction.
+
+
+KACHINBA
+
+The small ruin at Kachinba, the halting place of the Kachina people,
+seems to have escaped the attention of students of Tusayan archeology.
+It lies about six miles from Sikyatki, about east of Walpi, and is
+approached by following the trail at the foot of the same mesa upon
+which Küküchomo is situated. The ruin is located on a small foothill
+and has a few standing walls. It was evidently diminutive in size and
+only temporarily inhabited. The best wall found at this ruin lies at
+the base of the hill, where the spring formerly was. This spring is
+now filled in, but a circular wall of masonry indicates its great size
+in former times.
+
+
+TUKINOBI
+
+There are evidences that the large hill on top of East Mesa, not far
+from the twin mounds, was once the site of a pueblo of considerable
+size, but I have not been able to gather any definite legend about it.
+Near this ruin is the "Eagle shrine" in which round wooden imitations
+of eagle eggs are ceremonially deposited, and in the immediate
+vicinity of which is another shrine near which tracks are cut in the
+rock, and which were evidently considered by the Indian who pointed
+them out to me as having been made by some bird.[46] It is probably
+from these footprints, which are elsewhere numerous, that the two
+ruins called Küküchomo ("footprints mound") takes its name.
+
+
+JEDITOH VALLEY RUINS
+
+As one enters Antelope valley, following the Holbrook road, he finds
+himself in what was formerly a densely populated region of Tusayan.
+This valley in former times was regarded as a garden spot, and the
+plain was covered with patches of corn, beans, squashes, and chile.
+The former inhabitants lived in pueblos on the northern side, high up
+on the mesa which separates Jeditoh valley from Keam's canyon. All of
+these pueblos are now in ruins, and only a few Navaho and Hopi
+families cultivate small tracts in the once productive fields.
+
+The majority of the series of ruins along the northern rim of Antelope
+valley resemble Awatobi, which is later described in detail. It is
+interesting to note that in the abandonment of villages the same law
+appears to have prevailed here as in the other Tusayan mesas, for in
+the shrinkage of the Hopi people they concentrated more and more to
+the points of the mesas. Thus, at East Mesa, Sikyatki, Kachinba, and
+Küküchomo were destroyed, while Walpi remained. At Middle Mesa,
+Chukubi and Payüpki became ruins, and in Antelope valley Awatobi was
+the last of the Jeditoh series to fall. There has thus been a gradual
+tendency to drift from readily accessible locations to the most
+impregnable sites, which indicates how severely the Hopi must have
+been harassed by their foes. It is significant that some of the oldest
+pueblos were originally built in the most exposed positions, and it
+may rightly be conjectured that the pressure on the villagers came
+long after these sites were chosen. The ancient or original Hopi had a
+sense of security when they built their first houses, and they,
+therefore, did not find it necessary to seek the protection of cliffs.
+Many of them lived in the valley of the Colorado Chiquito, others at
+Kishuba. As time went on, however, they were forced, as were their
+kindred in other pueblos, to move to inaccessible mesas guarded by
+vertical cliffs.
+
+Of the several ruins of Antelope valley, that on the mesa above
+Jeditoh or Antelope spring is one of the largest and most interesting.
+Stephen calls this ruin Mishiptonga, and a plan of the old house is
+given by Mindeleff.
+
+The spring called Kawaika, situated near the former village of the
+same name, was evidently much used by the ancient accolents of
+Antelope valley. From this neighborhood there was excavated a few
+years ago a beautiful collection of ancient mortuary pottery objects,
+which was purchased by Mrs Mary Hemenway, of Boston, and is now in the
+Peabody Museum at Cambridge. These objects have never been adequately
+described, although a good illustration of some of the specimens, with
+a brief reference thereto, was published by James Mooney[47] a few
+years ago.
+
+Among the most striking objects in this collection are clay models of
+houses, dishes, and small vases with rims pierced with holes, and
+rectangular vessels ornamented with pictures of birds. There are
+specimens of cream, yellow, red, and white pottery in the collection
+which, judging by the small size of most of the specimens, was
+apparently votive in character.
+
+The ruins called by Stephen "Horn-house" and "Bat-house," as well as
+the smaller ruin between them, have been described by Mindeleff, who
+has likewise published plans of the first two. From their general
+appearance I should judge they were not occupied for so long a time as
+Awatobi, and by a population considerably smaller. If all these
+Jeditoh pueblos were built by peoples from the Rio Grande, it is
+possible that those around Jeditoh spring were the first founded and
+that Awatobi was of later construction; but from the data at hand the
+relative age of the ruins of this part of Tusayan can not be
+determined.
+
+There are many ruins situated on the periphery of Tusayan which are
+connected traditionally with the Hopi, but are not here mentioned. Of
+these, the so-called "Fire-house" is said to have been the home of
+the ancestors of Sikyatki, and Kintiel of certain Zuñi people akin to
+the Hopi. Both of the ruins mentioned differ in their architectural
+features from characteristic prehistoric Tusayan ruins, for they are
+circular in form, as are many of the ruins in the middle zone of the
+pueblo area. With these exceptions there are no circular ruins within
+the area over which the Hopi lay claim, and it is probable that the
+accolents of Kintiel were more Zuñi than Hopi in kinship.
+
+Many ruins north of Oraibi and in the neighborhood of the farming
+village of Moenkopi are attributed to the Hopi by their traditionists.
+The ruins about Kishyuba, connected with the Kachina people, also
+belong to Tusayan. These and many others doubtless offer most
+important contributions to an exact knowledge of the prehistoric
+migrations of this most interesting people.
+
+Among the many Tusayan ruins which offer good facilities for
+archeological work, the two which I chose for that purpose are Awatobi
+and Sikyatki. My reasons for this choice may briefly be stated.
+
+Awatobi is a historic pueblo of the Hopi, which was more or less under
+Spanish influence between the years 1540 and 1700. When properly
+investigated, in the light of archeology, it ought to present a good
+picture of Tusayan life before the beginning of the modifications
+which appear in the modern villages of that isolated province. While I
+expected to find evidences of Spanish occupancy, I also sought facts
+bearing on the character of Tusayan life in the seventeenth century.
+
+Sikyatki, however, showed us the character of Tusayan life in the
+fifteenth century, or the unmodified aboriginal pueblo culture of this
+section of the Southwest. Here we expected to find Hopi culture
+unmodified by Spanish influence.
+
+The three pueblos of Sikyatki, Awatobi, and Walpi, when properly
+studied, will show the condition of pueblo culture in three
+centuries--in Sikyatki, pure, unmodified pueblo culture; in Awatobi,
+pueblo life as slightly modified by the Spaniards, and in Walpi, those
+changes resulting from the advent of Americans superadded. While
+special attention has thus far been given by ethnologists mainly to
+the last-mentioned pueblo, a study of the ruins of the other two
+villages is of great value in showing how the modern life developed
+and what part of it is due to foreign influence.
+
+A knowledge of the inner life of the inhabitants of Tusayan as it
+exists today is a necessary prerequisite to the interpretation of the
+ancient culture of that province; but we must always bear in mind the
+evolution of society and the influences of foreign origin which have
+been exerted on it. Many, possibly the majority, of modern customs at
+Walpi are inherited, but others are incorporated and still others, of
+ancient date, have become extinct.
+
+As much stress is laid in this memoir on the claim that objects from
+Sikyatki indicate a culture uninfluenced by the Spaniards, it is well
+to present the evidence on which this assertion is based.
+
+(1) Hopi legends all declare that Sikyatki was destroyed before the
+Spaniards, called the "long-gowned" and "iron-shirted" men, came to
+Tusayan. (2) Sikyatki is not mentioned by name in any documentary
+account of Tusayan, although the other villages are named and are
+readily identifiable with existing pueblos. (3) No fragment of glass,
+metal, or other object indicative of the contact of European
+civilization was found anywhere in the ruin. If we add to the above
+the general appearance of age in the mounds and the depth of the
+débris which has accumulated in the rooms and over the graves, we have
+the main facts on which I have relied to support my belief that
+Sikyatki is a prehistoric ruin.
+
+
+AWATOBI
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUIN
+
+No Tusayan ruin offers to the archeologist a better picture of the
+character of Hopi village life in the seventeenth century than that
+known as Awatobi (plate CVII).[48] It is peculiarly interesting as
+connecting the prehistoric culture of Sikyatki and modern Tusayan
+life, with which we have become well acquainted through recent
+research. Awatobi was one of the largest Tusayan pueblos in the middle
+of the sixteenth century, and continued to exist to the close of the
+seventeenth. It was therefore a historic pueblo. It had a mission,
+notices of which occur in historical documents of the period. From its
+preponderance in size, no less than from its position, we may suspect
+that it held relatively the same leadership among the other Antelope
+valley ruins that Walpi does today to Sichomovi and Hano.
+
+The present condition of the ruins of Awatobi is in no respect
+peculiar or different from that of the remains of prehistoric
+structures, except that its mounds occupy a position on a mesa top
+commanding a wide outlook over a valley. On its east it is hemmed in
+by extensive sand dunes, which also stretch to the north and west,
+receding from the village all the way from a few hundred yards to a
+quarter of a mile. On the south the ruins overlook the plain, and the
+sands on the west separate it from a canyon in which there are several
+springs, some cornfields, and one or two modern Hopi houses. There is
+no water in the valley which stretches away from the mesa on which
+Awatobi is situated, and the foothills are only sparingly clothed with
+desert vegetation. The mounds of the ruin have numerous clumps of
+_sibibi_ (_Rhus trilobata_), and are a favorite resort of Hopi women
+for the berries of this highly prized shrub. There is a solitary tree
+midway between the sand dunes west of the village and the western
+mounds, near which we found it convenient to camp. The only
+inhabitants of the Awatobi mesa are a Navaho family, who have
+appropriated, for the shade it affords, a dwarf cedar east of the old
+mission walls. No land is cultivated, save that in the canyons above
+mentioned, west of the sand hills; some fair harvests are, however,
+still gathered from Antelope valley by the Navaho, especially in the
+section higher up, near Jeditoh spring.
+
+The ruin may be approached from the road between Holbrook and Keam's
+Canyon, turning to the left after climbing the mesa. This road,
+however, is not usually traveled, since it trends through the
+difficult sand hills. As Keam's Canyon is the only place in this
+region at which to provision an expedition, it is usual to approach
+Awatobi from that side, the road turning to the right shortly after
+one ascends the steep hill out of the canyon near Keam's trading post.
+
+My archeological work at Awatobi began on July 6, 1895, and was
+continued for two weeks, being abandoned on account of the defection
+of my Hopi workmen, who left their work to attend the celebration of
+the _Niman_ or "Farewell" _katcina_,[49] a July festival in which many
+of them participated. The ruin is conveniently situated for the best
+archeological results; it has a good spring near by, and is not far
+from Keam's Canyon, the base of supplies. The soil covering the rooms,
+however, is almost as hard as cement, and fragile objects, such as
+pottery, were often broken before their removal from the matrix. A
+considerable quantity of débris had to be removed before the floors
+were reached, and as this was firmly impacted great difficulty was
+encountered in successful excavations.
+
+With a corps of trained workmen much better results than those we
+obtained might have been expected, and the experience which the
+Indians subsequently had at Sikyatki would have made my excavations at
+Awatobi, had they been carried on later in the season, more
+remunerative. While my archeological work at certain points in these
+interesting mounds of Awatobi was more or less superficial, it was in
+other places thorough, and revealed many new facts in regard to the
+culture of the inhabitants of this most important pueblo.
+
+I found it inexpedient to dig in the burial places among the sand
+dunes, on account of the religious prejudices of my workmen. This fear
+they afterward overcame to a certain extent, but never completely
+outgrew, although the cemeteries at Sikyatki were quite thoroughly
+excavated, yielding some of the most striking results of the summer's
+exploration. The sand hills west of Sikyatki are often swept by
+violent gales, by which the surface is continually changing, and
+mortuary pottery is frequently exposed. This has always been a
+favorite place for the collector, and many a beautiful food bowl has
+been carried by the Indians from this cemetery to the trading store,
+for the natives do not seem to object to selling a vase or other
+object which they find on the surface, but rarely dig in the ground
+for the purpose of obtaining specimens.
+
+
+NOMENCLATURE OF AWATOBI
+
+The name Awatobi is evidently derived from _awata_, a bow (referring
+to the Bow clan, one of the strongest in the ancient pueblo), and
+_obi_, "high place of." A derivation from _owa_, rock, has also been
+suggested, but it seems hardly distinctive enough to be applicable,
+and is not accepted by the Hopi themselves.
+
+While the different pueblos of Tusayan were not specially mentioned
+until forty years after they were first visited, the name Awatobi is
+readily recognized in the account of Espejo in 1583, where it is
+called Aguato,[50] which appears as Zaguato and Ahuato in Hakluyt.[51]
+In the time of Oñate (1598) the same name is written Aguatuybá.[52]
+Vetancurt,[53] about 1680, mentions the pueblo under the names
+Aguatobi and Ahuatobi, and in 1692, or twelve years after the great
+rebellion, Vargas visited "San Bernardo de Aguatuvi," ten leagues from
+Zuñi. The name appears on maps up to the middle of the eighteenth
+century, several years after its destruction. In more modern times
+various older spellings have been adopted or new ones introduced.
+Among these may be mentioned:
+
+AGUATUVÍ. Buschmann, Neu-Mexico, 231, 1858.
+AGUATUYA. Bandelier in Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology, III, 85, 1892 (misquoting Oñate).
+AGUITOBI. Bandelier in Archĉological Institute Papers, Am. series, III, pt. 1, 115, 1890.
+AHUATU. Bandelier, ibid., 115, 135.
+AHUATUYBA. Bandelier, ibid., 109.
+AH-WAT-TENNA. Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, 195, 1884 (so called by a Tusayan Indian).
+AQUATASI. Walch, Charte America, 1805.
+AQUATUBI. Davis, Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, 368, 1869.
+ATABI-HOGANDI. Bourke, op. cit., 84, 1884 (Navaho name).
+AUA-TU-UI. Bandelier in Archĉological Institute Papers, op. cit., IV, pt. 2, 368, 1892.
+A-WA-TE-U. Cushing in Atlantic Monthly, 367, September, 1882.
+AWATÚBI. Bourke, op. cit., 91, 1884.
+Á WAT U I. Cushing in Fourth Report Bureau of Ethnology, 493, 1886 (or Aguatóbi).
+ZAGNATO. Brackenridge, Early Spanish Discoveries, 19, 1857 (misprint of Hakluyt's Zaguato).
+ZAGUATE. Prince, New Mexico, 34, 1883 (misquoting Hakluyt).
+ZUGUATO. Hinton, Handbook to Arizona, 388, 1878 (misquoting Hakluyt).
+
+The Navaho name of the ruin, as is well known, is Talla-hogan,
+ordinarily translated "Singing-house," and generally interpreted to
+refer to the mass said by the padres in the ancient church. It is
+probable, however, that kivas were used as chambers where songs were
+sung in ceremonials prior to the introduction of Christianity.
+Therefore why Awatobi should preeminently be designated as the
+"Singing-house" is not quite apparent.
+
+The name of the mission, San Bernardino,[54] or San Bernardo, refers
+to its patron saint, and was first applied by Porras in honor of the
+natal day of this saint, on which day, in 1629, he and his companions
+arrived in Tusayan.
+
+
+HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE OF AWATOBI
+
+The identification of Tusayan with the present country of the Hopi
+depends in great measure on the correct determination of the situation
+of Cibola. I have regarded as conclusive Bandelier's argument that
+Cibola comprised the group of pueblos inhabited by the Zuñi in the
+sixteenth century.[55] Regarding this as proven, Tusayan corresponds
+with the Hopi villages, of which Awatobi was one of the largest. It
+lies in the same direction and about the same distance from Zuñi as
+stated in Castañeda's narrative. The fact that Cardenas passed through
+Tusayan when he went from Cibola to the Grand Canyon in 1540 is in
+perfect harmony with the identification of the Hopi villages with
+Tusayan, and Zuñi with Cibola. Tobar, in Tusayan, heard of the great
+river to the west, and when he returned to the headquarters of
+Coronado at Cibola the general dispatched Cardenas to investigate the
+truth of the report. Cardenas naturally went to Tusayan where Tobar
+had heard the news, and from there took guides who conducted him to
+the Grand Canyon. Had the general been in any Hopi town at the time he
+sent Tobar, and later Cardenas, it is quite impossible to find any
+cluster of ruins which we can identify as Tusayan in the direction
+indicated. There can be no doubt that Tusayan was the modern Hopi
+country, and with this in mind the question as to which Hopi pueblo
+was the one first visited by Tobar is worthy of investigation.
+
+In order to shed what light is possible on this question, I have
+examined the account by Castañeda, the letter of Coronado to Mendoza,
+and the description in the "Relacion del Suceso," but find it
+difficult to determine that point definitely.
+
+In Hakluyt's translation of Coronado's letter, it is stated that the
+houses of the "cities" which Tobar was sent to examine were "of
+earth," and the "chiefe" of these towns is called "Tucano." As this
+letter was written before Coronado had received word from Tobar
+concerning his discoveries, naturally we should not expect definite
+information concerning the new province. Capt. Juan Jaramillo's
+account speaks of "Tucayan" as a province composed of seven towns, and
+states that the houses are terraced.
+
+In the "Relacion del Suceso" we likewise find the province called
+"Tuzan" (Tusayan), and the author notes the resemblance of the
+villages to Cibola, but he distinctly states that the inhabitants
+cultivated cotton.
+
+Castañeda's account, which is the most detailed, is that on which I
+have relied in my identification of Awatobi as the first Hopi pueblo
+seen by the Spaniards.
+
+It seems that Don Pedro de Tobar was dispatched by Coronado to explore
+a province called Tusayan which was reported to be twenty-five leagues
+from Cibola. He had in his command seventeen horsemen and one or two
+foot-soldiers, and was accompanied by Friar Juan de Padilla. They
+arrived in the new province after dark and concealed themselves under
+the edge of the mesa, so near that they heard the voices of the
+Indians in their houses. The natives, however, discovered them at
+daylight drawn up in order, and came out to meet them armed with
+wooden clubs, bow and arrows, and carrying shields. The chief drew a
+line of sacred meal across the trail, and in that way symbolized that
+the entrance to their pueblo was closed to the intruders. During a
+parley, however, one of the men made a move to cross the line of meal,
+and an Indian struck his horse on the bridle. This opened hostilities,
+in which the Hopi were worsted, but apparently without loss of life.
+The vanquished brought presents of various kinds--cotton cloth,
+cornmeal, birds, skins, piñon nuts, and a few turquoises--and finding
+a good camping place near their pueblo, Tobar established headquarters
+and received homage from all the province. They allowed the Spaniards
+to enter their villages and traded with them.[56]
+
+Espejo's reference to Awatobi in 1583 leaves no doubt that the pueblo
+was in existence in that year, and while, of course, we can not
+definitely say that it was not built between 1540 and 1583, the
+indications are that it was not. Hopi traditions assert that it was in
+existence when the Spaniards came, and the statement of the legendists
+whom I have consulted are definite that the survivors of Sikyatki went
+to Awatobi after the overthrow of the former pueblo. It would not
+appear, however, that Awatobi was founded prior to Sikyatki, nor is it
+stated that the refugees from Sikyatki built Awatobi, which is within
+the bounds of possibility, but it seems to be quite generally conceded
+that the Sikyatki tragedy antedated the arrival of the first
+Spaniards.
+
+There can, I think, be no doubt that the Hopi pueblo first entered by
+Pedro de Tobar, in 1540, was Awatobi, and that the first conflict of
+Spanish soldiers and Hopi warriors, which occurred at that time, took
+place on the well-known Zuñi trail in Antelope valley, not far from
+Jeditoh or Antelope spring. This pueblo is the nearest village to
+Cibola (Zuñi), from which Tobar came, and as he took the Zuñi trail he
+would naturally first approach this village, even if the other pueblos
+on the rim of this valley were inhabited. It is interesting to
+consider a few lines from Castañeda, describing the event of that
+episode, to see how closely the site of Awatobi conforms to the
+narrative. In Castañeda's account of Tobar's visit we find that the
+latter with his command entered Tusayan so secretly that their
+presence was unknown to the inhabitants, and they traversed a
+cultivated plain without being seen, so that, we are told, they
+approached the village near enough to hear the voices of the Indians
+without being discovered. Moreover, the Indians, the narrative says,
+had a habit of descending to their cultivated fields, which implies
+that they lived on a mesa top. Awatobi was situated on a mesa, and the
+cultivated fields were in exactly the position indicated. The habit of
+retiring to their pueblo at night is still observed, or was to within
+a few years. Tobar arrived at the edge of Antelope valley after dark
+(otherwise he would have been discovered), crossed the cultivated
+fields under cover of night, and camped under the town at the base of
+the mesa. The soldiers from that point could readily hear the voices
+of the villagers above them. Even at the base of the lofty East Mesa I
+have often heard the Walpi people talking, while the words of the town
+crier are intelligible far out on the plain. From the configuration of
+the valley it would not, however, have been easier for Awatobians to
+have seen the approaching Spaniards than for the Walpians; still it
+was possible for the invaders to conceal their approach to Walpi in
+the same way. If, however, the first pueblo approached was Walpi, and
+Tobar followed the Zuñi trail, I think he would have been discovered
+by the Awatobi people before nightfall if he entered the cultivated
+fields early in the evening. It would be incredible to believe that he
+wandered from the trail; much more likely he went directly to Awatobi,
+the first village en route, and then encamped until the approach of
+day before entering the pueblo. At sunrise the inhabitants, early
+stirring, detected the presence of the intruders, and the warriors
+went down the mesa to meet them. They had already heard from Cibola of
+the strange beings, men mounted on animals which were said to devour
+enemies.
+
+It may seem strange that the departure of an expedition against
+Tusayan was unknown to the Hopi, but the narrative leads us to believe
+that such was the fact. The warriors descended to the plain, and their
+chief drew a line of sacred meal across the trail to symbolize that
+the way to their pueblo was closed; whoever crossed it was an enemy,
+and punishment should be meted out to him. This custom is still
+preserved in several ceremonials at the present day, as, for instance,
+in the New-fire rites[57] in November and in the Flute observance in
+July.[58] The priests say that in former times whoever crossed a line
+of meal drawn on the trail at that festival was killed, and even now
+they insist that no one is allowed to pass a closed trail. The Awatobi
+warriors probably warned Tobar and his comrades not to advance, but
+the symbolic barrier was not understood by them. The Spaniards were
+not there to parley long, and it is probable that their purpose was to
+engage in a quarrel with the Indians. Urged on by the priest, Juan de
+Padilla, "who had been a soldier in his youth," they charged the
+Indians and overthrew a number, driving the others before them. The
+immediate provocation for this, according to the historian, was that
+an Indian struck one of the horses on the bridle, at which the holy
+father, losing patience, exclaimed to his captain, "Why are we here?"
+which was interpreted as a sign for the assault.
+
+It must, however, be confessed that if the pueblo of Walpi was the
+first discovered an approach by stealth without being seen would have
+been easier for Tobar if the village referred to was Walpi then
+situated on the Ash-hill terrace, with the East Mesa between it and
+the Zuñi trail. To offset this probability, however, is the fact that
+the Zuñi trail now runs through Awatobi, or in full view of it and
+there is hardly a possibility that Tobar left that trail to avoid
+Awatobi. He would naturally visit the first village, and not go out of
+his way seven miles beyond it, seeking a more distant pueblo.
+
+The effect of this onslaught on men armed with spears, clubs, and
+leather shields can be imagined, and the encounter seems to have
+discouraged the Awatobi warriors from renewed resistance. They fled,
+but shortly afterward brought presents as a sign of submission, when
+Tobar called off his men. Thus was the entry of the Spaniards into
+Tusayan marked with bloodshed for a trifling offense. Shortly
+afterward Tobar entered the village and received the complete
+submission of the people.
+
+The names of the Tusayan pueblos visited by Tobar in this first
+entrance are nowhere mentioned in the several accounts which have come
+down to us. Forty years later, however, the Spaniards returned and
+found the friendly feeling of Awatobi to the visitors had not lapsed.
+When Espejo approached the town in 1583, over the same Zuñi trail, the
+multitudes with their caciques met him with great joy and poured maize
+(sacred meal?) on the ground for the horses to walk upon. This was
+symbolic of welcome; they "made" the trail, a ceremony which is still
+kept up when entrance to the pueblo is formally offered.[59]
+
+The people, considering their poverty, were generous, and gave Espejo
+"hand towels with tassels" at the corners. These were probably dance
+kilts and ceremonial blankets, which then, as now, the Hopi made of
+cotton.
+
+The pueblo, called "Aguato" in the account of that visit, was without
+doubt Awatobi. The name Aguatuybá, mentioned by Oñate, is also
+doubtless the same, although, as pointed out to me by Mr Hodge,
+"through an error probably of the copyist or printer, the name
+Aguatuybá is inadvertently given by Oñate among his list of Hopi
+chiefs, while Esperiez is mentioned among the pueblos." In Oñate's
+list we recognize Oraibi in "Naybi," and Shuñopovi in "Xumupamí" and
+"Comupaví," the most westerly town of the Middle Mesa. "Cuanrabi" and
+"Esperiez" are not recognizable as pueblos.
+
+Espejo, therefore, appears to have been the first to mention Awatobi
+as "Aguato," which is metamorphosed in Hakluyt into "Zaguato or
+"Ahuzto,"[60] although evidently Oñate's "Aguatuybá" was intended as a
+name of a pueblo.
+
+I have not been able to determine satisfactorily the date of the
+erection of the mission building of San Bernardino at Awatobi, but the
+name is mentioned as early as 1629. In that year three friars went to
+Tusayan and began active efforts to convert the Hopi.[61]
+
+It is recorded[62] that Padre Porras, with Andres Gutierrez, Cristoval
+de la Concepcion, and ten soldiers, arrived in Tusayan, "dia del
+glorioso San Bernardo (que és el apellido que aora tiene aquel
+pueblo)," which leaves no doubt why the mission at Awatobi was so
+named. Although an apostate Indian had spread the report, previously
+to the advent of these priests in Tusayan, that the Spaniards were
+coming among them to burn their pueblos, rob their homes, and
+devour[63] their children, the zealous missionaries in 1629 converted
+many of the chiefs and baptized their children. The cacique, Don
+Augustin, who appears to have been baptized at Awatobi, apparently
+lived in Walpi or at the Middle Mesa, and returning to his pueblo,
+prepared the way for a continuation of the apostolic work in the
+villages of the other mesas.
+
+But the missionary labors of Porras came to an untimely end. It is
+written that by 1633 he had made great progress in converting the
+Hopi, but in that year, probably at Awatobi, he was poisoned. Of the
+fate of his two companions and the success of their work little is
+known, but it is recorded that the succession of padres was not
+broken up to the great rebellion in 1680. Figueroa, who was massacred
+at Awatobi in that year, went to Tusayan in 1674 with Aug. Sta. Marie.
+Between the death of Porras and the arrival of Figueroa there was an
+interval of eleven years, during which time the two comrades of Porras
+or Espeleta, who went to Tusayan in 1650, took charge of the spiritual
+welfare of the Hopi. Espeleta and Aug. Sta. Marie were killed in 1680
+at San Francisco de Oraibi and Walpi, respectively, and José Trujillo
+probably lost his life at Old Shuñopovi at the same time. As there is
+no good reason to suppose that Awatobi, one of the most populous
+Tusayan pueblos, was neglected by the Spanish missionaries after the
+death of Porras in 1633, and as it was the first pueblo encountered on
+the trail from Zuñi, doubtless San Bernardino was one of the earliest
+missions erected in Tusayan. From 1680 until 1692, the period of
+independence resulting from the great Pueblo revolt, there was no
+priest in Tusayan, nor, indeed, in all New Mexico. Possibly the
+mission was repaired between 1692 and 1700, but it is probable that it
+was built as early as the time Porras lived in Awatobi. It is
+explicitly stated that in the destruction of Awatobi in 1700 no
+missionaries were killed, although it is recorded that early in that
+year Padre Garaycoechea made it a visit.
+
+The disputes between the Jesuits and Franciscans to obtain the Hopi
+field for missionary work during the eighteenth century naturally
+falls in another chapter of Spanish-Tusayan history. Aside from
+sporadic visits to the pueblos, nothing tangible appears to have
+resulted from the attempts at conversion in this epoch. True, many
+apostates were induced to return to their old homes on the Rio Grande
+and some of the Hopi frequently asked for resident priests, making
+plausible offers to protect them; but the people as a whole were
+hostile, and the mission churches were never rebuilt, nor did the
+fathers again live in this isolated province.
+
+In 1692 Awatobi was visited by Don Diego de Vargas, the reconquerer of
+New Mexico, who appears to have had no difficulty bringing to terms
+the pueblos of Awatobi, Walpi, Mishoñinovi, and Shuñopovi.[64] He
+found, however, that Awatobi was "fortified," and the entrance so
+narrow that but one man could enter at a time. The description leads
+us to conclude that the fortification was the wall at the eastern end,
+and the entrance the gateway, the sides of which are still to be seen.
+The plaza in which the cross was erected was probably just north of
+the walls of the mission.
+
+There would seem to be no doubt that a mission building was standing
+at Awatobi before 1680, for Vetancurt, writing about the year named,
+states that in the uprising it was burned.[65] At the time of the
+visit of Garaycoechea, in the spring of 1700, he found that the
+mission had been rebuilt. In this connection it is instructive, as
+bearing on the probable cause of the destruction of Awatobi, to find
+that while the inhabitants of this pueblo desired to have the mission
+rehabilitated, the other Tusayan pueblos were so hostile that the
+friends of the priest in Awatobi persuaded him not to attempt to visit
+the other villages. This warning was no doubt well advised, and the
+tragic fate which befell Awatobi before the close of the year shows
+that the trouble was brewing when the padre was there, and possibly
+Garaycoechea's visit hastened the catastrophe or intensified the
+hatred of the other pueblos.
+
+At the time of Garaycoechea's visit he baptized, it is said, 73
+persons. This rite was particularly obnoxious[66] to the Hopi, as
+indeed to the other Pueblo Indians, notwithstanding they performed
+practically the same ceremony in initiations into their own secret
+societies. The Awatobians, however, or at least some of them, allowed
+this rite of the Christians, thus intensifying the hatred of the more
+conservative of their own village and of the neighboring pueblos.
+These and other facts seem to indicate that the real cause of the
+destruction of Awatobi was the reception of Christianity by its
+inhabitants, which the other villagers regarded as sorcery. The
+conservative party, led by Tapolo, opened the gate of the town to the
+warriors of Walpi and Mishoñinovi, who slaughtered the liberals, thus
+effectually rooting out the new faith from Tusayan, for after that
+time it never again obtained a foothold.
+
+The visit of Padre Juan Garaycoechea to Tusayan was at the invitation
+of Espeleta, chief of Oraibi, but he went no farther than Awatobi,
+where he baptized the 73 Hopi. He then returned to the "governor," and
+arrived at Zuñi in June. According to Bancroft (p. 222), "In the
+'Moqui Noticias' MS., 669, it is stated that the other Moquis, angry
+that Aguatuvi had received the padres, came and attacked the pueblo,
+killed all the men, and carried off all the women and children,
+leaving the place for many years deserted." Although I have not been
+able to consult the document quoted, this conclusion corresponds so
+closely with Hopi tradition that I believe it is practically true,
+although Bancroft unfortunately closes the quotation I have made from
+his account with the words, "I think this must be an error." Espeleta,
+the Oraibi chief, and 20 companions were in Santa Fé in October, 1700,
+and proposed a peace in which the Hopi asked for religious toleration,
+which Governor Cubero refused. As a final appeal he desired that the
+fathers should not permanently reside with them, but should visit one
+pueblo each year for six years; but this request was also rejected.
+Espeleta returned to Oraibi, and immediately on his appearance an
+unsuccessful attempt was made to destroy Awatobi, followed, as
+recounted in the legend, by a union with Walpi and Mishoñinovi, by
+which the liberal-minded villagers of the Antelope mesa were
+overthrown. Documentary and legendary accounts are thus in strict
+accord regarding the cause of the destruction.
+
+The meager fragmentary historical evidence that can be adduced shows
+that the destruction of Awatobi occurred in the autumn or early winter
+of 1700. In May of that year we have the account of the visiting
+padre, and in the summer when Espeleta was at Santa Fé, the pueblo was
+flourishing. The month of November would have been a favorable one for
+the destruction of the town for the reason that during this time the
+warriors would all be engaged in secret kiva rites. The legend relates
+that the overthrow of the pueblo was at the _Naacnaiya_,[67] which now
+takes place in November.
+
+For many years after its destruction the name of Awatobi was still
+retained on maps including the Tusayan province, and there exist
+several published references to the place as if still inhabited; but
+these appear to be compilations, as no traveler visited the site
+subsequently to 1700. It is never referred to in writings of the
+eighteenth or first half of the nineteenth centuries, and its site
+attracted no attention. The ruins remained unidentified until about
+1884, when the late Captain J. G. Bourke published his book on the
+"Snake Dance of the Moquis," in which he showed that the ruin called
+by the Navaho Tally-hogan was the old Awatobi which played such a
+prominent part in early Tusayan history.
+
+The ruin was described and figured a few years later by Mr Victor
+Mindeleff in his valuable memoir on Cibola and Tusayan architecture.
+Bourke's reference is very brief and Mindeleff's plan deficient, as it
+includes only a portion of the ruin, namely, the conspicuous mission
+walls and adjacent buildings, overlooking entirely the older or
+western mounds, which are the most characteristic. In 1892 I published
+the first complete ground-plan of the ruins of Awatobi, including both
+eastern and western sections. As Mindeleff's plan is defective, his
+characterization of the architectural features of the pueblo is
+consequently faulty. He says: "The plan suggests that the original
+pueblo was built about three sides of a rectangular court, the fourth
+or southeast side, later occupied by the mission buildings, being left
+open or protected by a low wall." While the eastern portion
+undoubtedly supports this conclusion, had he examined the western or
+main section he would doubtless have qualified his conclusion (plate
+CVII). This portion was compact, without a rectangular court, and was
+of pyramidal form. The eastern section was probably of later
+construction, and the mission was originally built outside the main
+pueblo, although probably a row of rooms of very ancient date extended
+along the northern side opposite the church. As it was customary in
+Tusayan to isolate the kivas, these rooms in Awatobi were probably
+extramural and may have been situated in this eastern court, but the
+majority of the people lived in the western section. The architecture
+of the mission and adjacent rooms shows well-marked Spanish influence,
+which is wholly absent in the buildings forming the western mounds.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVII
+
+GROUND PLAN OF AWATOBI]
+
+
+LEGEND OF THE DESTRUCTION OF AWATOBI
+
+The legend of the overthrow of Awatobi is preserved in detail among
+the living villagers of Tusayan, and like all stories which have been
+transmitted for several generations exist in several variants,
+differing in episodes, but coinciding in general outlines. In the
+absence of contemporary documentary history, which some time may
+possibly be brought to light, the legends are the only available data
+regarding an event of great importance in the modern history of
+Tusayan.
+
+I have obtained the legends from Supela, Shimo,[68] Masiumptiwa, and
+Saliko, and the most complete appears to be that of the last
+mentioned. The others dilated more on the atrocities which were
+committed on the bodies of the unfortunate captives, and the tortures
+endured before they were killed. All show traces of modification,
+incorporation, and modern invention.
+
+
+_Destruction of Awatobi as related by Saliko_[69]
+
+    "The chiefs Wiki and Shimo, and others, have told you their
+    stories, and surely their ancestors were living here at Walpi
+    when Awatobi was occupied. It was a large village, and many
+    people lived there, and the village chief was called Tapolo,
+    but he was not at peace with his people, and there were
+    quarreling and trouble. Owing to this conflict only a little
+    rain fell, but the land was fertile and fair harvests were
+    still gathered. The Awatobi men were bad (_powako_,
+    sorcerers). Sometimes they went in small bands among the
+    fields of the other villagers and cudgeled any solitary
+    worker they found. If they overtook any woman they ravished
+    her, and they waylaid hunting parties, taking the game, after
+    beating and sometimes killing the hunters. There was
+    considerable trouble in Awatobi, and Tapolo sent to the
+    Oraibi chief asking him to bring his people and kill the evil
+    Awatobians. The Oraibi came and fought with them, and many
+    were killed on both sides, but the Oraibi were not strong
+    enough to enter the village, and were compelled to withdraw.
+    On his way back the Oraibi chief stopped at Walpi and talked
+    with the chiefs there. Said he, 'I can not tell why Tapolo
+    wants the Oraibi to kill his folks, but we have tried and
+    have not succeeded very well. Even if we did succeed, what
+    benefit would come to us who live too far away to occupy the
+    land? You Walpi people live close to them and have suffered
+    most at their hands; it is for you to try.' While they were
+    talking Tapolo had also come, and it was then decided that
+    other chiefs of all the villages should convene at Walpi to
+    consult. Couriers were sent out, and when all the chiefs had
+    arrived Tapolo declared that his people had become sorcerers
+    (Christians), and hence should all be destroyed.
+
+    "It was then arranged that in four days large bands from all
+    the other villages should prepare themselves, and assemble at
+    a spring not far from Awatobi. A long while before this, when
+    the Spaniards lived there, they had built a wall on the side
+    of the village that needed protection, and in this wall was a
+    great, strong door. Tapolo proposed that the assailants
+    should come before dawn, and he would be at this door ready
+    to admit them, and under this compact he returned to his
+    village. During the fourth night after this, as agreed upon,
+    the various bands assembled at the deep gulch spring, and
+    every man carried, besides his weapons, a cedar-bark torch
+    and a bundle of greasewood. Just before dawn they moved
+    silently up to the mesa summit, and, going directly to the
+    east side of the village, they entered the gate, which opened
+    as they approached. In one of the courts was a large kiva,
+    and in it were a number of men engaged in sorcerer's rites.
+    The assailants at once made for the kiva, and plucking up the
+    ladder, they stood around the hatchway, shooting arrows down
+    among the entrapped occupants. In the numerous cooking pits
+    fire had been maintained through the night for the
+    preparation of food for a feast on the appointed morning, and
+    from these they lighted their torches. Great numbers of these
+    and the bundles of greasewood being set on fire, they were
+    cast down the hatchway, and firewood from stacks upon the
+    house terraces were also thrown into the kiva. The red
+    peppers for which Awatobi was famous were hanging in thick
+    clusters along the fronts of the houses, and these they
+    crushed in their hands and flung upon the blazing fire in the
+    kiva to further torment their burning occupants. After this,
+    all who were capable of moving were compelled to travel or
+    drag themselves until they came to the sand-hills of
+    Mishoñinovi, and there the final disposition of the prisoners
+    was made.
+
+    "My maternal ancestor had recognized a woman chief (_Mamzrau
+    moñwi_), and saved her at the place of massacre called Maski,
+    and now he asked her whether she would be willing to initiate
+    the woman of Walpi in the rites of the _Mamzrau_. She
+    complied, and thus the observance of the ceremonial called
+    the Mamzráuti came to Walpi. I can not tell how it came to
+    the other villages. This Mamzrau-moñwi had no children, and
+    hence my maternal ancestor's sister became chief, and her
+    _tiponi_ (badge of office) came to me. Some of the other
+    Awatobi women knew how to bring rain, and such of them as
+    were willing to teach their songs were spared and went to
+    different villages. The Oraibi chief saved a man who knew how
+    to cause peaches to grow, and that is why Oraibi has such an
+    abundance of peaches now. The Mishoñinovi chief saved a
+    prisoner who knew how to make the sweet, small-ear corn grow,
+    and that is why it is more abundant there than elsewhere. All
+    the women who knew song prayers and were willing to teach
+    them were spared, and no children were designedly killed, but
+    were divided among the villages, most of them going to
+    Mishoñinovi. The remainder of the prisoners, men and women,
+    were again tortured and dismembered and left to die on the
+    sand hills, and there their bones are, and that is the reason
+    the place is called _Maschomo_ (Death-mound). This is the
+    story of Awatobi told by my old people."
+
+All variants of the legend are in harmony in this particular, that
+Awatobi was destroyed by the other Tusayan pueblos, and that
+Mishoñinovi, Walpi, and probably Oraibi and Shuñopovi participated in
+the deed. A grievance that would unite the other villagers against
+Awatobi must have been a great one, indeed, and not a mere dispute
+about water or lands. The more I study the real cause, hidden in the
+term _powako_, "wizard" or "sorcerer," the more I am convinced that
+the progress Christianity was making in Awatobi, after the reconquest
+of the Pueblos in 1692, explains the hostility of the other villagers.
+The party favoring the Catholic fathers in Awatobi was increasing, and
+the other Tusayan pueblos watched its growth with alarm. They foresaw
+that it heralded the return of the hated domination of the priests,
+associated in their minds with practical slavery, and they decided on
+the tragedy, which was carried out with all the savagery of which
+their natures were capable.
+
+They greatly feared the return of the Spanish soldiers, as the epoch
+of Spanish rule, mild though it may have been, was held in universal
+detestation. Moreover, after the reconquest of the Rio Grande pueblos,
+many apostates fled to Tusayan and fanned the fires of hatred against
+the priests. Walpi received these malcontents, who came in numbers a
+few years later. Among these arrivals were Tanoan warriors and their
+families, part of whom were ancestors of the present inhabitants of
+Hano.
+
+It was no doubt hoped that the destruction of Awatobi would
+effectually root out the growing Christian influence, which it in fact
+did; and for fifty years afterward Tusayan successfully resisted all
+efforts to convert it. Franciscans from the east and Jesuits from the
+Gila in the south strove to get a new hold, but they never succeeded
+in rebuilding the missions in this isolated province, which was
+generally regarded as independent.
+
+From the scanty data I have been able to collect from historical and
+legendary sources, it seems probable that Awatobi was always more
+affected by the padres than were the other Tusayan pueblos. This was
+the village which was said to have been "converted" by Padre Porras,
+whose work, after his death by poison in 1633, was no doubt continued
+by his associates and successors. About 1680, as we learn from
+documentary accounts, the population of Awatobi was 800,[70] and it
+was probably not much smaller in 1700, the time of its destruction.
+
+
+EVIDENCES OF FIRE IN THE DESTRUCTION
+
+Wherever excavations were conducted in the eastern section of Awatobi,
+we could not penetrate far below the surface without encountering
+unmistakable evidences of a great conflagration. The effect of the
+fire was particularly disastrous in the rooms of the eastern section,
+or that part of the pueblo contiguous to the mission. Hardly a single
+object was removed from this part of Awatobi that had not been
+charred. Many of the beams were completely burned; others were charred
+only on their surfaces. The rooms were filled with ashes and scoriĉ,
+while the walls had been cracked as if by intense heat.
+
+Perhaps the most significant fact in regard to the burning of Awatobi
+was seen in some of the houses where the fire seems to have been less
+intense. In many chambers of the eastern section, which evidently were
+used as granaries, the corn was stacked in piles just as it is today
+under many of the living rooms at Walpi, a fact which tends to show
+that there was no attempt to pillage the pueblo before its
+destruction. The ears of corn in these store-rooms were simply
+charred, but so well preserved that entire ears of maize were
+collected in great numbers. It may here be mentioned that upon one of
+the stacks of corn I found during my excavations for the Hemenway
+Expedition in 1892, a rusty iron knife-blade, showing that the owner
+of the room was acquainted with objects of Spanish manufacture. This
+blade is now deposited with the Hemenway collection in the Peabody
+Museum at Cambridge.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF THE MISSION
+
+The mission church of San Bernardino de Awatobi was erected very early
+in the history of the Spanish occupancy, and its ruined walls are the
+only ones now standing above the surface. This building was
+constructed by the padres on a mesa top, while the churches at Walpi
+and Shuñopovi were built in the foothills near those pueblos. The
+mission at Oraibi likewise stood on a mesa top, so that we must
+qualify Mindeleff's statement[71] that "at Tusayan there is no
+evidence that a church or mission house ever formed part of the
+villages on the mesa summits.... These summits have been extensively
+occupied only in comparatively recent time, although one or more
+churches may have been built here at an early date as outlooks over
+the fields in the valley below."
+
+At the time of the Spanish invasion three of the Hopi villages stood
+on the foothills or lower terraces of the mesas on which they now
+stand, and the other two, Awatobi and Oraibi, occupied the same sites
+as today, on the summits of the mesas.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVIII
+
+RUINS OF SAN BERNARDINO DE AWATOBI]
+
+I believe that at the time of the Spanish discovery of Tusayan by
+Pedro de Tobar in 1540, there were only five Tusayan towns--Walpi,
+Awatobi, Shuñopovi, Mishoñinovi, and Oraibi. Later, Awatobi was
+destroyed, and shortly after 1680 Walpi, the only East Mesa town,
+together with Mishoñinovi and Shuñopovi, on the Middle Mesa, were
+moved to the elevated sites they now occupy. Oraibi, therefore, is
+probably the only Tusayan pueblo, at present inhabited, which occupies
+practically the same site that it did in 1540.
+
+In their excavations for the foundations of new houses the present
+inhabitants of Oraibi often find, as I am informed by Mr H. R. Voth,
+the missionary at that place, vessels or potsherds of ancient Tusayan
+ware closely resembling that which is found in the ruins of Sikyatki
+and Awatobi.
+
+The mission building at Awatobi, known in the church history of New
+Mexico and Arizona as San Bernardo or San Bernardino, was reputed to
+be the largest in Tusayan, and its walls are still the best preserved
+of any mission structure in that province. This, however, does not
+imply that the church structures of Tusayan are well preserved, for
+the mission buildings at Walpi have wholly disappeared, while at
+Oraibi little more than a pile of stones remains. Of the Shuñopovi
+mission of San Bernabe there are no standing walls save at one end,
+which are now used as a sheep corral.
+
+The mission of San Bernardino de Awatobi was built on the southern
+side of the eastern part of the pueblo on the edge of the cliff, and
+its walls are the only ones of Awatobi now standing above ground. From
+the situation of these walls, as compared with the oldest part of
+Awatobi--the western mounds--I believe that San Bernardino mission
+was, when erected, beyond the limits of the pueblo proper--a custom
+almost universally followed in erecting pueblo mission
+churches--necessary in this instance, since from the compactness of
+the village there was no other available site. The same was true of
+the missions of Oraibi and Shuñopovi, and probably of Old Walpi. As
+time passed additional buildings were erected near it, this eastward
+extension altering the original plan of the town, but in no way
+affecting the configuration of the older portion.
+
+From its commanding position on the edge of the mesa the mission walls
+must have presented an imposing appearance from the plain below,
+rising as they did almost continuously with the side of the cliff,
+making a conspicuous structure for miles across Antelope valley, from
+which its crumbling walls are still visible (plate CVIII).
+
+When compared with the masonry of unmodified pueblo ruins the walls of
+the mission may be designated massive, and excavation at their
+foundations was very difficult on account of the great amount of
+débris which had fallen about them. With the limited force of laborers
+at my command the excavations could not be conducted with a great
+degree of thoroughness.
+
+In the middle of what I supposed to have been the main church there
+was much sand, evidently drift, and in it I sank a trench 10 feet
+below the surface without reaching anything which I considered a
+floor. We found in excavations at the foundation of the church walls
+fragments of glass, several copper nails, a much-corroded iron hook, a
+copper bell pivot, and fragments of Spanish pottery. From the
+character of these objects alone there is no doubt in my mind of the
+former existence of Spanish influence, and the method of construction
+of the mission walls and the addition constructed of adobe containing
+chopped straw, substantiate this conclusion. Supposing, from the
+architecture and orientation of other New Mexican missions, that the
+altar was at the western end, opposite the entrance to the church, I
+sank a trench along the foundation of the wall on that side, but
+encountered such a mass of fallen stone at that point that I found it
+impossible to make much progress, and the fact that the floor was more
+than 10 feet below the surface of the central depression led me to
+abandon, as impossible with my little band of native excavators, the
+laying bare of the floor of the church.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 255--Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi]
+
+The ground plan (figure 255) of the mission resembles that of the Zuñi
+church, and is not unlike the plans of the churches in the Rio Grande
+pueblos. The tall buttresses, which rise 15 or 20 feet above the trail
+up the mesa on the southern corner, are, I believe, remnants of
+towers which formerly supported a balcony. During a previous visit to
+Tusayan I obtained fragments[72] of the ancient bell, which are now on
+exhibition in the Hemenway section of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge.
+
+The stone walls of the mission were rarely dressed or carefully
+fitted, the interstices being filled in with loose rubble laid in
+adobe. There was apparently a gallery over the entrance to the
+building overlooking many smaller buildings, which evidently were the
+quarters of the resident priest. The construction of the walls was
+apparently a laborious task, as many of the stones are large and must
+have been brought a considerable distance. These stones were laid in
+adobe, and apparently were plastered without and within, although
+little evidence of the former plastering may now be seen. At the
+northwestern corner, however, there still remain well-made adobe
+walls, the clay having been intermixed with straw. From the general
+appearance of these walls I regard them as of late construction,
+probably long after the destruction of the mission.
+
+An examination of the plan of the mission building shows that it was
+oriented about north and south, with the entrance toward the latter
+direction. Compared with many other pueblo missions, this would seem
+to be an exceptional position. In my excavations I naturally sought
+the probable position of the entrance and, opposite it, the recess for
+the altar. It is evident, from the form of the standing walls, that an
+entrance from the east would be blocked by standing walls, and the
+axis of the building is north and south. The theory that the door was
+at the south has much in its favor, but there are several almost fatal
+objections to this conclusion.
+
+If, however, we suppose that the entrance was in the south wall, the
+high walls still standing above the trail up the mesa would then
+recall the façades of other missions. The rooms east of the largest
+inclosure, by this interpretation, would be outbuildings--residence
+rooms for the padres--one side of which forms the eastern walls of the
+church edifice. The form of the Awatobi church, as indicated by the
+walls still standing, is very similar to that of Zuñi, notwithstanding
+the orientation appears to be somewhat different.
+
+Excavations failed to reveal any sign of the altar recess at either
+the northern or the western end, which is not surprising, since the
+walls are so poorly preserved in both these directions. It was,
+moreover, very difficult to make a satisfactory examination of the
+foundations of the walls at any point on account of the fallen
+stories, which encumbered the floor at their bases.
+
+From the appearance of antiquity it seems probable that long before
+the mission buildings were erected a ridge of many-storied houses
+extended eastward from the pueblo on the northern side of a level
+space or court, in which there were, either then or later, ceremonial
+chambers or kivas. The southern side of this open space was the site
+of the mission, but was then unoccupied. This open space recalls the
+large court at Walpi, where the Snake dance occurs, but it was
+considerably broader, one side being formed by the structures which
+rose from the edge of the mesa. In course of time, however, the
+mission buildings were erected on this site, and a wall connecting the
+ridge of houses on the north and the outhouses of the mission was
+made, thus inclosing the court on all four sides. It was into this
+inclosure, through a gateway, the buttresses of which still remain,
+that the assailants passed on that eventful night when Awatobi was
+destroyed.
+
+There is good evidence that a massacre of Awatobians occurred in the
+southeastern angle of the eastern part of the pueblo, just east of the
+mission. If so, it is probable that many of the unfortunates sought
+refuge in the outbuildings of the church. Suspecting that such was the
+case, I excavated a considerable space of ground at these places and
+found many human skulls and other bones thrown together in confusion.
+The earth was literally filled with bones, evidently hastily placed
+there or left where the dead fell. These bodies were not buried with
+pious care, for there were no fragments of mortuary pottery or other
+indication of burial objects. Many of the skulls were broken, some
+pierced with sharp implements. While it is true that possibly this may
+have been a potter's field, or, from its position east of the mission,
+a Christian burial place, as at Zuñi, the evidence from the appearance
+of the bodies points to a different conclusion. According to the
+legends, the hostiles entered the pueblo through the adjacent gateway;
+their anger led them especially against those of the inhabitants who
+were regarded as _powako_ or sorcerers, and their first acts of
+violence would naturally have been toward those who sought refuge in
+the buildings adjacent the church. Near this hated "Singing-house" the
+slaughter began, soon extending to the kivas and the whole of the
+eastern section of the village. There was no evidence of murderous
+deeds in the rooms of the western section of the old pueblo, and the
+legends agree in relating that most of the men were in kivas, not far
+from the mission, when the village was overthrown. There is no
+legendary evidence that there were any Spanish priests in the mission
+at the time of its destruction, and there is no record extant of any
+Spaniards losing their lives at Awatobi at the time of its
+destruction, although the fact of the occurrence, according to
+Bandelier,[73] was recorded.
+
+The traditional clans which inhabited Awatobi were the Awata (Bow),
+Honani (Badger), Piba (Tobacco), and Buli (Butterfly). The Bow people
+appear to have been the most important of these, since their name was
+applied to the village. Their totemic signatures, in pictographic
+form, may still be seen on the sides of the cliff under Awatobi, and
+in the ruins was found a fine arrowshaft polisher on which was an
+incised drawing of a bow and an arrow, suggesting that the owner was a
+member of the Bow phratry. Saliko, the chief of the woman's society
+known as the Mamzrautû, insists that this priesthood was strong in the
+fated pueblo, and that a knowledge of its mysteries was brought to
+Walpi by one of the women who was saved.
+
+It is claimed by the folklorists of the Tataukyamû, a priesthood
+which, controls the New-fire ceremonies at Walpi, and is prominent in
+the Soyaluña, or the rites of the winter solstice, that the Piba or
+Tobacco phratry brought the fetishes of that society to Walpi, and
+there are many obscurely known resemblances between the Mamzrauti and
+the Wüwütcimti celebrations in Walpi which appear to support that
+claim. The Piba phratry is likewise said to have come to Walpi
+comparatively late in the history of the village, which fact points
+the same way.
+
+Undoubtedly Awatobi received additions to its population from the
+south when the pueblos on the Little Colorado were abandoned, and
+there are obscure legends which support that belief; but the largest
+numbers were recruited from the pueblos in the eastern section of the
+country.[74]
+
+
+THE KIVAS OF AWATOBI
+
+A pueblo of the size of Awatobi, with so many evidences of long
+occupancy, would no doubt have several ceremonial chambers or kivas,
+but as yet no one has definitely indicated their positions. I have
+already called attention to evidences that if they existed they were
+probably to be looked for in the open court east of the western mounds
+and in the space north of the mission. In all the inhabited Tusayan
+pueblos the kivas are separated from the house clusters and are
+surrounded by courts or dance plazas. No open spaces existed in the
+main or western mounds of Awatobi, and there was no place there for
+kivas unless the pueblo was exceptional in having such structures
+built among the dwellings, as at Zuñi. A tradition has survived that
+Awatobi had regular kivas, partially subterranean, of rectangular
+shape, and that they were situated in open courts. This would indicate
+that the space east of the oldest part of the ruin may have been the
+sites of these chambers. The old priests whom I have consulted in
+regard to the probable positions of Awatobi kivas have invariably
+pointed out the mounds north of the mission walls in the eastern
+section of the ruin as the location of the kivas, and in 1892 I proved
+to my satisfaction that these directions were correct.
+
+There is no reason to suppose that the kiva was a necessity in the
+ancient performance of the Tusayan ritual, and there are still
+performed many ceremonials as secret and as sacred as any others which
+occur in rooms used as dwellings or for the storage of corn. Thus, the
+Flute ceremony, one of the most complicated in Tusayan, is not, and
+according to legends never was, performed in a kiva. On the contrary,
+the secret rites of the Flute society are performed in the ancestral
+Flute chamber or home of the oldest woman of the Flute clan.
+Originally, I believe, the same was true in the case of other
+ceremonials, and that the kiva was of comparatively recent
+introduction into Tusayan.[75]
+
+Speaking of the sacred rooms of Awatobi, Mindeleff says: "No traces of
+kivas were visible at the time the ruin was surveyed," but Stephen is
+quoted in a legend that "the people of Walpi had partly cleaned out
+one of these chambers and used it as a depository for ceremonial
+plume-sticks, but the Navaho carried off their sacred deposits,
+tempted probably by their market value as ethnologic specimens." It is
+true that while from a superficial examination of the Awatobi mounds
+the position of the kivas is difficult to locate, a little excavation
+brings their walls to light. It is likewise quite probable that the
+legend reported by Stephen has a basis in fact, and that the people at
+Walpi may have used old shrines in Awatobi, after its destruction, as
+the priests of Mishoñinovi do at the present time; but I very much
+doubt if the Navaho sold any of the sacred prayer emblems from these
+fanes. It is hardly characteristic of these people to barter such
+objects among one another, and no specimens from the shrines appear to
+have made their way into the numerous collections of traders known to
+me. There is, however, archeological evidence revealed by excavations
+that the room centrally placed in the court north of the mission
+contained a shrine in its floor on the night Awatobi fell.
+
+In 1892, while removing the soil from a depression about the middle of
+the eastern court of Awatobi, about 100 feet north of the northern
+wall of the mission, I laid bare a room 28 by 14 feet, in which were
+found a skull and many other human bones which, from their
+disposition, had not been buried with care. The discovery of these
+skeletons accorded with the Hopi traditions that this was one of the
+rooms in which the men of Awatobi were gathered on the fatal night,
+and the inclosure where many died. I was deterred from further
+excavation at that place by the horror of my workmen at the
+desecration of the chamber. In 1895, however, I determined to continue
+my earlier excavations and to trace the course of the walls of
+adjacent rooms. The results obtained in this work led to a new phase
+of the question, which sheds more light on the character of the rooms
+in the middle of the eastern court of Awatobi. Instead of a single
+room at this point, there are three rectangular chambers side by side,
+all of about the same size (plate CVIII). In the center of the floor
+of the middle room, 6 feet below the surface, I came upon a cist or
+stone shrine. As the workmen approached the floor they encountered a
+stone slab, horizontally placed in the pavement of the room. This slab
+was removed, and below it was another flat stone which was perforated
+by a rectangular hole just large enough to admit the hand and forearm.
+This second slab was found to cover a stone box, the sides of which
+were formed of stone slabs about 2-1/2 feet square. On the inner faces
+of the upright slabs rain-cloud symbols were painted. These symbols
+were of terrace form, in different colors outlined with black lines.
+One of the stones bore a yellow figure, another a red, and a third
+white. The color of the fourth was not determinable, but evidently,
+from its position relatively to the others, was once green. This
+arrangement corresponds with the present ceremonial assignment of
+colors to the cardinal points, or at least the north and south, as at
+the present time, were yellow and red, respectively, and presumably
+the white and green were on the east and west sides of the cist. The
+colors are still fairly bright and may be seen in the restoration of
+this shrine now in the National Museum.
+
+There was no stone floor to this shrine, but within it were found
+fragments of prayer-plumes or pahos painted green, but so decayed
+that, when exposed to sunlight, some of them fell into dust. There
+were likewise fragments of green carbonate of copper and kaolin, a
+yellow ocher, and considerable vegetal matter mixed with the sand. All
+these facts tend to the belief that this crypt was an ancient shrine
+in the floor of a chamber which may have been a kiva.
+
+The position of this room with a shrine in the middle of the court is
+interesting in comparison with that of similar shrines in some of the
+modern Hopi pueblos. Shrines occupy the same relative position in
+Sichomovi, Hano, Shipaulovi, and elsewhere, and within them sacred
+prayer-offerings are still deposited on ceremonial occasions. At
+Walpi, in the middle of the plaza, there is a subterranean crypt in
+which offerings are often placed, as I have elsewhere described in
+treating of certain ceremonies. This shrine is not visible, for a slab
+of stone which is placed over it lies on a level with the plaza, and
+is securely luted in place with adobe. There are similar subterranean
+prayer crypts in other Tusayan villages. They represent the
+traditional opening, or _sipapu_, through which, in Pueblo cosmogony,
+races crawled to the surface of the earth from an underworld. In
+Awatobi also there is a similar shrine, for the deposit of
+prayer-offerings, almost in the middle of a plaza bounded on three
+sides by the mission, the spur of many-storied houses, and the wall
+with a gateway, while the remaining side was formed by the great
+communal houses of the western part of the pueblo.
+
+While we were taking from their ancient resting places the slabs of
+stone which formed this Awatobi shrine, the workmen reminded me how
+closely it resembled the _pahoki_ used by the _katcinas_, and when, a
+month later, I witnessed the _Nimán-katcina_ ceremony at Walpi, and
+accompanied the chief, Intiwa, when he deposited the prayer-sticks in
+that shrine,[76] I was again impressed by the similarity of the two,
+one in a ruin deserted two centuries ago, the other still used in the
+performance of ancient rites, no doubt much older than the overthrow
+of the great pueblo of Antelope mesa.
+
+
+OLD AWATOBI
+
+The western mounds of Awatobi afford satisfactory evidence that they
+cover the older rooms of the pueblo, and show by their compact form
+that the ancient village in architectural plan was similar to modern
+Walpi. They indicate that Awatobi was of pyramidal form, was
+symmetrical, three or four stories high,[77] without a central plaza,
+but probably penetrated by narrow courts or passages. No great
+ceremonial dance could have taken place in the heart of the pueblo,
+since there was not sufficient space for its celebration, but it must
+have occurred outside the village, probably in the open space to the
+east, near where the ruined walls of the mission now stand.
+
+From the nature of the western mounds I found it advantageous to begin
+the work of excavation in the steep decline on the southern side, and
+to penetrate the mound on the level of its base or the rock formation
+which forms its foundation. In this way all the débris could
+advantageously be moved and thrown over the side of the mesa. We began
+to open the mounds, therefore, on the southern side, making converging
+trenches at intervals, working toward their center. We found that
+these trenches followed continuous walls connected by cross
+partitions, forming rooms, and that these were continued as far as we
+penetrated. The evidence is good that these rooms are followed by
+others which extend into the deepest part of the mound. We likewise
+excavated at intervals over the whole surface of the western area of
+Awatobi, and wherever we dug, walls of former rooms, which diminished
+in altitude on the northern side, were found. From these excavations I
+concluded that if any part of the western mound was higher than the
+remainder, it was on the southern side just above the edge of the
+mesa, and from that highest point the pueblo diminished in altitude to
+the north, in which direction it was continued for some distance in
+low, single-story rooms.
+
+
+ROOMS OF THE WESTERN MOUND
+
+The older or western portion of Awatobi is thus believed to be made up
+of a number of high mounds which rise steeply, and for a considerable
+height from the southern edge of the cliff, from which it slopes more
+gradually to the north and west. On account of this steep declivity we
+were able to examine, in vertical section, the arrangement of the
+rooms, one above the other (figure 256). By beginning excavations on
+the rocky foundation and working into the mound, parallel walls were
+encountered at intervals as far as we penetrated. From the edge of the
+cliff there seemed to extend a series of these parallel walls,
+which were united by cross partitions, forming a series of rooms,
+one back of another. The deeper we penetrated the mound the higher the
+walls were found to be, and this was true of the excavations along the
+whole southern side of the elevation (plate CIX). If, as I suspect,
+these parallel walls extend to the heart of the mounds, the greatest
+elevation of the former buildings must have been four stories. It
+would likewise seem probable that the town was more or less pyramidal,
+with the highest point somewhat back from the one- or two-story walls
+at the edge of the cliff, a style of architecture still preserved in
+Walpi. The loftiest wall, which was followed down to the floor, was 15
+feet high, but as that was measured over 20 feet below the apex of the
+mound, it would seem that, from a distance, there would be a wall 30
+feet high in the center of the mound. Even counting 7 feet as the
+height of each story we would have four stories above the foundation,
+and this, I believe, was the height of the old pueblo. But probably
+the wall did not rise to this height at the edge of the mesa, where it
+could not have been more than one or two stories high. There is no
+evidence of the former existence of an inclosed court of any
+considerable size between the buildings and the cliff, although a
+passage probably skirted the brink of the precipice, and house ladders
+may have been placed on that side for ready access to upper rooms. By
+a series of platforms or terraces, which were in fact the roofs of the
+houses, one mounted to the upper stories which formed the apex of the
+pueblo.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIX
+
+EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 256--Structure of house wall of Awatobi]
+
+On the western, northern, and eastern sides the slope is more gradual,
+and while there are many obscurely marked house plans visible over the
+surface, even quite near the top of the elevation, they are doubtless
+the remains of single-story structures. This leads me to suspect that
+when Awatobi was built it was reared on a mound of soil or sand, and
+not on the solid rock surface of the mesa. The configuration, then,
+shows that the pueblo sloped by easy decline to the plain to the
+north, but rose more abruptly from the south and west. There are low
+extramural mounds to the north, showing that on this side the
+dwellings were composed of straggling chambers. The general character
+of the rooms on the level slope at the western side of old Awatobi is
+shown in the accompanying illustration (plate CX). The peculiarity of
+these rooms appears by a comparison with the many-story chambers of
+the southern declivity of the ruin. Extending the excavations four
+feet below the surface we encountered a floor which rested on solid
+earth, and there were no signs of walls beneath it. This was without
+doubt a single-story house, the roof of which had disappeared. The
+surrounding surface of the ground is level, but the tops of adjoining
+walls of rooms may readily be traced near by.
+
+The room was rectangular, twice as long as wide, and without
+passageways into adjoining chambers. The northern, eastern, and
+western walls were unbroken, and there was nothing peculiar in the
+floor of these sections; but we found a well-preserved, elevated
+settle at the southern side, extending two-thirds of the length of the
+main wall to a small side wall, inclosing a square recess, the object
+of which is unknown to me.
+
+All walls were smoothly plastered, and the floor was paved with flat
+stones set in adobe. The singular inclosure at the southern corner
+could not be regarded as a fireplace, for there was no trace of soot
+upon its walls. I incline to the belief that it may have served as a
+closet, or possibly as a granary. Its arrangement is not unlike that
+in certain modern rooms at Walpi.
+
+An examination of the masonry of the rooms of the western mounds of
+Awatobi shows that the component stones were in a measure dressed into
+shape, which was, as a rule, cubical. In this respect they differ from
+the larger stones of which the mission walls were built, for in this
+masonry the natural cleavage is utilized for the face of the wall.
+
+The differences between the masonry of the mission and that of the
+room in which we found a chief buried were very marked. In the former,
+elongated slabs of stone, without pecking or dressing, were universal,
+while in the latter the squared stones were laid in courses and neatly
+fitted together. The partitions likewise are narrower, being not more
+than 6 inches thick.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CX
+
+EXCAVATED ROOM IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI]
+
+
+SMALLER AWATOBI
+
+About an eighth of a mile west of the great mounds of Awatobi there is
+a small rectangular ruin, the ground plan of which is well marked, and
+in which individual houses are easy to trace. Like its larger
+neighbor, it stands on the very edge of the mesa. None of its walls
+rise above the surface of the mounds, which, however, are considerably
+elevated and readily distinguished for some distance. The pueblo was
+built in the form of a rectangle of single-story houses surrounding a
+plaza. There was an opening or entrance on the southern side, near
+which is a mound, possibly the remains of a kiva. A trail now passes
+directly through the ruin and down the mesa side to Jeditoh valley,
+probably the pathway by which the ancient inhabitants ascended the
+cliff. The Hopi Indians employed by me in excavating Awatobi had no
+name for this ruin and were not familiar with its existence before I
+pointed it out to them. For want of a better interpretation I have
+regarded it as a colony of old Awatobi, possibly of later
+construction.
+
+Excavations in its mounds revealed no objects of interest, although
+fragments of beautiful pottery, related to that found at Awatobi and
+Sikyatki, show that it must have been made by people of the older or
+best epoch[78] of Tusayan ceramics.
+
+
+MORTUARY REMAINS
+
+Although it is well known that the ancient inhabitants of the great
+houses of the Gila-Salado drainage buried some of their dead within
+their dwellings, or in other rooms, and that the same mortuary
+practice was observed in ancient Zuñi-Cibola, up to the time of my
+excavations this form of burial had never been found in Tusayan. I am
+now able to record that the same custom was practiced at Awatobi.
+
+Excavation made in the southeastern declivity of the western mounds
+led to a burial chamber in which we found the well-preserved skeleton
+of an old man, apparently a priest. The body was laid on the floor, at
+full length, and at his head, which pointed southward, had been
+placed, not mortuary offerings of food in bowls, but insignia of his
+priestly office. Eight small objects of pottery were found on his left
+side (plate CXII, _a_, _b_, _d_, _e_). Among these was a symmetrical
+vase of beautiful red ware (plate CXI, _a_) richly decorated with
+geometric patterns, and four globular paint pots, each full of pigment
+of characteristic color. These paint pots were of black-and-white
+ware, and contained, respectively, yellow ocher, sesquioxide of iron,
+green copper carbonate, and micaceous hematite (plate CXIII, _a_,
+_d_, _e_) such as is now called _yayala_ and used by the Snake priests
+in the decoration of their faces. There were also many arrowpoints in
+an earthen colander, and a ladle was luted over the mouth of the red
+vase. My native excavators pronounced this the grave of a warrior
+priest. The passageways into this chamber of death had all been
+closed, and there were no other mortuary objects in the room. This was
+the only instance of intramural interment which I discovered in the
+excavations at Awatobi, but a human bone was found on the floor of
+another chamber. So far as known the Awatobi people buried most of
+their dead outside the town, either in the foothills at the base of
+the mesa, or in the adjacent sand-dunes.
+
+The work of excavating the graves at the foot of the mesa was
+desultory, as I found no single place where many interments had been
+made. Several food vessels were dug up at a grave opened by Kópeli,
+the Snake chief. I was not with him when he found the grave, but he
+called me to see it soon after its discovery. We took from this
+excavation a sandstone fetish of a mountain-lion, a fragment of the
+bottom of a basin perforated with holes as if used as a colander.
+Deposited in this fragment were many stone arrowheads, several
+fragments of green paint, a flat green paho ornamented with figures of
+dragon-flies in black. In addition to a single complete prayer-stick
+there were fragments of many others too much broken to be identified.
+One of these was declared by Kópeli to be a chief's paho. The grave in
+which these objects were found was situated about halfway down the
+side of the mesa to the southward of the highest mounds of the western
+division of the pueblo.
+
+Here and there along the base of all the foothills south of Awatobi
+are evidences of former burials, and complete bowls, dippers, and
+vases were unearthed (plate CXIII, _b_, _c_). The soil is covered with
+fragments of pottery, and in places, where the water has washed
+through them, exposing a vertical section of the ground, it was found
+that the fragments of pottery extended through the soil sometimes to a
+depth of fifty feet below the surface. There was evidence, however,
+that this soil had been transported more or less by rain water, which
+often courses down the sides of the mesa in impetuous torrents.
+
+Human bones and mortuary vessels were found south of the mission near
+the trail, at the foot of the mesa. In a single grave, a foot below
+the surface, there were two piles of food bowls, each pile containing
+six vessels, all broken.
+
+The cemetery northwest of Awatobi, where the soil is sandy and easy to
+excavate, had been searched by others, and many beautiful objects of
+pottery taken from it. This burial place yielded many bowls (plates
+CLXVII, CLXVIII) and jars, as well as several interesting pahos
+similar to those from Sikyatki, which I shall later describe but which
+have never before been reported from Awatobi. It was found that one of
+these prayer-sticks was laid over the heart of the deceased, and as
+the skeleton was in a sitting posture, with the hand on the breast,
+the prayer-stick may thus have been held at the time of burial. Our
+success in finding places of interment on all sides of Sikyatki,
+irrespective of direction, leads me to suspect that further
+investigation of the sand-dunes north of Awatobi will reveal graves at
+that point.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXI
+
+VASE AND MUGS FROM THE WESTERN MOUNDS OF AWATOBI]
+
+I have already called attention to the great abundance of charred corn
+found in the rooms north of the mission. Renewed work in this quarter
+revealed still greater quantities of this corn stacked in piles,
+sometimes filling the entire side of a room. Evidently, as I have
+elsewhere shown, the row of rooms at this part of the ruin were burned
+with all their contents. The corn was not removed from the granaries,
+as it would have been if the place had been gradually abandoned. When
+an Indian burns stored corn in such quantities as were found at
+Awatobi we can not believe he was bent on pillage, and it is an
+instructive fact that thus far no stacked corn has been found in the
+western or most ancient section of Awatobi.
+
+
+SHRINES
+
+Although Awatobi was destroyed almost two centuries ago, the shrines
+of the old pueblo were used for many years afterward, and are even now
+frequented by some of the Mishoñinovi priests. In one of these ancient
+depositories two wooden figurines sat in state up to within a few
+years ago.
+
+This shrine lies below the ruins of the mission, among the bowlders on
+the side of the cliff, about fifty feet from the edge of the mesa, and
+is formed in an eroded cavity in the side of a bowlder of unusual
+size. A rude wall had been built before this recess, which opened to
+the east, and apparently the orifice was closed with logs, which have
+now fallen in. The present appearance of this shrine is shown in the
+accompanying illustration (figure 257).
+
+In former times two wooden idols, called the _Alosaka_, were kept in
+this crypt, in much the same manner as the Dawn Maid is now sealed up
+by the Walpians, when not used in the New-fire ceremony, as I have
+described in my account of _Naacnaiya_.[79] Mr Thomas V. Keam, not
+knowing that the Awatobi idols were still used in the Mishoñinovi
+ritual, had removed them to his residence, but when this was known a
+large number of priests begged him to return them, saying that they
+were still used in religious exercises. With that consideration which
+he has always shown to the Indians, Mr Keam allowed the priests to
+take the images of _Alosaka_. The figurines were this time carried to
+Mishoñinovi, the priests sprinkling a line of meal along the trail
+over which they carried them. The two idols[80] have not been seen by
+white people since that time, and are now, no doubt, in some hidden
+crypt near the Mishoñinovi village.
+
+There is a shrine of simple character, near the ruins of smaller
+Awatobi, which bears evidence of antiquity (figure 258). It consisted,
+in 1892, of a circle of small stones in which were two large
+water-worn stones and a fragment of petrified wood. There was no
+evidence that it had lately been used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 257--Alosaka shrine at Awatobi]
+
+On the extreme western point of the mesa, at the very edge of the
+cliff, there was also a simple shrine (figure 259). Judging from its
+general appearance, this, likewise, had not been used in modern times,
+but there were several old prayer-sticks not far away.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXII
+
+PAINT POTS, BOWL, AND DIPPER FROM AWATOBI]
+
+At the foot of the mesa, below the point last mentioned, however,
+there is a shrine (figure 260), the earth of which contained hundreds
+of prayer-sticks, in all stages of decay, while some of them had been
+placed there only a few days before my visit. This shrine, I was
+told, is still used by the Mishoñinovi priests in their sacred
+observances. Among other forms of prayer offerings there were many
+small wooden cylinders with radiating sticks connected with yarn, the
+symbolic prayer offering for squashes.[81] In former times Antelope
+valley was the garden spot of Tusayan, and from what we know of the
+antiquity of the cultivation of squashes in the Southwest, there is
+little doubt that they were cultivated by the Awatobians, and that
+similar offerings were made by the ancient farmers for a good crop of
+these vegetables.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 258--Shrine at Awatobi]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 259--Shrine at Awatobi]
+
+
+POTTERY
+
+The mounds of Awatobi are entirely covered with fragments of pottery
+of all the various kinds and colors known to ancient Tusayan. There
+were found coiled and indented ware, coarse undecorated vessels, fine
+yellow and smooth ware with black-and-white and red decorations. There
+is no special kind of pottery peculiar to Awatobi, but it shares with
+the other Tusayan ruins all types, save a few fragments of black
+glazed ware, which occur elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 260--Shrine at Awatobi]
+
+It is highly probable that the few specimens of black-and-white ware
+found in this ruin were not manufactured in the village, and the red
+ware probably came from settlements to the south, on the Little
+Colorado. These colors are in part due to the character of the paste
+which was used, and the clay most often selected by Awatobi potters
+made a fine yellow vessel. The material from which most of the vessels
+were manufactured came, no doubt, from a bank near the ruin, where
+there is good evidence that it was formerly quarried.
+
+Three coarse clay objects, such as might have been used for roof
+drains, were found. The use of these objects, possibly indicated by
+their resemblance, is not, however, perfectly clear. Their capacity
+would not be equal to the torrents of rain which, no doubt, often fell
+on the housetops of Awatobi, and they can hardly be identified as
+spouts of large bowls, since they are attached to a circular disk with
+smooth edges. In want of a satisfactory explanation I have
+provisionally regarded them as water spouts, but whether they are from
+ancient vessels or from the roofs of houses I am in much doubt.[82]
+
+One of the most instructive fragments of pottery taken from the ruins
+is that of a coarse clay vessel, evidently a part of a flat basin or
+saucer. The rim of this vessel is punctured with numerous holes, the
+intervals between which are not greater than the diameter of the
+perforations.
+
+Several platter-like vessels with similar holes about their rims have
+been taken from other ruins of Jeditoh valley and mesa, the holes
+being regarded as having been made as a means of suspension. Near a
+sacred spring called Kawaika,[83] not far from Jeditoh, near Awatobi,
+a large number of beautiful vessels with similar holes in their rims
+were excavated by Mr T. V. Keam, and later passed into the collections
+of the Hemenway Expedition, now installed at Cambridge. They are of
+all kinds of ware, widely different in shape, the number of marginal
+perforations varying greatly. As they were found in large numbers near
+a spring they are regarded as sacrificial vessels, in which food or
+sacred meal was deposited as an offering to some water deity. The
+handle of a mug (plate CXI, _f_) from Awatobi, so closely resembles
+the handles of certain drinking cups taken from the cliff-houses of
+San Juan valley that it should be specially mentioned. There is in the
+handle of this mug a T-shape opening quite similar in form to the
+peculiar doorways of certain cliff-dwellings. The mug is made of the
+finest white ware, decorated with black lines arranged in geometric
+patterns. So close is its likeness in form and texture to cliff-house
+pottery that the two may be regarded as identical. Moreover, it is not
+impossible that the object may have been brought to Tusayan from Tségi
+canyon, in the cliff-houses of which Hopi clans[84] lived while
+Awatobi was in its prime, and, indeed, possibly after the tragedy of
+1700. The few fragments of Tségi canyon pottery known to me have
+strong resemblances to ancient Hopi ware, although the black-and-white
+variety predominates.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIII
+
+POTTERY FROM INTRAMURAL BURIAL AT AWATOBI]
+
+The collection of pottery from Awatobi is, comparatively speaking,
+small, but it shows many interesting forms. Awatobi pottery may be
+classed under the same groups as other old Tusayan ceramics, but most
+of the specimens collected belong to the yellow, black-and-white, and
+red varieties. It resembles that of Sikyatki, but bears little
+likeness to modern ware in texture or symbolism. One is impressed by
+the close resemblance between the Awatobi pottery and that from the
+ruins of the Little Colorado and Zuñi,[85] which no doubt is
+explained, in part, by the identity in the constituents of the
+potter's clay near Awatobi with that in more southerly regions.
+
+Evidences of Spanish influence may be traced on certain objects of
+pottery from Awatobi, especially on those obtained from the eastern
+mounds of the ruin. In most essentials, however, the Awatobi ware
+resembles that of the neighboring ruins, and is characteristically
+Tusayan.
+
+The differentiation in modern Cibolan and Tusayan symbolism is much
+greater than that of the ancient pottery from the same provinces, a
+fact which is believed to point to a similarity, possibly identity, of
+culture in ancient times. With this thought in mind, it would be
+highly instructive to study the ancient ruins of the Rio Grande
+region, as unfortunately no large collections of archeological objects
+from that part of the Southwest have been made.[86]
+
+The majority of the bowls from Awatobi are decorated in geometric
+patterns and a few have animal or human figures. The symbols, as well
+as the pottery itself, can not be distinguished from those of
+Sikyatki. Fragments of glazed ware are not unknown at Awatobi, but so
+far as recorded, entire specimens have never been obtained from the
+latter ruin.
+
+In order that the character of the geometric designs on Awatobi
+pottery may be better understood, two plates are introduced to
+illustrate their modifications in connection with my discussion of the
+geometric forms figured on Sikyatki ware. The figures on these bowls
+(plates CLXVI, CLXVII), with one or two exceptions, need no special
+description in addition to what is said of Sikyatki geometric designs,
+which they closely resemble.
+
+The cross-shape figure (plate CLXVI, _b_) may profitably be studied in
+connection with the account of the modification of Sikyatki sun
+symbols. Evidences of the use of a white pigment as a slip were found
+on one or two fragments of fine pottery from Awatobi, but no
+decoration of this kind was observed on the Sikyatki vessels. The red
+ware is the same as that found in ancient Cibola, while one or two
+fragments of glossy black recall the type common to modern Santa
+Clara.
+
+Two bird-shape vessels, one made of black-and-white ware, the other
+red with black-and-white decoration, were found at Awatobi. Large
+masses of clay suited to the potter's art were not uncommonly found in
+the corners of the rooms or in the niches in their walls. Some of
+these masses are of fine paste, the others coarse with grains of sand.
+The former variety was used in making the finest Tusayan ceramics; the
+latter was employed in modeling cooking pots and other vessels of
+ruder finish.
+
+Several flute-shape objects of clay, with flaring extremities, were
+found on the surface of the mounds of Awatobi, and one was taken from
+a Sikyatki grave. The use of these objects is unknown to me.
+
+Among the fragments of dippers from Awatobi are several with
+perforations in the bottom, irregularly arranged or in geometric form,
+as that of a cross. These colanders were rare at Sikyatki, but I find
+nothing in them to betray Spanish influence.[87] Handled dippers or
+mugs have been found so often by me in the prehistoric ruins of our
+Southwest that I can not accept the dictum that the mug form was not
+prehistoric, and the conclusion is legitimate that the Tusayan Indians
+were familiar with mugs when the Spaniards came among them. The
+handles of the dippers or ladles are single or double, solid or
+hollow, simply turned up at one end or terminating with the head of an
+animal. The upper side of the ladle handle may be grooved or convex.
+No ladle handle decorated with an image of a "mud-head" or clown
+priest, so common on modern ladles, was found either at Awatobi or
+Sikyatki.
+
+Rudely made imitations in miniature of all kinds of pottery,
+especially of ladles, were common. These are regarded as votive
+offerings, from the fact that they were found usually in the graves of
+children, and were apparently used as playthings before they were
+buried.
+
+A common decoration on the handles of ladles is a series of short
+parallel lines arranged in alternating longitudinal and transverse
+zones. This form of decoration of ladle handles I have observed on
+similar vessels from the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, and it reappears
+on pottery in all the ruins I have studied between Mexico and Tusayan.
+In the exhibit of the Mexican Government at Madrid in 1892-93 a fine
+collection of ancient pottery from Oaxaca was shown, and I have
+drawings of one of these ladles with the same parallel marks on the
+handle that are found on Pueblo ware from the Gila-Salado, the Cibola,
+and the Tusayan regions.
+
+The only fragment of pottery from Awatobi or Sikyatki with designs
+which could be identified with any modern picture of a _katcina_ was
+found, as might be expected, in the former ruin. This small fragment
+is instructive, in that it indicates the existence of the _katcina_
+cult in Tusayan before 1700; but the rarity of the figures of these
+supernatural beings is very suggestive. The fragment in question is of
+ancient ware, resembling the so-called orange type of pottery, and is
+apparently a part of the neck of a vase. The figure represents Wupamo,
+the Great-cloud _katcina_, and is marked like the doll of the same as
+it appears in the _Powamû_ or February celebration at Walpi.[88]
+
+The associates of the _katcinas_ are the so-called "mud-heads" or
+clowns, an order of priests as widely distributed as the Pueblo area.
+In Tusayan villages they are called the Tcukuwympkia, and are
+variously personated. As they belong especially to the _katcina_ cult,
+which is naturally supposed to have been in vogue at Awatobi, I was
+greatly interested in the finding of a fragment representing a
+grotesque head which reminded me of a glutton of the division of the
+Tcukuwympkia called Tcuckutû. While there may be some doubt of the
+validity of my identification, yet, taken in connection with the
+fragment of a vase with the face of Wupamo, I think there is no doubt
+that the _katcina_ cult was practiced at Awatobi.
+
+
+STONE IMPLEMENTS
+
+Comparatively few stone implements, such as mauls, hammers, axes, and
+spearpoints, were found; but some of those unearthed from the mounds
+are finely finished, being regular in form and highly polished. There
+were many spherical stones, resembling those still sometimes used in
+Tusayan on important occasions as badges of authority. These stones
+were tied in a buckskin bag, which was attached to a stick and used as
+a warclub. Many of the axes were grooved for hafting; one of the
+specimens was doubly grooved and had two cutting edges. By far the
+largest number were blunt at one pole and sharpened at the opposite
+end. A single highly polished specimen (plate CLXXI, _f_) resembles a
+type very common in the Gila Salado ruins.
+
+Arrowheads, some of finely chipped obsidian, were common, being
+frequently found in numbers in certain mortuary bowls. Three or four
+specimens of other kinds of implements fashioned from this volcanic
+glass were picked up on the surface of the mounds.
+
+Metates, or flat stones for grinding corn, were dug up in several
+houses; they were in some instances much worn, and were eagerly sought
+by the Indian women who visited our camp. These specimens differ in no
+respect from similar mealing stones still used at Walpi and other
+modern Tusayan pueblos. Many were made of very coarse stone[89] for
+use in hulling corn preparatory to grinding; others were of finer
+texture, and both kinds were accompanied by the corresponding mano or
+muller held in the hand in grinding meal.
+
+The modern Hopi often use as seats in their kivas cubical blocks of
+stone with depressions in two opposite sides which serve as handholds
+by which they are carried from place to place. Two of these stones,
+about a cubic foot in size, were taken out of the chamber which I have
+supposed to be the Awatobi kiva. In modern Tusayan these seats are
+commonly made of soft sandstone, and are so few in number that we can
+hardly regard them as common. They are often used to support the
+uprights of altars when they are erected, and I have seen priests
+grind pigments in the depressions. Incidentally, it may be said that I
+have never seen priests use chairs in any kiva celebration; nor do
+they have boxes to sit upon. During the droning of the tedious songs
+they have nothing under them except a folded blanket or sheepskin.
+
+Excavations in the Awatobi rooms revealed several interesting shallow
+mortars used for grinding pigments, but no one of these is comparable
+in finish with that shown in the accompanying illustration (plate
+CLXXII, _a_). This object is made of a hard stone in the form of a
+perfect parallelopipedon with slightly rounded faces. The depression
+is shallow, and when found there was a discoloration of pigment upon
+its surface.
+
+In almost every house that bore evidence of former occupancy,
+beautifully made mullers and metates were exhumed. These were
+ordinarily in place in the corner of the chamber, and were much worn,
+as if by constant use. In one grave there was found a metate reversed
+over a skeleton, probably that of a woman--although the bones were so
+disintegrated that the determination of the sex of the individual was
+impossible. Several of these metates were taken by Indian women, who
+prized them so highly that they loaded the stones on burros and
+carried them ten miles to Walpi, where they are now applied to the
+same purpose for which they were used over two centuries ago.
+
+On the surface of the mesa, beyond the extension of the ground plan of
+the ruin, there are many depressions worn in the rocks where the
+Awatobi women formerly whetted their grinding stones, doubtless in the
+manner practiced by the modern villagers of Tusayan. These depressions
+are especially numerous near the edge of the cliff, between the
+eastern and western sections of the ruin.[90]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIV
+
+BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI]
+
+
+BONE OBJECTS
+
+A large and varied collection of bone implements was gathered at
+Awatobi, and a few additional specimens were exhumed from Sikyatki. It
+is worthy of note that, as a rule, bone implements are more common in
+houses than in graves; and since the Awatobi excavations were
+conducted mostly in living rooms, while those at Sikyatki were largely
+in the cemeteries, the bone implements from the former pueblo far
+outnumber those from the latter.
+
+The collection consists of awls, bodkins, needles, whistles, and tubes
+made of the bones of birds and quadrupeds. The two animals which
+contributed more than others to these objects were the turkey and the
+rabbit, although there were fragments of the horns and shin-bones of
+the antelope or deer. Several of these specimens were blackened by
+fire, and one was stained with green pigment. There was also evidence
+of an attempt at ornamenting the implements by incised lines, while
+one was bound with string. Bones of animals which had served for food
+were very common in all the excavations at Awatobi, especially near
+the floors of the houses. With the exception of a number of large
+bones of a bear, found in one of the houses in the northern range of
+the eastern section, these bones were not carefully collected.
+
+Plate CXIV gives a general idea of some of the forms of worked bone
+which were obtained. Figure _a_ shows an awl, for the handle of which
+one of the trochanters was used, the point at the opposite end being
+very sharp; _b_ and _c_ are similar objects, but slighter, and more
+carefully worked; _d_ is a flattened bone implement perforated with
+two holes, and may have been used as a needle. There are similar
+implements in the collection, but with a single terminal perforation.
+Other forms of bone awls are shown in _e_, _f_, _g_, and _j_.
+
+There are a number of bone objects the use of which is problematical.
+One of the best of these is a section of the tibia of a bird, cut
+longitudinally, convex on the side represented in plate CXIV, _h_, and
+concave on the opposite side. When found this bone fragment was tied
+to a second similar section by a string (remnants of which can be seen
+in the figure), thus forming a short tube. The use of this object is
+not known to me, nor were any satisfactory suggestions made by the
+Indians whom I consulted in relation to it. This does not apply,
+however, to the object illustrated in plate CXIV, _i_, which was
+declared by several Hopi to be a bird whistle, similar to that used in
+ceremonials connected with medicine making.
+
+The manner in which a bone whistle is used in imitation of a bird's
+call has been noticed by me in the accounts of several ceremonials,
+and I will therefore quote the description of its use in the
+_Nimankatcina_ at Walpi.[91]
+
+    Then followed an interval of song and accompanying rattle, at
+    the termination of which Intiwa's associate took the bird
+    whistle (_tatükpi_) and blew three times into the liquid,
+    making a noise not unlike that produced by a toy bird
+    whistle. This was repeated four times, accompanied by song
+    and rattle. He first inserted the bone whistle on the north
+    side, then on the other cardinal points in turn. The
+    monotonous song and rattle then ceased, and Intiwa sprinkled
+    corn pollen on the ears of corn in the water, and upon the
+    line of pahos.
+
+The object of the whistle is to call the summer birds which are
+associated with planting and harvesting. The whistle figures in many
+rites, especially in those connected with the making of medicine or
+charm liquid.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS
+
+ORNAMENTS IN THE FORM OF BIRDS AND SHELLS
+
+In the excavations, as well as on the surface of the mounds at
+Awatobi, were found many imitations of marine shells made of clay,
+often painted red and ranging from the size of half a dollar to that
+of the thumb nail (plate CLXXIII, _j-m_). On the convex surface of
+these objects parallel lines are etched, and they are pierced at the
+valves for suspension. I have never found them suspended from the neck
+of a skeleton, although their general appearance indicates that they
+were used as ornaments. Similarly made clay images of birds (plate
+CLXXIII, _g_, _h_, _i_) with extended wings were also found, and of
+these there are several different forms in the collection. A small
+perforated knob at the breast served for attachment. In the absence of
+any better explanation of these objects, I have regarded them as
+gorgets, or pendants, for personal decoration.
+
+In the Awatobi collections there are several small disks made
+apparently of pipe clay, which also were probably used as ornaments.
+These are very smooth and wonderfully regular in shape--in one case
+with a perforation near the rim. Turquois and shell beads were found
+in considerable numbers in the excavations at Awatobi, but, as they
+are similar to those from Sikyatki, I have reserved a discussion of
+them for following pages. A few fragments of shell armlets and
+wristlets were also exhumed. These were made generally of the Pacific
+coast _Pectunculus_, so common in the ruins of the Little
+Colorado.[92]
+
+
+CLAY BELL
+
+Copper bells are said to be used in the secret ceremonials of the
+modern Tusayan villages, and in certain of the ceremonial foot races
+metal bells of great age and antique pattern are sometimes tied about
+the waists of the runners. Small copper hawk bells,[93] found in
+southern Arizonian ruins, are identical in form and make with those
+used by the ancient Nahuatl people. So far as the study of the
+antiquities of the ruins of Tusayan immediately about the inhabited
+towns has gone, we have no record of the finding of copper bells of
+any great age. It was, therefore, with considerable interest that I
+exhumed from one of the rooms of the westernmost or oldest section of
+Awatobi a clay bell (figure 261) made in exact imitation of one of the
+copper bells that have been reported from several southern ruins
+(plate CLXXIII, _a_). While it may be said that it would be more
+decisive evidence of the prehistoric character of this object if
+Awatobi had not been under Spanish influence for over a century,
+still, from the position where it was dug up and its resemblance to
+metal bells which are undoubtedly prehistoric, there seems to be
+little reason to question its age. As with the imitation of marine
+shells in clay, it is probable that in this bell we have a facsimile
+of a metal bell with which the ancient Tusayan people were undoubtedly
+familiar.[94]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 261--Clay Bell from Awatobi (natural size)]
+
+
+TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+In the very earliest accounts which we have of Tusayan the Hopi are
+said to raise cotton and to weave it into mantles. These mantles, or
+"towels" as they were styled by Espejo, were, according to Castañeda,
+ornamented with embroidery, and had tassels at the corners. In early
+times garments were made of the fiber of the maguey, and of feathers
+and rabbit skins. Fabrics made of animal fiber are mentioned by Friar
+Marcos de Niza, and he was told that the inhabitants of Totonteac
+obtained the material from which they were made from animals as large
+as the greyhounds which the father had with him. The historical
+references which can be mentioned to prove that the Tusayan people,
+when they were first visited, knew how to spin and weave are numerous,
+and need not be quoted here. That the people of Awatobi made cotton
+fabrics there is no doubt, for it is distinctly stated by early
+visitors that they were acquainted with the art of weaving, and some
+of the presents made to the first Spanish explorers were of native
+cotton.
+
+The archeological evidence supports the historical in this particular,
+and several fragments of cloth were found in our excavations in the
+western mounds of the village. These fragments were of cotton and
+agave fiber, of cotton alone, and in one instance of the hair of some
+unknown animal. No signs of the famous rabbit-skin blankets were seen,
+and from the perishable nature of the material of which they were made
+it would be strange if any traces had been discovered. At Sikyatki a
+small textile fragment made of feathers was found in one of the
+burial vases, but no feather garments or even fragments of the same
+were unearthed at Awatobi.
+
+A woven rope of agave fiber and many charred strings of the same
+material were found in a niche in the wall of a house in the eastern
+section, and from the same room there was taken a string, over a yard
+long, made of human hair. It was suggested to me by one of the Hopi
+that this string was part of the coiffure of an Awatobi maid, and that
+it was probably used to tie up her hair in whorls above the ears, as
+is still the Hopi custom.
+
+The whole number of specimens of textile fabrics found at Awatobi was
+small, and their character disappointing for study, for the conditions
+of burial in the soil are not so good for their preservation as in the
+dry caves or cliff houses, from which beautifully preserved cloth,
+made at a contemporary period, has been taken.
+
+
+PRAYER-STICKS--PIGMENTS
+
+Among the most significant mortuary objects used by the ancient
+Tusayan people may be mentioned the so-called prayer-sticks or pahos.
+These were found in several graves, placed on the breast, in the hand,
+or at the side of the person interred, and have a variety of form, as
+shown in the accompanying illustrations (plates CLXXIV, CLXXV). As I
+shall discuss the forms and meaning of prayer-sticks in my account of
+Sikyatki, where a much larger number were found, I will simply mention
+a few of the more striking varieties from Awatobi.
+
+One of the most instructive of these objects is flat in shape, painted
+green, and decorated with figures of a dragon-fly. As this insect is a
+symbol of rain, its occurrence on mortuary objects is in harmony with
+the Hopi conception of the dead which will later be explained.
+
+Pahos, in the form of flat slats with a notched extension at one end
+were common, but generally were poorly preserved. The prayer-sticks
+from the shrine in the middle of the rooms in the plaza of the eastern
+section crumbled into fragments when exposed to the air, but they were
+apparently small, painted green, and decorated with black spots. On
+several of the prayer-sticks the impressions of the string and
+feathers that were formerly attached are still readily seen. It is
+probable that the solution of a carbonate of copper, with which the
+green pahos were so colored, contributed to the preservation of the
+wood of which they had been manufactured.
+
+The only pigments detected on the prayer-sticks are black, red, and
+green, and traces of red are found also on the inner surface of a
+stone implement from a grave at the base of the mesa. All the pigments
+used by the modern Tusayan Indians were found in the intramural burial
+already described. My Hopi workmen urged me to give them small
+fragments of these paints, regarding them efficacious in their
+ceremonials.
+
+
+OBJECTS SHOWING SPANISH INFLUENCE
+
+We would naturally expect to find many objects of Caucasian origin in
+the ruins of a pueblo which had been under Spanish influence for a
+century. I have already spoken of certain architectural features in
+the eastern part of Awatobi which may be traced to the influence of
+the Spanish missionaries, and of small objects there were several
+different kinds which show the same thing. The old iron knife-blade
+already mentioned as having been found among the corn in a storage
+chamber in the northern row of houses was not the only metallic object
+found. Not far from the mission there were unearthed many corroded
+iron nails, a small hook of the same metal, a piece of cast copper,
+and a fragment of what appeared to be a portion of a bell. There were
+several pieces of glass, the surfaces of which had become ground by
+the sand which had beaten upon them during the years in which they had
+been exposed. There was found also a fragment of a green glazed cup,
+which was undoubtedly of Spanish or Mexican make, and sherds of white
+china similar to that sold today by the traders. These latter
+specimens were, as a rule, found on the surface of the ground.
+
+It will therefore appear that the archeology of Awatobi supports the
+documentary evidence that the pueblo was under Spanish influence for
+some time, and the fact that all the above-mentioned objects were
+taken on or in the eastern mounds emphasizes the conclusion that this
+section of the town was the part directly under Spanish influences.
+Nothing of Spanish manufacture was found in the rooms of the western
+mounds, but from this negative evidence there is no reason to suspect
+that this section of Awatobi was not inhabited contemporaneously with
+that in the vicinity of the mission.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF SIKYATKI
+
+TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE PUEBLO
+
+Very vague ideas are current regarding the character of Hopi culture
+prior to Tobar's visit to Tusayan in 1540, and with the exception of
+the most meager information nothing concerning it has come down to us
+from early historical references in the sixteenth century. It is
+therefore interesting to record all possible information in regard to
+these people prior to the period mentioned, and this must be done
+mainly through archeology.
+
+Although there are many Tusayan ruins which we have every reason to
+believe are older than the time of Coronado, no archeologist has
+gathered from them the evidences bearing on prehistoric Tusayan
+culture which they will undoubtedly yield. Large and beautiful
+collections of pottery ascribed to Tusayan ruins have shown the
+excellent artistic taste of the ancient potters of this region,
+indicating that in the ceramic art they were far in advance of their
+descendants. But these collections have failed to teach, the lesson
+they might have taught, from the fact that data concerning the objects
+composing them are so indefinite. Very little care had been taken to
+label these collections accurately or to collect any specimens but
+those which were strikingly beautiful or commercially valuable. It was
+therefore with the hope of giving a more precise and comprehensive
+character to our knowledge of Tusayan antiquities that I wished to
+excavate one of the ruins of this province which was undoubtedly
+prehistoric. Conditions were favorable for success at the mounds
+called by the Indians Sikyatki.[95] These ruins are situated near the
+modern Tusayan pueblos of East Mesa, from which I could hire workmen,
+and not far from Keam's Canyon, which could be made a base of
+supplies. The existing legends bearing on these ruins, although
+obscure, are sufficiently definite for all practical purposes.
+
+I find no mention of Sikyatki in early historical documents, nor can
+the name be even remotely identified with any which has been given to
+a Tusayan pueblo. My knowledge of the mounds which mark the site of
+this ancient village dates back to 1892, when I visited them with one
+of the old men of Walpi, who then and there narrated the legend of its
+destruction by the Walpians previously to the advent of the Spaniards.
+I was at that time impressed by the extent of the mounds, and prepared
+a rough sketch of the ground plan of the former houses, but from lack
+of means was unable to conduct any systematic excavation of the ruin.
+
+Comparatively nothing concerning the ruin of Sikyatki has been
+published, although its existence had been known for several years
+previously to my visit. In his brief account Mr Victor Mindeleff[96]
+speaks of it as two prominent knolls, "about 400 yards apart," the
+summits of which are covered with house walls. He also found portions
+of walls on intervening hummocks, but gives no plan of the ruin. The
+name, Sikyatki, is referred to the color of the sandstone of which the
+walls were built. He found some of the rooms were constructed of small
+stones, dressed by rubbing, and laid in mud. The largest chamber was
+stated to be 9-1/2 by 4-1/2 feet, and it was considered that many of
+the houses were "built in excavated places around the rocky summits of
+the knolls."[97] Mr Mindeleff identified the former inhabitants with
+the ancestors of the Kokop people, and mentioned the more important
+details of their legend concerning the destruction of the village.
+
+We can rely on the statement that Sikyatki was inhabited by the Kokop
+or Firewood people of Tusayan, who were so named because they obtained
+fire from wood by the use of drills. These people are represented
+today at Walpi by Katci, whose totem is a picture of Masauwû, the God
+of Fire. It is said that the home of the Firewood people before they
+built Sikyatki was at Tebuñki, or Fire-house, a round ruin
+northeastward from Keam's canyon. They were late arrivals in Tusayan,
+coming at least after the Flute people, and probably before the Honani
+or Badger people, who brought, I believe, the _katcina_ cult. Although
+we can not definitely assert that this cultus was unknown at Sikyatki,
+it is significant that in the ruins no ornamental vessel was found
+with a figure of a _katcina_ mask, although these figures occur on
+modern bowls. The original home of the Kokop people is not known, but
+indefinite legends ascribe their origin to Rio Grande valley. They are
+reputed to have had kindred in Antelope valley and at the Fire-house,
+above alluded to, near Eighteen-mile spring.
+
+The ruin of Fire-house, one of the pueblos where the Kokop people are
+reputed to have lived before they built Sikyatki, is situated on the
+periphery of Tusayan. It is built of massive stones and differs from
+all other ruins in that province in that it is circular in form. The
+round type of ruin is, however, to be seen in the two conical mounds
+on the mesa above Sikyatki, which was connected in some way with the
+inhabitants who formerly lived at its base.
+
+The reason the Kokop people left Fire-house is not certain, but it is
+said that they came in conflict with Bear clans who were entering the
+province from the east. Certain it is that if the Kokop people once
+inhabited Fire-house they must have been joined by other clans when
+they lived at Sikyatki, for the mounds of this pueblo indicate a
+village much larger than the round ruin on the brink of the mesa
+northeast of Keam's canyon. The general ground plan of the ruin
+indicates an inclosed court with surrounding tiers of houses,
+suggesting the eastern type of pueblo architecture.
+
+The traditional knowledge of the destruction of Sikyatki is very
+limited among the present Hopi, but the best folklorists all claim
+that it was destroyed by warriors from Walpi and possibly from Middle
+Mesa. Awatobi seems not to have taken part in the tragedy, while Hano
+and Sichomovi did not exist when the catastrophe took place.
+
+The cause of the destruction of Sikyatki is not clearly known, and
+probably was hardly commensurate with the result. Its proximity to
+Walpi may have led to disputes over the boundaries of fields or the
+ownership of the scanty water supply. The people who lived there were
+intruders and belonged to clans not represented in Walpi, which in all
+probability kept hostility alive. The early Tusayan peoples did not
+readily assimilate, but quarreled with one another even when sorely
+oppressed by common enemies.
+
+There is current in Walpi a romantic story connected with the
+overthrow of Sikyatki. It is said that a son of a prominent chief,
+disguised as a _katcina_, offered a prayer-stick to a maiden, and as
+she received it he cut her throat with a stone knife. He is said to
+have escaped to the mesa top and to have made his way along its edge
+to his own town, taunting his pursuers. It is also related that the
+Walpians fell upon the village of Sikyatki to avenge this bloody deed,
+but it is much more likely that there was ill feeling between the two
+villages for other reasons, probably disputes about farm limits or the
+control of the water supply, inflamed by other difficulties. The
+inhabitants of the two pueblos came into Tusayan from different
+directions, and as they may have spoken different languages and thus
+have failed to understand each other, they may have been mutually
+regarded as interlopers. Petty quarrels no doubt ripened into
+altercations, which probably led to bloodshed. The forays of the
+Apache from the south and the Ute from the north, which began at a
+later period, should naturally have led to a defensive alliance; but
+in those early days confederation was not dreamed of and the feeling
+between the two pueblos culminated in the destruction of Sikyatki.
+This was apparently the result of a quarrel between two pueblos of
+East Mesa, or at least there is no intimation that the other pueblos
+took prominent part in it. It is said that after the destruction some
+of those who escaped fled to Oraibi, which would imply that the Walpi
+and Oraibi peoples, even at that early date, were not on very friendly
+terms. If, however, the statement that Oraibi was then a distinct
+pueblo be true, it in a way affords a suggestion of the approximate
+age[98] of this village.
+
+There was apparently a more or less intimate connection between the
+inhabitants of old Sikyatki and those of Awatobi, but whether or not
+it indicates that the latter was founded by the refugees from the
+former I have not been able definitely to make out. All my informants
+agree that on the destruction of Sikyatki some of its people fled to
+Awatobi, but no one has yet stated that the Kokop people were
+represented in the latter pueblo. The distinctive clans of the pueblo
+of Antelope mesa are not mentioned as living in Sikyatki, and yet the
+two pueblos are said to have been kindred. The indications are that
+the inhabitants of both came from the east--possibly were intruders,
+which may have been the cause of the hostility entertained by both
+toward the Walpians. The problem is too complex to be solved with our
+present limited knowledge in this direction, and archeology seems not
+to afford very satisfactory evidence one way or the other. We may
+never know whether the Sikyatki refugees founded Awatobi or simply
+fled to that pueblo for protection.
+
+There appears to be no good evidence that Sikyatki was destroyed by
+fire, nor would it seem that it was gradually abandoned. The larger
+beams of the houses have disappeared from many rooms, evidently having
+been appropriated in building or enlarging other pueblos.
+
+There is nothing to show that any considerable massacre of the people
+took place when the village was destroyed, in which respect it differs
+considerably from Awatobi. There is little doubt that many Sikyatki
+women were appropriated by the Walpians, and in support of this it is
+stated that the Kokop people of the present Walpi are the descendants
+of the people of that clan who dwelt at Sikyatki. This conclusion is
+further substantiated by the statements of one of the oldest members
+of the Kokop phratry who frequently visited me while the excavations
+were in progress.
+
+The destruction of Sikyatki and its consequent abandonment doubtless
+occurred before the Spaniards obtained a foothold in the country. The
+aged Hopi folklorists insist that such is the case, and the
+excavations did not reveal any evidence to the contrary. If we add to
+the negative testimony that Sikyatki is not mentioned in any of the
+early writings, and that no fragment of metal, glass, or Spanish
+glazed pottery has been taken from it, we appear to have substantial
+proof of its prehistoric character.
+
+In the early times when Sikyatki was a flourishing pueblo, Walpi was
+still a small settlement on the terrace of the mesa just below the
+present town that bears its name. Two ruins are pointed out as the
+sites of Old Walpi, one to the northward of the modern town, and a
+second more to the westward. The former is called at present the
+Ash-heap house or pueblo, the latter Kisakobi. It is said that the
+people whose ancestors formed the nucleus of the more northerly town
+moved from there to Kisakobi on account of the cold weather, for it
+was too much in the shadow of the mesa. Its general appearance would
+indicate it to be older than the more westerly ruin, higher up on the
+mesa. It was a pueblo of some size, and was situated on the edge of
+the terrace. The refuse from the settlement was thrown over the edge
+of the decline, where it accumulated in great quantities. This débris
+contains many fragments of characteristic pottery, similar to that
+from Sikyatki, and would well repay systematic investigation. No walls
+of the old town rise more than a few feet above the surface, for most
+of the stones have long ago been used in rebuilding the pueblo on
+other sites. Kisakobi was situated higher up on the mesa, and bears
+every appearance of being more modern than the ruin below. Its site
+may readily be seen from the road to Keam's canyon, on the
+terrace-like prolongation of the mesa. Some of the walls are still
+erect, and the house visible for a great distance is part of the old
+pueblo. This, I believe, was the site of Walpi at the time the
+Spaniards visited Tusayan, and I have found here a fragment of pottery
+which I believe is of Spanish origin. The ancient pueblo crowned the
+ridge of the terrace which narrows here to 30 or 40 feet, so that
+ancient Walpi was an elongated pueblo, with narrow passageways and no
+rectangular court. I should judge, however, that the pueblo was not
+inhabited for a great period, but was moved to its present site after
+a few generations of occupancy. The Ash-hill village was inhabited
+contemporaneously with Sikyatki, but Kisakobi was of later
+construction. Neither Sichomovi nor Hano was in existence when
+Sikyatki was in its prime, nor, indeed, at the time of its
+abandonment. In 1782 Morfi spoke of Sichomovi as a pueblo recently
+founded, with but fifteen families. Hano, although older, was
+certainly not established before 1700.[99]
+
+The assertions of all Hopi traditionists that Sikyatki is a
+prehistoric ruin, as well as the scientific evidence looking the same
+way, are most important facts in considering the weight of deductions
+in regard to the character of prehistoric Tusayan culture.
+
+Although we have no means of knowing how long a period has elapsed
+since the occupancy and abandonment of Sikyatki, we are reasonably
+sure that objects taken from it are purely aboriginal in character and
+antedate the inception of European influence. It is certain, however,
+that the Sikyatki people lived long enough in that pueblo to develop a
+ceramic art essentially peculiar to Tusayan.
+
+
+NOMENCLATURE
+
+The commonly accepted definition of Sikyatki is "yellow house"
+(_sikya_, yellow; _ki_, house). One of the most reliable chiefs of
+Walpi, however, called my attention to the fact that the hills in the
+locality were more or less parallel, and that there might be a
+relationship between the parallel valleys and the name. The
+application of the term "yellow" would not seem to be very appropriate
+so far as it is distinctive of the general color of the pueblo. The
+neighboring spring, however, contains water which after standing some
+time has a yellowish tinge, and it was not unusual to name pueblos
+from the color of the adjacent water or from some peculiarity of the
+spring, which was one of the most potent factors in the determination
+of the site of a village. Although the name may also refer to a
+cardinal point, a method of nomenclature followed in some regions of
+the Southwest, if such were the case in regard to Sikyatki it would be
+exceptional in Tusayan.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXV
+
+SIKYATKI MOUNDS FROM THE KANELBA TRAIL]
+
+
+FORMER INHABITANTS OF SIKYATKI
+
+The origin of the pueblo settlement at Sikyatki is doubtful, but as I
+have shown in my enumeration of the clans of Walpi, the Kokop
+(Firewood) and the Isauûh (Coyote) phratries which lived there are
+supposed to have come into Tusayan from the far east or the valley
+of the Rio Grande. The former phratry is not regarded as one of the
+earliest arrivals in Tusayan, for when its members arrived at Walpi
+they found living there the Flute, Snake, and Water-house phratries.
+It is highly probable that the Firewood, or as they are sometimes
+called the Fire, people, once lived in the round pueblo known as
+Fire-house, and as the form of this ruin is exceptional in Tusayan,
+and highly characteristic of the region east of this province, there
+is archeological evidence of the eastern origin of the Fire people.
+Perhaps the most intelligent folklorist of the Kokop people was
+Nasyuñweve, who died a few years ago--unfortunately before I had been
+able to record all the traditions which he knew concerning his
+ancestors. At the present day Katci, his successor[100] in these
+sacerdotal duties in the Antelope-Snake mysteries, claims that his
+people formerly occupied Sikyatki, and indeed the contiguous fields
+are still cultivated by members of that phratry.
+
+It is hardly possible to do more than estimate the population of
+Sikyatki when in its prime, but I do not believe that it was more than
+500;[101] probably 300 inhabitants would be a closer estimate if we
+judge from the relative population to the size of the pueblo of Walpi
+at the present time. On the basis of population given, the evidences
+from the size of the Sikyatki cemeteries would not point to an
+occupancy of the village for several centuries, although, of course,
+the strict confines of these burial places may not have been
+determined by our excavations. The comparatively great depth at which
+some of the human remains were found does not necessarily mean great
+antiquity, for the drifting sands of the region may cover or uncover
+the soil or rocks in a very short time, and the depth at which an
+object is found below the surface is a very uncertain medium for
+estimating the antiquity of buried remains.
+
+
+GENERAL FEATURES
+
+The ruin of Sikyatki (plates CXV, CXVI) lies about three miles east of
+the recent settlement of Tanoan families at Isba or Coyote spring,
+near the beginning of the trail to Hano. Its site is in full view from
+the road extending from the last-mentioned settlement to Keam's
+canyon, and lies among the hills just below the two pyramidal
+elevations called Küküchomo, which are visible for a much greater
+distance. When seen from this road the mounds of Sikyatki are observed
+to be elevated at least 300 feet above the adjacent cultivated plain,
+but at the ruin itself this elevation is scarcely appreciable, so
+gradual is the southerly decline to the arroyo which drains the plain.
+The ruin is situated among foothills a few hundred yards from the base
+of the mesa, and in the depression between it and the mesa there is a
+stretch of sand in which grow peach trees and a few stunted cedars. At
+this point, likewise, there is a spring, now feeble in its flow from
+the gradually drifting sand, yet sufficient to afford a trickling
+stream by means of which an enterprising native, named Tcino,
+irrigates a small garden of melons and onions. On all sides of the
+ruin there are barren stretches of sand relieved in some places by
+stunted trees and scanty vegetation similar to that of the adjacent
+plains. The soil in the plaza of the ruin is cultivated, yielding a
+fair crop of squashes, but is useless for corn or beans.
+
+Here and there about the ruins stand great jagged bowlders, relieving
+what would otherwise be a monotonous waste of sand. One of these stony
+outcrops forms what I have called the "acropolis" of Sikyatki, which
+will presently be described. On the eastern side the drifting sand has
+so filled in around the elevation on which the ruin stands that the
+ascent is gradual, and the same drift extends to the rim of the mesa,
+affording access to the summit that otherwise would necessitate
+difficult climbing. Along the ridge of this great drift there runs a
+trail which passes over the mesa top to a beautiful spring, on the
+other side, called Kanelba.[102]
+
+The highest point of the ruin as seen from the plain is the rocky
+eminence rising at the western edge, familiarly known among the
+members of my party as the "acropolis." As one approaches the ruin
+from a deep gulch on the west, the acropolis appears quite lofty, and
+a visitor would hardly suspect that it marks the culminating point of
+a ruin, so similar does it appear to surrounding hills of like
+geologic character where no vestiges of former house-walls appear.
+
+The spring from which the inhabitants of the old pueblo obtained their
+water supply lies between the ruin and the foot of the mesa, nearer
+the latter. The water is yellow in color, especially after it has
+remained undisturbed for some time, and the quantity is very limited.
+It trickles out of a bed of clay in several places and forms a pool
+from which it is drawn to irrigate a small garden and a grove of peach
+trees. It is said that when Sikyatki was in its prime this spring was
+larger than at present, and I am sure that a little labor spent in
+digging out the accumulation of sand would make the water more
+wholesome and probably sufficiently abundant for the needs of a
+considerable population.
+
+The nearest spring of potable water available for our excavation camp
+at Sikyatki was Kanelba, or Sheep spring, one of the best sources of
+water supply in Tusayan. The word Kanelba, containing a Spanish
+element, must have replaced a Hopi name, for it is hardly to be
+supposed that this spring was not known before sheep were brought into
+the country. There is a legend that formerly the site of this spring
+was dry, when an ancient priest, who had deposited his _tiponi_, or
+chieftain's badge, at the place, caused the water to flow from the
+ground; at present however the water rushes from a hole as large as
+the arm in the face of the rock, as well as from several minor
+openings. It is situated on the opposite side of the mesa from
+Sikyatki, a couple of miles northeastward from the ruin.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVI
+
+GROUND PLAN OF SIKYATKI]
+
+Half-way up the side of the mesa, about opposite Sikyatki, there is a
+large reservoir, used as a watering place for sheep. The splash of the
+water, as it falls into this reservoir, is an unusual sound in this
+arid region, and is worth a tramp of many miles. There are many
+evidences that this spring was a popular one in former times. As it is
+approached from the top of the mesa, a brief inspection of the
+surroundings shows that for about a quarter of a mile, on either side,
+there are signs of ancient terraced gardens, walled in with rows of
+stones. These gardens have today greatly diminished in size, as
+compared with the ancient outlines, and only that portion which is
+occupied by a grove of peach trees is now under cultivation, although
+there is plenty of water for the successful irrigation of a much
+larger tract of land than the gardens now cover.[103] Judging from
+their size, many of the peach trees are very old, although they still
+bear their annual crop of fruit. Everything indicates, as the legends
+relate, that these Kanelba gardens, the walls of which now form sheep
+corrals, were long ago abandoned.
+
+The terraces south of the Kanelba peach grove resemble the lower
+terraces of Wipo. About 100 rods farther south, along the foot of the
+mesa, on the same level, are a number of unused fields, and a cluster
+of house remains. The whole of this terrace is of a type which shows
+greater action of the weather than the others, but the boundaries of
+the fields are still marked with rows of stones. The adjacent
+foothills contain piles of ashes in several places, as if the sites of
+ancient pottery kilns, and very old stone inclosures occur on the top
+of the mesa above Kanelba. All indications seem to point to the
+ancient occupancy of the region about Kanelba by many more farmers
+than today. Possibly the inhabitants of Sikyatki, which is only two or
+three miles away, frequented this place and cultivated these ancient
+gardens. Kanelba is regarded as a sacred spring by several Hopi
+religious societies of East Mesa. The Snake priests of Walpi always
+celebrate a feast there on the day of the snake hunt to the east in
+odd years,[104] while in the alternate years it is visited by the
+Flute men.
+
+The present appearance of Sikyatki (plate CXV) is very desolate, and
+when visited by our party previously to the initiation of the work,
+seemed to promise little in the way of archeological results. No walls
+were standing above ground, and the outlines of the rooms were very
+indistinct. All we saw at that time was a series of mounds,
+irregularly rectangular in shape, of varying altitude, with here and
+there faint traces of walls. Prominent above all these mounds,
+however, was the pinnacle of rock on the northwestern corner, rising
+abruptly from the remainder of the ruin, easily approached from the
+west and sloping more gradually to the south. This rocky elevation,
+which we styled the acropolis, was doubtless once covered with houses.
+
+On the western edge of the ruin a solitary farmhouse, used during the
+summer season, had been constructed of materials from the old walls,
+and was inhabited by an Indian named Lelo and his family during our
+excavations. He is the recognized owner of the farm land about
+Sikyatki and the cultivator of the soil in the old plaza of the ruins.
+Jakwaina, an enterprising Tewan who lives not far from Isba, the
+spring near the trail to Hano, has also erected a modern house near
+the Sikyatki spring, but it had not been completed at the time of our
+stay. Probably never since its destruction in prehistoric times have
+so many people as there were in our party lived for so long a time at
+this desolate place.
+
+The disposition of the mounds show that the ground plan of Sikyatki
+(plate CXVI) was rectangular in shape, the houses inclosing a court in
+which are several mounds that may be the remains of kivas. The highest
+range of rooms, and we may suppose the most populous part of the
+ancient pueblo, was on the same side as the acropolis, where a large
+number of walled chambers in several series were traced.
+
+The surface of what was formerly the plaza is crossed by rows of
+stones regularly arranged to form gardens, in which several kinds of
+gourds are cultivated. In the sands north of the ruin there are many
+peach trees, small and stunted, but yearly furnishing a fair crop.
+These are owned by Tcino,[105] and of course were planted long after
+the destruction of the pueblo.
+
+In order to obtain legends of the former occupancy and destruction of
+Sikyatki, I consulted Nasyuñweve, the former head of the Kokop people,
+and while the results were not very satisfactory, I learned that the
+land about Sikyatki is still claimed by that phratry. Nasyuñweve,[106]
+Katci, and other prominent Kokop people occupy and cultivate the land
+about Sikyatki on the ground of inheritance from their ancestors who
+once inhabited the place.
+
+Two routes were taken to approach Sikyatki--one directly across the
+sandy plain from the entrance to Keam's canyon, following for some
+distance the road to East Mesa; the other along the edge of the mesa,
+on the first terrace, to the cluster of houses at Coyote spring. The
+trail to the pueblos of East Mesa ascends the cliff just above
+Sikyatki spring, and joins that to Kanelba or Sheep spring, not far
+from Küküchomo, the twin mounds. By keeping along the first terrace a
+well-traveled trail, with interesting views of the plain and the ruin,
+joins the old wagon road to _Wala_, the "gap" of East Mesa, at a
+higher level than the cluster of Tewan houses at Isba. In going and
+returning from their homes our Hopi workmen preferred the trail along
+the mesa, which we also often used; but the climb to the mesa top from
+the ruin is very steep and somewhat tiresome.
+
+We prosecuted our excavations at Sikyatki for a few days over three
+weeks, choosing as a site for our camp a small depression to the east
+of the ruin near a dwarf cedar at the point where the trail to Kanelba
+passes the ruin. The place was advantageously near the cemeteries, and
+not too far from water. For purposes other than cooking and drinking
+the Sikyatki spring was used, the remainder of the supply being
+brought from Kanelba by means of a burro.
+
+I employed Indian workmen at the ruin, and found them, as a rule,
+efficient helpers. The zeal which they manifested at the beginning of
+the work did not flag, but it must be confessed that toward the close
+of the excavations it became necessary to incite their enthusiasm by
+prizes, and, to them, extraordinary offers of overalls and calico.
+They at first objected to working in the cemeteries, regarding it as a
+desecration of the dead, but several of their number overcame their
+scruples, even handling skulls and other parts of skeletons. The Snake
+chief, Kopeli, however, never worked with the others, desiring not to
+dig in the graves. Respecting his feelings, I allotted him the special
+task of excavating the rooms of the acropolis, which he performed with
+much care, showing great interest in the results. At the close of our
+daily work prayer-offerings were placed in the trenches by the Indian
+workmen, as conciliatory sacrifices to Masauwûh, the dread God of
+Death, to offset any malign influence which might result from our
+desecration of his domain. A superstitious feeling that this god was
+not congenial to the work which was going on, seemed always to haunt
+the minds of the laborers, and once or twice I was admonished by old
+men, visitors from Walpi, not to persist in my excavations. The
+excavators, at times, paused in their work and called my attention to
+strange voices echoing from the cliffs, which they ascribed, half in
+earnest, to Masauwûh.
+
+The Indians faithfully delivered to me all objects which they found in
+their digging, with the exception of turquoises, many of which, I
+have good reason to suspect, they concealed while our backs were
+turned and, in a few instances, even before our eyes.
+
+The accompanying plan of Sikyatki (plate CXVI) shows that it was a
+rectangular ruin with an inclosed plaza. It is evident that the
+ancient pueblo was built on a number of low hills and that the eastern
+portion was the highest. In this respect it resembled Awatobi, but
+apparently differed from the latter pueblo in having the inclosed
+plaza. In the same way it was unlike Walpi or the ancient and modern
+pueblos of Middle Mesa and Oraibi. In fact, there is no Tusayan ruin
+which resembles it in ground plan, except Payüpki, a Tanoan town of
+much later construction. The typical Tusayan form of architecture is
+the pyramidal, especially in the most ancient pueblos. The ground plan
+of Sikyatki is of a type more common in the eastern pueblo region and
+in those towns of Tusayan which were built by emigrants from the Rio
+Grande region. Sikyatki and some of the villages overlooking Antelope
+valley are of this type.
+
+In studying the ground plans of the three modern villages on East
+Mesa, the fact is noted that both Sichomovi and Hano differ
+architecturally from Walpi. The forms of the former smaller pueblos
+are primarily rectangular with an inclosed plaza in which is situated
+the kiva; Walpi, on the other hand, although furnished with a small
+plaza at the western end, has kivas located peripherally rather than
+in an open space between the highest house clusters. Sichomovi is
+considered by the Hopi as like Zuñi, and is sometimes called by the
+Hano people, Sionimone, "Zuñi court," because to the Tewan mind it
+resembles Zuñi; but the term is never applied to Walpi.[107] The
+distinction thus recognized is, I believe, architecturally valid. The
+inclosed court or plaza in Tusayan is an intrusion from the east, and
+as eastern colonists built both Hano and Sichomovi, they preserved the
+form to which they were accustomed. The Sikyatki builders drew their
+architectural inspiration likewise from the east, hence the inclosed
+court in the ruins of that village.
+
+The two most considerable house clusters of Sikyatki are at each end
+of a longer axis, connected by a narrow row of houses on the other
+sides. The western rows of houses face the plain, and were of one
+story, with a gateway at one point. The opposite row was more
+elevated, no doubt overlooking cultivated fields beyond the confines
+of the ruin. No kivas were discovered, but if such exist they ought to
+be found in the mass of houses at the southern end. I thought we had
+found circular rooms in that region, but cursory excavations did not
+demonstrate their existence. As there is no reason to suspect the
+existence of circular kivas in ancient Tusayan, it would be difficult
+to decide whether or not any one of the large rectangular rooms was
+used for ceremonial purposes, for it is an interesting fact that some
+of the oldest secret rites in the Hopi villages occur, not in kivas,
+but in ordinary dwelling rooms in the village. It has yet to be shown
+that there were special kivas in prehistoric Tusayan.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVII
+
+EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI]
+
+The longer axis of the ruin is about north and south; the greatest
+elevation is approximately 50 feet. Rocks outcrop only at one place,
+the remainder of the ruin being covered with rubble, sand, stones, and
+fragments of pottery. The mounds are not devoid of vegetation, for
+sagebrush, cacti, and other desert genera grow quite profusely over
+their surface; but they are wholly barren of trees or large bushes,
+and except in the plaza the ruin area is uncultivated. As previously
+stated, Sikyatki is situated about 250 or 300 feet above the plain,
+and when approached from Keam's canyon appears to be about halfway up
+the mesa height. On several adjacent elevations evidences of former
+fires, or places where pottery was burned, were found, and one has not
+to go far to discover narrow seams of an impure lignite. Here and
+there are considerable deposits of selenite, which, as pointed out by
+Sitgreaves in his report on the exploration of the Little Colorado,
+looks like frost exuding from the ground in early spring.
+
+
+THE ACROPOLIS
+
+During the limited time devoted to the excavation of Sikyatki it was
+impossible, in a ruin so large, to remove the soil covering any
+considerable number of rooms. The excavations at different points over
+such a considerable area as that covered by the mounds would have been
+more or less desultory and unsatisfactory, but a limited section
+carefully opened would be much more instructive and typical. While,
+therefore, the majority of the Indian workmen were kept employed at
+the cemeteries, Kopeli, the Snake chief, a man in whom I have great
+confidence, was assigned to the excavation of a series of rooms at the
+highest point of the ruin, previously referred to as the acropolis
+(figure 262). Although his work in these chambers did not yield such
+rich results as the others, so far as the number of objects was
+concerned, he succeeded in uncovering a number of rooms to their
+floors, and unearthed many interesting objects of clay and stone. A
+brief description of these excavations will show the nature of the
+work at that point.
+
+The acropolis, or highest point of Sikyatki, is a prominent rocky
+elevation at the western angle, and overlooks the entire ruin. On the
+side toward the western cemetery it rises quite abruptly, but the
+ascent is more gradual from the other sides. The surface of this
+elevation, on which the houses stood, is of rock, and originally was
+as destitute of soil as the plaza of Walpi. This surface supported a
+double series of rooms, and the highest point is a bare, rocky
+projection.
+
+From the rooms of the acropolis there was a series of chambers,
+probably terraced, sloping to the modern gardens now occupying the old
+plaza, and the broken walls of these rooms still protrude from the
+surface in many places (plate CXVIII). When the excavations on the
+acropolis were begun, no traces of the biserial rows of rooms were
+detected, although the remains of the walls were traceable. The
+surface was strewn with fragments of pottery and other evidences of
+former occupancy.
+
+On leveling the ground and throwing off the surface stones, it was
+found that the narrow ridge which formed the top of the acropolis was
+occupied by a double line of well-built chambers which show every
+evidence of having been living rooms. The walls were constructed of
+squared stones set in adobe, with the inner surface neatly plastered.
+Many of the rooms communicated by means of passageways with adjacent
+chambers, some of them being provided with niches and shelves. The
+average height of the standing walls revealed by excavation, as
+indicated by the distance of the floor below the surface of the soil,
+was about 5 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 262--The acropolis of Sikyatki]
+
+The accompanying illustration (plate CXVIII) shows a ground plan of
+nine of these rooms, which, for purposes of reference, are lettered
+_a_ to _l_. A description of each, it is hoped, will give an idea of a
+typical room of Sikyatki. Room _a_ is rectangular in shape, 5 feet 3
+inches by 6 feet 8 inches, and is 5 feet 8 inches deep. It has two
+depressions in the floor at the southeastern corner, and there is a
+small niche in the side wall above them. Some good specimens of mural
+plastering, much blackened by soot, are found on the eastern wall.
+Room _a_ has no passageway into room _b_, but it opens into the
+adjoining room _c_ by an opening in the wall 3 feet 4 inches wide,
+with a threshold 9 inches high.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVIII
+
+PLAN OF EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI
+
+(Dimensions in feet and inches)]
+
+The shape of room _b_ is more irregular. It is 8 feet 1 inch long by 4
+feet 5 inches wide, and the floor is 5 feet 2 inches below the
+surface. In one corner there is a raised triangular platform 2 feet 7
+inches above the floor. A large cooking pot, blackened with soot, was
+found in one corner of this room, and near it was a circular
+depression in the floor 17 inches in diameter, evidently a fireplace.
+
+Room _c_ is smaller than either of the preceding, and is the only one
+with two passageways into adjoining chambers. Remains of wooden beams
+in a fair state of preservation were found on the floors of rooms _c_
+and _b_, but they were not charred, as is so often the case, nor were
+there any ashes except in the supposed fireplace.
+
+Room _d_ is larger than those already mentioned, being 7 feet 8 inches
+by 5 feet, and connects with room _c_ by means of a passageway. Rooms
+_e_ and _f_ communicate with each other by an opening 16 inches wide.
+We found the floors of these rooms 4 feet below the surface. The
+length of room _e_ is 8 feet.
+
+Room _f_ is 6 feet 8 inches long and of the same width as _e_. The
+three chambers _g_, _h_, and _i_ are each 6 feet 9 inches wide, but of
+varying width. Room _g_ is 5 feet 2 inches, _h_ is 8 feet 6 inches,
+and _i_, the smallest of all, only a foot wide. These three rooms have
+no intercommunication.
+
+The evidence of former fires in some of these rooms, afforded by soot
+on the walls and ashes in the depressions identified as old
+fireplaces, is most important. In one or two places I broke off a
+fragment of the plastering and found it to be composed of many strata
+of alternating black and adobe color, indicating successive
+plasterings of the room. Apparently when the surface wall became
+blackened by smoke it was renewed by a fresh layer or wash of adobe in
+the manner followed in renovating the kiva walls today.[108]
+
+An examination of the dimensions of the rooms of the acropolis will
+show that, while small, they are about the average size of the
+chambers in most other southwestern ruins. They are, however, much
+smaller than the rooms of the modern pueblo of Walpi or those of the
+cliff ruins in the Red-rock region, elsewhere described. Evidently the
+roof was 2 or 3 feet higher than the top of the present walls, and the
+absence of external passageways would seem to indicate that entrance
+was through the roof. The narrow chamber, _i_, is no smaller than some
+of those which were excavated at Awatobi, but unless it was a storage
+bin or dark closet for ceremonial paraphernalia its function is not
+known to me. The mural plastering was especially well done in rooms
+_g_ and _h_, a section thereof showing many successive thin strata of
+soot and clay, implying long occupancy. No chimneys were found, the
+smoke, as is the case with that from kiva fires today, doubtless
+finding an exit through the hatchway in the roof.
+
+
+MODERN GARDENS
+
+The whole surface of the ancient plaza of Sikyatki is occupied by
+rectangular gardens outlined by rows of stones. These are of modern
+construction and are cultivated by an enterprising Hopi who, as
+previously mentioned, has erected a habitable dwelling on one of the
+western mounds from the stones of the old ruin. These gardens are
+planted yearly with melons and squashes, and stones forming the
+outlines serve as wind-breaks to protect the growing plants from
+drifting sand. The plotting of the plan of these gardens was made in
+1891, when a somewhat larger part of the plaza was under cultivation
+than in 1895.[109]
+
+There is a grove of dwarf peach trees in the sands between the
+northern side of the ruin and the mesa along the run through which
+sometimes trickles a little stream from the spring. These trees belong
+to an inhabitant of Sichomovi named Tcino, who, it is claimed, is a
+descendant of the ancient Sikyatkians. The trees were of course
+planted there since the fall of the village, on land claimed by the
+Kokop phratry by virtue of their descent from the same phratral
+organization of the ancient pueblo.[110] The spring shows no evidence
+of having been walled up, but apparently has been filled in by
+drifting sand since the time that it formed the sole water supply of
+the neighboring pueblo. It still preserves the yellow color mentioned
+in traditions of the place.
+
+
+THE CEMETERIES
+
+By far the largest number of objects found at Sikyatki were gathered
+from the cemeteries outside the ruin, and were therefore mortuary in
+character. It would seem that the people buried their dead a short
+distance beyond the walls, at the three cardinal points. The first of
+these cemeteries was found in the dune between the ruin and the peach
+trees below the spring, and from its relative position from the pueblo
+has been designated the northern cemetery. The cemetery proper lies on
+the edge of the sandy tract, and was first detected by the finding of
+the long-bones of a human skeleton projecting from the soil. The
+position of individual graves was indicated usually by small, oblong
+piles of stones; but, as this was not an invariable sign, it was
+deemed advisable to extend long trenches across the lower part of the
+dune. As a rule, the deeper the excavations the more numerous and
+elaborate were the objects revealed. Most of the skeletons were in a
+poor state of preservation, but several could have been saved had we
+the proper means at our disposal to care for them.
+
+No evidence of cremation of the dead was found, either at Awatobi or
+Sikyatki, nor have I yet detected any reference to this custom among
+the modern Hopi Indians. They have, however, a strange concept of the
+purification of the breath-body, or shade of the dead, by fire, which,
+although I have always regarded it as due to the teaching of Christian
+missionaries, may be aboriginal in character. This account of the
+judgment of the dead is as follows:
+
+There are two roads from the grave to the Below. One of these is a
+straight way connected with the path of the sun into the Underworld.
+There is a branch trail which divides from this straight way, passing
+from fires to a lake or ocean (_patübha_). At the fork of the road
+sits Tokonaka, and when the breath-body comes to this place this chief
+looks it over and, if satisfied, he says "_Üm-pac lo-la-mai, ta ai_,"
+"You are very good; go on." Then the breath-body passes along the
+straight way to the far west, to the early _Sipapû_, the Underworld
+from which it came, the home of Müiyinwû. Another breath-body comes to
+the fork in the road, and the chief says, "You are bad," and he
+conducts it along the crooked path to the place of the first fire pit,
+where sits a second chief, Tokonaka, who throws the bad breath-body
+into the fire, and after a time it emerges purified, for it was not
+wholly bad. The chief says, "You are good now," and carries it back to
+the first chief, who accepts the breath-body and sends it along the
+straight road to the west.
+
+If, on emerging from the first fire, the soul is still unpurified, or
+not sufficiently so to be accepted, it is taken to the second fire pit
+and cast into it. If it emerges from this thoroughly purified, in the
+opinion of the judge, it is immediately transformed into a
+_ho-ho-ya-üh_, or prayer-beetle. All the beetles we now see in the
+valleys or among the mesas were once evil Hopi. If, on coming out of
+the second fire pit, the breath-body is still considered bad by the
+chief, he takes it to the third fire, and, if there be no evil in it
+when it emerges from this pit, it is metamorphosed into an ant, but if
+unpurified by these three fires--that is, if the chief still finds
+evil left in the breath-body--he takes it to a fourth fire and again
+casts it into the flames, where it is utterly consumed, the only
+residue being soot on the side of the pit.
+
+I have not recorded this as a universal or an aboriginal belief among
+the Hopi, but rather to show certain current ideas which may have been
+brought to Tusayan by missionaries or others. The details of the
+purification of the evil soul are characteristic.
+
+The western cemetery of Sikyatki is situated among the hillocks
+covered with surface rubble below a house occupied in summer by a
+Hopi and his family. From the nature of the soil the excavation of
+this cemetery was very difficult, although the mortuary objects were
+more numerous. Repeated attempts to make the Indians work in a
+systematic manner failed, partly on account of the hard soil and
+partly from other reasons. Although the lower we went the more
+numerous and beautiful were the objects exhumed, the Indians soon
+tired of deep digging, preferring to confine their work to within two
+or three feet of the surface. At many places we found graves under and
+between the huge bowlders, which are numerous in this cemetery.
+
+The southern cemetery lies between the outer edge of the ruin on that
+side and the decline to the plain, a few hundred feet from the
+southern row of houses. Two conspicuous bowlders mark the site of most
+of the excavations in that direction. The mortuary objects from this
+cemetery are not inferior in character or number to those from the
+other burial places. All attempts to discover a cemetery on the
+eastern side of the pueblo failed, although a single food basin was
+brought to the camp by an Indian who claimed he had dug it out of the
+deep sand on the eastern side of the ruins. Another bowl was found in
+the sand drift near the trail over the mesa to Kanelba, but careful
+investigation failed to reveal any systematic deposit of mortuary
+vessels east of the ruin.[111]
+
+The method of excavation pursued in the cemeteries was not so
+scientific as I had wished, but it was the only practicable one to be
+followed with native workmen. Having found the location of the graves
+by means of small prospecting holes sunk at random, the workmen were
+aligned and directed to excavate a single long, deep trench, removing
+all the earth as they advanced. It was with great difficulty that the
+Indians were taught the importance of excavating to a sufficient
+depth, and even to the end of the work they refused to be taught not
+to burrow. In their enthusiasm to get the buried treasures they worked
+very well so long as objects were found, but became at once
+discouraged when relics were not so readily forthcoming and went off
+prospecting in other places when our backs were turned. A shout that
+anyone had discovered a new grave in the trench was a signal for the
+others to stop work, gather around the place, light cigarettes, and
+watch me or my collaborators dig out the specimens with knives. This
+we always insisted on doing, for the reason that in their haste the
+Indians at first often broke fragile pottery after they had discovered
+it, and in spite of all precautions several fine jars and bowls were
+thus badly damaged by them. It is therefore not too much to say that
+most of the vessels which are now entire were dug out of the impacted
+sand by Mr Hodge or myself.
+
+No rule could be formulated in regard to the place where the pottery
+would occur, and often the first indication of its presence was the
+stroke of a shovel on the fragile edge of a vase or bowl. Having once
+found a skeleton, or discolored sand which indicated the former
+presence of human remains, the probability that burial objects were
+near by was almost a certainty, although in several instances even
+these signs failed.
+
+A considerable number of the pottery objects had been broken when the
+soil and stones were thrown on the corpse at interment. So many were
+entire, however, that I do not believe any considerable number were
+purposely broken at that time, and none were found with holes made in
+them to "kill" or otherwise destroy their utility.
+
+No evidences of cremation--no charred bones of man or animal in or
+near the mortuary vessels--were found. From the character of the
+objects obtained from neighboring graves, rich and poor were
+apparently buried side by side in the same soil. Absolutely no
+evidence of Spanish influence was encountered in all the excavations
+at Sikyatki--no trace of metal, glass, or other object of Caucasian
+manufacture such as I have mentioned as having been taken from the
+ruins of Awatobi--thus confirming the native tradition that the
+catastrophe of Sikyatki antedated the middle of the sixteenth century,
+when the first Spaniards entered the country.
+
+It is remarkable that in Sikyatki we found no fragments of basketry or
+cloth, the fame of which among the Pueblo Indians was known to
+Coronado before he left Mexico. That the people of Sikyatki wore
+cotton kilts no one can doubt, but these fabrics, if they were buried
+with the dead, had long since decayed. Specimens of strings and ropes
+of yucca, which were comparatively abundant at Awatobi, were not found
+at Sikyatki; yet their absence by no means proves that they were not
+used, for the marks of the strings used to bind feathers to the
+mortuary pahos, on the green paint with which the wood was covered,
+may still be readily seen.
+
+The insight into ancient beliefs and practices afforded by the
+numerous objects found at Sikyatki is very instructive, and while it
+shows the antiquity of some of the modern symbols, it betrays a still
+more important group of conventionalized figures, the meaning of which
+may always remain in doubt. This is particularly true of the
+decoration on many specimens of the large collection of highly
+ornamented pottery found in the Sikyatki cemeteries.
+
+If we consider the typical designs on modern Hopi pottery and compare
+them with the ancient, as illustrated by the collections from Awatobi
+and Sikyatki, it is noted, in the first place, how different they are,
+and secondly, how much better executed the ancient objects are than
+the modern. Nor is it always clear how the modern symbols are derived
+from the ancient, so widely do they depart from them in all their
+essential characters.
+
+
+POTTERY
+
+CHARACTERISTICS--MORTUARY POTTERY
+
+The pottery exhumed from the burial places of Sikyatki falls in the
+divisions known as--
+
+    I--Coiled and indented ware.
+    II--Smooth undecorated ware.
+    III--Polished decorated ware.
+        _a_. Yellow.
+        _b_. Red.
+        _c_. Black-and-white.
+
+By far the largest number of ancient pottery objects from this
+locality belong to the yellow-ware group in the above classification.
+This is the characteristic pottery of Tusayan, although coiled and
+indented ware is well represented in the collection. The few pieces of
+red ware are different from that found in the ruins of the Little
+Colorado, while the black-and-white pottery closely resembles the
+archaic ware of northern cliff houses. Although the Sikyatki pottery
+bears resemblance to that of Awatobi, it can be distinguished from it
+without difficulty. The paste of both is of the finest character and
+was most carefully prepared. Some of the ancient specimens are much
+superior to those at present made, and are acknowledged by the finest
+potters of East Mesa to be beyond their power of ceramic production.
+The coloration is generally in red, brown, yellow, and black.
+Decorative treatment by spattering is common in the food basins, and
+this was no doubt performed, Chinese fashion, by means of the mouth.
+The same method is still employed by the Hopi priests in painting
+their masks.
+
+The Sikyatki collection of pottery shows little or no duplication in
+decorative design, and every ornamented food basin bears practically
+different symbols. The decoration of the food basins is mainly on the
+interior, but there is almost invariably a geometrical design of some
+kind on the outside, near the rim. The ladles, likewise, are
+ornamented on their interior, and their handles also are generally
+decorated. When the specimens were removed from the graves their
+colors, as a rule, were apparently as well preserved as at the time of
+their burial; nor, indeed, do they appear to have faded since their
+deposit in the National Museum.
+
+The best examples of ceramic art from the graves of Sikyatki, in
+texture, finish, and decoration, are, in my judgment, superior to any
+pottery made by ancient or modern Indians north of Mexico. Indeed, in
+these respects the old Tusayan pottery will bear favorable comparison
+even with Central American ware. It is far superior to the rude
+pottery of the eastern pueblos, and is also considerably better than
+that of the great villages of the Gila and Salado. Among the Hopi
+themselves the ceramic art has degenerated, as the few remaining
+potters confess. These objects can hardly be looked upon as products
+of a savage people destitute of artistic feeling, but of a race which
+has developed in this line of work, through the plane of savagery, to
+a high stage of barbarism. While, as a whole, we can hardly regard the
+modern Hopi as a degenerate people with a more cultured ancestry,
+certainly the entire Pueblo culture in the Southwest, judged by the
+character of their pottery manufacture, has greatly deteriorated since
+the middle of the sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIX
+
+COILED AND INDENTED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+
+COILED AND INDENTED WARE
+
+The rudest type of pottery from Sikyatki has been classed as coiled
+and indented ware. It is coarse in texture, not polished, and usually
+not decorated. Although the outer surface of the pottery of this class
+is rough, the general form of the ware is not less symmetrical than
+that of the finer vessels. The objects belonging to this group are
+mostly jars and moccasin-shape vessels, there being no bowls of this
+type. As a rule, the vessels are blackened with soot, although some of
+the specimens are light-brown in color. The former variety were
+undoubtedly once used in cooking; the latter apparently for containing
+water or food. In the accompanying illustration (plate CXIX, _a_) is
+shown one of the best specimens of indented ware, the pits forming an
+equatorial zone about the vessel. All traces of the coil of clay with
+which the jar was built up have been obliterated save on the bottom.
+The vessel is symmetrical and the indentations regular, as if made
+with a pointed stone, bone, or stick.
+
+In another form of coarse pottery (plate CXIX, _b_) the rim merges
+into two ears or rudimentary handles on opposite sides. Traces of the
+original coiling are readily observable on the sides of this vessel.
+
+Another illustration (plate CXIX, _c_) shows an amphora or jar with
+diametrically opposite handles extending from the rim to the side of
+the bowl. The surface of this rude jar is rough and without
+decoration, but the form is regular and symmetrical. In another
+amphora (plate CXIX, _d_) the opposite handles appear below the neck
+of the vessel; they are broader and apparently more serviceable.
+
+The jar shown in plate CXIX, _e_, has two ear-like extensions or
+projections from the neck of the jar, which are perforated for
+suspension. This vessel is decorated with an incised zigzag line,
+which surrounds it just above its equator. This is a fair example of
+ornamented rough ware.
+
+Several of the vessels made of coarse clay mixed with sand, the grains
+of which make the surface very rough, are of slipper or moccasin
+shape. These are covered with soot or blackened by fire, indicating
+their former use as cooking pots. By adopting this form the ancients
+were practically enabled to use the principle of the dutch-oven, the
+coals being piled about the vessels containing the food to be cooked
+much more advantageously than in the vase-like forms.
+
+The variations in slipper-shape cooking pots are few and simple. The
+blind end is sometimes of globular form, as in the example illustrated
+in plate CXX, _a_, and sometimes pointed as in figures _b_ and _c_ of
+the same plate. One of the specimens of this type has a handle on the
+rim and another has a flaring lip. Slipper-form vessels are always of
+coarse ware for the obvious reason that, being somewhat more porous,
+they are more readily heated than polished utensils. They are not
+decorated for equally obvious reasons.
+
+
+SMOOTH UNDECORATED WARE
+
+There are many specimens of undecorated ware of all shapes and sizes,
+a type of which is shown in plate CXX, _d_. These include food bowls,
+saucers, ladles, and jars, and were taken from many graves. These
+utensils differ from the coarse-ware vessels not only in the character
+of the clay from which they are made, but also in their superficial
+polish, which, in some instances, is as fine as that of vessels with
+painted designs. Several very good spoons of half-gourd shape were
+found, and there are many undecorated food bowls and vases. The first
+attempts at ornamentation appear to have been a simple spattering of
+the surface with liquid pigment or a drawing of simple encircling
+bands. In one instance (plate CXX, _d_) a blackening of the surface by
+exposure to smoke was detected, but no superficial gloss, as in the
+Santa Clara ware, was noted.
+
+
+POLISHED DECORATED WARE
+
+By far the greater number of specimens of mortuary pottery from
+Sikyatki are highly polished and decorated with more or less
+complicated designs. Of these there are at least three different
+groups, based on the color of the ware. Most of the vessels are light
+yellow or of cream color; the next group in point of color is the red
+ware, the few remaining specimens being white with black decorations
+in geometric patterns. These types naturally fall into divisions
+consisting of vases, jars, bowls, square boxes, cups, ladles, and
+spoons.
+
+In the group called vases (plates CXXI, CXXII) many varieties are
+found; some of these are double, with an equatorial constriction;
+others are rounded below, flat above, with an elevated neck and a
+recurved lip. It is noteworthy that these jars or vases are destitute
+of handles, and that their decoration is always confined to the
+equatorial and upper sections about the opening. In the specimens of
+this group which were found at Sikyatki there is no basal rim and no
+depression on the pole opposite the opening. No decoration is found on
+the interior of the vases, although in several instances the inside of
+the lip bears lines or markings of various kinds. The opening is
+always circular, sometimes small, often large; the neck of a vessel is
+occasionally missing, although the specimens bear evidence of use
+after having been thus broken. In one or two instances the equatorial
+constriction is so deep that the jar is practically double; in other
+cases the constriction is so shallow that it is hardly perceptible
+(plate CXXVI, _a, b_). The size varies from a simple globular vessel
+not larger than a walnut to a jar of considerable size. Many show
+marks of previous use; others are as fresh as if made but yesterday.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXX
+
+SAUCERS AND SLIPPER BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+One of the most fragile of all the globular vessels is a specimen of
+very thin black-and-white ware, perforated near the rim for suspension
+(plate CXXXII). This form, although rare at Sikyatki, is represented
+by several specimens, and in mode of decoration is very similar to the
+cliff-house pottery. From its scarcity in Tusayan I am inclined to
+believe that this and related specimens were not made of clay found in
+the immediate vicinity of Sikyatki, but that the vessels were brought
+to the ancient pueblo from distant places. As at least some of the
+cliff houses were doubtless inhabited contemporaneously with and long
+after the destruction of Sikyatki, I do not hesitate to say that the
+potters of that pueblo were familiar with the cliff-dweller type of
+pottery and acquainted with the technic which gave the black-and-white
+ware its distinctive colors.
+
+By far the largest number of specimens of smooth decorated pottery
+from Sikyatki graves are food bowls or basins, evidently the dishes in
+which food was placed on the floor before the members of a family at
+their meals. As the mortuary offerings were intended as food for the
+deceased it is quite natural that this form of pottery should far
+outnumber any and all the others. In no instance do the food bowls
+exhibit marks of smoke blackening, an indication that they had not
+been used in the cooking of food, but merely as receptacles of the
+same.
+
+The beautiful decoration of these vessels speaks highly for the
+artistic taste of the Sikyatki women, and a feast in which they were
+used must have been a delight to the native eye so far as dishes were
+concerned. When filled with food, however, much of the decoration of
+the bowls must have been concealed, a condition avoided in the mode of
+ornamentation adopted by modern Tusayan potters; but there is no doubt
+that when not in use the decoration of the vessels was effectually
+exhibited in their arrangement on the floor or convenient shelves.
+
+The forms of these food bowls are hemispherical, gracefully rounded
+below, and always without an attached ring of clay on which to stand
+to prevent rocking. Their rims are seldom flaring, but sometimes have
+a slight constriction, and while the rims of the majority are
+perfectly circular, oblong variations are not wanting. Many of the
+bowls are of saucer shape, with almost vertical sides and flat bases;
+several are double, with rounded or flat base.
+
+The surface, inside and out, is polished to a fine gloss, and when
+exteriorly decorated, the design is generally limited to one side just
+below the rim, which is often ornamented with double or triple
+parallel lines, drawn in equidistant, quaternary, and other forms.
+Most of the bowls show signs of former use, either wear on the inner
+surface or on the base where they rested on the floor in former
+feasts.
+
+These mortuary vessels were discovered generally at one side of the
+chest or neck of the person whose remains they were intended to
+accompany, and a single specimen was found inverted over the head of
+the deceased. The number of vessels in each grave was not constant,
+and as many as ten were found with one skeleton, while in other graves
+only one or two were found. In one instance a nest of six of these
+basins, one inside another, was exhumed. While many of these mortuary
+offerings were broken and others chipped, there were still a large
+number as perfect as when made. Some of the bowls had been mended
+before burial, as holes drilled on each side of a crack clearly
+indicate. Fragments of various vessels, which evidently had been
+broken before they were thrown into the graves, were common.
+
+There is a general similarity in the artistic decoration of bowls
+found in the same grave, as if they were made by the same potter; and
+persons of distinction, as shown by other mortuary objects, were, as a
+rule, more honored than some of their kindred in the character and
+number of pottery objects deposited with their remains. There were
+also a number of skeletons without ceramic offerings of any kind.
+
+In one or two interments two or more small jars were found placed
+inside of a food bowl, and in many instances votive offerings, like
+turquois, beads, stones, and arrowpoints, had been deposited with the
+dead. The bowls likewise contained, in some instances, prayer-sticks
+and other objects, which will later be described.
+
+One of the most interesting modifications in the form of the rim of
+one of these food bowls is shown in plate CXX, _e_, which illustrates
+a variation from the circular shape, forming a kind of handle or
+support for the thumb in lifting the vessel. The utility of this
+projection in handling a bowl of hot food is apparent. This form of
+vessel is very rare, it being the only one of its kind in the
+collection.
+
+A considerable number of cups were found at Sikyatki; these vary in
+size and shape from a flat-bottom saucer like specimen to a mug-shape
+variety, always with a single handle (plate CXXV). Many of these
+resemble small bowls with rounded sides, but there are others in which
+the sides are vertical, and still others the sides of which incline at
+an angle to the flattened base.
+
+The handles of these cups are generally smooth, and in one instance
+adorned with a figure in relief. The rims of these dippers are never
+flaring, either inward or outward. As a rule they are decorated on the
+exterior; indeed there is only one instance of interior decoration.
+The handles of the dippers are generally attached at both ends, but
+sometimes the handle is free at the end near the body of the utensil
+and attached at the tip. These handles are usually flat, but sometimes
+they are round, and often are decorated. Traces of imitations of the
+braiding of two coils of clay are seen in a single specimen.[112]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXI
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXII
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Small and large ladles, with long handles, occurred in large numbers
+in Sikyatki graves, but there was little variation among them except
+in the forms of their handles. Many of these utensils were much worn
+by use, especially on the rim opposite the attachment of the handle,
+and in some specimens the handle itself had evidently been broken and
+the end rounded off by rubbing long before it was placed in the grave.
+From the comparatively solid character of the bowls of these dippers
+they were rarely fractured, and were commonly found to contain smaller
+mortuary objects, such as paint, arrowheads, or polishing stones.
+
+The ladles, unlike most of the cups, are generally decorated on the
+interior as well as on the exterior. Their handles vary in size and
+shape, are usually hollow, and sometimes are perforated at the end. In
+certain specimens the extremity is prolonged into a pointed, recurved
+tip, and sometimes is coiled in a spiral. A groove in the upper
+surface of one example is an unusual variation, and a right-angle bend
+of the tip is a unique feature of another specimen. The Sikyatki
+potters, like their modern descendants,[113] sometimes ornamented the
+tip of a single handle with the head of an animal and painted the
+upper surface of the shaft with alternate parallel bars, zigzags,
+terraces, and frets.
+
+Several spoons or scoops of earthenware, which evidently had been used
+in much the same way as similar objects in the modern pueblos, were
+found. Some of these have the shape of a half gourd--a natural object
+which no doubt furnished the pattern. These spoons, as a rule, were
+not decorated, but on a single specimen bars and parallel lines may be
+detected. In the innovations of modern times pewter spoons serve the
+same purpose, and their form is sometimes imitated in earthenware.
+More often, in modern and probably also in ancient usage, a roll of
+paper-bread or _piki_ served the same purpose, being dipped into the
+stew and then eaten with the fingers. Possibly the Sikyatkian drank
+from the hollow handle of a gourd ladle, as is frequently done in
+Walpi today, but he generally slaked his thirst by means of a clay
+substitute.[114]
+
+Several box-like articles of pottery of both cream and red ware were
+found in the Sikyatki graves, some of them having handles, others
+being without them (plate CXXV). They are ornamented on the exterior
+and on the rim, and the handle, when not lacking, is attached to the
+longer side of the rectangular vessel. Not a single bowl was found
+with a terraced rim, a feature so common in the medicine bowls of
+Tusayan at the present time.[115]
+
+In addition to the various forms of pottery which have been mentioned,
+there are also pieces made in the form of birds, one of the most
+typical of which is figured in plate CXII, _c_. In these objects the
+wings are represented by elevations in the form of ridges on the
+sides, and the tail and head by prolongations, which unfortunately
+were broken off.
+
+Toys or miniature reproductions of all the above-mentioned ceramic
+specimens occurred in several graves. These are often very roughly
+made, and in some cases contained pigments of different colors. The
+finding of a few fragments of clay in the form of animal heads, and
+one or two rude images of quadrupeds, would seem to indicate that
+sometimes such objects were likewise deposited with the dead. A clay
+object resembling the flaring end of a flageolet and ornamented with a
+zigzag decoration is unique in the collections from Sikyatki, although
+in the western cemetery there was found a fragment of an earthenware
+tube, possibly a part of a flute.
+
+In order to show more clearly the association of mortuary objects in
+single graves a few examples of the grouping of these deposits will be
+given.
+
+In a grave in the western cemetery the following specimens were found:
+1, ladle; 2, paint grinder; 3, paint slab; 4, arrowpoints; 5,
+fragments of a marine shell (_Pectunculus_); 6, pipe, with fragments
+of a second pipe, and 7, red paint (sesquioxide of iron).
+
+In the grave which contained the square medicine bowl shown in plate
+CXXVIII, _a_, a ladle containing food was also unearthed.
+
+The bowl decorated with a picture of a girl's head was associated with
+fragments of another bowl and four ladles.
+
+Another single grave contained four large and small cooking pots and a
+broken metate.
+
+In a grave 8 feet below the surface in the western cemetery we found:
+1, decorated food vessel; 2, black shoe-shape cooking pot resting in a
+food bowl and containing a small rude ladle; 3, coarse undecorated
+basin.
+
+A typical assemblage of mortuary objects comprised: 1, small decorated
+bowl containing polishing stones; 2, miniature cooking pot blackened
+by soot; 3, two small food bowls.
+
+In modern Hopi burials the food bowls with the food for the dead are
+not buried with the deceased, but are placed on the mound of soil and
+stones which covers the remains. From the position of the mortuary
+pottery as regards the skeletons in the Sikyatki interments, it is
+probable that this custom is of modern origin. Whether in former times
+food bowls were placed on the burial mounds as well as in the grave I
+am not able to say. The number of food bowls in ancient graves exceeds
+those placed on modern burials.
+
+The Sikyatki dead were apparently wrapped in coarse fabrics, possibly
+matting.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIII
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+
+PALEOGRAPHY OF THE POTTERY
+
+GENERAL FEATURES
+
+The pottery from Sikyatki is especially rich in picture writing, and
+imperfect as these designs are as a means of transmitting a knowledge
+of manners, customs, and religious conceptions, they can be
+interpreted with good results.
+
+One of the most important lessons drawn from the pottery is to be had
+from a study of the symbols used in its decoration, as indicative of
+current beliefs and practices when it was made. The ancient
+inhabitants of Sikyatki have left no written records, for, unlike the
+more cultured people of Central America, they had no codices; but they
+have left on their old mortuary pottery a large body of picture
+writings or paleography which reveals many instructive phases of their
+former culture. The decipherment of these symbols is in part made
+possible by the aid of a knowledge of modern survivals, and when
+interpreted rightly they open a view of ancient Tusayan myths, and in
+some cases of prehistoric practices.[116]
+
+Students of Pueblo mythology and ritual are accumulating a
+considerable body of literature bearing on modern beliefs and
+practices. This is believed to be the right method of determining
+their aboriginal status, and is therefore necessary as a basis of our
+knowledge of their customs and beliefs. It is reasonable to suppose
+that what is now practiced in Pueblo ritual contains more or less of
+what has survived from prehistoric times, but from Taos to Tusayan
+there is no pueblo which does not show modifications in mythology and
+ritual due to European contact. Modern Pueblo life resembles the
+ancient, but is not a facsimile of it, and until we have rightly
+measured the effects of incorporated elements, we are more or less
+inexact in our estimation of the character of prehistoric culture. The
+vein of similarity in the old and the new can be used in an
+interpretation of ancient paleography, but we overstep natural
+limitations if by so doing we ascribe to prehistoric culture every
+concept which we find current among the modern survivors. To show how
+much the paleography of Tusayan has changed since Sikyatki was
+destroyed, I need only say that most of the characteristic figures of
+deities which are used today in the decoration of pottery are not
+found on the Sikyatki ware. Perhaps the most common figures on modern
+food bowls is the head of a mythologic being, the Corn-maid,
+_Calako-mana_, but this picture, or any which resembles it, is not
+found on the bowls from Sikyatki. A knowledge of the cult of the
+Corn-maid possibly came into Tusayan, through foreign influences,
+after the fall of Sikyatki, and there is no doubt that the picture
+decoration of modern Tusayan pottery, made within a league of
+Sikyatki, is so different from the ancient that it indicates a
+modification of the culture of the Hopi in historic times, and implies
+how deceptive it may be to present modern beliefs and practices as
+facsimiles of ancient culture.
+
+The main subjects chosen by the native women for the decoration of
+their pottery are symbolic, and the most abundant objects which bear
+these decorations are food bowls and water vases. Many mythic concepts
+are depicted, among which may be mentioned the Plumed Snake, various
+birds, reptiles, frogs, tadpoles, and insects. Plants or leaves are
+seldom employed as decorative motives, but the flower is sometimes
+used. The feather was perhaps the most common object utilized, and it
+may likewise be said the most highly conventionalized.
+
+An examination of the decorations of modern food basins used in the
+villages of East Mesa shows that the mythologic personages most
+commonly chosen for the ornamentation of their interiors are the Corn
+or Germ goddesses.[117] These assume a number of forms, yet all are
+reducible to one type, although known by very different names, as
+Hewüqti, "Old Woman," Kokle, and the like.
+
+Figures of reptiles, birds, the antelope, and like animals do not
+occur on any of the food bowls from the large collection of modern
+Tusayan pottery which I have studied, and as these figures are well
+represented in the decorations on Sikyatki food bowls, we may suppose
+their use has been abandoned or replaced by figures of the
+Corn-maids.[118] This fact, like so many others drawn from a study of
+the Tusayan ritual, indicates that the cult of the Corn-maids is more
+vigorous today than it was when Sikyatki was in its prime.
+
+Many pictures of masks on modern Tusayan bowls are identified as
+_Tacab_ or Navaho _katcinas_.[119] Their symbolism is well
+characterized by chevrons on the cheeks or curved markings for eyes.
+None of these figures, however, have yet been found on ancient Tusayan
+ceramics. Taken in connection with facts adduced by Hodge indicative
+of a recent advent of this vigorous Athapascan tribe into Tusayan, it
+would seem that the use of the _Tacab katcina_ pictures was of recent
+date, and is therefore not to be expected on the prehistoric pottery
+of the age of that found in Sikyatki.
+
+In the decoration of ancient pottery I find no trace of figures of the
+clown-priests, or _tcukuwympkiya_, who are so prominent in modern
+Tusayan _katcina_ celebrations. These personages, especially the
+Tatcukti, often called by a corruption of the Zuñi name Kóyimse
+(Kóyomäshi), are very common on modern bowls, especially at the
+extremities of ladles or smaller objects of pottery.
+
+Many handles of ladles made at Hano in late times are modeled in the
+form of the Paiakyamu,[120] a glutton priesthood peculiar to that
+Tanoan pueblo. From the data at hand we may legitimately conclude that
+the conception of the clown-priest is modern in Tusayan, so far as the
+ornamentation of pottery is concerned.
+
+The large collections of so-called modern Hopi pottery in our museums
+is modified Tanoan ware, made in Tusayan. Most of the component
+specimens were made by Hano potters, who painted upon them figures of
+_katcinas_, a cult which they and their kindred introduced.
+
+Several of the food bowls had evidently cracked during their firing or
+while in use, and had been mended before they were buried in the
+graves. This repairing was accomplished either by filling the crack
+with gum or by boring a hole on each side of the fracture for tying.
+In one specimen of black-and-white ware a perfectly round hole was
+made in the bottom, as if purposely to destroy the usefulness of the
+bowl before burial. This hole had been covered inside with a rounded
+disk of old pottery, neatly ground on the edge. It was not observed
+that any considerable number of mortuary pottery objects were "killed"
+before burial, although a large number were chipped on the edges. It
+is a great wonder that any of these fragile objects were found entire,
+the stones and soil covering the corpse evidently having been thrown
+into the grave without regard to care.
+
+The majority of the ancient symbols are incomprehensible to the
+present Hopi priests whom I have been able to consult, although they
+are ready to suggest many interpretations, sometimes widely divergent.
+The only reasonable method that can be pursued in determining the
+meaning of the conventional signs with which the modern Tusayan
+Indians are unfamiliar seems, therefore, to be a comparative one. This
+method I have attempted to follow so far as possible.
+
+There is a closer similarity between the symbolism of the Sikyatki
+pottery and that of the Awatobi ware than there is between the
+ceramics of either of these two pueblos and that of Walpi, and the
+same likewise may be said of the other Tusayan ruins so far as known.
+It is desirable, however, that excavations be made at the site of Old
+Walpi in order to determine, if possible, how widely different the
+ceramics of that village are from the towns whose ruins were studied
+in 1895. There are certain practical difficulties in regard to work at
+Old Walpi, one of the greatest of which is its proximity to modern
+burial places and shrines still used. Moreover, it is
+probable--indeed, quite certain--that most of the portable objects
+were carried from the abandoned pueblo to the present village when the
+latter was founded; but the old cemeteries of Walpi contain many
+ancient mortuary bowls which, when exhumed, will doubtless contribute
+a most interesting chapter to the history of modern Tusayan decorative
+art.
+
+One of the largest, and, so far as form goes, one of the most unique
+vessels, is shown in plate CXXVI, _b_. This was not exhumed from
+Sikyatki, but was said to have been found in the vicinity of that
+ruin. While the ware is very old, I do not believe it is ancient, and
+it is introduced in order to show how cleverly ancient patterns maybe
+simulated by more modern potters. The sole way in which modern
+imitations of ancient vessels may be distinguished is by the peculiar
+crackled or crazed surface which the former always has. This is due, I
+believe, to the method of firing and the unequal contraction or
+expansion of the slip employed. All modern imitations are covered with
+a white slip which, after firing, becomes crackled, a characteristic
+unknown to ancient ware. The most expert modern potter at East Mesa is
+Nampéo, a Tanoan woman who is a thorough artist in her line of work.
+Finding a better market for ancient than for modern ware, she cleverly
+copies old decorations, and imitates the Sikyatki ware almost
+perfectly. She knows where the Sikyatki potters obtained their clay,
+and uses it in her work. Almost any Hopi who has a bowl to sell will
+say that it is ancient, and care must always be exercised in accepting
+such claims.
+
+An examination of the ornamentation of the jar above referred to shows
+a series of birds drawn in the fashion common to early pottery
+decoration. This has led me to place this large vessel among the old
+ware, although the character of the pottery is different from that of
+the best examples found at Sikyatki. I believe this vessel was exhumed
+from a ruin of more modern date than Sikyatki. The woman who sold it
+to me has farming interests near Awatobi, which leads me to conjecture
+that she or possibly one of her ancestors found it at or near that
+ruin. She admitted that it had been in the possession of her family
+for some time, but that the story she had heard concerning it
+attributed its origin to Sikyatki.
+
+
+HUMAN FIGURES
+
+Very few figures of men or women are found on the pottery, and these
+are confined to the interior of food basins (plate CXXIX).[121] They
+are ordinarily very roughly drawn, apparently with less care and with
+much less detail than are the figures of animals. From their character
+I am led to the belief that the drawing of human figures on pottery
+was a late development in Tusayan art, and postdates the use of animal
+figures on their earthenware. There are, however, a few decorations in
+which human figures appear, and these afford an interesting although
+meager contribution to our knowledge of ancient Tusayan art and
+custom.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIV
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+As is well known, the Hopi maidens wear their hair in two whorls, one
+over each ear, and that on their marriage it is tied in two coils
+falling on the breast. The whorl is arranged on a U-shape stick called
+a _gñela_; it is commonly done up by a sister, the mother, or some
+friend of the maiden, and is stiffened with an oil pressed from squash
+seeds. The curved stick is then withdrawn and the two puffs held in
+place by a string tightly wound between them and the head. The habit
+of dressing the hair in whorls is adopted after certain puberty
+ceremonials, which have elsewhere been described. When on betrothal a
+Hopi maid takes her gifts of finely ground cornmeal to the house of
+her future mother-in-law, her hair is dressed in this fashion for the
+last time, because on her return she is attacked by the women of the
+pueblo, drawn hither and thither, her hair torn down, and her body
+smeared with dirt. If her gifts are accepted she immediately becomes
+the wife of her lover, and her hair is thenceforth dressed in the
+fashion common to matrons.
+
+The symbolic meaning of the whorls of hair worn by the maidens is said
+to be the squash-flower, or, perhaps more accurately speaking, the
+potential power of fructification. There is legendary and other
+evidence that this custom is very ancient among the Tusayan Indians,
+and the data obtainable from their ritual point the same way. In the
+personification of ancestral "breath-bodies," or spirits by men,
+called _katcinas_, the female performers are termed _katcina-manas_
+(katcina-virgins), and it is their custom to wear the hair in the
+characteristic coiffure of maidens. In the personification of the
+Corn-maid by symbolic figures, such as graven images,[122] pictures,
+and the like, in secret rites, the style of coiffure worn by the
+maidens is common, as I have elsewhere shown in the descriptions of
+the ceremonials known as the Flute, _Lalakonti_, _Mamzrauti_,
+_Palülükoñti_, and others. The same symbol is found in images used as
+dolls of Calako-mana, the equivalent, as the others, of the same
+Corn-maid. From the nature of these images there can hardly be a doubt
+of the great antiquity of this practice, and that it has been brought
+down, through their ritual, to the present day. This style of hair
+dressing was mentioned by the early Spanish explorers, and is
+represented in pictographs of ancient date; but if all these evidences
+of its antiquity are insufficient the testimony afforded by the
+pictures on certain food-basins from Sikyatki leaves no doubt on this
+point.[123]
+
+Plate CXXIX, _b_, represents a food-basin, on the inside of which is
+drawn, in brown, the head and shoulders of a woman. On either side the
+hair is done up in coils which bear some likeness to the whorls worn
+by the present Hopi maidens. It must be borne in mind, however, that
+similar coils are sometimes made after ceremonial head-washing, and
+certain other rites, when the hair is tied with corn husks. The face
+is painted reddish, and the ears have square pendants similar to the
+turquois mosaics worn by Hopi women at the present day. Although there
+is other evidence than this of the use of square ear-pendants, set
+with mosaic, among the ancient people--and traditions point the same
+way--this figure of the head of a woman from Sikyatki leaves no doubt
+of the existence of this form of ornament in that ancient pueblo.
+
+However indecisive the last-mentioned picture may be in regard to the
+coiffure of the ancient Sikyatki women, plate CXXIX, _a_, affords
+still more conclusive evidence. This picture represents a woman of
+remarkable form which, from likenesses to figures at present made in
+sand on an altar in the _Lalakonti_ ceremony,[124] I have no
+hesitation in ascribing to the Corn-maid. The head has the two whorls
+of hair very similar to those made in that rite on the picture of the
+Goddess of Germs, and the square body is likewise paralleled in the
+same figure. The peculiar form is employed to represent the
+outstretched blanket, a style of art which is common in Mayan
+codices.[125] On each lower corner representations of feathered
+strings, called in the modern ritual _nakwákwoci_,[126] are appended.
+The figure is represented as kneeling, and the four parallel lines are
+possibly comparable with the prayer-sticks placed in the belt of the
+Germ goddess on the _Lalakonti_ altar. In her left hand (which, among
+the Hopi, is the ceremonial hand or that in which sacred objects are
+always carried) she holds an ear of corn, symbolic of germs, of which
+she is the deity. The many coincidences between this figure and that
+used in the ceremonials of the September moon, called Lalakonti, would
+seem to show that in both instances it was intended to represent the
+same mythic being.
+
+There is, however, another aspect of this question which is of
+interest. In modern times there is a survival among the Hopi of the
+custom of decorating the inside of a food basin with a figure of the
+Corn-maid, and this is, therefore, a direct inheritance of ancient
+methods represented by the specimen under consideration. A large
+majority of modern food bowls are ornamented with an elaborate figure
+of Calako-mana, the Corn-maid, very elaborately worked out, but still
+retaining the essential symbolism figured in the Sikyatki bowl.[127]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXV
+
+FLAT DIPPERS AND MEDICINE BOX FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+While one of the two figures shown in plate CXXIX, _e_, is valuable as
+affording additional and corroborative evidence of the character of
+the ancient coiffure of the women, its main interest is of a somewhat
+different kind. Two figures are rudely drawn on the inside of the
+basin, one of which represents a woman, the other, judging from the
+character of the posterior extremity of the body, a reptilian
+conception in which a single foreleg is depicted, and the tail is
+articulated at the end, recalling a rattlesnake. Upon the head is a
+single feather;[128] the two eyes are represented on one side of the
+head, and the line of the alimentary tract is roughly drawn. The
+figure is represented as standing before that of the woman.
+
+With these few lines the potter no doubt intended to depict one of
+those many legends, still current, of the cultus hero and heroine of
+her particular family or priesthood. Supposing the reptilian figure to
+be a totemic one, our minds naturally recall the legend of the
+Snake-hero and the Corn-mist-maid[129] whom he brought from a mythic
+land to dwell with his people.
+
+The peculiar hairdress is likewise represented in the figures on the
+food basin illustrated in plate CXXIX, _c_, which represent a man and
+a woman. Although the figures are partly obliterated, it can easily be
+deciphered that the latter figure wears a garment similar to the
+_kwaca_ or dark-blue blanket for which Tusayan is still famous, and
+that this blanket was bound by a girdle, the ends of which hang from
+the woman's left hip. While the figure of the man is likewise
+indistinct (the vessel evidently having been long in use), the nature
+of the act in which he is engaged is not left in doubt.[130]
+
+Among the numerous deities of the modern Hopi Olympus there is one
+called Kokopeli,[131] often represented in wooden dolls and clay
+images. From the obscurity of the symbolism, these dolls are never
+figured in works on Tusayan images. The figure in plate CXXIX, _d_,
+bears a resemblance to Kokopeli. It represents a man with arms raised
+in the act of dancing, and the head is destitute of hair as if covered
+by one of the peculiar helmets, used by the clowns in modern
+ceremonials. As many of the acts of these priests may be regarded as
+obscene from our point of view, it is not improbable that this figure
+may represent an ancient member of this archaic priesthood.
+
+The three human figures on the food basin illustrated in plate CXXIX,
+_f_, are highly instructive as showing the antiquity of a curious and
+revolting practice almost extinct in Tusayan.
+
+As an accompaniment of certain religious ceremonials among the Pueblo
+and the Navaho Indians, it was customary for certain priests to insert
+sticks into the esophagus. These sticks are still used to some extent
+and may be obtained by the collector. The ceremony of stick-swallowing
+has led to serious results, so that now in the decline of this cult a
+deceptive method is often adopted.
+
+In Tusayan the stick-swallowing ceremony has been practically
+abandoned at the East Mesa, but I have been informed by reliable
+persons that it has not wholly been given up at Oraibi. The
+illustration above referred to indicates its former existence in
+Sikyatki. The middle figure represents the stick-swallower forcing the
+stick down his esophagus, while a second figure holds before him an
+unknown object. The principal performer is held by a third figure, an
+attendant, who stands behind him. This instructive pictograph thus
+illustrates the antiquity of this custom in Tusayan, and would seem to
+indicate that it was once a part of the Pueblo ritual.[132] It is
+possible that the Navaho, who have a similar practice, derived it from
+the Pueblos, but there are not enough data at hand to demonstrate this
+beyond question.
+
+Regarding the pose of the three figures in this picture, I have been
+reminded by Dr Walter Hough of the performers who carry the wad of
+cornstalks in the Antelope dance. In this interpretation we have the
+"carrier," "hugger," and possibly an Antelope priest with the unknown
+object in his hand. This interpretation appears more likely to be a
+correct one than that which I have suggested; and yet Kopeli, the
+Snake chief, declares that the Snake family was not represented at
+Sikyatki. Possibly a dance similar to the Antelope performance on the
+eighth day of the Snake dance may have been celebrated at that pueblo,
+and the discovery of a rattlesnake's rattle in a Sikyatki grave is yet
+to be explained.
+
+One of the most prominent of all the deities in the modern Tusayan
+Olympus is the cultus-hero called Püükoñhoya, the Little War God. Hopi
+mythology teems with legends of this god and his deeds in killing
+monsters and aiding the people in many ways. He is reputed to have
+been one of twins, children of the Sun and a maid by parthenogenetic
+conception. His adventures are told with many variants and he
+reappears with many aliases.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVI
+
+DOUBLE-LOBE VASES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The symbolism of Püükoñhoya at the present day consists of parallel
+marks on the face or body, and when personated by a man the figure
+is always represented as carrying weapons of war, such as a bow and
+arrows. Images of the same hero are used in ceremonies, and are
+sometimes found as household gods or penates, which are fed as if
+human beings. A fragment of pottery represented in the accompanying
+illustration (figure 263), shows enough of the head of a personage to
+indicate that Püükoñhoya was intended, for it bears on the cheek the
+two parallel marks symbolic of that deity, while in his hands he holds
+a bow and a jointed arrow as if shooting an unknown animal. All of
+these features are in harmony with the identification of the figure
+with that of the cultus-hero mentioned, and seem to indicate the truth
+of the current legend that as a mythologic conception he is of great
+antiquity in Tusayan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 263--War god shooting an animal. (Fragment of food
+bowl.)]
+
+In this connection it may be instructive to call attention to two
+figures on a food bowl collected by Mr H. R. Voth from a ruin near
+Oraibi. It represents a man and a woman, the former with two horns, a
+crescent on the forehead, and holding in his outstretched hand a
+staff. The woman has a curious gorget, similar to some which I have
+found in ruins near Tusayan, and a belt like those still worn by
+Pueblo Indians. This smaller figure likewise has a crescent on its
+face and three strange appendages on each side of the head.
+
+Another food basin in Mr Voth's collection is also instructive, and is
+different in its decoration from any which I have found. The character
+of the ware is ancient, but the figure is decidedly modern. If,
+however, it should prove to be an ancient vessel it would carry back
+to the time of its manufacture the existence of the _katcina_ cult in
+Tusayan, no actual proof of the existence of which, at a time when
+Sikyatki was in its prime, has yet been discovered.
+
+The three figures represent Hahaiwüqti, Hewüqti, and Natacka exactly
+as these supernatural beings are now personated at Walpi in the
+_Powamû_, as described and figured in a former memoir.[133]
+
+It is unfortunate that the antiquity of this specimen, suggestive as
+it is, must be regarded as doubtful, for it was not exhumed from the
+ruin by an archeologist, and the exact locality in which it was found
+is not known.
+
+
+THE HUMAN HAND
+
+Excepting the figure of the maid's head above described, the human
+hand, for some unknown reason, is the only part of the body chosen by
+the ancient Hopi for representation in the decoration of their
+pottery. Among the present Tusayan Indians the human hand is rarely
+used, but oftentimes the beams of the kivas are marked by the girls
+who have plastered them with impressions of their muddy hands, and
+there is a _katcina_ mask which has a hand painted in white on the
+face. As in the case of the decoration of all similar sacred
+paraphernalia, there is a legend which accounts for the origin of the
+_katcina_ with the imprint of the hand on its mask. The following
+tale, collected by the late A. M. Stephen, from whose manuscript I
+quote, is interesting in this connection:
+
+"The figure of a hand with extended fingers is very common, in the
+vicinity of ruins, as a rock etching, and is also frequently seen
+daubed on the rocks with colored pigments or white clay. These are
+vestiges of a test formerly practiced by the young men who aspired for
+admission to the fraternity of the Calako. The Calako is a trinity of
+two women and a man from whom the Hopi obtained the first corn, and of
+whom the following legend is told:
+
+    "In the early days, before houses were built, the earth was
+    devastated by a whirlwind. There was then neither springs nor
+    streams, although water was so near the surface that it could
+    be found by pulling up a tuft of grass. The people had but
+    little food, however, and they besought Masauwûh to help
+    them, but he could not.
+
+    "There came a little old man, a dwarf, who said that he had
+    two sisters who were the wives of Calako, and it might be
+    well to petition them. So they prepared an altar, every man
+    making a _paho_, and these were set in the ground so as to
+    encircle a sand hillock, for this occurred before houses were
+    known.
+
+    "Masauwûh's brother came and told them that when Calako came
+    to the earth's surface wherever he placed his foot a deep
+    chasm was made; then they brought to the altar a huge rock,
+    on which Calako might stand, and they set it between the two
+    pahos placed for his wives.
+
+    "Then the people got their rattles and stood around the
+    altar, each man in front of his own paho; but they stood in
+    silence, for they knew no song with which to invoke this
+    strange god. They stood there for a long while, for they were
+    afraid to begin the ceremonies until a young lad, selecting
+    the largest rattle, began to shake it and sing. Presently a
+    sound like rushing water was heard, but no water was seen; a
+    sound also like great winds, but the air was perfectly still,
+    and it was seen that the rock was pierced with a great hole
+    through the center. The people were frightened and ran away,
+    all save the young lad who had sung the invocation.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVII
+
+UNUSUAL FORMS OF VASES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+    "The lad soon afterward rejoined them, and they saw that his
+    back was cut and bleeding and covered with splinters of yucca
+    and willow. The flagellation, he told them, had been
+    administered by Calako, who told him that he must endure this
+    laceration before he could look upon the beings he had
+    invoked; that only to those who passed through his ordeals
+    could Calako become visible; and, as the lad had braved the
+    test so well, he should thenceforth be chief of the Calako
+    altar. The lad could not describe Calako, but said that his
+    two wives were exceedingly beautiful and arrayed with all
+    manner of fine garments. They wore great headdresses of
+    clouds and every kind of corn which they were to give to the
+    Hopi to plant for food. There were white, red, yellow, blue,
+    black, blue-and-white speckled, and red-and-yellow speckled
+    corn, and a seeded grass (_kwapi_).
+
+    "The lad returned to the altar and shook his rattle over the
+    hole in the rock, and from its interior Calako conversed with
+    him and gave him instructions. In accordance with these he
+    gathered all the Hopi youths and brought them to the rock,
+    that Calako might select certain of them to be his priests.
+    The first test was that of putting their hands in the mud and
+    impressing them upon the rock. Only those were chosen as
+    novices the imprints of whose hands had dried on the instant.
+
+    "The selected youths then moved within the altar and
+    underwent the test of flagellation. Calako lashed them with
+    yucca and willow. Those who made no outcry were told to
+    remain in the altar, to abstain from salt and flesh for ten
+    days, when Calako would return and instruct them concerning
+    the rites to be performed when they sought his aid.
+
+    "Calako and his two wives appeared at the appointed time, and
+    after many ceremonials gave to each of the initiated five
+    grains of each of the different kinds of corn. The Hopi women
+    had been instructed to place baskets woven of grass at the
+    foot of the rock, and in these Calako's wives placed the
+    seeds of squashes, melons, beans, and all the other
+    vegetables which the Hopi have since possessed.
+
+    "Calako and his wives, after announcing that they would again
+    return, took off their masks and garments, and laying them on
+    the rock disappeared within it.
+
+    "Some time after this, when the initiated were assembled in
+    the altar, the Great Plumed Snake appeared to them and said
+    that Calako could not return unless one of them was brave
+    enough to take the mask and garments down into the hole and
+    give them to him. They were all afraid, but the oldest man of
+    the Hopi took them down and was deputed to return and
+    represent Calako.
+
+    "Shortly afterward Masauwûh stole the paraphernalia, and with
+    his two brothers masqueraded as Calako and his wives. This
+    led the Hopi into great trouble, and they incurred the wrath
+    of Muiyinwûh, who withered all their grain and corn.
+
+    "One of the Hopi finally discovered that the supposed Calako
+    carried a cedar bough in his hand, when it should have been
+    willow; then they knew that it was Masauwûh who had been
+    misleading them.
+
+    "The boy hero one day found Masauwûh asleep, and so regained
+    possession of the mask. Muiyinwûh then withdrew his
+    punishments and sent Palülükoñ (the Plumed Snake) to tell
+    the Hopi that Calako would never return to them, but that the
+    boy hero should wear his mask and represent him, and his
+    festival should be celebrated when they had a proper number
+    of novices to be initiated."[134]
+
+Several food basins from Sikyatki have a human hand depicted upon
+them, and in one of these both hands are represented. On the most
+perfect of these hand figures (plate CXXXVII, _c_) a wristlet is well
+represented, with two triangular figures, which impart to it an
+unusual form. From between the index and second finger there arises a
+triangular appendage, which joins a graceful curve, extending on one
+side to the base of the thumb and continued on the other side to the
+arm. The whole inside of the basin, except the figure of the hand and
+its appendage, is decorated with spattering,[135] and on the outside
+there is a second figure, evidently a hand or the paw of some animal.
+This external decoration also has a triangular figure in which are two
+terraces, recalling rain-cloud symbols.
+
+One of the most interesting representations of the human hand (figure
+354) is found on the exterior of a beautiful bowl. The four fingers
+and the thumb are shown with representations of nails, a unique
+feature in such decorations. From between the index finger and the
+next, or rather from the tip of the former, arises an appendage
+comparable with that before mentioned, but of much simpler form. The
+palm of the hand is crossed by a number of parallel lines, which
+recall a custom of using the palm lines in measuring ceremonial prayer
+sticks, as I have described in a memoir on the Snake dance. In place
+of the arm this hand has many parallel lines, the three medial ones
+being continued far beyond the others, as shown in the figure.
+
+
+QUADRUPEDS
+
+Figures of quadrupeds are sparingly used in the decoration of food
+bowls or basins, but the collection shows several fine specimens on
+which appear some of the mammalia with which the Hopi are familiar.
+Most of these are so well drawn that there appears to be no question
+as to their identification.
+
+One of the most instructive of these figures is shown in plate CXXX,
+_a_, which is much worn, and indistinct in detail, although from what
+can be traced it was probably intended to represent a mythic creature
+known as the Giant Elk. The head bears two branched horns, drawn
+without perspective, and the neck has a number of short parallel marks
+similar to those occurring on the figure of an antelope on the walls
+of one of the kivas at Walpi. The hoofs are bifid, and from a short
+stunted tail there arises a curved line which encircles the whole
+figure, connecting a series of round spots and terminating in a
+triangular figure with three parallel lines representing feathers.
+Perhaps the strangest of all appendages to this animal is at the tail,
+which is forked, recalling the tail of certain birds. Its meaning is
+unknown to me.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVIII
+
+MEDICINE BOX AND PIGMENT POTS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+There can be no doubt that the delineator sought to represent in this
+figure one of the numerous horned _Cervidĉ_ with which the ancient
+Hopi were familiar, but the drawing is so incomplete that to choose
+between the antelope, deer, and elk seems impossible. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the Horn people are reputed to have been
+early arrivals in Tusayan, and it is not improbable that
+representatives of the Horn clans lived in Sikyatki previous to its
+overthrow.
+
+Two faintly drawn animals, evidently intended for quadrupeds, appear
+on the interior of the food bowl shown in plate CXXX, _b_. These are
+interesting from the method in which they were drawn. They are not
+outlined with defined lines, but are of the original color of the
+bowl, and appear as two ghost-like figures surrounded by a dense
+spattering of red spots, similar in technic to the figure of the human
+hand. I am unable to identify these animals, but provisionally refer
+them to the rabbit. They have no distinctive symbolism, however, and
+are destitute of the characteristic spots which members of the Rabbit
+clan now invariably place on their totemic signatures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 264--Mountain sheep]
+
+The animal design on the bowl illustrated in plate CXXX, _c_, probably
+represents a rabbit or hare, quite well drawn in profile, with a
+feathered appendage from the head. Behind it is the ordinary symbol of
+the dragon-fly. Several crosses are found in an opposite hemisphere,
+separated from that occupied by the two animal pictures by a series of
+geometric figures ornamented with crooks and other designs.
+
+The interior of the food bowl shown in plate CXXX, _d_, as well as the
+inner sides of the two ladles represented in plate CXXXI, _b_, _d_,
+are decorated with peculiar figures which suggest the porcupine. The
+body is crescentic and covered with spines, and only a single leg,
+with claws, is represented. It is worthy of mention that so many of
+these animal forms have only one leg, representative, no doubt, of a
+single pair, and that many of these have plantigrade paws like those
+of the bear and badger. The appendages to the head in this figure
+remind one of those of certain forms regarded as reptiles, with which
+this may be identical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 265--Mountain lion]
+
+In another decoration we have what is apparently the same animal
+furnished with both fore and hind legs, the tail curving upward like
+that of a cottontail rabbit, which it resembles in other particulars
+as well. This figure also hangs by a band from a geometric design
+formed of two crescents and bearing four parallel marks representing
+feathers. The single crescent depicted on the inside of the ladle
+shown in plate CXXXI, _b_, is believed to represent the same
+conception, or the moon; and in this connection the very close
+phonetic resemblance between the Hopi name for moon[136] and that for
+the mammal may be mentioned. In the decoration last described the same
+crescentic figure is elaborated into its zoömorphic equivalent.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIX
+
+DESIGNS ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+An enumeration of the pictographic representations of mammalia
+includes the beautiful food bowl shown in plate CXXX, _e_, which is
+made of fine clay spattered with brown pigment. This design
+(reproduced in figure 264) represents probably some ruminant, as the
+mountain sheep or possibly the antelope, both of which gave names to
+clans said to have resided at Sikyatki. The hoofs are characteristic,
+and the markings on the back suggest a fawn or spotted deer. There is
+a close similarity between the design below this animal and that of
+the exterior decorations of certain vases and square medicine bowls.
+
+Among the pictures of quadrupedal animals depicted on ancient food
+bowls there is none more striking than that illustrated in plate CXXX,
+_f_, which has been identified as the mountain lion. While this
+identification is more or less problematical, it is highly possible.
+The claws of the forelegs (figure 265) are evidently those of one of
+the carnivora of the cat family, of which the mountain lion is the
+most prominent in Tusayan. The anterior part of the body is spotted;
+the posterior and the hind legs are black. The snout bears little
+resemblance to that of the puma.
+
+The entire inner surface of the bowl, save a central circle in which
+the head, fore-limbs, and anterior part of the body are represented,
+is decorated by spattering. Within this spattered area there are
+highly interesting figures, prominent among which is a squatting
+figure of a man, with the hand raised to the mouth and holding a
+ceremonial cigarette, as if engaged in smoking. The seven patches in
+black might well be regarded as either footprints or leaves, four of
+which appear to be attached to the band inclosing the central area. In
+the intervals between three of these there are branched bodies
+representing plants or bushes.
+
+
+REPTILES
+
+Snakes and other reptilian forms were represented by the ancient
+potters in the decoration of food bowls, and it is remarkable how
+closely some of these correspond in symbolism with conceptions still
+current in Tusayan. Of all reptilian monsters the worship of which
+forms a prominent element in Hopi ritual, that of the Great Plumed
+Snake is perhaps the most important. Effigies of this monster exist in
+all the larger Hopi villages, and they are used in at least two great
+rites--the _Soyaluña_ in December and the _Palülükonti_ in March, as I
+have already described. The symbolic markings and appendages of the
+Plumed Snake effigy are distinctive, and are found in all modern
+representations of this mystic being. While several pictographs of
+snakes are found on Sikyatki pottery, there is not a single instance
+in which these modern markings appear; consequently there is
+considerable doubt in regard to the identification of many of the
+Sikyatki serpents with modern mythologic representatives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 266--Plumed serpent]
+
+In questioning the priests in regard to the derivation of the Plumed
+Serpent cult in Tusayan, I have found that they declare that this
+cultus was brought into Tusayan from a mythic land in the south,
+called Palatkwabi, and that the effigies and fetiches pertaining to it
+were introduced by the Patki or Water-house people. From good
+evidence, I suspect that the arrival of this phratry was comparatively
+late in Tusayan history, and it is possible that Sikyatki was
+destroyed before their advent, for in all the legends which I have
+been able to gather no one ascribes to Sikyatki any clan belonging to
+the phratries which are said to have migrated from the far south. I
+believe we must look toward the east, whence the ancestors of the
+Kokop or Firewood people are reputed to have come, for the origin of
+the symbolic markings of the snakes represented on Sikyatki ceramics.
+Figures of apodal reptiles, with feathers represented on their heads,
+occur in Sikyatki pictography, although there is no resemblance in the
+markings of their bodies to those of modern pictures. One of the most
+striking of these occurs on the inside of the food basin shown in
+plate CXXXII, _a_. It represents a serpent with curved body, the tail
+being connected with the head, like an ancient symbol of eternity. The
+body (figure 266) is destitute of any distinctive markings, but is
+covered with a crosshatching of black lines. The head bears two
+triangular markings, which are regarded as feather symbols. The
+position of the eyes would seem to indicate that the top of the head
+is represented, but this conclusion is not borne out by comparative
+studies, for it was often the custom of ancient Tusayan potters, like
+other primitive artists, to represent both eyes on one side of the
+head.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXX
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF QUADRUPEDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The zigzag line occupying the position of the tongue and terminating
+in a triangle is a lightning symbol, with which the serpent is still
+associated. While striving not to strain the symbolism of this figure,
+it is suggested that the three curved marks on the lower and upper
+jaws represent fangs. It is highly probable that conceptions not
+greatly unlike those which cluster about the Great Plumed Serpent were
+associated with this mythic snake, the figure of which is devoid of
+some of the most essential elements of modern symbolism.
+
+While from the worn character of the middle of the food bowl
+illustrated in plate CXXXII, _b_, it is not possible to discover
+whether the animal was apodal or not from the crosshatching of the
+body and the resemblance of the appendages of the head to those of the
+figure last considered, it appears probable that this pictograph
+likewise was intended to represent a snake of mystic character. Like
+the previous figure, this also is coiled, with the tail near the head,
+its body crosshatched, and with two triangular appendages to the head.
+There is, however, but one eye, and the two jaws are elongated and
+provided with teeth,[137] as in the case of certain reptiles.
+
+The similarity of the head and its appendages to the snake figure last
+described would lead me to regard the figure shown in plate CXXXII,
+_c_, as representing a like animal, but the latter picture is more
+elaborately worked out in details, and one of the legs is well
+represented. I have shown in the discussion of a former figure how the
+decorator, recognizing the existence of two eyes, represented them
+both on one side of the head of a profile figure, although only one is
+visible, and we see in this picture (figure 267) a somewhat similar
+tendency, which is very common in modern Tusayan figures of animals.
+The breath line is drawn from the extremity of the snout halfway down
+the length of the body. In modern pictography a representation of the
+heart is often depicted at the blind extremity of this line, as if, in
+fact, there was a connection with this organ and the tubes through
+which the breath passes. In the Sikyatki pottery, however, I find only
+this one specimen of drawing in which an attempt to represent internal
+organs is made.
+
+The tail of this singular picture of a reptile is highly
+conventionalized, bearing appendages of unknown import, but recalling
+feathers, while on the back are other appendages which might be
+compared with wings. Both of these we might expect, considering the
+association of bird and serpent in the Hopi conception of the Plumed
+Snake.
+
+Exact identifications of these pictures with the animals by which the
+Hopi are or were surrounded, is, of course, impossible, for they are
+not realistic representations, but symbolic figures of mythic beings
+unknown save to the imagination of the primitive mythologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 267--Unknown reptile]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXI
+
+ORNAMENTED LADLES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 268--Unknown reptile]
+
+A similar reptile is pictured on the food bowl shown in plate CXXXII,
+_d_, in which design, however, there are important modifications, the
+most striking of which are: (1) The animal (figure 268) has both fore
+and hind legs represented; (2) the head is round; (3) the mouth is
+provided with teeth; and (4) there are four instead of two feather
+appendages on the head, two of which are much longer than the others.
+Were it not that ears are not represented in reptiles, one would be
+tempted to regard the smaller appendages as representations of these
+organs. Their similarity to the row of spines on the back and the
+existence of spines on the head of the "horned toad" suggests this
+reptile, with which both ancient and modern Hopi are very familiar. On
+a fragment of a vessel found at Awatobi there is depicted the head of
+a reptile evidently identical with this, since the drawing is an
+almost perfect reproduction. There is a like figure, also from
+Sikyatki, in the collection of pottery made at that ruin by Dr
+Miller, of Prescott, the year following my work there. The most
+elaborate of all the pictures of reptiles found on ancient Tusayan
+pottery is shown in plate CXXXII, _e_, in which the symbolism is
+complicated and the details carefully worked out. A few of these
+symbols I am able to decipher; others elude present analysis. There is
+no doubt as to the meaning of the appendage to the head (figure 269),
+for it well portrays an elaborate feathered headdress on which the
+markings that distinguish tail-feathers, three in number, are
+prominent. The extension of the snout is without homologue elsewhere
+in Hopi pictography, and, while decorative in part, is likewise highly
+conventionalized. On the body semicircular rain cloud symbols and
+markings similar to those of the bodies of certain birds are
+distinguishable. The feet likewise are more avian than reptilian, but
+of a form quite unusual in structure. It is interesting to note the
+similarity in the carved line with six sets of parallel bars to the
+band surrounding the figure of the human hand shown in plate CXXXVII,
+_c_. In attempting to identify the pictograph on the bowl reproduced
+in plate CXXXIV, _a_, there is little to guide me, and the nearest I
+can come to its significance is to ascribe it to a reptile of some
+kind. Highly symbolic, greatly conventionalized as this figure is,
+there is practically nothing on which to base the absolute
+identification of the figure save the serrated appendage to the body
+and the leg, which resembles that of the lizard as it is sometimes
+drawn. The two eyes indicate that the enlargement in which these were
+placed is the head, and the extended curved snout a beak. All else is
+incomprehensible to me, and my identification is therefore provisional
+and largely speculative.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 269--Unknown reptile]
+
+I wish, however, in leaving the description of this beautiful bowl, to
+invite attention to the brilliancy and the characteristics of the
+coloring, which differ from the majority of the decorated ware from
+Sikyatki.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF REPTILES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIII
+
+BOWLS AND DIPPERS WITH FIGURES OF TADPOLES, BIRDS, ETC. FROM
+SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN, BUTTERFLY, AND FLOWER FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Among the fragments of pottery found in the Sikyatki graves there was
+one which, had it been entire, would doubtless have thrown
+considerable light on ancient pictography. This fragment has depicted
+upon it portions of the body and the whole head and neck of a
+reptilian animal. We find on that part of the body which is
+represented, three parallel marks which recall those on the modern
+pictures of the Great Plumed Serpent. On the back there were
+apparently the representations of wings, a feather of which is shown
+above the head. The head likewise bears a crest of three feathers, and
+there are three reptilian like toes. Whether this represents a reptile
+or a bird it is impossible for me to say, but enough has already been
+recorded to indicate how close the symbolism of these two groups
+sometimes is in ancient pictography. It would almost appear as if the
+profound anatomical discovery of the close kinship of birds and
+reptiles was unconsciously recognized by a people destitute of the
+rudiments of the knowledge of morphology.
+
+
+TADPOLES
+
+Among the inhabitants of an arid region, where rain-making forms a
+dominant element in their ritual, water animals are eagerly adopted as
+symbols. Among these the tadpole occupies a foremost position. The
+figures of this batrachian are very simple, and are among the most
+common of those used on ceremonial paraphernalia in Tusayan at the
+present time. In none of these is anything more than a globular head
+and a zigzag tail represented, and, as in nature, these are colored
+black. The tadpole appears on several pieces of painted pottery from
+Sikyatki, one of the best of which is the food bowl illustrated in
+plate CXXXIII, _a_. The design represents a number of these aquatic
+animals drawn in line across the diameter of the inner surface of the
+bowl, while on each side there is a row of rectangular blocks
+representing rain clouds. These blocks are separated from the tadpole
+figures by crescentic lines, and above them are short parallel lines
+recalling the symbol of falling rain.
+
+One of the most beautiful forms of ladles from Sikyatki is figured in
+plate CXXXIII, _b_, a specimen in which the art of decoration by
+spattering is effectively displayed. The interior of the bowl of this
+dipper is divided by parallel lines into two zones, in each of which
+two tadpoles are represented. The handle is pointed at the end and is
+decorated. This specimen is considered one of the best from Sikyatki.
+
+The rudely drawn picture on the bowl figured in plate CXXXII, _f_,
+would be identified as a frog, save for the presence of a tail which
+would seem to refer it to the lizard kind. But in the evolution of the
+tadpole into the frog a tailed stage persists in the metamorphosis
+after the legs develop. In modern pictures[138] of the frog with which
+I am familiar, this batrachian is always represented dorsally or
+ventrally with the legs outstretched, while in the lizards, as we have
+seen, a lateral view is always adopted. As the sole picture found on
+ancient pottery where the former method is employed, this fact may be
+of value in the identification of this rude outline as a frog rather
+than as a true reptile.
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES OR MOTHS
+
+One of the most characteristic modern decorations employed by the
+Hopi, especially as a symbol of fecundity, is the butterfly or moth.
+It is a constant device on the beautiful white or cotton blankets
+woven by the men as wedding gifts, where it is embroidered on the
+margin in the forms of triangles or even in more realistic patterns.
+This symbol is a simple triangle, which becomes quite realistic when a
+line is drawn bisecting one of the angles. This double triangle is not
+only a constant symbol on wedding blankets, but also is found on the
+dadoes of houses, resembling in design the arrangement of tiles in the
+Alhambra and other Moorish buildings. This custom of decorating the
+walls of a building with triangles placed at intervals on the upper
+edge of a dado is a feature of cliff-house kivas, as shown in
+Nordenskiöld's beautiful memoir on the cliff villages of Mesa Verde.
+While an isosceles triangle represents the simplest form of the
+butterfly symbol, and is common on ancient pottery, a few vessels from
+Sikyatki show a much more realistic figure. In plate CXXXIV, _f_, is
+shown a moth with extended proboscis and articulated antennĉ, and in
+_d_ of the same plate another form, with the proboscis inserted in a
+flower, is given. As an associate with summer, the butterfly is
+regarded as a beneficent being aside from its fecundity, and one of
+the ancient Hopi clans regarded it as their totem. Perhaps the most
+striking, and I may say the most inexplicable, use of the symbol of
+the butterfly is the so-called _Hokona_ or Butterfly virgin slab used
+in the Antelope ceremonies of the Snake dance at Walpi, where it is
+associated with the tadpole water symbol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 270--Outline of plate CXXXV, _b_]
+
+The most beautiful of all the butterfly designs are the six figures on
+the vase reproduced in plate CXXXV, _b_. From the number of these
+pictures it would seem that they bore some relationship to the six
+world-quarters--north, west, south, east, zenith, and nadir. The vase
+has a flattened shoulder, and the six butterfly figures are
+represented as flying toward the orifice. These insect figures closely
+resemble one another, and are divided into two groups readily
+distinguished by the symbolism of the heads. Three have each a cross
+with a single dot in each quadrant, and each of the other three has a
+dotted head without the cross. These two kinds alternate with each
+other, and the former probably indicate females, since the same
+symbols on the heads of the snakes in the sand picture of the Antelope
+altar in the Snake dance are used to designate the female.[139]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXV
+
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BUTTERFLIES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVI
+
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Two antennĉ and a double curved proboscis are indicated in all the
+figures of butterflies on the vase under consideration. The zones
+above and below are both cut by a "line of life," the opening through
+which is situated on opposite equatorial poles in the upper and under
+rim.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 271--Butterfly design on upper surface of plate
+CXXXV, _b_]
+
+The rectangular figures associated with the butterflies on this
+elaborately decorated vase are of two patterns alternating with each
+other. The rectangles forming one of these patterns incloses three
+vertical feathers, with a triangle on the right side and a crook on
+the left. The remaining three rectangles also have three feathers, but
+they are arranged longitudinally on the surface of the vase.
+
+The elaborate decoration of the zone outside the six butterflies is
+made up of feathers arranged in three clusters of three each,
+alternating with key patterns, crosshatched crooks, triangles, and
+frets. The wealth of ornament on this part of the vase is noteworthy,
+and its interpretation very baffling. This vase may well be considered
+the most elaborately decorated in the whole collection from Sikyatki.
+
+There are several figures of butterflies, like those shown in plate
+CXXXI, _a_, in which the modifications of wings and body have
+proceeded still further, and the only features which refer them to
+insects are the jointed antennĉ. The passage from this highly
+conventionalized design into a triangular figure is not very great.
+There are still others where the head, with attached appendages,
+arises not from an angle of a triangle, but from the middle of one
+side. This gives us a very common form of butterfly symbol, which is
+found, variously modified, on many ancient vessels. In such designs
+there is commonly a row of dots on each side, which may be represented
+by a sinuous line, a series of triangles, bars, or parallel bars.
+
+The design reproduced in plate CXXXIV, _d_, represents a moth or
+butterfly associated with a flower, and several star symbols. It is
+evidently similar to that figured in _a_ of the same plate, and has
+representations of antennĉ and extended proboscis, the latter organ
+placed as if extracting honey from the flower. The conventional flower
+is likewise shown in _e_ of this plate. The two crescentic designs in
+plate CXXXV, _a_, are regarded as butterflies.
+
+The jar illustrated in plate CXLV, _b_, is ornamented with highly
+conventionalized figures on four sides, and is the only one taken from
+the Sikyatki cemeteries in which the designs are limited to the
+equatorial surface. The most striking figure, which is likewise found
+on the base of the paint saucer shown in plate CXLVI, _f_, is a
+diamond-shape design with a triangle at each corner (figure 276). The
+pictures drawn on alternating quadrants have very different forms,
+which are difficult to classify, and I have therefore provisionally
+associated this beautiful vessel with those bearing the butterfly and
+the triangle. The form of this vessel closely approaches that of the
+graceful cooking pots made of coiled and coarse indented ware, but the
+vessel was evidently not used for cooking purposes, as it bears no
+marks of soot.[140]
+
+
+DRAGON-FLIES
+
+Among the most constant designs used in the decoration of Sikyatki
+pottery are figures of the dragon-fly. These decorations consist of a
+line, sometimes enlarged into a bulb at one end, with two parallel
+bars drawn at right angles across the end, below the enlargement. Like
+the tadpole, the dragon-fly is a symbol of water, and with it are
+associated many legends connected with the miraculous sprouting of
+corn in early times. It is a constant symbol on modern ceremonial
+paraphernalia, as masks, tablets, and pahos, and it occurs also on
+several ancient vessels (plates CXL, _b_; CLXIII, _a_), where it
+always has the same simple linear form, with few essential
+modifications.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVII
+
+VESSELS WITH FIGURES OF HUMAN HAND, BIRDS, TURTLE, ETC. FROM
+SIKYATKI]
+
+The symbols of four dragon-flies are well shown on the rim of the
+square box represented in plate CXXVIII, _a_. This box, which was
+probably for charm liquid, or possibly for feathers used in
+ceremonials, is unique in form and is one of the most beautiful
+specimens from the Sikyatki cemeteries. It is elaborately decorated on
+the four sides with rain-cloud and other symbols, and is painted in
+colors which retain their original brilliancy. The interior is not
+decorated.
+
+The four dragon-flies on the rim of this object are placed in such a
+way as to represent insects flying about the box in a dextral circuit,
+or with the heads turned to the right. This position indicates a
+ceremonial circuit, which is exceptional among the Tusayan people,
+although common in Navaho ceremonies. In the sand picture of the Snake
+society, for instance, where four snakes are represented in a border
+surrounding a mountain lion, these reptiles are represented as
+crawling about the picture from right to left. This sequence is
+prescribed in Tusayan ceremonials, and has elsewhere been designated
+by me as the sinistral circuit, or a circuit with the center on the
+left hand. The circuit used by the decorator of this box is dextral or
+sunwise.
+
+Several rectangular receptacles of earthenware, some with handles and
+others without them, were obtained in the excavations at Sikyatki. The
+variations in their forms may be seen in plates CXXVIII, _a, c,_ and
+CXXV, _f_. These are regarded as medicine bowls, and are supposed to
+have been used in ancient ceremonials where asperging was performed.
+In many Tusayan ceremonials square medicine bowls, some of them
+without handles, are still used,[141] but a more common and evidently
+more modern variety are round and have handles. The rim of these
+modern sacred vessels commonly bears, in its four quadrants, terraced
+elevations representing rain-clouds of the cardinal points, and the
+outer surface of the bowl is decorated with the same symbols,
+accompanied with tadpole or dragon-fly designs.
+
+One of the best figures of the dragon-fly is seen on the saucer shown
+in plate CXX, _f_. The exterior of this vessel is decorated with four
+rectangular terraced rain-cloud symbols, one in each quadrant, and
+within each there are three well-drawn figures of the dragon-fly. The
+curved line below represents a rainbow. The terrace form of rain-cloud
+symbol is very ancient in Tusayan and antedates the well-known
+semicircular symbol which was introduced into the country by the Patki
+people. It is still preserved in the form of tablets[142] worn on the
+head and in sand paintings and various other decorations on altars and
+religious paraphernalia.
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+The bird and the feather far exceed all other motives in the
+decoration of ancient Tusayan pottery, and the former design was
+probably the first animal figure employed for that purpose when the
+art passed out of the stage where simple geometric designs were used
+exclusively. A somewhat similar predominance is found in the part
+which the bird and the feather play in the modern Hopi ceremonial
+system. As one of the oldest elements in the decoration of Tusayan
+ceramics, figures of birds have in many instances become highly
+conventionalized; so much so, in fact, that their avian form has been
+lost, and it is one of the most instructive problems in the study of
+Hopi decoration to trace the modifications of these designs from the
+realistic to the more conventionalized. The large series of food bowls
+from Sikyatki afford abundant material for that purpose, and it may
+incidentally be said that by this study I have been able to interpret
+the meaning of certain decorations on Sikyatki bowls of which the best
+Hopi traditionalists are ignorant.[143] In order to show the method of
+reasoning in this case I have taken a series illustrating the general
+form of an unknown bird.
+
+There can be no reasonable doubt that the decoration of the food basin
+shown in plate CXXXVII, _a_, represents a bird, and analogy would
+indicate that it is the picture of some mythologic personage. It has a
+round head (figure 272), to which is attached a headdress, which we
+shall later show is a highly modified feather ornament. On each side
+of the body from the region of the neck there arise organs which are
+undoubtedly wings, with feathers continued into arrowpoints. The
+details of these wings are very carefully and, I may add,
+prescriptively worked out, so that almost every line, curve, or zigzag
+is important. The tail is composed of three large feathers, which
+project beyond two triangular extensions, marking the end of the body.
+
+The technic of this figure is exceedingly complicated and the colors
+very beautiful. Although this bowl was quite badly broken when
+exhumed, it has been so cleverly mended by Mr Henry Walther that no
+part of the symbolism is lost.
+
+While it is quite apparent that this figure represents a bird, and
+while this identification is confirmed by Hopi testimony, it is far
+from a realistic picture of any known bird with which the ancients
+could have been familiar. It is highly conventionalized and idealized
+with significant symbolism, which is highly suggestive.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Bearing in mind the picture of this bird, we pass to a second form
+(plate CXXXVIII, _a_), in which we can trace the same parts without
+difficulty. On a round head is placed a feathered headdress. The
+different parts of the outstretched wings are readily homologized even
+in details in the two figures. There are, for instance, two terminal
+wing feathers in each wing; the appendages to the shoulder exist in
+both, and the lateral spurs, exteriorly and interiorly, are
+represented with slight modifications.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 272--Man-eagle]
+
+The body is ornamented in the same way in both figures. It is
+continued posteriorly on each side into triangular extensions, and the
+same is true of its anterior, which in one figure has three curved
+lines, and in the other a simple crook. There are three tail-feathers
+in each figure. I believe there can be no doubt that both these
+designs represent the same idea, and that a mythologic bird was
+intended in each instance.
+
+The step in conventionalism from the last-mentioned figure of a bird
+to the next (plate CXLVII, _a_) is even greater than in the former.
+The head in this picture is square or rectangular, and the wings
+likewise simple, ending in three incurved triangles without
+appendages. The tail has five feathers instead of three, in which,
+however, the same symbolic markings which distinguish tail-feathers
+are indicated.
+
+The conventionalized wings of this figure are repeated again and again
+in ancient Tusayan pottery decorations, as one may see by an
+examination of the various birds shown in the plates. In many
+instances, however, all the other parts of the bird are lost and
+nothing but the triangular feathers remain; but as these have the same
+form, whatever organs are missing, the presumption is that their
+meaning has not changed.
+
+In passing to the figure of the bird shown in plate CXXXVIII, _b_, we
+find features homologous with those already considered, but also
+detect considerable modification. The head is elongated, tipped with
+three parallel lines, but decorated with markings similar to those of
+the preceding figure. The outstretched wings have a crescentic form,
+on the anterior horn of which are round spots with parallel lines
+arising from them. This is a favorite figure in pottery decoration,
+and is found very abundantly on the exterior of food bowls; it
+represents highly conventionalized feathers, and should be so
+interpreted wherever found. The figure of the body of the bird
+depicted is simple, and the tail is continued into three
+tail-feathers, as is ordinarily the case in highly conventionalized
+bird figures.
+
+The most instructive of all the appendages to the body are the
+club-shape bodies, one on each side, rising from the point of union of
+the wings and the breast. These are spatulate in form, with a terraced
+terminal marking. They, like other appendages, represent feathers, but
+that peculiar kind which is found under the wing is called the breath
+feather.[144] This feather is still used in certain ceremonials, and
+is tied to certain prayer offerings. Its ancient symbolism is very
+clearly indicated in this picture, and is markedly different from that
+of either the wing or tail feathers, which have a totally different
+ceremonial use at the present time.
+
+For convenience of comparison, a number of pictures which undoubtedly
+refer to different birds in ancient interpretations will be grouped in
+a single series.
+
+Plate CXXXVIII, _d_, represents a figure of a bird showing great
+relative modification of organs when compared with those previously
+discussed. The head is very much broadened, but the semicircular
+markings, which occur also on the heads of previously described bird
+figures, are well drawn. The wings are mere curved appendages,
+destitute of feather symbols, but are provided with lateral spurs and
+have knobs at their bases. The body is rectangular; the tail-feathers
+are numerous, with well-marked symbolism. Perhaps the most striking
+appendages to the body are the two well-defined extensions of parts of
+the body itself, which, although represented in other pictures of
+birds, nowhere reach such relatively large size.
+
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIX
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The figure of a bird shown in plate CXXXVIII, _c_, is similar in many
+respects to that last described. The semicircular markings on the head
+of the former are here replaced by triangles, but both are symbolic of
+rain-clouds. The wings are curved projections, without any suggestion
+of feathers or basal spurs and knobs. The tail-feathers show nothing
+exceptional, and the body is bounded posteriorly by triangular
+extensions, as in figures of birds already described.
+
+The representation of the bird in plate CXXXVIII, _e_, has a
+triangular body continued into two points on the posterior end,
+between which the tail-feathers are situated. The body is covered with
+terraced and triangular designs, and the head is rectangular in form.
+On each side of the bird figure there is a symbol of a flower,
+possibly the sunflower or an aster.
+
+In the figures of birds already considered the relative sizes of the
+heads and bodies are not overdrawn, but in the picture of a bird on
+the food bowl shown in plate CXXXVIII, _f_, the head is very much
+enlarged. It bears a well-marked terraced rain-cloud symbol above
+triangles of the same meaning. The wings are represented as diminutive
+appendages, each consisting of two feathers. The body has a triangular
+extension on each side, and the tail is composed of two comparatively
+short rectangular feathers. The figure itself could hardly be
+identified as a representation of a bird were it not for the
+correspondence, part for part, with figures which are undoubtedly
+those of birds or flying animals.
+
+A more highly conventionalized figure of a bird than any thus far
+described is painted on the food bowl reproduced in plate CXL, _b_.
+The head is represented by a terraced figure similar to those which
+appear as decorations on some of the other vessels; the wings are
+simply extended crescents, the tips of which are connected by a band
+which encircles the body and tail; the body is continued at the
+posterior end into two triangular appendages, between which is a tail,
+the feathers of which are not differentiated. On each side of the
+body, in the space inclosed by the band connecting the tips of the
+wings, a figure of a dragon-fly appears.
+
+The figure on the food bowl illustrated in plate CXXXIX, _c_, may also
+be reduced to a conventionalized bird symbol. The two pointed objects
+on the lower rim represent tail-feathers, and the triangular
+appendages, one on each side above them, the body, as in the designs
+which have already been described. Above the triangles is a
+rectangular figure with terraced rain-cloud emblems, a constant
+feature on the body and head of the bird, and on each side, near the
+rim of the bowl, occur the primary feathers of the wings. The cross,
+so frequently associated with designs representing birds, is replaced
+by the triple intersecting lines in the remaining area. The
+resemblance of this figure to those already considered is clearly
+evident after a little study.
+
+The decoration on the food basin presented in plate CXXXIX, _a_, is
+interesting in the study of the evolution of bird designs into
+conventional forms. In this figure those parts which are identified as
+homologues of the wings extend wholly across the interior of the food
+bowl, and have the forms of triangles with smaller triangular spurs at
+their bases. The wings are extended at right angles to the axis of the
+body, and taper uniformly to the rim of the bowl. The smaller spurs
+near the union of the wings and body represent the posterior part of
+the latter, and between them are the tail-feathers, their number being
+indicated by three triangles.
+
+There is no representation of a head, although the terraced rain-cloud
+figure is drawn on the anterior of the body between the wings.
+
+The reduction of the triangular wings of the last figure to a simple
+band drawn diametrically across the inner surface of the bowl is
+accomplished in the design shown in plate CXXXIX, _b_. At intervals
+along this line there are arranged groups of blocks, three in each
+group, representing stars, as will later be shown. The semicircular
+head has lost all appendages and is reduced to a rain-cloud symbol.
+The posterior angles of the body are much prolonged, and the tail
+still bears the markings representing three tail-feathers.
+
+The association of a cross with the bird figure is both appropriate
+and common; its modified form in this decoration is not exceptional,
+but why it is appended to the wings is not wholly clear. We shall see
+its reappearance on other bowls decorated with more highly
+conventionalized bird figures.
+
+In the peculiar decoration used in the treatment of the food bowl
+shown in plate CXXXIX, _c_, we have almost a return to geometric
+figures in a conventional representation of a bird. In this case the
+semblance to wings is wholly lost in the line drawn diametrically
+across the interior of the bowl. On one side of it there are many
+crosses representing stars, and on the other the body and tail of a
+bird. The posterior triangular extensions of the former are continued
+to a bounding line of the bowl, and no attempt is made to represent
+feathers in the tail. The rectangular figure, with serrated lower edge
+and inclosed terraced figures, finds, however, a homologue in the
+heads and bodies of most of the representations of birds which have
+been described.
+
+This gradual reduction in semblance to a bird has gone still further
+in the figure represented in plate CXXXIX, _d_, where the posterior
+end of the body is represented by two spurs, and the tail by three
+feathers, the triangular rain-clouds still persisting in the
+rectangular body. In fact, it can hardly be seen how a more
+conventionalized figure of a bird were possible did we not find in _e_
+of the same plate this reduction still greater. Here the tail is
+represented by three parallel lines, the posterior of the body by two
+dentate appendages, and the body itself by a square.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXL
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In plate CXL, _c_, we have a similar conventional bird symbol where
+two birds, instead of one, are represented. In both these instances it
+would appear that the diametric band, originally homologous to wings,
+had lost its former significance.
+
+It must also be pointed out that there is a close likeness between
+some of these so-called conventionalized figures of birds and those of
+moths or butterflies. If, for instance, they are compared with the
+figures of the six designs of the upper surface of the vase shown in
+plate CXXXV, _b_, we note especially this resemblance. While,
+therefore, it can hardly be said there is absolute proof that these
+highly conventionalized figures always represent birds, we may, I
+think, be sure that either the bird or the moth or butterfly is
+generally intended.
+
+There are several modifications of these highly conventionalized
+figures of birds which may be mentioned, one of the most interesting
+of which is figured in plate CXXXIX, _f_. In this representation the
+two posterior triangular extensions of the body are modified into
+graceful curves, and the tail-feathers are simply parallel lines. The
+figure in this instance is little more than a trifid appendage to a
+broad band across the inner surface of the food bowl. In addition to
+this highly conventionalized bird figure, however, there are two
+crosses which represent stars. In this decoration all resemblance to a
+bird is lost, and it is only by following the reduction of parts that
+one is able to identify this geometric design with the more elaborate
+pictures of mythic birds. When questioned in regard to the meaning of
+this symbol, the best informed Hopi priests had no suggestion to
+offer.
+
+In all the figures of birds thus far considered, the head, with one or
+two exceptions, is represented or indicated by symbolic markings. In
+that which decorates the vessel shown in plate CXL, _a_, we find a new
+modification; the wings, instead of being attenuated into a diametric
+line or band, are in this case curved to form a loose spiral. Between
+them is the figure of a body and the three tail-feathers, while the
+triangular extensions which generally indicate the posterior of the
+body are simply two rounded knobs at the point of union of the wings
+and tail. There is no indication of a head.
+
+The modifications in the figure of the bird shown in the last
+mentioned pictograph, and the highly conventionalized forms which the
+wings and other parts assume, give me confidence to venture an
+interpretation of a strange figure shown in plate CXLI, _a_. This
+picture I regard as a representation of a bird, and I do so for the
+following resemblances to figures already studied. The head of the
+bird, as has been shown, is often replaced by a terraced rain-cloud
+symbol. Such a figure occurs in the pictograph under consideration,
+where it occupies the position of the head. On either side of what
+might be regarded as a body we find, at the anterior end, two curved
+appendages which so closely resemble similarly placed bodies in the
+pictograph last discussed that they are regarded as representations of
+wings. These extensions at the posterior end of the body are readily
+comparable with prolongations in that part on which we have already
+commented. The tail, although different from that in figures of birds
+thus far discussed, has many points of resemblance to them. The two
+circles, one on each side of the bird figure, are important additions
+which are treated in following pages.[145]
+
+From the study of the conventionalized forms of birds which I have
+outlined above it is possible to venture the suggestion that the
+star-shape figure shown in plate CLXVII, _b_, may be referred to the
+same group, but in this specimen we appear to have duplication, or a
+representation of the bird symbol repeated in both semicircles of the
+interior of the bowl. Examining one of these we readily detect the two
+tail-feathers in the middle, with the triangular end of the body on
+each side. The lateral appendages duplicated on each side correspond
+with the band across the middle of the bowl in other specimens, and
+represent highly conventionalized wings. The middle of this compound
+figure is decorated with a cross, and in each quadrant there is a row
+of the same emblems, equidistant from one another.
+
+It would be but a short step from this figure to the ancient sun
+symbol with which the eagle and other raptorial birds are intimately
+associated. The figure represented in plate CXXXIII, _c_, is a
+symbolic bird in which the different parts are directly comparable
+with the other bird pictographs already described. One may easily
+detect in it the two wings, the semicircular rain-cloud figures, and
+the three tail-feathers. As in the picture last considered, we see the
+two circles, each with a concentric smaller circle, one on each side
+of the mythic bird represented. Similar circular figures are likewise
+found in the zone surrounding the centrally placed bird picture.
+
+In the food bowl illustrated in plate CXLI, _b_, we find the two
+circles shown, and between them a rectangular pictograph the meaning
+of which is not clear. The only suggestion which I have in regard to
+the significance of this object is that it is an example of
+substitution--the substitution of a prayer offering to the mythic bird
+represented in the other bowls for a figure of the bird itself. This
+interpretation, however, is highly speculative, and should be accepted
+only with limitations. I have sometimes thought that the prayer-stick
+or paho may originally have represented a bird, and the use of it is
+an instance of the substitution[146] of a symbolic effigy of a bird, a
+direct survival of the time when a bird was sacrificed to the deity
+addressed.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLI
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLII
+
+VASES, BOWLS, AND LADLE, WITH FIGURES OF FEATHERS, FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The studies of the conventional bird figures which are developed in
+the preceding pages make it possible to interpret one of the two
+pictures on the food bowl represented in plate CLII, while the
+realistic character of the smaller figure leaves no question that we
+can rightly identify this also as a bird. In the larger figure the
+wings are of unequal size and are tipped with appendages of a more or
+less decorative nature. The posterior part of the body is formed of
+two triangular extensions, to which feathers are suspended, and the
+tail is composed of three large pointed feathers. The head bears the
+terraced rain-cloud designs almost universal in pictographs of birds.
+
+It is hardly necessary for me to indicate the head, body, wings, and
+legs of the smaller figure, for they are evidently avian, while the
+character of the beak would indicate that a parrot or raptorial genus
+was intended. The same beak is found in the decoration of a vase with
+a bird design, which will later be considered.
+
+From an examination of the various figures of birds on the Sikyatki
+pottery, and an analysis of the appendages to the wings, body, and
+legs, it is possible to determine the symbolic markings characteristic
+of two different kinds of feathers, the large wing or tail feathers
+and the so-called breath or body feathers. There is therefore no
+hesitation, when we find an object of pottery ornamented with these
+symbols, in interpreting them as feathers. Such a bowl is that shown
+in plate CXLI, _c_, in which we find a curved line to which are
+appended three breast feathers. This curved band from which they hang
+may take the form of a circle with two pendent feathers as in plate
+CXLI, _d_.
+
+In the design on the bowl figured in plate CXLI, _e_, tail-feathers
+hang from a curved band, at each extremity of which is a square design
+in which the cross is represented. It has been suggested that this
+represents the feathered rainbow, a peculiar conception of both the
+Pueblo and the Navaho Indians. The design appearing on the small food
+bowl represented in plate CXLI, _f_, is no doubt connected in some way
+with that last mentioned, although the likeness between the appendages
+to the ring and feathers is remote. It is one of those
+conventionalized pictures, the interpretation of which, with the
+scanty data at hand, must be largely theoretical.
+
+Figures of feathers are most important features in the decoration of
+ancient Sikyatki pottery, and their many modifications may readily be
+seen by an examination of the plates. In modern Tusayan ceremonials
+the feather is appended to almost all the different objects used in
+worship; it is essential in the structure of the _tiponi_ or badge of
+the chief, without which no elaborate ceremony can be performed or
+altar erected; it adorns the images on the altars, decorates the heads
+of participants, is prescribed for the prayer-sticks, and is always
+appended to aspergills, rattles, and whistles.
+
+In the performance of certain ceremonials water from sacred springs is
+used, and this water, sometimes brought from great distances, is kept
+in small gourd or clay vases, around the necks of which a string with
+attached feathers is tied. Such a vase is the so-called _patne_ which
+has been described in a memoir on the Snake ceremonies at Walpi.[147]
+The artistic tendency of the ancient people of Sikyatki apparently
+exhibited itself in painting these feathers on the outside of similar
+small vases. Plate CXLII, _a_, shows one of these vessels, decorated
+with an elaborate design with four breath-feathers suspended from the
+equator. (See also figure 273.) On the vases shown in plate CXLII,
+_b_, _c_, are found figures of tail-feathers arranged in two groups on
+opposite sides of the rim or orifice. One of these groups has eight,
+the other seven, figures of these feathers, and on the two remaining
+quadrants are the star emblems so constantly seen in pottery decorated
+with bird figures. The upper surface of the vase (figure 274) shows a
+similar arrangement, although the feathers here are conventionalized
+into triangular dentations, seven on one side and three on the other,
+individual dentations alternating with rectangular designs which
+suggest rain-clouds. This vase (plate CXLIII, _a_, _b_) is also
+striking in having a well-drawn figure of a bird in profile, the head,
+wings, tail, and legs suggesting a parrot. The zone of decoration of
+this vessel, which surrounds the rows of feathers, is strikingly
+complicated, and comprises rain-cloud, feather, and other designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 273--Pendent feather ornaments on a vase.]
+
+In a discussion of the significance of the design on the food bowl
+represented in plate CXXXIX, _a_, _b_, I have shown ample reason for
+regarding it a figure of a highly conventionalized bird. On the upper
+surface of the vase (plate CXLIV, _a_, _b_) are four similar designs,
+representing birds of the four cardinal points, one on each quadrant.
+The wings are represented by triangular extensions, destitute of
+appendages but with a rounded body at their point of juncture with the
+trunk. Each bird has four tail-feathers and rain-cloud symbols on the
+anterior end of the body. As is the case with the figures on the food
+basins, there are crosses representing stars near the extended wings.
+A broad band connects all these birds, and terraced rain-cloud
+symbols, six in number and arranged in pairs, fill the peripheral
+sections between them. This vase, although broken, is one of the most
+beautiful and instructive in the rich collection of Sikyatki
+ceramics.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIII
+
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIV
+
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLV
+
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 274--Upper surface of vase with bird decoration]
+
+I have not ventured, in the consideration of the manifold pictures of
+birds on ancient pottery, to offer an interpretation of their probable
+generic identification. There is no doubt, however, that they
+represent mythic conceptions, and are emblematic of birds which
+figured conspicuously in the ancient Hopi Olympus. The modern legends
+of Tusayan are replete with references to such bird-like beings which
+play important rôles and which bear evidence of archaic origins. There
+is, however, one fragment of a food bowl which is adorned with a
+pictograph so realistic and so true to modern legends of a harpy that
+I have not hesitated to affix to it the name current in modern Tusayan
+folklore. This fragment is shown in figure 275.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 275--Kwataka eating an animal]
+
+According to modern folklore there once lived in the sky a winged
+being called Kwataka, or Man-eagle, who sorely troubled the ancients.
+He was ultimately slain by their War god, the legends of which have
+elsewhere been published. There is a pictograph of this monster near
+Walpi,[148] and pictures of him, as he exists in modern conceptions,
+have been drawn for me by the priests. These agree so closely with the
+pictograph and with the representation on the potsherd from Sikyatki,
+that I regard it well-nigh proven that they represent the same
+personage. The head is round and bears two feathers, while the star
+emblem appears in the eye. The wing and the stump of a tail are well
+represented, while the leg has three talons, which can only be those
+of this monster. He holds in his grasp some animal form which he is
+represented as eating. Across the body is a kilt, or ancient blanket,
+with four diagonal figures which are said to represent flint
+arrowheads. It is a remarkable fact that these latter symbols are
+practically the same as those used by Nahuatl people for obsidian
+arrow- or spearpoints. In Hopi lore Kwataka wore a garment of
+arrowpoints, or, according to some legends, a flint garment, and his
+wings are said to have been composed of feathers of the same
+material.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVI
+
+BOWLS AND POTSHERD WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS, FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+From the pose of the figure and the various details of its symbolism
+there can be little doubt that the ancient Sikyatki artists intended
+to represent this monster, of which the modern Hopi rarely speak, and
+then only in awe. Probably several other bird figures likewise
+represent Kwataka, but in none of these do the symbols conform so
+closely to legends of this monster which are still repeated in the
+Tusayan villages. The home of Kwataka is reputed to be in the sky, and
+consequently figures of him are commonly associated with star and
+cloud emblems; he is a god of luck or chance, hence it is not
+exceptional to find figures of gaming implements[149] in certain
+elaborate figures of this monster.
+
+By far the most beautiful of the many food bowls from Sikyatki, and, I
+believe, the finest piece of prehistoric aboriginal pottery from the
+United States, is that figured in plate CXLVI, _d_. This remarkable
+object, found with others in the sands of the necropolis of this
+pueblo, several feet below the surface, is decorated with a highly
+conventional figure of a bird in profile, but so modified that it is
+difficult to determine the different parts. The four appendages to the
+left represent the tail; the two knobs at the right the head, but the
+remaining parts are not comprehensible. The delicacy of the detailed
+crosshatching on the body is astonishing, considering that it was
+drawn freehand and without pattern. The coloring is bright and the
+surface glossy.
+
+The curved band from which this strange figure hangs is divided into
+sections by perpendicular incised lines, which are connected by zigzag
+diagonals. The signification of the figure in the upper part of the
+bowl is unknown. While this vessel is unique in the character of its
+decoration, there are others of equal fineness but less perfect in
+design. Competent students of ceramics have greatly admired this
+specimen, and so fresh are the colors that some have found it
+difficult to believe it of ancient aboriginal manufacture. The
+specimen itself, now on exhibition in the National Museum, gives a
+better idea of its excellence than any figure which could be made.
+This specimen, like all the others, is in exactly the same condition
+as when exhumed, save that it has been wiped with a moist cloth to
+clean the traces of food from its inner surface. All the pottery found
+in the same grave is of the finest character, and although no two
+specimens are alike in decoration, their general resemblances point to
+the same maker. This fact has been noticed in several instances,
+although there were many exceptional cases where the coarsest and most
+rudely painted vessels were associated with the finest and most
+elaborately decorated ware.
+
+The ladle illustrated in plate CXLII, _e_, is one of the most
+beautiful in the collection. It is decorated with a picture of an
+unknown animal with a single feather on the head. The eyes are double
+and the snout continued into a long stick or tube, on which the animal
+stands. While the appendage to the head is undoubtedly a feather and
+the animal recalls a bird, I am in doubt as to its true
+identification. The star emblems on the handle of the ladle are in
+harmony with known pictures of birds.
+
+The feather decoration on the broken ladle shown in plate CXXXI, _f_,
+is of more than usual interest, although it is not wholly
+comprehensible. The representations include rain-cloud symbols, birds,
+feathers, and falling rain. The medially placed design, with four
+parallel lines arising from a round spot, is interpreted as a feather
+design, and the two triangular figures, one on each side, are believed
+to represent birds.
+
+The design on the food bowl depicted in plate CXXXI, _e_, is obscure,
+but in it feather and star symbols predominate. On the inside of the
+ladle shown in plate CXXXI, _c_, there is a rectangular design with a
+conventionalized bird at each angle. The reduction of the figure of a
+bird to head, body, and two or more tail-feathers occurs very
+constantly in decorations, and in many instances nothing remains save
+a crook with appended parallel lines representing feathers. Examples
+of this kind occur on several vessels, of which that shown in plate
+CXLV, _a_, is an example.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 276--Decoration on the bottom of plate CXLVI, _f_]
+
+There are many pictures of birds and feathers where the design has
+become so conventionalized that it is very difficult to recognize the
+intention of the decorator. Plate CXLVII, _f_, shows one of these in
+which the feather motive is prominent and an approximation to a bird
+form evident. The wings are shown with a symmetric arrangement on the
+sides of the tail, while the latter member has the three feathers
+which form so constant a feature in many bird symbols. In _b_ of the
+same plate there is shown a more elaborated bird figure, also highly
+modified, yet preserving many of the parts which have been identified
+in the design last described.
+
+The beautiful design shown in plate CXLVI, _e_, represents a large
+breath feather with triangular appendages on the sides, recalling the
+posterior end of the body of the bird figures above discussed.
+
+The interior of the saucer illustrated in plate CLXVI, _f_, is
+decorated with feather symbols and four triangles. The remaining
+figures of this plate have already been considered.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIX
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The figures on the vessel shown in plate CLXVII are so arranged that
+there can be little question of their homologies, and from comparisons
+it is clear that they should all be regarded as representations of
+birds. There appears no necessity of discussing figures _a_ and
+_b_ of the plate in this interpretation. In figure _c_ the center of
+the design becomes circular, recalling certain sun symbols, and the
+tail-feathers are readily recognized on one side. I am by no means
+sure, however, that the lateral terraced appendages at the opposite
+pole are representations of wings, but such an interpretation can not
+be regarded as a forced one. Figure _d_ shows the three tail-feathers,
+lateral appendages suggestive of wings, and a square body with the
+usual decorations of the body and head of a bird. The design shown in
+figure _f_ suggests in many ways a sun-bird, and is comparable with
+those previously studied and illustrated. There is no question of the
+homologues of tail, head, and wings. The meridional band across the
+bowl is similar to those already discussed, and its relationship to
+the head and tail of the bird identical. This design is interpreted as
+that of one of the numerous birds associated with the sun. The
+crescentic extension above what is apparently the head occurs in many
+bird figures and may represent a beak.
+
+Many food bowls from Sikyatki are ornamented on their interior with
+highly conventionalized figures, generally of curved form, in which
+the feather is predominant. Many of these are shown in plates CXLVIII
+to CLVII, inclusive, and in studying them I have found it very
+difficult to interpret the symbolism, although the figures of feathers
+are easy to find in many of them. While my attempt at decipherment is
+not regarded as final, it is hoped that it may at least reveal the
+important place which the feather plays in Tusayan ceramic decoration.
+
+Plate CXLVIII, _a_, shows the spiral ornament worn down to its lowest
+terms, with no hint of the feather appendage, but its likeness in
+outline to those designs where the feather occurs leads me to
+introduce it in connection with those in which the feather is more
+prominent. Figure _b_ of the same plate represents a spiral figure
+with a bird form at the inner end, and a bundle of tail-feathers at
+the outer extremity. On this design there is likewise a figure of the
+dragon-fly and several unknown emblems. Figure _c_ has at one
+extremity a trifid appendage, recalling a feather ornament on the head
+of a bird shown in plate CXXXVIII, _a_. Figure _d_ has no
+conventionalized feather decoration, but the curved line terminates
+with a triangle. Its signification is unknown to me. For several
+reasons the design in _e_ reminds me of a bird; it is accompanied by
+three crosses, which are almost invariably found in connection with
+bird figures, and at the inner end there is attached a breath feather.
+This end of the figure is supposed to be the head, as will appear by
+later comparative studies. The bird form is masked in _f_, but the
+feather designs are prominent. This bowl is exceptional in having an
+encircling band broken at two points, one of the components of which
+is red, the other black.
+
+Feather designs are conspicuous in plate CXLIX, _a_, _b_, in the
+former of which curved incised lines are successfully used. In _c_,
+however, is found the best example of the use of incised work as an
+aid in pottery decoration, for in this specimen there are semicircles,
+and rings with four triangles, straight lines, and circles. The
+symbolism of the whole figure has eluded analysis. Figure _d_ has no
+feather symbols, but _e_ may later be reduced to a circle with
+feathers. The only symbols in the design shown in _f_ which are at all
+recognizable are the two zigzag figures which may have been intended
+to represent snakes, lightning, or tadpoles.
+
+When the design in plate CL, _a_, is compared with the beautiful bowl
+shown in plate CXLVI, _d_, a treatment of somewhat similar nature is
+found. It is believed that both represent birds drawn in profile; the
+four bands (_a_) are tail-feathers, while the rectangle represents the
+body and the curved appendage a part of the head. From a similarity to
+modern figures of a turkey feather, it is possible that the triangle
+at the end of the curved appendage is the feather of this bird. An
+examination of _b_ leads to the conclusion that the inner end of the
+spiral represents a bird's head. Two eyes are represented therein, and
+from it feathers are appended. The parallel marks on the body are
+suggestive of similar decorations on the figure of the Plumed Snake
+painted on the kilts of the Snake priests of Walpi. The star emblems
+are constant accompaniments of bird designs. Figure _c_ has, in
+addition to the spiral, the star symbols and what appears to be a
+flower. The design shown in _d_ is so exceptional that it is here
+represented with the circular forms. It will be seen that there are
+well-marked feathers in its composition. Figure _f_ is made up of
+several bird forms, feathers, rectangles, and triangles, combined in a
+complicated design, the parts of which may readily be interpreted in
+the light of what has already been recorded.
+
+The significance of the spiral in the design on plate CLI, _a_, is
+unknown. It is found in several pictures, in some of which it appears
+to have avian relationship. Figure _b_ of the same plate is a square
+terraced design appended to the median line, on which symbolic stars
+are depicted. As in many bird figures, a star is found on the opposite
+semicircle. There is a remote likeness between this figure and that of
+the head of the bird shown in plate CXLV, _d_. Plate CLI, _c_, is a
+compound figure, with four feathers arranged in two pairs at right
+angles to a median band. The triangular figure associated with them is
+sometimes found in symbols of the sun. Figure _d_ is undoubtedly a
+bird symbol, as may be seen by a comparison of it with the bird
+figures shown in plate CXXXVIII, _a-f_. There are two tail-feathers,
+two outstretched wings, and a head which is rectangular, with terraced
+designs. The cross is triple, and occupies the opposite segment, which
+is finely spattered with pigment. This trifid cross represents a game
+played by the Hopi with reeds and is depicted on many objects of
+pottery. As representations of it sometimes accompany those of birds I
+am led to interpret the figure (plate CLVII, _c_) as that of a bird,
+which it somewhat resembles. The two designs shown in plate CLI, _e_,
+_f_, are believed to be decorative, or, if symbolic, they have been so
+worn by the constant use of the vessel that it is impossible to
+determine their meaning by comparative methods. Both of these figures
+show the "line of life" in a somewhat better way than any yet
+considered.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CL
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLI
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In plate CLII, _a_, is shown a compound figure of doubtful
+significance, made up of a series of crescents, triangles, and
+spirals, which, in _c_, are more compactly joined together, and
+accompanied by three parallel lines crossing three other lines. The
+curved figure shown in _b_ represents three feathers; a large one on
+each side, inclosing a medially smaller member. In _d_ is shown the
+spiral bird form with appended feathers, triangles, and terraced
+figures. Figure _f_ of this plate is decorated with a design which
+bears many resemblances to a flower, the peripheral appendages
+resembling bracts of a sunflower. A somewhat similar design is painted
+on the side of the helmets of some _katcina_ dancers, where the bracts
+or petals are colored in sequence, with the pigments corresponding to
+the six directions--north, west, south, east, above, and below. In the
+decoration on the ancient Sikyatki bowl we find seven peripheral
+bracts, one of which is speckled. The six groups of stamens(?) are
+represented between the triangular bracts.
+
+The designs shown in plates CLIII to CLV, inclusive, still preserve
+the spiral form with attached feathers, some of them being greatly
+conventionalized or differentiated. In the first of these plates
+(figure _b_) is represented a bird form with triangular head with four
+feathers arranged in fan shape. These feathers are different from any
+which I have been able to find attached to the bodies of birds, and
+are thus identified from morphological rather than from other reasons.
+
+The body of the conventionalized bird is decorated with terraced
+figures, spirals, flowers, and other designs arranged in a highly
+complicated manner. From a bar connecting the spiral with the
+encircling line there arises a tuft of feathers. Figure _a_ of the
+same plate is characterized by a medially placed triangle and a
+graceful pendant from which hangs seven feathers. In this instance
+these structures take the form of triangles and pairs of lines. The
+relation of these structures to feathers would appear highly
+speculative, but they have been so interpreted for the following
+reason: If we compare them with the appendages represented in the
+design on the vase shown in CXLIII, _b_, we find them the same in
+number, form, and arrangement; the triangles in the design on this
+vase are directly comparable with the figures in plate CXLIII, _b_, in
+the same position, which are undoubtedly feathers, as has been shown
+in the discussion of this figure. Consequently, although the triangles
+on the pendant in plate CLIII, _a_, appear at first glance to have no
+relation to the prescribed feather symbol, morphology shows their true
+interpretation. The reduction of the wing feather to a simple
+triangular figure is likewise shown in several other pictures on food
+vessels, notably in the figure, undoubtedly of a bird, represented in
+plate CXLVI, _a_.
+
+In the two figures forming plate CLIV are found simple bird symbols
+and feather designs very much conventionalized. The same is true of
+the two figures given in plate CLV.
+
+The vessels illustrated in plate CLVI, _a_, _b_, are decorated with
+designs of unknown meaning, save that the latter recalls the
+modification of the feather into long triangular forms. On the outer
+surface this bowl has a row of tadpoles encircling it in a sinistral
+direction, or with the center of the bowl on the left. The design of
+figure _c_ shows a bird's head in profile, with a crest of feathers
+and with the two eyes on one side of the head and a necklace. The
+triangular figure bears the symbolism of the turkey feather, as at
+present designated in Tusayan altar paraphernalia. As with other bird
+figures, there is a representation in red of the triple star.
+
+Figure _d_ is the only specimen of a vessel in the conventional form
+of a bird which was found at Sikyatki; it evidently formerly had a
+handle. The vessel itself is globular, and the form of the bird is
+intensified by the designs on its surface. The bird's head is turned
+to the observer, and the row of triangles represent wing feathers. The
+signification of the designs on _e_ and _f_ is unknown to me.
+
+Figures _e_ and _f_ of plate CLVI are avian decorations, reduced in
+the case of the former to geometric forms. The triangular figure is a
+marked feature in the latter design.
+
+The designs represented in plate CLVII are aberrant bird forms. Of
+these _a_ and _b_ are the simplest and _c_ one of the most
+complicated. Figure _d_ is interpreted as a double bird, or twins with
+a common head and tails pointing in opposite directions. Figure _e_
+shows a bird in profile with one wing, furnished with triangular
+feathers, extended. There is some doubt about the identification of
+_f_ as a bird, but there is no question that the wing, tail, and
+breath feathers are represented in it. Of the last mentioned there are
+three, shown by the notch, colored black at their extremities.
+
+
+VEGETAL DESIGNS
+
+Inasmuch as they so readily lend themselves as a motive of decoration,
+it is remarkable that the ancient Hopi seem to have used plants and
+their various organs so sparingly in their pottery painting.
+Elsewhere, especially among modern Pueblos, this is not the case, and
+while plants, flowers, and leaves are not among the common designs on
+modern Tusayan ware, they are often employed. It would appear that the
+corn plant or fruit would be found among other designs, especially as
+corn plays a highly symbolic part in mythic conceptions, but we fail
+to find it used as a decoration on any ancient vessel.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH BIRD, FEATHER, AND FLOWER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In a figure previously described, a flower, evidently an aster or
+sunflower, appears with a butterfly, and in the bowl shown in
+plate CXXXIV, _e_, we have a similar design. This figure
+evidently represents the sunflower, the seeds of which were ground and
+eaten in ancient times. The plant apparently is represented as growing
+from the earth and is surrounded by a broad band of red in rudely
+circular form. The totem of the earth today among the Hopi is a
+circle; possibly it was the same among the ancients, in which case the
+horizon may have been represented by the red encircling band, which is
+accompanied by the crook and the emblem of rain. The petals are
+represented by a row of dots and no leaves are shown. From the kinship
+of the ancient accolents of Sikyatki with the Flute people, it is to
+be expected that in their designs figures of asters or sunflowers
+would appear, for these plants play a not inconspicuous rôle in the
+ritual of this society which has survived to modern times.
+
+
+THE SUN
+
+Sun worship plays a most important part in modern Tusayan ritual, and
+the symbol of the sun in modern pictography can not be mistaken for
+any other. It is a circle with radiating feathers on the periphery and
+ordinarily with four lines arranged in quaternary groups. The face of
+the sun is indicated by triangles on the forehead, two slits for eyes,
+and a double triangle for the mouth. This symbol, however, is not
+always used as that of the sun, for in the Oraibi _Powalawû_ there is
+an altar in which a sand picture of the sun has the form of a
+four-pointed star. The former of these sun symbols is not found on
+Sikyatki pottery, but there is one picture which closely resembles the
+latter. This occurs on the bowl illustrated in plate CLXI, _c_. The
+main design is a four-pointed star, alternating with crosses and
+surrounded by a zone in which are rectangular blocks. While the
+identification may be fanciful, its resemblances are highly
+suggestive. The existence of a double triangle adjacent to this figure
+on the same bowl, and its likeness to the modern mouth-design of sun
+pictures, appears to be more than a coincidence, and is so regarded in
+this identification.
+
+In the design shown in plate CLVIII, _a_, one of the elaborate ancient
+sun figures is represented. As in modern symbols, the tail-feathers of
+the periphery of the disk are arranged in the four quadrants, and in
+addition there are appended to the same points curved figures which
+recall the objects, identified as stringed feathers, attached to the
+blanket of the maid (plate CXXIX, _a_). The design on the disk is
+different from that of any sun emblem known to me, and escapes my
+interpretation. I have used the distribution of the feathers on the
+four quadrants as an indication that this figure is a sun symbol,
+although it must be confessed this evidence is not so strong as might
+be wished. The triangles at the sides of two feathers indicate that a
+tail-feather is intended, and for the correlated facts supporting this
+conclusion the reader is referred to the description of the vessels
+shown in plate CXXXVIII.
+
+It would appear that there is even more probability that the picture
+on the bowl illustrated in plate CLVIII, _b_, is a sun symbol. It
+represents a disk with tail and wing feathers arranged on the
+periphery in four groups. This recalls the sun emblems used in Tusayan
+at the present time, although the face of the sun is not represented
+on this specimen. There is a still closer approximation to the modern
+symbol of the sun on a bowl in a private collection from Sikyatki.
+
+In plate CLVIII, _c_, the sun's disk is represented with the four
+clusters of feathers replaced by the extremities of the bodies of four
+birds, the tail-feathers, for some unknown reason, being omitted. The
+design on the disk is highly symbolic, and the only modern sun symbol
+found in it are the triangles, which form the mouth of the face of the
+sun in modern Hopi symbolism.
+
+One of the most aberrant pictures of the sun, which I think can be
+identified with probability, is shown in the design on the specimen
+illustrated in plate CXXXIV, _b_. The reasons which have led me to
+this identification may briefly be stated as follows:
+
+Among the many supernaturals with which modern Hopi mythology is
+replete is one called Calako-taka, or the male Calako. In legends he
+is the husband of the two Corn-maids of like name. The ceremonials
+connected with this being occur in Sichomovi in July, when four giant
+personifications enter the village as have been described in a former
+memoir. The heads of these giants are provided with two curved horns,
+between which is a crest of eagle tail-feathers.
+
+Two of these giants, under another name, but with the same symbolism,
+are depicted on the altars of the _katcinas_ at Walpi and Mishoñinovi,
+where they represent the sun. A chief personifying the same
+supernatural flogs children when they are initiated into the knowledge
+of the _katcinas_.
+
+The figure on the bowl under discussion has many points of resemblance
+to the symbolism of this personage as depicted on the altars
+mentioned. The head has two horns, one on each side, with a crest,
+apparently of feathers, between them. The eyes and mouth are
+represented, and on the body there is a four-pointed cross. The
+meaning of the remaining appendages is unknown, but the likenesses to
+Calako-taka[150] symbolism are noteworthy and important. The figure on
+the food bowl illustrated in plate CXXXIV, _c_, is likewise regarded
+as a sun emblem. The disk is represented by a ring in the center, to
+which feathers are appended. The triangle, which is still a sun
+symbol, is shown below a band across the bowl. This band is decorated
+with highly conventionalized feathers.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVI
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+It may be added that in this figure we have probably the most aberrant
+sun-symbol yet recognized, and on that account there is a possibility
+that the validity of my identification is more or less doubtful.
+
+The three designs shown in plate CLVIII, _c_, _d_, _e_, evidently
+belong in association with sun or star symbols, but it is hardly
+legitimate to definitely declare that such an interpretation can be
+demonstrated. The modern Tusayan Indians declare that the equal-arm
+cross is a symbol of the "Heart of the Sky" god, which, from my
+studies of the effigies of this personage on various altars, I have
+good reason to identify with the lightning.
+
+
+GEOMETRIC FIGURES
+
+INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURES
+
+Most of the pottery from Sikyatki is ornamented with geometric designs
+and linear figures, the import of many of which are unknown.
+
+Two extreme views are current in regard to the significance of these
+designs. To one school everything is symbolic of something or some
+religious conception; to the other the majority are meaningless save
+as decorations. I find the middle path the more conservative, and
+while regarding many of the designs as highly conventionalized
+symbols, believe that there are also many where the decorator had no
+thought of symbolism. I have ventured an explanation of a few of the
+former.
+
+Terraced figures are among the most common rectangular elements in
+Pueblo ceramic decorations. These designs bear so close a likeness to
+the modern rain-cloud symbol that they probably may all be referred to
+this category. Their arrangement on a bowl or jar is often of such a
+nature as to impart very different patterns. Thus terraced figures
+placed in opposition to each other may leave zigzag spaces suggesting
+lightning, but such forms can hardly be regarded as designed for
+symbols.
+
+Rectangular patterns (plates CLXII-CLXV) are more ancient in the
+evolution of designs on Tusayan pottery than curved geometric figures,
+and far outnumber them in the most ancient specimens; but there has
+been no epoch in the development reaching to modern times when they
+have been superseded. While there are many specimens of Sikyatki
+pottery of the type decorated with geometric figures, which bear
+ornamentations of simple and complex terraced forms, the majority
+placed in this type are not reducible to stepped or terraced designs,
+but are modified straight lines, bars, crosshatching, and the like. In
+older Pueblo pottery the relative proportion of terraced figures is
+even less, which would appear to indicate that basket-ware patterns
+were secondary rather than primary decorative forms.
+
+By far the largest element in ancient Tusayan pottery decoration must
+be regarded as simple geometric lines, triangles, spirals, curves,
+crosshatching, and the like, some of which are no doubt symbolic,
+others purely decorative (plate CLXVI). In the evolution of design I
+am inclined to believe that this was the simplest form, and I find it
+the most constant in the oldest ware. Rectangular figures are regarded
+as older than circular figures, and they possibly preceded the latter
+in evolution, but in many instances both are forms of reversion,
+highly conventionalized representations of more elaborate figures.
+Circles and crosses are sometimes combined, the former modified into a
+wavy line surrounding the latter, as in plate CLIX, _c_, _d_, where
+there is a suggestion (_d_) of a sun emblem.
+
+
+CROSSES
+
+A large number of food bowls are decorated with simple or elaborate
+crosses, stars, and like patterns. Simple crosses with arms of equal
+length appear on the vessels shown in plate CLIX, _c_, _d_. There are
+many similar crosses, subordinate to the main design, in various
+bowls, especially those decorated with figures of birds and sky
+deities.
+
+Plate CLX, _a_, exhibits a cruciform design, to the extremities of
+three arms of which bird figures are attached. In this design there
+are likewise two sunflower symbols. The modified cross figure in _b_
+of the same plate, like that just mentioned, suggests a swastica, but
+fails to be one, and unless the complicated design in figure _c_ may
+be so interpreted, no swastica was found at Sikyatki or Awatobi. Plate
+CLX, _d_, shows another form of cross, two arms of which are modified
+into triangles.
+
+On the opening of the great ceremony called _Powamû_ or
+"Bean-planting," which occurs in February in the modern Tusayan
+villages, there occurs a ceremony about a sand picture of the sun
+which is called _Powalawû_. The object of this rite is the
+fructification of all seeds known to the Hopi. The sand picture of the
+sun which is made at that time is in its essentials identical with the
+design on the food bowl illustrated in plate CLXI, _c_; consequently
+it is possible that this star emblem represents the sun, and the
+occurrence of the eight triangles in the rim, replaced in the modern
+altar by four concentric bands of differently colored sands, adds
+weight to this conclusion. The twin triangles outside the main figure
+are identical with those in the mouth of modern sun emblems. These
+same twin triangles are arranged in lines which cross at right angles
+in plate CLXI, _d_, but from their resemblance to figure _b_ they
+possibly have a different meaning.
+
+The most complicated of all the star-shape figures, like the simplest,
+takes us to sun emblems, and it seems probable that there is a
+relationship between the two. Plate CLXI, _f_, represents four bundles
+of feathers arranged in quadrants about a rectangular center. These
+feathers vary in form and arrangement, and the angles between them are
+occupied by horn-shape bodies, two of which have highly complicated
+extremities recalling conventionalized birds.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU Of AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVII
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+A large number of crosses are represented in plate CLXII, _d_, in
+which the remaining semicircle is filled with a tessellated pattern. A
+spiral line with round spots at intervals adorns the specimen
+shown in plate CLXI, _a_. Parallel lines with similar spots appear on
+the vessel illustrated in plate CLXII, _e_, and a network of the same
+is shown in _f_ of the same plate. Plate CLXVII, _b_, represents a
+compound star.
+
+While simple swasticas are not found on any of the Sikyatki pottery,
+modified and compound forms are well represented. There are several
+specimens of figures of the Maltese cross, and one closely
+approximating the Saint Andrew's cross. It is scarcely necessary to
+say that the presence of the various kinds of crosses do not
+necessarily indicate the influence of Semitic or Aryan races, for I
+have already shown[151] that even cross-shape prayer-sticks were in
+use among the Pueblos when Coronado first visited them.
+
+
+TERRACED FIGURES
+
+Among the most common of all geometric designs on ancient Tusayan
+pottery none excel in variety or number those which I place in the
+above group. They form the major part of all decoration, and there is
+hardly a score of ornamented vessels in which they can not be
+detected. In a typical form they appear as stepped designs,
+rectangular figures with diagonals continuous, or as triangular
+designs with steps represented along their sides.
+
+While it is probable that in some instances these figures are simply
+decorative, with no attempt at symbolism, in other cases without doubt
+they symbolize rain-clouds, and the same figures are still used with
+similar intent in modern ceremonial paraphernalia--altars,
+mask-tablets, and the like. Decorative modifications of this figure
+were no doubt adopted by artistic potters, thus giving varieties where
+the essential meaning has been much obscured or lost.
+
+
+THE CROOK
+
+Among the forms of geometric designs on ancient Tusayan pottery there
+are many jars, bowls, and other objects on which a crook, variously
+modified, is the essential type. This figure is so constant that it
+must have had a symbolic as well as a decorative meaning. The crook
+plays an important part in the modern ritual, and is prominent on many
+Tusayan altars. Around the sand picture of the rain-cloud, for
+example, we find a row of wooden rods with curved ends, and in the
+public Snake dance these are carried by participants called the
+Antelopes. A crook in the form of a staff to which an ear of corn and
+several feathers are attached is borne by _katcinas_ or masked
+participants in certain rain dances. It is held in the hand by a
+personage who flogs the children when they are initiated into certain
+religious societies. Many other instances might be mentioned in which
+this crozier-like object is carried by important personages. While it
+is not entirely clear to me that in all instances this crook is a
+badge of authority, in some cases it undoubtedly represents the
+standing of the bearer. There are, likewise, prayer offerings in the
+form of crooks, and even common forms of prayer-sticks have miniature
+curved sticks attached to them.
+
+Some of the warrior societies are said to make offerings in the form
+of a crook, and a stick of similar form is associated with the gods of
+war. There is little doubt that some of the crook-form decorations on
+ancient vessels may have been used as symbols with the same intent as
+the sticks referred to above. The majority of the figures of this
+shape elude interpretation. Many of them have probably no definite
+meaning, but are simply an effective motive of decoration.
+
+In some instances the figure of the crook on old pottery is a symbol
+of a prayer offering of a warrior society, made in the form of an
+ancient weapon, allied to a bow.
+
+
+THE GERMINATIVE SYMBOL
+
+The ordinary symbol of germination, a median projection with lateral
+extensions at the base (plate CXLIX, _e_), occurs among the figures on
+this ancient pottery. In its simplest form, a median line with a
+triangle on each side attached to one end, it is a phallic emblem.
+When this median line becomes oval, and the triangles elongated and
+curved at the ends, it represents the ordinary squash symbol,[152]
+also used as an emblem of fertility.
+
+The triangle is also an emblem of germination and of fecundity--the
+female, as the previously mentioned principle represents the male. The
+geometric designs on the ancient Sikyatki ware abundantly illustrate
+both these forms.
+
+
+BROKEN LINES
+
+In examining the simple encircling bands of many of the food bowls,
+jars, and other ceramic objects, it will be noticed that they are not
+continuous, but that there is a break at one point, and this break is
+usually limited to one point in all the specimens. Various
+explanations of the meaning of this failure to complete the band have
+been suggested, and it is a remarkable fact that it is one of the most
+widely extended characteristics of ancient pottery decoration in the
+whole Pueblo area, including the Salado and Gila basins. While in the
+specimens from Sikyatki the break is simple and confined to one point,
+in those from other regions we find two or three similar failures in
+the continuity of encircling lines, and in some instances the lines at
+the point of separation are modified into spirals, terraces, and other
+forms of geometric figures. In the more complex figures we find the
+most intricate variations, which depart so widely from the simple
+forms that their resemblances are somewhat difficult to follow. A
+brief consideration of these modifications may aid toward an
+understanding of the character of certain geometric ornamental
+motives.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIX
+
+CROSS AND RELATED DESIGNS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLX
+
+CROSS AND OTHER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXI
+
+STAR, SUN, AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+If any of the interlocking spirals on bowls or vases are traced, it is
+found that they do not join at the center of the figure. The same is
+true when these spirals become frets. There is always a break in the
+network which they form. This break is comparable with the hiatus on
+encircling bands and probably admits of the same interpretation. In a
+simple form this motive appears as two crescents or two key patterns
+with the ends overlapping. This simple ornament, called the friendship
+sign, is commonly used in the decoration of the bodies of _katcinas_,
+and has been likened to the interlocking of fingers or hands of the
+participants in certain dances, the fingers half retracted with inner
+surfaces approximated, the palms of the hands facing in opposite
+directions and the wrists at opposite points. If the points be
+extended into an elaborate key pattern or curved into extended
+spirals, a complicated figure is produced in which the separation is
+less conspicuous although always present.
+
+The same points may be modified into terraced figures, the separation
+then appearing as a zigzag line drawn across the figure, or they may
+have interlocking dentate or serrate prolongations imparting a variety
+of forms to the interval between them.[153] In order to trace out
+these modifications it would be necessary to specify each individual
+case, but I think that is unnecessary. In other words, the broken line
+appears to be a characteristic not only of simple encircling bands,
+but also of all geometric figures in which highly complicated designs
+extend about the periphery of a utensil.
+
+
+DECORATIONS ON THE EXTERIOR OF FOOD BOWLS
+
+The decorations on the exterior of the ancient food bowls are in most
+instances very characteristic and sometimes artistic. Generally they
+reproduce patterns which are found on the outside of vases and jars
+and sometimes have a distant relationship to the designs in the
+interior of the bowl upon which they occur. Usually these external
+decorations are found only on one side, and in that respect they
+differ from the modern food bowls, in which nothing similar to them
+appears.
+
+The characteristics of the external decorations of food bowls are
+symbolic, mostly geometric, square or rectangular, triangular or
+stepped figures; curved lines and spirals rarely if ever occur, and
+human or animal figures are unknown in this position in Sikyatki
+pottery; the geometric figures can be reduced to a few patterns of
+marked simplicity.
+
+It is apparent that I can best discuss the variety of geometric
+designs by considering these external decorations of food vessels at
+length. From the fact that they are limited to one side, the design is
+less complicated by repetition and seems practically the same as the
+more typical forms. It is rarely that two of these designs are found
+to be exactly the same, and as there appears to be no duplication a
+classification of them is difficult. Each potter seems to have
+decorated her ware without regard to the work of her contemporaries,
+using simple designs but combining them in original ways. Hence the
+great variety found even in the grave of the same woman, whose
+handiwork was buried with her. As, however, the art of the potter
+degenerated, as it has in later times, the patterns became more alike,
+so that modern Tusayan decorated earthenware has little variety in
+ornamentation and no originality in design. Every potter uses the same
+figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 277--Oblique parallel line decoration]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 278--Parallel lines fused at one point]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 279--Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement]
+
+The simplest form of decoration on the exterior of a food bowl is a
+band encircling it. This line may be complete or it may be broken at
+one point. The next more complicated geometric decoration is a double
+or multiple band, which, however, does not occur in any of the
+specimens from Sikyatki. The breaking up of this multiple band into
+parallel bars is shown in figure 277. These bars generally have a
+quadruple arrangement, and are horizontal, vertical, or, as in the
+illustration, inclined at an angle. They are often found on the lips
+of the bowls and in a similar position on jars, dippers, and vases.
+The parallel lines shown in figure 278 are seven in number, and do not
+encircle the bowl. They are joined by a broad connecting band near one
+extremity. The number of parallel bands in this decoration is highly
+suggestive.
+
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+
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+
+Four parallel bands encircle the bowl shown in figure 279, but they
+are so modified in their course as to form a number of trapezoidal
+figures placed with alternating sides parallel. This interesting
+pattern is found only on one vessel.
+
+The use of simple parallel bars, arranged at equal intervals on the
+outside of food bowls, is not confined to these vessels, for they
+occur on the margin of vases, cups, and dippers. They likewise occur
+on ladle handles, where they are arranged in alternate transverse and
+longitudinal clusters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 280--Parallel lines connected by middle bar.]
+
+The combination of two vertical bands connected by a horizontal band,
+forming the letter H, is an ornamental design frequently occurring on
+the finest Hopi ware. Figure 280 shows such an H form, which is
+ordinarily repeated four times about the bowl.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 281--Parallel lines of different width; serrate
+margin]
+
+The interval between the parallel bands around the vessel may be very
+much reduced in size, and some of the bands may be of different width,
+or otherwise modified. Such a deviation is seen in figure 281, which
+has three bands, one of which is broad with straight edges, the other
+with serrate margin and hook-like appendages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 282--Parallel lines of different width; median
+serrate]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 283--Parallel lines of different width; marginal
+serrate]
+
+In figure 282 eight bands are shown, the marginal broad with edges
+entire, and the median pair serrated, the long teeth fitting each
+other in such a way as to impart a zigzag effect to the space which
+separates them. The remaining four lines, two on each side, appear as
+black bands on a white ground. It will be noticed that an attempt was
+made to relieve the monotony of the middle band of figure 282 by the
+introduction of a white line in zigzag form. A similar result was
+accomplished in the design shown in figure 283 by rectangles and
+dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 284--Parallel lines and triangles]
+
+The modification of the multiple bands in figure 283 has produced a
+very different decorative form. This design is composed of five bands,
+the marginal on each side serrate, and the middle band relatively very
+broad, with diagonals, each containing four round dots regularly
+arranged. In figure 284 there are many parallel, noncontinuous bands
+of different breadth, arranged in groups separated by triangles with
+sides parallel, and the whole united by bounding lines. This is the
+most complicated form of design where straight lines only are used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 285--Line with alternate triangles]
+
+We have thus far considered modifications brought about by fusion and
+other changes in simple parallel lines. They may be confined to one
+side of the food bowl, may repeat each other at intervals, or surround
+the whole vessel. Ordinarily, however, they are confined to one side
+of the bowls from Sikyatki.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 286--Single line with alternate spurs]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 287--Single line with hourglass figures]
+
+Returning to the single encircling band, it is found, in figure 285,
+broken up into alternating equilateral triangles, each pair united at
+their right angles. This modification is carried still further in
+figure 286, where the triangles on each side of the single line are
+prolonged into oblique spurs, the pairs separated a short distance
+from each other. In figure 287 there is shown still another
+arrangement of these triangular decorations, the pairs forming
+hourglass-shape figures connected by an encircling line passing
+through their points of junction.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 288--Single line with triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 289--Single line with alternate triangles and
+ovals]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 290--Triangles and quadrilaterals]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 291--Triangle with spurs]
+
+In figure 288 the double triangles, one on each side of the encircling
+band, are so placed that their line of separation is lost, and a
+single triangle replaces the pair. These are connected by the line
+surrounding the bowl and there is a dot at the smallest angle. In
+figure 289 there is a similar design, except that alternating with
+each triangle, which bears more decoration than that shown in figure
+288, there are hourglass figures composed of ovals and triangles. The
+dots at the apex of that design are replaced by short parallel lines
+of varying width. The triangles and ovals last considered are arranged
+symmetrically in relation to a simple band. By a reduction in the
+intervening spaces these triangles may be brought together and the
+line disappears. I have found no specimen of design illustrating the
+simplest form of the resultant motive, but that shown in figure 290 is
+a new combination comparable with it.
+
+The simple triangular decorative design reaches a high degree of
+complication in figure 290, where a connecting line is absent, and two
+triangles having their smallest angles facing each other are
+separated by a lozenge shape figure made up of many parallel lines
+placed obliquely to the axis of the design. The central part is
+composed of seven parallel lines, the marginal of which, on two
+opposite sides, is minutely dentate. The median band is very broad and
+is relieved by two wavy white lines. The axis of the design on each
+side is continued into two triangular spurs, rising from a rectangle
+in the middle of each triangle. This complicated design is the highest
+development reached by the use of simple triangles. In figure 291,
+however, we have a simpler form of triangular decoration, in which no
+element other than the rectangle is employed. In the chaste decoration
+seen in figure 292 the use of the rectangle is shown combined with the
+triangle on a simple encircling band. This design is reducible to that
+shown in figure 290, but is simpler, yet not less effective. In figure
+293 there is an aberrant form of design in which the triangle is used
+in combination with parallel and oblique bands. This form, while one
+of the simplest in its elements, is effective and characteristic. The
+triangle predominates in figure 294, but the details are worked out in
+rectangular patterns, producing the terraced designs so common in all
+Pueblo decorations. Rectangular figures are more commonly used than
+the triangular in the decoration of the exterior of the bowls, and
+their many combinations are often very perplexing to analyze.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 292--Rectangle with single line]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 293--Double triangle; multiple lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 294--Double triangle; terraced edges]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 295--Single line; closed fret]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 296--Single line; open fret]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 297--Single line; broken fret]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 298--Single line; parts displaced]
+
+In figure 295, starting with the simple encircling band, it is found
+divided into alternating rectangles. The line is continuous, and hence
+one side of each rectangle is not complete. Both this design and its
+modification in figure 296 consist of an unbroken line of equal
+breadth throughout. In the latter figure, however, the openings in the
+sides are larger or the approach to a straight line closer. The forms
+are strictly rectangular, with no additional elements. Figure 297
+introduces an important modification of the rectangular motive,
+consisting of a succession of lines broken at intervals, but when
+joined are always arranged at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 299--Open fret; attachment displaced]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 300--Simple rectangular design]
+
+Possibly the least complex form of rectangular ornamentation, next to
+a simple bar or square, is the combination shown in figure 298, a type
+in which many changes are made in interior as well as in exterior
+decorations of Pueblo ware. One of these is shown in figure 299, where
+the figure about the vessel is continuous. An analysis of the elements
+in figure 300 shows squares united at their angles, like the last, but
+that in addition to parallel bands connecting adjacent figures there
+are two marginal lines uniting the series. Each of the inner parallel
+lines is bound to a marginal on the opposite side by a band at right
+angles to it. The marginal lines are unbroken through the length of
+the figure. Like the last, this motive also may be regarded as
+developed from a single line.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 301--Rectangular reversed S-form]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 302--Rectangular S-form with crooks]
+
+Figures 301 and 302 are even simpler than the design shown in figure
+300, with appended square key patterns, all preserving rectangular
+forms and destitute of all others. They are of S-form, and differ more
+especially in the character of their appendages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 303--Rectangular S-form with triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 304--Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles]
+
+While the same rectangular idea predominates in figure 303, it is
+worked out with the introduction of triangles and quadrilateral
+designs. This fairly compound pattern, however, is still classified
+among rectangular forms. A combination of rectangular and triangular
+geometric designs, in which, however, the former predominate, is shown
+in figure 304, which can readily be reduced to certain of those forms
+already mentioned. The triangles appear to be subordinated to the
+rectangles, and even they are fringed on their longer sides with
+terraced forms. It may be said that there are but two elements
+involved, the rectangle and the triangle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 305--S-form with interdigitating spurs]
+
+The decoration in figure 305 consists of rectangular and triangular
+figures, the latter so closely approximated as to leave zigzag lines
+in white. These lines are simply highly modified breaks in bands which
+join in other designs, and lead by comparison to the so-called "line
+of life" which many of these figures illustrate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 306--Square with rectangles and parallel lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 307--Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers]
+
+The distinctive feature of figure 306 is the square, with rectangular
+designs appended to diagonally opposite angles and small triangles at
+intermediate corners. These designs have a distant resemblance to
+figures later referred to as highly conventionalized birds, although
+they may be merely simple geometrical patterns which have lost their
+symbolic meaning.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 308--Crook, feathers, and parallel lines]
+
+Figure 307 shows a complicated design, introducing at least two
+elements in addition to rectangles and triangles. One of these is a
+curved crook etched on a black ground. In no other exterior decoration
+have curved lines been found except in the form of circles, and it is
+worthy of note how large a proportion of the figures are drawn in
+straight lines. The circular figures with three parallel lines
+extending from them are found so constantly in exterior decorations,
+and are so strikingly like some of the figures elsewhere discussed,
+that I have ventured a suggestion in regard to their meaning. I
+believe they represent feathers, because the tail-feathers of certain
+birds are symbolized in that manner, and their number corresponds with
+those generally depicted in the highly conventionalized tails of
+birds. With this thought in mind, it may be interesting to compare the
+two projections, one on each side of the three tail-feathers of this
+figure, with the extremity of the body of a bird shown in plate CXLI,
+_e_. On the supposition that a bird figure was intended in this
+design, it is interesting also to note the rectangular decorations of
+the body and the association with stars made of three blocks in
+several bird figures, as already described. It is instructive also to
+note the fact that the figure of a maid represented in plate CXXIX,
+_a_, has two of the round designs with appended parallel lines hanging
+to her garment, and four parallel marks drawn from her blanket. It is
+still customary in Hopi ceremonials to tie feathers to the garments of
+those who personate certain mythic beings, and it is possible that
+such was also the custom at Sikyatki. If so, it affords additional
+evidence that the parallel lines are representations of feathers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 309--Crooks and feathers]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 310--Rectangle, triangles, and feathers]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 311--Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers]
+
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+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In figure 308 a number of these parallel lines are represented, and
+the general character of the design is rectangular. In figure 309 is
+shown a combination of rectangular and triangular figures with three
+tapering points and circles with lines at their tips radiating instead
+of parallel. Another modification is shown in figure 310 in which the
+triangle predominates, and figure 311 evidently represents one-half of
+a similar device with modifications.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 312--Double key]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 313--Triangular terrace]
+
+One of the most common designs on ancient pottery is the stepped
+figure, a rectangular ornamentation, modifications of which are shown
+in figures 312-314. This is a very common design on the interior of
+food vessels, where it is commonly interpreted as a rain-cloud symbol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 314--Crook, serrate end]
+
+Of all patterns on ancient Tusayan ware, that of the terrace figures
+most closely resemble the geometrical ornamentation of cliff-house
+pottery, and there seems every reason to suppose that this form of
+design admits of a like interpretation. The evolution of this pattern
+from plaited basketry has been ably discussed by Holmes and
+Nordenskiöld, whose works have already been quoted in this memoir.
+The terraced forms from the exterior of food bowls here considered are
+highly aberrent; they may be forms of survivals, motives of decoration
+which have persisted from very early times. Whatever the origin of the
+stepped figure in Pueblo art was, it is well to remember, as shown by
+Holmes, that it is "impossible to show that any particular design of
+the highly constituted kind was desired through a certain identifiable
+series of progressive steps."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 315--Key pattern; rectangle and triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 316--Rectangle and crook]
+
+For some unknown reason the majority of the simple designs on the
+exterior of food bowls from Tusayan are rectangular, triangular, or
+linear in their character. Many can be reduced to simple or multiple
+lines. Others were suggested by plaited ware.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 317--Crook and tail feathers]
+
+In figure 312 is found one of the simplest of rectangular designs, a
+simple band, key pattern in form, at one end, with a reentrant square
+depression at the opposite extremity. In figure 313 is an equally
+simple terrace pattern with stepped figures at the ends and in the
+middle. These forms are common decorative elements on the exterior of
+jars and vases, where they occur in many combinations, all of which
+are reducible to these types. The simplest form of the key pattern is
+shown in figure 314, and in figure 315 there is a second modification
+of the same design a little more complicated. This becomes somewhat
+changed in figure 316, not only by the modifications of the two
+extremities, but also by the addition of a median geometric figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 318--Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 319--W-pattern; terminal crooks]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 320--W-pattern; terminal rectangles]
+
+The design in figure 317 is rectangular, showing a key pattern at one
+end, with two long feathers at the opposite extremity. The five bodies
+on the same end of the figure are unique and comparable with
+conventionalized star emblems. The series of designs in the upper
+left-hand end of this figure are unlike any which have yet been found
+on the exterior of food bowls, but are similar to designs which have
+elsewhere been interpreted as feathers. On the hypothesis that these
+two parts of the figure are tail-feathers, we find in the crook the
+analogue of the head of a bird. Thus the designs on the equator of the
+vase (plate CXLV, _a_), which are birds, have the same crook for the
+head, and two simple tail-feathers, rudely drawn but comparable with
+the two in figure 317. The five dentate bodies on the lower left-hand
+end of the figure also tell in favor of the avian character of the
+design, for the following reason: These bodies are often found
+accompanying figures of conventionalized birds (plates CXLIV, CLIV,
+and others). They are regarded as modified crosses of equal arms,
+which are all but universally present in combinations with birds and
+feathers (plates CXLIV, _a_, _b_; CLIV, _a_), from the fact that in a
+line of crosses depicted on a bowl one of the crosses is replaced by a
+design of similar character. The arms of the cross are represented;
+their intersection is left in white. The interpretation of figure 317
+as a highly conventionalized bird design is also in accord with the
+same interpretation of a number of similar, although less complicated,
+figures which appear with crosses. Thus the three arms of plate CLX,
+_a_, have highly conventionalized bird symbols attached to their
+extremities. In the cross figure shown in plate CLVIII, _d_, we find
+four bird figures with short, stumpy tail-feathers. These highly
+conventionalized birds, with the head in the form of a crook and the
+tail-feathers as parallel lines, are illustrated on many pottery
+objects, nowhere better, however, than in those shown in plates CXXVI,
+_a_, and CLX, _e_. Figure 318 may be compared with figure 317.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 321--W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 322--W-pattern; terminal spurs]
+
+Numerous modifications of a key pattern, often assuming a double
+triangular form, but with rectangular elements, are found on the
+exterior of many food bowls. These are variations of a pattern the
+simplest form of which is shown in figure 319. Resolving this figure
+into two parts by drawing a median line, we find the arrangement is
+bilaterally symmetrical, the two sides exactly corresponding. Each
+side consists of a simple key pattern with the shank inclined to the
+rim of the bowl and a bird emblem at its junction with the other
+member.
+
+In figure 320 there is a greater development of this pattern by an
+elaboration of the key, which is continued in a line resembling a
+square spiral. There are also dentations on a section of the edge of
+the lines.
+
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+
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+
+In figure 321 there is a still further development of the same design
+and a lack of symmetry on the two sides. The square spirals are
+replaced on the left by three stepped figures, and white spaces with
+parallel lines are introduced in the arms of a W-shape figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 323--W-pattern; bird form]
+
+In figure 322 the same design is again somewhat changed by
+modification of the spirals into three triangles rimmed on one side
+with a row of dots, which are also found on the outer lines
+surrounding the lower part of the design.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 324--W-pattern; median triangle]
+
+In figure 323 the same W shape design is preserved, but the space in
+the lower reentrant angle is occupied by a symmetrical figure
+resembling two tail-feathers and the extremity of the body of a bird.
+When this figure is compared with the design on plate CXLVI, _a_,
+resemblances are found in the two lateral appendages or wings. The
+star emblem is also present in the design. The median figure in that
+design which I have compared to the tail of a bird is replaced in
+figure 324 by a triangular ornament. The two wings are not
+symmetrical, but no new decorative element is introduced. It, however,
+will be noticed that there is a want of symmetry on the two sides of a
+vertical line in the figure last mentioned. The right-hand upper side
+is continued into five pointed projections, which fail on the
+left-hand side. There is likewise a difference in the arrangement of
+the terraced figures in the two parts. The sides of the median
+triangles are formed of alternating black and white blocks, and the
+quadrate figure which it incloses is etched with a diagonal and cross.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 325--Double triangle; two breath feathers]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 326--Double triangle; median trapezoid]
+
+The decoration in figure 325 consists of two triangles side by side,
+each having marginal serrations, and a median square key pattern. One
+side of these triangles is continued into a line from which hang two
+breath feathers, while the other end of the same line ends in a round
+dot with four radiating, straight lines. The triangles recall the
+butterfly symbol, the key pattern representing the head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 327--Double triangle; median rectangle]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 328--Double compound triangle; median rectangle]
+
+In figure 326 there is a still more aberrant form of the W-shape
+design. The wings are folded, ending in triangles, and prolonged at
+their angles into projections to which are appended round dots with
+three parallel lines. The median portion, or that in the reentrant
+angle of the W, is a four-sided figure in which the triangle
+predominates with notched edges. Figure 327 shows the same design with
+the median portion replaced by a rectangle, and in which the key
+pattern has wholly disappeared from the wings. In figure 328 there are
+still greater modifications, but the symmetry about a median axis
+remains. The ends of the wings instead of being folded are expanded,
+and the three triangles formerly inclosed are now free and extended.
+The simple median rectangle is ornamented with a terrace pattern on
+its lower angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 329--Double triangle; median triangle]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 330--Double compound triangle]
+
+Figure 329 shows a design in which the extended triangles are even
+more regular and simple, with triangular terraced figures on their
+inner edge. The median figure is a triangle instead of a rectangle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 331--Double rectangle; median rectangle]
+
+Figure 330 shows the same design with modification in the position of
+the median figure, and a slight curvature in two of its sides.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 332--Double rectangle; median triangle]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 333--Double triangle with crooks]
+
+Somewhat similar designs, readily reduced to the same type as the last
+three or four which have been mentioned, are shown in figures 331 and
+332. The resemblances are so close that I need not refer to them in
+detail. The W form is wholly lost, and there is no resemblance to a
+bird, even in its most highly conventionalized forms. The median
+design in figure 331 consists of a rectangle and two triangles so
+arranged as to leave a rectangular white space between them. In figure
+332 the median triangle is crossed by parallel and vertical zigzag
+lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 334--W-shape figure; single line with feathers]
+
+In the design represented in figure 333 there are two triangular
+figures, one on each side of a median line, in relation to which they
+are symmetrical. Each triangle has a simple key pattern in the middle,
+and the line from which they appear to hang is blocked off with
+alternating black and white rectangles. At either extremity of this
+line there is a circular dot from which extend four parallel lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 335--Compound rectangle, triangles, and feathers]
+
+A somewhat simpler form of the same design is found in figure 334,
+showing a straight line above terminating with dots, from which extend
+parallel lines, and two triangular figures below, symmetrically placed
+in reference to an hypothetical upright line between them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 336--Double triangle]
+
+Figure 335 bears a similarity to the last mentioned only so far as the
+lower half of the design is concerned. The upper part is not
+symmetrical, but no new decorative element is introduced. Triangles,
+frets, and terraced figures are inserted between two parallel lines
+which terminate in round dots with parallel lines.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVII
+
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 337--Double triangle and feathers]
+
+The design in figure 336 is likewise unsymmetrical, but it has two
+lateral triangles with incurved terrace and dentate patterns. The same
+general form is exhibited in figure 337, with the introduction of two
+pointed appendages facing the hypothetical middle line. From the
+general form of these pointed designs, each of which is double, they
+have been interpreted as feathers. They closely resemble the
+tail-feathers of bird figures on several bowls in the collection, as
+will be seen in several of the illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 338--Twin triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 339--Triangle with terraced appendages]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 340--Mosaic pattern]
+
+Figure 338 is composed of two triangular designs fused at the greatest
+angles. The regularity of these triangles is broken by a square space
+at the fusion. At each of the acute angles of the two triangles there
+are circular designs with radiating lines, a common motive on the
+exterior of food bowls. Although no new elements appear in figure 338,
+with the exception of bracket marks, one on each side of a circle, the
+arrangement of the two parts symmetrically about a line parallel with
+the rim of the bowl imparts to the design a unique form. The motive in
+figure 339 is reducible to triangular and rectangular forms, and while
+exceptional as to their arrangement, no new decorative feature is
+introduced.
+
+The specimen represented in figure 340 has as its decorative elements,
+rectangles, triangles, parallel lines, and birds' tails, to which may
+be added star and crosshatch motives. It is therefore the most
+complicated of all the exterior decorations which have thus far been
+considered. There is no symmetry in the arrangement of figures about a
+central axis, but rather a repetition of similar designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 341--Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel
+lines]
+
+The use of crosshatching is very common on the most ancient Pueblo
+ware, and is very common in designs on cliff-house pottery. This style
+of decoration is only sparingly used on Sikyatki ware. The
+crosshatching is provisionally interpreted as a mosaic pattern, and
+reminds one of those beautiful forms of turquois mosaic on shell,
+bone, or wood found in ancient pueblos, and best known in modern times
+in the square ear pendants of Hopi women. Figure 340 is one of the few
+designs having terraced figures with short parallel lines depending
+from them. These figures vividly recall the rain-cloud symbol with
+falling rain represented by the parallel lines. Figure 341 is a
+perfectly symmetrical design with figures of stars, rectangles, and
+parallel lines. It may be compared with that shown in figure 340 in
+order to demonstrate how wide the difference in design may become by
+the absence of symmetrical relationship. It has been shown in some of
+the previous motives that the crook sometimes represents a bird's
+head, and parallel lines appended to it the tail-feathers. Possibly
+the same interpretation may be given to these designs in the following
+figures, and the presence of stars adjacent to them lends weight to
+this hypothesis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 342--Continuous crooks]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 343--Rectangular terrace pattern]
+
+An indefinite repetition of the same pattern of rectangular design is
+shown in figure 342. This highly decorative motive may be varied
+indefinitely by extension or concentration, and while it is modified
+in that manner in many of the decorations of vases, it is not so
+changed on the exterior of food bowls.
+
+There are a number of forms which I am unable to classify with the
+foregoing, none of which show any new decorative design. All possible
+changes have been made in them without abandoning the elemental
+ornamental motives already considered. The tendency to step or terrace
+patterns predominates, as exemplified in simple form in figure 343. In
+figure 344 there is a different arrangement of the same terrace
+pattern, and the design is helped out with parallel bands of different
+length at the ends of a rectangular figure. A variation in the depth
+of color of these lines adds to the effectiveness of the design. This
+style of ornamentation is successfully used in the designs represented
+in figures 345 and 346, in the body of which a crescentic figure in
+the black serves to add variety to a design otherwise monotonous. The
+two appendages to the right of figure 346 are interpreted as feathers,
+although their depart forms widely from that usually assumed by these
+designs. The terraced patterns are replaced by dentate margins in this
+figure, and there is a successful use of most of the rectangular and
+triangular designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 344--Terrace pattern with parallel lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 345--Terrace pattern]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 346--Triangular pattern with feathers]
+
+In the specimens represented in figures 347 and 348 marginal
+dentations are used. I have called the design referred to an S-form,
+which, however, owing to its elongation is somewhat masked. The
+oblique bar in the middle of the figure represents the body of the
+letter, the two extremities taking the forms of triangles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 347--S-pattern]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 348--Triangular and terrace figures]
+
+So far as decorative elements are concerned the design in figure 349
+can be compared with some of those preceding, but it differs from them
+in combination. The motive in figure 350 is not unlike the
+ornamentation of certain oriental vases, except from the presence of
+the terraced figures. In figure 351 there are two designs separated by
+an inclined break the edge of which is dentate. This figure is
+introduced to show the method of treatment of alternating triangles of
+varying depth of color and the breaks in the marginal bands or "lines
+of life." One of the simplest combinations of triangular and
+rectangular figures is shown in figure 353, proving how effectually
+the original design may be obscured by concentration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 349--Crook, terrace, and parallel lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 350--Triangles, squares, and terraces]
+
+In the foregoing descriptions I have endeavored to demonstrate that,
+notwithstanding the great variety of designs considered, the types
+used are very limited in number. The geometrical forms are rarely
+curved lines, and it may be said that spirals, which appear so
+constantly on pottery from other (and possibly equally ancient or
+older) pueblos than Sikyatki, are absent in the external decorations
+of specimens found in the ruins of the latter village.
+
+Every student of ancient and modern Pueblo pottery has been impressed
+by the predominance of terraced figures in its ornamentation, and the
+meaning of these terraces has elsewhere been spoken of at some length.
+It would, I believe, be going too far to say that these step designs
+always represent clouds, as in some instances they are produced by
+such an arrangement of rectangular figures that no other forms could
+result.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVIII
+
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 351--Bifurcated rectangular design]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 352--Lines of life and triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 353--Infolded triangles]
+
+The material at hand adds nothing new to the theory of the evolution
+of the terraced ornament from basketry or textile productions, so ably
+discussed by Holmes, Nordenskiöld, and others. When the Sikyatki
+potters decorated their ware the ornamentation of pottery had reached
+a high development, and figures both simple and complicated were used
+contemporaneously. While, therefore, we can so arrange them as to make
+a series, tracing modifications from simple to complex designs, thus
+forming a supposed line of evolution, it is evident that there is no
+proof that the simplest figures are the oldest. The great number of
+terraced figures and their use in the representation of animals seem
+to me to indicate that they antedate all others, and I see no reason
+why they should not have been derived from basketry patterns. We must,
+however, look to pottery with decorations less highly developed for
+evidence bearing on this point. The Sikyatki artists had advanced
+beyond simple geometric figures, and had so highly modified these that
+it is impossible to determine the primitive form.
+
+As I have shown elsewhere, the human hand is used as a decorative
+element in the ornamentation of the interior of several food bowls. It
+is likewise in one instance chosen to adorn the exterior. It is the
+only part of the human limbs thus used. Figure 354 shows the hand with
+marks on the palm probably intended to represent the lines which are
+used in the measurement of the length of pahos or prayer-sticks. From
+between the index and the middle finger rises a line which recalls
+that spoken of in the account of the hand on the interior of the food
+bowl shown in plate CXXXVII.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 354--Human hand]
+
+The limb of an animal with a paw, or possibly a human arm and hand,
+appears as a decoration on the outside of another food bowl, where it
+is combined with the ever-constant stepped figure, as shown in figure
+355.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 355--Animal paw, limb, and triangle]
+
+
+PIGMENTS
+
+The ancient Sikyatki people were accustomed to deposit in their
+mortuary vessels fragments of minerals or ground oxides and
+carbonates, of different colors, used as paints. It thus appears
+evident that these substances were highly prized in ancient as in
+modern times, and it may be mentioned that the present native priests
+regard the pigments found in the graves as so particularly efficacious
+in coloring their ceremonial paraphernalia that they begged me to give
+them fragments for that purpose. The green color, which was the most
+common, is an impure carbonate of copper, the same as that with which
+pahos are painted for ceremonial use today. Several shallow,
+saucer-like vessels contained yellow ocher, and others sesquioxide of
+iron, which afforded both the ancients and the moderns the red pigment
+called _cuta_, an especial favorite of the warrior societies. The
+inner surface of some of the bowls is stained with the pigments which
+they had formerly contained, and it was not uncommon to find several
+small paint pots deposited in a single grave. The white used was an
+impure kaolin, which was found both in masses and in powdered form,
+and there were unearthed several disks of this material which had been
+cut into definite shape as if for a special purpose.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIX
+
+ARROWSHAFT SMOOTHERS, SELENITE, AND SYMBOLIC CORN FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+One of these disks or circular plates (figure 356) was found on the
+head of a skeleton. The rim is rounded, and the opposite faces are
+concave, with a perforation in the middle. Other forms of this worked
+kaolin are spherical, oblong, or lamellar, sometimes more or less
+decorated on the outer surface, as shown in plate CLXXII, _e_.
+Another, shown in _f_, of the same plate, is cylindrical, and other
+fragments of irregular shapes were found. A pigment made of micaceous
+hematite was found in one of the Sikyatki paint jars. This material is
+still used as coloring matter by the Tusayan Indians, by whom it is
+called _yayala_, and is highly prized by the members of the warrior
+societies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 356--Kaolin disk (natural size)]
+
+
+STONE OBJECTS
+
+Almost every grave at Sikyatki contained stone objects which were
+found either in the bowls or in the soil in the immediate neighborhood
+of the skeletons. Some of these implements are pecked or chipped,
+others are smooth--pebbles apparently chosen for their botryoidal
+shape, polished surface, or fancied resemblance to some animal or
+other form.
+
+Many of the smooth stones were probably simply polishing stones, used
+by the women in rubbing pottery to a gloss before it was fired. Others
+were charm stones such as are still employed in making medicine, as
+elsewhere described. There were still other stones which, from their
+resemblance to animals, may have been personal fetishes. Among the
+unusual forms of stones found in this association is a quartz crystal.
+As I have shown in describing several ceremonies still observed, a
+quartz crystal is used to deflect a ray of sunlight into the medicine
+bowl, and is placed in the center of a sand picture of the sun in
+certain rites called _Powalawû_; the crystal is also used in divining,
+and for other purposes, and is highly prized by modern Tusayan
+priests.
+
+A botryoidal fragment of hematite found in a grave reminds me that in
+the so-called Antelope rock[154] at Walpi, around which the Snake
+dancers biennially carry reptiles in their mouths, there is in one
+side a niche in which is placed a much larger mass of that material,
+to which prayers are addressed on certain ceremonial occasions, and
+upon which sacred meal and prayer emblems are placed.
+
+One or two mortuary bowls contained fragments of stalactites
+apparently from the Grand canyon of the Colorado or from some other
+locality where water is or has been abundant.
+
+The loose shaly deposit which underlies the Tusayan mesas contains
+many cephalopod fossils, a collection of which was made in former
+years and deposited in the National Museum. Among these the most
+beautiful are small cephalopods called by the Hopi, _koaitcoko_. Among
+the many sacred objects in the _tiponi_ baskets of the Lalakonti
+society, as described in my account[155] of the unwrapping of that
+fetish, there was a specimen of this ammonite; that the shell was
+preserved in this sacred bundle is sufficient proof that it is highly
+venerated. As a natural object with a definite form it is regarded as
+a fetish which is looked upon with reverence by the knowing ones and
+pronounced bad by the uninitiated. The occurrence of this fossil in
+one of the mortuary bowls is in harmony with the same idea and shows
+that it was regarded in a similar light by the ancient occupants of
+Sikyatki.
+
+But the resemblance of these and other stones to animal fossils[156]
+is not always so remote as in the instances above mentioned. There was
+in one grave a single large fetish of a mountain lion, made of
+sandstone (plate CLXXII, _b_, _c_), in which legs, ears, tail, and
+eyes are represented, and the mouth still retains the red pigment with
+which it was colored, although there was no sign of paint on other
+parts of the body. This fetish is very similar to the one found at
+Awatobi, and is identical in form with those made by the Hopi at the
+present time.
+
+It was customary to bury in Sikyatki graves plates or fragments of
+selenite or mica, some of which are perforated as if for suspension,
+while others are in plain sheets (plate CLXIX, _c_).
+
+Among the stone implements used as mortuary offerings which were found
+in the cemeteries, was one made of the same fine lithographic
+limestone as the so-called _tcamahia_ (plate CLXXI, _g_) which occur
+on the Antelope altar in the Snake ceremonies. The exceptional
+character of this fragment is instructive, and its resemblance to the
+finely polished stone hoes found in other ruins is very suggestive.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXX
+
+CORN GRINDER FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+There were found many disk-shape stones, pecked on the periphery as if
+used in grinding pigment or in bruising seeds, and spheroidal stones
+with a facet worn at one pole as if used for the same or a similar
+purpose (plate CLXXI, _b_, _c_). A few stone axes and hatchets were
+also taken from the graves; most of these are rude specimens of stone
+working, although one of them can hardly be excelled in any other
+collection. Many arrowpoints were found, but these are in no respect
+peculiar. They are made of many different kinds of stone, but those of
+obsidian are the most numerous. They were generally found in numbers,
+sometimes in bowls. Evidently they had not been attached to shafts
+when buried, for no sign of the reeds remained. Arrowheads sewed into
+a bandoleer are still worn as insignia of rank by warriors, and it is
+probable that such was also true in the past, so that on interment
+these arrowpoints might have been placed in the mortuary basin
+deposited by the side of the warrior, as indicative of his standing or
+rank, and the bandoleer or leather strap to which they were attached
+decayed during its long burial in the earth. Spearpoints of much
+coarser make and larger in size than the arrowheads were also found in
+the graves, and a rare knife, made of chalcedony, showed that the
+ancient, like the modern Hopi, prized a sharp cutting instrument.
+
+Among the many large stones picked up on the mounds of Sikyatki there
+was one the use of which has long puzzled me. This is a rough stone,
+not worked save in an equatorial groove. The object is too heavy to
+have been carried about, except with the utmost difficulty, and the
+probability of the former existence of a handle is out of the
+question. It has been suggested that this and similar but larger
+grooved stones might have been used as tethers for some domesticated
+animal, as the eagle or the turkey, which is about the only
+explanation I can suggest. Both of these creatures, and (if we may
+trust early accounts) a quadruped about the size of a dog, were
+domesticated by the ancient Pueblo people, but I have found no
+survival of tethering in use today. Eagles, however, are tied by the
+legs and not confined in corrals as at Zuñi, while sheep are kept in
+stone inclosures. It is probable that this latter custom came with the
+introduction of sheep, and that these stones were weights to which the
+Sikyatki people tied by the legs the eagles and turkeys, the feathers
+of which play an important part in their sacred observances.
+
+Certain small rectangular slabs of stone have been found, with a
+groove extending across one surface diagonally from one angle to
+another (plate CLXIX, _a_, _b_.) These are generally called arrowshaft
+polishers, and were used to rub down the surface of arrowshafts or
+prayer-sticks. Several of these polishers were taken from Sikyatki
+graves, and one or two were of such regular form that considerable
+care must have been used in their manufacture. A specimen from Awatobi
+is decorated with a bow and an arrow scratched on one side, and one of
+dark basaltic rock evidently came from a distance. A number of metates
+and mullers were found in the graves at Sikyatki. One of the best of
+the latter is shown in plate CLXX. These stones are of different
+degrees of fineness, and vary from simple triangular slabs of fine
+sandstone to very coarse lava. The specimen figured has depressions on
+the sides to facilitate handling.[157]
+
+Perhaps the most significant of all the worked stones found in the
+Sikyatki cemeteries were the flat slabs the edges of which near the
+surface of the soil marked the presence of the graves. These slabs may
+be termed headstones, but they have a far different meaning from those
+that bear the name of the deceased with which we are most familiar,
+for when they have any marking on their faces, it is not a totem of
+the dead, but a symbol of the rain-cloud, which is connected with
+ancestor worship.
+
+One of the best of these mortuary slabs has its edge cut in such a way
+as to give it a terraced outline, and on one face a similar terrace is
+drawn in black pigment. These figures are symbols of rain-clouds, and
+the interpretation of the use of this design in graves is as follows:
+
+The dead, according to current Tusayan thought, become rain-cloud
+gods, or powerful intercessors with those deities which cause or send
+the rains. Hence, the religious society to which the deceased
+belonged, and the members of the clan who survive, place in the
+mortuary bowls, or in the left hand of their friend, the paho or
+prayer emblem for rain; hence, also, in prayers at interment they
+address the breath body of the dead as a _katcina_, or rain god. These
+_katcinas_, as divinized ancestors, are supposed to return to the
+villages and receive prayers for rain. In strict accord with this
+conception the rain-cloud symbol is placed, in some instances, on the
+slab of rock in the graves of the dead at Sikyatki. It proves to me
+that the cult of ancestor worship, and the conception that the dead
+have power to bring needed rain, were recognized in Sikyatki when the
+pueblo was in its prime. One of these slabs is perforated by a small
+hole, an important fact, but one for which I have only a fanciful
+explanation, namely, to allow the escape of the breath body. Elsewhere
+I have found many instances of perforated mortuary stone slabs, which
+will be considered in a report of my excavations in 1896.
+
+
+OBSIDIAN
+
+Many fragments of obsidian, varying in size, are found strewn over the
+surface of the majority of ancient ruins in Tusayan, and the quantity
+of this material on some mounds indicates its abundance in those early
+habitations. This material must have been highly prized for knives,
+arrowpoints, and weapons of various kinds, as several of the graves
+contained large fragments of it, some more or less chipped, others in
+natural forms. The fact of its being deemed worthy of deposit in the
+graves of the Sikyatkians would indicate that it was greatly esteemed.
+I know of no natural deposit of obsidian near Sikyatki or in the
+province of Tusayan, so that the probability is that these fragments
+had been brought a considerable distance before they were buried in
+the earth that now covers the dead of the ancient pueblos.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXI
+
+STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM PALATKI, AWATOBI, AND SIKYATKI]
+
+
+NECKLACES, GORGETS, AND OTHER ORNAMENTS
+
+The Sikyatki people buried their dead adorned with necklaces and other
+ornaments as when living. The materials most highly prized for
+necklaces were turquois and shell which were fashioned into beads,
+some of which were finely made. These necklaces did not differ from
+those now worn, and the shells employed were mostly marine varieties
+of the genus _Pectunculus_. The turquois beads are often as finely cut
+as any now worn, and their presence in the graves led to the only
+serious trouble which I had with my native workmen, as they
+undoubtedly appropriated many which were found. Some of these turquois
+beads are simply flat fragments, perforated at one end, others are
+well formed. Many skeletons had a single turquois near the mastoid
+process of the skull, showing that they had been worn as ear pendants.
+On the neck of one skeleton we found a necklace of many strands,
+composed of segments of the leg bones of the turkey, stained green.
+There were other specimens of necklaces made of turkey bones, which
+were smoothly finished and apparently had not been stained.
+
+Necklaces of perforated cedar berries were likewise found, some of
+them still hanging about the necks of the dead, and in one instance, a
+small saucer like vessel (plate CXX, _d_) was filled with beads of
+this kind, as if the necklace had thus been deposited in the grave as
+a votive offering.
+
+For gorgets the Sikyatki people apparently prized slabs of lignite
+(plate CLXXII, _d_) and plates of selenite. It was likewise customary
+to make small clay imitations of birds and shells for this and for
+other ornamental purposes; these, for the most part, however, were not
+found in the graves, but were picked up on the surface or in the
+débris within the rooms.
+
+The three forms imitating birds shown in plate CLXXIII, _g_, _h_, _i_,
+are rude in character, and one of them is crossed by a black line from
+which depend parallel lines, representing falling rain; all of these
+specimens have a perforated knot on the under side for suspension, as
+shown in the figure between them.
+
+The forms of imitations of shells, in clay, of which examples are
+shown in plate CLXXIII, _j_, _k_, _l_, are rude in character; they are
+often painted with longitudinal or vertical black lines, and have a
+single or double perforation for suspension. The shell imitated is
+probably the young _Pectunculus_, a Pacific-coast mollusk, with which
+the ancient Hopi were familiar.
+
+
+TOBACCO PIPES
+
+I have elsewhere mentioned that every modern Tusayan ceremony opens
+and closes with a ceremonial smoke, and it is apparent that pipes were
+highly prized by the ancient Sikyatkians.
+
+The form of pipe used in most ceremonials today has a bowl with its
+axis at right angles to the stem, but so far as I have studied ancient
+Pueblo pipes this form appears to be a modern innovation.[158] To
+determine the probable ancient form of pipe, as indicated by the
+ritual, I will invite attention to one of the most archaic portions of
+the ceremonies about the altar of the Antelope priesthood, at the time
+of the Snake dance at Walpi:[159]
+
+"The songs then ceased, and Wí-ki sent Ká-tci to bring him a light.
+Ká-tci went out, and soon returned with a burning corncob, while all
+sat silently awaiting Wí-ki's preparation for the great _Ó-mow-ûh_
+smoke, which was one of the most sacred acts performed by the Antelope
+priests in these ceremonials.
+
+"The _wu-kó-tco-ño_ is a huge, stemless pipe, which has a large
+opening in the blunt end, and a smaller one in the pointed. It is five
+inches long, one inch in diameter at the large aperture, and its
+greatest circumference is seven and a half inches. The pipe is made of
+some black material, possibly stone, and as far as could be seen was
+not ornamented. The bowl had previously been filled with leaves
+carefully gathered from such places as are designated by tradition. In
+the subsequent smokes the ashes, "dottle," were saved, being placed in
+a small depression in the floor, but were not again put in the pipe.
+
+"Wí-ki took the live ember from Ká-tci and placed it in the large
+opening of the pipe, on the leaves which filled its cavity. He then
+knelt down and placed the pipe between the two _tí-po-nis_, so that
+the pointed end rested on the head of the large fetish, between the
+ears. Every one remained silent, and Wí-ki blew several dense clouds
+of smoke upon the sand altar, one after another, so that the picture
+was concealed. The smoke was made by blowing through the pipe, the
+fire being placed in the bowl next the mouth, and the whole larger end
+of the pipe was taken into the mouth at each exhalation.
+
+"At the San Juan pueblo, near Santa Fé, where I stopped on my way to
+Tusayan, I purchased a ceremonial headdress upon which several spruce
+twigs were tied. Wí-ki received some fragments of these with
+gratitude, and they formed one of the ingredients which were smoked in
+the great _ó-mow-ûh_ pipe. The scent of the mixture was very fragrant,
+and filled the room, like incense. The production of this great
+smoke-cloud, which is supposed to rise to the sky, and later bring the
+rain, ended the first series of eight songs.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXII
+
+PAINT GRINDER, FETISH, KAOLIN DISKS, AND LIGNITE FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+"Immediately after this event, Há-ha-we filled one of the
+small-stemmed pipes lying near the fireplace with native tobacco, and
+after lighting it puffed smoke on the altar. He passed the pipe to
+Wí-ki, holding it near the floor, bowl foremost, as he did so, and
+exchanging the customary terms of relationship. Wí-ki then blew dense
+clouds of smoke over the two _tí-po-nis_ and on the sand picture.
+Há-ha-we, meanwhile, lit a second pipe, and passed it to Kó-pe-li, the
+Snake chief, who enjoyed it in silence, indiscriminately puffing smoke
+on the altar, to the cardinal points, and in other directions.
+Kó-pe-li later gave his pipe to Ká-kap-ti, who sat at his right, and
+Wí-ki passed his to Na-syuñ-'we-ve, who, after smoking, handed the
+pipe to Kwá-a, who in turn passed it to Ká-tci, by whom it was given
+to Há-ha-we. Ká-tci, the last priest to receive it before it was
+returned to the pipe-lighter, smoked for a long time, and repeatedly
+puffed clouds of smoke upon the sand picture. Meanwhile Ká-kap-ti had
+handed his pipe to Há-ha-we, both exchanging terms of relationship and
+carefully observing the accompanying ceremonial etiquette. Há-ha-we,
+as was his unvarying custom, carefully cleaned the two pipes, and laid
+them on the floor by the side of the fireplace."
+
+The form of pipe used in the above ceremony is typical of ancient
+Pueblo pipes, several of which were found at Sikyatki. One of these,
+much smaller than the _ó-mow-ûh_ pipe, was made of lava, and bore
+evidence of use before burial. It is evident, however, that these
+straight pipes were not always smoked as above described. The most
+interesting pipes found at Sikyatki were more elongated than that
+above mentioned and were made of clay. Their forms are shown in plate
+CLXXIII, _b_, _c_, _d_, _f_. One of these (_b_) is very smooth, almost
+glazed, and enlarged into two lateral wings near the mouth end, which
+is perforated with a small hole. The cavity at the opposite end is
+large enough to hold sufficient for a good smoke, and shows evidence
+of former use. The whole median region of the exterior is formed by a
+collar incised with lines, as if formerly wrapped with fiber. In some
+of the modern ceremonials, as that of the Bear-Puma dramatization in
+the Snake dance, a reed cigarette is used, ancient forms of which have
+been found in sacrificial caves, and there seems no doubt that this
+pipe is simply a clay form of those reeds. The markings on the collar
+would by this interpretation indicate the former existence of a small
+fabric wrapped about it. The two pipes shown, in plate CLXXIII, _b_,
+_f_, are tubular in shape,[160] highly polished, and on one of them
+(_f_) we see scratches representing the same feature as the collar of
+_b_, and probably made with the same intent.
+
+The fragment of a pipe shown in plate CLXXIII, _d_, is interesting in
+the same connection. The end of this pipe is broken, but the stem is
+intact, and on two sides of the bowl there are elevations covered with
+crosshatching. The pipe is of clay and has a rough external surface.
+
+It is improbable that these pipes were always smoked as the
+_wu-kó-tco-ño_ of the Snake ceremony, but the smaller end was placed
+to the mouth, and smoke taken into the mouth and exhaled. It is
+customary in ceremonials now practiced, to wind a wisp of yucca about
+the stem of a short pipe, that it may not become too hot to hold in
+the hand. This may be a possible explanation[161] of the scratches on
+the sides of the ancient tube pipes from Sikyatki.
+
+
+PRAYER-STICKS
+
+One of the most important objects made in the secret ceremonials of
+the modern Pueblos is sacrificial in nature, and is called a paho or
+"water wood," which is used as an offering to the gods (figure 357).
+These pahos are made of a prescribed wood, of length determined by
+tradition, and to them are tied appendages of symbolic meaning. They
+are consecrated by songs, about an altar, upon which they are laid,
+and afterward deposited in certain shrines by a special courier.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 357--Mortuary prayer-stick (natural size)]
+
+In modern times the forms of these pahos differ very greatly, the
+shape depending on the society which makes them, the god addressed,
+and the purpose for which they are used, as understood by the
+initiated. Among many other uses they are sometimes mortuary in
+character, and are deposited in the graves of chiefs, as offerings
+either to the God of Death, or to other deities, to whom they may be
+presented by the shade or breath body of the deceased. This use of
+pahos is of ancient origin in Tusayan, as shown by the excavations at
+Sikyatki, where they were found in mortuary bowls or vases deposited
+by the relatives or surviving members of the sacerdotal societies to
+which the deceased had belonged.
+
+This pre-Spanish custom in Tusayan was discovered in my excavations at
+Awatobi, but the prayer-sticks from that place were fragmentary as
+compared with the almost perfect pahos from Sikyatki. These pahos are
+of many forms;[162] some of them are of considerable size, and the
+majority are of distinctive forms (plates CLXXIV-CLXXV). There are
+also many fragments, the former shapes of which could not be
+determined. When it is considered that these wooden objects with their
+neat carvings were fashioned with stone implements, the high character
+of the work is very remarkable. They show, in several instances, the
+imprint of attached strings and feathers, portions of which still
+remain; also, in one instance, fragments of a pine needle. They are
+painted with green and black mineral pigments, the former of which had
+undoubtedly done much to preserve the soft wood of which they were
+manufactured. As at the present day, cottonwood and willow were the
+favorite prescribed woods for pahos, and some of the best were made of
+pine. The forms of these ancient prayer offerings, as mentioned
+hereafter, differ somewhat from those of modern make, although in
+certain instances there is a significant resemblance between the two
+kinds.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXIII
+
+PIPES, BELL, AND CLAY BIRDS AND SHELLS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI]
+
+One of the most striking instances of resemblance between the old and
+the new is the likeness of some of these ancient pahos to those now
+made by the Flute society, and if this resemblance is more than a
+coincidence, the conclusion that the present flute paho is a survival
+of the ancient form may be accepted. As adding weight to this theory
+it may be mentioned that traditionally the Flute people claim to be
+the ancient people of Tusayan, and possibly contemporaries, in that
+province, with the ancient inhabitants of Sikyatki. There is likewise
+a most suggestive resemblance between these pahos and certain similar
+sticks from cliff dwellings, and it is a belief, which I can not yet
+demonstrate as true, that kindred people, or the same sacerdotal
+societies represented in cliff houses and in Sikyatki, manufactured
+ceremonial prayer offerings which are identical in design. Plate
+CLXXIV, _a_, represents a double stick paho, which closely resembles
+the prayer offering of the modern Flute society. The two rods were
+found together and originally had been attached, as indicated by the
+arrangement of the impression of the string midway of their length.
+The stick of the left has a facet cut on one side, upon which
+originally three dots were depicted to represent the eyes and the
+mouth. This member of the paho was the female; the remaining stick was
+the male. There are two deep grooves, or ferules, cut midway of their
+length, a distinctive characteristic of the modern flute paho. Both
+components are painted green, as is still customary in prayer-sticks
+of this fraternity. The pahos shown in _b_, _c_, and _d_, are likewise
+ascribed to the same society, and differ from the first only in
+length. They represent female sticks of double flute pahos. The length
+of these prayer-sticks varies on different ceremonial days, and is
+determined by the distance of the shrines for which they are intended.
+The unit of measurement is the length of certain joints of the finger,
+and the space between the tip of longest digit to certain creases in
+the palm of the hand. The length of the ancient Sikyatki pahos,
+ascribed to the Flute society, follows the same rule.
+
+Plate CLXXIV, _e_, _f_, have the same ferules referred to in the
+description above, but are of greater diameter. They are unlike any
+modern paho except in this particular. In _g_ is depicted a still
+larger prayer-stick, with two serrate incisions on each side of the
+continuation of the flattened facet.
+
+Specimens _h_ to _m_ are forms of pahos which I can not identify. They
+are painted green, generally with black tips, round, flattened, and of
+small size. Figure _n_ is a part of a paho which closely resembles
+prayer-sticks found in the cliff houses of Mesa Verde and San Juan
+valley of northern New Mexico.
+
+Numerous specimens of a peculiar razor-shape paho were found, two of
+which are shown in plate CLXXV, _o_, _s_. The paho shown in figure _d_
+is flat on one side and rounded on the other, narrowing at one end,
+where it was probably continued in a shaft, and a hole is punctured at
+the opposite extremity, as if for suspension. It is barely possible
+that this may have been a whizzer or bull-roarer, such as are used at
+the present day to imitate the wind, and commonly carried by the
+performer in a public dance who personifies the warrior. Figure _t_
+differs from the ordinary flute paho in having five constrictions in
+the upper part, and in being continued into a very long shank.
+
+The best preserved of all the pahos from the Sikyatki graves are
+represented in _u_ and _v_, both of which were found in the same
+mortuary bowl. They are painted with a thick layer of green pigment,
+and have shafts, which are blackened and placed in opposite directions
+in the two figures. Their general form may be seen at a glance. The
+lower surface of the object shown in _u_ is perfectly flat, and the
+part represented at the upper end is evidently broken off. This is
+likewise true of both extremities of the object shown in _v_; it is
+also probable that it had originally a serrated end, comparable with
+that shown in _c_. A similar terraced extremity survives in the corn
+paho carried by the so-called Flute girls in the biennial celebrations
+of the Flute ceremonies in the modern Tusayan pueblos.
+
+I refer the paho to the second group of sacrifices mentioned by
+Tylor,[163] that of homage, "a doctrine that the gist of sacrifice is
+rather in the worshiper giving something precious to himself than in
+the deity receiving benefit. This may be called the abnegation theory,
+and its origin may be fairly explained by considering it as derived
+from the original gift theory."
+
+While it is probably true that the Hopi barters his paho with the idea
+of receiving in return some desired gift, the main element is probably
+homage, but there is involved in it the third and highest element of
+sacrifice, abnegation. It is a sacrifice by symbolism, a part for the
+whole.
+
+On this theory the query naturally is, what does a paho represent?
+While it is difficult to answer this question, I think a plausible
+suggestion can be made. It is a sacrifice by symbolic methods of that
+which the Hopi most prize, corn or its meal.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXIV
+
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXV
+
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In a simple prayer the sacrifice is a pinch of meal thrown on the
+fetish or toward it. This is an individual method of prayer, and the
+pinch of meal, his prayer bearer, the sacrifice.
+
+When a society made its prayers this meal, symbolic of a gift of corn,
+is tied in a packet and attached to two sticks, one male, the other
+female, with prescribed herbs and feathers. Here we have the ordinary
+prayer-stick, varying in details but essentially the same, a sacrifice
+to the gods appropriately designated by prescribed accessories.
+
+Frequently this packet of meal may be replaced by a picture of an ear
+of corn drawn on a flat slat, the so-called "corn paho" of the Flute
+maidens,[164] or we may have an ear of corn tied to the wooden slat.
+In the _Mamzrau_ ceremony the women carry these painted slats in their
+hands, as I have elsewhere described.[165] It appears as if, in all
+these instances, there exists a sacrificial object, a symbolic
+offering of corn or meal.
+
+The constant appearance of the feather on the paho has suggested an
+interpretation of the prayer-plumes as symbolic sacrifices of birds on
+the theory of a part for the whole; we know that among the Nahua
+sacrifices of birds were common in many ceremonials. The idea of
+animal sacrifice, and, if we judge from legends, of human sacrifice,
+was not an unknown conception among the Pueblos. While it is possible
+that the omnipresence of the feather on the prayer-sticks may admit of
+that interpretation, to which it must be confessed the male and the
+female components in double pahos lend some evidence,[166] I believe
+the main object was, as above stated, an offering of meal, which
+constituted the special wealth of an agricultural people.
+
+
+MARINE SHELLS AND OTHER OBJECTS
+
+The excavations at Sikyatki did not reveal a large number of marine
+shells, although some of the more common genera used in the ancient
+pueblos were found.
+
+There were several fragments of _Pectunculus_ cut into the form of
+wristlets, like those from the ruins on the Little Colorado which I
+have described. Two beautiful specimens of _Oliva angulata_, truncated
+at each pole, which occurred in one of the mortuary bowls, and a few
+conical rattles, made of the spires of _Conus_, were taken from the
+graves; there were also a few fragments of an unknown _Haliotis_. All
+of the above genera are common to the Pacific, and no doubt were
+obtained by barter or brought by migratory clans to Tusayan from the
+far south. One of the most interesting objects in Sikyatki food basins
+from the necropolis was a comparatively well preserved rattle of a
+rattlesnake. The Walpi Snake chief, who was employed by me when this
+was found and was present at the time it was removed from the earth,
+declared that, according to the legends, there were no Snake people
+living at Sikyatki when it was destroyed, but the discovery of the
+snake rattle shows that the rattler was not without reverence there,
+even if not in the house of his friends, and some other explanation
+may be suggested to account for this discovery. There are evidences
+that the ancient Hopi, like certain Yuman tribes, wore a snake's
+rattle as an ornament for the neck, in which case the rattle found in
+the Sikyatki food basin may have been simply a votive offering, and in
+no way connected with ceremonial symbolism.
+
+Among many other mortuary offerings was one which was particularly
+suggestive. This specimen represented in plate CLXIX, _e_, is made of
+unbaked clay, and has a reticulated surface, as if once incrusted with
+foreign objects. The Hopi who were at work for me declared that this
+incrustation had been composed of seeds, and that the pits over the
+surface of the clay cone were evidence of their former existence. They
+identified this object as a "corn mound," and reminded me that a
+similar object is now used in the _Powamu_, _Lalakonti_, and certain
+other ceremonies. I have elsewhere mentioned the clay corn mound
+incrusted with seeds of various kinds in a description of the altar of
+the last-mentioned ceremony. These corn mountains (_ká-ü-tü'-kwi_) are
+made in the November ceremony called the _N[=a]-ác-nai-ya_, as
+described in my account of those rites from which I quote[167]--
+
+     "The _Tá-tau-kya-mû_ were very busy in their kib-va. Every
+     member was shelling corn of the different colors as if on a
+     wager. Each man made a figure of moist clay, about four or
+     five inches across the base. Some of these were in the form
+     of two mammĉ, and there were also many wedge and cone forms,
+     in all of which were embedded corn kernels, forming the
+     cloud and other of the simpler conventional figures in
+     different colors, but the whole surface was studded as full
+     as possible with the kernels. Each man brought down his own
+     _pó-o-tas_ (tray), on which he sprinkled prayer-meal, and
+     set his _ká-ü-tü'-kwi_ (corn mountain) upon it. He also
+     placed ears of corn on the tray."
+
+These corn mountains were carried by the _Tá-tau-kya-mû_ priesthood
+during an interesting ceremony which I have thus described:[168]
+
+     "The whole line then passed slowly along the front of the
+     village sideways, facing the north, and singing, and all the
+     women came out and helped themselves to the clay molds and
+     the ears of corn borne by the _Tá-tau-kya-mû_, bestowing
+     many thanks upon the priests."
+
+The fragment of polished stone shown in plate CLXIX, _d_, is
+perforated near the edge for suspension, and was found near the aural
+orifice of a skull, apparently indicating that it had been used as a
+pendant. With this object, many rude arrowpoints, concretions of
+stone, and the kaolin disk mentioned above were also found. Small
+round disks of pottery, with a median perforation, were not common,
+although sometimes present. They are identified as parts of primitive
+drills.
+
+No object made of metal was found at Sikyatki, nor is there any
+evidence that the ancient people of that pueblo ever saw the Spaniards
+or used any implement of their manufacture. While negative evidence
+can hardly be regarded as a safe guide to follow, so far as knowledge
+of copper is concerned, it is possible that the people of ancient
+Tusayan pueblos, in their trading expeditions to southern Arizona, may
+have met races who owned small copper bells and trinkets of metal. I
+can hardly believe, however, that the Tusayan Indians were familiar
+with the art of tempering copper, and even if objects showing this
+treatment shall be found hereafter in the ruins of this province it
+will have to be proved that they were made in that region, and not
+brought from the far south.
+
+No glazed pottery showing Spanish influence was found at Sikyatki, but
+there can hardly be a doubt that the art of glazing pottery was
+practiced by the ancestors of the Tusayan people. The modern potters
+of the East Mesa never glaze their pottery, and no fragment of glazed
+ware was obtained from the necropolis of Sikyatki.
+
+
+PERISHABLE CONTENTS OF MORTUARY FOOD BOWLS
+
+It is the habit of the modern Tusayan Indians to deposit food of
+various kinds on the graves of their dead. The basins used for that
+purpose are heaped up with paper-bread, stews, and various delicacies
+for the breath-body of the deceased. Naturally from its exposed
+position much of this food is devoured by animals or disappears in
+other ways. There appears excellent evidence, however, that the
+mortuary food offerings of the ancient Sikyatkians were deposited with
+the body and covered with soil and sometimes stones.
+
+The lapse of time since these burials took place has of course caused
+the destruction of the perishable food substances, which are found to
+be simple where any sign of their former presence remains. Thin films
+of interlacing rootlets often formed a delicate network over the whole
+inner surface of the bowl. Certain of the contents of these basins in
+the shape of seeds still remain; but these seeds have not germinated,
+possibly on account of previous high temperatures to which they have
+been submitted. A considerable quantity of these contents of mortuary
+bowls were collected and submitted to an expert, the result of whose
+examination is set forth in the accompanying letter:
+
+U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF BOTONY,
+_Washington, D. C., March 25, 1896._
+
+     DEAR DR FEWKES: Having made a cursory examination of the
+     samples of supposed vegetable material sent by you day
+     before yesterday, collected at Sikyatki, Arizona, in
+     supposed prehistoric burial places, I have the following
+     preliminary report to make:
+
+     No. 156247. A green resinous substance. I am unable to say
+     whether or not this is of vegetable origin.
+
+     No. 156248. A mass of fibrous material intermixed with sand,
+     the fibers consisting in part of slender roots, in part of
+     the hair of some animal.
+
+     No. 156249. This consists of a mixture of seed with a small
+     amount of sand present. The seeds are, in about the relative
+     order of their abundance, (_a_) a leguminous shiny seed of a
+     dirty olive color, possibly of the genus _Parosela_ (usually
+     known as _Dalea_); (_b_) the black seed shells, flat on one
+     side and almost invariably broken, of a plant apparently
+     belonging to the family _Malvaceae_; (_c_) large, flat,
+     nearly black achenia, possibly of a _Coreopsis_, bordered
+     with a narrow-toothed wing; (_d_) the thin lenticular
+     utricles of a _Carex_; (_e_) the minute black, bluntly
+     trihedral seeds of some plant of the family _Polygonaceae_,
+     probably an _Eriogonum_. The majority of these seeds have a
+     coating of fine sand, as if their surface had originally
+     been viscous; (_f_) a dried chrysalis bearing a slight
+     resemblance to a seed.
+
+     No. 156250. This bottle contains the same material as No.
+     156249, except that no larvĉ are found, but a large, plump,
+     brownish, lenticular seed 4 mm. in diameter, doubtless the
+     seed of a _Croton_.
+
+     No. 156251. A thin fragment of matter consisting of minute
+     roots of plants partially intermixed on one surface with
+     sand.
+
+     No. 156252. This consists almost wholly of plant rootlets
+     and contains a very slight amount of sand.
+
+     No. 156254. This consists of pieces of rotten wood through
+     which had grown the rootlets of plants. The wood, upon a
+     microscopical examination, is shown to be that of some
+     dicotyledonous tree of a very loose and light texture. The
+     plant rootlets in most cases followed the large ducts that
+     run lengthwise through the pieces of wood and take up the
+     greater part of the space.
+
+     No. 156255. The mass contained in this bottle is made up of
+     (_a_) grains, contained in their glumes or husks, of some
+     grass, probably _Oryzopsis membranacea_; (_b_) what appears
+     to be the minute spherical spore cases of some microscopical
+     fungus. The spore cases have a wall with a shiny brown
+     covering, or apparently with this covering worn off and
+     exhibiting an interior white shell. Within this is a very
+     large number of spherical spore-like bodies of a uniform
+     size; (_c_) a few plant rootlets.
+
+     No. 156256. The material in this bottle is similar to that
+     in 156255 except that the amount of rootlets is greater, the
+     grass seeds are of a darker color, seemingly somewhat more
+     disorganized, and somewhat more slender in form, and that
+     the spore cases seem to be entirely wanting.
+
+     No. 156257. The material in this bottle is similar to that
+     in No. 156249, containing the seeds numbered _a_, _b_, _c_,
+     and _d_ mentioned under that number, besides a greater
+     amount of plant rootlets and some fragments of corncob.
+
+     No. 156258. This consists almost entirely of plant rootlets
+     and sand.
+
+     No. 156259. This consists chiefly of the leaves of some
+     coniferous tree, either an _Abies_ or a _Pseudotsuga_.
+
+     All the seeds with the exception of those of the leguminous
+     plant are dead and their seed-coats rotten. The leguminous
+     seeds are still hard and will be subjected to a germination
+     test.[169]
+
+     For a specific and positive identification of these seeds it
+     will be necessary either for a botanist to visit the region
+     from which they came or to have at his disposal a complete
+     collection of the plants of the vicinity. Under such
+     conditions he could by process of exclusion identify the
+     seeds with an amount of labor almost infinitely less than
+     would be required in their identification by other means.
+
+Very sincerely yours,
+
+FREDERICK V. COVILLE, _Botanist._
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: See "The Prehistoric Culture of Tusayan," _American
+Anthropologist_, May, 1896. "Two Ruins Recently Discovered in the Red
+Rock Country, Arizona," ibid., August, 1896. "The Cliff Villages of
+the Red Rock Country, and the Tusayan Ruins, Sikyatki and Awatobi,
+Arizona," Smithsonian Report for 1895.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The reader's attention is called to the fact that this
+report is not intended to cover all the ruins in the section of
+Arizona through which the expedition passed; it is simply a
+description of those which were examined, with a brief mention of such
+others as would aid in a general comprehension of the subject. The
+ruins on the Little Colorado, near Winslow, Arizona, will be
+considered in a monograph to follow the present, which will be a
+report on the field work in 1896. If a series of monographs somewhat
+of this nature, but more comprehensive, recording explorations during
+many years in several different sections, were available, we would
+have sufficient material for a comprehensive treatment of southwestern
+archeology.]
+
+[Footnote 3: It may be borne in mind that several other clans besides
+the Patki claim to have lived long ago in the region southward from
+modern Tusayan. Among these may be mentioned the Patuñ (Squash) and
+the Tawa (Sun) people who played an important part in the early
+colonization of Middle Mesa.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Report upon the Indian Tribes, Pacific Railroad Survey,
+vol. III, pt. iii, p. 14, Washington, 1856. The cavate dwellings of
+the Rio Verde were first described by Dr E. A. Mearns. Although it has
+sometimes been supposed that Coronado followed the trail along Verde
+valley, and then over the Mogollones to Rio Colorado Chiquito,
+Bandelier has conclusively shown a more easterly route.]
+
+[Footnote 5: See mention of cliff houses in Walnut canyon in the Fifth
+Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The kinship of Cliff dwellers and Pueblos was long ago
+recognized by ethnologists, both from resemblances of skulls, the
+character of architecture, and archeological objects found in each
+class of dwellings. It is only in later years, however, that the
+argument from similar ceremonial paraphernalia has been adduced, owing
+to an increase of our knowledge of this side of Pueblo life. See
+Bessels, Bull. U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the
+Territories, vol. II, 1876; Hoffman, Report on Chaco Cranium, ibid.,
+1877, p. 457. Holmes, in 1878, says: "The ancient peoples of the San
+Juan country were doubtless the ancestors of the present Pueblo tribes
+of New Mexico and Arizona." See, likewise, Cushing, Nordenskiöld, and
+later writers regarding the kinship of Cliff villagers and Pueblos.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Report of the Director of the Bureau of American
+Ethnology for the year ending June 30, 1894; Smithsonian Report,
+1894.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The ruins in Chaves Pass, 110 miles south of Oraibi, will
+be considered in the report of the expedition of 1896, when extensive
+excavations were made at this point. About midway between the Chaves
+Pass ruins and those of Beaver creek, in Verde valley, there are other
+ruins, as at Rattlesnake Tanks, and as a well-marked trail passes by
+these former habitations and connects the Verde series with those of
+Chaves Pass, it is possible that early migrations may have followed
+this course. There is also a trail from Homolobi and the Colorado
+Chiquito ruins through Chaves Pass into Tonto Basin.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Smithsonian Report, 1883; Report of Major Powell,
+Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 57 et seq. Explorations in the
+Southwest, ibid., 1886, p. 52 et seq.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Report of an Expedition down the Zuñi and Colorado
+rivers; Washington, 1853.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Smithsonian Report, 1883, Report of the Director of the
+Bureau of Ethnology, p. 62: "Pending the arrival of goods at Moki, Mr
+Cushing returned across the country to Zuñi for the purpose of
+observing more minutely than on former occasions the annual sun
+ceremonials. En route he discovered two ruins, apparently before
+unvisited. One of these was the outlying structure of K'n'-i-K'él,
+called by the Navajos Zïnni-jin'ne and by the Zuñis He'-sho'ta
+pathl-tâ[)i]e, both, according to Zuñi tradition, belonging to the
+Thlé-e-tâ-kwe, the name given to the traditional northwestern
+migration of the Bear, Crane, Frog, Deer, Yellow-wood, and other
+gentes of the ancestral pueblos."]
+
+[Footnote 12: The reduplicated syllable recalls Hopi methods of
+forming their plural, but is not characteristic of them, and the word
+Totonteac has a Hopi sound. The supposed derivation of Tonto from
+Spanish _tonto_, "fool," is mentioned, elsewhere. The so-called Tonto
+Apache was probably an intruder, the cause of the desertion of the
+"basin" by the housebuilders. The question whether Totonteac is the
+same as Tusayan or Tuchano is yet to be satisfactorily answered. The
+map makers of the sixteenth century regarded them as different places,
+and notwithstanding Totonteac was reported to be "a hotte lake" in the
+middle of the previous century, it held its place on maps into the
+seventeenth century. It is always on or near a river flowing into the
+Gulf of California.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Mr Mindeleff's descriptions deal with the same cluster
+of cavate ruins here described, but are more specially devoted to the
+more southern section of them, not considering, if I understand him,
+the northern row here described. I had also made extensive studies of
+the rooms figured by him previously to the publication of his article,
+but as my notes on these rooms are anticipated by his excellent memoir
+I have not considered the rooms described by him, but limited my
+account to brief mention of a neighboring row of chambers not
+described in his report.]
+
+[Footnote 15: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology_, vol. II,
+No. 1. All the Tusayan kivas with which I am familiar have this raised
+spectator's part at one end. The altars are always erected at the
+opposite end of the room, in which is likewise the hole in the floor
+called the _sipapû_, symbolic of the traditional opening through which
+races emerged to the earth's surface from an underworld. Banquettes
+exist in some Tusayan kivas; in others, however, they are wanting. The
+raised platform in dwelling rooms is commonly a sleeping place, above
+which blankets are hung and, in some instances, corn is stored. A
+small opening in the step often admits light to an otherwise dark
+granary below the floor. In no instance, however, are there more than
+one such platform, and that commonly partakes of the nature of another
+room, although seldom separated from the other chamber by a
+partition.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Counting from the point of the cliff shown in plate
+XCI_a_. The positions of the rooms are indicated by the row of
+entrances.]
+
+[Footnote 17: It was from this region that the individual chambers,
+described by Mindeleff, were chosen.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Mr Mindeleff, in his valuable memoir, has so completely
+described the cavate dwellings of the Rio Grande and San Juan regions
+that their discussion in this account would be superfluous.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See Mindeleff, Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,
+_American Anthropologist_, April, 1895. The suggestion that cliff
+outlooks were farming shelters in some instances is doubtless true,
+but I should hesitate giving this use a predominance over outlooks for
+security. In times of danger, naturally the agriculturist seeks a high
+or commanding position for a wide outlook; but to watch his crops he
+must camp among them.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ancient Dwellings of the Rio Verde Valley, Dr E. A.
+Mearns; _Popular Science Monthly_, vol. XXVII. Mindeleff, Aboriginal
+Remains in Verde Valley; Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of
+Ethnology.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Since the above lines were written Mr C. F. Lummis, who
+has made many well-known contributions to the ethnology and archeology
+of the Pueblo area, has published in _Land of Sunshine_ (Los Angeles,
+1895), a beautiful photographic illustration and an important
+description of this unique place.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations on Indians
+inhabiting Nevada, California, and Arizona, Tenth Annual Report of the
+Hayden Survey, p. 478; Washington, 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 23: The cliff houses of Bloody Basin I have not examined,
+but I suspect they are of the same type as the so-called Montezuma
+Castle, or Casa Montezuma, on the right bank of Beaver creek. The
+latter is referred to the cliff-house class, but it differs
+considerably from the ruins of the Red-rocks, on account of the
+character of the cavern in which it is built (see figure 246).]
+
+[Footnote 24: Fortified hilltops occur in many places in Arizona and
+are likewise found in the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua,
+where they are known as _trincheras_. They are regarded as places of
+refuge of former inhabitants of the country, contemporaneous with
+ancient pueblos and cliff houses.]
+
+[Footnote 25: This pinnacle is visible for miles, and is one of many
+prominences in the surrounding country. Unfortunately this region is
+so imperfectly surveyed that only approximations of distances are
+possible in this account, and the maps known to me are too meager in
+detail to fairly illustrate the distribution of these buttes.]
+
+[Footnote 26: In certain cavate houses on Oak creek we find these
+caverns in two tiers, one above the other, and the hill above is
+capped by a well-preserved building. In one of these we find the
+entrance to the cavern walled in, with the exception of a T-shape
+doorway and a small window. This chamber shows a connecting link
+between the type of true cavate dwellings and that of cliff-houses.]
+
+[Footnote 27: The absence of kivas in the ruins of the Verde has been
+commented on by Mindeleff, and has likewise been found to be
+characteristic of the cliff houses on the upper courses of the other
+tributaries of Gila and Salado rivers. The round kiva appears to be
+confined to the middle and eastern ruins of the pueblo area, and are
+very numerous in the ruins of San Juan valley.]
+
+[Footnote 28: See "Tusayan Totemic Signatures," _American
+Anthropologist_, Washington, January, 1897.]
+
+[Footnote 29: An exhaustive report on the ruins near Winslow, at the
+Sunset Crossing of the Little Colorado, will later be published. These
+ruins were the sites of my operations in the summer of 1896, and from
+them a very large collection of prehistoric objects was taken. The
+report will consider also the ruins at Chaves Pass, on the trail of
+migration used by the Hopi in prehistoric times in their visits, for
+barter and other purposes, to the Gila-Salado watershed.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Possibly the Shoshonean elements in Hopi linguistics are
+due to the Snake peoples, the early colonists who came from the north,
+where they may have been in contact with Paiute or other divisions of
+the Shoshonean stock. The consanguinity of this phratry may have been
+close to that of the Shoshonean tribes, as that of the Patki was to
+the Piman, or the Asa to the Tanoan. The present Hopi are a composite
+people, and it is yet to be demonstrated which stock predominates in
+them.]
+
+[Footnote 31: A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola;
+Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-87.]
+
+[Footnote 32: This account was copied from a copy made by the eminent
+scholar, A. F. Bandelier, for the archives of the Hemenway Expedition,
+now at the Peabody Museum, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Hano or "Tewa."]
+
+[Footnote 34: Sichomovi. In the manuscript report by Don José Cortez,
+who wrote of the northern provinces of Mexico, where he lived in 1799,
+Sichomovi is mentioned as a nameless village between Tanos (Hano) and
+Gualpi (Walpi), settled by colonists from the latter pueblo. One of
+the first references to this village by name was in a report by Indian
+Agent Calhoun (1850), where it is called Chemovi.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Mishoñinovi.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Shipaulovi.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Shuñopovi.]
+
+[Footnote 38: In 1896 I collected over a hundred beautiful specimens
+from this cemetery.]
+
+[Footnote 39: There lived in Walpi, years ago, an old woman, who
+related to a priest, who repeated the story to the writer, that when a
+little girl she remembered seeing the Payüpki people pass along the
+valley under Walpi when they returned to the Rio Grande. Her story is
+quite probable, for the lives of two aged persons could readily bridge
+the interval between that event and our own time.]
+
+[Footnote 40: "La Mission de N. Sra. de las Dolores de Zandia de
+Indios Teguas á Moqui."]
+
+[Footnote 41: See J. F. Meline, Two Thousand Miles on Horseback, 1867.
+Sandia, according to Bancroft, is not mentioned by Menchero in 1744,
+but Bonilla gave it a population of 400 Indians in 1749. In 1742 two
+friars visited Tusayan, and, it is said, brought out 441 apostate
+Tiguas, who were later settled in the old pueblo of Sandia.
+Considering, then, that Sandia was resettled in 1748, six years after
+this visit, and that the numbers so closely coincide, we have good
+evidence that Payüpki, in Tusayan, was abandoned about 1742. It is
+probable, from known evidence, that this pueblo was built somewhere
+between 1680 and 1690; so that the whole period of its occupancy was
+not far from fifty years.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Mindeleff mentions two other sites of Old Walpi--a mound
+near _Wala_, and one in the plain between Mishoñinovi and Walpi; but
+neither of these is large, although claimed as former sites of the
+early clans which later built the town on the terrace of East Mesa
+below Walpi. I have regarded Küchaptüvela as the ancient Walpi, but
+have no doubt that the Hopi emigrants had several temporary dwellings
+before they settled there.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Sometimes called Nüsaki, a corruption of "Missa ki,"
+Mass House, Mission. One of the beams of the old mission at Nüsaki or
+Kisakobi is in the roof of Pauwatiwa's house in the highest range of
+rooms of Walpi. This beam is nicely squared, and bears marks
+indicative of carving. There are also large planks in one of the kivas
+which were also probably from the church building, although no one has
+stated that they are. Pauwatiwa, however, declares that a legend has
+been handed down in his family that the above-mentioned rafter came
+from the mission.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,
+January 2, 1895, p. 441.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Thus in Castañeda's account we are told: "Farther off
+[near Cia?] was another large village where we found in the courtyards
+a great number of stone balls of the size of a leather bag, containing
+one arroba. They seem to have been cast with the aid of machines, and
+to have been employed in the destruction of the village." It is
+needless for me to say that I find no knowledge of such a machine in
+Tusayan!]
+
+[Footnote 46: The ceremonials attending to burial of the eagle, whose
+plumes are used in secret rites, have never been described, and
+nothing is known of the rites about the Eagle shrine at Tukinobi.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Recent Archeologic Find in Arizona, _American
+Anthropologist_, Washington, July, 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 48: For a previous description see the Preliminary Account,
+Smithsonian Report for 1895; also "Awatobi: An Archeological
+Verification of a Tusayan Legend," _American Anthropologist_,
+Washington, October, 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 49: This important ceremony celebrates the departure from
+the pueblos of ancestral gods called _katcinas_, and is one of the
+most popular in the ritual.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Pacheco-Cardenas, Colleccion de Documentos Inéditos, XV,
+122, 182.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Voyages, III, pp. 463, 470, 1600; reprint 1810.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Pacheco-Cardenas, Documentos Inéditos, op. cit., XVI,
+139.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Menologio Franciscano, 275; Teatro Mexicano, III, 321.]
+
+[Footnote 54: San Bernardino de Ahuatobi (Vetancurt, 1680); San
+Bernardo de Aguatuvi (Vargas, 1692). I find that the mission at Walpi
+was also mentioned by Vargas as dedicated to San Bernardino. The
+church at Oraibi was San Francisco de Oraybe and San Miguel. The
+mission at Shuñopovi was called San Bartolomé, San Bernardo, and San
+Bernabe.]
+
+[Footnote 55: This article was in type too early for a review of
+Dellenbaugh's identification of Cibola with a more southeasterly
+locality. His arguments bear some plausibility, but they are by no
+means decisive.]
+
+[Footnote 56: An exact translation by Winship of the copy of Castañeda
+in the Lenox Library was published in the Fourteenth Annual Report of
+the Bureau.]
+
+[Footnote 57: "At evening the chiefs asked that notices be written for
+them warning all white people to keep away from the mesa tomorrow, and
+these were set up by the night patrols in cleft wands on all the
+principal trails. At daybreak on the following morning the principal
+trails leading from the four cardinal points were 'closed' by
+sprinkling meal across them and laying on each a whitened elk horn.
+Anawita told the observer that in former times if any reckless person
+had the temerity to venture within this proscribed limit the Kwakwantû
+inevitably put him to death by decapitation and dismemberment."
+("Naacnaiya," _Journal of American Folk-lore_, vol. v, p. 201.) This
+appears to be the same way in which the Awatobians "closed" the trail
+to Tobar.]
+
+[Footnote 58: When the Flute people approach Walpi, as is biennially
+dramatized at the present time, "an assemblage of people there (at the
+entrance to the village) meet them, and just back of a line of meal
+drawn across the trail stood Winuta and Hoñyi," also two girls and a
+boy. After these Flute people are challenged and sing their songs the
+trail is opened, viz: "Alosaka drew the end of his _moñkohu_ along the
+line of meal, and Winuta rubbed off the remainder from the trail with
+his foot." "Walpi Flute Observance," _Journal of American Folk-lore_,
+vol. VII, p. 19.]
+
+[Footnote 59: This custom of sprinkling the trail with sacred meal is
+one of the most common in the Tusayan ritual. The gods approach and
+leave the pueblos along such lines, and no doubt the Awatobians
+regarded the horses of Espejo as supernatural beings and threw meal on
+the trail before them with the same thought in mind that they now
+sprinkle the trails with meal in all the great ceremonials in which
+personators of the gods approach the villages.]
+
+[Footnote 60: According to the reprint of 1891. In the reprint of 1810
+it appears as "Ahuato." I would suggest that possibly the error in
+giving the name of a pueblo to a chief may have arisen not from the
+copyist or printer, but from inability of the Spaniards and Hopi to
+understand each other. If you ask a Hopi Indian his name, nine times
+out of ten he will not tell you, and an interlocutor for a party of
+natives will almost invariably name the pueblos from which his
+comrades came.]
+
+[Footnote 61: This was possibly the expedition which P. Fr. Antonio
+(Alonzo?) made among the Hopi in 1628; however that may be, there is
+good evidence that Porras, after many difficulties, baptized several
+chiefs in 1629.]
+
+[Footnote 62: _Segunda Relacion de la grandiosa conversion que ha
+avido en el Nuevo Mexico. Embiada por el Padre Estev[=a] de Perea_,
+etc., 1633.]
+
+[Footnote 63: An earlier rumor was that the horses were
+anthropophagous.]
+
+[Footnote 64: As Vargas appears not to have entered Oraibi at this
+time he may have found it too hostile. Whether Frasquillo had yet
+arrived with his Tanos people and their booty is doubtful. The story
+of the migration to Tusayan of the Tanos under Frasquillo, the
+assassin of Fray Simón de Jesus, and the establishment there of a
+"kingdom" over which he ruled as king for thirty years, is a most
+interesting episode in Tusayan history. Many Tanos people arrived in
+several bands among the Hopi about 1700, but which of them were led by
+Frasquillo is not known to me.]
+
+[Footnote 65: "El templo acabo en llamas." At this time Awatobi was
+said to have 800 inhabitants.]
+
+[Footnote 66: At the present time one of the most bitter complaints
+which the Hopi have against the Spaniards is that they forcibly
+baptized the children of their people during the detested occupancy by
+the conquerors.]
+
+[Footnote 67: _Naacnaiya_ and _Wüwütcimti_ are the elaborate and
+abbreviated New-fire ceremonies now observed by four religious warrior
+societies, known as the _Tataukyamû_, _Wüwütcimtû_, _Aaltû_ and
+_Kwakwantû_. Both of these ceremonials, as now observed at Walpi, have
+elsewhere been described.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Obiit 1892. Shimo was chief of the Flute Society and
+"Governor" of Walpi.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Oldest woman of the Snake clan; mother of Kopeli, the
+Snake chief of Walpi; chief priestess of the Mamzráuti ceremony.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Vetancurt, Chronica, says that Aguatobi (Awatobi) had
+800 inhabitants and was converted by Padre Francisco de Porras. In
+1630 Benavides speaks of the Mokis as being rapidly converted. It
+would appear, if we rely on Vetancurt's figures, that Awatobi was not
+one of the largest villages of Tusayan in early times, for he ascribes
+1,200 to Walpi and 14,000 to Oraibi. The estimate of the population of
+Awatobi was doubtless nearer the truth than that of the other pueblos,
+and I greatly doubt if Oraibi ever had 14,000 people. Probably 1,400
+would be more nearly correct.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Architecture of Cibola and Tusayan, p. 225.]
+
+[Footnote 72: There are two fragments, one of which is large enough to
+show the size of the bell, which was made either in Mexico or in
+Spain. The smaller fragment was used for many years as a paint-grinder
+by a Walpi Indian priest.]
+
+[Footnote 73: See his Final Report, p. 372.]
+
+[Footnote 74: The only Awatobi name I know is that of a chief, Tapolo,
+which is not borne by any Hopi of my acquaintance (see page 603).]
+
+[Footnote 75: This explains the fact that the ruins in Tusayan, as a
+rule, have no signs of kivas, and the same appears to be true of the
+ruins of the pueblos on the Little Colorado and the Verde, in Tonto
+Basin, and other more southerly regions.]
+
+[Footnote 76: See Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology, vol.
+II.]
+
+[Footnote 77: "Las casas son de tres altos"--_Segunda Relacion_, p.
+580.]
+
+[Footnote 78: So far as our limited knowledge of the older ruins of
+Tusayan goes, we find that their inhabitants must have been as far
+removed from rude Shohonean nomads as their descendants are today. The
+settlement at the early site of Walpi is reported to have been made in
+very early times, some legends stating that it occurred at a period
+when the people were limited to one family--the Snake. The fragments
+of pottery which I have found in the mounds of that ancient habitation
+are as fine and as characteristic of Tusayan as that of Sikyatki or
+Awatobi. It is inferior to none in the whole pueblo area, and betrays
+long sedentary life of its makers before it was manufactured.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Journal of American Folk-lore, vol. v, No. xviii, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 80: There is a rude sketch of these two idols of _Alosaka_
+in the archives of the Hemenway Expedition. They represent figurines
+about 4 feet tall, with two horns on the head not unlike those of the
+Tewan clowns or gluttons called Paiakyamû. As so little is known of
+the Mishoñinovi ritual, the rites in which they are used are at
+present inexplicable.]
+
+[Footnote 81: See the ear-ornament of the mask shown in plate CVIII,
+of the Fifteenth Annual Report.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Similar "spouts" were found by Mindeleff at Awatobi, and
+a like use of them is suggested in his valuable memoir.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The Keresan people are called by the same name, Kawaika,
+which, as hitherto explained, is specially applied to the modern
+pueblo of Laguna.]
+
+[Footnote 84: The Asa people who came to Tusayan from the Rio Grande
+claim to have lived for a few generations in Tubka or Tségi (Chelly)
+canyon.]
+
+[Footnote 85: The pottery of ancient Cibola is practically identical
+with that of the ruined pueblos of the Colorado Chiquito, near
+Winslow, Arizona.]
+
+[Footnote 86: The specimens labeled "New Mexico" and "Arizona" are too
+vaguely classified to be of any service in this consideration. It is
+suggested that collectors carefully label their specimens with the
+exact locality in which they are found, giving care to their
+association and, when mortuary, to their position in the graves in
+relation to the skeletons.]
+
+[Footnote 87: I am informed by Mr F. W. Hodge that similar fragments
+were found by the Hemenway Expedition in 1888 in the prehistoric ruins
+of the Salado.]
+
+[Footnote 88: The head is round, with lateral appendages. The face is
+divided into two quadrants above, with chin blackened, and marked with
+zigzag lines, which are lacking in modern pictures. In the left hand
+the figure holds a rattle. The body is wanting, but the breast is
+decorated with rectangles.]
+
+[Footnote 89: A single metate of lava or malpais was excavated at
+Awatobi. This object must have had a long journey before it reached
+the village, since none of the material from which it was made is
+found within many miles of the ruin.]
+
+[Footnote 90: There are many fine pictographs, some of which are
+evidently ancient, on the cliffs of the Awatobi mesa. These are in no
+respect characteristic, and among them I have seen the _awata_ (bow),
+_honani_ (badger's paw), _tcüa_ (snake), and _omowûh_ (rain-cloud). On
+the side of the precipitous wall of the mesa south of the western
+mounds there is a row of small hemispherical depressions or pits, with
+a groove or line on one side. There is likewise, not far from this
+point, a realistic figure of a vulva, not very unlike the _asha_
+symbols on Thunder mountain, near Zuñi.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology_, vol. II,
+No. 1, p. 77.]
+
+[Footnote 92: In the expedition of 1896 there were found a large
+number of shell ornaments, which will be described in a forthcoming
+report of the operations during that year. See the preliminary account
+in the article "Pacific Coast Shells in Tusayan Ruins," _American
+Anthropologist_, December, 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 93: One of these bells was found in a grave at Chaves Pass
+during the field work of 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Bells made of clay are not rare in modern Tusayan
+villages, and while their form is different from that of the Awatobi
+specimen, and the size larger, there seems no reason to doubt the
+antiquity of the specimen from the ruin of Antelope mesa.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Many of the specimens in the well-known Keam collection,
+now in the Tusayan room of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, are
+undoubtedly from Sikyatki, and still more are from Awatobi. Since the
+beginning of my excavations at Sikyatki it has come to be a custom for
+the Hopi potters to dispose of, as Sikyatki ware, to unsuspecting
+white visitors, some of their modern objects of pottery. These
+fraudulent pieces are often very cleverly made.]
+
+[Footnote 96: Architecture of Tusayan and Cibola, op. cit., pp. 20,
+21.]
+
+[Footnote 97: These rooms I failed to find. One of the rocky knolls
+may be that called by me the "acropolis." The second knoll I cannot
+identify, unless it is the elevation in continuation of the same side
+toward the east. Possibly he confounded the ruin of Küküchomo with
+that of Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 98: The legends of the origin of Oraibi are imperfectly
+known, but it has been stated that the pueblo was founded by people
+from Old Shuñopovi. It seems much more likely, however, that our
+knowledge is too incomplete to accept this conclusion without more
+extended observations. The composition of the present inhabitants
+indicates amalgamation from several quarters, and neighboring ruins
+should be studied with this thought in mind.]
+
+[Footnote 99: It is distinctly stated that the Tanoan families whose
+descendants now inhabit Hano were not in Tusayan when Awatobi fell. To
+be sure they may have been sojourning in some valley east of the
+province, which, however, is not likely, since they were "invited" to
+East Mesa for the specific purpose of aiding the Hopi against northern
+nomads. Much probability attaches to a suggestion that they belonged
+to the emigrants mentioned by contemporary historians as leaving the
+Rio Grande on account of the unsettled condition of the country after
+the great rebellion of 1680.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The succession of priests is through the clan of the
+mother, so that commonly, as in the case of Katci, the nephew takes
+the place of the uncle at his death. Some instances, however, have
+come to my knowledge where, the clan having become extinct, a son has
+been elevated to the position made vacant by the death of a priest.
+The Kokop people at Walpi are vigorous, numbering 21 members if we
+include the Coyote and Wolf clans, the last mentioned of which may be
+descendants of the former inhabitants of Küküchomo, the twin ruins on
+the mesa above Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 101: In this census I have used also the apparently
+conservative statement of Vetancurt that there were 800 people in
+Awatobi at the end of the seventeenth century.]
+
+[Footnote 102: _Kanel_ = Spanish _carnero_, sheep; _ba_ = water,
+spring.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Wipo spring, a few miles northward from the eastern end
+of the mesa, would be an excellent site for a Government school. It is
+sufficiently convenient to the pueblos, has an abundant supply of
+potable water at all seasons, and cultivable fields in the
+neighborhood.]
+
+[Footnote 104: The boy who brought our drinking water from Kanelba
+could not be prevailed upon to visit it on the day of the snake hunt
+to the east in 1895, on the ground that no one not a member of the
+society should be seen there or take water from it at that time. This
+is probably a phase of the taboo of all work in the world-quarter in
+which the snake hunts occur, when the Snake priests are engaged in
+capturing these reptilian "elder brothers."]
+
+[Footnote 105: Tcino lives at Sichomovi, and in the Snake dance at
+Walpi formerly took the part of the old man who calls out the words,
+"_Awahaia_," etc. at the kisi, before the reptiles are carried about
+the plaza. These words are Keresan, and Tcino performed this part on
+account of his kinship. He owns the grove of peach trees because they
+are on land of his ancestors, a fact confirmatory of the belief that
+the people of Sikyatki came from the Rio Grande.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Nasyuñweve, who died a few years ago, formerly made the
+prayer-stick to Masauwûh, the Fire or Death god. This he did as one of
+the senior members of the Kokop or Firewood people, otherwise known as
+the Fire people, because they made fire with the fire-drill. On his
+death his place in the kiva was taken by Katci. Nasyuñweve was
+Intiwa's chief assistant in the Walpi _katcinas_, and wore the mask of
+Eototo in the ceremonials of the _Niman_. All this is significant, and
+coincides with the theory that _katcinas_ are incorporated in the
+Tusayan ritual, that Eototo is their form of Masauwûh, and that he is
+a god of fire, growth, and death, like his dreaded equivalent.]
+
+[Footnote 107: The Hano people call the Hopi _Koco_ or _Koso_; the
+Santa Clara (also Tewa) people call them _Khoso_, according to Hodge.]
+
+[Footnote 108: The replastering of kivas at Walpi takes place during
+the _Powamu_, an elaborate _katcina_ celebration. I have noticed that
+in this renovation of the kivas one corner, as a rule, is left
+unplastered, but have elicited no satisfactory explanation of this
+apparent oversight, which, no doubt, has significance. Someone,
+perhaps overimaginative, suggested to me that the unplastered corner
+was the same as the break in encircling lines on ancient pottery.]
+
+[Footnote 109: I was aided in making this plan by the late J. G.
+Owens, my former assistant in the field work of the Hemenway
+Expedition. It was prepared with a few simple instruments, and is not
+claimed to be accurate in all particulars.]
+
+[Footnote 110: The existence of these peach trees near Sikyatki
+suggests, of course, an abandonment of the neighboring pueblo in
+historic times, but I hardly think it outweighs other stronger proofs
+of antiquity.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The position of the cemeteries in ancient Tusayan ruins
+is by no means uniform. They are rarely situated far from the houses,
+and are sometimes just outside the walls. While the dead were seldom
+carried far from the village, a sandy locality was generally chosen
+and a grave excavated a few feet deep. Usually a few stones were
+placed on the surface of the ground over the burial place, evidently
+to protect the remains from prowling beasts.]
+
+[Footnote 112: The excavations at Homolobi in 1896 revealed two
+beautiful cups with braided handles and one where the clay strands are
+twisted.]
+
+[Footnote 113: The modern potters commonly adorn the ends of ladle
+handles with heads of different mythologic beings in their pantheon.
+The knob-head priest-clowns are favorite personages to represent,
+although even the Corn-maid and different _katcinas_ are also
+sometimes chosen for this purpose. The heads of various animals are
+likewise frequently found, some in artistic positions, others less
+so.]
+
+[Footnote 114: The clay ladles with perforated handles with which the
+modern Hopi sometimes drink are believed to be of late origin in
+Tusayan.]
+
+[Footnote 115: The oldest medicine bowls now in use ordinarily have
+handles and a terraced rim, but there are one or two important
+exceptions. In this connection it may be mentioned that, unlike the
+Zuñi, the Hopi never use a clay bowl with a basket-like handle for
+sacred meal, but always carry the meal in basket trays. This the
+priests claim is a very old practice, and so far as my observations go
+is confirmed by archeological evidence. The bowl with a basket-form
+handle is not found either in ancient or modern Tusayan.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Symbolism rather than realism was the controlling
+element of archaic decoration. Thus, while objects of beauty, like
+flowers and leaves, were rarely depicted, and human forms are most
+absurd caricatures, most careful attention was given to minute details
+of symbolism, or idealized animals unknown to the naturalist.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Certainly no more appropriate design could be chosen
+for the decoration of the inside of a food vessel than the head of the
+Corn-maid, and from our ideas of taste none less so than that of a
+lizard or bird. The freshness and absence of wear of many of the
+specimens of Sikyatki mortuary pottery raises the question whether
+they were ever in domestic use. Many evidently were thus employed, as
+the evidences of wear plainly indicate, but possibly some of the
+vessels were made for mortuary purposes, either at the time of the
+decease of a relative or at an earlier period.]
+
+[Footnote 118: The figure shown in plate CXXIX, _a_, was probably
+intended to represent the Corn-maid, or an Earth goddess of the
+Sikyatki pantheon. Although it differs widely in drawing from figures
+of Calako-mana on modern bowls, it bears a startling resemblance to
+the figure of the Germ goddess which appears on certain Tusayan
+altars.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Hopi legends recount how certain clans, especially
+those of Tanoan origin, lived in Tségi canyon and intermarried with
+the Navaho so extensively that it is said they temporarily forgot
+their own language. From this source may have sprung the numerous
+so-called Navaho _katcinas_, and the reciprocal influence on the
+Navaho cults was even greater.]
+
+[Footnote 120: These priests wear a close-fitting skullcap, with two
+long, banded horns made of leather, to the end of which corn husks are
+tied. For an extended description see _Journal of American Ethnology
+and Archĉology_, vol. II, No. 1, page 11.]
+
+[Footnote 121: The rarity of human figures on such kinds of pottery as
+are found in the oldest ruins would appear to indicate that
+decorations of this kind were a late development. No specimen of
+black-and-white ware on which pictures of human beings are present has
+yet been figured. The sequence of evolution in designs is believed to
+be (1) geometrical figures, (2) birds, (3) other animals, (4) human
+beings.]
+
+[Footnote 122: In some of the figurines used in connection with modern
+Hopi altars these whorls are represented by small wheels made of
+sticks radiating from a common juncture and connected by woolen yarn.]
+
+[Footnote 123: The natives of Cibola, according to Castañeda, "gather
+their hair over the two ears, making a frame which looks like an
+old-fashioned headdress." The Tusayan Pueblo maidens are the only
+Indians who now dress their hair in this way, although the custom is
+still kept up by men in certain sacred dances at Zuñi. The country
+women in Salamanca, Spain, do their hair up in two flat coils, one on
+each side of the forehead, a custom which Castañeda may have had in
+mind when he compared the Pueblo coiffure to an "old-fashioned
+headdress."]
+
+[Footnote 124: _American Anthropologist_, April, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 125: Troano and Cortesiano codices.]
+
+[Footnote 126: A _nakwákwoci_ is an individual prayer-string, and
+consists of one or more prescribed feathers tied to a cotton string.
+These prayer emblems are made in great numbers in every Tusayan
+ceremony.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The evidence afforded by this bowl would seem to show
+that the cult of the Corn-maid was a part of the mythology and ritual
+of Sikyatki. The elaborate figures of the rain-cloud, which are so
+prominent in representations of the Corn-maid on modern plaques,
+bowls, and dolls, are not found in the Sikyatki picture.]
+
+[Footnote 128: The reason for my belief that this is a breath feather
+will be shown under the discussion of feather and bird pictures.]
+
+[Footnote 129: For the outline of this legend see _Journal of American
+Ethnology and Archĉology_, vol. IV. The maid is there called the
+Tcüa-mana or Snake-maid, a sacerdotal society name for the Germ
+goddess. The same personage is alluded to under many different names,
+depending on the society, but they are all believed to refer to the
+same mythic concept.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The attitude of the male and female here depicted was
+not regarded as obscene; on the contrary, to the ancient Sikyatki mind
+the picture had a deep religious meaning. In Hopi ideas the male is a
+symbol of active generative power, the female of passive reproduction,
+and representations of these two form essential elements of the
+ancient pictorial and graven art of that people.]
+
+[Footnote 131: The doll of Kokopeli has along, bird-like beak,
+generally a rosette on the side of the head, a hump on the back, and
+an enormous penis. It is a phallic deity, and appears in certain
+ceremonials which need not here be described. During the excavations
+at Sikyatki one of the Indians called my attention to a large Dipteran
+insect which he called "Kokopeli."]
+
+[Footnote 132: The practice still exists at Zuñi, I am told, and there
+is no sign of its becoming extinct. It is said that old Naiutci, the
+chief of the Priesthood of the Bow, was permanently injured during one
+of these performances. (Since the above lines were written I have
+excavated from one of the ruins on the Little Colorado a specimen of
+one of these objects used by ancient stick-swallowers. It is made of
+bone, and its use was explained to me by a reliable informant familiar
+with the practices of Oraibi and other villagers. It is my intention
+to figure and describe this ancient object in the account of the
+explorations of 1896.)]
+
+[Footnote 133: "Tusayan Katcinas," Fifteenth Annual Report of the
+Bureau of Ethnology, 1893-94, Washington, 1897. Hewüqti is also called
+Soyokmana, a Keresan-Hopi name meaning the Natacka-maid. The Keresan
+(Sia) Skoyo are cannibal giants, according to Mrs Stevenson, an
+admirable definition of the Hopi Natackas.]
+
+[Footnote 134: The celebration occurs in the modern Tusayan pueblos in
+the _Powamû_ where the representative of Calako flogs the children.
+Calako's picture is found on the _Powamû_ altars of several of the
+villages of the Hopi.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Figures of the human hand have been found on the walls
+of cliff houses. These were apparently made in somewhat the same way
+as that on the above bowl, the hand being placed on the surface and
+pigment spattered about it. See "The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,"
+by Cosmos Mindeleff; Sixteenth Annual Report, 1894-95.]
+
+[Footnote 136: Mu^{r}yi, mole or gopher; mu^{r}iyawû, moon. There
+maybe some Hopi legend connecting the gopher with the moon, but thus
+far it has eluded my studies, and I can at present do no more than
+call attention to what appears to be an interesting etymological
+coincidence.]
+
+[Footnote 137: This form of mouth I have found in pictures of
+quadrupeds, birds, and insects, and is believed to be
+conventionalized. Of a somewhat similar structure are the mouths of
+the _Natacka_ monsters which appear in the Walpi _Powamû_ ceremony.
+See the memoir on "Tusayan Katcinas," in the Fifteenth Annual Report.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Figures of the tadpole and frog are often found on
+modern medicine bowls in Tusayan. The snake, so common on Zuñi
+ceremonial pottery, has not been seen by me on a single object of
+earthenware in use in modern Hopi ritual.]
+
+[Footnote 139: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology_, vol.
+IV.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Although made of beautiful yellow ware, it shows at one
+point marks of having been overheated in firing, as is often the case
+with larger vases and jars.]
+
+[Footnote 141: One of the best examples of the rectangular or ancient
+type of medicine bowl is used in the celebration of the Snake dance at
+Oraibi, where it stands on the rear margin of the altar of the
+Antelope priesthood of that pueblo.]
+
+[Footnote 142: One of the best of these is that of the Humis-katcina,
+but good examples occur on the dolls of the Calakomanas. The Lakone
+maid, however, wears a coronet of circular rain-cloud symbols, which
+corresponds with traditions which recount that this form was
+introduced by the southern clans or the Patki people.]
+
+[Footnote 143: In the evolution of ornament among the Hopi, as among
+most primitive peoples where new designs have replaced the old, the
+meaning of the ancient symbols has been lost. Consequently we are
+forced to adopt comparative methods to decipher them. If, for
+instance, on a fragment of ancient pottery we find the figure of a
+bird in which the wing or tail feathers have a certain characteristic
+symbol form, we are justified, when we find the same symbolic design
+on another fragment where the rest of the bird is wanting, in
+considering the figure that of a wing or tail feather. So when the
+prescribed figure of the feather has been replaced by another form it
+is not surprising to find it incomprehensible to modern shamans. The
+comparative ethnologist may in this way learn the meanings of symbols
+to which the modern Hopi priest can furnish no clue.]
+
+[Footnote 144: In an examination of many figures of ancient vessels
+where this peculiar design occurs it will be found that in all
+instances they represent feathers, although the remainder of the bird
+is not to be found. The same may also be said of the design which
+represents the tail-feathers. This way of representing feathers is not
+without modern survival, for it may still be seen in many dolls of
+mystic personages who are reputed to have worn feathered garments.]
+
+[Footnote 145: At the present time the circle is the totemic signature
+of the Earth people, representing the horizon, but it has likewise
+various other meanings. With certain appendages it is the disk of the
+sun--and there are ceremonial paraphernalia, as amulets, placed on
+sand pictures or tied to helmets, which may be represented by a simple
+ring. The meaning of these circles in the bowl referred to above is
+not clear to me, nor is my series of pictographs sufficiently
+extensive to enable a discovery of its significance by comparative
+methods. A ring of meal sometimes drawn on the floor of a kiva is
+called a "house," and a little imagination would easily identify these
+with the mythic houses of the sky-bird, but this interpretation is at
+present only fanciful.]
+
+[Footnote 146: The _paho_ is probably a substitution of a sacrifice of
+corn or meal given as homage to the god addressed.]
+
+[Footnote 147: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology_, vol.
+IV. These water gourds figure conspicuously in many ceremonies of the
+Tusayan ritual. The two girls personating the Corn-maids carry them in
+the Flute observance, and each of the Antelope priests at Oraibi bears
+one of these in the Antelope or Corn dance.]
+
+[Footnote 148: "A few Tusayan Pictographs;" _American Anthropologist_,
+Washington, January, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 149: A beautiful example of this kind was found at Homolobi
+in the summer of 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 150: In this connection the reader is referred to the story,
+already told in former pages of this memoir, concerning the flogging
+of the youth by the husband of the two women who brought the Hopi the
+seeds of corn. It may be mentioned as corroboratory evidence that
+Calako-taka represents a supernatural sun-bird, that the Tataukyamû
+priests carry a shield with Tunwup (Calako-taka) upon it in the
+Soyaluña. These priests, as shown by the etymology of their name, are
+associated with the sun. In the Sun drama, or Calako ceremony, in
+July, Calako-takas are personated, and at Zuñi the Shalako is a great
+winter sun ceremony.]
+
+[Footnote 151: _American Anthropologist_, April, 1895, p. 133. As
+these cross-shape pahos which are now made in Tusayan are attributed
+to the Kawaika or Keres group of Indians, and as they were seen at the
+Keresan pueblo of Acoma in 1540, it is probable that they are
+derivative among the Hopi; but simple cross decorations on ancient
+pottery were probably autochthonous.]
+
+[Footnote 152: In dolls of the Corn-maids this germinative symbol is
+often found made of wood and mounted on an elaborate tablet
+representing rain-clouds.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Many similarities might be mentioned between the
+terraced figures used in decoration in Old Mexico and in ancient
+Tusayan pottery, but I will refer to but a single instance, that of
+the stuccoed walls of Mitla, Oaxaca, and Teotitlan del Valle. Many
+designs from these ruins are gathered together for comparative
+purposes by that eminent Mexicanist, Dr E. Seler, in his beautiful
+memoir on Mitla (_Wandmalereien von Mitla_, plate X). In this plate
+exact counterparts of many geometric patterns on Sikyatki pottery
+appear, and even the broken spiral is beautifully represented. There
+are key patterns and terraced figures in stucco on monuments of
+Central America identical with the figures on pottery from Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 154: This pillar, so conspicuous in all photographs of
+Walpi, is commonly called the Snake rock.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _American Anthropologist_, April, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 156: I failed to find out how the Hopi regard fossils.]
+
+[Footnote 157: These objects were eagerly sought by the Hopi women who
+visited the camps at Awatobi and Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 158: The tubular form of pipe was almost universal in the
+pueblo area, and I have deposited in the National Museum pipes of this
+kind from several ruins in the Rio Grande valley.]
+
+[Footnote 159: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology_, vol.
+IV, pp. 31, 32, 33.]
+
+[Footnote 160: This form of pipe occurs over the whole pueblo area.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Ancient cigarette reeds, found in sacrificial caves,
+have a small fragment of woven fabric tied about them.]
+
+[Footnote 162: The so-called "implements of wood" figured by
+Nordenskiöld ("The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde," plate XLII) are
+identical with some of the pahos from Sikyatki, and are undoubtedly
+prayer-sticks.]
+
+[Footnote 163: Primitive Culture, vol. ii, p. 396.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Journal of American Ethnology and Archĉology, Vol.
+_ii_, p. 131.]
+
+[Footnote 165: _American Anthropologist_, July, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 166: As stated in former pages, there is some paleographic
+evidence looking in that direction.]
+
+[Footnote 167: _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. V, no. xviii, p.
+213.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Op. cit., p. 214.]
+
+[Footnote 169: They failed to germinate.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+The following list introduces the numbers by which the specimens
+illustrated in this memoir are designated in the catalog of the United
+States National Museum. Each specimen is also marked with a field
+catalog number, the locality in which it was found, and the name of
+the collector:
+
+    PLATE
+     CXI. _a_, 155895; _b_, 155897; _c_, 155898; _d_, 155896; _e_, 155900;
+          _f_, 155916.
+
+    CXII. _a_, 155875; _b_, 155996; _c_, 155902; _d_, 155996; _e_, 155997.
+
+   CXIII. _a_, 155992; _b_, 155913; _c_, 155991; _d_, 155994; _e_, 155993.
+
+    CXIV. _a_-_g_, 156018; _h_, 156131; _i_, 156091; _j_, 156018.
+
+    CXIX. _a_, 155806; _b_, 155841; _c_, 155832; _d_, 155678; _e_, 155820;
+          _f_, 155838.
+
+     CXX. _a_, 155867; _b_, 155866; _c_, 155871; _d_, 155856; _e_, 155861;
+          _f_, 155460.
+
+    CXXI. _a_, 155694; _b_, 155698; _c_, 155719.
+
+   CXXII. _a_, 155702; _b_, 155684; _c_, 155688.
+
+  CXXIII. _a_, 155711; _b_, 155703; _c_, 155707; _d_, 155673.
+
+   CXXIV. _a_, 155674; _b_, 155683.
+
+    CXXV. _a_, 155750; _b_, 155753; _c_, 155751; _d_, 155752; _e_, 155749;
+          _f_, 155747.
+
+   CXXVI. _a_, 155700; _b_, 155682.
+
+  CXXVII. _a_, 155718; _b_, 155714; _c_, 155723; _d_, 155691.
+
+ CXXVIII. _a_, 155745; _b_, 155744; _c_, 155746; _d_, 155735; _e_, 155734;
+          _f_, 155733; _g_, 155736.
+
+   CXXIX. _a_, 155467; _b_, 155462; _c_, 155463; _d_, 155464; _e_, 155466;
+          _f_, 155465.
+
+    CXXX. _a_, 155474; _b_, 155475; _c_, 155477; _d_, 155484; _e_, 155473;
+          _f_, 155476.
+
+   CXXXI. _a_, 155758; _b_, 155773; _c_, 155768; _d_, 155771; _e_, 155546;
+          _f_ 155764.
+
+  CXXXII. _a_, 155482; _b_, 155483; _c_, 155481; _d_, 155480; _e_, 155479;
+          _f_, 155485.
+
+ CXXXIII. _a_, 155614; _b_, 155757; _c_, 155502; _d_, 155772; _e_, 155758;
+          _f_, 155781.
+
+  CXXXIV. _a_, 155570; _b_, 155597; _c_, 155567; _d_, 155507; _e_, 155575;
+          _f_, 155505.
+
+   CXXXV. _a_, 155692; _b_, 155681.
+
+  CXXXVI. _a_, 155687; _b_, 155737; _c_, 155695.
+
+ CXXXVII. _a_, 155488; _b_, 155450; _c_, 155468; _d_, 155732; _e_, 155776;
+          _f_, 155740.
+
+CXXXVIII. _a_, 155498; _b_, 155490; _c_, 155492; _d_, 155500; _e_, 155499;
+          _f_, 155494.
+
+  CXXXIX. _a_, 155524; _b_, 155528; _c_, 155491; _d_, 155523; _e_, 155527;
+          _f_, 155522.
+
+     CXL. _a_, 155529; _b_, 155489; _c_, 155540; _d_, 155541; _e_, 155606;
+          _f_, 155410.
+
+    CXLI. _a_, 155501; _b_, 155503; _c_, 155509; _d_, 155511; _e_, 155510;
+          _f_, 155512.
+
+   CXLII. _a_, 155712; _b_, 155693; _c_, 155756; _d_, 155636; _e_, 155697.
+
+  CXLIII. _a_, _b_, 155690.
+
+   CXLIV. _a_, _b_, 155689.
+
+    CXLV. _a_, 155717; _b_, 155696.
+
+   CXLVI. _a_, 155538; _b_, 155508; _c_, 155802; _d_, 155537; _e_, 155487;
+          _f_, 155653.
+
+  CXLVII. _a_, 155493; _b_, 155497; _c_, 155602; _d_, 155504; _e_, 155608;
+          _f_, 155495.
+
+ CXLVIII. _a_, 155556; _b_, 155408; _c_, 155545; _d_, 155548; _e_, 155544;
+          _f_, 155542.
+
+   CXLIX. _a_, 155554; _b_, 155549; _c_, 155573; _d_, 155607; _e_, 155572;
+          _f_, 155581.
+
+      CL. _a_, 155565; _b_, 155519; _c_, 155518; _d_, 155569; _e_, 155551;
+          _f_, 155574.
+
+     CLI. _a_, 155535; _b_, 155532; _c_, 155539; _d_, 155526; _e_, 155613;
+          _f_, 155615.
+
+    CLII. _a_, 155555; _b_, 155547; _c_, 155571; _d_, 155553; _e_, 155536;
+          _f_, 155521.
+
+   CLIII. _a_, 155558; _b_, 155564.
+
+    CLIV. _a_, 155560; _b_, 155568.
+
+     CLV. _a_, 155543; _b_, 155557.
+
+    CLVI. _a_, 155562; _b_, 155561; _c_, 155562; _d_, 155796; _e_, 155601;
+          _f_, 155588.
+
+   CLVII. _a_, 155531; _b_, 155530; _c_, 155525; _d_, 155585; _e_, 155563;
+          _f_, 155552.
+
+  CLVIII. _a_, 155628; _b_, 155742; _c_, 155632; _d_, 155633; _e_, 155587;
+          _f_, 155634.
+
+    CLIX. _a_, 155583; _b_, 155598; _c_, 155516; _d_, 155629; _e_, 155590;
+          _f_, 155520.
+
+     CLX. _a_, 155577; _b_, 155576; _c_, 155622; _d_, 155594; _e_, 155647;
+          _f_, 155654.
+
+    CLXI. _a_, 155642; _b_, 155506; _c_, 155517; _d_, 155472; _e_, 155589;
+          _f_, 155600.
+
+   CLXII. _a_, 155637; _b_, 155618; _c_, 155643; _d_, 155621; _e_, 155534;
+          _f_, 155533.
+
+  CLXIII. _a_, 155611; _b_, 155612.
+
+   CLXIV. _a_, 155610; _b_, 155609.
+
+    CLXV. _a_, 155593; _b_, 155592.
+
+   CLXVI. _a_, 155641; _b_, 155616; _c_, 155617; _d_, 155619; _e_, 155584;
+          _f_, 155640.
+
+  CLXVII. _a_, 155877; _b_, 155878; _c_, 155892; _d_, 155882; _e_, 155890;
+          _f_, 155881.
+
+ CLXVIII. _a_, 155876; _b_, 155891; _c_, 155884; _d_, 155914; _e_, 155940;
+          _f_, 155880.
+
+   CLXIX. _a_, 156095; _b_, 156098; _c_, 156175; _d_, 156174; _e_, 156154;
+          _f_, 156065.
+
+    CLXX. _a_, _b_, 156227.
+
+   CLXXI. _a_, 156270; _b_, _c_, 156303; _e_, 156199; _f_, 156043.
+
+  CLXXII. _a_, 156042; _b_, 156169; _c_, 156169; _d_, 156170; _e_, 156184;
+          _f_, 156164.
+
+ CLXXIII. _a_, 155999; _b_, 155154; _c_, 156128; _d_, 156131;
+          _e_, _f_, 1561?0; _g_, 156010; _h-l_, 156130.
+
+  CLXXIV. _a_, 156191; _b_, _c_, 156183; _d_, 156185; _e-g_, 156183;
+          _h-j_, 156194; _k_, 156180; _l_, _m_, 156191; _n_, 156182.
+
+   CLXXV. _o_, 156188; _p_, 156185; _q_, 156191; _r_, 156186; _s_, 156180;
+          _t_, 156188; _u_, 156181; _v_, 156179; _w_, 156187.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ACROPOLIS of Sikyatki 638, 640, 643-646
+ADOBE plastering in cavate houses 542
+  [ADOBE], _see_ MASONRY, PLASTERING.
+AGAVE fiber used in Tusayan 629, 630
+AGUATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATOBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATUVÍ, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATUYA, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATUYBÁ, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUITOBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATOBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATU, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATUYBA, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AH-WAT-TENNA an Awatobi synonym 594
+ALOSAKA idols in Awatobi shrine 619
+ANAWITA, traditional information given by 595
+ANCESTOR worship at Sikyatki 732
+ANTELOPE VALLEY, _see_ JEDITOH VALLEY.
+APACHE depredation in Tusayan 585
+  [APACHE], late appearance of, at Tusayan 581
+  [APACHE] occupancy of Verde ruins 550, 565, 570
+  [APACHE] pictographs in Verde valley 550, 556, 567, 568
+AQUATASI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AQUATUBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ARCHEOLOGICAL expedition to Arizona, 1895 519-744
+ARIZONA, archeological expedition to, 1895 519-744
+  [ARIZONA], _see_ NAVAHO.
+ARROWHEAD KILT worn by man-eagle 692-693
+ARROWHEADS from Awatobi 618, 625
+  [ARROWHEADS] in Sikyatki graves 731, 740
+ARROWSHAFT POLISHERS from Awatobi 611, 731
+[  ARROWSHAFT POLISHERS] in Sikyatki graves 731
+ART REMAINS in Palatki and Honanki 569
+ASA PEOPLE join the Hopi 578
+  [ASA PEOPLE], migration of 622
+  [ASA PEOPLE] settle at Sichomovi 578
+ASH-HEAP PUEBLO, former site of Walpi 635
+ATABI-HOGANDI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AUA-TU-UI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+A-WA-TE-U, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AWATOBI and Sikyatki pottery compared 659
+  [AWATOBI], arrowshaft polishers from 611, 731
+  [AWATOBI], etymology of 594
+  [AWATOBI], legend of destruction of 602
+  [AWATOBI], population of 637
+  [AWATOBI], reasons for excavating 591
+  [AWATOBI] ruin discussed 592-631
+  [AWATOBI] ruin examined 535
+  [AWATOBI], settlement of Sikyatki people at 634
+  [AWATOBI] settled by Küküchomo and Sikyatki people 589
+  [AWATOBI] visited in 1540 596
+AWATÛBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+Á-WAT-U-I, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AWLS, bone, from Awatobi 627
+AXES, stone, in Sikyatki graves 730, 731
+  [AXES] from Awatobi 625
+
+BADGER PEOPLE settle Sichomovi 578
+BAER, ERWIN, with archeological expedition in 1895 527
+BANCROFT, H. H., on destruction of Awatobi 601
+BANDELIER, A. F., Cibola identified by 595
+  [BANDELIER, A. F.], on record of Awatobi destruction 610
+BAPTISM opposed by the Hopi 601
+BASINS, _see_ POTTERY.
+BASKETRY found in Honanki 572
+  [BASKETRY] not found at Sikyatki 649
+BAT-HOUSE, ruin of the 590
+BEADS from Awatobi 628
+  [BEADS] in Sikyatki graves 733
+BEAMS of mission in Walpi houses 586
+  [BEAMS] of Palatki ruin 557
+BEAN-PLANTING ceremony of the Hopi 702
+BEAR CLANS, early arrival of, at Tusayan 582
+BELL, clay, from Awatobi 628
+  [BELL], copper fragments of, from Awatobi 609, 631
+  [BELL] used in Hopi ceremony 628
+BERRIES in Sikyatki graves 733
+BESSELS, EMIL, on affinity of cliff-dwellers and pueblos 532
+BICKFORD, F. D., on cliff houses in Walnut canyon 532
+BIRD figures on Hopi pottery 660
+  [BIRD] figures on Sikyatki pottery 658, 682-698, 714
+  [BIRD] ornaments from Awatobi 628
+  [BIRD] ornaments in Sikyatki graves 733
+  [BIRD] vessels from Awatobi 624
+BLOODY BASIN, cliff houses of 549
+BODKINS, bone, from Awatobi 627
+BONE BEADS from Honanki 573
+  [BONE BEADS] in Sikyatki graves 733
+BONE OBJECTS from Awatobi 627, 628
+  [BONE OBJECTS], from Honanki 572
+BONILLA, --, on Sandia population in 1749 584
+BOURKE, J. G., identifies Tally-hogan with Awatobi 602
+BOWLS, Sikyatki, decorations on 705
+  [BOWLS], _see_ POTTERY.
+BOXES, earthenware, from Sikyatki 655
+BRACELETS from Awatobi 628
+BUTTERFLY figures on Sikyatki pottery. 678-680, 698
+  [BUTTERFLY] symbol on Hopi pottery 687
+
+CALAKO in Hopi mythology 700
+  [CALAKO] katcina, origin of 666
+CAMPBELL, GEO., cliff houses discovered by 533
+CAMP VERDE, ruins near 534
+CARDENAS, G. L., visits Tusayan in 1540 595
+CARDINAL POINTS in Hopi ceremony 613, 628, 678
+CASA GRANDE ascribed to the Hopi 531
+CASA MONTEZUMA, _see_ MONTEZUMA CASTLE.
+CASAS GRANDES, pottery from 624
+CASTEÑEDA, P. DE, account of Tusayan 596
+  [CASTEÑEDA, P. DE] on Cibola hair-dressing 661
+  [CASTEÑEDA, P. DE] on early pueblo warfare 588
+  [CASTEÑEDA, P. DE] on Hopi fabrics 629
+  [CASTEÑEDA, P. DE] on pueblo kivas in 1540 575
+  [CASTEÑEDA, P. DE] on visit to Tusayan in 1540 596, 597
+CAVATE DWELLINGS, function of 544
+  [CAVATE DWELLINGS] in Verde valley discussed 536, 537-545
+CEMETERIES of Sikyatki 646-649
+CEMETERY of Awatobi 593, 618
+CEREMONIAL CIRCUIT of the Hopi 681
+CHAIRS tabooed in Hopi kivas 626
+CHARM STONES from Sikyatki 729
+CHAVERO, A., on Nahuatl water symbol 569
+CHAVES PASS, ruins at 532, 573
+CHELLY CANYON, cliff houses in 578
+  [CHELLY CANYON], _see_ TSÉGI.
+CHIMNEYS, absence of, at Sikyatki 646
+CHUKUBI, ruin of, discussed 583
+CIBOLA, identification of 595
+  [CIBOLA], _see_ ZUÑI.
+CIGARETTES of reeds in sacrificial caves 736
+  [CIGARETTES] in Hopi ceremony 735
+CINDER CONES, ruins in 532
+CIRCULAR RUINS absent in southern pueblo area 576
+CIST in Awatobi kiva 612
+  [CIST] in cavate lodges 542
+  [CIST] near cavate houses 543
+CLANS formerly occupying Sikyatki 636
+  [CLANS] of Awatobi 610
+  [CLANS] of Küküchomo and Sikyatki 587, 588
+CLIFF DWELLERS defined 531
+CLIFF HOUSES, age of, in Red-rocks 545
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] and pueblos similar 537
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] formerly occupied by Hopi 578
+  [CLIFF HOUSES], human hand figures on 668
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] in Walnut canyon 532
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] of the Red-rocks 548, 549
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] of Verde valley classified 536
+CLIFF PALACE and Honanki compared 552
+CLIFF'S RANCH, pictographs near 548
+CLOUD, _see_ RAINCLOUD.
+CLOWN-PRIEST figures on Hopi pottery 659
+COLANDER fragments from Tusayan ruins 624
+COMUPAVÍ identified with Shuñopovi 599
+CONCEPCION, CRISTOVAL DE LA, at founding of Awatobi mission 599
+COPPER found in Awatobi 608, 609, 631
+  [COPPER] bells in Arizona ruins 628, 629
+  [COPPER] unknown to ancient Tusayan 741
+CORN attached to prayer-sticks 739
+  [CORN] found in Awatobi 606, 619
+  [CORN] found in Honanki 572
+  [CORN], Hopi symbolism of 662
+  [CORN] in Hopi ceremony 628
+  [CORN], sweet, introduced in Mishoñinovi 604
+CORN-MAID dolls of the Hopi 704
+  [CORN-MAID] figures of the Hopi 661
+  [CORN-MAID] figures on Hopi pottery 657, 658, 662
+CORN MOUND, symbolic 740
+CORN POLLEN in Hopi ceremony 628
+CORNADO, F. V. DE, route of 530
+COSMOGONY of the Hopi 647, 666, 732
+COTTON cultivated by the Hopi 596, 629
+  [COTTON] fabrics in Verde ruins 573
+  [COTTON] garments of the Hopi 599
+COVILLE, F. V., on identification of ancient food remains 741-742
+CREMATION not practiced at Sikyatki 649
+CROOKS in Tusayan ritual 703
+  [CROOKS] on Sikyatki pottery 703-704, 714, 724
+CROSS figure allied to sun symbol 623
+  [CROSS] on Sikyatki pottery 702
+CRYSTAL, _see_ QUARTZ CRYSTAL.
+CUANRABI mentioned by Oñate 599
+CUPS from Sikyatki described 654
+  [CUPS], _see_ POTTERY.
+CUSHING, F. H., on affinity of cliff dwellers and pueblos 532
+  [CUSHING, F. H.], on southern origin of Zuñi clans 574
+  [CUSHING, F. H.], ruins visited by 534
+
+DECORATION of Awatobi pottery 623, 624-625
+  [DECORATION] of Honanki pottery 570, 571
+  [DECORATION] of ladle handles 624
+  [DECORATION] of pottery by spattering 650, 668, 671, 677
+  [DECORATION] of Sikyatki pottery 650, 652, 655, 657-728
+DELLENBAUGH, F. S., on identification of Cibola 595
+DIPPERS from Awatobi described 624
+  [DIPPERS], _see_ POTTERY.
+DOLLS, Corn-maid, of the Hopi 704
+DOMESTIC ANIMALS of the Hopi 731
+DOORWAYS of cavate houses 543, 552
+DRAGONFLY symbolic of rain 630
+  [DRAGONFLY] symbol on pottery 669, 680-682
+DRILL balances from Sikyatki graves 740
+
+EAGLE PLUMES in Hopi rites 589
+EAGLE SHRINE at Tukinobi 589
+EAGLES kept by the Hopi 731
+EAST MESA, ruins at 581, 585
+ESPEJO, ANTONIO, Awatobi referred to by 596, 599
+  [ESPEJO, ANTONIO], Awatobi visited by 594
+  [ESPEJO, ANTONIO], on Hopi fabrics 629
+  [ESPEJO, ANTONIO], visits Tusayan in 1583 598
+ESPELETA, an Oraibi chief 601
+  [ESPELETA], visits Santa Fé 601, 602
+ESPELETA, JOSÉ, killed at Oraibi 600
+ESPERIEZ mentioned by Oñate 599
+ESTUFA, _see_ KIVA.
+
+FABRICS, _see_ TEXTILE.
+FEATHER fabrics from Sikyatki 629
+  [FEATHER] symbols on Hopi pottery 663
+  [FEATHER] symbols on Sikyatki pottery 658, 682-698, 714, 723, 724
+FEATHERED STRINGS represented on pottery 662
+FEATHERS on prayer-sticks 739
+FETISH, mountain lion, from Awatobi 618
+  [FETISH], mountain lion, from Sikyatki 730
+  [FETISH], personal, from Sikyatki 729
+FEWKES, J. W., on archeological expedition to Arizona, 1895 519-744
+FIGUEROA, JOSÉ, killed at Awatobi 600
+FIRE, Hopi purification by 647
+  [FIRE], _see_ NEW-FIRE CEREMONY.
+FIRE-HOUSE, ancient occupancy of 633
+  [FIRE-HOUSE] ruin of Tusayan 590, 633
+FIREPLACES in cavate dwellings 641
+FIREWOOD PEOPLE at Sikyatki 632, 633, 640, 646
+  [FIREWOOD PEOPLE] of Tusayan 672
+FLAGSTAFF, cliff houses near 533
+FLOWER FIGURE on Hopi pottery 697
+  [FLOWER FIGURE] on Sikyatki pottery 658, 680
+FLOWERS, _see_ VEGETAL DESIGNS.
+FLUTE CEREMONY not performed in kiva 575, 612
+  [FLUTE CEREMONY], trails closed during 597
+FLUTE-LIKE OBJECTS from Awatobi 624
+  [FLUTE-LIKE OBJECTS] from Sikyatki 656
+FLUTE SOCIETY, prayer-sticks of the 737
+FOOD REMAINS in mortuary vessels 741
+FOSSILS used in Hopi ceremony 730
+FRASQUILLO, flight of Tanoan refugees under 578, 600
+FROG figures on Sikyatki pottery 658
+  [FROG] figures on Tusayan bowls 677
+
+GARAYCOECHEA, JUAN, Awatobi visited by 600
+  [GARAYCOECHEA, JUAN], missionary labors of 601
+GARDENS, modern, at Sikyatki 646
+GENESIS, _see_ COSMOGONY.
+GEOMETRIC figures on Sikyatki pottery 701-705
+GERMINATIVE symbol on Sikyatki pottery 704
+GODDARD, S., with archeological expedition in 1895 527
+GOD OF DEATH of the Hopi 641
+GOODE, G. BROWN, acknowledgments to 528
+GORGETS in Sikyatki graves 733
+GUTIERREZ, ANDRES, at founding of Awatobi mission 599
+
+HAIR, human, woven by the Hopi 630
+HAIRDRESSING of the Hopi 661, 663
+HANCE'S RANCH, pictograph bowlder near 545
+HAND figures on Sikyatki pottery 666-668, 728
+HANO compared with Walpi 642
+  [HANO] in 1782 579
+  [HANO], when established 636
+HAVASUPAI, cliff dwellings occupied by 533
+HEART represented in animal figures 673
+HEMATITE fetish from Sikyatki 730
+HEMENWAY, MARY, Kawaika pottery purchased by 590
+HÉ-SHÓTA-PATHL-TÂ[)I]E, Zuñi name of Kintiel 534
+HODGE, F. W., acknowledgments to 527
+  [HODGE, F. W.] on colander fragments from Salado ruins 624
+  [HODGE, F. W.] on recent advent of the Navaho 658
+  [HODGE, F. W.], Sikyatki excavation aided by 648
+HODGE, _Mrs_ M. W., acknowledgments to 527
+HOFFMAN, W. J., on ruins at Montezuma Well 546
+HOLBROOK, ruins near 533
+HOLGUIN, _Capt_., Payüpki attacked by 583
+HOLMES, W. H., on evolution of pottery designs 715, 716, 727
+HOMOLOBI, location of 532
+HONANKI, art remains found at 569
+  [HONANKI], origin of name 553, 559
+  [HONANKI], discovery of ruin of 534, 551
+  [HONANKI] ruin discussed 558-569
+HOPI, abandonment of villages by 580
+  [HOPI] and Verde ruins compared 573
+  [HOPI], early migrations of clans of 574
+  [HOPI] knowledge of Montezuma Well 547
+  [HOPI] pictographic score 568
+  [HOPI] pueblos in 1782 579
+  [HOPI] request removal to Tonto basin 534
+  [HOPI] ruins, distribution of 581
+  [HOPI], southern origin of part of 568
+HORN CLANS at Sikyatki 669
+HORN-HOUSE, ruin of 590
+HORSES, how regarded by ancient Hopi 598, 599
+HOUGH, W., pottery figure interpreted by 664
+HOWELL, E., cliff houses discovered by 533
+HUMAN FIGURES on Sikyatki pottery 660
+HUMAN REMAINS in Awatobi ruins 610, 612, 618
+  [HUMAN REMAINS], _see_ CEMETERIES.
+
+IDOL, _see_ ALOSAKA, DOLL, FETISH.
+INSECT figures on Sikyatki pottery 658
+IRRIGATION represented in pictography 545
+  [IRRIGATION] ditches in Verde valley 538
+
+JACOB'S WELL described 546
+JAKWAINA, farm of, at Sikyatki 640
+JARAMILLO, JUAN, on "Tucayan" 595
+JARS, _see_ POTTERY.
+JEDITOH VALLEY, ruins in 581, 589, 592
+JUDD, JAMES S., acknowledgments to 527
+
+KACHINBA ruin described 589
+KATCI, a Hopi folklorist 637
+  [KATCI], farm of, at Sikyatki 641
+KATCINA cult in Tusayan 625, 633
+  [KATCINA] defined 661, 732
+  [KATCINA] figures on Hopi pottery 624, 658, 665
+KAWAIKA, application of name 622
+  [KAWAIKA], pottery from 622
+  [KAWAIKA], ruins at 590
+KEAM, T. V., excavations by, at Kawaika 622
+  [KEAM, T. V.], idols removed and returned by 619
+KEAM'S CANYON, ruins in 581
+KINNAZINDE, ruin of 534
+KINTIEL ascribed to the Zuñi 534, 591
+  [KINTIEL], location of 533
+KISAKOBI, former site of Walpi 578
+  [KISAKOBI] ruins described 585
+  [KISAKOBI], settlement of 635
+KISHYUBA, a Hopi ruin 591
+KISI and cavate house compared 544
+KIVA-LIKE remains at Honanki 560
+KIVAS, absence of, in Sikyatki 642
+  [KIVAS], absence of, in southern cliff houses 574
+  [KIVAS], ceremonial replastering of 645
+  [KIVAS], distribution of 561, 574
+  [KIVAS] of Awatobi 611
+  [KIVAS], platforms characteristic of 541
+  [KIVAS], round, evolution of 575
+K'N'-I-K'ÉL, _see_ KINTIEL.
+KOKOPELI, a Hopi deity 663
+KOPELI, services of, at Sikyatki 641, 643
+KÓYIMSE of the Hopi 659
+KÜCHAPTÜVELA, former site of Walpi 578
+  [KÜCHAPTÜVELA] ruin described 585
+KÜKÜCHOMO ruins described 586
+KWATAKA, a Hopi monster 691
+
+LADLES from Awatobi described 624
+  [LADLES] from Sikyatki described 655
+  [LADLES], _see_ POTTERY.
+LANGLEY, S. P., acknowledgments to 528
+LELO, farm of, at Sikyatki 640
+LEROUX, A., Verde ruins discovered by 530
+LIGHTNING symbol on Hopi pottery 673
+LIGNITE deposits near Sikyatki 643
+  [LIGNITE] gorgets in Sikyatki graves 733
+LINES, broken, on Sikyatki pottery 704
+LUMMIS, C. F., on Montezuma Well ruins 546
+
+MAMZRÁUTI ceremony introduced at Walpi 604
+MAN-EAGLE, a Hopi monster 691
+  [MAN-EAGLE] on Sikyatki pottery 683
+MARIE, AUG. STA., an Awatobi missionary 600
+MASAUWÛH in Hopi mythology 666
+  [MASAUWÛH], _see_ GOD OF DEATH.
+MASIUMPTIWA, Awatobi legend repeated by 603
+MASONRY of Awatobi 616
+  [MASONRY] of Honanki 563
+  [MASONRY] of Palatki 554-555
+  [MASONRY] of Sikyatki 644
+MEAL, sacred, trail closed with 596, 597
+  [MEAL] sacrifice by the Hopi 739
+MEARNS, E. A., on Verde valley ruins 535, 544, 546
+MEDICINE BOWLS of the Hopi 681
+  [MEDICINE BOWLS] of the Zuñi and Hopi 655
+MELINE, J. F., on settlement of Sandia 584
+MESCAL in Verde valley caves 550
+METAL not found at Honanki 571
+  [METAL] not found at Sikyatki 649, 741
+METATES found in Awatobi 625, 626
+  [METATES] found in Honanki 571
+  [METATES] found in Sikyatki graves 731
+MICA, _see_ SELENITE.
+MIDDLE MESA, ruins at 581, 582
+MIGRATION of Hopi clans 577
+MILLER, _Dr_, pottery collected by 675
+MINDELEFF, COSMOS, Homolobi ruins examined by 532
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on absence of kivas in Verde ruins 561
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on cavate houses 543
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on function of cavate lodges 544
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on origin of circular kivas 576
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on similarity of cliff dwellings and pueblos 537
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on Verde valley ruins 535
+MINDELEFF, VICTOR, Awatobi described by 602
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], groundplan of Chukubi by 583
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], groundplan of Mishiptonga by 590
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on Awatobi kivas 612
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on distribution of Tusayan ruins 577
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on former sites of Walpi 585
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on Horn-house and Bat-house 590
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on origin of circular kivas 576
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], Shitaimovi mentioned by 582
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], Sikyatki described by 632
+MISHIPTONGA, ruin of 590
+MISHOÑINOVI in 1782 579
+MISHOÑINOVI, OLD, discussed 582
+MISSION, ruins of, at Awatobi 606
+  [MISSION], when established at Awatobi 599
+MISSIONS among the Hopi 595
+MOKI, _see_ HOPI.
+MONTEZUMA CASTLE and Honanki compared 563
+  [MONTEZUMA CASTLE] on Beaver creek 549
+MONTEZUMA WELL, ruins at 534, 546-548
+MOONEY, JAMES, cited on Kawaika pottery 590
+MORFI, JUAN A., on Hopi pueblos in 1782 579
+  [MORFI, JUAN A.], on settlement of Sandia 584
+MORTARS found in Awatobi 626
+MORTUARY CUSTOMS of the Hopi 648, 656
+MORTUARY OBJECTS in Sikyatki graves 650, 656
+MORTUARY REMAINS in Awatobi 617
+MORTUARY SLABS from Sikyatki 732
+MORTUARY VESSELS, food remains in 741
+MOTH FIGURES on Sikyatki pottery 678-680
+MOUNTAIN-LION fetish from Sikyatki 730
+  [MOUNTAIN-LION] figure on pottery 671
+  [MOUNTAIN-LION] in Hopi mythology 545
+MOUNTAIN-SHEEP figure on pottery 669, 671
+MÜYINWÛ, a Hopi deity 647, 667
+MYTH, _see_ COSMOGONY; GENESIS.
+MYTHIC origin of Kanelba 638-639
+  [MYTHIC] personages on pottery 665
+
+NAHUATL and Hopi pictographs compared 569
+NAIUTCI injured by stick swallowing 664
+NAKWÁKWOCI defined 662
+NAMPÉO, a Hopi potter 660
+NASYUÑWEVE, a Hopi folklorist 637, 640
+NAVAHO and Hopi intermarriage 658
+  [NAVAHO] ceremonial circuit 681
+  [NAVAHO] depredations in Tusayan 585
+  [NAVAHO] in Antelope valley 592, 593
+  [NAVAHO] katcinas on Hopi pottery 658
+  [NAVAHO], late appearance of, in Tusayan 581
+  [NAVAHO] name of Awatobi 594
+  [NAVAHO], recent advent of, in New Mexico 658
+  [NAVAHO], shrine robbed by 612
+NAYBI identified with Oraibi 599
+NECKLACES in Sikyatki graves 733
+NEEDLES, bone, from Awatobi 627
+NEW-FIRE CEREMONIES of the Hopi 586, 602
+NEW MEXICO, _see_ NAVAHO.
+NIEL, J. A., on Tanoan migration to Tusayan 578, 584
+NIMANKATCINA of the Hopi 593
+NIZA, MARCOS DE, on Totonteac fabrics 629
+NOMENCLATURE of Awatobi 594
+  [NOMENCLATURE] of Sikyatki 636
+NORDENSKIÖLD, G., on affinity of cliff dwellers and pueblos 532
+  [NORDENSKIÖLD, G.], on evolution of pottery design 716, 727
+  [NORDENSKIÖLD, G.], cited on Mesa Verde villages 555, 563, 678
+  [NORDENSKIÖLD, G.], on origin of round kivas 575
+  [NORDENSKIÖLD, G.], on platforms in Mesa Verde kivas 541
+  [NORDENSKIÖLD, G.], prayer-sticks found by 736
+NÜSHAKI, etymology of 578, 586
+
+OAK CREEK, ruins on 533, 550
+OBSIDIAN objects from Sikyatki 732
+OFFERINGS by Indian excavators 641
+OÑATE, JUAN DE, Awatobi visited by 594, 599
+OPENINGS in Honanki walls 565
+  [OPENINGS], _see_ DOORWAY.
+ORAIBI, age of 607
+  [ORAIBI] in 1782 580
+  [ORAIBI] legendary origin of 634
+  [ORAIBI], site of 578
+ORIENTATION of Awatobi mission 609
+ORNAMENTS in Sikyatki graves 733
+OTERMIN, ANT., attempted reconquest by 584
+OWENS, J. G., acknowledgments to 646
+
+PADILLA, JUAN, visits Tusayan in 1540 596
+PAHO, _see_ PRAYER-STICK.
+PAIAKYAMU figures on Hopi pottery 659
+PAINT, _see_ PIGMENT.
+PALATKI, art remains found at 569
+  [PALATKI], population of 567
+  [PALATKI] ruins discovered 534, 551
+  [PALATKI] ruins described 553-558
+PALATKWABI, a traditional land of the Hopi 529, 531, 568, 672
+PALEOGRAPHY, _see_ DECORATION.
+PASSAGEWAYS in cavate dwellings 542
+  [PASSAGEWAYS] in Honanki 565
+PATKI PEOPLE, early migrations of the 574
+  [PATKI PEOPLE], southern origin of the 529, 568
+PATUÑ PHRATRY, southern origin of 529
+PAYÜPKI, a ruin in Tusayan 578, 583
+  [PAYÜPKI], possible origin of 584
+PEACHES cultivated near Sikyatki 646
+  [PEACHES] introduced in Oraibi 604
+  [PEACHES] of the Hopi 639
+PHALLIC representations among the Hopi 663
+PICTOGRAPHS at Honanki 567, 568
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] at Palatki ruin 556
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] in Verde valley 545
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] near Montezuma Well 548
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] near Schürmann's ranch 550
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] of Awatobi totems 610
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] on Awatobi cliffs 626
+  [PICTOGRAPHS], _see_ DECORATION.
+PIGMENT found at Awatobi 618
+  [PIGMENT] found at Sikyatki 728, 729
+  [PIGMENT] how applied by the Hopi 650
+  [PIGMENT] used on prayer-sticks 630
+PIPES in Sikyatki graves 733
+PLASTERING on Awatobi walls 616
+  [PLASTERING] of Honanki ruin 563
+  [PLASTERING] of Palatki ruin 555
+  [PLASTERING] of Sikyatki rooms 645, 646
+PLATFORMS in cavate dwellings 541
+  [PLATFORMS] in Honanki 566
+PLUMED SNAKE cult in Tusayan 671, 672
+  [PLUMED SNAKE] figures on Hopi kilts 696
+  [PLUMED SNAKE] figure on pottery 658, 671
+  [PLUMED SNAKE] in Hopi mythology 668
+POLISHING STONES from Sikyatki 729
+POPULATION of Awatobi 605
+  [POPULATION] of Honanki 567
+PORCUPINE figure on pottery 669
+PORRAS, _Padre_, missionary labors of 595, 599, 600, 605
+POTTERY decoration of the Hopi 569
+  [POTTERY] from ancient Walpi 585
+  [POTTERY] from Awatobi 621-625
+  [POTTERY] from Honanki classified 570
+  [POTTERY] from Payüpki 584
+  [POTTERY] from Shuñopovi and Mishoñinovi 582
+  [POTTERY] from Sikyatki discussed 650-728
+  [POTTERY] from Verde and Colorado Chiquito compared 573
+  [POTTERY], mortuary, from Awatobi 617
+  [POTTERY], mortuary, from Kawaika 590
+  [POTTERY], mortuary, from Sikyatki 649
+  [POTTERY] of ancient Tusayan 617
+POWAMÛ ceremony of the Hopi 702
+POWELL, J. W., ruins found by 532
+PRAYER-STICKS, cross-shape, of Keres origin 703
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] from Awatobi 613, 618, 630-631
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] from Honanki 573
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] from Sikyatki 649, 736-739
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] in Hopi ceremony 628
+  [PRAYER-STICKS], prescribed length of 668
+  [PRAYER-STICKS], significance of 688, 738
+PRAYER-STRINGS of the Hopi 662
+PRIESTS, Hopi, succession of 637
+PUEBLO GRANDE, _see_ KINTIEL.
+PUEBLO INDIANS descended from cliff dwellers 531, 532
+  [PUEBLO INDIANS] RUINS, of Verde valley classified 536
+  [PUEBLO INDIANS] and cliff dwellings similar 537
+
+QUADRUPED figures on Sikyatki pottery 668-671
+QUARTZ CRYSTAL from Sikyatki 729
+
+RABBIT figure on Sikyatki pottery 669, 670
+RABBIT-SKIN robes of Tusayan 629
+RAIN symbol on bird ornaments 733
+RAINBOW symbols on Sikyatki pottery 681
+RAINCLOUD SYMBOL of the Hopi 681
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on Awatobi cist 613
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on gravestones 732
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on Hopi pottery 694
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on Sikyatki pottery 689, 690
+RATTLESNAKE TANKS, ruins at 532
+RED ROCKS, cliff houses of the 548-549
+REPTILE figures on pottery 658, 671-677
+RUINS of East Mesa discussed 585
+  [RUINS] of Tusayan 577
+  [RUINS], _see_ AWATOBI, HONANKI, PALATKI, SIKYATKI, _etc._
+
+SACRIFICE among the Hopi 738
+  [SACRIFICE], _see_ OFFERING.
+SAINT JOHNS, ruins near 533
+SALIKO, Awatobi legend repeated by 603
+  [SALIKO] on the Awatobi Mamzráutu 611
+SAN BERNABE, mission name of Shuñopovi 607
+SAN BERNARDO, mission name of Awatobi 594, 595, 599
+SANDALS found in Honanki 573
+SANDIA, Hopi name for 584
+  [SANDIA] settled by Tanoan people from Tusayan 584
+SAN JUAN, headdress from 734
+SCHÜRMANN, --, acknowledgments to 559
+  [SCHÜRMANN], ruins near ranch of 550-553
+SEATS, stone, in Awatobi ruins 626
+SEEDS in mortuary vessels 741
+SELENITE deposits near Sikyatki 643
+  [SELENITE] in Sikyatki graves 730, 733
+SELER, E., Mexican designs gathered by 705
+SERPENT, plumed, of the Hopi 547, 548
+SHALAKO, _see_ CALAKO.
+SHELL beads from Honanki 573
+  [SHELL] bracelet from Honanki 572
+  [SHELL] from Sikyatki graves 739
+  [SHELL] ornaments from Awatobi 628
+  [SHELL] ornaments in Sikyatki graves 733
+SHIMO, Awatobi legend repeated by 602
+SHIPAULOVI in 1782 579
+SHITAIMOVI, ruin of 582
+SHRINES at Awatobi described 619-621
+  [SHRINES] at Walpi 586
+  [SHRINES] near Tukinobi 589
+  [SHRINES] robbed by Navaho 612
+  [SHRINES] unearthed at Awatobi 613
+  [SHRINES] of the Hopi 613
+SHUÑOPOVI in 1782 579
+  [SHUÑOPOVI], OLD, discussed 582
+SICHOMOVI compared with Walpi 642
+  [SICHOMOVI], Tewa name for 642
+  [SICHOMOVI], when established 578, 636
+SIKYATKI and Awatobi pottery compared 623, 659
+  [SIKYATKI] and modern Hopi pottery compared 649
+  [SIKYATKI], destruction of 633
+  [SIKYATKI], etymology of 636
+  [SIKYATKI] inhabitants settle at Awatobi 596
+  [SIKYATKI] people harrassed by Walpians 588
+  [SIKYATKI], prehistoric character of 592, 632
+  [SIKYATKI] ruins described 631-742
+  [SIKYATKI], reasons for excavating 591
+  [SIKYATKI] ruins examined 535
+SITES of Tusayan pueblos 578
+SITGREAVES, L., on ruins near San Francisco mountains 532, 533
+  [SITGREAVES, L.], cited on selenite deposits 643
+SLIPPER-FORM VESSELS from Sikyatki 652
+SMOKING in Hopi ceremony 734
+SNAKE represented on pottery 671, 677
+  [SNAKE], _see_ PLUMED SNAKE.
+SNAKE HUNT, taboo of work during 639
+SNAKE PEOPLE, absence of, at Sikyatki 740
+  [SNAKE PEOPLE], early arrival of, at Tusayan 582
+  [SNAKE PEOPLE], northern origin of 575
+  [SNAKE PEOPLE] settle at Walpi 617
+SNAKE-RATTLE in Sikyatki grave 740
+  [SNAKE-RATTLE] used for ornament 740
+SORCERY, Awatobi men accused of 603
+SPANISH OBJECTS found at Awatobi 606, 623, 631
+  [SPANISH OBJECTS] unknown to early Tusayan 741
+SPATTERING, pottery decorated by 650, 668, 671, 677
+SPOONS from Sikyatki described 655
+  [SPOONS], _see_ POTTERY.
+SQUASH indigenous to the southwest 621
+  [SQUASH] flower, symbolism of the 661
+SQUAW MOUNTAIN, cavate dwellings near 534
+STALACTITES in Sikyatki graves 730
+STAR figures on Sikyatki pottery 702, 724
+  [STAR] symbol on Hopi pottery 696
+  [STAR] symbols on Sikyatki pottery 680, 690
+STEPHEN, A. M., on Awatobi kivas 612
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on Horn-house and Bat-house 590
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on Mishiptonga ruin 590
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on occupancy of Küküchomo 587
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on origin of certain katcina 666
+STEVENSON, JAMES, ruins discovered by 532
+STEVENSON, M. C., on Keresan cannibal giants 665
+STICK SWALLOWING by the Hopi 664
+STONE IMPLEMENTS from Awatobi 625-626
+  [STONE IMPLEMENTS] from Honanki 571
+  [STONE IMPLEMENTS] from Sikyatki 729
+SUN FIGURE in Powamû ceremony 702
+SUNFLOWER symbols on Sikyatki pottery 702
+SUN SYMBOL, cross allied to 623
+  [SUN SYMBOL] on Sikyatki pottery 699-701
+SUN WORSHIP of the Hopi 699
+SUPELA, Awatobi legend repeated by 603
+SWASTIKA figures on Sikyatki pottery 703
+
+TABOO of work during snake hunt 639
+TADPOLE figures on Sikyatki pottery 658, 677
+TALLA-HOGAN, meaning of 594
+  [TALLA-HOGAN], Navaho name of Awatobi 594
+TANOAN migration to Tusayan 578, 600, 636
+TAPOLO, an Awatobi chief 603, 611
+TATAUKYAMÛ, a Hopi priesthood 611
+TATCUKTI, a Hopi clown-priest 659
+TAWA (SUN) PHRATRY, southern origin of 529
+TCINO, garden of, at Sikyatki 638, 640, 646
+TERRACED FIGURES of Mexico and Tusayan 705
+  [TERRACED FIGURES] on Sikyatki pottery 701, 703
+TEWA PEOPLE occupy Payüpki 584
+  [TEWA PEOPLE], progressiveness of, in Tusayan 580
+TEXTILE FABRICS from Awatobi 629-630
+  [TEXTILE FABRICS], absence of, at Sikyatki 649
+  [TEXTILE FABRICS] found in Honanki 572, 573
+  [TEXTILE FABRICS], Sikyatki dead wrapped with 656
+TINDER TUBE from Honanki 572, 573
+TOBACCO, _see_ SMOKING.
+TOBACCO PHRATRY in Awatobi 611
+TOBAR, PEDRO, visits Tusayan in 1540 578, 595, 596, 631
+TONTO, origin of term 534
+TONTO BASIN, ruins in 534
+TOTONAKA, a Hopi deity 647
+TOTONTEAC identified with Tusayan 534
+  [TOTONTEAC], suggested origin of 534
+TOYS of pottery from Sikyatki 656
+TRAILS ceremonially closed 596-597
+TRINCHERAS defined 550
+  [TRINCHERAS] in Red-rock country 549, 550
+TRUJILLO, JOSÉ, probably killed at Shuñopovi 600
+TSÊGI CANYON and Tusayan pottery compared 623
+  [TSÊGI CANYON] formerly occupied by Hopi clans 658
+  [TSÊGI CANYON], _see_ CHELLY CANYON.
+TUBES, bone, from Awatobi 627
+TUCANO, name applied to Tusayan 595
+TUCAYAN, name applied to Tusayan 595
+TUKINOBI, ruin of, described 589
+TURQUOIS beads found at Honanki 573
+  [TURQUOIS] mosaics of the Hopi 662
+  [TURQUOIS] objects in Sikyatki graves 641, 733
+TUSAYAN, application of term 577
+  [TUSAYAN] identified with Hopi villages 595
+  [TUSAYAN] ruins discussed 577-742
+  [TUSAYAN] towns in 1540 606
+  [TUSAYAN], _see_ HOPI.
+TUZAN, name applied to Tusayan 595
+TYLOR, E. B., cited on primitive sacrifice 738
+
+UTE depredations in Tusayan 585
+  [UTE], late appearance of, at Tusayan 581
+
+VARGAS, DIEGO DE, Awatobi visited by 594
+  [VARGAS, DIEGO DE], Tusayan conquered by 600
+VASES, _see_ POTTERY.
+VEGETAL DESIGNS on Hopi pottery 698-699
+VERDE VALLEY and Tusayan ruins compared 573
+  [VERDE VALLEY], archeology of 530
+  [VERDE VALLEY] ruins discussed 536, 576
+VETANCURT, A. DE, Awatobi mentioned by 594
+  [VETANCURT, A. DE], on destruction of Awatobi mission 600
+VOTH, H. R., decorated bowl collected by 665
+  [VOTH, H. R.], on ancient pottery found at Oraibi 607
+
+WALLS of Honanki described 559
+  [WALLS] of Palatki ruin 557
+  [WALLS], _see_ MASONRY.
+WALNUT CANYON, cliff houses in 532
+WALPI, ancient, pottery of 660
+  [WALPI] compared with other villages 642
+  [WALPI], former sites of 585, 635
+  [WALPI], gradual desertion of 586
+  [WALPI] in 1540 578
+  [WALPI] in 1782 579
+  [WALPI], origin of name 585
+  [WALPI], southern origin of clans of 529
+WALTHER, HENRY, pottery repaired by 682
+WAR GOD symbolism on Hopi pottery 664
+WATER used in Hopi ceremony 689
+WATER-HOUSE PEOPLE of Tusayan 672
+  [WATER-HOUSE PEOPLE], _see_ PATKI.
+WATER SUPPLY of Sikyatki 638, 646
+WEAPONS of ancient Tusayan 596, 598
+WHISTLES, bone, from Awatobi 627
+  [WHISTLES] used in Hopi ceremonies 628
+WINSHIP, G. P., acknowledgments to 527
+  [WINSHIP, G. P.], Castañeda's narrative translated by 596
+WIPO SPRING in Tusayan 639
+WOOD in Palatki ruin 555
+  [WOOD], method of working, at Honanki 571
+  [WOOD], remains of, at Honanki 562, 566
+  [WOOD], objects of, from Honanki 572
+WOOD'S RANCH, pictograph bowlder near 545
+
+XUMUPAMÍ identified with Shuñopovi 599
+
+YUCCA fiber anciently used 572
+
+ZAGNATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ZAGUATE, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ZAGUATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ZÏNNI-JINNE, _see_ KINNAZINDE.
+ZUÑI and other pottery compared 623
+  [ZUÑI] origin of Kintiel 534, 591
+  [ZUÑI], Shalako ceremony of 700
+  [ZUÑI], snake figures on pottery of 677
+  [ZUÑI], southern origin of clans of 574
+  [ZUÑI], stick-swallowing at 664
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Some illustrations have been repositioned to avoid breaking up the
+text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations refer to the original
+printed report. The Index has been edited to list only the topics
+contained in this report.
+
+The original book contains some diacriticals that are represented in
+this e-text as follows:
+
+  The [)i] represents a breve (u-shaped) above the i.
+    (He'-sho'ta pathl-tâ[)i]e,)
+
+  The [=a] represents a macron (straight-line) above the a.
+    (_N[=a]-ác-nai-ya_, and Estev[=a])
+
+Page 522, Table of Contents: Ornaments, necklaces, and gorgets (page
+733) in original report changed to Necklaces, gorgets, and other
+ornaments to match the actual section heading.
+
+Page 525, List of Illustrations: CXXXV, _a_ in original report changed
+to CXXXV, _b_ to match the actual caption.
+  (Fig. 270. Outline of plate CXXXV, _a_)
+
+Page 526, List of Illustrations: triangles in original report changed
+to triangle to match the actual captions.
+  (Fig. 336. Double triangles) and
+  (Fig. 337. Double triangles and feathers)
+
+Page 652: attemps in original report changed to attempts.
+  (The first attemps at ornamentation)
+
+Page 688, Footnote 1 in original report, now Footnote 145:
+annulets in original report changed to amulets.
+  (ceremonial paraphernalia, as annulets, placed on sand pictures)
+
+Page 702: respresented in original report changed to represented.
+  (A large number of crosses are respresented in plate)
+
+Page 706: Sityatki in original report changed to Sikyatki.
+  (animal figures are unknown in this position in Sityatki pottery;)
+
+Page 709 in original report, now page 708: lines in original report changed to line.
+  (FIG. 288--Single lines with triangles)
+
+Page 731: to-day in original report changed to today for consistency.
+  (tethering in use today.)
+
+Page 737: offerigs in original report changed to offerings.
+  (ancient prayer offerigs)
+
+Page 741: accompaning in original report changed to accompanying.
+  (is set forth in the accompaning letter)
+
+Page 744: In Appendix, Plate CLXXIII, _f_, the 5th digit of number
+is missing in original report; represented by a question mark.
+  (_f_, 1561 0;)
+
+Plate CXL: SITYATKI in original report changed to SIKYATKI.
+  (FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SITYATKI)
+
+All other spelling and accent variations and inconsistencies have not
+been changed from the original document, except for minor punctuation
+corrections.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Archeological Expedition to Arizona in
+1895, by Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 23691-8.txt or 23691-8.zip *****
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Archeological Expedition To Arizona In 1895, by Jesse Walter Fewkes.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895, by 
+Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895
+       Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
+              Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
+              1895-1896, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1898,
+              pages 519-744
+
+Author: Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2007 [EBook #23691]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Carlo
+Traverso, Diane Monico, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by the
+Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<h1>ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>JESSE WALTER FEWKES</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toc">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Introductory note</td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_527">527</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Plan of the expedition</td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_529">529</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ruins in Verde valley</td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_536">536</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Classification of the ruins</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_536">536</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cavate dwellings</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_537">537</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montezuma Well</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_546">546</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cliff houses of the Red-rocks</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_548">548</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruins near Sch&uuml;rmann's ranch</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_550">550</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palatki</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_553">553</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Honanki</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_558">558</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Objects found at Palatki and Honanki</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_569">569</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conclusions regarding the Verde valley ruins</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_573">573</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ruins in Tusayan</td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_577">577</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">General features</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_577">577</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The Middle Mesa ruins</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_582">582</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shu&ntilde;opovi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_582">582</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Misho&ntilde;inovi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_582">582</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chukubi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_583">583</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pay&uuml;pki</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_583">583</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The East Mesa ruins</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_585">585</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela and Kisakobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_585">585</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_586">586</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kachinba</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_589">589</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tukinobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_589">589</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jeditoh valley ruins</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_589">589</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_592">592</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Characteristics of the ruin</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_592">592</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nomenclature of Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_594">594</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Historical knowledge of Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_595">595</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Legend of the destruction of Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_603">603</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Evidences of fire in the destruction</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_606">606</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The ruins of the mission</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_606">606</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The kivas of Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_611">611</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Old Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_614">614</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Rooms of the western mound</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_614">614</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Smaller Awatobi</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_617">617</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mortuary remains</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_617">617</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shrines</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_619">619</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pottery</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_621">621</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stone implements</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_625">625</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bone objects</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_627">627</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Miscellaneous objects</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_628">628</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Ornaments in the form of birds and shells</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_628">628</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Clay bell</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_628">628</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Textile fabrics</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_629">629</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Prayer-sticks&mdash;Pigments</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_630">630</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Objects showing Spanish influence</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_631">631</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The ruins of Sikyatki</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_631">631</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Traditional knowledge of the pueblo</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_631">631</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Nomenclature</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_636">636</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Former inhabitants of Sikyatki</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_636">636</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">General features</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_637">637</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The acropolis</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_643">643</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Modern gardens</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_646">646</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">The cemeteries</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_646">646</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pottery</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_650">650</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Characteristics&mdash;Mortuary pottery</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_650">650</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Coiled and indented ware</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_651">651</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Smooth undecorated ware</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_652">652</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Polished decorated ware</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_652">652</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paleography of the pottery</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_657">657</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">General features</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_657">657</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Human figures</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_660">660</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The human hand</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_666">666</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Quadrupeds</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_668">668</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Reptiles</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_671">671</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Tadpoles</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_677">677</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Butterflies or moths</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_678">678</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Dragon-flies</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_680">680</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Birds</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_682">682</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Vegetal designs</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_698">698</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">The sun</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_699">699</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Geometric figures</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_701">701</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Interpretation of the figures</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_701">701</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Crosses</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_702">702</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Terraced figures</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_703">703</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The crook</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_703">703</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">The germinative symbol</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_704">704</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Broken lines</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_704">704</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 3em;">Decorations on the exterior of food bowls&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_705">705</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pigments</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_728">728</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Stone objects</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_729">729</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Obsidian</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_732">732</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Necklaces, gorgets, and other ornaments</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_733">733</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tobacco pipes</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_733">733</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Prayer-sticks</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_736">736</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Marine shells and other objects</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_739">739</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Perishable contents of mortuary food bowls</span></td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_741">741</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><a href="#FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>APPENDIX</td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_743">743</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>INDEX</td><td align='left'><a href="#Page_745">745</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="loi">
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>PLATE <a href="#PL_XCIa">XCI<i>a</i></a>.</td><td align='left'>Cavate dwellings&mdash;Rio Verde</td><td align='left'>537</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCIb">XCI<i>b</i></a>.</td><td align='left'>Cavate dwellings&mdash;Oak creek</td><td align='left'>539</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCII">XCII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Entrances to cavate ruins</td><td align='left'>541</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCIII">XCIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Bowlder with pictographs near Wood's ranch</td><td align='left'>545</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCIV">XCIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Montezuma Well</td><td align='left'>547</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCV">XCV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Cliff house, Montezuma Well</td><td align='left'>549</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCVI">XCVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ruin on the brink of Montezuma Well</td><td align='left'>551</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCVII">XCVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Pictographs near Cliff ranch, Verde valley</td><td align='left'>553</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCVIII">XCVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>The Red-rocks; Temple canyon</td><td align='left'>555</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_XCIX">XCIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Palatki (Ruin I)</td><td align='left'>557</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_C">C</a>.</td><td align='left'>Palatki (Ruin I)</td><td align='left'>559</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CI">CI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Front wall of Palatki (Ruin II)</td><td align='left'>561</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CII">CII</a></td><td align='left'>Honanki (Ruin II)</td><td align='left'>563</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CIII">CIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Walls of Honanki</td><td align='left'>565</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CIV">CIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Approach to main part of Honanki</td><td align='left'>567</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CV">CV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Map of the ruins of Tusayan</td><td align='left'>583</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CVI">CVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>The ruins of K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo</td><td align='left'>587</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CVII">CVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ground plan of Awatobi</td><td align='left'>603</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CVIII">CVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ruins of San Bernardino de Awatobi</td><td align='left'>607</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CIX">CIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Excavations in the western mound of Awatobi</td><td align='left'>615</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CX">CX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Excavated room in the western mound of Awatobi</td><td align='left'>617</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXI">CXI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vase and mugs from the western mounds of Awatobi</td><td align='left'>618</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXII">CXII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Paint pots, vase, and dipper from Awatobi</td><td align='left'>620</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXIII">CXIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Pottery from intramural burial at Awatobi</td><td align='left'>622</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXIV">CXIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Bone implements from Awatobi and Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>626</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXV">CXV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Sikyatki mounds from the Kanelba trail</td><td align='left'>637</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXVI">CXVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ground plan of Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>639</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXVII">CXVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Excavated rooms on the acropolis of Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>643</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXVIII">CXVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Plan of excavated rooms on the acropolis of Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>644</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXIX">CXIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Coiled and indented pottery from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>650</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXX">CXX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Saucers and slipper bowls from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>652</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXI">CXXI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Decorated pottery from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>654</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXII">CXXII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Decorated pottery from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>654</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXIII">CXXIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Decorated pottery from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>657</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXIV">CXXIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Decorated pottery from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>660</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXV">CXXV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Flat dippers and medicine box from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>662</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXVI">CXXVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double-lobe vases from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>664</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXVII">CXXVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Unusual forms of vases from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>666</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXVIII">CXXVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Medicine box and pigment pots from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>668</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXIX">CXXIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Designs on food bowls from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>670</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXX">CXXX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of quadrupeds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>672</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXI">CXXXI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ornamented ladles from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>674</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXII">CXXXII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of reptiles from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>676</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXIII">CXXXIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Bowls and dippers with figures of tadpoles, birds, etc., from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>676</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span><a href="#PL_CXXXIV">CXXXIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of sun, butterfly, and flower, from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>676</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXV">CXXXV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vases with figures of butterflies from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>678</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXVI">CXXXVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vases with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>678</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXVII">CXXXVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vessels with figures of human hand, birds, turtle, etc., from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>680</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">CXXXVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>682</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXIX">CXXXIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>684</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXL">CXL</a>.</td><td align='left'>Figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>686</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLI">CXLI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>688</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLII">CXLII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vases, bowls, and ladle with figures of feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>688</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLIII">CXLIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vase with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>690</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLIV">CXLIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vase with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>690</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLV">CXLV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Vases with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>690</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLVI">CXLVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Bowls and potsherd with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>692</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLVII">CXLVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>692</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLVIII">CXLVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with symbols of feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>694</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLIX">CXLIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with symbols of feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>694</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CL">CL</a>.</td><td align='left'>Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>696</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLI">CLI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>696</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLII">CLII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with bird, feather, and flower symbols from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>698</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLIII">CLIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>698</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLIV">CLIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>700</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLV">CLV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>700</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLVI">CLVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>700</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLVII">CLVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>702</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLVIII">CLVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with figures of sun and related symbols from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>702</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLIX">CLIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Cross and related designs from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>704</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLX">CLX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Cross and other symbols from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>704</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXI">CLXI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Star, sun, and related symbols from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>704</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXII">CLXII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>706</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXIII">CLXIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>708</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXIV">CLXIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>710</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXV">CLXV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>714</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXVI">CLXVI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Linear figures on food bowls from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>718</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXVII">CLXVII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Geometric ornamentation from Awatobi</td><td align='left'>722</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXVIII">CLXVIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Geometric ornamentation from Awatobi</td><td align='left'>726</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXIX">CLXIX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Arrowshaft smoothers, selenite, and symbolic corn from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>728</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXX">CLXX</a>.</td><td align='left'>Corn grinder from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>730</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXI">CLXXI</a>.</td><td align='left'>Stone implements from Palatki, Awatobi, and Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>732</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXII">CLXXII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Paint grinder, fetish, lignite, and kaolin disks from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>734</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXIII">CLXXIII</a>.</td><td align='left'>Pipes, bell, clay birds, and shells from Awatobi and Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>736</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXIV">CLXXIV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Pahos or prayer-sticks from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>738</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXV">CLXXV</a>.</td><td align='left'>Pahos or prayer-sticks from Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>738</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>FIGURE <a href="#Fig_245">245</a>.</td><td align='left'>Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde</td><td align='left'>540</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_246">246</a>.</td><td align='left'>Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek</td><td align='left'>552</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_247">247</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins I and II)</td><td align='left'>554</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_248">248</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ground plan of Honanki</td><td align='left'>559</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_249">249</a>.</td><td align='left'>The main ruin of Honanki</td><td align='left'>562</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_250">250</a>.</td><td align='left'>Structure of wall of Honanki</td><td align='left'>564</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_251">251</a>.</td><td align='left'>Stone implement from Honanki</td><td align='left'>571</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_252">252</a>.</td><td align='left'>Tinder tube from Honanki</td><td align='left'>572</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_253">253</a>.</td><td align='left'>K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo</td><td align='left'>587</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span>
+<a href="#Fig_254">254</a>.</td><td align='left'>Defensive wall on the East Mesa</td><td align='left'>588</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_255">255</a>.</td><td align='left'>Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi</td><td align='left'>608</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_256">256</a>.</td><td align='left'>Structure of house wall of Awatobi</td><td align='left'>615</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_257">257</a>.</td><td align='left'>Alosaka shrine at Awatobi</td><td align='left'>620</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_258">258</a>.</td><td align='left'>Shrine at Awatobi</td><td align='left'>621</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_259">259</a>.</td><td align='left'>Shrine at Awatobi</td><td align='left'>621</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_260">260</a>.</td><td align='left'>Shrine at Awatobi</td><td align='left'>621</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_261">261</a>.</td><td align='left'>Clay bell from Awatobi</td><td align='left'>629</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_262">262</a>.</td><td align='left'>The acropolis of Sikyatki</td><td align='left'>644</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_263">263</a>.</td><td align='left'>War god shooting an animal (fragment of food bowl)</td><td align='left'>665</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_264">264</a>.</td><td align='left'>Mountain sheep</td><td align='left'>669</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_265">265</a>.</td><td align='left'>Mountain lion</td><td align='left'>670</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_266">266</a>.</td><td align='left'>Plumed serpent</td><td align='left'>672</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_267">267</a>.</td><td align='left'>Unknown reptile</td><td align='left'>674</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_268">268</a>.</td><td align='left'>Unknown reptile</td><td align='left'>675</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_269">269</a>.</td><td align='left'>Unknown reptile</td><td align='left'>676</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_270">270</a>.</td><td align='left'>Outline of plate <span class="smcap">cxxxv</span>, <i>b</i></td><td align='left'>678</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_271">271</a>.</td><td align='left'>Butterfly design on upper surface of plate <span class="smcap">cxxxv</span>, <i>b</i></td><td align='left'>679</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_272">272</a>.</td><td align='left'>Man-eagle</td><td align='left'>683</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_273">273</a>.</td><td align='left'>Pendent feather ornaments on a vase</td><td align='left'>690</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_274">274</a>.</td><td align='left'>Upper surface of vase with bird decoration</td><td align='left'>691</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_275">275</a>.</td><td align='left'>Kwataka eating an animal</td><td align='left'>692</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_276">276</a>.</td><td align='left'>Decoration on the bottom of plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span>, <i>f</i></td><td align='left'>694</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_277">277</a>.</td><td align='left'>Oblique parallel line decoration</td><td align='left'>706</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_278">278</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines fused at one point</td><td align='left'>706</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_279">279</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement</td><td align='left'>706</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_280">280</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines connected by middle bar</td><td align='left'>707</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_281">281</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines of different width; serrate margin</td><td align='left'>707</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_282">282</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines of different width; median serrate</td><td align='left'>707</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_283">283</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines of different width; marginal serrate</td><td align='left'>707</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_284">284</a>.</td><td align='left'>Parallel lines and triangles</td><td align='left'>708</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_285">285</a>.</td><td align='left'>Line with alternate triangles</td><td align='left'>708</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_286">286</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line with alternate spurs</td><td align='left'>708</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_287">287</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line with hourglass figures</td><td align='left'>708</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_288">288</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line with triangles</td><td align='left'>709</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_289">289</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line with alternate triangles and ovals</td><td align='left'>709</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_290">290</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangles and quadrilaterals</td><td align='left'>709</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_291">291</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangle with spurs</td><td align='left'>709</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_292">292</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangle with single line</td><td align='left'>709</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_293">293</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle; multiple lines</td><td align='left'>710</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_294">294</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle; terraced edges</td><td align='left'>710</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_295">295</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line; closed fret</td><td align='left'>710</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_296">296</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line; open fret</td><td align='left'>711</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_297">297</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line; broken fret</td><td align='left'>711</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_298">298</a>.</td><td align='left'>Single line; parts displaced</td><td align='left'>711</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_299">299</a>.</td><td align='left'>Open fret; attachment displaced</td><td align='left'>711</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_300">300</a>.</td><td align='left'>Simple rectangular design</td><td align='left'>711</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_301">301</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangular S-form</td><td align='left'>712</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_302">302</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangular S-form with crooks</td><td align='left'>712</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_303">303</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangular S-form with triangles</td><td align='left'>712</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_304">304</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles</td><td align='left'>712</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_305">305</a>.</td><td align='left'>S-form with interdigitating spurs</td><td align='left'>713</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_306">306</a>.</td><td align='left'>Square with rectangles and parallel lines</td><td align='left'>713</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_307">307</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers</td><td align='left'>713</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_308">308</a>.</td><td align='left'>Crook, feathers, and parallel lines</td><td align='left'>713</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_309">309</a>.</td><td align='left'>Crooks and feathers</td><td align='left'>714</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526">[Pg 526]</a></span><a href="#Fig_310">310</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangle, triangles, and feathers</td><td align='left'>714</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_311">311</a>.</td><td align='left'>Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers</td><td align='left'>714</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_312">312</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double key</td><td align='left'>715</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_313">313</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangular terrace</td><td align='left'>715</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_314">314</a>.</td><td align='left'>Crook, serrate end</td><td align='left'>715</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_315">315</a>.</td><td align='left'>Key pattern; rectangle and triangles</td><td align='left'>716</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_316">316</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangle and crook</td><td align='left'>716</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_317">317</a>.</td><td align='left'>Crook and tail-feathers</td><td align='left'>716</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_318">318</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs</td><td align='left'>717</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_319">319</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-pattern; terminal crooks</td><td align='left'>717</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_320">320</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-pattern; terminal rectangles</td><td align='left'>717</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_321">321</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks</td><td align='left'>718</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_322">322</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-pattern; terminal spurs</td><td align='left'>718</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_323">323</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-pattern; bird form</td><td align='left'>719</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_324">324</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-pattern; median triangle</td><td align='left'>719</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_325">325</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle; two breath feathers</td><td align='left'>720</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_326">326</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle; median trapezoid</td><td align='left'>720</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_327">327</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle; median rectangle</td><td align='left'>720</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_328">328</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double compound triangle; median rectangle</td><td align='left'>720</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_329">329</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle; median triangle</td><td align='left'>721</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_330">330</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double compound triangle</td><td align='left'>721</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_331">331</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double rectangle; median rectangle</td><td align='left'>721</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_332">332</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double rectangle; median triangle</td><td align='left'>721</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_333">333</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle with crooks</td><td align='left'>722</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_334">334</a>.</td><td align='left'>W-shape figure; single line with feathers</td><td align='left'>722</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_335">335</a>.</td><td align='left'>Compound rectangles, triangles, and feathers</td><td align='left'>722</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_336">336</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle</td><td align='left'>722</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_337">337</a>.</td><td align='left'>Double triangle and feathers</td><td align='left'>723</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_338">338</a>.</td><td align='left'>Twin triangles</td><td align='left'>723</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_339">339</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangle with terraced appendages</td><td align='left'>723</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_340">340</a>.</td><td align='left'>Mosaic pattern</td><td align='left'>723</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_341">341</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel lines</td><td align='left'>724</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_342">342</a>.</td><td align='left'>Continuous crooks</td><td align='left'>724</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_343">343</a>.</td><td align='left'>Rectangular terrace pattern</td><td align='left'>724</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_344">344</a>.</td><td align='left'>Terrace pattern with parallel lines</td><td align='left'>725</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_345">345</a>.</td><td align='left'>Terrace pattern</td><td align='left'>725</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_346">346</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangular pattern with feathers</td><td align='left'>725</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_347">347</a>.</td><td align='left'>S-pattern</td><td align='left'>726</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_348">348</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangular and terrace figures</td><td align='left'>726</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_349">349</a>.</td><td align='left'>Crook, terrace, and parallel lines</td><td align='left'>726</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_350">350</a>.</td><td align='left'>Triangles, squares, and terraces</td><td align='left'>726</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_351">351</a>.</td><td align='left'>Bifurcated rectangular design</td><td align='left'>727</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_352">352</a>.</td><td align='left'>Lines of life and triangles</td><td align='left'>727</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_353">353</a>.</td><td align='left'>Infolded triangles</td><td align='left'>727</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_354">354</a>.</td><td align='left'>Human hand</td><td align='left'>728</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_355">355</a>.</td><td align='left'>Animal paw, limb, and triangle</td><td align='left'>728</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_356">356</a>.</td><td align='left'>Kaolin disk</td><td align='left'>729</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#Fig_357">357</a>.</td><td align='left'>Mortuary prayer-stick</td><td align='left'>736</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527">[Pg 527]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="ARCHEOLOGICAL_EXPEDITION_TO_ARIZONA_IN_1895" id="ARCHEOLOGICAL_EXPEDITION_TO_ARIZONA_IN_1895"></a>ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">Jesse Walter Fewkes</span></h3>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY_NOTE" id="INTRODUCTORY_NOTE"></a>INTRODUCTORY NOTE</h2>
+
+
+<p>About the close of May, 1895, I was invited to make a collection of
+objects for the National Museum, illustrating the archeology of the
+Southwest, especially that phase of pueblo life pertaining to the so-called
+cliff houses. I was specially urged to make as large a collection
+as possible, and the choice of locality was generously left to my
+discretion.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Washington on the 25th of May, I obtained a collection and
+returned with it to that city on the 15th of September, having spent
+three months in the field. The material brought back by the expedition
+was catalogued under 966 entries, numbering somewhat over a thousand
+specimens. The majority of these objects are fine examples of mortuary
+pottery of excellent character, fully 500 of which are decorated.</p>
+
+<p>I was particularly fortunate in my scientific collaborators. Mr F. W.
+Hodge, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, joined me at Sikyatki,
+and remained with the expedition until it disbanded, at the close of
+August. Much of my success in the work at that ruin was due to his
+advice and aid. He was constantly at the excavations, and the majority
+of the beautiful specimens were taken out of the graves by him. It
+is with the greatest pleasure that I am permitted to express my appreciation
+of his assistance in my archeological investigations at Sikyatki.
+Mr G. P. Winship, now librarian of the John Carter Brown Library at
+Providence, visited our camp at the ruin mentioned, and remained with
+us a few weeks, rendering important aid and adding an enthusiastic
+student to our number. Mr James S. Judd was a volunteer assistant
+while we were at Sikyatki, aiding me in many ways, especially in the
+management of our camp. I need only to refer to the beautiful drawings
+which accompany this memoir to show how much I am indebted to
+Mrs Hodge for faithful colored figures of the remarkable pottery uncovered
+from the Tusayan sands. My party included Mr S. Goddard, of
+Prescott, Arizona, who served as cook and driver, and Mr Erwin Baer,
+of the same city, as photographer. The manual work at the ruins was
+done by a number of young Indians from the East Mesa, who very properly
+were employed on the Moki reservation. An all too prevalent and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528">[Pg 528]</a></span>
+often unjust criticism that Indians will not work if paid for their labor,
+was not voiced by any of our party. They gave many a weary hour's
+labor in the hot sun, in their enthusiasm to make the collection as large
+as possible.</p>
+
+<p>On my return to Washington I was invited to prepare a preliminary
+account of my work in the field, which the Secretary of the Smithsonian
+Institution did me the honor to publish in his report for 1895. This
+report was of a very general character, and from necessity limited in
+pages; consequently it presented only the more salient features of my
+explorations.</p>
+
+<p>The following account was prepared as a more exhaustive discussion
+of the results of my summer's work. The memoir is much more extended
+than I had expected to make it when I accepted the invitation
+to collect archeological objects for the Museum, and betrays, I fear, imperfections
+due to the limited time spent in the field. The main object
+of the expedition was a collection of specimens, the majority of which,
+now on exhibition in the National Museum, tell their own story regarding
+its success.</p>
+
+<p>I am under deep obligations to the officers of the Smithsonian Institution,
+the National Museum, and the Bureau of American Ethnology
+for many kindnesses, and wish especially to express my thanks to Mr
+S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for the opportunity
+to study the ancient ruins of Tusayan. Nothing had a greater
+influence on my final decision to abandon other congenial work and
+undertake this, than my profound respect for the late Dr G. Brown
+Goode, who suggested the expedition to me and urged me to plan and
+undertake it.</p>
+
+<p class="author">Jesse Walter Fewkes.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>Washington, May, 1897.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529">[Pg 529]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PLAN_OF_THE_EXPEDITION" id="PLAN_OF_THE_EXPEDITION"></a>PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION</h2>
+
+
+<p>It seemed to me in making a plan for archeological field work in 1895,
+that the prehistoric cliff houses, cave dwellings, and ruined pueblos of
+Arizona afforded valuable opportunities for research, and past experience
+induced me to turn my steps more especially to the northern and
+northeastern parts of the territory.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The ruins of ancient habitations
+in these regions had been partially, and, I believe, unsatisfactorily
+explored, especially those in a limited area called Tusayan, now inhabited
+by the Moki or Hopi Indians. These agricultural people claim to
+be descendants of those who once lived in the now deserted villages of
+that province.</p>
+
+<p>I had some knowledge of the ethnology of the Hopi, derived from
+several summers' field work among them, and I believed this information
+could be successfully utilized in an attempt to solve certain archeological
+questions which presented themselves.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> I desired, among other
+things, to obtain new information on the former extension, in one direction,
+of the ancestral abodes of certain clans of the sedentary people of
+Tusayan which are now limited to six pueblos in the northeastern part
+of the territory. In carrying out this general plan I made an examination
+of cliff dwellings and other ruins in Verde valley, and undertook
+an exploration of two old pueblos near the Hopi villages. The
+reason which determined my choice of the former as a field for investigation
+was a wish to obtain archeological data bearing on certain Tusayan
+traditions. It is claimed by the traditionists of Walpi, especially
+those of the Patki<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> or Water-house phratry, that their ancestors came
+from a land far to the south of Tusayan, to which they give the name
+Palatkwabi. The situation of this mythic place is a matter of considerable
+conjecture, but it was thought that an archeological examination
+of the country at or near the headwaters of the Rio Verde and its
+tributaries might shed light on this tradition.</p>
+
+<p>It is not claimed, however, that all the ancestors of the Tusayan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530">[Pg 530]</a></span>
+people migrated from the south, nor do I believe that those who came
+from that direction necessarily passed through Verde valley. Some, no
+doubt, came from Tonto Basin, but I believe it can be shown that a continuous
+line of ruins, similar in details of architecture, extend along
+this river from its junction with Salt river to well-established prehistoric
+dwelling places of the Hopi people. Similar lines may likewise
+be traced along other northern tributaries of the Salt or the Gila, which
+may be found to indicate early migration stages.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of Verde valley were discovered in 1854 by Antoine Leroux,
+a celebrated guide and trapper of his time, and were thus described
+by Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner in the following year:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The river banks were covered with ruins of stone houses and regular fortifications;
+which, he [Leroux] says, appeared to have been the work of civilized men, but had
+not been occupied for centuries. They were built upon the most fertile tracts of the
+valley, where were signs of acequias and of cultivation. The walls were of solid
+masonry, of rectangular form, some twenty or thirty paces in length, and yet remaining
+ten or fifteen feet in height. The buildings were of two stories, with small apertures
+or loopholes for defence when besieged.... In other respects, however,
+Leroux says that they reminded him of the great pueblos of the Moquinos.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>A fragment of folklore, which is widely distributed among both the
+aboriginal peoples of Gila valley and the modern Tusayan Indians,
+recounts how the latter were at one time in communication with the
+people of the south, and traditions of both distinctly connect the sedentary
+people of Tusayan with those who formerly inhabited the great
+pueblos, now in ruins, dotting the plain in the delta between Gila and
+Salt rivers. That archeology might give valuable information on this
+question had long been my conviction, and was the main influence
+which led me to the studies recorded in the following pages.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of a map of Arizona will show that one of the
+pathways or feasible routes of travel possible to have been used in
+any connection between the pueblos of the Gila and those of northern
+Arizona would naturally be along Rio Verde valley. Its tributaries
+rise at the foot of San Francisco mountains, and the main river empties
+into the Salt, traversing from north to south a comparatively fertile
+valley, in the main advantageous for the subsistence of semisedentary
+bands in their migrations. Here was a natural highway leading from
+the Gila pueblos, now in ruins, to the former villages in the north.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the archeology of Verde valley had gone far enough
+to show that the banks of the river were formerly the sites of many
+and populous pueblos, while the neighboring mesas from one end to
+another are riddled with cavate dwellings or crowned with stone buildings.
+Northward from that famous crater-like depression in the Verde
+region, the so-called Montezuma Well on Beaver creek, one of the
+affluents of the Rio Verde, little archeological exploration had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531">[Pg 531]</a></span>
+attempted. There was, in other words, a break in the almost continuous
+series of ruins from Tusayan as far south as the Gila. Ruined towns
+had been reported as existing not far southward from San Francisco
+mountains,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and from there by easy stages the abodes of a former race
+had been detected at intervals all the way to the Tusayan pueblos.
+At either end the chain of ruins between the Tusayan towns and the
+Gila ruins was unbroken, but middle links were wanting. All conditions
+imply former habitations in this untrodden hiatus, the region
+between the Verde and the Tusayan series, ending near the present
+town of Flagstaff, Arizona; but southward from that town the country
+was broken and impassable, a land where the foot of the archeologist
+had not trodden. Remains of human habitations had, however, been
+reported by ranchmen, but these reports were vague and unsatisfactory.
+So far as they went they confirmed my suspicions, and there
+were other significant facts looking the same way. The color of the
+red cliffs fulfilled the Tusayan tradition of Palatkwabi, or their former
+home in the far south. Led by all these considerations, before I took to
+the field I had long been convinced that this must have been one of the
+homes of certain Hopi clans, and when the occasion presented itself I
+determined to follow the northward extension of the ancient people of
+the Verde into these rugged rocks. By my discoveries in this region
+of ruins indicative of dwellings of great size in ancient times I have
+supplied the missing links in the chain of ancient dwellings extending
+from the great towns of the Gila to the ruins west of the modern
+Tusayan towns. If this line of ruins, continuous from Gila valley to
+Tusayan and beyond, be taken in connection with legends ascribing
+Casa Grande to the Hopi and those of certain Tusayan clans which
+tell of the homes of their ancestors in the south, a plausible explanation
+is offered for the many similarities between two apparently widely
+different peoples, and the theory of a kinship between southern and
+northern sedentary tribes of Arizona does not seem as unlikely as it
+might otherwise appear.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will notice that I accept without question the belief that
+the so-called cliff dwellers were not a distinct people, but a specially
+adaptive condition of life of a race whose place of habitation was determined
+by its environment. We are considering a people who sometimes
+built dwellings in caverns and sometimes in the plains, but often
+in both places at the same epoch. Moreover, as long ago pointed out
+by other students, the existing Pueblo Indians are descendants of a
+people who at times lived in cliffs, and some of the Tusayan clans have
+inhabited true cliff houses in the historic period. By intermarriage with
+nomadic races and from other causes the character of Pueblo consanguinity
+is no doubt somewhat different from that of their ancient kin,
+but the character of the culture, as shown by a comparison of cliff-house
+and modern objects, has not greatly changed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532">[Pg 532]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>While recognizing the kinship of the Pueblos and the Cliff villagers,
+this resemblance is not restricted to any one pueblo or group of modern
+pueblos to the exclusion of others. Of all modern differentiations of
+this ancient substratum of culture of which cliff villages are one adaptive
+expression, the Tusayan Indians are the nearest of all existing people
+of the Southwest<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> to the ancient people of Arizona.</p>
+
+<p>The more southerly ruins of Tusayan, which I have been able satisfactorily
+to identify and to designate by a Hopi name, are those called
+Homolobi, situated not far from Winslow, Arizona, near where the
+railroad crosses the Little Colorado. These ruins are claimed by the
+Hopi as the former residences of their ancestors, and were halting
+places in the migration of certain clans from the south. They were
+examined by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+in 1893,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> but no report on them has yet been published.</p>
+
+<p>While, however, the Homolobi group of ruins is the most southerly to
+which I have been able to affix a Hopi name, others still more to the
+southward are claimed by certain of their traditions.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The Hopi likewise
+regard as homes of their ancestors certain habitations, now in
+ruins, near San Francisco mountains. In a report on his exploration
+of Zu&ntilde;i and Little Colorado rivers in 1852, Captain L. Sitgreaves called
+attention to several interesting ruins, one of which was not far from the
+"cascades" of the latter river. After ascending the plateau, which he
+found covered with volcanic detritus, he discovered that "all the prominent
+points" were "occupied by the ruins of stone houses, which were
+in some instances three stories in height. They are evidently," he says,
+"the remains of a large town, as they occurred at intervals for an
+extent of eight or nine miles, and the ground was thickly strewn with
+fragments of pottery in all directions."</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 a portion of Colonel James Stevenson's expedition, under
+F. D. Bickford, examined the cliff houses in Walnut canyon, and in
+1886 Major J. W. Powell and Colonel Stevenson found scattered ruins
+north of San Francisco mountains having one, two, or three rooms,
+each "built of basaltic cinders and blocks of lava." These explorers
+likewise reported ruins of extensive dwellings in the same region<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533">[Pg 533]</a></span>
+made of sandstone and limestone. At about 25 miles north of the
+mountains mentioned they discovered a small volcanic cone of cinders
+and basalt, which was formerly the site of a village or pueblo built
+around a crater, and estimated that this little pueblo contained 60 or
+70 rooms, with a plaza occupying one-third of an acre of surface.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>Twelve miles eastward from San Francisco mountains they found
+another cinder cone resembling a dome, and on its southern slope, in
+a coherent cinder mass, were many chambers, of which one hundred
+and fifty are said to have been excavated. They mention the existence
+on the summit of this cone of a plaza inclosed by a rude wall of volcanic
+cinders, with a carefully leveled floor. The former inhabitants of
+these rooms apparently lived in underground chambers hewn from the
+volcanic formation. Eighteen miles farther eastward was another
+ruined village built about the crater of a volcanic cone. Several villages
+were discovered in this locality and many natural caves which
+had been utilized as dwellings by inclosing them in front with walls of
+volcanic rocks and cinders. These cavate rooms were arranged tier
+above tier in a very irregular way.</p>
+
+<p>At this place three distinct kinds of ruins were found&mdash;cliff villages,
+cave dwellings, and pueblos. Eight miles southeastward from Flagstaff,
+in Oak creek canyon, a cliff house of several hundred rooms was
+discovered. It was concluded that all these ruins were abandoned
+at a comparatively recent date, or not more than three or four centuries
+ago, and the Havasupai Indians of Cataract canyon were regarded as
+descendants of the former inhabitants of these villages. The situation
+of some of these ruins and the published descriptions would
+indicate that some of them were similar to those described and figured
+by Sitgreaves,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> to which reference has already been made.</p>
+
+<p>In 1896 two amateur explorers, George Campbell and Everett Howell,
+of Flagstaff, reported that they had found, about eighteen miles from
+that place, several well-preserved cliff towns and a remarkable tunnel
+excavation. The whole region in the immediate neighborhood of San
+Francisco mountains appears, therefore, to have been populated in
+ancient times by an agricultural people, and legends ascribe some of
+these ruins to ancestors of the Hopi Indians.</p>
+
+<p>There are several ruins due south of Tusayan which have not been
+investigated, but which would furnish important contributions to a
+study of Hopi migrations. Near Saint Johns, Arizona, likewise, there
+are ruins of considerable size, possibly referable to the Cibolan series;
+and south of Holbrook, which lies about due south of Walpi, there are
+ruins, the pottery from which I have examined and found to be of the
+black-and-white ware typical of the Cliff people. Perhaps, however,
+no ruined pueblo presents more interesting problems than the magnificent
+Pueblo Grande or Kintiel, about 20 miles north of Navaho Springs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534">[Pg 534]</a></span>
+This large ruin, lying between the Cibolan and Tusayan groups, has
+been referred to both of these provinces, and would, if properly excavated,
+shed much light on the archeology of the two provinces.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Kinnazinde
+lies not far from Kintiel.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins reported from Tonto Basin, of which little is known, may
+later be found to be connected with early migrations of those Hopi
+clans which claim southern origin. From what I can judge by the
+present appearance of ruins just north of the Mogollon mountains, in a
+direct line between Tonto Basin and the present Tusayan towns, there
+is nothing to show the age of these ruined villages, and it is quite
+likely that they may have been inhabited in the middle of the sixteenth
+century. While it is commonly agreed that the province of "Totonteac,"
+which figures extensively in certain early Spanish narratives,
+was the same as Tusayan, the linguistic similarity of the word to "tonto"
+has been suggested by others. In the troublesome years between 1860
+and 1870 the Hopi, decimated by disease and harried by nomads, sent
+delegates to Prescott asking to be removed to Tonto Basin, and it is
+not improbable that in making this reasonable request they simply
+wished to return to a place which they associated with their ancestors,
+who had been driven out by the Apache. Totonteac<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> is ordinarily
+thought to be the same as Tusayan, but it may have included some of
+the southern pueblos now in ruins west of Zu&ntilde;i.</p>
+
+<p>Having determined that the line of Verde ruins was continued into
+the Red-rock country, it was desirable to see how the latter compared
+with those nearer Tusayan. This necessitated reexamination of many
+ruins in Verde valley, which was my aim during the most of June. I
+followed this valley from the cavate dwellings near Squaw mountain
+past the great ruin in the neighborhood of Old Camp Verde, the unique
+Montezuma Well, to the base of the Red-rocks. Throughout this region
+I saw, as had been expected, no change in the character of the ruins
+great enough to indicate that they originally were inhabited by peoples
+racially different. Stopped from further advance by a barrier of rugged
+cliffs, I turned westward along their base until I found similar
+ruins, which were named Palatki and Honanki. Having satisfied
+myself that there was good evidence that the numbers of ancient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535">[Pg 535]</a></span>
+people were as great here as at any point in the Verde valley and that
+their culture was similar, I continued the work with an examination of
+the ruins north of the Red-rocks, where there is substantial evidence
+that these were likewise of the same general character.</p>
+
+<p>The last two months of the summer, July and August, 1895, were
+devoted to explorations of two Tusayan ruins, called Awatobi and
+Sikyatki. In this work, apparently unconnected with that already
+outlined, I still had in mind the light to be shed on the problem of
+Tusayan origin. The question which presented itself was: How are
+these ruins related to the modern pueblos? Awatobi was a historic
+ruin, destroyed in 1700, and therefore somewhat influenced by the
+Spaniards. Many of the survivors became amalgamated with pueblos
+still inhabited. Its kinship with the surviving villagers was clear.
+Sikyatki, however, was overthrown in prehistoric times, and at its
+destruction part of its people went to Awatobi. Its culture was prehistoric.
+The discovery of what these two ruins teach, by bringing
+prehistoric Tusayan culture down to the present time and comparing
+them with the ruins of Verde valley and southern Arizona, is of great
+archeological interest.</p>
+
+<p>While engaged in preparing this report, having in fact written most
+of it, I received Mr Cosmos Mindeleff's valuable article on the Verde
+ruins,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> in which special attention is given to the cavate lodges and
+villages of this interesting valley. This contribution anticipates many
+of my observations on these two groups of aboriginal habitations, and
+renders it unnecessary to describe them in the detailed manner I had
+planned. I shall therefore touch but briefly on these ruins, paying
+special attention to the cliff houses of Verde valley, situated in the
+Red-rock country. This variety of dwelling was overlooked in both
+Mearns' and Mindeleff's classifications, from the fact that it seems to
+be confined to the region of the valley characterized by the red-rock
+formation, which appears not to have been explored by them. The
+close resemblance of these cliff houses to those of the region north of
+Tusayan is instructive, in view of the ground, well taken, I believe,
+by Mr Mindeleff, that there is a close likeness between the Verde ruins
+and those farther north, especially in Tusayan.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536">[Pg 536]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="RUINS_IN_VERDE_VALLEY" id="RUINS_IN_VERDE_VALLEY"></a>RUINS IN VERDE VALLEY</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Classification of the Ruins</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>The ruined habitations in the valley of the Rio Verde may be considered
+under three divisions or types, differing in form, but essentially
+the same in character. In adopting this classification, which is by no
+means restricted to this single valley, I do not claim originality, but
+follow that used by the best writers on this subject. My limitation
+of the types and general definitions may, however, be found to differ
+somewhat from those of my predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>The three groups of ruins in our Southwest are the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">I&mdash;Pueblos, or Independent habitations.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">II&mdash;Cliff Houses&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; }</span><br />
+III&mdash;Cavate Dwellings    } Dependent habitations.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>In the first group are placed those ancient or modern habitations
+which are isolated, on all sides, from cliffs. They may be situated in
+valleys or on elevations or mesas; they may be constructed of clay,
+adobe, or stone of various kinds, but are always isolated from cliffs.
+They are single or multiple chambered, circular or rectangular in
+shape, and may have been built either as permanent habitations or as
+temporary outlooks. Their main feature is freedom, on all sides except
+the foundation, from cliffs or walls of rock in place.</p>
+
+<p>The second group includes those not isolated from natural cliffs, but
+with some part of their lateral walls formed by natural rock in situ,
+and are built ordinarily in caverns with overhanging roofs, which the
+highest courses of their walls do not join. Generally erected in caves,
+their front walls never close the entrances to those caverns. This kind
+of aboriginal buildings may, like the former, vary in structural material;
+but, so far as I know, they are not, for obvious reasons, made of
+adobe alone.</p>
+
+<p>The third kind of pueblo dwellings are called cavate dwellings or
+lodges, a group which includes that peculiar kind of aboriginal dwelling
+where the rooms are excavated from the cliff wall, forming caves,
+where natural rock is a support or more often serves as the wall itself
+of the dwelling. The entrance may be partially closed by masonry,
+the floor laid with flat stones, and the sides plastered with clay; but
+never in this group is there a roof distinct from the top of the cave.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally cavate dwellings grade into cliff houses, but neither of
+these types can be confounded with the first group, which affords us
+no difficulty in identification. All these kinds of dwellings were made
+by people of the same culture, the character of the habitation depending
+on geological environment.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCIa" id="PL_XCIa"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcia.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="PL. XCIa&mdash;CAVATE DWELLINGS&mdash;RIO VERDE" title="PL. XCIa&mdash;
+CAVATE DWELLINGS&mdash;RIO VERDE" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCI<sup>a</sup></span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">CAVATE DWELLINGS&mdash;RIO VERDE</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537">[Pg 537]</a></span></p>
+<p>In Verde valley, villages, cliff houses, and cavate dwellings exist
+together, and were, I believe, contemporaneously inhabited by a people
+of the same culture.</p>
+
+<p>These types of ancient habitations are not believed to stand in the
+relationship of sequence in development; nor is one simpler or less
+difficult of construction than the others. Cliff houses display no less
+skill and daring than do the villages in the plain, called pueblos. The
+cavate dwellings are likewise a form of habitation which shows considerable
+workmanship, and are far from caves like those inhabited by
+"cave men." These dwellings were laboriously excavated with rude
+implements; had floors, banquettes, windows, walled recesses, and the
+like. It is hardly proper to regard them, as less difficult to construct
+than pueblos or cliff houses.</p>
+
+<p>Cavate dwellings, like villages or cliff houses, may be single or multiple,
+single or many chambered, and a cluster of these troglodytic
+dwellings was, in fact, as truly a village as a pueblo or cliff house.
+The same principle of seeking safety by crowding together held in all
+three instances; and this very naturally, for the culture of the inhabitants
+was identical. I shall consider only two of the three types of
+dwellings in Verde valley, namely, the second and third groups.</p>
+
+<p>It has, I think, been conclusively shown by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, so
+far as types of the first group of ruins on the Verde are concerned,
+that they practically do not differ from the modern Tusayan pueblos.
+The remaining types, when rightly interpreted, furnish evidence of
+no less important character. Notwithstanding Mindeleff's excellent
+descriptions of the cavate dwellings of this region, already cited, I
+have thought it well to bring into prominence certain features which
+seem to me to indicate that this form of aboriginal dwelling was high
+in its development, showing considerable skill in its construction, and
+was fashioned on the same general plan as the others. For this demonstration
+I have chosen one of the most striking clusters in Verde valley.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cavate Dwellings</span></h3>
+
+<p>The most accessible cavate dwellings in Verde valley (<a href="#PL_XCIa">plate <span class="smcap">xci</span> <i>a</i></a>) are
+situated on the left bank of the river, about eight miles southward from
+Camp Verde and three miles from the mouth of Clear creek. The
+general characteristics of this group have been well described by Mr
+Mindeleff in the Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau, so that I
+need but refer to a few additional observations made on these interesting
+habitations.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>These cavate lodges afford a fair idea of the best known of these
+prehistoric dwellings in this part of Arizona. Although Verde valley<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538">[Pg 538]</a></span>
+has many fine ranches, the land in immediate proximity to these ruins
+is uncultivated. The nearest habitation, however, is not far away, and
+it is not difficult to find guides to these caves, so well known are they
+to the inhabitants of this part of the valley. It did not take long to
+learn that any investigations which I might attempt there had been
+anticipated by other archeologists and laymen, for many of the rooms
+had been rifled of their contents and their walls thrown down, while it
+was also evident that some careful excavations had been made.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, abundant opportunity for more detailed scientific
+work than has yet been attempted on these ruins, and what has thus
+far been accomplished has been more in the nature of reconnoissance.
+The cemeteries and burial places of the prehistoric people of the cavate
+dwellings are yet to be discovered, and it is probable, judging from
+experience gained at other ruins, that when they are found and carefully
+investigated much light will be thrown on the character of
+ancient cave life.</p>
+
+<p>The entrances to the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw mountain are
+visible from the road for quite a distance, appearing as rows of holes
+in the steep walls of the cliff on the opposite or left bank of the Rio
+Verde. Owing to their proximity to the river, from which the precipice
+in which they are situated rises almost vertically, we were unable
+to camp under them, but remained on the right bank of the river,
+where a level plain extends for some distance, bordering the river and
+stretching back to the distant cliffs. We pitched our camp on a bluff,
+about 30 feet above the river, in full sight of the cave entrances, near
+a small stone inclosure which bears quite a close resemblance to a
+Tusayan shrine.</p>
+
+<p>Aboriginal people had evidently cultivated the plain where we
+camped, for there are many evidences of irrigating ditches and even
+walls of former houses. At present, however, this once highly cultivated
+field lies unused, and is destitute of any valuable plants save
+the scanty grass which served to eke out the fodder of our horses.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of my visit the water of Rio Verde at this point was confined
+to a very narrow channel under the bluff near its right bank, but
+the appearance of its bed showed that in heavy freshets during the
+rainy season the water filled the interval between the base of the cliffs
+in which the cavate dwellings are situated and the bluffs which form
+the right bank.</p>
+
+<p>In visits to the caves it was necessary, on account of the site of the
+camp, to ford the stream each time and to climb to their level over
+fallen stones, a task of no slight difficulty. The water in places was
+shallow and the current only moderately rapid. Considering the fact
+that it furnished potable liquid for ourselves and horses, and that the
+line of trees which skirted the bluff was available for firewood, our
+camp compared well with many which we subsequently made in our
+summer's explorations.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCIb" id="PL_XCIb"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcib.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="PL. XCIb&mdash;
+CAVATE DWELLINGS&mdash;OAK CREEK" title="PL. XCIb&mdash;
+CAVATE DWELLINGS&mdash;OAK CREEK" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCI<sup>b</sup></span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">CAVATE DWELLINGS&mdash;OAK CREEK</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539">[Pg 539]</a></span></p>
+<p>The section of the cliff which was examined embraced the northern
+series of these caves, extending from a promontory forming one side of
+a blind or box canyon to nearly opposite our camp. Adjacent to this
+series of rooms, but farther down the river, on the same side, there
+are two narrow side canyons, in both of which are also numerous
+caves, in all respects similar to the series we chose for examination.
+At several points on the summit of the cliffs, above the caves, large
+rectangular ruins, with fallen walls, were discovered; these ruins are,
+however, in no respect peculiar, but closely resemble those ordinarily
+found in a similar position throughout this region and elsewhere in
+Arizona and New Mexico. From their proximity to the caves it would
+seem that the cavate dwellings, and the pueblos on the summits of the
+mesas in which they are found, had been inhabited by one people;
+but better evidence that such is true is drawn from the character of
+the architecture and the nature of the art remains common to both.</p>
+
+<p>Let us first consider the series of caves from a point opposite our
+camp to the promontory which forms a pinnacle at the mouth of the
+first of the two side caverns&mdash;a row of caves the entrances to which
+are shown in the accompanying illustration (<a href="#PL_XCII">plate <span class="smcap">xcii</span></a>). I have lettered
+these rooms, as indicated by their entrances, <i>a</i> to <i>l</i>, beginning with the
+opening on the left.</p>
+
+<p>The rock in which these caves have been hewn is very soft, and
+almost white in color, save for a slightly reddish brown stratum just
+below the line of entrances to the cavate chambers. Although, as a
+general thing, the wall of the cliff is almost perpendicular, and the
+caves at points inaccessible, entrance to the majority of them can be
+effected by mounting the heaps of small stones forming the d&eacute;bris,
+which has fallen even to the bed of the river at various places, and by
+following a ledge which connects the line of entrances. The easiest
+approach mounts a steep decline, not far from the promontory at the
+lower level of the line, which conducts to a ledge running along in
+front of the caves about 150 feet above the bed of the stream. Roughly
+speaking, this ledge is about 100 feet below the summit of the cliff. It
+was impossible to reach several of the rooms, and it is probable that
+when the caves were inhabited access to any one of them was even
+more difficult than at present.</p>
+
+<p>Judging from the number of rooms, the cliffs on the left bank of the
+Verde must have had a considerable population when inhabited. These
+caverns, no doubt, swarmed with human beings, and their inaccessible
+position furnished the inhabitants with a safe refuge from enemies, or
+an advantageous outlook or observation shelter for their fields on the
+opposite side of the stream. The soft rock of which the mesa is formed
+is easily worked, and there are abundant evidences, from the marks of
+tools employed, that the greater part of each cave was pecked out by
+hand. Fragments of wood were very rarely seen in these cliff dugouts;
+and although there is much adobe plastering, only in a few instances<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540">[Pg 540]</a></span>
+were the mouths of the caves walled or a doorway of usual shape
+present. The last room at the southern end, near the promontory at
+the right of the entrance to a side canyon, has walls in front resembling
+those of true cliff houses and pueblos in the Red-rock country farther
+northward, as will be shown in subsequent pages.</p>
+
+<p>This group of cavate dwellings, while a good example of the cavern
+type of ruins, is so closely associated, both in geographical position and
+in archeological remains, with other types in Verde valley, that we are
+justified in referring them to one and the same people. The number of
+these troglodytic dwelling places on the Verde is very large; indeed the
+mesas may be said to be fairly honeycombed with subterranean habitations.
+Confined as a general thing to the softer strata of rock, which
+from its character was readily excavated, they lie side by side at the
+same general level, and are entered from a projecting ledge, formed by
+the top of the talus which follows the level of their entrances.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_245" id="Fig_245"></a>
+<img src="images/fig245.png" width="600" height="591" alt="Fig. 245&mdash;Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde" title="Fig. 245&mdash;Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 245&mdash;Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This ledge is easily accessible in certain places from the river bed,
+where stones have fallen to the base of the cliff; but at most points no
+approach is possible, and in their impregnable position the inhabitants
+could easily defend themselves from hostile peoples.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCII" id="PL_XCII"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcii.jpg" width="600" height="352" alt="PL. XCII&mdash;
+ENTRANCES TO CAVATE RUINS" title="PL. XCII&mdash;
+ENTRANCES TO CAVATE RUINS" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">ENTRANCES TO CAVATE RUINS</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541">[Pg 541]</a></span></p>
+<p>Whether the rock had recesses in it before the caves were enlarged
+would seem to be answered in the affirmative, for similar caves without
+evidences of habitations were observed. These, however, are as a rule
+small, and wherever available the larger caverns have been appropriated
+and enlarged by stone implements, as shown by the pecking on
+the walls. The enlargement of these caverns, however, would not be a
+difficult task, for the rock is very soft and easily worked.</p>
+
+<p>Entering one of these cavate rooms the visitor finds himself in a dark
+chamber, as a rule with side openings or passageways into adjoining
+rooms. Broad lateral banquettes are prominent features in the most
+complicated caves, and there are many recesses and small closets or
+cists.</p>
+
+<p>The ramifications formed by lateral rooms are often extensive, and
+the chambers communicate with others so dark that we can hardly
+regard them as once inhabited. In these dimly lighted rooms the walls
+were blackened with smoke, as if from former fires, and in many of the
+largest the position of fireplaces could plainly be discovered. As a
+type of one of the more complicated I have chosen that figured to illustrate
+the arrangement of these cavate dwellings (<a href="#Fig_245">figure 245</a>). Many are
+smaller, others have more lateral chambers, but one type is characteristic
+of all.</p>
+
+<p>A main room (<span class="smcap"><i>a</i></span>, <a href="#Fig_245">figure 245</a>), or that first entered from outside, is
+roughly rectangular in shape, 12 feet long by 6 feet wide, and about
+6 feet high. The floor, however, was covered with very dry d&eacute;bris
+which had blown in from the exterior or, in some instances, fallen from
+the roof. That part of the floor which was exposed shows that it was
+roughly plastered, sometimes paved or formed of solid rock.</p>
+
+<p>On three sides of this room there is a step 2 feet high, to platforms,
+three in number, one in the rear and one on each side. These platforms
+are 5, 6, and 6 feet 6 inches wide, respectively, and of the same
+length as the corresponding sides of the central room. It would appear
+that these platforms are characteristic architectural features of these
+habitations, and we find them reproduced in some of the rooms of
+the cliff houses of the Red-rocks, while Nordenski&ouml;ld has described
+a kindred feature in the kivas of the Mesa Verde ruins. A somewhat
+similar elevation of the floor in modern Tusayan kivas forms what may
+be called the spectator's part, in front of the ladder as one descends,
+and the same feature is common to many older Hopi dwellings.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542">[Pg 542]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Beginning with the lateral platforms (<span class="smcap"><i>b</i></span>, <a href="#Fig_245">figure 245</a>) we first note, as
+we step upon it at <i>c</i>, about midway of its length, a small circular depression
+in the floor of the central room extending slightly beneath the
+platform, as indicated by the dotted line. It is possible that this niche
+was a receptacle for important household objects, although it may
+have been a fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>In a corner of the right platform a round cist, partially hewn out of
+the rock, was found, but its walls (<i>a</i>, <a href="#Fig_245">figure 245</a>) were badly broken down
+by some former explorer. The floor of this recess lies below that of the
+platform, while the cist itself (<span class="smcap"><i>d</i></span>) reminds one of the closed or walled
+structures, so commonly found in the Verde, attached to the side of the
+cliff. On the lateral wall of this chamber, at about the height of the
+head, a row of small holes had been drilled into the solid wall. These
+holes (<i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>) are almost too small for the insertion of roof beams, and
+were probably made for pegs on which to rest a beam for hanging
+blankets and other textile fabrics when not in use. The roof of the
+cave was the natural rock, and showed over its whole surface marks of
+a pecking implement.</p>
+
+<p>The left chamber is 6 feet 6 inches broad, and from one corner, opposite
+the doorway, a low passageway leads into a circular chamber, 6 feet
+in diameter, with its floor below the platform of the lateral room.
+Between the chamber, on the left of the entrance, and the open air,
+the wall of solid rock is broken by a slit-like crevice, which allows the
+light to enter, and no doubt served as a window. A recess, the floor
+of which is elevated, on a platform opposite the doorway, is 5 feet
+broad, and has a small circular depression in one corner. The floor
+and upraise of this recess is plastered with adobe, which in several
+places is smooth and well made.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing the remaining cavate dwellings of this series with that
+described, we find every degree of complication in the arrangement of
+rooms, from a simple cave, or irregular hole in the side of the cliff, to
+squared chambers with lateral rooms. The room <i>I</i>,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> for instance, is
+rectangular, 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, with an entrance the same
+width as that of the room itself.</p>
+
+<p>In room <i>III</i>, however, the external opening is very small, and there is
+a low, narrow ledge, or platform, opposite the doorway. There is likewise
+in this room a small shelf in the left-hand wall. In <i>IV</i> there is a
+raised platform on two adjacent sides of the square room, and the
+doorway is an irregular orifice broken through the wall to the open air.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>IV</i> is a subterranean chamber, most of the floor of which is
+littered with large fragments of rock which have fallen from the roof.
+It has numerous small recesses in the wall resembling cubby-holes
+where household utensils of various kinds were undoubtedly formerly
+kept. This room is instructive, in that the entrance is partially closed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543">[Pg 543]</a></span>
+by two walls of masonry, which do not join. The stones are laid in
+adobe in which fragments of pottery were detected. These unjoined
+walls leave a doorway which is thus flanked on each side by stone
+masonry, recalling in every particular the well-known walls of cliff
+houses. Here, in fact, we have so close a resemblance to the masonry
+of true cliff houses that we can hardly doubt that the excavators of
+the cavate dwellings were, in reality, people similar to those who built
+the cliff houses of Verde valley.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>VIII</i> is a simple cave hewn out of the rock, with a chamber
+behind it, entered by a passageway made of masonry, which partially
+fills a larger opening. The doorway through this masonry is small
+below, but broadens above in much the same manner as some of the
+doorways in Tusayan of today.</p>
+
+<p>Continuing along the left bank of the river, from the row of cavate
+rooms, just described, on the first mesa, we round a promontory and
+enter a small canyon,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> which is perforated on each side with numerous
+other cavate dwellings, large and small, all of the same general
+character as the type described. Here, likewise, are small external
+openings which evidently communicated with subterranean chambers,
+but many of them are so elevated that access to them from the floor of
+the canyon or from the cliff above is not possible. A marked feature
+of the whole series is the existence here and there of small, often
+inaccessible, stone cists of masonry plastered to the side of the rocky
+cliff like swallows' nests.</p>
+
+<p>All of these cists which are accessible had been opened and plundered
+before my visit, but there yet remain a few which are still intact
+and would repay examination and study. Similar walled-up cists are
+likewise found, as we shall see later, in the cliff-houses of the Red-rock
+country, hence are not confined to the Verde system of ruins.</p>
+
+<p>Cavate dwellings similar to those here described are reported to exist
+in the canyons of upper Salado, Gala, and Zu&ntilde;i rivers, and we may
+with reason suspect that the distribution<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> of cavate dwellings is as
+wide as that of the pueblos themselves, the sole requisite being a soft
+tufaceous rock, capable of being easily worked by people with stone
+implements. In none of the different regions in which they exist is there
+any probability that these caves were made by people different in culture
+from pueblo or cliff dwellers. They are much more likely to have
+been permanent than temporary habitations of the same culture stock
+of Indians who availed themselves of rock shelters wherever the nature
+of the cliff permitted excavation in its walls.</p>
+
+<p>That the cavate lodges are simple "horticultural outlooks" is an
+important suggestion, but one might question whether they were conveniently
+placed for that purpose. So far as overlooking the opposite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544">[Pg 544]</a></span>
+plain (which had undoubtedly been cultivated in ancient times) is concerned,
+the position of some of them may be regarded good for that
+purpose, but certainly not so commanding as that of the hill or mesa
+above, where well-marked ruins still exist.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the cavate dwellings is a disadvantageous one to
+reach any cultivated fields if defenders were necessary. When the
+Tusayan Indian today moves to his <i>kisi</i> or summer brush house shelter
+he practically camps in his corn or near it, in easy reach to drive away
+crows, or build wind-breaks to shelter the tender sprouts; but to go to
+their cornfields the inhabitants of the cavate dwellings I have described
+were forced to cross a river before the farm was reached. That these
+cavate dwellings were lookouts none can deny, but I incline to a belief
+that this does not tell the whole story if we limit them to such use.
+It is not wholly clear to me that they were not likewise an asylum
+for refuge, possibly not inhabited continuously, but a very welcome
+retreat when the agriculturist was sorely pressed by enemies. Following
+the analogy of a Hopi custom of building temporary booths
+near their fields, may we not suppose that the former inhabitants of
+Verde valley may have erected similar shelters in their cornfields
+during summer months, retiring to the cavate dwellings and the mesa
+tops in winter? All available evidence would indicate that the cavate
+dwellings were permanent habitations.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are several square ruins on top of the mesa above the cavate
+dwellings. The walls of these were massive, but they are now very
+much broken down, and the adobe plastering is so eroded from the
+masonry that I regard them of considerable antiquity. They do not
+differ from other similar ruins, so common elsewhere in New Mexico
+and Arizona, and are identical with others in the Verde region. I
+visited several of these ruins, but made no excavations in them, nor
+added any new data to our knowledge of this type of aboriginal buildings.
+The pottery picked up on the surface resembles that of the ruins
+of the Little Colorado and Gila.</p>
+
+<p>The dwellings which I have mentioned above are said<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> to be duplicated
+at many other points in the watershed of the Verde, and many
+undescribed ruins of this nature were reported to me by ranchmen. I
+do not regard them as older than the adjacent ruins on the mesa above
+or the plains below them, much less as productions of people of different
+stages of culture, for everything about them suggests contemporaneous
+occupancy.</p>
+
+<p>From what little I saw of the village sites on the Verde I believe
+that Mindeleff is correct in considering that these ruins represent a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545">[Pg 545]</a></span>
+comparatively late period of pueblo architecture. The character of
+the cliff houses of the Red-rocks shows no very great antiquity of
+occupancy. While it is not possible to give any approximate date
+when they were inhabited, their general appearance indicates that
+they are not more than two centuries old. There is, however, no reference
+to them in the early Spanish history of the Southwest.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCIII" id="PL_XCIII"></a><a href="images/platexciii-lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/platexciii.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="PL. XCIII&mdash;
+BOWLDER WITH PICTOGRAPHS NEAR WOOD&#39;S RANCH" title="PL. XCIII&mdash;
+BOWLDER WITH PICTOGRAPHS NEAR WOOD&#39;S RANCH" /></a>
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">BOWLDER WITH PICTOGRAPHS NEAR WOOD&#39;S RANCH</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Few pictographs were found in the immediate neighborhood of the
+cavate dwellings; indeed the rock in their vicinity is too soft to preserve
+for any considerable time any great number of these rock etchings.
+Examples of ancient paleography were, however, discovered a
+short distance higher up the river on malpais rock, which is harder and
+less rapidly eroded. A half-buried bowlder (<a href="#PL_XCIII">plate <span class="smcap">xciii</span></a>) near Wood's
+ranch was found to be covered with the well-known spirals with zigzag
+attachments, horned animals resembling antelopes, growing corn, rain
+clouds, and similar figures. These pictographs occur on a black, superficial
+layer of lava rock, or upon lighter stone with a malpais layer,
+which had been pecked through, showing a lighter color beneath.
+There is little doubt that many examples of aboriginal pictography
+exist in this neighborhood, which would reward exploration with interesting
+data. The Verde pictographs can not be distinguished, so far as
+designs are concerned, from many found elsewhere in Colorado, Utah,
+New Mexico, and Arizona.</p>
+
+<p>An instructive pictograph, different from any which I have elsewhere
+seen, was discovered on the upturned side of a bowlder not far from
+Hance's ranch, near the road from Camp Verde to the cavate dwellings.
+The bowlder upon which they occur lies on top of a low hill, to the left
+of the road, near the river. It consists of a rectangular network of
+lines, with attached key extensions, crooks, and triangles, all pecked
+in the surface. This d&aelig;dalus of lines arises from grooves, which
+originate in two small, rounded depressions in the rock, near which
+is depicted the figure of a mountain lion. The whole pictograph is 3-1/2
+feet square, and legible in all its parts.</p>
+
+<p>The intent of the ancient scribe is not wholly clear, but it has been
+suggested that he sought to represent the nexus of irrigating ditches
+in the plain below. It might have been intended as a chart of the
+neighboring fields of corn, and it is highly suggestive, if we adopt
+either of these explanations or interpretations, that a figure of the
+mountain lion is found near the depressions, which may provisionally
+be regarded as representing ancient reservoirs. Among the Tusayan
+Indians the mountain lion is looked on as a guardian of cultivated
+fields, which he is said to protect, and his stone image is sometimes
+placed there for the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>In the vicinity of the pictograph last described other bowlders, of
+which there are many, were found to be covered with smaller rock
+etchings in no respect characteristic, and there is a remnant of an
+ancient shrine a few yards away from the bowlder upon which they
+occur.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546">[Pg 546]</a></span></p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">Montezuma Well</span></h3>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting sites of ancient habitation in Verde valley
+is known as Montezuma Well, and it is remarkable how little attention
+has been paid to it by archeologists.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Dr Mearns, in his article on
+the ancient dwellings of Verde valley, does not mention the well, and
+Mindeleff simply refers to the brief description by Dr Hoffman in 1877.
+These ruins are worthy of more study than I was able to give them,
+for like many other travelers I remained but a short time in the neighborhood.
+It is possible, however, that some of my hurried observations
+at this point may be worthy of record.</p>
+
+<p>Montezuma Well (<a href="#PL_XCIV">plate <span class="smcap">xciv</span></a>) is an irregular, circular depression,
+closely resembling a volcanic crater, but evidently, as Dr Hoffman well
+points out, due to erosion rather than to volcanic agencies. As one
+approaches it from a neighboring ranch the road ascends a low elevation,
+and when on top the visitor finds that the crater occupies the
+whole interior of the hill. The exact dimensions I did not accurately
+determine, but the longest diameter of the excavation is estimated at
+about 400 feet; its depth possibly 70 feet. On the eastern side this
+depression is separated from Beaver creek by a precipitous wall which
+can not be scaled from that side. At the time of my visit there was considerable
+water in the "well," which was reported to be very deep, but
+did not cover the whole bottom. It is possible to descend to the water
+at one point on the eastern side, where a trail leads to the water's edge.</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be a subterranean waterway under the eastern rim
+of the well, and the water from the spring rushes through this passage
+into Beaver creek. At the time of my visit this outflow was very considerable,
+and in the rainy season it must be much greater. The well
+is never dry, and is supplied by perennial subterranean springs rather
+than by surface drainage.</p>
+
+<p>The geological agency which has been potent in giving the remarkable
+crater-like form to Montezuma Well was correctly recognized by
+Dr Hoffman<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and others as the solvent or erosive power of the spring.
+There is no evidence of volcanic formation in the neighborhood, and
+the surrounding rocks are limestones and sandstones. Not far from
+Navaho springs there is a similar circular depression, called Jacob's
+Well, but which was dry when visited by me. This may later be found
+to have been formed in a similar way. At several places in Arizona
+there are formations of like geological character.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCIV" id="PL_XCIV"></a>
+<img src="images/platexciv.jpg" width="600" height="436" alt="PL. XCIV&mdash;
+MONTEZUMA WELL" title="PL. XCIV&mdash;
+MONTEZUMA WELL" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">MONTEZUMA WELL</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The walls of Montezuma Well are so nearly perpendicular that descent
+to the edge of the water is difficult save by a single trail which follows
+the detritus to a cave on one side. In this cave, the roof of which is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547">[Pg 547]</a></span>
+not much higher than the water level, there are fragments of masonry,
+as if structures of some kind had formerly been erected in it. I have
+regarded this cave rather as a place of religious rites than of former
+habitation, possibly a place of retreat for ancient priests when praying
+for rain or moisture, or a shrine for the deposit of prayer offerings to
+rain or water gods.</p>
+
+<p>Several isolated cliff dwellings are built at different levels in the
+sides of the cliffs. One of the best of these is diametrically opposite
+the cave mentioned above, a few feet below the rim of the depression.
+While this house was entered with little difficulty, there were others
+which I did not venture to visit.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying illustration (<a href="#PL_XCV">plate <span class="smcap">xcv</span></a>) gives an idea of the general
+appearance of one of these cliff houses of Montezuma Well. It is
+built under an overhanging archway of rock in a deep recess, with
+masonry on three sides. The openings are shown, one of which overlooks
+the spring; the other is an entrance at one side. The face of
+masonry on the front is not plastered, and if it was formerly rough cast
+the mud has been worn away, leaving the stones exposed. The side
+wall, which has been less exposed to the elements, still retains the plastering,
+which is likewise found on the inner walls where it is quite
+smooth in places.</p>
+
+<p>The number of cliff rooms in the walls of the well is small and their
+capacity, if used as dwellings, very limited. There are, however, ruins
+of pueblos of some size on the edge of the well.</p>
+
+<p>One of the largest of these, shown in the accompanying illustration
+(<a href="#PL_XCVI">plate <span class="smcap">xcvi</span></a>), is situated on the neck of land separating the well from
+the valley of Beaver creek. This pueblo was rectangular in form, of
+considerable size, built of stones, and although at present almost demolished,
+shows perfectly the walls of former rooms. Fragments of ancient
+pottery would seem to indicate that the people who once inhabited this
+pueblo were in no respect different from other sedentary occupants of
+Verde valley. From their housetops they had a wide view over the
+creek on one side and the spring on the other, defending, by the site of
+their village, the one trail by which descent to the well was possible.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable geological character of Montezuma Well, and the
+spring within it, would have profoundly impressed itself on the folklore
+of any people of agricultural bent who lived in its neighborhood after
+emigrating to more arid lands. About a month after my visit to this
+remarkable spring I described the place to some of the old priests at
+Walpi and showed them sketches of the ruins. These priests seemed
+to have legendary knowledge of a place somewhat like it where they
+said the Great Plumed Snake had one of his numerous houses. They
+reminded me of a legend they had formerly related to me of how the
+Snake arose from a great cavity or depression in the ground, and how,
+they had heard, water boiled out of that hole into a neighboring river.
+The Hopi have personal knowledge of Montezuma Well, for many of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548">[Pg 548]</a></span>
+their number have visited Verde valley, and they claim the ruins there
+as the homes of their ancestors. It would not be strange, therefore,
+if this marvelous crater was regarded by them as a house of Pal&uuml;l&uuml;ko&ntilde;,
+their mythic Plumed Serpent.</p>
+
+<p>Practically little is known of the pictography of this part of the
+Verde valley people, although it has an important bearing on the distribution
+of the cliff dwellers of the Southwest. There is evidence of
+at least two kinds of petroglyphs, indicative of two distinct peoples.
+One of these was of the Apache Mohave; the other, the agriculturists
+who built the cliff homes and villages of the plain. Those of the
+latter are almost identical with the work of the Pueblo peoples in
+the cliff dweller stage, from southern Utah and Colorado to the Mexican
+boundary. It is not a difficult task to distinguish the pictography of
+these two peoples, wherever found. The pictographs of the latter are
+generally pecked into the rock with a sharpened implement, probably
+of stone, while those of the former are usually scratched or painted on
+the surface of the rocks. Their main differences, however, are found in
+the character of the designs and the objects represented. This difference
+can be described only by considering individual rock drawings,
+but the practiced eye may readily distinguish the two kinds at a glance.
+The pictographs which are pecked in the cliff are, as a rule, older than
+those which are drawn or scratched, and resemble more closely those
+widely spread in the Pueblo area, for if the cliff-house people ever made
+painted pictographs, as there is every reason to believe they did, time
+has long ago obliterated them.</p>
+
+<p>The pictured rocks (<a href="#PL_XCVII">plate <span class="smcap">xcvii</span></a>) near Cliff's ranch, on Beaver creek,
+four miles from Montezuma Well, have a great variety of objects depicted
+upon them. These rocks, which rise from the left bank of the creek
+opposite Cliff's ranch, bear over a hundred different rock pictures,
+figures of which are seen in the accompanying illustration. The rock
+surface is a layer of black malpais, through which the totem signatures
+have been pecked, showing the light stone beneath, and thus rendering
+them very conspicuous. Among these pictographs many familiar forms
+are recognizable, among them being the crane or blue heron, bears' and
+badgers' paws, turtles, snakes, antelopes, earth symbols, spirals, and
+meanders.</p>
+
+<p>Among these many totems there was an unusual pictograph in the
+form of the figure 8, above which was a bear's paw accompanied by a
+human figure so common in southwestern rock etchings. A square
+figure with interior parallel squares extending to the center is also
+found, as elsewhere, in cliff-dweller pictography.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCV" id="PL_XCV"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcv.jpg" width="600" height="397" alt="PL. XCV&mdash;
+CLIFF HOUSE, MONTEZUMA WELL" title="PL. XCV&mdash;
+CLIFF HOUSE, MONTEZUMA WELL" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">CLIFF HOUSE, MONTEZUMA WELL</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cliff Houses of the Red-Rocks</span></h3>
+
+<p>After the road from old Camp Verde to Flagstaff passes a deserted
+cabin at Beaver Head, it winds up a steep hill of lava or malpais to the
+top of the Mogollones. If, instead of ascending this hill, one turns to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549">[Pg 549]</a></span>
+the left, taking an obscure road across the river bed, which is full of
+rough lava blocks, and in June, when I traveled its course, was without
+water, he soon finds himself penetrating a rugged country with bright-red
+cliffs on his right (<a href="#PL_XCVIII">plate <span class="smcap">xcviii</span></a>). Continuing through great parks
+and plains he finally descends to the well-wooded valley of Oak creek,
+an affluent of Rio Verde. Here he finds evidences of aboriginal occupancy
+on all sides&mdash;ruins of buildings, fortified hilltops, pictographs, and
+irrigating ditches&mdash;testifying that there was at one time a considerable
+population in this valley. The fields of the ancient inhabitants have now
+given place to many excellent ranches, one of the most flourishing of
+which is not far from a lofty butte of red rock called the Court-house,
+which from its great size is a conspicuous object for miles around. In
+many of these canyons there are evidences of a former population, but
+the country is as yet almost unexplored; there are many difficult places
+to pass, yet once near the base of the rocks a way can be picked from
+the mouth of one canyon to another. It does not take long to discover
+that this now uninhabited region contains, like that along the Verde
+and its tributaries, many ancient dwellings, for there is scarcely a
+single canyon leading into these red cliffs in which evidences of former
+human habitations are not found in the form of ruins. There is
+little doubt that these unfrequented canyons have many and extensive
+cliff houses, the existence of which has thus far escaped the explorer.
+The sandstone of which they are composed is much eroded into caves
+with overhanging roofs, forming admirable sites for cliff houses as distinguished
+from cavate dwellings like those we have described. They
+are the only described ruins of a type hitherto thought to be unrepresented
+in the valley of the Verde.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>In our excursion into the Red-rock country we were obliged to make
+our own wagon road, as no vehicle had ever penetrated the rugged
+canyons visited by us. It was necessary to carry our drinking water
+with us from Oak creek, which fact impeded our progress and limited
+the time available in our reconnoissance. There was, however, in the
+pool near the ruins of Honanki enough water for our horses, and at the
+time we were there a limited amount of grass for fodder was found. I
+was told that later in the season both forage and water are abundant,
+so that these prime necessities being met, there is no reason why successful
+archeological investigations may not be successfully conducted
+in this part of the Verde region.</p>
+
+<p>The limited population of this portion of the country rendered it difficult
+to get laborers at the time I made my reconnoissance, so that it
+would be advisable for one who expects to excavate the ruins in this
+region to take with him workmen from the settled portions of the
+valley.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550">[Pg 550]</a></span></p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">Ruins near Sch&uuml;rmann's Ranch</span></h3>
+
+<p>The valley of Oak creek, near Court-house butte, especially in the
+vicinity of Sch&uuml;rmann's ranch, is dotted with fortifications, mounds
+indicative of ruins, and like evidences of aboriginal occupancy. There
+is undoubted proof that the former occupants of this plain constructed
+elaborate irrigating ditches, and that the waters of Oak creek were
+diverted from the stream and conducted over the adjoining valleys.
+There are several fortified hills in this locality. One of the best of
+these defensive works crowned a symmetrical mountain near Sch&uuml;rmann's
+house. The top of this mesa is practically inaccessible from any
+but the southern side, and was found to have a flat surface covered
+with scattered cacti and scrub cedar, among which were walls of
+houses nowhere rising more than two feet. The summit is perhaps 200
+feet above the valley, and the ground plan of the former habitations
+extends over an area 100 feet in length, practically occupying the whole
+of the summit. Although fragments of pottery are scarce, and other
+evidences of long habitation difficult to find, the house walls give every
+evidence of being extremely ancient, and most of the rooms are filled
+with red soil out of which grow trees of considerable age.</p>
+
+<p>Descending from this ruin-capped mesa, I noticed on the first terrace
+the remains of a roundhouse, or lookout, in the middle of which
+a cedar tree had taken root and was growing vigorously. Although
+the walls of this structure do not rise above the level of the ground,
+there is no doubt that they are the remains of either a lookout or
+circular tower formerly situated at this point.</p>
+
+<p>Many similar ruins are found throughout this vicinity, yet but little
+more is known of them than that they antedate the advent of white
+men. The majority of them were defensive works, built by the house
+dwellers, and their frequency would indicate either considerable population
+or long occupancy. Although many of those on the hilltops
+differ somewhat from the habitations in the valleys, I think there is
+little doubt that both were built by the same people.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> There are likewise
+many caves in this region, which seem to have been camping
+places, for their walls are covered with soot and their floors strewn
+with charred mescal, evidences, probably, of Apache occupancy. This
+whole section of country was a stronghold of this ferocious tribe within
+the last few decades, which may account for the modern appearance of
+many of the evidences of aboriginal habitation.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCVI" id="PL_XCVI"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcvi.jpg" width="600" height="399" alt="PL. XCVI&mdash;
+RUIN ON THE BRINK OF MONTEZUMA WELL" title="PL. XCVI&mdash;
+RUIN ON THE BRINK OF MONTEZUMA WELL" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">RUIN ON THE BRINK OF MONTEZUMA WELL</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There are some good pictographs on the foundation rocks of that
+great pinnacle of red rock, called the Court-house, not far from Sch&uuml;rmann's
+ranch.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Some of these are Apache productions, and the neighboring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551">[Pg 551]</a></span>
+caves evidently formed shelters for these nomads, as ash pit
+and half-burnt logs would seem to show. This whole land was a stronghold
+of the Apache up to a recent date, and from it they were dislodged,
+many of the Indians being killed or removed by authority of
+the Government.</p>
+
+<p>From the geological character of the Red-rocks I was led to suspect
+that cavate dwellings were not to be expected. The stone is hard and
+not readily excavated by the rude implements with which the aborigines
+of the region were supplied. But the remarkable erosion shown in this
+rock elsewhere had formed many deep caverns or caves, with overreaching
+roofs, very favorable for the sites of cliff houses. My hurried examination
+confirmed my surmises, for we here found dwellings of this kind,
+so similar to the type best illustrated in Mancos canyon of southern
+Colorado. There were several smoke-blackened caves without walls of
+masonry, but with floors strewn with charred wood, showing Apache
+occupancy. No cavate dwellings were found in the section of the Red-rocks
+visited by our party.</p>
+
+<p>The two largest of the Red-rock cliff houses to which I shall refer
+were named Honanki or Bear-house and Palatki or Red-house. The
+former of these, as I learned from the names scribbled on its walls,
+had previously been visited by white men, but so far as I know it has
+never been mentioned in archeological literature. My attention was
+called to it by Mr Sch&uuml;rmann, at whose hospitable ranch I outfitted
+for my reconnoissance into the Red-rock country. The smaller ruin,
+Palatki, we discovered by chance during our visit, and while it is possible
+that some vaquero in search of a wild steer may have visited the
+neighborhood before us, there is every reason to believe that the ruin
+had escaped even the notice of these persons, and, like Honanki, was
+unknown to the archeologist.</p>
+
+<p>The two ruins, Honanki and Palatki, are not the only ones in the
+lone canyon where we encamped. Following the canyon a short distance
+from its entrance, there was found to open into it from the left
+a tributary, or so-called box canyon, the walls of which are very
+precipitous. Perched on ledges of the cliffs there are several rows
+of fortifications or walls of masonry extending for many yards. It
+was impossible for us to enter these works, even after we had clambered
+up the side of the precipice to their level, so inaccessible were they to
+our approach. These "forts" were probably for refuge, but they are
+ill adapted as points of observation on account of the configuration of
+the canyon. Their masonry, as examined at a distance with a field
+glass, resembles that of Palatki and Honanki.</p>
+
+<p>I was impressed by the close resemblance between the large cliff
+houses of the Red-rocks, with their overhanging roof of rock, and those
+of the San Juan and its tributaries in northern New Mexico. While it
+is recognized that cliff houses have been reported from Verde valley, I
+find them nowhere described, and our lack of information about them,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552">[Pg 552]</a></span>
+so far as they are concerned, may have justified Nordenski&ouml;ld's belief
+that "the basin of the Colorado actually contains almost all the cliff
+dwellings of the United States." As the Gila flows into the Colorado
+near its mouth, the Red-rock ruins may in a sense be included in the
+Colorado basin, but there are many and beautiful cliff houses higher
+up near the sources of the Gila and its tributary, the Salt. In calling
+attention to the characteristic cliff dwellings of the Red-rocks I am
+making known a new region of ruins closely related to those of Canyon
+de Ts&eacute;gi, or Chelly, the San Juan and its tributaries.</p>
+
+<p>Although the cliff houses of Verde valley had been known for many
+years, and the ruins here described are of the same general character,
+anyone who examines Casa Montezuma, on Beaver creek, and compares
+it with Honanki, will note differences of an adaptive nature.
+The one feature common to Honanki and the "Cliff Palace" of Mancos
+canyon is the great overhanging roof of the cavern, which, in that
+form, we miss in Casa Montezuma (<a href="#Fig_246">figure 246</a>).<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_246" id="Fig_246"></a>
+<img src="images/fig246.jpg" width="600" height="369" alt="Fig. 246&mdash;Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek" title="Fig. 246&mdash;Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 246&mdash;Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>We made two camps in the Red-rock country, one at the mouth of a
+wild canyon near an older camp where a well had been dug and the
+cellar of an American house was visible. This camp was fully six miles
+from Sch&uuml;rmann's ranch and was surrounded by some of the wildest
+scenery that I had ever witnessed. The accompanying view (<a href="#PL_XCVIII">plate
+<span class="smcap">xcviii</span></a>) was taken from a small elevation near by, and gives a faint
+idea of the magnificent mountains by which we were surrounded. The
+colors of the rocks are variegated, so that the gorgeous cliffs appear to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553">[Pg 553]</a></span>
+be banded, rising from 800 to 1,000 feet sheer on all sides. These rocks
+had weathered into fantastic shapes suggestive of cathedrals, Greek
+temples, and sharp steeples of churches extending like giant needles
+into the sky. The scenery compares very favorably with that of the
+Garden of the Gods, and is much more extended. This place, I have
+no doubt, will sooner or later become popular with the sightseer, and I
+regard the discovery of these cliffs one of the most interesting of my
+summer's field work.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCVII" id="PL_XCVII"></a><a href="images/platexcvii-lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/platexcvii.jpg" width="600" height="413" alt="PL. XCVII&mdash;
+PICTOGRAPHS NEAR CLIFF RANCH, VERDE VALLEY" title="PL. XCVII&mdash;
+PICTOGRAPHS NEAR CLIFF RANCH, VERDE VALLEY" /></a>
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PICTOGRAPHS NEAR CLIFF RANCH, VERDE VALLEY</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>On the sides of these inaccessible cliffs we noticed several cliff
+houses, but so high were they perched above us that they were almost
+invisible. To reach them at their dizzy altitude was impossible, but
+we were able to enter some caves a few hundred feet above our camp,
+finding in them nothing but charred mescal and other evidences of
+Apache camps. Their walls and entrances are blackened with smoke,
+but no sign of masonry was detected.</p>
+
+<p>We moved our camp westward from this canyon (which, from a great
+cliff resembling the Parthenon, I called Temple canyon), following the
+base of the precipitous mountains to a second canyon, equally beautiful
+but not so grand, and built our fire in a small grove of scrub oak and
+cottonwood. In this lonely place Lloyd had lived over a winter, watching
+his stock, and had dug a well and erected a corral. We adopted
+his name for this camp and called it Lloyd canyon. There was no water
+in the well, but a few rods beyond it there was a pool, from which we
+watered our horses. On the first evening at this camp we sighted a
+bear, which gave the name Honanki, "Bear-house," to the adjacent
+ruined dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>The enormous precipice of red rock west of our camp at Lloyd's corral
+hid Honanki from view at first, but we soon found a trail leading
+directly to it, and during our short stay in this neighborhood we
+remained camped near the cottonwoods at the entrance to the canyon,
+not far from the abandoned corral. Our studies of Honanki led to the
+discovery of Palatki (<a href="#Fig_247">figure 247</a>), which we investigated on our return to
+Temple canyon. I will, therefore, begin my description of the Red-rock
+cliff houses with those last discovered, which, up to the visit which I
+made, had never been studied by archeologists.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Palatki</span></h3>
+
+<p>There are two neighboring ruins which I shall include in my consideration
+of Palatki, and these for convenience may be known as Ruin <span class="smcap">i</span>
+and Ruin <span class="smcap">ii</span>, the former situated a little eastward from the latter.
+They are but a short distance apart, and are in the same box canyon.
+Ruin <span class="smcap">i</span> (<a href="#PL_XCIX">plate <span class="smcap">xcix</span></a>) is the better preserved, and is a fine type of the
+compact form of cliff dwellings in the Red-rock country.</p>
+
+<p>This ruin is perched on the top of a talus which has fallen from the
+cliff above, and is visible for some distance above the trees, as one
+penetrates the canyon. It is built to the side of a perpendicular wall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554">[Pg 554]</a></span>
+of rock which, high above its tallest walls, arches over it, sheltering
+the walls from rain or eroding influences. From the dry character of
+the earth on the floors I suspect that for years not a drop of water has
+penetrated the inclosures, although they are now roofless.</p>
+
+<p>A highly characteristic feature of Ruin <span class="smcap">i</span> is the repetition of rounded
+or bow-shape front walls, occurring several times in their length, and
+arranged in such a way as to correspond roughly to the inclosures
+behind them. By this arrangement the size of the rooms was increased
+and possibly additional solidity given to the wall itself. This departure
+from a straight wall implies a degree of architectural skill, which,
+while not peculiar to the cliff dwellings of the Red-rocks, is rarely found
+in southern cliff houses. The total length of the front wall of the ruin,
+including the part which has fallen, is approximately 120 feet, and the
+altitude of the highest wall is not far from 30 feet.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 566px;"><a name="Fig_247" id="Fig_247"></a>
+<img src="images/fig247.png" width="566" height="600" alt="Fig. 247&mdash;Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins i and ii)" title="Fig. 247&mdash;Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins i and ii)" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 247&mdash;Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins <small>I</small> and <small>II</small>)</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>From the arrangement of openings in the front wall at the highest
+part there is good evidence of the former existence of two stories. At
+several points the foundation of the wall is laid on massive bowlders,
+which contribute to the height of the wall itself. The masonry is made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555">[Pg 555]</a></span>
+up of irregular or roughly squared blocks of red stone laid in red clay,
+both evidently gathered in the immediate neighborhood of the ruin.
+The building stones vary in size, but are as a rule flat, and show
+well directed fractures as if dressed by hammering. In several places
+there still remains a superficial plastering, which almost conceals the
+masonry. The blocks of stone in the lower courses are generally more
+massive than those higher up; this feature, however, whether considered
+as occurring here or in the cliff houses of Mesa Verde, as pointed
+out by Nordenski&ouml;ld, seems to me not to indicate different builders, but
+is due simply to convenience. There appears to be no regularity in
+the courses of component blocks of stone, and when necessity compelled,
+as in the courses laid on bowlders, which serve as a foundation,
+thin wedges of stone, or spalls, were inserted in the crevices. The walls
+are vertical, but the corners are sometimes far from perpendicular.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCVIII" id="PL_XCVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcviii.jpg" width="600" height="392" alt="PL. XCVIII&mdash;
+THE RED ROCKS; TEMPLE CANYON" title="PL. XCVIII&mdash;
+THE RED ROCKS; TEMPLE CANYON" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">THE RED ROCKS; TEMPLE CANYON</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the ruin is divided into a number of inclosures by
+partitions at right angles to the front wall, fastening it to the face of the
+cliff. This I have lettered, beginning at the extreme right inclosure
+with <i>A</i>. The inclosure has bounding walls, built on a bowlder somewhat
+more than six feet high. It has no external passageway, and probably
+the entrance was from the roof. This inclosure communicates by
+a doorway directly with the adjoining chamber, <i>B</i>. The corner of this
+room, or the angle made by the lateral with the front walls, is rounded,
+a constant feature in well-built cliff houses. No windows exist, and the
+upper edge of both front and lateral walls is but slightly broken.</p>
+
+<p>The front wall of inclosure <i>B</i> bulges into bow-shape form, and was
+evidently at least two stories high. This wall is a finely laid section
+of masonry, composed of large, rough stones in the lower courses, upon
+which smaller, roughly hewn stones are built. It is probable, from the
+large amount of d&eacute;bris in the neighborhood, that formerly there were
+rows of single-story rooms in front of what are now the standing walls,
+but the character of their architecture is difficult to determine with certainty.
+Their foundations, although partially covered, are not wholly
+concealed.</p>
+
+<p>The front wall of inclosure <i>B</i> is pierced by three openings, the largest
+of which is a square passageway into the adjoining room, and is situated
+in the middle of the curved wall. A wooden lintel, which had been
+well hewn with stone implements, still remains in place above this
+passageway, and under it the visitor passes through a low opening
+which has the appearance of having been once a doorway. Above this
+entrance, on each side, in the wall, is a square hole, which originally
+may have been the points of support of floor beams. Formerly, likewise,
+there was a large square opening above the middle passageway,
+but this has been closed with masonry, leaving in place the wooden
+beam which once supported the wall above. The upper edge of the
+front wall of inclosure <i>B</i> is level, and is but little broken except in two
+places, where there are notches, one above each of the square holes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556">[Pg 556]</a></span>
+already mentioned. It is probable that these depressions were intended
+for the ends of the beams which once supported a combined roof and
+floor.</p>
+
+<p>On the perpendicular wall which forms the rear of inclosure <i>B</i>, many
+feet above the top of the standing front walls, there are several pictographs
+of Apache origin. The height of these above the level of the
+former roof would appear to indicate the existence of a third story, for
+the hands which drew them must have been at least 15 feet above the
+present top of the standing wall.</p>
+
+<p>The front of <i>C</i> is curved like that of inclosure <i>B</i>, and is much broken
+near the foundations, where there is a passageway. There is a small
+hole on each side of a middle line, as in <i>B</i>, situated at about the same
+level as the floor, indicating the former position of a beam. Within
+the ruin there is a well-made partition separating inclosures <i>B</i> and <i>C</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The size of room <i>D</i> is much less than that of <i>B</i> or <i>C</i>, but, with the
+exception of a section at the left, the front wall has fallen. The part
+which remains upright, however, stands like a pinnacle, unconnected
+with the face of the cliff or with the second-story wall of inclosure <i>C</i>. It
+is about 20 feet in height, and possibly its altitude appears greater than
+it really is from the fact that its foundations rest upon a bowlder nearly
+six feet high (<a href="#PL_CX">plate <span class="smcap">cx</span></a>).</p>
+
+<p>The foundations of rooms <i>E</i> and <i>F</i> (<a href="#PL_C">plate <span class="smcap">c</span></a>) are built on a lower
+level than those of <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> or <i>D</i>, and their front walls, which are really
+low, are helped out by similar bowlders, which serve as foundations.
+The indications are that both these inclosures were originally one story
+in height, forming a wing to the central section of the ruin, which
+had an additional tier of rooms. There is an entrance to <i>F</i> at the extreme
+left, and the whole room was lower than the floor of the lower
+stories of <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, and <i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous pictograph on the cliff above Ruin <span class="smcap">i</span> of Palatki,
+is a circular white figure, seen in the accompanying illustration. This
+pictograph is situated directly above the first room on the right, <i>A</i>, and
+was apparently made with chalk, so elevated that at present it is far
+above the reach of a person standing on any of the walls. From its
+general character I am led to believe that it was made by the Apache
+and not by the builders of the pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>There were no names of white visitors anywhere on the walls of
+Palatki, which, so far as it goes, affords substantial support of my
+belief that we were the first white men to visit this ruin. While it can
+not be positively asserted that we were the original discoverers of this
+interesting building, there is no doubt that I was the first to describe
+it and to call attention to its highly characteristic architectural plan.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of Palatki are not so massive as those of the neighboring
+Honanki, and the number of rooms in both ruins which form Palatki
+is much smaller. Each of these components probably housed not more
+than a few families, while several phratries could readily be accommodated
+in Honanki.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557">[Pg 557]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_XCIX" id="PL_XCIX"></a>
+<img src="images/platexcix.jpg" width="600" height="347" alt="PL. XCIX&mdash;
+PALATKI (RUIN I)" title="PL. XCIX&mdash;
+PALATKI (RUIN I)" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PALATKI (RUIN I)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The second Palatki ruin is well preserved, and as a rule the rooms,
+especially those in front, have suffered more from vandalism and from
+the elements than have those of Ruin <span class="smcap">i</span>. The arrangement of the
+rooms is somewhat different from that of the more exposed eastern
+ruin, to which it undoubtedly formerly belonged.</p>
+
+<p>Ruin <span class="smcap">ii</span> lies in a deep recess or cave, the roof of which forms a perfect
+arch above the walls. It is situated a few hundred feet to the
+west, and is easily approached by following the fallen d&eacute;bris at the foot
+of a perpendicular cliff. The front walls have all fallen, exposing the
+rear wall of what was formerly a row of rooms, as shown in the accompanying
+illustration (<a href="#PL_CI">plate <span class="smcap">ci</span></a>). There are evidences that this row of
+rooms was but a single story in height, while those behind it have indications
+of three stories. Ruin <span class="smcap">ii</span> is more hidden by the trees and by its
+obscure position in a cavern than the former, but the masonry in
+both is of the same general character.</p>
+
+<p>On approaching Ruin <span class="smcap">ii</span> from Ruin <span class="smcap">i</span> there is first observed a well-made
+though rough wall, as a rule intact, along which the line of
+roof and flooring can readily be traced (<a href="#PL_CI">plate <span class="smcap">ci</span></a>). In front of this
+upright wall are fragments of other walls, some standing in unconnected
+sections, others fallen, their fragments extending down the sides of the
+talus among the bushes. It was observed that this wall is broken by
+an entrance which passes into a chamber, which may be called <i>A</i>, and
+two square holes are visible, one on each side, above it. These holes
+were formerly filled by two logs, which once supported the floor of a
+second chamber, the line of which still remains on the upright wall.
+The small square orifice directly above the entrance is a peephole.</p>
+
+<p>In examining the character of the wall it will be noticed that its
+masonry is in places rough cast, and that there was little attempt at
+regularity in the courses of the component stones, which are neither
+dressed nor aligned, although the wall is practically vertical.</p>
+
+<p>At one point, in full view of the observer, a log is apparently inserted
+in the wall, and if the surrounding masonry be examined it will be
+found that an opening below it had been filled in after the wall was
+erected. It is evident, from its position relatively to the line indicating
+the roof, that this opening was originally a passageway from one room
+to another. Passing back of the standing wall an inclosure (room <i>A</i>)
+is entered, one side of which is the rock of the cliff, while the other
+three bounding walls are built of masonry, 20 feet high. This inclosure
+was formerly divided into an upper and a lower room by a partition,
+which served as the roof of the lower and the floor of the upper chambers.
+Two beams stretched across this inclosure about six feet above
+the d&eacute;bris of the present floor, and the openings in the walls, where
+these beams formerly rested, are readily observed. In the same way
+the beam-holes of the upper story may also be easily seen on the top of
+the wall. Between the rear wall of this inclosure and the perpendicular
+cliff there was a recess which appears to have been a dark chamber,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558">[Pg 558]</a></span>
+probably designed for use as a storage room or granary. The configuration
+of the cliff, which forms the major part of the inclosing wall
+of this chamber, imparts to it an irregular or roughly triangular form.</p>
+
+<p>The entire central portion of the ruin is very much broken down, and
+the floor is strewn to a considerable depth with the d&eacute;bris of fallen
+walls. On both sides there are nicely aligned, smoothly finished walls,
+with traces of beams on the level of former floors. Some of these
+bounding walls are curved; others are straight, and in places they rise
+20 feet. Marks of fire are visible everywhere; most of the beams have
+been wrenched from their places, as a result of which the walls have
+been much mutilated, badly cracked, or thrown down.</p>
+
+<p>There are no pictographs near this ruin, and no signs of former visits
+by white men.</p>
+
+<p>Midway between Honanki and the second Palatki ruin a small ancient
+house of the same character as the latter was discovered. This ruin is
+very much exposed, and therefore the walls are considerably worn,
+but six well-marked inclosures, indicative of former rooms, were readily
+made out. No overarching rock shielded this ruin from the elements,
+and rubble from fallen walls covers the talus upon which it stands.
+The adobe mortar between the stones is much worn, and no fragment
+of plastering is traceable within or without. This evidence of the
+great weathering of the walls of the ruin is not considered indicative
+of greater age than the better preserved ruins in the neighborhood,
+but rather of exposure to the action of the elements. Not only are
+the walls in a very poor condition, but also the floors show, from the
+absence of dry soil upon them, that the whole ruin has suffered greatly
+from the same denudation. There are no fragments of pottery about
+it, and small objects indicating former habitation are also wanting. A
+cedar had taken root where the floor once was, and its present great
+size shows considerable age. If any pictographs formerly existed in
+the adjacent cliff they have disappeared. There is likewise no evidence
+that the Apache had ever sought it for shelter, or if they had,
+their occupancy occurred so long ago that time has effaced all evidence
+of their presence.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Honanki</span></h3>
+
+<p>The largest ruin visited in the Red-rock country was called, following
+Hopi etymology, Honanki; but the nomenclature was adopted not
+because it was so called by the Hopi, but following the rule elsewhere
+suggested.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_C" id="PL_C"></a>
+<img src="images/platec.jpg" width="600" height="406" alt="PL. C&mdash;
+PALATKI (RUIN I)" title="PL. C&mdash;
+PALATKI (RUIN I)" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. C</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PALATKI (RUIN I)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>This ruin lies under a lofty buttress of rock westward from Lloyd's
+canyon, which presented the only available camping place in its neighborhood.
+At the time of my visit there was but scanty water in the
+canyon and that not potable except for stock. We carried with us all
+the water we used, and when this was exhausted were obliged to
+retrace our steps to Oak creek. There are groves of trees in the canyon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559">[Pg 559]</a></span>
+and evidences that at some seasons there is an abundant water supply.
+A corral had been made and a well dug near its mouth, but with these
+exceptions there were no evidences of previous
+occupancy by white men. We had
+hardly pitched our camp before tracks of
+large game were noticed, and before we left
+we sighted a bear which had come down to
+the water to drink, but which beat a hasty
+retreat at our approach. As previously
+stated, the knowledge of this ruin was communicated
+to me by Mr Sch&uuml;rmann.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 159px;"><a name="Fig_248" id="Fig_248"></a>
+<img src="images/fig248.png" width="159" height="600" alt="Fig. 248&mdash;Ground plan of Honanki" title="Fig. 248&mdash;Ground plan of Honanki" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 248&mdash;Ground plan of Honanki</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The Honanki ruin (<a href="#Fig_248">figure 248</a>) extends
+along the base of the cliff for a considerable
+distance, and may for convenience of
+description be divided into two sections,
+which, although generally similar, differ
+somewhat in structural features. The former
+is lineal in its arrangement, and consists
+of a fringe of houses extending along
+the base of the cliff at a somewhat lower
+level than the other. The walls of this section
+were for the greater part broken, and
+at no place could anything more than the
+foundation of the front wall be detected,
+although fragments of masonry strewed the
+sides of the declivity near its base. The
+house walls which remain are well-built parallel
+spurs constructed at right angles to
+the cliff, which served as the rear of all the
+chambers. At the extreme right end of this
+row of rooms, situated deep in a large cavern
+with overhanging roof, portions of a
+rear wall of masonry are well preserved,
+and the lateral walls of one or two chambers
+in this portion of the ruin are still intact.
+Straggling along from that point, following
+the contour of the base of the cliff
+under which it lies, there extends a long
+row of rooms, all destitute of a front wall.</p>
+
+<p>The first division (<a href="#PL_CII">plate <span class="smcap">cii</span></a>), beginning
+with the most easterly of the series, is
+quite hidden at one end in a deep cavern.
+At this point the builders, in order to obtain
+a good rear wall to their rooms, constructed
+a line of masonry parallel with the face of the cliff. At right angles
+to this construction, at the eastern extremity, there are remnants of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560">[Pg 560]</a></span>
+lateral wall, but the remainder had tumbled to the ground. The standing
+wall of <i>z</i> is not continuous with that of the next room, <i>y</i>, and
+apparently was simply the rear of a large room with the remains of a
+lateral wall at right angles to it. The other walls of this chamber had
+tumbled into a deep gorge, overgrown with bushes which conceal
+the fragments. This building is set back deeply in the cave, and is
+isolated from the remaining parts of the ruin, although at the level
+which may have been its roof there runs a kind of gallery formed by a
+ledge of rock, plastered with adobe, which formerly connected the roof
+with the rest of the pueblo. This ledge was a means of intercommunication,
+and a continuation of the same ledge, in rooms <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, and <i>u</i>,
+supported the rafters of these chambers. At <i>u</i> there are evidences of
+two stories or two tiers of rooms, but those in front have fallen to the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>The standing wall at <i>u</i> is about five feet high, connected with the
+face of the cliff by masonry. The space between it and the cliff was
+not large enough for a habitable chamber, and was used probably as
+a storage place. In front of the standing wall of room <i>u</i> there was
+another chamber, the walls of which now strew the talus of the cliff.</p>
+
+<p>The highest and best preserved room of the second series of chambers
+at Honanki is that designated <i>p</i>, at a point where the ruin reached
+an elevation of 20 feet. Here we have good evidence of rooms of two
+stories, as indicated by the points of insertion of the beams of a floor,
+at the usual levels above the ground. In fact, it is probable that the
+whole section of the ruin was two stories high throughout, the front
+walls having fallen along the entire length. From the last room on
+the left to the eastern extremity of the line of houses which leads
+to the main ruin of Honanki, no ground plans were detected at the
+base of the cliffs, but fallen rocks and scattered d&eacute;bris are strewn
+over the whole interval.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern part of the main ruin of Honanki, however, lies but a
+short distance west of that described, and consists of many similar
+chambers, arranged side by side. These are lettered in the diagram <i>h</i>
+to <i>u</i>, beginning with <i>h</i>, which is irregularly circular in form, and ends
+with a high wall, the first to be seen as one approaches the ruin from
+Lloyd canyon. This range of houses is situated on a lower foundation
+and at a lower level than that of the main quarter of Honanki, and a
+trail runs along so close to the rooms that the whole series is easily
+visited without much climbing. No woodwork remains in any of
+these rooms, and the masonry is badly broken in places either by
+natural agencies or through vandalism.</p>
+
+<p>Beginning with <i>h</i>, the round room, which adjoins the main quarter
+of Honanki, we find much in its shape to remind us of a kiva. The
+walls are in part built on foundations of large bowlders, one of which
+formed the greater part of the front wall. This circular room was
+found to be full of fallen d&eacute;bris, and could not be examined without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561">[Pg 561]</a></span>
+considerable excavation. If it were a kiva, which I very much doubt,
+it is an exception among the Verde valley ruins, where no true kiva
+has yet been detected.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CI" id="PL_CI"></a>
+<img src="images/plateci.jpg" width="600" height="443" alt="PL. CI&mdash;
+FRONT WALL OF PALATKI (RUIN II)" title="PL. CI&mdash;
+FRONT WALL OF PALATKI (RUIN II)" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FRONT WALL OF PALATKI (RUIN II)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Following <i>h</i> there is an inclosure which originally may have been a
+habitable room, as indicated by the well-constructed front wall, but it is
+so filled with large stones that it is difficult to examine its interior. On
+one side the wall, which is at right angles to the face of the cliff, is 10
+feet high, and the front wall follows the surface of a huge bowlder
+which serves as its foundation.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>i</i> is clearly defined, and is in part inclosed by a large rock, on
+top of which there still remains a fragment of a portion of the front
+wall. A spur of masonry connects this bowlder with the face of the cliff,
+indicating all that remains of the former division between rooms <i>i</i> and <i>j</i>.
+An offshoot from this bowlder, in the form of a wall 10 feet high, formerly
+inclosed one side of a room. In the rear of chamber <i>j</i> there are
+found two receptacles or spaces left between the rear wall and the face
+of the cliff, while the remaining wall, which is 10 feet high, is a good
+specimen of pueblo masonry.</p>
+
+<p>The two side walls of room <i>k</i> are well preserved, but the chamber
+resembles the others of the series in the absence of a front wall. In
+this room, however, there remains what may have been the fragment of
+a rear wall parallel with the face of the cliff. This room has also a
+small cist of masonry in one corner, which calls to mind certain sealed
+cavities in the cavate dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>The two side walls of <i>m</i> and <i>n</i> are respectively eight and ten feet high.
+There is nothing exceptional in the standing walls of room <i>o</i>, one of
+which, five feet in altitude, still remains erect. Room <i>p</i> has a remnant
+of a rear wall plastered to the face of the cliff.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>r</i> (<a href="#PL_CIII">plate <span class="smcap">ciii</span></a>) is a finely preserved chamber, with lateral walls
+20 feet high, of well-constructed masonry, that in the rear, through
+which there is an opening leading into a dark chamber, occupying the
+space between it and the cliff. It is braced by connecting walls at
+right angles to the face of the solid rock.</p>
+
+<p>At <i>s</i>, the face of the cliff forms a rear wall of the room, and one of
+the side walls is fully 20 feet high. The points of insertion of the
+flooring are well shown, about 10 feet from the ground, proving that
+the ruin at this point was at least two stories high.</p>
+
+<p>Two walled inclosures, one within the other, characterize room <i>u</i>.
+On the cliff above it there is a series of simple pictographs, consisting
+of short parallel lines pecked into the rock, and are probably of Apache
+origin. This room closes the second series, along the whole length of
+which, in front of the lateral walls which mark different chambers,
+there are, at intervals, piles of d&eacute;bris, which enabled an approximate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562">[Pg 562]</a></span>
+determination of the situation of the former front wall, fragments of
+the foundations of which are traceable in situ in several places.</p>
+
+<p>The hand of man and the erosion of the elements have dealt harshly
+with this portion of Honanki, for not a fragment of timber now remains
+in its walls. This destruction, so far as human agency is concerned,
+could not have been due to white men, but probably to the Apache, or
+possibly to the cliff villagers themselves at the time of or shortly after
+the abandonment of the settlement.</p>
+
+<p>From the second section of Honanki we pass to the third and best-preserved
+portion of the ruins (<a href="#Fig_249">figure 249</a>), indicated in the diagram
+from <i>a</i> to <i>g</i>. To this section I have referred as the "main ruin," for it
+was evidently the most populous quarter of the ancient cliff dwelling.
+It is better preserved than the remainder of Honanki, and is the only
+part in which all four walls of the chambers still remain erect. Built at
+a higher level than the series of rooms already considered, it must have
+towered above them, and possibly served as a place of retreat when
+danger beset the more exposed quarters of the village.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_249" id="Fig_249"></a>
+<img src="images/fig249.jpg" width="600" height="474" alt="Fig. 249&mdash;The main ruin of Honanki" title="Fig. 249&mdash;The main ruin of Honanki" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 249&mdash;The main ruin of Honanki</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Approaching the main ruin of Honanki (<a href="#PL_CIV">plate <span class="smcap">civ</span></a>) from the east, or
+the parts already described, one passes between the buttress on which
+the front wall of the rounded room <i>h</i> is built and a fragment of masonry
+on the left, by a natural gateway through which the trail is very steep.
+On the right there towers above the visitor a well-preserved wall of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563">[Pg 563]</a></span>
+masonry, the front of room <i>a</i>, and he soon passes abreast of the main
+portion of the ruin of Honanki. This section is built in a huge cavern,
+the overhanging roof of which, is formed by natural rock, arching far
+above the tops of the highest walls of the pueblo and suggesting the
+surroundings of the "Cliff Palace" of Mesa Verde, so well described
+by the late Baron G. Nordenski&ouml;ld in his valuable monograph on the
+ruins of that section of southern Colorado. The main ruin of Honanki
+is one of the largest and best preserved architectural monuments of the
+former people of Verde valley that has yet been described. Although
+somewhat resembling its rival, the well-known "Casa Montezuma" of
+Beaver creek, its architecture is dissimilar on account of the difference
+in the form of the cavern in which it is built and the geological character
+of the surrounding cliffs. Other Verde ruins may have accommodated
+more people, when inhabited, but none of its type south of
+Canyon de Chelly have yet been described which excel it in size and
+condition of preservation. I soon found that our party were not the
+first whites who had seen this lonely village, as the names scribbled on
+its walls attested; but so far as I know it had not previously been
+visited by archeologists.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CII" id="PL_CII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecii.jpg" width="600" height="420" alt="PL. CII&mdash;
+HONANKI (RUIN II)" title="PL. CII&mdash;
+HONANKI (RUIN II)" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">HONANKI (RUIN II)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the main portion of Honanki we found that the two ends of the
+crescentic row of united rooms which compose it are built on rocky elevations,
+with foundations considerably higher than those of the rooms
+in the middle portion of the ruins. The line of the front wall is, therefore,
+not exactly crescentic, but irregularly curved (<a href="#Fig_249">figure 249</a>), conforming
+to the rear of the cavern in which the houses are situated. About
+midway in the curve of the front walls two walls indicative of former
+rooms extend at an angle of about 25&deg; to the main front wall. All the
+component rooms of the main part of Honanki can be entered, some by
+external passageways, others by doorways communicating with adjacent
+chambers. None of the inclosures have roofs or upper floors, although
+indications of the former existence of both these structural features
+may readily be seen in several places. Although wooden beams are
+invariably wanting, fragments of these still project from the walls,
+almost always showing on their free ends, inside the rooms, the effect
+of fire. I succeeded in adding to the collection a portion of one of
+these beams, the extremity of which had been battered off, evidently
+with a stone implement. In the alkaline dust which covered the floor
+several similar specimens were seen.</p>
+
+<p>The stones which form the masonry of the wall (<a href="#Fig_250">figure 250</a>) were not,
+as a rule, dressed or squared before they were laid with adobe mortar,
+but were generally set in place in the rough condition in which they
+may still be obtained anywhere under the cliff.</p>
+
+<p>All the mortar used was of adobe or the tenacious clay which serves
+so many purposes among the Pueblos. The walls of the rooms were
+plastered with a thick layer of the same material. The rear wall of
+each room is the natural rock of the cliff, which rises vertically and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564">[Pg 564]</a></span>
+has a very smooth surface. The great natural archway which covers the
+whole pueblo protects it from wind and rain, and as a consequence,
+save on the front face, there are few signs of natural erosion. The hand
+of man, however, has dealt rudely with this venerable building, and
+many of the walls, especially of rooms which formerly stood before the
+central portion, lie prone upon the earth; but so securely were the
+component stones held together by the adobe that even after their fall
+sections of masonry still remain intact.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 493px;"><a name="Fig_250" id="Fig_250"></a>
+<img src="images/fig250.jpg" width="493" height="600" alt="Fig. 250&mdash;Structure of wall of Honanki" title="Fig. 250&mdash;Structure of wall of Honanki" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 250&mdash;Structure of wall of Honanki</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>There are seven walled inclosures in the main part of Honanki, and
+as each of these was formerly at least two stories high there is substantial
+evidence of the former existence of fourteen rooms in this part
+of the ruin. There can be little doubt that there were other rooms
+along the front of the central portion, and the fallen walls show them
+to have been of large size. It would likewise appear that the middle
+part was higher than the two wings, which would increase the number
+of chambers, so that with these additions it may safely be said that this
+part of Honanki alone contained not far from twenty rooms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565">[Pg 565]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CIII" id="PL_CIII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateciii.jpg" width="600" height="445" alt="PL. CIII&mdash;
+WALLS OF HONANKI" title="PL. CIII&mdash;
+WALLS OF HONANKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">WALLS OF HONANKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The recess in the cliff in which the ruin is situated is lower in the
+middle than at either side, where there are projecting ledges of rock
+which were utilized by the builders in the construction of the foundations,
+the line of the front wall following the inequalities of the ground.
+It thus results that rooms <i>g</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and a part of <i>c</i>, rise from a foundation
+about breast high, or a little higher than the base of rooms <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>,
+and <i>f</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The front wall of <i>a</i> has for its foundation a spur or ledge of rock,
+which is continued under <i>b</i> and a part of <i>c</i>. The corner or angle of
+this wall, facing the round chamber, is curved in the form of a tower,
+a considerable section of its masonry being intact. Near the foundation
+and following the inequalities of the rock surface the beginning
+of a wall at right angles to the face of the ruin at this point is seen.
+A small embrasure, high above the base of the front wall, on the side
+by which one approaches the ruin from the east, and two smaller openings
+on the same level, looking out over the valley, suggest a floor and
+lookouts. The large square orifice in the middle of the face of the
+wall has a wooden lintel, still in place; the opening is large enough for
+use as a door or passageway. The upper edge of the front wall is
+somewhat irregular, but a notch in it above the square opening is
+conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>The rear wall of room <i>a</i> was the face of the cliff, formed of solid
+rock without masonry and very much blackened by smoke from former
+fires. As, however, there is evidence that since its destruction or
+abandonment by its builders this ruin has been occupied as a camping
+place by the Apache, it is doubtful to which race we should ascribe
+this discoloration of the walls by soot.</p>
+
+<p>On the ground floor there is a passageway into chamber <i>b</i>, which is
+considerably enlarged, although the position of the lintel is clearly
+indicated by notches in the wall. The beam which was formed there
+had been torn from its place and undoubtedly long ago used for firewood
+by nomadic visitors. The open passageway, measured externally,
+is about 15 feet above the foundation of the wall, through which it is
+broken, and about 8 feet below the upper edge of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>b</i> is an irregular, square chamber, two stories high, communicating
+with <i>a</i> and <i>c</i> by passages which are enlarged by breakage in
+the walls. A small hole in the front wall, about 6 feet from the floor,
+opens externally to the air. The walls are, in general, about 2 feet
+thick, and are composed of flat red stones laid in clay of the same
+color. The cliff forms the rear wall of the chamber. The clay at
+certain places in the walls, especially near the insertions of the beams
+and about the window openings, appears to have been mixed with a
+black pitch, which serves to harden the mixture.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>c</i> is the first of a series of chambers, with external passageways,
+but its walls are very much broken down, and the openings
+thereby enlarged. The front wall is almost straight and in one place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566">[Pg 566]</a></span>
+stands 30 feet, the maximum height of the standing wall of the ruins.
+In one corner a considerable quantity of ashes and many evidences of
+fire, some of which may be ascribed to Apache occupants, was detected.
+A wooden beam, marking the line of the floor of a second story, was seen
+projecting from the front wall, and there are other evidences of a floor
+at this level. Large beams apparently extended from the front wall to
+the rear of the chamber, where they rested on a ledge in the cliff, and
+over these smaller sticks were laid side by side and at right angles to
+the beams. These in turn supported either flat stones or a layer of
+mud or clay. The method of construction of one of these roofs is
+typical of a Tusayan kiva, where ancient architectural forms are
+adhered to and best preserved.</p>
+
+<p>The entrance to room <i>d</i> is very much enlarged by the disintegration
+of the wall, and apparently there was at this point a difference in level
+of the front wall, for there is evidence of rooms in advance of those
+connected with the chambers described, as shown by a line of masonry,
+still standing, parallel to the front face of inclosures <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>e</i> communicates by a doorway with the chamber marked <i>f</i>,
+and there is a small window in the same partition. This room had a
+raised banquette on the side toward the cliff, recalling an arrangement
+of the floor similar to that in the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw mountain
+which I have described. This platform is raised about three
+feet above the remainder of the floor of <i>f</i>, and, like it, is strewn with
+large slabs of stone, which have fallen from the overhanging roof. In
+the main floor, at one corner, near the platform, there is a rectangular
+box-like structure made of thin slabs of stone set on edge, suggesting
+the grinding bins of the Pueblos. Room <i>f</i> communicates with <i>g</i> by a
+passageway which has a stone lintel. The holes in the walls, in which
+beams were once inserted, are seen in several places at different levels
+above the floor. The ends of several beams, one extremity of which
+is invariably charred, were found set in the masonry, and others were
+dug from the d&eacute;bris in the floor.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of the curve in the front wall of the ruin at that point, the
+shape of room <i>f</i> is roughly quadrate, with banquettes on two sides.
+There are six large beam holes in the walls, and the position of the first
+floor is well shown on the face of the partition, separating <i>f</i> from <i>g</i>.
+The passageway from one of these rooms to the other is slightly arched.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>g</i> is elongated, without an external entrance, and communicates
+with <i>f</i> by a small opening, through which it is very difficult to
+crawl. Its longest dimension is almost at right angles to the front
+face of the remaining rooms, and it is raised above them by its foundation
+on an elevated rock like that of <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>. There is a small,
+square, external opening which may have served as the position of a
+former beam or log. The upper level of the front wall is more or less
+broken down in places, and formerly may have been much higher.
+Beyond <i>g</i> a spur of masonry is built at right angles to the cliff, inclosing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567">[Pg 567]</a></span>
+a rectangular chamber at the end of the ruin which could not be
+entered. Possibly in former times it was accessible by means of a
+ladder from the roof, whence communication with other portions of the
+structure was also had.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CIV" id="PL_CIV"></a>
+<img src="images/plateciv.jpg" width="600" height="363" alt="PL. CIV&mdash;
+APPROACH TO MAIN PART OF HONANKI" title="PL. CIV&mdash;
+APPROACH TO MAIN PART OF HONANKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">APPROACH TO MAIN PART OF HONANKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>A short distance beyond the westernmost rooms of Honanki, almost
+covered with bushes and adjoining the base of the cliff, there is a large
+ash heap in which are many fragments of pottery and the bones of
+various animals. It is probable that excavation in this quarter would
+reveal many interesting objects. In the cliffs above this ash heap, far
+beyond reach, there is a walled niche which has never been disturbed.
+This structure is similar to those near the cavate dwellings, and when
+opened will probably be found to contain buried mortuary objects of
+interesting character. I did not disturb this inclosure, inasmuch as I
+had no ladders or ropes with which to approach it.</p>
+
+<p>It is very difficult to properly estimate, from the number of rooms in
+a cliff house, the former population, and as a general thing the tendency
+is rather to overstate than to fall short of the true total. In a
+pueblo like Hano, on the first or east mesa of Tusayan, for instance,
+there are many uninhabited rooms, and others serve as storage chambers,
+while in places the pueblo has so far fallen into ruin as to be uninhabitable.
+If a pueblo is very much concentrated the population varies
+at different seasons of the year. In summer it is sparsely inhabited;
+in winter it is rather densely populated. While Palatki and Honanki
+together had rooms sufficient to house 500 people, I doubt whether their
+aggregate population, ever exceeded 200. This estimate, of course, is
+based on the supposition that these villages were contemporaneously
+inhabited.</p>
+
+<p>The evidences all point to a belief, however, that they were both permanent
+dwelling places and not temporary resorts at certain seasons
+of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The pictographs on the face of the cliff above Honanki are for the
+greater part due to the former Apache occupants of the rooms, and are
+situated high above the tops of the walls of the ruin. They are, as a
+rule, drawn with white chalk, which shows very clearly on the red rock,
+and are particularly numerous above room <i>g</i>. The figure of a circle,
+with lines crossing one another diametrically and continued as rays
+beyond the periphery, possibly represent the sun. Many spiral figures,
+almost constant pictographs in cliff ruins, are found in several places.
+Another strange design, resembling some kind of insect, is very conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p>A circle painted green and inclosed in a border of yellow is undoubtedly
+of Apache origin. There is at one point a row of small pits,
+arranged in line, suggesting a score or enumeration of some kind, and a
+series of short parallel lines of similar import was found not far away.
+This latter method of recording accounts is commonly used at the present
+time in Tusayan, both in houses and on cliffs; and one of the best<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568">[Pg 568]</a></span>
+of these, said to enumerate the number of Apache killed by the Hopi
+in a raid many years ago, may be seen above the trail by which the
+visitor enters the pueblo of Hano on the East Mesa. The names of several
+persons scratched on the face of the cliff indicate that Americans
+had visited Honanki before me.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the paleoglyphs at both Palatki and Honanki are of
+Apache origin, and are of comparatively modern date, as would naturally
+be expected. In some instances their colors are as fresh as if made
+a few years ago, and there is no doubt that they were drawn after the
+building was deserted by its original occupants. The positions of
+the pictographs on the cliffs imply that they were drawn before the
+roofs and flooring had been destroyed, thus showing how lately the
+ruin preserved its ancient form. In their sheltered position there seems
+to be no reason why the ancient pictographs should not have been
+preserved, and the fact that so few of the figures pecked in the cliff
+now remain is therefore instructive.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first tendencies of man in visiting a ruin is to inscribe
+his name on its walls or on neighboring cliffs. This is shared by both
+Indians and whites, and the former generally makes his totem on the
+rock surface, or adds that of his gods, the sun, rain-cloud, or katcinas.
+Inscriptions recording events are less common, as they are more difficult
+to indicate with exactitude in this system of pictography. The majority
+of ancient pictographs in the Red-rock country, like those I have considered
+in other parts of Verde valley, are identical with picture writings
+now made in Tusayan, and are recognized and interpreted without
+hesitation by the Hopi Indians. In their legends, in which the migrations
+of their ancestors are recounted, the traditionists often mention
+the fact that their ancestors left their totem signatures at certain points
+in their wanderings. The Patki people say that you will find on the
+rocks of Palatkwabi, the "Red Land of the South" from which they
+came, totems of the rain-cloud, sun, crane, parrot, etc. If we find these
+markings in the direction which they are thus definitely declared to
+exist, and the Hopi say similar pictures were made by their ancestors,
+there seems no reason to question such circumstantial evidence that
+some of the Hopi clans once came from this region.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting of the pictographs pecked in the rock
+is a figure which, variously modified, is a common decoration on cliff-dweller
+pottery from the Verde valley region to the ruins of the San Juan
+and its tributaries. This figure has the form of two concentric spirals,
+the ends of which do not join. As this design assumes many modifications,
+it may be well to consider a few forms which it assumes on the
+pottery of the cliff people and on that of their descendants, the Pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called black-and-white ware, or white pottery decorated with
+black lines, which is so characteristic of the ceramics of the cliff-dwellers,
+is sometimes, as we shall see, found in ruins like Awatobi and Sikyatki;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569">[Pg 569]</a></span>
+but it is so rare, as compared with other varieties, that it may be
+regarded as intrusive.</p>
+
+<p>One of the simplest forms of the broken-line motive is a Greek fret, in
+which there is a break in the component square figures or where the
+line is noncontinuous. In the simplest form, which appears prominently
+on modern pottery, but which is rare or wanting on true black-and-white
+ware, we have two crescentic figures, the concavities of which
+face in different directions, but the horns overlap. This is a symbol
+which the participants in the dance called the H&uacute;miskatcina still paint
+with pigments on their breasts, and which is used on shields and
+various religious paraphernalia.</p>
+
+<p>A study of any large collection of decorated Pueblo ware, ancient or
+modern, will show many modifications of this broken line, a number of
+which I shall discuss more in detail when pottery ornamentation is considered.
+A design so distinctive and so widespread as this must certainly
+have a symbolic interpretation. The concentric spirals with a
+broken line, the Hopi say, are symbols of the whirlpool, and it is
+interesting to find in the beautiful plates of Chavero's <i>Antig&uuml;edades
+Mexicanas</i> that the water in the lagoon surrounding the ancient Aztec
+capital was indicated by the Nahuatl Indians with similar symbols.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Objects Found at Palatki and Honanki</span></h3>
+
+<p>The isolation of these ruins and the impossibility of obtaining workmen,
+combined with the brief visit which I was able to make to them,
+rendered it impossible to collect very many specimens of ancient handiwork.
+The few excavations which were made were limited almost
+wholly to Honanki, and from their success I can readily predict a rich
+harvest for anyone who may attempt systematic work in this virgin
+field. We naturally chose the interior of the rooms for excavation,
+and I will say limited our work to these places. Every chamber was
+more or less filled with d&eacute;bris&mdash;fragments of overturned walls, detached
+rock from the cliff above, dry alkaline soil, drifted sand, dust, and
+animal excreta. In those places where digging was possible we found
+the dust and guano so dry and alkaline that it was next to impossible
+to work for any length of time in the rooms, for the air became so
+impure that the workmen could hardly breathe, especially where the
+inclosing walls prevented ventilation. Notwithstanding this obstacle,
+however, we removed the accumulated d&eacute;bris down to the floor in one or
+two chambers, and examined with care the various objects of aboriginal
+origin which were revealed.</p>
+
+<p>In studying the specimens found in cliff-houses due attention has
+not always been given to the fact that occupants have oftentimes
+camped in them subsequently to their abandonment by the original
+builders. As a consequence of this temporary habitation objects
+owned by unrelated Indians have frequently been confused with those
+of the cliff-dwellers proper. We found evidences that both Honanki<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570">[Pg 570]</a></span>
+and Palatki had been occupied by Apache Mohave people for longer
+or shorter periods of time, and some of the specimens were probably
+left there by these inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient pottery found in the rooms, although fragmentary, is
+sufficiently complete to render a comparison with known ceramics from
+the Verde ruins. Had we discovered the cemeteries, for which we zealously
+searched in vain, no doubt entire vessels, deposited as mortuary
+offerings, would have been found; but the kind of ware of which they
+were made would undoubtedly have been the same as that of the
+fragments.</p>
+
+<p>No pottery distinctively different from that which has already been
+reported from the Verde valley ruins was found, and the majority
+resembled so closely in texture and symbolism that of the cliff houses
+of the San Juan, in northern New Mexico and southern Utah, that
+they may be regarded as practically identical.</p>
+
+<p>The following varieties of pottery were found at Honanki:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>I</small>. Coiled ware.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>II</small>. Indented ware.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>III</small>. Smooth ware.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>IV</small>. Smooth ware painted white, with black geometric figures.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>V</small>. Smooth red ware, with black decoration.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>By far the largest number of fragments belong to the first division,
+and these, as a rule, are blackened by soot, as if used in cooking.
+The majority are parts of large open-mouth jars with flaring rims, corrugated
+or often indented with the thumb-nail or some hard substance,
+the coil becoming obscure on the lower surface. The inside of these
+jars is smooth, but never polished, and in one instance the potter used
+the corrugations of the coil as an ornamental motive. The paste of
+which this coiled ware was composed is coarse, with argillaceous
+grains scattered through it; but it was well fired and is still hard and
+durable. When taken in connection with its tenuity, these features
+show a highly developed potter's technique. A single fragment is ornamented
+with an S-shape coil of clay fastened to the corrugations in
+much the same way as in similar ware from the ruins near the Colorado
+Chiquito.</p>
+
+<p>The fragments of smooth ware show that they, too, had been made
+originally in the same way as coiled ware, and that their outer as well
+as their inner surface had been rubbed smooth before firing. As a rule,
+however, they are coarse in texture and have little symmetry of form.
+Fragments identified as parts of bowls, vases, jars, and dippers are
+classed under this variety. As a rule they are badly or unevenly fired,
+although evidently submitted to great heat. There was seldom an
+effort made to smooth the outer surface to a polish, and no attempt at
+pictorial ornamentation was made.</p>
+
+<p>The fragments represented in classes <span class="smcap">iv</span> and <span class="smcap">v</span> were made of a much
+finer clay, and the surface bears a gloss, almost a glaze. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571">[Pg 571]</a></span>ornamentation
+on the few fragments which were found is composed of geometric
+patterns, and is identical with the sherds from other ruins of
+Verde valley. A fragment each of a dipper and a ladle, portions of a red
+bowl, and a rim of a large vase of the same color were picked up near
+the ruin. Most of the fragments, however, belong to the first classes&mdash;the
+coiled and indented wares.</p>
+
+<p>There was no evidence that the former inhabitants of these buildings
+were acquainted with metals. The ends of the beams had been hacked
+off evidently with blunt stone axes, aided by fire, and the lintels of the
+houses were of split logs which showed no evidence that any metal implement
+was used in fashioning them. We found, however, several stone
+tools, which exhibit considerable skill in the art of stone working.
+These include a single ax, blunt at one end, sharpened at the other,
+and girt by a single groove. The variety of stone from which the ax
+was made does not occur in the immediate vicinity of the ruin. There
+were one or two stone hammers, grooved for hafting, like the ax. A
+third stone maul, being grooveless, was evidently a hand tool for
+breaking other stones or for grinding pigments.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_251" id="Fig_251"></a>
+<img src="images/fig251.jpg" width="600" height="216" alt="Fig. 251&mdash;Stone implement from Honanki" title="Fig. 251&mdash;Stone implement from Honanki" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 251&mdash;Stone implement from Honanki</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting stone implement which was found was
+uncovered in the excavation of one of the middle rooms of the western
+part of the ruin, about three feet below the surface. It consists of
+a wooden handle rounded at each end and slightly curved, with a
+sharpened stone inserted midway of its length and cemented to the
+wood with pitch or asphaltum. The stone of this implement would
+hardly bear rough usage, or sustain, without fracture, a heavy blow.
+The edge is tolerably sharp, and it therefore may have been used in
+skinning animals. Judging from the form of the handle, the implement
+is better suited for use as a scraper than for any other purpose
+which has occurred to me (<a href="#Fig_251">figure 251</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the two ruins of the Red-rocks used obsidian
+arrowpoints with shafts of reeds, and evidently highly regarded fragments
+of the former material for knives, spearheads, and one or two
+other purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The stone metates from these ruins are in no respect characteristic,
+and several fine specimens were found in place on the floors of the rooms.
+One of these was a well-worn specimen of lava, which must have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572">[Pg 572]</a></span>
+brought from a considerable distance, since none of that material occurs
+in the neighborhood. The existence of these grinding stones implies the
+use of maize as food, and this evidence was much strengthened by the
+finding of corncobs, kernels of corn, and charred fragments at several
+points below the surface of the d&eacute;bris in the chambers of Honanki.
+One of these grinding stones was found set in the floor of one of the rooms
+in the same way that similar metates may be seen in Walpi today.</p>
+
+<p>Of bone implements, our limited excavations revealed only a few fragments.
+Leg bones of the turkey were used for awls, bodkins, needles,
+and similar objects. In general character the implements of this kind
+which were found are almost identical in form with
+the bone implements from Awatobi and Sikyatki,
+which are later figured and described. Although the
+bone implements unearthed were not numerous, we were
+well repaid for our excavations by finding an ancient
+fireboard, identical with those now used at Tusayan in
+the ceremony of kindling "new fire," and probably
+universally used for that purpose in former times. The
+only shell was a fragment of a bracelet
+made from a <i>Pectunculus</i>, a Pacific coast
+mollusk highly esteemed in ancient times among prehistoric
+Pueblos. The majority of the wooden objects found showed
+marks of fire, which were especially evident on the ends of
+the roof and floor beams projecting from the walls.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_252" id="Fig_252"></a>
+<img src="images/fig252.jpg" width="600" height="530" alt="Fig. 252&mdash;Tinder tube from Honanki" title="Fig. 252&mdash;Tinder tube from Honanki" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 252&mdash;Tinder tube from Honanki</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>A considerable collection of objects made of wickerwork
+and woven vegetal fiber was found in the alkaline dust and
+ashes of the Red-rock cliff houses, and while there is some
+difficulty here as elsewhere, in deciding whether certain specimens
+belonged to the original builders or to later temporary occupants,
+there is little doubt that most of them were the property of the latter.</p>
+
+<p>There were many specimens of basketry found on the surface of the
+rubbish of the floors which, from the position of their occurrence and
+from their resemblance to the wickerwork still used by the Apache,
+seem without doubt to have been left there by temporary occupants of
+the rooms. There were likewise many wisps of yucca fiber tied in
+knots which must probably be regarded as of identical origin. The
+<i>Yucca baccata</i> affords the favorite fiber used by the natives at the
+present time, and it appears to have been popular for that purpose
+among the ancients.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573">[Pg 573]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Several specimens of sandals, some of which are very much worn on
+the soles, were found buried at the floor level. These are all of the
+same kind, and are made of yucca leaves plaited in narrow strips.
+The mode of attachment to the foot was evidently by a loop passing
+over the toes. Hide and cloth sandals have as yet not been reported
+from the Red-rock ruins of Verde valley. These sandals belonged to
+the original occupants of the cliff houses.</p>
+
+<p>Fabrics made of cotton are common in the ruins of the Red-rocks,
+and at times this fiber was combined with yucca. Some of the specimens
+of cotton cloth were finely woven and are still quite strong,
+although stained dark or almost black. Specimens of netting are also
+common, and an open-mesh legging, similar to the kind manufactured
+in ancient times by the Hopi and still worn by certain personators in
+their sacred dances, were taken from the western room of Honanki.
+There were also many fragments of rope, string, cord, and loosely
+twisted bands, resembling head bands for carrying burdens.</p>
+
+<p>A reed (<a href="#Fig_252">figure 252</a>) in which was inserted a fragment of cotton fiber
+was unlike anything yet reported from cliff houses, and as the end of
+the cotton which projected beyond the cavity of the reed was charred,
+it possibly was used as a slow-match or tinder-box.</p>
+
+<p>Several shell and turquois beads were found, but my limited studies
+of the cliff-houses revealed only a few other ornaments, among them
+being beads of turkey-bone and a single wristlet fashioned from a <i>Pectunculus</i>.
+One or two fragments of prayer-sticks were discovered in a
+rock inclosure in a cleft to the west of the ruin.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Conclusions Regarding the Verde Valley Ruins</span></h3>
+
+<p>The ruins of the Verde region closely resemble those of Tusayan,
+and seem to support the claim of the Hopi that some of their ancestors
+formerly lived in that region. This is true more especially of the
+villages of the plains and mesa tops, for neither cave-houses nor
+cavate dwellings are found in the immediate vicinity of the inhabited
+Tusayan pueblos. The objects taken from the ruins are similar to
+those found universally over the pueblo area, and from them alone we
+can not say more than that they probably indicate the same substratum
+of culture as that from which modern pueblo life with its many modifications
+has sprung.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of the decorations on the fragments of pottery found
+in the Verde ruins is the same as that of the ancient pueblos of the
+Colorado Chiquito, and it remains to be shown whether the ancestors
+of these were Hopi or Zu&ntilde;i. I believe it will be found that they were
+both, or that when the villages along the Colorado Chiquito<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574">[Pg 574]</a></span>
+abandoned part of the inhabitants went to the mesas of Tusayan and
+others migrated farther up the river to the Zu&ntilde;i villages.</p>
+
+<p>Two centers of distribution of cliff houses occur in our Southwest:
+those of the upper tributaries of the Colorado in the north and the cliff
+houses of the affluents of the Salt and the Gila in the south. The
+watershed of the Rio Grande is, so far as is known, destitute of this
+kind of aboriginal dwellings. Between the two centers of distribution
+lie the pueblos of the Little Colorado and its tributaries, the home of
+the ancestors of the Hopi and the Zu&ntilde;i. The many resemblances
+between the cliff houses of the north and those of the south indicate
+that the stage of culture of both was uniform, and probably the same
+conditions of environment led both peoples to build similar dwellings.
+All those likenesses which can be found between the modern Zu&ntilde;i and
+the Hopi to the former cliff peoples of the San Juan region in the
+north, apply equally to those of the upper Salado and the Gila and
+their tributaries to the south; and so far as arguments of a northern
+origin of either, built on architectural or technological resemblances,
+are concerned, they are not conclusive, since they are also applicable to
+the cliff peoples of the south. The one important difference between the
+northern and the southern tier of cliff houses is the occurrence of the circular
+kiva, which has never been reported south of the divide between
+the Little Colorado and the Gila-Salado drainage. If a kiva was a
+feature in southern cliff houses, which I doubt, it appears to have been
+a rectangular chamber similar to a dwelling room. The circular kiva
+exists in neither the modern Hopi nor the Zu&ntilde;i pueblos, and it has not
+been found in adjacent Tusayan ruins; therefore, if these habitations
+were profoundly influenced by settlers from the north, it is strange
+that such a radical change in the form of this room resulted. The
+arguments advanced that one of the two component stocks of the Zu&ntilde;i,
+and that the aboriginal, came from the cliff peoples of the San Juan,
+are not conclusive, although I have no doubt that the Zu&ntilde;i may have
+received increment from that direction.</p>
+
+<p>Cushing has, I believe, furnished good evidence that some of the
+ancestors of the Zu&ntilde;i population came from the south and southwest;
+and that some of these came from pueblos now in ruins on the Little
+Colorado is indicated by the great similarity in the antiquities of
+ancient Zu&ntilde;i and the Colorado Chiquito ruins. Part of the Patki people
+of the Hopi went to Zu&ntilde;i and part to Tusayan, from the same
+abandoned pueblo, and the descendants of this family in Walpi still
+recognize this ancient kinship; but I do not know, and so far as can
+be seen there is no way of determining, the relative antiquity of the
+pueblos in Zu&ntilde;i valley and those on the lower Colorado.</p>
+
+<p>The approximate date of the immigration of the Patki people to
+Tusayan is as yet a matter of conjecture. It may have been in prehistoric
+times, or more likely at a comparatively late period in the history
+of the people. It seems well substantiated, however, that when this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575">[Pg 575]</a></span>
+Water-house people joined the other Hopi, the latter inhabited pueblos
+and were to all intents a pueblo people. If this hypothesis be a correct
+one, the Snake, Horn, and Bear peoples, whom the southern colonists
+found in Tusayan, had a culture of their own similar to that of the people
+from the south. Whence that culture came must be determined by
+studies of the component clans of the Hopi before the arrival of the
+Patki people.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>The origin of the round shape of the estufa, according to Nordenski&ouml;ld
+(p. 168), is most easily explained on the hypothesis that it is a
+reminiscence of the cliff-dwellers' nomadic period. "There must be
+some very cogent reason for the employment of this shape," he says,
+"for the construction of a cylindrical chamber within a block of
+rectangular rooms involves no small amount of labor. We know how
+obstinately primitive nations cling to everything connected with their
+religious ideas. Then what is more natural than the retention, for the
+room where religious ceremonies were performed, of the round shape
+characteristic of the original dwelling place, the nomadic hut? This
+assumption is further corroborated by the situation of the hearth and
+the structure of the roof of the estufa, when we find points of analogy
+to the method employed by certain nomadic Indians in the erection of
+their huts." This theory of the origin of the round form of dwelling
+and its retention in the architecture of the kiva, advanced by Nordenski&ouml;ld
+in 1893, has much in its favor, but the rectangular form, which,
+so far as known, is the only shape of these sacred rooms in the Tusayan
+region, is still unexplained. From Casta&ntilde;eda's narrative of the Coronado
+expedition it appears that in the middle of the sixteenth century
+the eastern pueblos had both square and round estufas or kivas, and
+that these kivas belonged to the men while the rooms of the pueblo were
+in the possession of the women. The apparent reason why we find no
+round rooms or kivas in the southern cliff houses and in Tusayan may
+be due to several causes. Local conditions, including the character of
+the building sites on the Hopi mesa, made square rooms more practical,
+or the nomadic stage was so far removed that the form of the inclosure
+in which the ancients held their rites had not been preserved. Moreover,
+some of the most ancient and secret observances at Walpi, as the
+Flute ceremony, are not performed in special kivas, but take place in
+ordinary living rooms.</p>
+
+<p>As in all the other ruins of Verde valley, circular kivas are absent in
+the Red-rock country, and this fact, which has attracted the attention
+of several observers, is, I believe, very significant. Although as yet
+our knowledge of the cliff houses of the upper Gila and Salado and
+their numerous tributaries is very fragmentary, and generalization on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576">[Pg 576]</a></span>
+that account unsafe, it may be stated provisionally that no circular
+kivas have yet been found in any ruins of the Gila-Salado watershed.
+This form of kiva, however, is an essential feature of the cliff dwellings
+of Rio Colorado, especially of those along its affluents in southern
+Colorado and northern New Mexico. Roughly speaking, then, the circular
+kiva is characteristic of the ruins of this region and of certain
+others in the valley of the Rio Grande, where they still survive in
+inhabited pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>Circular ruins likewise are limited in their distribution in the Southwest,
+and it is an interesting fact that the geographic distribution of
+ancient pueblos of this form is in a general way the same as that of
+circular kivas. There are, of course, many exceptions, but so far as I
+know these can readily be explained. No ruins of circular dwellings
+occur in the Gila-Salado drainage area, where likewise no circular
+kivas have been observed. Moreover, the circular form of dwelling
+and kiva is distinctively characteristic of prehistoric peoples east of
+Tusayan, and the few instances of their occurrence on its eastern
+border can readily be explained as extra-Hopi.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation of these circular kivas advanced by Nordenski&ouml;ld
+and the Mindeleffs, that they are survivals of round habitations of
+nomads, has much to commend it; but whether sufficient or not, the
+geographic limitation of these structures tells in favor of the absence
+of any considerable migration of the prehistoric peoples of the upper
+Colorado and Rio Grande watersheds southward into the drainage area
+of the Gila-Salado. Had the migration been in that direction it may
+readily be believed that the round kiva and the circular form of dwelling
+would have been brought with it.</p>
+
+<p>The round kiva has been regarded as a survival of the form of the
+original homes of the nomad, when he became a sedentary agriculturist
+by conquest and marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of rectangular kivas in the same areas in which round
+kivas occur does not necessarily militate against this theory, nor does
+it oblige us to offer an explanation of a necessarily radical change in
+architecture if we would derive it from a circular form. It would
+indeed be very unusual to find such a change in a structure devoted to
+religious purposes where conservatism is so strong. The rectangular
+kiva is the ancient form, or rather the original form; the round kiva is
+not a development from it, but an introduction from an alien people. It
+never penetrated southward of the Colorado and upper Rio Grande
+drainage areas because the element which introduced it in the north
+was never strong enough to influence the house builders of the Gila-Salado
+and tributary valleys.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577">[Pg 577]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="RUINS_IN_TUSAYAN" id="RUINS_IN_TUSAYAN"></a>RUINS IN TUSAYAN</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">General Features</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>No region of our Southwest presents more instructive antiquities than
+the ancient province of Tusayan, more widely known as the Moki reservation.
+In the more limited use of the term, Tusayan is applied to
+the immediate surroundings of the Hopi pueblos, to which "province"
+it was given in the middle of the sixteenth century. In a broader sense
+the name would include an as yet unbounded country claimed by the
+component clans of this people as the homes of their ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>The general character and distribution of Tusayan ruins (plate <span class="smcap">xvi</span>)
+has been ably presented by Mr Victor Mindeleff in a previous report.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+While this memoir is not regarded as exhaustive, it considers most of
+the large ruins in immediate proximity to the three mesas on which
+the pueblos inhabited by the Hopi are situated. It is not my purpose
+here to consider all Tusayan ruins, even if I were able to do so, but
+to supplement with additional data the observations already published
+on two of the most noteworthy pueblo settlements. Broadly speaking,
+I have attempted archeological excavations in order to obtain more light
+on the nature of prehistoric life in Tusayan. It may be advantageous,
+however, to refer briefly to some of the ruins thus far discovered in the
+Tusayan region as preliminary to more systematic descriptions of the
+two which I have chosen for special description.</p>
+
+<p>The legends of the surviving Hopi contain constant references to
+former habitations of different clans in the country round about their
+present villages. These clans, which by consolidation make up the present
+population of the Hopi pueblos, are said to have originally entered
+Tusayan from regions as far eastward as the Rio Grande, and from the
+southern country included within the drainage of the Gila, the Salt,
+and their affluents. Other increments are reputed to have come from
+the northward and the westward, so that the people we now find in
+Tusayan are descendants from an aggregation of stocks from several
+directions, some of them having migrated from considerable distances.
+Natives of other regions have settled among the ancient Hopi, built
+pueblos, and later returned to their former homes; and the Hopi in
+turn have sent colonists into the eastern pueblo country.</p>
+
+<p>These legends of former movements of the tribal clans of Tusayan
+are supplemented and supported by historical documents, and we know
+from this evidence that there has been a continual interchange between
+the people of Tusayan and almost every large pueblo of New Mexico and
+Arizona. Some of the ruins of this region were abandoned in historic
+times; others are prehistoric; many were simply temporary halting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578">[Pg 578]</a></span>
+places in Hopi migrations, and were abandoned as the clans drifted
+together in friendship or destroyed as a result of internecine conflicts.</p>
+
+<p>There is documentary evidence that in the years following the great
+rebellion of the Pueblo tribes in 1680, which were characterized by
+catastrophes of all kinds among the Rio Grande villagers, many
+Tanoan people fled to Tusayan to escape from their troubles. According
+to Niel, 4,000 Tanoan refugees, under Frasquillo, loaded with booty
+which they had looted from the churches, went to Oraibi by way of
+Zu&ntilde;i, and there established a "kingdom," with their chief as ruler.
+How much reliance may be placed on this account is not clear to me,
+but there is no doubt that many Tanoan people joined the Hopi about
+this time, and among them were the Asa people, the ancestors of the
+present inhabitants of Hano pueblo, and probably the accolents of
+Pay&uuml;pki. The ease with which two Franciscan fathers, in 1742, persuaded
+441 of these to return to the Rio Grande, implies that they were
+not very hostile to Christianity, and it is possible that one reason they
+sought Tusayan in the years after the Spaniards were expelled may
+have been their friendship for the church party.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Oraibi, not one of the present inhabited
+pueblos of Tusayan occupies the site on which it stood in the sixteenth
+century, and the majority of them do not antedate the beginning of
+the eighteenth century. The villages have shifted their positions but
+retained their names.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the advent of Tobar, in 1540, there was but one of the
+present three villages of East Mesa. This was Walpi, and at the period
+referred to it was situated on the terrace below the site of the present
+town, near the northwestern base of the mesa proper. Two well-defined
+ruins, called Kisakobi and K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela, are now pointed out as the
+sites of Old Walpi. Of these K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela is regarded as the older.</p>
+
+<p>Judging by their ruins these towns were of considerable size. From
+their exposed situation they were open to the inroads of predatory
+tribes, and from these hostile raids their abandonment became necessary.
+From K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela the ancient Walpians moved to a point higher
+on the mesa, nearer its western limit, and built Kisakobi, where the
+pueblo stood in the seventeenth century. There is evidence that a Spanish
+mission was erected at this point, and the place is sometimes called
+N&uuml;shaki, a corruption of "Missa-ki," Mass-house. From this place the
+original nucleus of Walpians moved to the present site about the close
+of the seventeenth century. Later the original population was joined
+by other phratries, some of which, as the Asa, had lived in the cliff-houses
+of Ts&eacute;gi, or Canyon de Chelly, as late as the beginning of
+the eighteenth century. This, however, is not the place to trace the
+composition of the different modern villages.</p>
+
+<p>Sichomovi was a colony from Walpi, founded about 1750, and Hano
+was built not earlier than 1700. The former was settled by the Badger
+people, later joined by a group of Tanoan clans called the Asa, from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579">[Pg 579]</a></span>
+the Rio Grande, who were invited to Tusayan to aid the Hopi in resisting
+the invasions of northern nomads.</p>
+
+<p>By the middle of the eighteenth century the population of the province
+of Tusayan was for the first time distributed in the seven pueblos
+now inhabited. No village has been deserted since that time, nor has
+any new site been occupied.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the reader may have an idea of the Tusayan pueblos
+at the time mentioned, an account of them from a little-known description
+by Morfi in 1782 is introduced:<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<h4><i>Morfi's account of the Tusayan pueblos</i></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Quarenta y seis leguas al Poniente de Zu&ntilde;i, con alguna inclinacion al N. O. est&aacute;n
+los tres primeros pueblos de la provincia de Moqui, que en el dia en el corto distrito
+de 4-1/2 leguas (112 recto) tiene siete pueblos en tres mesas &oacute; pe&ntilde;oles que corren linea
+recta de Oriente &aacute; Poniente.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Tanos</i><a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></h5>
+
+<p>En la punta occidental de la primera, y en la mas estrecho de su eminencia est&aacute;n
+situados tres de los quales el primero es el de Tanos (alli dicen Teg&uuml;as), cuyas moradores
+tienen idioma particular y distinto del Moquino. Es pueblo regular con un
+plaza en el centro, y un formacion de calles. Tendr&aacute; 110 familias.</p>
+
+<p>El segundo<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> pueblo dista del precedente como un tiro de piedra, es de fundacion
+moderna, y se compondr&aacute; de mas 15 familias que se retiraron aqui de:</p>
+
+<h5><i>Gualpi</i></h5>
+
+<p>Gualpi que dista del anterior un tiro de fusil, es mas grande y populoso que los dos
+anteriores, puede tener hasta 200 familias. Estas tres pueblos tienen poco caballada,
+y algunas vacas; pero mucho ganado lanar.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Mosasnabi</i><a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></h5>
+
+<p>Al poniente de esta mesa, y &aacute; legua y media de distancia est&aacute; la segunda, cuyo
+intermedio es un (112 v.) arenal, que ertrando un poco en ella la divide en dos brazas.
+En el septentrional, que es el mas inmediata &aacute; Gualpi hay dos anillos distantes entre
+si un tiro de piedra. En la cima del primero est&aacute; situado el pueblo de Mosasnabi
+compuesto de 50 familias poco mas &oacute; menos.</p>
+
+<h5><i>Xipaolabi</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></h5>
+
+<p>En la cumbre del secundo cerrito se fund&oacute; el quinto pueblo llamado Xipaolabi, que
+tendr&aacute; solo 14 familias: est&aacute; casi arruinado, porque sus vecinos se han trasladado al
+brazo austral de la mesa y formaron el sexto pueblo llamado:</p>
+
+<h5><i>Xongopabi</i><a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></h5>
+
+<p>Xongopabi goza mejor situacion que todos los demas, tienen tres quarteles mui bien
+dispuestos y en ellas unas 60 familias. Estos tres pueblos tienen mas caballada que
+los primeros y mucho ganado menor.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580">[Pg 580]</a></span></p>
+
+<h5><i>Oraybe</i></h5>
+
+<p>Dos y media leguas al Poniente de esta mesa, est&aacute; la tercera, y en sucima el septimo
+pueblo que llaman Oraybe. Es como la capital de la provincia, el mayor y mas bien
+formado de toda ella, y acaso de todas las provincias internas. Tiene once quarteles
+&oacute; manzanas bien largas y dispuestos con calles &aacute; cordel y&aacute; (113 r.) todos vientos, y
+puede llegar su poblacion &aacute; 800 familias. Tienen buena caballada, mucho ganado
+menor y algun vacuno. Aunque no gozan sino una peque&ntilde;a fuente de buena agua,
+distante del pueblo mas de una milla al Norte, han construido para suplir esta escasez,
+en la misma mesa, y mui inmediato &agrave; las casas seis cisternas grandes donde recoger la
+agua de las lluvias y nieves.</p></div>
+
+<p>The distribution of the population of Tusayan in the seven pueblos
+mentioned above remained practically the same during the century
+between 1782 and 1882. Summer settlements for farming purposes
+were inhabited by the Oraibi for brief periods. Between the years 1880
+and 1890 a beginning of a new distribution of Hopi families began,
+when one or two of the less timid erected houses near Coyote spring,
+at the East Mesa. The Tewa, represented by Polaka and Jakwaina,
+took the lead in this movement. From 1890 to the present time a large
+number of Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano families have built houses in
+the foothills of the East Mesa and in the plain beyond the "wash." A
+large schoolhouse has been erected at Sun spring and a considerable
+number of East Mesa villagers have abandoned their mesa dwellings.
+In this shifting of the population the isolated house is always adopted
+and the aboriginal method of roof building is abandoned. The indications
+are that in a few years the population of the East Mesa will be
+settled in unconnected farmhouses with little resemblance to the ancient
+communal pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>This movement is shared to a less extent by the Middle Mesa and
+Oraibi people. On my first visit to the pueblos of these mesas, in 1890,
+there was not a single permanent dwelling save in the ancient pueblos;
+but now numerous small farmhouses have been erected at or near the
+springs in the foothills. I mention these facts as a matter of record of
+progress in the life of these people in adapting themselves to the new
+conditions or influences by which they are surrounded. I believe that if
+this exodus of Hopi families from the old pueblo to the plain continues
+during the next two decades as it has in the last ten years, there are
+children now living in Walpi who will some day see it uninhabited.</p>
+
+<p>This disintegration of the Hopi phratries, by which families are separated
+from one another, is, I believe, a return to the prehistoric distribution
+of the clans, and as Walpi grew into a pueblo by a union of
+kindred people, so now it is again being divided and distributed, still
+preserving family ties in new clusters or groupings. It is thus not
+impossible that the sites of certain old ruins, as Sikyatki, deserted for
+many years, will again be built upon if better suited for new modes of
+life. The settlement near Coyote spring, for instance, is not far from
+the old site of a former home of the Tanoan families, who went to
+Tusayan in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and the people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581">[Pg 581]</a></span>
+who inhabit these new houses are all Tanoan descendants of the
+original contingent.</p>
+
+<p>In order to become familiar with the general character of Tusayan
+ruins, I made a brief reconnoissance of those mentioned in the following
+list, from which I selected Awatobi and Sikyatki as places for a
+more exhaustive exploration. This list is followed by a brief mention
+of those which I believe would offer fair opportunities for a continuation
+of the work inaugurated. The ruins near Oraibi were not examined
+and are therefore omitted, not that they are regarded as less
+important, but because I was unable to undertake a study of them in
+the limited time at my disposal. There are also many ruins in Tusayan,
+north of the inhabited pueblos, which have never been described,
+and would well repay extended investigation. Some of these, as the
+ruins at the sacred spring called Kishuba, are of the utmost traditional
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I. <i>Middle Mesa ruins</i>&mdash;(1) Old Shu&ntilde;opovi; (2) Old Misho&ntilde;inovi;
+(3) Shitaum&ucirc;; (4) Chukubi; (5) Pay&uuml;pki.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>East Mesa ruins</i>&mdash;(1) Kisakobi; (2) K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela; (3) K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo;
+(4) Tukinobi; (5) Kachinba; (6) Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Ruins in Keam's canyon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Jeditoh valley ruins</i>&mdash;(1) Bat-house; (2) Jeditoh, Kawaika;
+(3) Horn-house; (4) Awatobi; Smaller Awatobi.</p></div>
+
+<p>This method of classification is purely geographical, and is adopted
+simply for convenience; but there are one or two facts worthy of
+mention in regard to the distribution of ruins in these four sections.
+The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, are, as a rule, situated on the
+eastern side of their respective mesas, or on the cliffs or hills which
+border the adjacent plains on the west. This uniformity is thought to
+have resulted from a desire to occupy a sunny site for warmth and
+for other reasons.</p>
+
+<p>The pueblos at or nearest the southern ends of the mesas were found
+to be best suited for habitation, consequently the present towns occupy
+those sites, or, as in the case of the Jeditoh series, the pueblo at that
+point was the last abandoned. The reason for this is thought to be an
+attempt to concentrate on the most inaccessible sites available, which
+implies inroads of hostile peoples. For the same reason, likewise, the
+tendency was to move from the foothills to the mesa tops when these
+invasions began.</p>
+
+<p>Early settlers near East Mesa appeared to have chosen exposed sites
+for their pueblos. This would imply that they feared no invasion, and
+legendary history indicates that the first pueblos were erected before
+the hostile Ute, Apache, and Navaho appeared. The early settlements
+on Middle Mesa were also apparently not made with an absorbing idea
+of inaccessibility. All the Jeditoh villages, however, were on the
+mesa tops, these sites having been selected evidently with a view to
+protection, since they were not convenient to the farms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582">[Pg 582]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For many reasons it would seem that the people who occupied the
+now ruined Jeditoh villages were later arrivals in Tusayan than those
+of East and Middle Mesas, and that, as a rule, they came from the eastward,
+while those of Middle Mesa arrived from the south. The first
+colonists of all, however, appear to have been the East Mesa clans, the
+Bear and Snake families. If this conjecture be true, we may believe
+that the oldest pueblos in Tusayan were probably the house groups of
+the Snake clan of East Mesa, for whom their traditionists claim a
+northern origin.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Middle Mesa Ruins</span></h3>
+
+<h4>SHU&Ntilde;OPOVI</h4>
+
+<p>The site of Old Shu&ntilde;opovi (<a href="#PL_CV">plate <span class="smcap">cv</span></a>) at the advent of the first
+Spaniards, and for a century or more afterward, was at the foot of the
+mesa on which the present village stands. The site of the old pueblo
+is easily detected by the foundations of the ancient houses and their
+overturned walls, surrounded by mounds of soil filled with fragments
+of the finest pottery.</p>
+
+<p>The old village was situated on a ridge of foothills east of the present
+town and near the spring, which is still used. On the highest point
+of the ridge there rise to a considerable height the massive walls of the
+old Spanish mission church, forming an inclosure, now used as a sheep
+corral. The cemeteries are near by, close to the outer walls, and among
+a clump of peach trees about half a mile east of the old houses. The
+pottery,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> as shown by the fragments, is of the finest old Tusayan ware,
+cream and red being the predominating colors, while fragments of coiled
+and black-and-white ware are likewise common.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MISHO&Ntilde;INOVI</h4>
+
+<p>The ruins of Old Misho&ntilde;inovi lie west of the present pueblo in the
+foothills, not far from the two rocky pinnacles at that point and adjacent
+to a spring. In strolling over the site of the old town I have noted
+its ground plan, and have picked up many sherds which indicate that
+the pottery made at that place was the fine cream-color ware for which
+Tusayan has always been famous. The site offers unusual opportunities
+for archeological studies, but excavation there is not practicable on
+account of the opposition of the chiefs.</p>
+
+<p>Old Misho&ntilde;inovi was a pueblo of considerable size, and was probably
+inhabited up to the close of the seventeenth century. It was probably
+on this site that the early Spanish explorers found the largest pueblo
+of the Middle Mesa. The ruin of Shitaimovi, in the foothills near
+Misho&ntilde;inovi, mentioned by Mindeleff, was not visited by our party.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CV" id="PL_CV"></a><a href="images/platecv-lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/platecv.jpg" width="600" height="414" alt="PL. CV&mdash;
+SKETCH MAP OF THE MESA COUNTRY
+OCCUPIED BY THE HOPI INDIANS" title="PL. CV.&mdash;
+SKETCH MAP OF THE MESA COUNTRY
+OCCUPIED BY THE HOPI INDIANS" /></a>
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CV.</span><br /><br />
+
+
+<span class="caption">SKETCH MAP OF THE MESA COUNTRY<br />
+OCCUPIED BY THE HOPI INDIANS</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583">[Pg 583]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>CHUKUBI</h4>
+
+<p>The ruin of Chukubi bears every evidence of antiquity. It is situated
+on one of the eastward projecting spurs of Middle Mesa, midway
+between Pay&uuml;pki and Shipaulovi, near an excellent spring at the base
+of the mesa.</p>
+
+<p>Chukubi was built in rectangular form, with a central plaza surrounded
+by rooms, two deep. There are many indications of outlying
+chambers, some of which are arranged in rows. The house walls are
+almost wholly demolished, and in far poorer state of preservation than
+those of the neighboring ruin of Pay&uuml;pki. The evidence now obtainable
+indicates that it was an ancient habitation of a limited period of
+occupancy. It is said to have been settled by the Patu&ntilde; or Squash
+people, whose original home was far to the south, on Little Colorado
+river. A fair ground plan is given by Mindeleff in his memoir on
+Pueblo Architecture; but so far as known no studies of the pottery of
+this pueblo have ever been made.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PAY&Uuml;PKI</h4>
+
+<p>One of the best-preserved ruins on Middle Mesa is called Pay&uuml;pki
+by the Hopi, and is interesting in connection with the traditions of
+the migration of peoples from the Rio Grande, which followed the
+troublesome years at the close of the seventeenth century. In the
+reconquest of New Mexico by the Spaniards we can hardly say that
+Tusayan was conquered; the province was visited and nominally subjugated
+after the great rebellion, but with the exception of repeated
+expeditions, which were often repulsed, the Hopi were practically independent
+and were so regarded. No adequate punishment was inflicted
+on the inhabitants of Walpi for the destruction of the town of Awatobi,
+and although there were a few military expeditious to Tusayan no effort
+at subjugation was seriously made.</p>
+
+<p>Tusayan was regarded as an asylum for the discontented or apostate,
+and about the close of the seventeenth century many people from
+the Rio Grande fled there for refuge. Some of these refugees appear
+to have founded pueblos of their own; others were amalgamated with
+existing villages. Pay&uuml;pki seems to have been founded about this
+period, for we find no account of it before this time, and it is not mentioned
+in connection with ancient migrations. In 1706 Holguin is said
+to have attacked the "Tanos" village between Walpi and Oraibi and
+forced the inhabitants to give hostages, but he was later set upon by
+the Tano and driven back to Zu&ntilde;i. It would hardly seem possible that
+the pueblo mentioned could have been Hano, for this village does not
+lie between Oraibi and Walpi and could not have been surrounded in
+the way indicated in the account. Pay&uuml;pki, however, not only lay on
+the trail between Walpi and Oraibi&mdash;about midway, as the chronicler<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584">[Pg 584]</a></span>
+states&mdash;but was so situated on a projecting promontory that it could
+easily have been surrounded and isolated from the other pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>The Hopi legends definitely assert that the Pay&uuml;pki people came from
+the "great river," the Rio Grande, and spoke a language allied to that
+of the people of Hano. They were probably apostates, who came from
+the east about 1680, but did not seem to agree well with the people of
+the Middle Mesa, and about 1750 returned to the river and were domiciled
+in Sandia, where their descendants still live. The name Pay&uuml;pki
+is applied by the Hopi to the pueblo of Sandia as well as to the ruin on
+the Middle Mesa. The general appearance of the ruin of Pay&uuml;pki indicates
+that it was not long inhabited, and that it was abandoned at a
+comparatively recent date. The general plan is not that common to
+ancient Tusayan ruins, but more like that of Hano and Sichomovi,
+which were erected about the time Pay&uuml;pki was built. Many fragments
+of a kind of pottery which in general appearance is foreign to
+Tusayan, but which resembles the Rio Grande ware, were found on the
+mounds, and the walls are better preserved than those of the ancient
+Tusayan ruins.</p>
+
+<p>A notable absence of fragments of obsidian, the presence of which
+in abundance is characteristic of ancient ruins, was observed on the
+site of Pay&uuml;pki. All these evidences substantiate the Hopi legend
+that the Tanoan inhabitants of the village of Middle Mesa, above the
+trail from Walpi to Oraibi, made but a short stay in Tusayan.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is good documentary evidence that Sandia was settled by
+Tanoan people from Tusayan. Morfi in 1782 so states,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> and in a copy
+of the acts of possession of the pueblo grants of 1748 we find still
+further proof of the settlement of "Moquinos" in Sandia.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>When Otermin returned to New Mexico in his attempted reconquest,
+in 1681, he reached Isleta on December 6, and on the 8th Dominguez
+encamped in sight of Sandia, but found the inhabitants had fled. The
+discord following this event drove the few surviving families of the
+Tiwa on their old range to Tusayan, for they were set upon by Keres
+and Jemez warriors on the plea that they received back the Spaniards.
+Possibly these families formed the nucleus of Pay&uuml;pki. It was about
+this time, also, if we can believe Niel's story, that 4,000 Tanos went to
+Tusayan. It would thus appear that the Hopi Pay&uuml;pki was settled in
+the decade 1680-1690.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585">[Pg 585]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The East Mesa Ruins</span></h3>
+
+<h4>K&Uuml;CHAPT&Uuml;VELA AND KISAKOBI</h4>
+
+<p>The two ruins of K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela and Kisakobi mark the sites of Walpi
+during the period of Spanish exploration and occupancy between 1540
+and 1700. The former was the older. In all probability the latter had
+a mission church and was inhabited at the time of the great rebellion
+in 1680, having been founded about fifty years previously.</p>
+
+<p>The former or more ancient<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> pueblo was situated on the first or lowest
+terrace of East Mesa, below the present pueblo, on the northern and
+western sides. The name K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela signifies "Ash-hill terrace,"
+and probably the old settlement, like the modern, was known as Walpi,
+"Place-of-the-gap," referring to the gap or notch (<i>wala</i>) in the mesa
+east of Hano.</p>
+
+<p>Old Walpi is said to have been abandoned because it was in the shade
+of the mesa, but doubtless the true cause of its removal was that the
+site was too much exposed, commanded as it was by the towering mesa
+above it, and easily approached on three sides. The Walpi which was
+contemporary with Sikyatki was built in an exposed location, for at
+that time the Hopi were comparatively secure from invaders. Later,
+however, Apache, Ute, and Navaho began to raid their fields, and the
+Spaniards came in their midst again and again, forcing them to work
+like slaves. A more protected site was necessary, and late in the
+seventeenth century the Walpians began to erect houses on the mesa,
+which formed the nucleus of the present town. The standing walls of
+Old Walpi are buried in the d&eacute;bris, but the plans of the rooms may
+readily be traced. Comparatively speaking, it was a large, compact,
+well-built pueblo, and, from the great piles of d&eacute;bris in the neighborhood,
+would seem to have been occupied during several generations.</p>
+
+<p>The pottery found in the neighborhood is the fine, ancient Tusayan
+ware, like that of Sikyatki and Shu&ntilde;opovi. Extended excavations
+would reveal, I am sure, many beautiful objects and shed considerable
+light on the obscure history of Walpi and its early population.</p>
+
+<p>After moving from Old Walpi it seems that the people first built
+houses on the terrace above, or on the platform extending westward
+from the western limits of the summit of East Mesa. The whole top of
+that part of the mesa is covered with house walls, showing the former
+existence of a large pueblo. Here, no doubt, if we can trust tradition,
+the mission of Walpi was built, and I have found in the d&eacute;bris fragments
+of pottery similar to that used in Mexico, and very different from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586">[Pg 586]</a></span>
+ancient or modern Pueblo ware. But even Kisakobi<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> was not a safe
+site for the Walpians to choose for their village, so after they destroyed
+the mission and killed the priest they moved up to their present site
+and abandoned both of their former villages.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that with this removal of the villagers there were found to
+be no easy means of climbing the precipitous walls, and that the stairway
+trails were made as late as the beginning of the present century. In
+those early days there was a ladder near where the stairway trail is
+now situated, and some of the older men of Walpi have pointed out to
+me where this ladder formerly stood.</p>
+
+<p>The present plan of Walpi shows marked differences from that made
+twenty years ago, and several houses between the stairway trail and
+the Wikwaliobi kiva, on the edge of the mesa, which have now fallen
+into ruin, were inhabited when I first visited Walpi in 1890. The buildings
+between the Snake kiva and the Nacab kiva are rapidly becoming
+unsafe for habitation, and most of these rooms will soon be deserted.
+As many Walpi families are building new houses on the plain, it needs
+no prophet to predict that the desertion of the present site of Walpi
+will progress rapidly in the next few years, and possibly by the end of
+our generation the pueblo may be wholly deserted&mdash;one more ruin
+added to the multitudes in the Southwest.</p>
+
+<p>The site of Old Walpi, at K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela, is the scene of an interesting
+rite in the New-fire ceremony at Walpi, for not far from it is a shrine
+dedicated to a supernatural being called T&uuml;wapo&ntilde;tumsi, "Earth-altar-woman."
+This shrine, or house, as it is called, is about 230 feet from
+the ruin, among the neighboring bowlders, and consists of four flat slabs
+set upright, forming an inclosure in which stands a log of fossil wood.</p>
+
+<p>The ceremonials at Old Walpi in the New-fire rites are described in
+my account<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> of this observance, and from their nature I suspect that
+the essential part of this episode is the deposit of offerings at this
+shrine. The circuits about the old ruin are regarded as survivals of
+the rites which took place in former times at Old Walpi. The ruin was
+spoken of in the ceremony as the <i>Sipap&uuml;ni</i>, the abode of the dead who
+had become <i>katcinas</i>, to whom the prayers said in the circuits were
+addressed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>K&Uuml;K&Uuml;CHOMO</h4>
+
+<p>The two conical mounds on the mesa above Sikyatki are often
+referred to that ancient pueblo, but from their style of architecture and
+from other considerations I am led to connect them with other phratries
+of Tusayan. From limited excavations made in these mounds in
+1891, I was led to believe that they were round pueblos, similar to those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587">[Pg 587]</a></span>
+east of Tusayan, and that they were temporary habitations, possibly
+vantage points, occupied for defense. <a href="#PL_CVI">Plate <span class="smcap">cvi</span></a> illustrates their general
+appearance, while the rooms of which they are composed are shown
+in <a href="#Fig_253">figure 253</a>. At the place where the mesa narrows between these
+mounds and the pueblos to the west, a wall was built from one edge of
+the mesa to the other to defend the trail on this side. This wall appears
+to have had watch towers or houses at intervals, which are now in ruins,
+as shown in <a href="#Fig_254">figure 254</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CVI" id="PL_CVI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecvi.jpg" width="600" height="407" alt="PL. CVI&mdash;
+THE RUINS OF K&Uuml;K&Uuml;CHOMO" title="PL. CVI&mdash;
+THE RUINS OF K&Uuml;K&Uuml;CHOMO" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">THE RUINS OF K&Uuml;K&Uuml;CHOMO</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 480px;"><a name="Fig_253" id="Fig_253"></a>
+<img src="images/fig253.jpg" width="480" height="600" alt="Fig. 253&mdash;K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo" title="Fig. 253&mdash;K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 253&mdash;K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The legends concerning the ancient inhabitants of K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo are
+conflicting. The late A. M. Stephen stated that tradition ascribes them
+to the Coyote and Pikya (Corn) peoples, with whom the denizens of
+Sikyatki made friendship, and whom the latter induced to settle there
+to protect them from the Walpians. He regarded them as the last
+arrivals of the Water-house phratry, while the Coyote people came from
+the north at nearly the same time. From his account it would appear
+that the twin mounds, K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo, were abandoned before the destruction
+of Sikyatki. The Coyote people were, I believe, akin to the Kokop<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588">[Pg 588]</a></span>
+or Firewood phratry, and as the pueblo of Sikyatki was settled by the
+latter, it is highly probable that the inhabitants of the two villages were
+friendly and naturally combined against the Snake pueblo of Walpi. I
+believe, however, there is some doubt that any branch of the Patki
+people settled in K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo, and the size of the town as indicated by
+the ruin was hardly large enough to accommodate more than one clan.
+Still, as there are two K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo ruins, there may have been a different
+family in each of the two house clusters.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_254" id="Fig_254"></a>
+<img src="images/fig254.jpg" width="600" height="469" alt="Fig. 254&mdash;Defensive wall on the East Mesa" title="Fig. 254&mdash;Defensive wall on the East Mesa" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 254&mdash;Defensive wall on the East Mesa</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that in ancient times, before the twin mounds of
+K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo were erected, the people of Sikyatki were greatly harassed
+by the young slingers and archers of Walpi, who would come
+across to the edge of the high cliff and assail them with impunity.
+Anyone, however, who contemplates the great distance from Sikyatki
+to the edge of the mesa may well doubt whether it was possible for the
+Walpi bowmen to inflict much harm in that way.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, if the word "slingers" is advisedly chosen, it introduces a
+kind of warfare which is not mentioned in other Tusayan legends,
+although apparently throwing stones at their enemies was practiced
+among Pueblos of other stocks in early historic times.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589">[Pg 589]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We may suppose, however, that the survivors of both K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo
+and Sikyatki sought refuge in Awatobi after the prehistoric destruction
+of their pueblos, for both were peopled by clans which came from the
+east, and naturally went to that village, the founders of which migrated
+from the same direction.</p>
+
+
+<h4>KACHINBA</h4>
+
+<p>The small ruin at Kachinba, the halting place of the Kachina people,
+seems to have escaped the attention of students of Tusayan archeology.
+It lies about six miles from Sikyatki, about east of Walpi, and is
+approached by following the trail at the foot of the same mesa upon
+which K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo is situated. The ruin is located on a small foothill
+and has a few standing walls. It was evidently diminutive in size and
+only temporarily inhabited. The best wall found at this ruin lies at
+the base of the hill, where the spring formerly was. This spring is
+now filled in, but a circular wall of masonry indicates its great size in
+former times.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TUKINOBI</h4>
+
+<p>There are evidences that the large hill on top of East Mesa, not far
+from the twin mounds, was once the site of a pueblo of considerable size,
+but I have not been able to gather any definite legend about it. Near
+this ruin is the "Eagle shrine" in which round wooden imitations of eagle
+eggs are ceremonially deposited, and in the immediate vicinity of which
+is another shrine near which tracks are cut in the rock, and which were
+evidently considered by the Indian who pointed them out to me as
+having been made by some bird.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> It is probably from these footprints,
+which are elsewhere numerous, that the two ruins called K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo
+("footprints mound") takes its name.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Jeditoh Valley Ruins</span></h3>
+
+<p>As one enters Antelope valley, following the Holbrook road, he finds
+himself in what was formerly a densely populated region of Tusayan.
+This valley in former times was regarded as a garden spot, and the plain
+was covered with patches of corn, beans, squashes, and chile. The former
+inhabitants lived in pueblos on the northern side, high up on the mesa
+which separates Jeditoh valley from Keam's canyon. All of these
+pueblos are now in ruins, and only a few Navaho and Hopi families
+cultivate small tracts in the once productive fields.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the series of ruins along the northern rim of Antelope
+valley resemble Awatobi, which is later described in detail. It is interesting
+to note that in the abandonment of villages the same law appears
+to have prevailed here as in the other Tusayan mesas, for in the shrinkage
+of the Hopi people they concentrated more and more to the points
+of the mesas. Thus, at East Mesa, Sikyatki, Kachinba, and K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590">[Pg 590]</a></span>
+were destroyed, while Walpi remained. At Middle Mesa, Chukubi and
+Pay&uuml;pki became ruins, and in Antelope valley Awatobi was the last of
+the Jeditoh series to fall. There has thus been a gradual tendency to
+drift from readily accessible locations to the most impregnable sites,
+which indicates how severely the Hopi must have been harassed by
+their foes. It is significant that some of the oldest pueblos were originally
+built in the most exposed positions, and it may rightly be conjectured
+that the pressure on the villagers came long after these sites
+were chosen. The ancient or original Hopi had a sense of security when
+they built their first houses, and they, therefore, did not find it necessary
+to seek the protection of cliffs. Many of them lived in the valley
+of the Colorado Chiquito, others at Kishuba. As time went on, however,
+they were forced, as were their kindred in other pueblos, to move to
+inaccessible mesas guarded by vertical cliffs.</p>
+
+<p>Of the several ruins of Antelope valley, that on the mesa above
+Jeditoh or Antelope spring is one of the largest and most interesting.
+Stephen calls this ruin Mishiptonga, and a plan of the old house is
+given by Mindeleff.</p>
+
+<p>The spring called Kawaika, situated near the former village of the
+same name, was evidently much used by the ancient accolents of Antelope
+valley. From this neighborhood there was excavated a few years
+ago a beautiful collection of ancient mortuary pottery objects, which
+was purchased by Mrs Mary Hemenway, of Boston, and is now in the
+Peabody Museum at Cambridge. These objects have never been adequately
+described, although a good illustration of some of the specimens,
+with a brief reference thereto, was published by James Mooney<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+a few years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most striking objects in this collection are clay models
+of houses, dishes, and small vases with rims pierced with holes, and
+rectangular vessels ornamented with pictures of birds. There are
+specimens of cream, yellow, red, and white pottery in the collection
+which, judging by the small size of most of the specimens, was
+apparently votive in character.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins called by Stephen "Horn-house" and "Bat-house," as well
+as the smaller ruin between them, have been described by Mindeleff,
+who has likewise published plans of the first two. From their general
+appearance I should judge they were not occupied for so long a time
+as Awatobi, and by a population considerably smaller. If all these
+Jeditoh pueblos were built by peoples from the Rio Grande, it is possible
+that those around Jeditoh spring were the first founded and that
+Awatobi was of later construction; but from the data at hand the
+relative age of the ruins of this part of Tusayan can not be determined.</p>
+
+<p>There are many ruins situated on the periphery of Tusayan which
+are connected traditionally with the Hopi, but are not here mentioned.
+Of these, the so-called "Fire-house" is said to have been the home of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591">[Pg 591]</a></span>
+the ancestors of Sikyatki, and Kintiel of certain Zu&ntilde;i people akin to
+the Hopi. Both of the ruins mentioned differ in their architectural
+features from characteristic prehistoric Tusayan ruins, for they are circular
+in form, as are many of the ruins in the middle zone of the pueblo
+area. With these exceptions there are no circular ruins within the area
+over which the Hopi lay claim, and it is probable that the accolents of
+Kintiel were more Zu&ntilde;i than Hopi in kinship.</p>
+
+<p>Many ruins north of Oraibi and in the neighborhood of the farming
+village of Moenkopi are attributed to the Hopi by their traditionists.
+The ruins about Kishyuba, connected with the Kachina people, also
+belong to Tusayan. These and many others doubtless offer most important
+contributions to an exact knowledge of the prehistoric migrations
+of this most interesting people.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many Tusayan ruins which offer good facilities for archeological
+work, the two which I chose for that purpose are Awatobi
+and Sikyatki. My reasons for this choice may briefly be stated.</p>
+
+<p>Awatobi is a historic pueblo of the Hopi, which was more or less
+under Spanish influence between the years 1540 and 1700. When
+properly investigated, in the light of archeology, it ought to present a
+good picture of Tusayan life before the beginning of the modifications
+which appear in the modern villages of that isolated province. While
+I expected to find evidences of Spanish occupancy, I also sought facts
+bearing on the character of Tusayan life in the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Sikyatki, however, showed us the character of Tusayan life in the
+fifteenth century, or the unmodified aboriginal pueblo culture of this
+section of the Southwest. Here we expected to find Hopi culture
+unmodified by Spanish influence.</p>
+
+<p>The three pueblos of Sikyatki, Awatobi, and Walpi, when properly
+studied, will show the condition of pueblo culture in three centuries&mdash;in
+Sikyatki, pure, unmodified pueblo culture; in Awatobi, pueblo life
+as slightly modified by the Spaniards, and in Walpi, those changes
+resulting from the advent of Americans superadded. While special
+attention has thus far been given by ethnologists mainly to the last-mentioned
+pueblo, a study of the ruins of the other two villages is of
+great value in showing how the modern life developed and what part
+of it is due to foreign influence.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the inner life of the inhabitants of Tusayan as it
+exists today is a necessary prerequisite to the interpretation of the
+ancient culture of that province; but we must always bear in mind the
+evolution of society and the influences of foreign origin which have
+been exerted on it. Many, possibly the majority, of modern customs
+at Walpi are inherited, but others are incorporated and still others, of
+ancient date, have become extinct.</p>
+
+<p>As much stress is laid in this memoir on the claim that objects from
+Sikyatki indicate a culture uninfluenced by the Spaniards, it is well to
+present the evidence on which this assertion is based.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592">[Pg 592]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(1) Hopi legends all declare that Sikyatki was destroyed before the
+Spaniards, called the "long-gowned" and "iron-shirted" men, came to
+Tusayan. (2) Sikyatki is not mentioned by name in any documentary
+account of Tusayan, although the other villages are named and are
+readily identifiable with existing pueblos. (3) No fragment of glass,
+metal, or other object indicative of the contact of European civilization
+was found anywhere in the ruin. If we add to the above the general
+appearance of age in the mounds and the depth of the d&eacute;bris which
+has accumulated in the rooms and over the graves, we have the main
+facts on which I have relied to support my belief that Sikyatki is a
+prehistoric ruin.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Awatobi</span></h3>
+
+<h4>CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUIN</h4>
+
+<p>No Tusayan ruin offers to the archeologist a better picture of the
+character of Hopi village life in the seventeenth century than that
+known as Awatobi (<a href="#PL_CVII">plate <span class="smcap">cvii</span></a>).<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> It is peculiarly interesting as connecting
+the prehistoric culture of Sikyatki and modern Tusayan life,
+with which we have become well acquainted through recent research.
+Awatobi was one of the largest Tusayan pueblos in the middle of the
+sixteenth century, and continued to exist to the close of the seventeenth.
+It was therefore a historic pueblo. It had a mission, notices
+of which occur in historical documents of the period. From its preponderance
+in size, no less than from its position, we may suspect that
+it held relatively the same leadership among the other Antelope valley
+ruins that Walpi does today to Sichomovi and Hano.</p>
+
+<p>The present condition of the ruins of Awatobi is in no respect peculiar
+or different from that of the remains of prehistoric structures,
+except that its mounds occupy a position on a mesa top commanding a
+wide outlook over a valley. On its east it is hemmed in by extensive
+sand dunes, which also stretch to the north and west, receding from the
+village all the way from a few hundred yards to a quarter of a mile.
+On the south the ruins overlook the plain, and the sands on the west
+separate it from a canyon in which there are several springs, some cornfields,
+and one or two modern Hopi houses. There is no water in the
+valley which stretches away from the mesa on which Awatobi is situated,
+and the foothills are only sparingly clothed with desert vegetation.
+The mounds of the ruin have numerous clumps of <i>sibibi</i> (<i>Rhus
+trilobata</i>), and are a favorite resort of Hopi women for the berries of this
+highly prized shrub. There is a solitary tree midway between the sand
+dunes west of the village and the western mounds, near which we found
+it convenient to camp. The only inhabitants of the Awatobi mesa are
+a Navaho family, who have appropriated, for the shade it affords, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593">[Pg 593]</a></span>
+dwarf cedar east of the old mission walls. No land is cultivated, save
+that in the canyons above mentioned, west of the sand hills; some fair
+harvests are, however, still gathered from Antelope valley by the
+Navaho, especially in the section higher up, near Jeditoh spring.</p>
+
+<p>The ruin may be approached from the road between Holbrook and
+Keam's Canyon, turning to the left after climbing the mesa. This road,
+however, is not usually traveled, since it trends through the difficult
+sand hills. As Keam's Canyon is the only place in this region at which
+to provision an expedition, it is usual to approach Awatobi from that
+side, the road turning to the right shortly after one ascends the steep
+hill out of the canyon near Keam's trading post.</p>
+
+<p>My archeological work at Awatobi began on July 6, 1895, and was
+continued for two weeks, being abandoned on account of the defection
+of my Hopi workmen, who left their work to attend the celebration of
+the <i>Niman</i> or "Farewell" <i>katcina</i>,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> a July festival in which many of
+them participated. The ruin is conveniently situated for the best
+archeological results; it has a good spring near by, and is not far from
+Keam's Canyon, the base of supplies. The soil covering the rooms, however,
+is almost as hard as cement, and fragile objects, such as pottery,
+were often broken before their removal from the matrix. A considerable
+quantity of d&eacute;bris had to be removed before the floors were reached,
+and as this was firmly impacted great difficulty was encountered in
+successful excavations.</p>
+
+<p>With a corps of trained workmen much better results than those we
+obtained might have been expected, and the experience which the
+Indians subsequently had at Sikyatki would have made my excavations
+at Awatobi, had they been carried on later in the season, more remunerative.
+While my archeological work at certain points in these interesting
+mounds of Awatobi was more or less superficial, it was in other
+places thorough, and revealed many new facts in regard to the culture
+of the inhabitants of this most important pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>I found it inexpedient to dig in the burial places among the sand
+dunes, on account of the religious prejudices of my workmen. This
+fear they afterward overcame to a certain extent, but never completely
+outgrew, although the cemeteries at Sikyatki were quite thoroughly
+excavated, yielding some of the most striking results of the summer's
+exploration. The sand hills west of Sikyatki are often swept by
+violent gales, by which the surface is continually changing, and mortuary
+pottery is frequently exposed. This has always been a favorite
+place for the collector, and many a beautiful food bowl has been carried
+by the Indians from this cemetery to the trading store, for the natives
+do not seem to object to selling a vase or other object which they find
+on the surface, but rarely dig in the ground for the purpose of obtaining
+specimens.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594">[Pg 594]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>NOMENCLATURE OF AWATOBI</h4>
+
+<p>The name Awatobi is evidently derived from <i>awata</i>, a bow (referring
+to the Bow clan, one of the strongest in the ancient pueblo), and <i>obi</i>,
+"high place of." A derivation from <i>owa</i>, rock, has also been suggested,
+but it seems hardly distinctive enough to be applicable, and is not
+accepted by the Hopi themselves.</p>
+
+<p>While the different pueblos of Tusayan were not specially mentioned
+until forty years after they were first visited, the name Awatobi is
+readily recognized in the account of Espejo in 1583, where it is called
+Aguato,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> which appears as Zaguato and Ahuato in Hakluyt.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> In the
+time of O&ntilde;ate (1598) the same name is written Aguatuyb&aacute;.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Vetancurt,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
+about 1680, mentions the pueblo under the names Aguatobi and
+Ahuatobi, and in 1692, or twelve years after the great rebellion, Vargas
+visited "San Bernardo de Aguatuvi," ten leagues from Zu&ntilde;i. The name
+appears on maps up to the middle of the eighteenth century, several
+years after its destruction. In more modern times various older spellings
+have been adopted or new ones introduced. Among these may
+be mentioned:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Aguatuv&iacute;</span>. Buschmann, Neu-Mexico, 231, 1858.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguatuya</span>. Bandelier in Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology, <span class="smcap">iii</span>, 85, 1892 (misquoting O&ntilde;ate).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguitobi</span>. Bandelier in Arch&aelig;ological Institute Papers, Am. series, <span class="smcap">iii</span>, pt. 1, 115, 1890.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ahuatu</span>. Bandelier, ibid., 115, 135.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ahuatuyba</span>. Bandelier, ibid., 109.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ah-wat-tenna</span>. Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, 195, 1884 (so called by a Tusayan Indian).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Aquatasi</span>. Walch, Charte America, 1805.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Aquatubi</span>. Davis, Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, 368, 1869.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Atabi-hogandi</span>. Bourke, op. cit., 84, 1884 (Navaho name).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Aua-tu-ui</span>. Bandelier in Arch&aelig;ological Institute Papers, op. cit., <span class="smcap">iv</span>, pt. 2, 368, 1892.<br />
+<span class="smcap">A-wa-te-u</span>. Cushing in Atlantic Monthly, 367, September, 1882.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Awat&uacute;bi</span>. Bourke, op. cit., 91, 1884.<br />
+<span class="smcap">&Aacute; wat u i</span>. Cushing in Fourth Report Bureau of Ethnology, 493, 1886 (or Aguat&oacute;bi).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Zagnato</span>. Brackenridge, Early Spanish Discoveries, 19, 1857 (misprint of Hakluyt's Zaguato).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Zaguate</span>. Prince, New Mexico, 34, 1883 (misquoting Hakluyt).<br />
+<span class="smcap">Zuguato</span>. Hinton, Handbook to Arizona, 388, 1878 (misquoting Hakluyt).<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The Navaho name of the ruin, as is well known, is Talla-hogan, ordinarily
+translated "Singing-house," and generally interpreted to refer to
+the mass said by the padres in the ancient church. It is probable, however,
+that kivas were used as chambers where songs were sung in ceremonials
+prior to the introduction of Christianity. Therefore why Awatobi
+should preeminently be designated as the "Singing-house" is not
+quite apparent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595">[Pg 595]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The name of the mission, San Bernardino,<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> or San Bernardo, refers to
+its patron saint, and was first applied by Porras in honor of the natal
+day of this saint, on which day, in 1629, he and his companions arrived
+in Tusayan.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE OF AWATOBI</h4>
+
+<p>The identification of Tusayan with the present country of the Hopi
+depends in great measure on the correct determination of the situation
+of Cibola. I have regarded as conclusive Bandelier's argument that
+Cibola comprised the group of pueblos inhabited by the Zu&ntilde;i in the
+sixteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Regarding this as proven, Tusayan corresponds
+with the Hopi villages, of which Awatobi was one of the largest. It lies
+in the same direction and about the same distance from Zu&ntilde;i as stated
+in Casta&ntilde;eda's narrative. The fact that Cardenas passed through
+Tusayan when he went from Cibola to the Grand Canyon in 1540 is in
+perfect harmony with the identification of the Hopi villages with Tusayan,
+and Zu&ntilde;i with Cibola. Tobar, in Tusayan, heard of the great
+river to the west, and when he returned to the headquarters of Coronado
+at Cibola the general dispatched Cardenas to investigate the
+truth of the report. Cardenas naturally went to Tusayan where Tobar
+had heard the news, and from there took guides who conducted him to
+the Grand Canyon. Had the general been in any Hopi town at the
+time he sent Tobar, and later Cardenas, it is quite impossible to find
+any cluster of ruins which we can identify as Tusayan in the direction
+indicated. There can be no doubt that Tusayan was the modern Hopi
+country, and with this in mind the question as to which Hopi pueblo
+was the one first visited by Tobar is worthy of investigation.</p>
+
+<p>In order to shed what light is possible on this question, I have
+examined the account by Casta&ntilde;eda, the letter of Coronado to Mendoza,
+and the description in the "Relacion del Suceso," but find it difficult to
+determine that point definitely.</p>
+
+<p>In Hakluyt's translation of Coronado's letter, it is stated that the
+houses of the "cities" which Tobar was sent to examine were "of
+earth," and the "chiefe" of these towns is called "Tucano." As this
+letter was written before Coronado had received word from Tobar concerning
+his discoveries, naturally we should not expect definite
+information concerning the new province. Capt. Juan Jaramillo's
+account speaks of "Tucayan" as a province composed of seven towns,
+and states that the houses are terraced.</p>
+
+<p>In the "Relacion del Suceso" we likewise find the province called
+"Tuzan" (Tusayan), and the author notes the resemblance of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596">[Pg 596]</a></span>
+villages to Cibola, but he distinctly states that the inhabitants cultivated
+cotton.</p>
+
+<p>Casta&ntilde;eda's account, which is the most detailed, is that on which I
+have relied in my identification of Awatobi as the first Hopi pueblo
+seen by the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that Don Pedro de Tobar was dispatched by Coronado to
+explore a province called Tusayan which was reported to be twenty-five
+leagues from Cibola. He had in his command seventeen horsemen
+and one or two foot-soldiers, and was accompanied by Friar Juan
+de Padilla. They arrived in the new province after dark and concealed
+themselves under the edge of the mesa, so near that they heard the
+voices of the Indians in their houses. The natives, however, discovered
+them at daylight drawn up in order, and came out to meet them
+armed with wooden clubs, bow and arrows, and carrying shields. The
+chief drew a line of sacred meal across the trail, and in that way symbolized
+that the entrance to their pueblo was closed to the intruders.
+During a parley, however, one of the men made a move to cross the line
+of meal, and an Indian struck his horse on the bridle. This opened hostilities,
+in which the Hopi were worsted, but apparently without loss of
+life. The vanquished brought presents of various kinds&mdash;cotton cloth,
+cornmeal, birds, skins, pi&ntilde;on nuts, and a few turquoises&mdash;and finding a
+good camping place near their pueblo, Tobar established headquarters
+and received homage from all the province. They allowed the Spaniards
+to enter their villages and traded with them.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>Espejo's reference to Awatobi in 1583 leaves no doubt that the pueblo
+was in existence in that year, and while, of course, we can not definitely
+say that it was not built between 1540 and 1583, the indications are
+that it was not. Hopi traditions assert that it was in existence when
+the Spaniards came, and the statement of the legendists whom I have
+consulted are definite that the survivors of Sikyatki went to Awatobi
+after the overthrow of the former pueblo. It would not appear, however,
+that Awatobi was founded prior to Sikyatki, nor is it stated that
+the refugees from Sikyatki built Awatobi, which is within the bounds
+of possibility, but it seems to be quite generally conceded that the
+Sikyatki tragedy antedated the arrival of the first Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>There can, I think, be no doubt that the Hopi pueblo first entered
+by Pedro de Tobar, in 1540, was Awatobi, and that the first conflict of
+Spanish soldiers and Hopi warriors, which occurred at that time, took
+place on the well-known Zu&ntilde;i trail in Antelope valley, not far from
+Jeditoh or Antelope spring. This pueblo is the nearest village to
+Cibola (Zu&ntilde;i), from which Tobar came, and as he took the Zu&ntilde;i trail he
+would naturally first approach this village, even if the other pueblos on
+the rim of this valley were inhabited. It is interesting to consider a few
+lines from Casta&ntilde;eda, describing the event of that episode, to see how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597">[Pg 597]</a></span>
+closely the site of Awatobi conforms to the narrative. In Casta&ntilde;eda's
+account of Tobar's visit we find that the latter with his command
+entered Tusayan so secretly that their presence was unknown to the
+inhabitants, and they traversed a cultivated plain without being seen,
+so that, we are told, they approached the village near enough to hear
+the voices of the Indians without being discovered. Moreover, the
+Indians, the narrative says, had a habit of descending to their cultivated
+fields, which implies that they lived on a mesa top. Awatobi
+was situated on a mesa, and the cultivated fields were in exactly the
+position indicated. The habit of retiring to their pueblo at night is
+still observed, or was to within a few years. Tobar arrived at the edge
+of Antelope valley after dark (otherwise he would have been discovered),
+crossed the cultivated fields under cover of night, and camped
+under the town at the base of the mesa. The soldiers from that point
+could readily hear the voices of the villagers above them. Even at the
+base of the lofty East Mesa I have often heard the Walpi people talking,
+while the words of the town crier are intelligible far out on the plain.
+From the configuration of the valley it would not, however, have been
+easier for Awatobians to have seen the approaching Spaniards than
+for the Walpians; still it was possible for the invaders to conceal their
+approach to Walpi in the same way. If, however, the first pueblo
+approached was Walpi, and Tobar followed the Zu&ntilde;i trail, I think he
+would have been discovered by the Awatobi people before nightfall if
+he entered the cultivated fields early in the evening. It would be
+incredible to believe that he wandered from the trail; much more likely
+he went directly to Awatobi, the first village en route, and then
+encamped until the approach of day before entering the pueblo. At
+sunrise the inhabitants, early stirring, detected the presence of the
+intruders, and the warriors went down the mesa to meet them. They
+had already heard from Cibola of the strange beings, men mounted on
+animals which were said to devour enemies.</p>
+
+<p>It may seem strange that the departure of an expedition against Tusayan
+was unknown to the Hopi, but the narrative leads us to believe
+that such was the fact. The warriors descended to the plain, and their
+chief drew a line of sacred meal across the trail to symbolize that the
+way to their pueblo was closed; whoever crossed it was an enemy, and
+punishment should be meted out to him. This custom is still preserved
+in several ceremonials at the present day, as, for instance, in the New-fire
+rites<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> in November and in the Flute observance in July.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598">[Pg 598]</a></span>
+priests say that in former times whoever crossed a line of meal drawn
+on the trail at that festival was killed, and even now they insist that no
+one is allowed to pass a closed trail. The Awatobi warriors probably
+warned Tobar and his comrades not to advance, but the symbolic barrier
+was not understood by them. The Spaniards were not there to parley
+long, and it is probable that their purpose was to engage in a quarrel
+with the Indians. Urged on by the priest, Juan de Padilla, "who had
+been a soldier in his youth," they charged the Indians and overthrew a
+number, driving the others before them. The immediate provocation
+for this, according to the historian, was that an Indian struck one of
+the horses on the bridle, at which the holy father, losing patience,
+exclaimed to his captain, "Why are we here?" which was interpreted as
+a sign for the assault.</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be confessed that if the pueblo of Walpi was the
+first discovered an approach by stealth without being seen would
+have been easier for Tobar if the village referred to was Walpi then
+situated on the Ash-hill terrace, with the East Mesa between it and
+the Zu&ntilde;i trail. To offset this probability, however, is the fact that the
+Zu&ntilde;i trail now runs through Awatobi, or in full view of it and there is
+hardly a possibility that Tobar left that trail to avoid Awatobi. He
+would naturally visit the first village, and not go out of his way seven
+miles beyond it, seeking a more distant pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this onslaught on men armed with spears, clubs, and
+leather shields can be imagined, and the encounter seems to have discouraged
+the Awatobi warriors from renewed resistance. They fled,
+but shortly afterward brought presents as a sign of submission, when
+Tobar called off his men. Thus was the entry of the Spaniards into
+Tusayan marked with bloodshed for a trifling offense. Shortly afterward
+Tobar entered the village and received the complete submission
+of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The names of the Tusayan pueblos visited by Tobar in this first
+entrance are nowhere mentioned in the several accounts which have
+come down to us. Forty years later, however, the Spaniards returned
+and found the friendly feeling of Awatobi to the visitors had not lapsed.
+When Espejo approached the town in 1583, over the same Zu&ntilde;i trail,
+the multitudes with their caciques met him with great joy and poured
+maize (sacred meal?) on the ground for the horses to walk upon. This
+was symbolic of welcome; they "made" the trail, a ceremony which is
+still kept up when entrance to the pueblo is formally offered.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599">[Pg 599]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The people, considering their poverty, were generous, and gave
+Espejo "hand towels with tassels" at the corners. These were probably
+dance kilts and ceremonial blankets, which then, as now, the
+Hopi made of cotton.</p>
+
+<p>The pueblo, called "Aguato" in the account of that visit, was without
+doubt Awatobi. The name Aguatuyb&aacute;, mentioned by O&ntilde;ate, is
+also doubtless the same, although, as pointed out to me by Mr Hodge,
+"through an error probably of the copyist or printer, the name
+Aguatuyb&aacute; is inadvertently given by O&ntilde;ate among his list of Hopi
+chiefs, while Esperiez is mentioned among the pueblos." In O&ntilde;ate's list
+we recognize Oraibi in "Naybi," and Shu&ntilde;opovi in "Xumupam&iacute;" and
+"Comupav&iacute;," the most westerly town of the Middle Mesa. "Cuanrabi"
+and "Esperiez" are not recognizable as pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>Espejo, therefore, appears to have been the first to mention Awatobi
+as "Aguato," which is metamorphosed in Hakluyt into "Zaguato or
+"Ahuzto,"<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> although evidently O&ntilde;ate's "Aguatuyb&aacute;" was intended as
+a name of a pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>I have not been able to determine satisfactorily the date of the
+erection of the mission building of San Bernardino at Awatobi, but
+the name is mentioned as early as 1629. In that year three friars
+went to Tusayan and began active efforts to convert the Hopi.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is recorded<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> that Padre Porras, with Andres Gutierrez, Cristoval
+de la Concepcion, and ten soldiers, arrived in Tusayan, "dia del glorioso
+San Bernardo (que &eacute;s el apellido que aora tiene aquel pueblo)," which
+leaves no doubt why the mission at Awatobi was so named. Although
+an apostate Indian had spread the report, previously to the advent of
+these priests in Tusayan, that the Spaniards were coming among them
+to burn their pueblos, rob their homes, and devour<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> their children, the
+zealous missionaries in 1629 converted many of the chiefs and baptized
+their children. The cacique, Don Augustin, who appears to have
+been baptized at Awatobi, apparently lived in Walpi or at the Middle
+Mesa, and returning to his pueblo, prepared the way for a continuation
+of the apostolic work in the villages of the other mesas.</p>
+
+<p>But the missionary labors of Porras came to an untimely end. It is
+written that by 1633 he had made great progress in converting the
+Hopi, but in that year, probably at Awatobi, he was poisoned. Of
+the fate of his two companions and the success of their work little is
+known, but it is recorded that the succession of padres was not broken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600">[Pg 600]</a></span>
+up to the great rebellion in 1680. Figueroa, who was massacred at
+Awatobi in that year, went to Tusayan in 1674 with Aug. Sta. Marie.
+Between the death of Porras and the arrival of Figueroa there was an
+interval of eleven years, during which time the two comrades of Porras
+or Espeleta, who went to Tusayan in 1650, took charge of the spiritual
+welfare of the Hopi. Espeleta and Aug. Sta. Marie were killed in 1680 at
+San Francisco de Oraibi and Walpi, respectively, and Jos&eacute; Trujillo probably
+lost his life at Old Shu&ntilde;opovi at the same time. As there is no good
+reason to suppose that Awatobi, one of the most populous Tusayan
+pueblos, was neglected by the Spanish missionaries after the death of
+Porras in 1633, and as it was the first pueblo encountered on the trail from
+Zu&ntilde;i, doubtless San Bernardino was one of the earliest missions erected
+in Tusayan. From 1680 until 1692, the period of independence resulting
+from the great Pueblo revolt, there was no priest in Tusayan, nor,
+indeed, in all New Mexico. Possibly the mission was repaired between
+1692 and 1700, but it is probable that it was built as early as the time
+Porras lived in Awatobi. It is explicitly stated that in the destruction
+of Awatobi in 1700 no missionaries were killed, although it is recorded
+that early in that year Padre Garaycoechea made it a visit.</p>
+
+<p>The disputes between the Jesuits and Franciscans to obtain the
+Hopi field for missionary work during the eighteenth century naturally
+falls in another chapter of Spanish-Tusayan history. Aside from sporadic
+visits to the pueblos, nothing tangible appears to have resulted
+from the attempts at conversion in this epoch. True, many apostates
+were induced to return to their old homes on the Rio Grande and some
+of the Hopi frequently asked for resident priests, making plausible
+offers to protect them; but the people as a whole were hostile, and
+the mission churches were never rebuilt, nor did the fathers again live
+in this isolated province.</p>
+
+<p>In 1692 Awatobi was visited by Don Diego de Vargas, the reconquerer
+of New Mexico, who appears to have had no difficulty bringing
+to terms the pueblos of Awatobi, Walpi, Misho&ntilde;inovi, and
+Shu&ntilde;opovi.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> He found, however, that Awatobi was "fortified," and the
+entrance so narrow that but one man could enter at a time. The
+description leads us to conclude that the fortification was the wall at
+the eastern end, and the entrance the gateway, the sides of which are
+still to be seen. The plaza in which the cross was erected was probably
+just north of the walls of the mission.</p>
+
+<p>There would seem to be no doubt that a mission building was standing
+at Awatobi before 1680, for Vetancurt, writing about the year
+named, states that in the uprising it was burned.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> At the time of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601">[Pg 601]</a></span>
+visit of Garaycoechea, in the spring of 1700, he found that the mission
+had been rebuilt. In this connection it is instructive, as bearing on
+the probable cause of the destruction of Awatobi, to find that while
+the inhabitants of this pueblo desired to have the mission rehabilitated,
+the other Tusayan pueblos were so hostile that the friends of the priest
+in Awatobi persuaded him not to attempt to visit the other villages.
+This warning was no doubt well advised, and the tragic fate which
+befell Awatobi before the close of the year shows that the trouble was
+brewing when the padre was there, and possibly Garaycoechea's visit
+hastened the catastrophe or intensified the hatred of the other pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Garaycoechea's visit he baptized, it is said, 73 persons.
+This rite was particularly obnoxious<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> to the Hopi, as indeed to
+the other Pueblo Indians, notwithstanding they performed practically
+the same ceremony in initiations into their own secret societies. The
+Awatobians, however, or at least some of them, allowed this rite of the
+Christians, thus intensifying the hatred of the more conservative of
+their own village and of the neighboring pueblos. These and other facts
+seem to indicate that the real cause of the destruction of Awatobi
+was the reception of Christianity by its inhabitants, which the other
+villagers regarded as sorcery. The conservative party, led by Tapolo,
+opened the gate of the town to the warriors of Walpi and Misho&ntilde;inovi,
+who slaughtered the liberals, thus effectually rooting out the
+new faith from Tusayan, for after that time it never again obtained a
+foothold.</p>
+
+<p>The visit of Padre Juan Garaycoechea to Tusayan was at the invitation
+of Espeleta, chief of Oraibi, but he went no farther than Awatobi,
+where he baptized the 73 Hopi. He then returned to the "governor,"
+and arrived at Zu&ntilde;i in June. According to Bancroft (p. 222), "In the
+'Moqui Noticias' <span class="smcap">ms.</span>, 669, it is stated that the other Moquis, angry that
+Aguatuvi had received the padres, came and attacked the pueblo, killed
+all the men, and carried off all the women and children, leaving the
+place for many years deserted." Although I have not been able to consult
+the document quoted, this conclusion corresponds so closely with
+Hopi tradition that I believe it is practically true, although Bancroft
+unfortunately closes the quotation I have made from his account with
+the words, "I think this must be an error." Espeleta, the Oraibi chief,
+and 20 companions were in Santa F&eacute; in October, 1700, and proposed a
+peace in which the Hopi asked for religious toleration, which Governor
+Cubero refused. As a final appeal he desired that the fathers should
+not permanently reside with them, but should visit one pueblo each
+year for six years; but this request was also rejected. Espeleta returned
+to Oraibi, and immediately on his appearance an unsuccessful attempt
+was made to destroy Awatobi, followed, as recounted in the legend, by
+a union with Walpi and Misho&ntilde;inovi, by which the liberal-minded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602">[Pg 602]</a></span>
+villagers of the Antelope mesa were overthrown. Documentary and
+legendary accounts are thus in strict accord regarding the cause of the
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>The meager fragmentary historical evidence that can be adduced shows
+that the destruction of Awatobi occurred in the autumn or early winter
+of 1700. In May of that year we have the account of the visiting padre,
+and in the summer when Espeleta was at Santa F&eacute;, the pueblo was
+flourishing. The month of November would have been a favorable one
+for the destruction of the town for the reason that during this time the
+warriors would all be engaged in secret kiva rites. The legend relates
+that the overthrow of the pueblo was at the <i>Naacnaiya</i>,<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> which now
+takes place in November.</p>
+
+<p>For many years after its destruction the name of Awatobi was still
+retained on maps including the Tusayan province, and there exist several
+published references to the place as if still inhabited; but these
+appear to be compilations, as no traveler visited the site subsequently
+to 1700. It is never referred to in writings of the eighteenth or first
+half of the nineteenth centuries, and its site attracted no attention.
+The ruins remained unidentified until about 1884, when the late Captain
+J. G. Bourke published his book on the "Snake Dance of the Moquis,"
+in which he showed that the ruin called by the Navaho Tally-hogan was
+the old Awatobi which played such a prominent part in early Tusayan
+history.</p>
+
+<p>The ruin was described and figured a few years later by Mr Victor
+Mindeleff in his valuable memoir on Cibola and Tusayan architecture.
+Bourke's reference is very brief and Mindeleff's plan deficient, as it
+includes only a portion of the ruin, namely, the conspicuous mission
+walls and adjacent buildings, overlooking entirely the older or western
+mounds, which are the most characteristic. In 1892 I published the
+first complete ground-plan of the ruins of Awatobi, including both
+eastern and western sections. As Mindeleff's plan is defective, his
+characterization of the architectural features of the pueblo is consequently
+faulty. He says: "The plan suggests that the original pueblo
+was built about three sides of a rectangular court, the fourth or southeast
+side, later occupied by the mission buildings, being left open or
+protected by a low wall." While the eastern portion undoubtedly supports
+this conclusion, had he examined the western or main section he
+would doubtless have qualified his conclusion (<a href="#PL_CVII">plate <span class="smcap">cvii</span></a>). This portion
+was compact, without a rectangular court, and was of pyramidal
+form. The eastern section was probably of later construction, and the
+mission was originally built outside the main pueblo, although probably
+a row of rooms of very ancient date extended along the northern side
+opposite the church. As it was customary in Tusayan to isolate the
+kivas, these rooms in Awatobi were probably extramural and may have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603">[Pg 603]</a></span>
+been situated in this eastern court, but the majority of the people lived
+in the western section. The architecture of the mission and adjacent
+rooms shows well-marked Spanish influence, which is wholly absent in
+the buildings forming the western mounds.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CVII" id="PL_CVII"></a><a href="images/platecvii-lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/platecvii.jpg" width="600" height="496" alt="PL. CVII&mdash;
+GROUND PLAN OF AWATOBI" title="PL. CVII&mdash;
+GROUND PLAN OF AWATOBI" /></a>
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">GROUND PLAN OF AWATOBI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>LEGEND OF THE DESTRUCTION OF AWATOBI</h4>
+
+<p>The legend of the overthrow of Awatobi is preserved in detail among
+the living villagers of Tusayan, and like all stories which have been
+transmitted for several generations exist in several variants, differing
+in episodes, but coinciding in general outlines. In the absence of contemporary
+documentary history, which some time may possibly be
+brought to light, the legends are the only available data regarding an
+event of great importance in the modern history of Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p>I have obtained the legends from Supela, Shimo,<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> Masiumptiwa, and
+Saliko, and the most complete appears to be that of the last mentioned.
+The others dilated more on the atrocities which were committed on the
+bodies of the unfortunate captives, and the tortures endured before
+they were killed. All show traces of modification, incorporation, and
+modern invention.</p>
+
+
+<h5><i>Destruction of Awatobi as related by Saliko</i><a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></h5>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The chiefs Wiki and Shimo, and others, have told you their stories,
+and surely their ancestors were living here at Walpi when Awatobi
+was occupied. It was a large village, and many people lived there, and
+the village chief was called Tapolo, but he was not at peace with his
+people, and there were quarreling and trouble. Owing to this conflict
+only a little rain fell, but the land was fertile and fair harvests were
+still gathered. The Awatobi men were bad (<i>powako</i>, sorcerers). Sometimes
+they went in small bands among the fields of the other villagers
+and cudgeled any solitary worker they found. If they overtook any
+woman they ravished her, and they waylaid hunting parties, taking the
+game, after beating and sometimes killing the hunters. There was
+considerable trouble in Awatobi, and Tapolo sent to the Oraibi chief
+asking him to bring his people and kill the evil Awatobians. The
+Oraibi came and fought with them, and many were killed on both
+sides, but the Oraibi were not strong enough to enter the village, and
+were compelled to withdraw. On his way back the Oraibi chief stopped
+at Walpi and talked with the chiefs there. Said he, 'I can not tell
+why Tapolo wants the Oraibi to kill his folks, but we have tried and
+have not succeeded very well. Even if we did succeed, what benefit
+would come to us who live too far away to occupy the land? You Walpi
+people live close to them and have suffered most at their hands; it is
+for you to try.' While they were talking Tapolo had also come, and it
+was then decided that other chiefs of all the villages should convene at
+Walpi to consult. Couriers were sent out, and when all the chiefs had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604">[Pg 604]</a></span>
+arrived Tapolo declared that his people had become sorcerers (Christians),
+and hence should all be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>"It was then arranged that in four days large bands from all the
+other villages should prepare themselves, and assemble at a spring not
+far from Awatobi. A long while before this, when the Spaniards lived
+there, they had built a wall on the side of the village that needed protection,
+and in this wall was a great, strong door. Tapolo proposed that
+the assailants should come before dawn, and he would be at this door
+ready to admit them, and under this compact he returned to his village.
+During the fourth night after this, as agreed upon, the various bands
+assembled at the deep gulch spring, and every man carried, besides his
+weapons, a cedar-bark torch and a bundle of greasewood. Just before
+dawn they moved silently up to the mesa summit, and, going directly
+to the east side of the village, they entered the gate, which opened as
+they approached. In one of the courts was a large kiva, and in it were
+a number of men engaged in sorcerer's rites. The assailants at once
+made for the kiva, and plucking up the ladder, they stood around the
+hatchway, shooting arrows down among the entrapped occupants. In
+the numerous cooking pits fire had been maintained through the night
+for the preparation of food for a feast on the appointed morning, and
+from these they lighted their torches. Great numbers of these and the
+bundles of greasewood being set on fire, they were cast down the
+hatchway, and firewood from stacks upon the house terraces were also
+thrown into the kiva. The red peppers for which Awatobi was famous
+were hanging in thick clusters along the fronts of the houses, and
+these they crushed in their hands and flung upon the blazing fire in the
+kiva to further torment their burning occupants. After this, all who
+were capable of moving were compelled to travel or drag themselves
+until they came to the sand-hills of Misho&ntilde;inovi, and there the final
+disposition of the prisoners was made.</p>
+
+<p>"My maternal ancestor had recognized a woman chief (<i>Mamzrau
+mo&ntilde;wi</i>), and saved her at the place of massacre called Maski, and now
+he asked her whether she would be willing to initiate the woman of
+Walpi in the rites of the <i>Mamzrau</i>. She complied, and thus the observance
+of the ceremonial called the Mamzr&aacute;uti came to Walpi. I can not
+tell how it came to the other villages. This Mamzrau-mo&ntilde;wi had no
+children, and hence my maternal ancestor's sister became chief, and
+her <i>tiponi</i> (badge of office) came to me. Some of the other Awatobi
+women knew how to bring rain, and such of them as were willing to
+teach their songs were spared and went to different villages. The
+Oraibi chief saved a man who knew how to cause peaches to grow,
+and that is why Oraibi has such an abundance of peaches now. The
+Misho&ntilde;inovi chief saved a prisoner who knew how to make the sweet,
+small-ear corn grow, and that is why it is more abundant there than
+elsewhere. All the women who knew song prayers and were willing
+to teach them were spared, and no children were designedly killed, but
+were divided among the villages, most of them going to Misho&ntilde;inovi.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605">[Pg 605]</a></span>
+The remainder of the prisoners, men and women, were again tortured
+and dismembered and left to die on the sand hills, and there their
+bones are, and that is the reason the place is called <i>Maschomo</i> (Death-mound).
+This is the story of Awatobi told by my old people."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All variants of the legend are in harmony in this particular, that Awatobi
+was destroyed by the other Tusayan pueblos, and that Misho&ntilde;inovi,
+Walpi, and probably Oraibi and Shu&ntilde;opovi participated in the deed.
+A grievance that would unite the other villagers against Awatobi must
+have been a great one, indeed, and not a mere dispute about water or
+lands. The more I study the real cause, hidden in the term <i>powako</i>,
+"wizard" or "sorcerer," the more I am convinced that the progress
+Christianity was making in Awatobi, after the reconquest of the Pueblos
+in 1692, explains the hostility of the other villagers. The party favoring
+the Catholic fathers in Awatobi was increasing, and the other
+Tusayan pueblos watched its growth with alarm. They foresaw that
+it heralded the return of the hated domination of the priests, associated
+in their minds with practical slavery, and they decided on the
+tragedy, which was carried out with all the savagery of which their
+natures were capable.</p>
+
+<p>They greatly feared the return of the Spanish soldiers, as the epoch
+of Spanish rule, mild though it may have been, was held in universal
+detestation. Moreover, after the reconquest of the Rio Grande pueblos,
+many apostates fled to Tusayan and fanned the fires of hatred against
+the priests. Walpi received these malcontents, who came in numbers
+a few years later. Among these arrivals were Tanoan warriors and
+their families, part of whom were ancestors of the present inhabitants
+of Hano.</p>
+
+<p>It was no doubt hoped that the destruction of Awatobi would effectually
+root out the growing Christian influence, which it in fact did;
+and for fifty years afterward Tusayan successfully resisted all efforts
+to convert it. Franciscans from the east and Jesuits from the Gila in
+the south strove to get a new hold, but they never succeeded in rebuilding
+the missions in this isolated province, which was generally regarded
+as independent.</p>
+
+<p>From the scanty data I have been able to collect from historical and
+legendary sources, it seems probable that Awatobi was always more
+affected by the padres than were the other Tusayan pueblos. This was
+the village which was said to have been "converted" by Padre Porras,
+whose work, after his death by poison in 1633, was no doubt continued by
+his associates and successors. About 1680, as we learn from documentary
+accounts, the population of Awatobi was 800,<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> and it was probably
+not much smaller in 1700, the time of its destruction.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606">[Pg 606]</a></span></p>
+<h4>EVIDENCES OF FIRE IN THE DESTRUCTION</h4>
+
+<p>Wherever excavations were conducted in the eastern section of
+Awatobi, we could not penetrate far below the surface without encountering
+unmistakable evidences of a great conflagration. The effect of
+the fire was particularly disastrous in the rooms of the eastern section,
+or that part of the pueblo contiguous to the mission. Hardly a single
+object was removed from this part of Awatobi that had not been
+charred. Many of the beams were completely burned; others were
+charred only on their surfaces. The rooms were filled with ashes and
+scori&aelig;, while the walls had been cracked as if by intense heat.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most significant fact in regard to the burning of Awatobi
+was seen in some of the houses where the fire seems to have been less
+intense. In many chambers of the eastern section, which evidently
+were used as granaries, the corn was stacked in piles just as it is today
+under many of the living rooms at Walpi, a fact which tends to show
+that there was no attempt to pillage the pueblo before its destruction.
+The ears of corn in these store-rooms were simply charred, but so well
+preserved that entire ears of maize were collected in great numbers. It
+may here be mentioned that upon one of the stacks of corn I found during
+my excavations for the Hemenway Expedition in 1892, a rusty iron
+knife-blade, showing that the owner of the room was acquainted with
+objects of Spanish manufacture. This blade is now deposited with the
+Hemenway collection in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE RUINS OF THE MISSION</h4>
+
+<p>The mission church of San Bernardino de Awatobi was erected very
+early in the history of the Spanish occupancy, and its ruined walls are
+the only ones now standing above the surface. This building was constructed
+by the padres on a mesa top, while the churches at Walpi and
+Shu&ntilde;opovi were built in the foothills near those pueblos. The mission
+at Oraibi likewise stood on a mesa top, so that we must qualify Mindeleff's
+statement<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> that "at Tusayan there is no evidence that a church
+or mission house ever formed part of the villages on the mesa summits.... These
+summits have been extensively occupied only in comparatively
+recent time, although one or more churches may have been
+built here at an early date as outlooks over the fields in the valley
+below."</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Spanish invasion three of the Hopi villages stood
+on the foothills or lower terraces of the mesas on which they now stand,
+and the other two, Awatobi and Oraibi, occupied the same sites as
+today, on the summits of the mesas.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CVIII" id="PL_CVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecviii.jpg" width="600" height="400" alt="PL. CVIII&mdash;
+RUINS OF SAN BERNARDINO DE AWATOBI" title="PL. CVIII&mdash;
+RUINS OF SAN BERNARDINO DE AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">RUINS OF SAN BERNARDINO DE AWATOBI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>I believe that at the time of the Spanish discovery of Tusayan by
+Pedro de Tobar in 1540, there were only five Tusayan towns&mdash;Walpi,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607">[Pg 607]</a></span>
+Awatobi, Shu&ntilde;opovi, Misho&ntilde;inovi, and Oraibi. Later, Awatobi was
+destroyed, and shortly after 1680 Walpi, the only East Mesa town,
+together with Misho&ntilde;inovi and Shu&ntilde;opovi, on the Middle Mesa, were
+moved to the elevated sites they now occupy. Oraibi, therefore, is
+probably the only Tusayan pueblo, at present inhabited, which occupies
+practically the same site that it did in 1540.</p>
+
+<p>In their excavations for the foundations of new houses the present
+inhabitants of Oraibi often find, as I am informed by Mr H. R. Voth,
+the missionary at that place, vessels or potsherds of ancient Tusayan
+ware closely resembling that which is found in the ruins of Sikyatki
+and Awatobi.</p>
+
+<p>The mission building at Awatobi, known in the church history of
+New Mexico and Arizona as San Bernardo or San Bernardino, was
+reputed to be the largest in Tusayan, and its walls are still the best
+preserved of any mission structure in that province. This, however,
+does not imply that the church structures of Tusayan are well preserved,
+for the mission buildings at Walpi have wholly disappeared,
+while at Oraibi little more than a pile of stones remains. Of the
+Shu&ntilde;opovi mission of San Bernabe there are no standing walls save
+at one end, which are now used as a sheep corral.</p>
+
+<p>The mission of San Bernardino de Awatobi was built on the southern
+side of the eastern part of the pueblo on the edge of the cliff, and its
+walls are the only ones of Awatobi now standing above ground. From
+the situation of these walls, as compared with the oldest part of Awatobi&mdash;the
+western mounds&mdash;I believe that San Bernardino mission was,
+when erected, beyond the limits of the pueblo proper&mdash;a custom almost
+universally followed in erecting pueblo mission churches&mdash;necessary in
+this instance, since from the compactness of the village there was no
+other available site. The same was true of the missions of Oraibi and
+Shu&ntilde;opovi, and probably of Old Walpi. As time passed additional
+buildings were erected near it, this eastward extension altering the
+original plan of the town, but in no way affecting the configuration of
+the older portion.</p>
+
+<p>From its commanding position on the edge of the mesa the mission
+walls must have presented an imposing appearance from the plain
+below, rising as they did almost continuously with the side of the cliff,
+making a conspicuous structure for miles across Antelope valley, from
+which its crumbling walls are still visible (<a href="#PL_CVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cviii</span></a>).</p>
+
+<p>When compared with the masonry of unmodified pueblo ruins the
+walls of the mission may be designated massive, and excavation at
+their foundations was very difficult on account of the great amount of
+d&eacute;bris which had fallen about them. With the limited force of laborers
+at my command the excavations could not be conducted with a great
+degree of thoroughness.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of what I supposed to have been the main church
+there was much sand, evidently drift, and in it I sank a trench 10 feet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608">[Pg 608]</a></span>
+below the surface without reaching anything which I considered a floor.
+We found in excavations at the foundation of the church walls fragments
+of glass, several copper nails, a much-corroded iron hook, a copper
+bell pivot, and fragments of Spanish pottery. From the character
+of these objects alone there is no doubt in my mind of the former existence
+of Spanish influence, and the method of construction of the mission
+walls and the addition constructed of adobe containing chopped straw,
+substantiate this conclusion. Supposing, from the architecture and
+orientation of other New Mexican missions, that the altar was at the
+western end, opposite the entrance to the church, I sank a trench along
+the foundation of the wall on that side, but encountered such a mass
+of fallen stone at that point that I found it impossible to make much
+progress, and the fact that the floor was more than 10 feet below the
+surface of the central depression led me to abandon, as impossible
+with my little band of native excavators, the laying bare of the floor
+of the church.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_255" id="Fig_255"></a>
+<img src="images/fig255.png" width="600" height="515" alt="Fig. 255&mdash;Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi" title="Fig. 255&mdash;Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 255&mdash;Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The ground plan (<a href="#Fig_255">figure 255</a>) of the mission resembles that of the
+Zu&ntilde;i church, and is not unlike the plans of the churches in the Rio
+Grande pueblos. The tall buttresses, which rise 15 or 20 feet above
+the trail up the mesa on the southern corner, are, I believe, remnants<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_609" id="Page_609">[Pg 609]</a></span>
+of towers which formerly supported a balcony. During a previous visit
+to Tusayan I obtained fragments<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> of the ancient bell, which are now
+on exhibition in the Hemenway section of the Peabody Museum at
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>The stone walls of the mission were rarely dressed or carefully fitted,
+the interstices being filled in with loose rubble laid in adobe. There
+was apparently a gallery over the entrance to the building overlooking
+many smaller buildings, which evidently were the quarters of the resident
+priest. The construction of the walls was apparently a laborious
+task, as many of the stones are large and must have been brought a
+considerable distance. These stones were laid in adobe, and apparently
+were plastered without and within, although little evidence of
+the former plastering may now be seen. At the northwestern corner,
+however, there still remain well-made adobe walls, the clay having
+been intermixed with straw. From the general appearance of these
+walls I regard them as of late construction, probably long after the
+destruction of the mission.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the plan of the mission building shows that it
+was oriented about north and south, with the entrance toward the latter
+direction. Compared with many other pueblo missions, this would seem
+to be an exceptional position. In my excavations I naturally sought
+the probable position of the entrance and, opposite it, the recess for
+the altar. It is evident, from the form of the standing walls, that an
+entrance from the east would be blocked by standing walls, and the
+axis of the building is north and south. The theory that the door was
+at the south has much in its favor, but there are several almost fatal
+objections to this conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, we suppose that the entrance was in the south wall, the
+high walls still standing above the trail up the mesa would then recall
+the fa&ccedil;ades of other missions. The rooms east of the largest inclosure,
+by this interpretation, would be outbuildings&mdash;residence rooms for the
+padres&mdash;one side of which forms the eastern walls of the church edifice.
+The form of the Awatobi church, as indicated by the walls still
+standing, is very similar to that of Zu&ntilde;i, notwithstanding the orientation
+appears to be somewhat different.</p>
+
+<p>Excavations failed to reveal any sign of the altar recess at either the
+northern or the western end, which is not surprising, since the walls are
+so poorly preserved in both these directions. It was, moreover, very
+difficult to make a satisfactory examination of the foundations of the
+walls at any point on account of the fallen stories, which encumbered
+the floor at their bases.</p>
+
+<p>From the appearance of antiquity it seems probable that long before
+the mission buildings were erected a ridge of many-storied houses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610">[Pg 610]</a></span>
+extended eastward from the pueblo on the northern side of a level space
+or court, in which there were, either then or later, ceremonial chambers
+or kivas. The southern side of this open space was the site of the mission,
+but was then unoccupied. This open space recalls the large court
+at Walpi, where the Snake dance occurs, but it was considerably
+broader, one side being formed by the structures which rose from the
+edge of the mesa. In course of time, however, the mission buildings
+were erected on this site, and a wall connecting the ridge of houses on
+the north and the outhouses of the mission was made, thus inclosing
+the court on all four sides. It was into this inclosure, through a gateway,
+the buttresses of which still remain, that the assailants passed on
+that eventful night when Awatobi was destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>There is good evidence that a massacre of Awatobians occurred in
+the southeastern angle of the eastern part of the pueblo, just east of the
+mission. If so, it is probable that many of the unfortunates sought
+refuge in the outbuildings of the church. Suspecting that such was the
+case, I excavated a considerable space of ground at these places and
+found many human skulls and other bones thrown together in confusion.
+The earth was literally filled with bones, evidently hastily placed there
+or left where the dead fell. These bodies were not buried with pious
+care, for there were no fragments of mortuary pottery or other indication
+of burial objects. Many of the skulls were broken, some pierced
+with sharp implements. While it is true that possibly this may have
+been a potter's field, or, from its position east of the mission, a Christian
+burial place, as at Zu&ntilde;i, the evidence from the appearance of the bodies
+points to a different conclusion. According to the legends, the hostiles
+entered the pueblo through the adjacent gateway; their anger led them
+especially against those of the inhabitants who were regarded as <i>powako</i>
+or sorcerers, and their first acts of violence would naturally have been
+toward those who sought refuge in the buildings adjacent the church.
+Near this hated "Singing-house" the slaughter began, soon extending
+to the kivas and the whole of the eastern section of the village. There
+was no evidence of murderous deeds in the rooms of the western section
+of the old pueblo, and the legends agree in relating that most of the
+men were in kivas, not far from the mission, when the village was
+overthrown. There is no legendary evidence that there were any Spanish
+priests in the mission at the time of its destruction, and there is no
+record extant of any Spaniards losing their lives at Awatobi at the
+time of its destruction, although the fact of the occurrence, according
+to Bandelier,<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> was recorded.</p>
+
+<p>The traditional clans which inhabited Awatobi were the Awata
+(Bow), Honani (Badger), Piba (Tobacco), and Buli (Butterfly). The
+Bow people appear to have been the most important of these, since
+their name was applied to the village. Their totemic signatures, in
+pictographic form, may still be seen on the sides of the cliff under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611">[Pg 611]</a></span>
+Awatobi, and in the ruins was found a fine arrowshaft polisher on
+which was an incised drawing of a bow and an arrow, suggesting that
+the owner was a member of the Bow phratry. Saliko, the chief of the
+woman's society known as the Mamzraut&ucirc;, insists that this priesthood
+was strong in the fated pueblo, and that a knowledge of its mysteries
+was brought to Walpi by one of the women who was saved.</p>
+
+<p>It is claimed by the folklorists of the Tataukyam&ucirc;, a priesthood
+which, controls the New-fire ceremonies at Walpi, and is prominent in
+the Soyalu&ntilde;a, or the rites of the winter solstice, that the Piba or
+Tobacco phratry brought the fetishes of that society to Walpi, and
+there are many obscurely known resemblances between the Mamzrauti
+and the W&uuml;w&uuml;tcimti celebrations in Walpi which appear to support
+that claim. The Piba phratry is likewise said to have come to Walpi
+comparatively late in the history of the village, which fact points the
+same way.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly Awatobi received additions to its population from the
+south when the pueblos on the Little Colorado were abandoned, and
+there are obscure legends which support that belief; but the largest
+numbers were recruited from the pueblos in the eastern section of the
+country.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+
+<h4>THE KIVAS OF AWATOBI</h4>
+
+<p>A pueblo of the size of Awatobi, with so many evidences of long
+occupancy, would no doubt have several ceremonial chambers or
+kivas, but as yet no one has definitely indicated their positions. I
+have already called attention to evidences that if they existed they
+were probably to be looked for in the open court east of the western
+mounds and in the space north of the mission. In all the inhabited
+Tusayan pueblos the kivas are separated from the house clusters
+and are surrounded by courts or dance plazas. No open spaces
+existed in the main or western mounds of Awatobi, and there was
+no place there for kivas unless the pueblo was exceptional in having
+such structures built among the dwellings, as at Zu&ntilde;i. A tradition has
+survived that Awatobi had regular kivas, partially subterranean, of
+rectangular shape, and that they were situated in open courts. This
+would indicate that the space east of the oldest part of the ruin may
+have been the sites of these chambers. The old priests whom I have
+consulted in regard to the probable positions of Awatobi kivas have
+invariably pointed out the mounds north of the mission walls in the
+eastern section of the ruin as the location of the kivas, and in 1892 I
+proved to my satisfaction that these directions were correct.</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason to suppose that the kiva was a necessity in the
+ancient performance of the Tusayan ritual, and there are still performed
+many ceremonials as secret and as sacred as any others which occur
+in rooms used as dwellings or for the storage of corn. Thus, the Flute<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612">[Pg 612]</a></span>
+ceremony, one of the most complicated in Tusayan, is not, and according
+to legends never was, performed in a kiva. On the contrary, the
+secret rites of the Flute society are performed in the ancestral Flute
+chamber or home of the oldest woman of the Flute clan. Originally, I
+believe, the same was true in the case of other ceremonials, and that
+the kiva was of comparatively recent introduction into Tusayan.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
+
+<p>Speaking of the sacred rooms of Awatobi, Mindeleff says: "No traces
+of kivas were visible at the time the ruin was surveyed," but Stephen
+is quoted in a legend that "the people of Walpi had partly cleaned
+out one of these chambers and used it as a depository for ceremonial
+plume-sticks, but the Navaho carried off their sacred deposits, tempted
+probably by their market value as ethnologic specimens." It is true
+that while from a superficial examination of the Awatobi mounds the
+position of the kivas is difficult to locate, a little excavation brings
+their walls to light. It is likewise quite probable that the legend
+reported by Stephen has a basis in fact, and that the people at Walpi
+may have used old shrines in Awatobi, after its destruction, as the
+priests of Misho&ntilde;inovi do at the present time; but I very much doubt if
+the Navaho sold any of the sacred prayer emblems from these fanes. It
+is hardly characteristic of these people to barter such objects among
+one another, and no specimens from the shrines appear to have made
+their way into the numerous collections of traders known to me. There
+is, however, archeological evidence revealed by excavations that the
+room centrally placed in the court north of the mission contained a
+shrine in its floor on the night Awatobi fell.</p>
+
+<p>In 1892, while removing the soil from a depression about the middle of
+the eastern court of Awatobi, about 100 feet north of the northern
+wall of the mission, I laid bare a room 28 by 14 feet, in which were
+found a skull and many other human bones which, from their disposition,
+had not been buried with care. The discovery of these skeletons
+accorded with the Hopi traditions that this was one of the rooms
+in which the men of Awatobi were gathered on the fatal night, and the
+inclosure where many died. I was deterred from further excavation
+at that place by the horror of my workmen at the desecration of the
+chamber. In 1895, however, I determined to continue my earlier
+excavations and to trace the course of the walls of adjacent rooms.
+The results obtained in this work led to a new phase of the question,
+which sheds more light on the character of the rooms in the middle of
+the eastern court of Awatobi. Instead of a single room at this point,
+there are three rectangular chambers side by side, all of about the
+same size (<a href="#PL_CVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cviii</span></a>). In the center of the floor of the middle room,
+6 feet below the surface, I came upon a cist or stone shrine. As the
+workmen approached the floor they encountered a stone slab, horizontally
+placed in the pavement of the room. This slab was removed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613">[Pg 613]</a></span>
+below it was another flat stone which was perforated by a rectangular
+hole just large enough to admit the hand and forearm. This second
+slab was found to cover a stone box, the sides of which were formed
+of stone slabs about 2-1/2 feet square. On the inner faces of the upright
+slabs rain-cloud symbols were painted. These symbols were of terrace
+form, in different colors outlined with black lines. One of the stones
+bore a yellow figure, another a red, and a third white. The color of the
+fourth was not determinable, but evidently, from its position relatively
+to the others, was once green. This arrangement corresponds with
+the present ceremonial assignment of colors to the cardinal points, or
+at least the north and south, as at the present time, were yellow and
+red, respectively, and presumably the white and green were on the east
+and west sides of the cist. The colors are still fairly bright and may
+be seen in the restoration of this shrine now in the National Museum.</p>
+
+<p>There was no stone floor to this shrine, but within it were found
+fragments of prayer-plumes or pahos painted green, but so decayed
+that, when exposed to sunlight, some of them fell into dust. There
+were likewise fragments of green carbonate of copper and kaolin, a
+yellow ocher, and considerable vegetal matter mixed with the sand.
+All these facts tend to the belief that this crypt was an ancient shrine
+in the floor of a chamber which may have been a kiva.</p>
+
+<p>The position of this room with a shrine in the middle of the court is
+interesting in comparison with that of similar shrines in some of the
+modern Hopi pueblos. Shrines occupy the same relative position in
+Sichomovi, Hano, Shipaulovi, and elsewhere, and within them sacred
+prayer-offerings are still deposited on ceremonial occasions. At Walpi,
+in the middle of the plaza, there is a subterranean crypt in which offerings
+are often placed, as I have elsewhere described in treating of
+certain ceremonies. This shrine is not visible, for a slab of stone which
+is placed over it lies on a level with the plaza, and is securely luted in
+place with adobe. There are similar subterranean prayer crypts in
+other Tusayan villages. They represent the traditional opening, or
+<i>sipapu</i>, through which, in Pueblo cosmogony, races crawled to the
+surface of the earth from an underworld. In Awatobi also there is a
+similar shrine, for the deposit of prayer-offerings, almost in the middle
+of a plaza bounded on three sides by the mission, the spur of many-storied
+houses, and the wall with a gateway, while the remaining side
+was formed by the great communal houses of the western part of the
+pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>While we were taking from their ancient resting places the slabs of
+stone which formed this Awatobi shrine, the workmen reminded me
+how closely it resembled the <i>pahoki</i> used by the <i>katcinas</i>, and when, a
+month later, I witnessed the <i>Nim&aacute;n-katcina</i> ceremony at Walpi, and
+accompanied the chief, Intiwa, when he deposited the prayer-sticks in
+that shrine,<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> I was again impressed by the similarity of the two, one in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614">[Pg 614]</a></span>
+ruin deserted two centuries ago, the other still used in the performance
+of ancient rites, no doubt much older than the overthrow of the great
+pueblo of Antelope mesa.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OLD AWATOBI</h4>
+
+<p>The western mounds of Awatobi afford satisfactory evidence that
+they cover the older rooms of the pueblo, and show by their compact
+form that the ancient village in architectural plan was similar to modern
+Walpi. They indicate that Awatobi was of pyramidal form, was symmetrical,
+three or four stories high,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> without a central plaza, but probably
+penetrated by narrow courts or passages. No great ceremonial
+dance could have taken place in the heart of the pueblo, since there
+was not sufficient space for its celebration, but it must have occurred
+outside the village, probably in the open space to the east, near where
+the ruined walls of the mission now stand.</p>
+
+<p>From the nature of the western mounds I found it advantageous to
+begin the work of excavation in the steep decline on the southern side,
+and to penetrate the mound on the level of its base or the rock formation
+which forms its foundation. In this way all the d&eacute;bris could advantageously
+be moved and thrown over the side of the mesa. We began
+to open the mounds, therefore, on the southern side, making converging
+trenches at intervals, working toward their center. We found that these
+trenches followed continuous walls connected by cross partitions, forming
+rooms, and that these were continued as far as we penetrated.
+The evidence is good that these rooms are followed by others which
+extend into the deepest part of the mound. We likewise excavated at
+intervals over the whole surface of the western area of Awatobi, and
+wherever we dug, walls of former rooms, which diminished in altitude
+on the northern side, were found. From these excavations I concluded
+that if any part of the western mound was higher than the remainder,
+it was on the southern side just above the edge of the mesa, and from
+that highest point the pueblo diminished in altitude to the north, in
+which direction it was continued for some distance in low, single-story
+rooms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>ROOMS OF THE WESTERN MOUND</h4>
+
+<p>The older or western portion of Awatobi is thus believed to be made
+up of a number of high mounds which rise steeply, and for a considerable
+height from the southern edge of the cliff, from which it slopes
+more gradually to the north and west. On account of this steep declivity
+we were able to examine, in vertical section, the arrangement of the
+rooms, one above the other (<a href="#Fig_256">figure 256</a>). By beginning excavations on
+the rocky foundation and working into the mound, parallel walls were
+encountered at intervals as far as we penetrated. From the edge of
+the cliff there seemed to extend a series of these parallel walls, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615">[Pg 615]</a></span>
+were united by cross partitions, forming a series of rooms, one back of
+another. The deeper we penetrated the mound the higher the walls
+were found to be, and this was true of the excavations along the whole
+southern side of the elevation (<a href="#PL_CIX">plate <span class="smcap">cix</span></a>). If, as I suspect, these parallel
+walls extend to the heart of the mounds, the greatest elevation of
+the former buildings must have been four stories. It would likewise
+seem probable that the town was more or less pyramidal, with the
+highest point somewhat back from the one- or two-story walls at the
+edge of the cliff, a style of architecture still preserved in Walpi. The
+loftiest wall, which was followed down to the floor, was 15 feet high,
+but as that was measured over 20 feet below the apex of the mound, it
+would seem that, from a distance, there would be a wall 30 feet high in
+the center of the mound. Even counting 7 feet as the height of each
+story we would have four stories above the foundation, and this, I
+believe, was the height of the old pueblo. But probably the wall did
+not rise to this height at the edge of the mesa, where it could not have
+been more than one or two stories high. There is no evidence of the
+former existence of an inclosed court of any considerable size between
+the buildings and the cliff, although a passage probably skirted the
+brink of the precipice, and house ladders may have been placed on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616">[Pg 616]</a></span>
+that side for ready access to upper rooms. By a series of platforms or
+terraces, which were in fact the roofs of the houses, one mounted to
+the upper stories which formed the apex of the pueblo.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CIX" id="PL_CIX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecix.jpg" width="600" height="351" alt="PL. CIX&mdash;
+EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI" title="PL. CIX&mdash;
+EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_256" id="Fig_256"></a>
+<img src="images/fig256.jpg" width="600" height="485" alt="Fig. 256&mdash;Structure of house wall of Awatobi" title="Fig. 256&mdash;Structure of house wall of Awatobi" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 256&mdash;Structure of house wall of Awatobi</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>On the western, northern, and eastern sides the slope is more gradual,
+and while there are many obscurely marked house plans visible over
+the surface, even quite near the top of the elevation, they are doubtless
+the remains of single-story structures. This leads me to suspect that
+when Awatobi was built it was reared on a mound of soil or sand, and
+not on the solid rock surface of the mesa. The configuration, then,
+shows that the pueblo sloped by easy decline to the plain to the north,
+but rose more abruptly from the south and west. There are low extramural
+mounds to the north, showing that on this side the dwellings
+were composed of straggling chambers. The general character of the
+rooms on the level slope at the western side of old Awatobi is shown
+in the accompanying illustration (<a href="#PL_CX">plate <span class="smcap">cx</span></a>). The peculiarity of these
+rooms appears by a comparison with the many-story chambers of the
+southern declivity of the ruin. Extending the excavations four feet
+below the surface we encountered a floor which rested on solid earth,
+and there were no signs of walls beneath it. This was without doubt
+a single-story house, the roof of which had disappeared. The surrounding
+surface of the ground is level, but the tops of adjoining walls
+of rooms may readily be traced near by.</p>
+
+<p>The room was rectangular, twice as long as wide, and without passageways
+into adjoining chambers. The northern, eastern, and western
+walls were unbroken, and there was nothing peculiar in the floor of
+these sections; but we found a well-preserved, elevated settle at the
+southern side, extending two-thirds of the length of the main wall to a
+small side wall, inclosing a square recess, the object of which is
+unknown to me.</p>
+
+<p>All walls were smoothly plastered, and the floor was paved with flat
+stones set in adobe. The singular inclosure at the southern corner
+could not be regarded as a fireplace, for there was no trace of soot upon
+its walls. I incline to the belief that it may have served as a closet,
+or possibly as a granary. Its arrangement is not unlike that in certain
+modern rooms at Walpi.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the masonry of the rooms of the western mounds
+of Awatobi shows that the component stones were in a measure dressed
+into shape, which was, as a rule, cubical. In this respect they differ
+from the larger stones of which the mission walls were built, for in this
+masonry the natural cleavage is utilized for the face of the wall.</p>
+
+<p>The differences between the masonry of the mission and that of the
+room in which we found a chief buried were very marked. In the
+former, elongated slabs of stone, without pecking or dressing, were
+universal, while in the latter the squared stones were laid in courses
+and neatly fitted together. The partitions likewise are narrower, being
+not more than 6 inches thick.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CX" id="PL_CX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecx.jpg" width="600" height="372" alt="PL. CX&mdash;
+EXCAVATED ROOM IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI" title="PL. CX&mdash;
+EXCAVATED ROOM IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">EXCAVATED ROOM IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617">[Pg 617]</a></span></p>
+<h4>SMALLER AWATOBI</h4>
+
+<p>About an eighth of a mile west of the great mounds of Awatobi there
+is a small rectangular ruin, the ground plan of which is well marked,
+and in which individual houses are easy to trace. Like its larger neighbor,
+it stands on the very edge of the mesa. None of its walls rise above
+the surface of the mounds, which, however, are considerably elevated
+and readily distinguished for some distance. The pueblo was built in
+the form of a rectangle of single-story houses surrounding a plaza.
+There was an opening or entrance on the southern side, near which
+is a mound, possibly the remains of a kiva. A trail now passes directly
+through the ruin and down the mesa side to Jeditoh valley, probably
+the pathway by which the ancient inhabitants ascended the cliff. The
+Hopi Indians employed by me in excavating Awatobi had no name for
+this ruin and were not familiar with its existence before I pointed it out
+to them. For want of a better interpretation I have regarded it as a
+colony of old Awatobi, possibly of later construction.</p>
+
+<p>Excavations in its mounds revealed no objects of interest, although
+fragments of beautiful pottery, related to that found at Awatobi and
+Sikyatki, show that it must have been made by people of the older or
+best epoch<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> of Tusayan ceramics.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MORTUARY REMAINS</h4>
+
+<p>Although it is well known that the ancient inhabitants of the great
+houses of the Gila-Salado drainage buried some of their dead within
+their dwellings, or in other rooms, and that the same mortuary practice
+was observed in ancient Zu&ntilde;i-Cibola, up to the time of my excavations
+this form of burial had never been found in Tusayan. I am now able
+to record that the same custom was practiced at Awatobi.</p>
+
+<p>Excavation made in the southeastern declivity of the western mounds
+led to a burial chamber in which we found the well-preserved skeleton
+of an old man, apparently a priest. The body was laid on the floor,
+at full length, and at his head, which pointed southward, had been
+placed, not mortuary offerings of food in bowls, but insignia of his
+priestly office. Eight small objects of pottery were found on his left side
+(<a href="#PL_CXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>). Among these was a symmetrical vase of beautiful
+red ware (<a href="#PL_CXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxi</span></a>, <i>a</i>) richly decorated with geometric patterns,
+and four globular paint pots, each full of pigment of characteristic
+color. These paint pots were of black-and-white ware, and contained,
+respectively, yellow ocher, sesquioxide of iron, green copper carbonate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_618" id="Page_618">[Pg 618]</a></span>
+and micaceous hematite (<a href="#PL_CXIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxiii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>) such as is now called
+<i>yayala</i> and used by the Snake priests in the decoration of their faces.
+There were also many arrowpoints in an earthen colander, and a ladle
+was luted over the mouth of the red vase. My native excavators pronounced
+this the grave of a warrior priest. The passageways into this
+chamber of death had all been closed, and there were no other mortuary
+objects in the room. This was the only instance of intramural interment
+which I discovered in the excavations at Awatobi, but a human
+bone was found on the floor of another chamber. So far as known the
+Awatobi people buried most of their dead outside the town, either in
+the foothills at the base of the mesa, or in the adjacent sand-dunes.</p>
+
+<p>The work of excavating the graves at the foot of the mesa was
+desultory, as I found no single place where many interments had been
+made. Several food vessels were dug up at a grave opened by K&oacute;peli,
+the Snake chief. I was not with him when he found the grave, but he
+called me to see it soon after its discovery. We took from this excavation
+a sandstone fetish of a mountain-lion, a fragment of the bottom
+of a basin perforated with holes as if used as a colander. Deposited
+in this fragment were many stone arrowheads, several fragments of
+green paint, a flat green paho ornamented with figures of dragon-flies
+in black. In addition to a single complete prayer-stick there were
+fragments of many others too much broken to be identified. One of
+these was declared by K&oacute;peli to be a chief's paho. The grave in which
+these objects were found was situated about halfway down the side of
+the mesa to the southward of the highest mounds of the western
+division of the pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>Here and there along the base of all the foothills south of Awatobi
+are evidences of former burials, and complete bowls, dippers, and vases
+were unearthed (<a href="#PL_CXIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxiii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>). The soil is covered with fragments
+of pottery, and in places, where the water has washed through them,
+exposing a vertical section of the ground, it was found that the fragments
+of pottery extended through the soil sometimes to a depth of
+fifty feet below the surface. There was evidence, however, that this
+soil had been transported more or less by rain water, which often
+courses down the sides of the mesa in impetuous torrents.</p>
+
+<p>Human bones and mortuary vessels were found south of the mission
+near the trail, at the foot of the mesa. In a single grave, a foot
+below the surface, there were two piles of food bowls, each pile containing
+six vessels, all broken.</p>
+
+<p>The cemetery northwest of Awatobi, where the soil is sandy and easy
+to excavate, had been searched by others, and many beautiful objects
+of pottery taken from it. This burial place yielded many bowls (<a href="#PL_CLXVII">plates
+<span class="smcap">clxvii</span></a>, <a href="#PL_CLXVIII"><span class="smcap">clxviii</span></a>) and jars, as well as several interesting pahos similar to
+those from Sikyatki, which I shall later describe but which have never
+before been reported from Awatobi. It was found that one of these
+prayer-sticks was laid over the heart of the deceased, and as the skeleton<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619">[Pg 619]</a></span>
+was in a sitting posture, with the hand on the breast, the prayer-stick
+may thus have been held at the time of burial. Our success
+in finding places of interment on all sides of Sikyatki, irrespective of
+direction, leads me to suspect that further investigation of the sand-dunes
+north of Awatobi will reveal graves at that point.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 408px;"><a name="PL_CXI" id="PL_CXI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxi.jpg" width="408" height="600" alt="PL. CXI&mdash;
+VASE AND MUGS FROM THE WESTERN MOUNDS OF AWATOBI" title="PL. CXI&mdash;
+VASE AND MUGS FROM THE WESTERN MOUNDS OF AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASE AND MUGS FROM THE WESTERN MOUNDS OF AWATOBI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>I have already called attention to the great abundance of charred
+corn found in the rooms north of the mission. Renewed work in this
+quarter revealed still greater quantities of this corn stacked in piles,
+sometimes filling the entire side of a room. Evidently, as I have elsewhere
+shown, the row of rooms at this part of the ruin were burned
+with all their contents. The corn was not removed from the granaries,
+as it would have been if the place had been gradually abandoned.
+When an Indian burns stored corn in such quantities as were found at
+Awatobi we can not believe he was bent on pillage, and it is an
+instructive fact that thus far no stacked corn has been found in the
+western or most ancient section of Awatobi.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SHRINES</h4>
+
+<p>Although Awatobi was destroyed almost two centuries ago, the
+shrines of the old pueblo were used for many years afterward, and are
+even now frequented by some of the Misho&ntilde;inovi priests. In one of
+these ancient depositories two wooden figurines sat in state up to within
+a few years ago.</p>
+
+<p>This shrine lies below the ruins of the mission, among the bowlders
+on the side of the cliff, about fifty feet from the edge of the mesa, and
+is formed in an eroded cavity in the side of a bowlder of unusual size.
+A rude wall had been built before this recess, which opened to the
+east, and apparently the orifice was closed with logs, which have now
+fallen in. The present appearance of this shrine is shown in the
+accompanying illustration (<a href="#Fig_257">figure 257</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In former times two wooden idols, called the <i>Alosaka</i>, were kept in
+this crypt, in much the same manner as the Dawn Maid is now sealed
+up by the Walpians, when not used in the New-fire ceremony, as I have
+described in my account of <i>Naacnaiya</i>.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Mr Thomas V. Keam, not
+knowing that the Awatobi idols were still used in the Misho&ntilde;inovi
+ritual, had removed them to his residence, but when this was known a
+large number of priests begged him to return them, saying that they
+were still used in religious exercises. With that consideration which
+he has always shown to the Indians, Mr Keam allowed the priests to
+take the images of <i>Alosaka</i>. The figurines were this time carried to
+Misho&ntilde;inovi, the priests sprinkling a line of meal along the trail over
+which they carried them. The two idols<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> have not been seen by white<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620">[Pg 620]</a></span>
+people since that time, and are now, no doubt, in some hidden crypt
+near the Misho&ntilde;inovi village.</p>
+
+<p>There is a shrine of simple character, near the ruins of smaller Awatobi,
+which bears evidence of antiquity (<a href="#Fig_258">figure 258</a>). It consisted, in
+1892, of a circle of small stones in which were two large water-worn
+stones and a fragment of petrified wood. There was no evidence that
+it had lately been used.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;"><a name="Fig_257" id="Fig_257"></a>
+<img src="images/fig257.jpg" width="463" height="580" alt="Fig. 257&mdash;Alosaka shrine at Awatobi" title="Fig. 257&mdash;Alosaka shrine at Awatobi" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 257&mdash;Alosaka shrine at Awatobi</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>On the extreme western point of the mesa, at the very edge of the
+cliff, there was also a simple shrine (<a href="#Fig_259">figure 259</a>). Judging from its
+general appearance, this, likewise, had not been used in modern times,
+but there were several old prayer-sticks not far away.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"><a name="PL_CXII" id="PL_CXII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxii.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="PL. CXII&mdash;
+PAINT POTS, BOWL, AND DIPPER FROM AWATOBI" title="PL. CXII&mdash;
+PAINT POTS, BOWL, AND DIPPER FROM AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PAINT POTS, BOWL, AND DIPPER FROM AWATOBI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>At the foot of the mesa, below the point last mentioned, however,
+there is a shrine (<a href="#Fig_260">figure 260</a>), the earth of which contained hundreds
+of prayer-sticks, in all stages of decay, while some of them had been
+placed there only a few days before my visit. This shrine, I was told,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621">[Pg 621]</a></span>
+is still used by the Misho&ntilde;inovi priests in their sacred observances.
+Among other forms of prayer offerings there were many small wooden
+cylinders with radiating
+sticks connected
+with yarn, the symbolic
+prayer offering
+for squashes.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> In former
+times Antelope
+valley was the garden
+spot of Tusayan, and
+from what we know of
+the antiquity of the
+cultivation of squashes in the Southwest, there is little doubt that they
+were cultivated by the Awatobians, and that similar offerings were
+made by the ancient farmers
+for a good crop of these vegetables.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_258" id="Fig_258"></a>
+<img src="images/fig258.jpg" width="600" height="248" alt="Fig. 258&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi" title="Fig. 258&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 258&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;"><a name="Fig_259" id="Fig_259"></a>
+<img src="images/fig259.jpg" width="507" height="320" alt="Fig. 259&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi" title="Fig. 259&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 259&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>POTTERY</h4>
+
+<p>The mounds of Awatobi are
+entirely covered with fragments
+of pottery of all the
+various kinds and colors
+known to ancient Tusayan.
+There were found coiled and
+indented ware, coarse undecorated
+vessels, fine yellow and smooth ware with black-and-white and red
+decorations. There is no special kind of pottery peculiar to Awatobi,
+but it shares
+with the other
+Tusayan ruins
+all types, save
+a few fragments
+of black
+glazed ware,
+which occur
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_260" id="Fig_260"></a>
+<img src="images/fig260.jpg" width="600" height="423" alt="Fig. 260&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi" title="Fig. 260&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 260&mdash;Shrine at Awatobi</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>It is highly
+probable that
+the few specimens
+of black-and-white
+ware
+found in this
+ruin were not
+manufactured
+in the village, and the red ware probably came from settlements to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622">[Pg 622]</a></span>
+south, on the Little Colorado. These colors are in part due to the
+character of the paste which was used, and the clay most often selected
+by Awatobi potters made a fine yellow vessel. The material from
+which most of the vessels were manufactured came, no doubt, from a
+bank near the ruin, where there is good evidence that it was formerly
+quarried.</p>
+
+<p>Three coarse clay objects, such as might have been used for roof
+drains, were found. The use of these objects, possibly indicated by their
+resemblance, is not, however, perfectly clear. Their capacity would not
+be equal to the torrents of rain which, no doubt, often fell on the housetops
+of Awatobi, and they can hardly be identified as spouts of large
+bowls, since they are attached to a circular disk with smooth edges. In
+want of a satisfactory explanation I have provisionally regarded them
+as water spouts, but whether they are from ancient vessels or from the
+roofs of houses I am in much doubt.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the most instructive fragments of pottery taken from the
+ruins is that of a coarse clay vessel, evidently a part of a flat basin or
+saucer. The rim of this vessel is punctured with numerous holes,
+the intervals between which are not greater than the diameter of the
+perforations.</p>
+
+<p>Several platter-like vessels with similar holes about their rims have
+been taken from other ruins of Jeditoh valley and mesa, the holes
+being regarded as having been made as a means of suspension. Near
+a sacred spring called Kawaika,<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> not far from Jeditoh, near Awatobi,
+a large number of beautiful vessels with similar holes in their rims
+were excavated by Mr T. V. Keam, and later passed into the collections
+of the Hemenway Expedition, now installed at Cambridge. They
+are of all kinds of ware, widely different in shape, the number of marginal
+perforations varying greatly. As they were found in large numbers
+near a spring they are regarded as sacrificial vessels, in which food
+or sacred meal was deposited as an offering to some water deity. The
+handle of a mug (<a href="#PL_CXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxi</span></a>, <i>f</i>) from Awatobi, so closely resembles the
+handles of certain drinking cups taken from the cliff-houses of San Juan
+valley that it should be specially mentioned. There is in the handle
+of this mug a T-shape opening quite similar in form to the peculiar
+doorways of certain cliff-dwellings. The mug is made of the finest
+white ware, decorated with black lines arranged in geometric patterns.
+So close is its likeness in form and texture to cliff-house pottery that
+the two may be regarded as identical. Moreover, it is not impossible
+that the object may have been brought to Tusayan from Ts&eacute;gi canyon,
+in the cliff-houses of which Hopi clans<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> lived while Awatobi was in its
+prime, and, indeed, possibly after the tragedy of 1700. The few fragments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623">[Pg 623]</a></span>
+of Ts&eacute;gi canyon pottery known to me have strong resemblances
+to ancient Hopi ware, although the black-and-white variety predominates.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"><a name="PL_CXIII" id="PL_CXIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxiii.jpg" width="385" height="600" alt="PL. CXIII&mdash;
+POTTERY FROM INTRAMURAL BURIAL AT AWATOBI" title="PL. CXIII&mdash;
+POTTERY FROM INTRAMURAL BURIAL AT AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">POTTERY FROM INTRAMURAL BURIAL AT AWATOBI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The collection of pottery from Awatobi is, comparatively speaking,
+small, but it shows many interesting forms. Awatobi pottery may be
+classed under the same groups as other old Tusayan ceramics, but most
+of the specimens collected belong to the yellow, black-and-white, and
+red varieties. It resembles that of Sikyatki, but bears little likeness to
+modern ware in texture or symbolism. One is impressed by the close
+resemblance between the Awatobi pottery and that from the ruins of
+the Little Colorado and Zu&ntilde;i,<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> which no doubt is explained, in part, by
+the identity in the constituents of the potter's clay near Awatobi with
+that in more southerly regions.</p>
+
+<p>Evidences of Spanish influence may be traced on certain objects of
+pottery from Awatobi, especially on those obtained from the eastern
+mounds of the ruin. In most essentials, however, the Awatobi ware
+resembles that of the neighboring ruins, and is characteristically
+Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p>The differentiation in modern Cibolan and Tusayan symbolism is
+much greater than that of the ancient pottery from the same provinces,
+a fact which is believed to point to a similarity, possibly identity, of
+culture in ancient times. With this thought in mind, it would be highly
+instructive to study the ancient ruins of the Rio Grande region, as
+unfortunately no large collections of archeological objects from that part
+of the Southwest have been made.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>The majority of the bowls from Awatobi are decorated in geometric
+patterns and a few have animal or human figures. The symbols, as
+well as the pottery itself, can not be distinguished from those of Sikyatki.
+Fragments of glazed ware are not unknown at Awatobi, but so far as
+recorded, entire specimens have never been obtained from the latter
+ruin.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the character of the geometric designs on Awatobi
+pottery may be better understood, two plates are introduced to illustrate
+their modifications in connection with my discussion of the geometric
+forms figured on Sikyatki ware. The figures on these bowls
+(<a href="#PL_CLXVI">plates <span class="smcap">clxvi</span></a>, <a href="#PL_CLXVII"><span class="smcap">clxvii</span></a>), with one or two exceptions, need no special
+description in addition to what is said of Sikyatki geometric designs,
+which they closely resemble.</p>
+
+<p>The cross-shape figure (<a href="#PL_CLXVI">plate <span class="smcap">clxvi</span></a>, <i>b</i>) may profitably be studied in
+connection with the account of the modification of Sikyatki sun symbols.
+Evidences of the use of a white pigment as a slip were found on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624">[Pg 624]</a></span>
+one or two fragments of fine pottery from Awatobi, but no decoration
+of this kind was observed on the Sikyatki vessels. The red ware is
+the same as that found in ancient Cibola, while one or two fragments
+of glossy black recall the type common to modern Santa Clara.</p>
+
+<p>Two bird-shape vessels, one made of black-and-white ware, the other
+red with black-and-white decoration, were found at Awatobi. Large
+masses of clay suited to the potter's art were not uncommonly found
+in the corners of the rooms or in the niches in their walls. Some of
+these masses are of fine paste, the others coarse with grains of sand.
+The former variety was used in making the finest Tusayan ceramics;
+the latter was employed in modeling cooking pots and other vessels of
+ruder finish.</p>
+
+<p>Several flute-shape objects of clay, with flaring extremities, were
+found on the surface of the mounds of Awatobi, and one was taken
+from a Sikyatki grave. The use of these objects is unknown to me.</p>
+
+<p>Among the fragments of dippers from Awatobi are several with
+perforations in the bottom, irregularly arranged or in geometric form,
+as that of a cross. These colanders were rare at Sikyatki, but I find
+nothing in them to betray Spanish influence.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> Handled dippers or
+mugs have been found so often by me in the prehistoric ruins of our
+Southwest that I can not accept the dictum that the mug form was not
+prehistoric, and the conclusion is legitimate that the Tusayan Indians
+were familiar with mugs when the Spaniards came among them. The
+handles of the dippers or ladles are single or double, solid or hollow,
+simply turned up at one end or terminating with the head of an animal.
+The upper side of the ladle handle may be grooved or convex. No
+ladle handle decorated with an image of a "mud-head" or clown priest,
+so common on modern ladles, was found either at Awatobi or Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>Rudely made imitations in miniature of all kinds of pottery, especially
+of ladles, were common. These are regarded as votive offerings,
+from the fact that they were found usually in the graves of children,
+and were apparently used as playthings before they were buried.</p>
+
+<p>A common decoration on the handles of ladles is a series of short
+parallel lines arranged in alternating longitudinal and transverse zones.
+This form of decoration of ladle handles I have observed on similar
+vessels from the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, and it reappears on pottery
+in all the ruins I have studied between Mexico and Tusayan. In
+the exhibit of the Mexican Government at Madrid in 1892-93 a fine
+collection of ancient pottery from Oaxaca was shown, and I have drawings
+of one of these ladles with the same parallel marks on the handle
+that are found on Pueblo ware from the Gila-Salado, the Cibola, and
+the Tusayan regions.</p>
+
+<p>The only fragment of pottery from Awatobi or Sikyatki with designs
+which could be identified with any modern picture of a <i>katcina</i> was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625">[Pg 625]</a></span>
+found, as might be expected, in the former ruin. This small fragment
+is instructive, in that it indicates the existence of the <i>katcina</i> cult in
+Tusayan before 1700; but the rarity of the figures of these supernatural
+beings is very suggestive. The fragment in question is of ancient
+ware, resembling the so-called orange type of pottery, and is apparently
+a part of the neck of a vase. The figure represents Wupamo, the
+Great-cloud <i>katcina</i>, and is marked like the doll of the same as it
+appears in the <i>Powam&ucirc;</i> or February celebration at Walpi.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a></p>
+
+<p>The associates of the <i>katcinas</i> are the so-called "mud-heads" or
+clowns, an order of priests as widely distributed as the Pueblo area. In
+Tusayan villages they are called the Tcukuwympkia, and are variously
+personated. As they belong especially to the <i>katcina</i> cult, which is
+naturally supposed to have been in vogue at Awatobi, I was greatly
+interested in the finding of a fragment representing a grotesque head
+which reminded me of a glutton of the division of the Tcukuwympkia
+called Tcuckut&ucirc;. While there may be some doubt of the validity of my
+identification, yet, taken in connection with the fragment of a vase with
+the face of Wupamo, I think there is no doubt that the <i>katcina</i> cult was
+practiced at Awatobi.</p>
+
+
+<h4>STONE IMPLEMENTS</h4>
+
+<p>Comparatively few stone implements, such as mauls, hammers, axes,
+and spearpoints, were found; but some of those unearthed from the
+mounds are finely finished, being regular in form and highly polished.
+There were many spherical stones, resembling those still sometimes used
+in Tusayan on important occasions as badges of authority. These stones
+were tied in a buckskin bag, which was attached to a stick and used
+as a warclub. Many of the axes were grooved for hafting; one of
+the specimens was doubly grooved and had two cutting edges. By
+far the largest number were blunt at one pole and sharpened at the
+opposite end. A single highly polished specimen (<a href="#PL_CLXXI">plate <span class="smcap">clxxi</span></a>, <i>f</i>)
+resembles a type very common in the Gila Salado ruins.</p>
+
+<p>Arrowheads, some of finely chipped obsidian, were common, being
+frequently found in numbers in certain mortuary bowls. Three or four
+specimens of other kinds of implements fashioned from this volcanic
+glass were picked up on the surface of the mounds.</p>
+
+<p>Metates, or flat stones for grinding corn, were dug up in several
+houses; they were in some instances much worn, and were eagerly
+sought by the Indian women who visited our camp. These specimens
+differ in no respect from similar mealing stones still used at Walpi
+and other modern Tusayan pueblos. Many were made of very coarse<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626">[Pg 626]</a></span>
+stone<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> for use in hulling corn preparatory to grinding; others were of
+finer texture, and both kinds were accompanied by the corresponding
+mano or muller held in the hand in grinding meal.</p>
+
+<p>The modern Hopi often use as seats in their kivas cubical blocks
+of stone with depressions in two opposite sides which serve as handholds
+by which they are carried from place to place. Two of these
+stones, about a cubic foot in size, were taken out of the chamber
+which I have supposed to be the Awatobi kiva. In modern Tusayan
+these seats are commonly made of soft sandstone, and are so few in
+number that we can hardly regard them as common. They are often
+used to support the uprights of altars when they are erected, and I
+have seen priests grind pigments in the depressions. Incidentally, it
+may be said that I have never seen priests use chairs in any kiva celebration;
+nor do they have boxes to sit upon. During the droning of
+the tedious songs they have nothing under them except a folded
+blanket or sheepskin.</p>
+
+<p>Excavations in the Awatobi rooms revealed several interesting shallow
+mortars used for grinding pigments, but no one of these is comparable
+in finish with that shown in the accompanying illustration
+(<a href="#PL_CLXXII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxii</span></a>, <i>a</i>). This object is made of a hard stone in the form of a
+perfect parallelopipedon with slightly rounded faces. The depression
+is shallow, and when found there was a discoloration of pigment upon
+its surface.</p>
+
+<p>In almost every house that bore evidence of former occupancy, beautifully
+made mullers and metates were exhumed. These were ordinarily
+in place in the corner of the chamber, and were much worn, as if by
+constant use. In one grave there was found a metate reversed over a
+skeleton, probably that of a woman&mdash;although the bones were so disintegrated
+that the determination of the sex of the individual was impossible.
+Several of these metates were taken by Indian women, who
+prized them so highly that they loaded the stones on burros and carried
+them ten miles to Walpi, where they are now applied to the same purpose
+for which they were used over two centuries ago.</p>
+
+<p>On the surface of the mesa, beyond the extension of the ground plan
+of the ruin, there are many depressions worn in the rocks where the
+Awatobi women formerly whetted their grinding stones, doubtless in
+the manner practiced by the modern villagers of Tusayan. These
+depressions are especially numerous near the edge of the cliff, between
+the eastern and western sections of the ruin.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CXIV" id="PL_CXIV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxiv.jpg" width="600" height="390" alt="PL. CXIV&mdash;
+BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXIV&mdash;
+BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627">[Pg 627]</a></span></p>
+<h4>BONE OBJECTS</h4>
+
+<p>A large and varied collection of bone implements was gathered at
+Awatobi, and a few additional specimens were exhumed from Sikyatki.
+It is worthy of note that, as a rule, bone implements are more common
+in houses than in graves; and since the Awatobi excavations were conducted
+mostly in living rooms, while those at Sikyatki were largely
+in the cemeteries, the bone implements from the former pueblo far
+outnumber those from the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The collection consists of awls, bodkins, needles, whistles, and tubes
+made of the bones of birds and quadrupeds. The two animals which
+contributed more than others to these objects were the turkey and the
+rabbit, although there were fragments of the horns and shin-bones of
+the antelope or deer. Several of these specimens were blackened by
+fire, and one was stained with green pigment. There was also evidence
+of an attempt at ornamenting the implements by incised lines, while
+one was bound with string. Bones of animals which had served for
+food were very common in all the excavations at Awatobi, especially
+near the floors of the houses. With the exception of a number of
+large bones of a bear, found in one of the houses in the northern range
+of the eastern section, these bones were not carefully collected.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#PL_CXIV">Plate <span class="smcap">cxiv</span></a> gives a general idea of some of the forms of worked
+bone which were obtained. Figure <i>a</i> shows an awl, for the handle of
+which one of the trochanters was used, the point at the opposite end
+being very sharp; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> are similar objects, but slighter, and more
+carefully worked; <i>d</i> is a flattened bone implement perforated with two
+holes, and may have been used as a needle. There are similar implements
+in the collection, but with a single terminal perforation. Other
+forms of bone awls are shown in <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, and <i>j</i>.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of bone objects the use of which is problematical.
+One of the best of these is a section of the tibia of a bird, cut longitudinally,
+convex on the side represented in <a href="#PL_CXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxiv</span></a>, <i>h</i>, and concave
+on the opposite side. When found this bone fragment was tied to a
+second similar section by a string (remnants of which can be seen in
+the figure), thus forming a short tube. The use of this object is not
+known to me, nor were any satisfactory suggestions made by the
+Indians whom I consulted in relation to it. This does not apply, however,
+to the object illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxiv</span></a>, <i>i</i>, which was declared by
+several Hopi to be a bird whistle, similar to that used in ceremonials
+connected with medicine making.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which a bone whistle is used in imitation of a bird's
+call has been noticed by me in the accounts of several ceremonials, and
+I will therefore quote the description of its use in the <i>Nimankatcina</i>
+at Walpi.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628">[Pg 628]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Then followed an interval of song and accompanying rattle, at the termination of
+which Intiwa's associate took the bird whistle (<i>tat&uuml;kpi</i>) and blew three times into
+the liquid, making a noise not unlike that produced by a toy bird whistle. This
+was repeated four times, accompanied by song and rattle. He first inserted the
+bone whistle on the north side, then on the other cardinal points in turn. The
+monotonous song and rattle then ceased, and Intiwa sprinkled corn pollen on the
+ears of corn in the water, and upon the line of pahos.</p></div>
+
+<p>The object of the whistle is to call the summer birds which are
+associated with planting and harvesting. The whistle figures in many
+rites, especially in those connected with the making of medicine or
+charm liquid.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Ornaments in the Form of Birds and Shells</span></h5>
+
+<p>In the excavations, as well as on the surface of the mounds at Awatobi,
+were found many imitations of marine shells made of clay, often
+painted red and ranging from the size of half a dollar to that of the
+thumb nail (<a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>j-m</i>). On the convex surface of these objects
+parallel lines are etched, and they are pierced at the valves for suspension.
+I have never found them suspended from the neck of a skeleton,
+although their general appearance indicates that they were used as
+ornaments. Similarly made clay images of birds (<a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>)
+with extended wings were also found, and of these there are several
+different forms in the collection. A small perforated knob at the breast
+served for attachment. In the absence of any better explanation of
+these objects, I have regarded them as gorgets, or pendants, for personal
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>In the Awatobi collections there are several small disks made apparently
+of pipe clay, which also were probably used as ornaments. These
+are very smooth and wonderfully regular in shape&mdash;in one case with a
+perforation near the rim. Turquois and shell beads were found in considerable
+numbers in the excavations at Awatobi, but, as they are similar
+to those from Sikyatki, I have reserved a discussion of them for
+following pages. A few fragments of shell armlets and wristlets were
+also exhumed. These were made generally of the Pacific coast <i>Pectunculus</i>,
+so common in the ruins of the Little Colorado.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Clay Bell</span></h5>
+
+<p>Copper bells are said to be used in the secret ceremonials of the modern
+Tusayan villages, and in certain of the ceremonial foot races metal
+bells of great age and antique pattern are sometimes tied about the
+waists of the runners. Small copper hawk bells,<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> found in southern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629">[Pg 629]</a></span>
+Arizonian ruins, are identical in form and make with those used by the
+ancient Nahuatl people. So far as the study of the antiquities of the
+ruins of Tusayan immediately about the inhabited towns has gone, we
+have no record of the finding of copper bells of any great age. It was,
+therefore, with considerable interest that I exhumed from one of the
+rooms of the westernmost or oldest section of Awatobi a clay bell (<a href="#Fig_261">figure
+261</a>) made in exact imitation of one of the copper bells that have
+been reported from several southern ruins (<a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>a</i>). While
+it may be said that it would be more decisive evidence of the prehistoric
+character of this object if Awatobi had not been under Spanish influence
+for over a century, still, from the position where it was dug up and
+its resemblance to metal bells which are undoubtedly prehistoric, there
+seems to be little reason to question its age. As with the imitation of
+marine shells in clay, it is probable that in this
+bell we have a facsimile of a metal bell with
+which the ancient Tusayan people were undoubtedly
+familiar.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 296px;"><a name="Fig_261" id="Fig_261"></a>
+<img src="images/fig261.jpg" width="296" height="354" alt="Fig. 261&mdash;Clay Bell from Awatobi (natural size)" title="Fig. 261&mdash;Clay Bell from Awatobi (natural size)" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 261&mdash;Clay Bell from Awatobi (natural size)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Textile Fabrics</span></h5>
+
+<p>In the very earliest accounts which we have
+of Tusayan the Hopi are said to raise cotton and
+to weave it into mantles. These mantles, or
+"towels" as they were styled by Espejo, were,
+according to Casta&ntilde;eda, ornamented with embroidery,
+and had tassels at the corners. In
+early times garments were made of the fiber of
+the maguey, and of feathers and rabbit skins.
+Fabrics made of animal fiber are mentioned by Friar Marcos de Niza,
+and he was told that the inhabitants of Totonteac obtained the
+material from which they were made from animals as large as the
+greyhounds which the father had with him. The historical references
+which can be mentioned to prove that the Tusayan people, when they
+were first visited, knew how to spin and weave are numerous, and
+need not be quoted here. That the people of Awatobi made cotton
+fabrics there is no doubt, for it is distinctly stated by early visitors
+that they were acquainted with the art of weaving, and some of the
+presents made to the first Spanish explorers were of native cotton.</p>
+
+<p>The archeological evidence supports the historical in this particular,
+and several fragments of cloth were found in our excavations in the western
+mounds of the village. These fragments were of cotton and agave
+fiber, of cotton alone, and in one instance of the hair of some unknown
+animal. No signs of the famous rabbit-skin blankets were seen, and
+from the perishable nature of the material of which they were made it
+would be strange if any traces had been discovered. At Sikyatki a small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630">[Pg 630]</a></span>
+textile fragment made of feathers was found in one of the burial vases,
+but no feather garments or even fragments of the same were unearthed
+at Awatobi.</p>
+
+<p>A woven rope of agave fiber and many charred strings of the same
+material were found in a niche in the wall of a house in the eastern
+section, and from the same room there was taken a string, over a yard
+long, made of human hair. It was suggested to me by one of the Hopi
+that this string was part of the coiffure of an Awatobi maid, and that
+it was probably used to tie up her hair in whorls above the ears, as is
+still the Hopi custom.</p>
+
+<p>The whole number of specimens of textile fabrics found at Awatobi
+was small, and their character disappointing for study, for the conditions
+of burial in the soil are not so good for their preservation as in the
+dry caves or cliff houses, from which beautifully preserved cloth, made
+at a contemporary period, has been taken.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks&mdash;Pigments</span></h5>
+
+<p>Among the most significant mortuary objects used by the ancient
+Tusayan people may be mentioned the so-called prayer-sticks or pahos.
+These were found in several graves, placed on the breast, in the hand,
+or at the side of the person interred, and have a variety of form, as
+shown in the accompanying illustrations (<a href="#PL_CLXXIV">plates <span class="smcap">clxxiv</span></a>, <a href="#PL_CLXXV"><span class="smcap">clxxv</span></a>). As
+I shall discuss the forms and meaning of prayer-sticks in my account
+of Sikyatki, where a much larger number were found, I will simply
+mention a few of the more striking varieties from Awatobi.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most instructive of these objects is flat in shape, painted
+green, and decorated with figures of a dragon-fly. As this insect is a
+symbol of rain, its occurrence on mortuary objects is in harmony with
+the Hopi conception of the dead which will later be explained.</p>
+
+<p>Pahos, in the form of flat slats with a notched extension at one end
+were common, but generally were poorly preserved. The prayer-sticks
+from the shrine in the middle of the rooms in the plaza of the eastern
+section crumbled into fragments when exposed to the air, but they were
+apparently small, painted green, and decorated with black spots. On
+several of the prayer-sticks the impressions of the string and feathers
+that were formerly attached are still readily seen. It is probable that
+the solution of a carbonate of copper, with which the green pahos were
+so colored, contributed to the preservation of the wood of which they
+had been manufactured.</p>
+
+<p>The only pigments detected on the prayer-sticks are black, red, and
+green, and traces of red are found also on the inner surface of a stone
+implement from a grave at the base of the mesa. All the pigments used
+by the modern Tusayan Indians were found in the intramural burial
+already described. My Hopi workmen urged me to give them small fragments
+of these paints, regarding them efficacious in their ceremonials.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631">[Pg 631]</a></span></p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Objects Showing Spanish Influence</span></h5>
+
+<p>We would naturally expect to find many objects of Caucasian origin
+in the ruins of a pueblo which had been under Spanish influence for a
+century. I have already spoken of certain architectural features in
+the eastern part of Awatobi which may be traced to the influence of
+the Spanish missionaries, and of small objects there were several different
+kinds which show the same thing. The old iron knife-blade already
+mentioned as having been found among the corn in a storage chamber in
+the northern row of houses was not the only metallic object found. Not
+far from the mission there were unearthed many corroded iron nails, a
+small hook of the same metal, a piece of cast copper, and a fragment of
+what appeared to be a portion of a bell. There were several pieces of
+glass, the surfaces of which had become ground by the sand which had
+beaten upon them during the years in which they had been exposed.
+There was found also a fragment of a green glazed cup, which was
+undoubtedly of Spanish or Mexican make, and sherds of white china
+similar to that sold today by the traders. These latter specimens were,
+as a rule, found on the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>It will therefore appear that the archeology of Awatobi supports the
+documentary evidence that the pueblo was under Spanish influence for
+some time, and the fact that all the above-mentioned objects were taken
+on or in the eastern mounds emphasizes the conclusion that this section
+of the town was the part directly under Spanish influences. Nothing
+of Spanish manufacture was found in the rooms of the western mounds,
+but from this negative evidence there is no reason to suspect that this
+section of Awatobi was not inhabited contemporaneously with that in
+the vicinity of the mission.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Ruins of Sikyatki</span></h3>
+
+<h4>TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE PUEBLO</h4>
+
+<p>Very vague ideas are current regarding the character of Hopi culture
+prior to Tobar's visit to Tusayan in 1540, and with the exception
+of the most meager information nothing concerning it has come down
+to us from early historical references in the sixteenth century. It is
+therefore interesting to record all possible information in regard to
+these people prior to the period mentioned, and this must be done
+mainly through archeology.</p>
+
+<p>Although there are many Tusayan ruins which we have every reason
+to believe are older than the time of Coronado, no archeologist has
+gathered from them the evidences bearing on prehistoric Tusayan culture
+which they will undoubtedly yield. Large and beautiful collections
+of pottery ascribed to Tusayan ruins have shown the excellent
+artistic taste of the ancient potters of this region, indicating that in
+the ceramic art they were far in advance of their descendants. But<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632">[Pg 632]</a></span>
+these collections have failed to teach, the lesson they might have taught,
+from the fact that data concerning the objects composing them are so
+indefinite. Very little care had been taken to label these collections
+accurately or to collect any specimens but those which were strikingly
+beautiful or commercially valuable. It was therefore with the hope of
+giving a more precise and comprehensive character to our knowledge
+of Tusayan antiquities that I wished to excavate one of the ruins of
+this province which was undoubtedly prehistoric. Conditions were
+favorable for success at the mounds called by the Indians Sikyatki.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>
+These ruins are situated near the modern Tusayan pueblos of East
+Mesa, from which I could hire workmen, and not far from Keam's Canyon,
+which could be made a base of supplies. The existing legends
+bearing on these ruins, although obscure, are sufficiently definite for
+all practical purposes.</p>
+
+<p>I find no mention of Sikyatki in early historical documents, nor can
+the name be even remotely identified with any which has been given to
+a Tusayan pueblo. My knowledge of the mounds which mark the site
+of this ancient village dates back to 1892, when I visited them with
+one of the old men of Walpi, who then and there narrated the legend
+of its destruction by the Walpians previously to the advent of the
+Spaniards. I was at that time impressed by the extent of the mounds,
+and prepared a rough sketch of the ground plan of the former houses,
+but from lack of means was unable to conduct any systematic excavation
+of the ruin.</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively nothing concerning the ruin of Sikyatki has been
+published, although its existence had been known for several years
+previously to my visit. In his brief account Mr Victor Mindeleff<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a>
+speaks of it as two prominent knolls, "about 400 yards apart," the
+summits of which are covered with house walls. He also found portions
+of walls on intervening hummocks, but gives no plan of the ruin.
+The name, Sikyatki, is referred to the color of the sandstone of which
+the walls were built. He found some of the rooms were constructed of
+small stones, dressed by rubbing, and laid in mud. The largest chamber
+was stated to be 9-1/2 by 4-1/2 feet, and it was considered that many of
+the houses were "built in excavated places around the rocky summits
+of the knolls."<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Mr Mindeleff identified the former inhabitants with the
+ancestors of the Kokop people, and mentioned the more important
+details of their legend concerning the destruction of the village.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633">[Pg 633]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We can rely on the statement that Sikyatki was inhabited by the
+Kokop or Firewood people of Tusayan, who were so named because
+they obtained fire from wood by the use of drills. These people are
+represented today at Walpi by Katci, whose totem is a picture of
+Masauw&ucirc;, the God of Fire. It is said that the home of the Firewood
+people before they built Sikyatki was at Tebu&ntilde;ki, or Fire-house, a round
+ruin northeastward from Keam's canyon. They were late arrivals
+in Tusayan, coming at least after the Flute people, and probably before
+the Honani or Badger people, who brought, I believe, the <i>katcina</i> cult.
+Although we can not definitely assert that this cultus was unknown at
+Sikyatki, it is significant that in the ruins no ornamental vessel was
+found with a figure of a <i>katcina</i> mask, although these figures occur on
+modern bowls. The original home of the Kokop people is not known,
+but indefinite legends ascribe their origin to Rio Grande valley. They
+are reputed to have had kindred in Antelope valley and at the Fire-house,
+above alluded to, near Eighteen-mile spring.</p>
+
+<p>The ruin of Fire-house, one of the pueblos where the Kokop people
+are reputed to have lived before they built Sikyatki, is situated on the
+periphery of Tusayan. It is built of massive stones and differs from
+all other ruins in that province in that it is circular in form. The round
+type of ruin is, however, to be seen in the two conical mounds on the
+mesa above Sikyatki, which was connected in some way with the inhabitants
+who formerly lived at its base.</p>
+
+<p>The reason the Kokop people left Fire-house is not certain, but it is
+said that they came in conflict with Bear clans who were entering the
+province from the east. Certain it is that if the Kokop people once
+inhabited Fire-house they must have been joined by other clans when
+they lived at Sikyatki, for the mounds of this pueblo indicate a village
+much larger than the round ruin on the brink of the mesa northeast of
+Keam's canyon. The general ground plan of the ruin indicates an
+inclosed court with surrounding tiers of houses, suggesting the eastern
+type of pueblo architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The traditional knowledge of the destruction of Sikyatki is very
+limited among the present Hopi, but the best folklorists all claim that
+it was destroyed by warriors from Walpi and possibly from Middle
+Mesa. Awatobi seems not to have taken part in the tragedy, while
+Hano and Sichomovi did not exist when the catastrophe took place.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the destruction of Sikyatki is not clearly known, and
+probably was hardly commensurate with the result. Its proximity to
+Walpi may have led to disputes over the boundaries of fields or the
+ownership of the scanty water supply. The people who lived there
+were intruders and belonged to clans not represented in Walpi, which
+in all probability kept hostility alive. The early Tusayan peoples
+did not readily assimilate, but quarreled with one another even when
+sorely oppressed by common enemies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634">[Pg 634]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is current in Walpi a romantic story connected with the overthrow
+of Sikyatki. It is said that a son of a prominent chief, disguised
+as a <i>katcina</i>, offered a prayer-stick to a maiden, and as she received it
+he cut her throat with a stone knife. He is said to have escaped to the
+mesa top and to have made his way along its edge to his own town,
+taunting his pursuers. It is also related that the Walpians fell upon
+the village of Sikyatki to avenge this bloody deed, but it is much more
+likely that there was ill feeling between the two villages for other
+reasons, probably disputes about farm limits or the control of the
+water supply, inflamed by other difficulties. The inhabitants of the two
+pueblos came into Tusayan from different directions, and as they may
+have spoken different languages and thus have failed to understand
+each other, they may have been mutually regarded as interlopers.
+Petty quarrels no doubt ripened into altercations, which probably led
+to bloodshed. The forays of the Apache from the south and the Ute
+from the north, which began at a later period, should naturally have
+led to a defensive alliance; but in those early days confederation was
+not dreamed of and the feeling between the two pueblos culminated in
+the destruction of Sikyatki. This was apparently the result of a
+quarrel between two pueblos of East Mesa, or at least there is no intimation
+that the other pueblos took prominent part in it. It is said
+that after the destruction some of those who escaped fled to Oraibi,
+which would imply that the Walpi and Oraibi peoples, even at that early
+date, were not on very friendly terms. If, however, the statement
+that Oraibi was then a distinct pueblo be true, it in a way affords a
+suggestion of the approximate age<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> of this village.</p>
+
+<p>There was apparently a more or less intimate connection between the
+inhabitants of old Sikyatki and those of Awatobi, but whether or not
+it indicates that the latter was founded by the refugees from the former
+I have not been able definitely to make out. All my informants agree
+that on the destruction of Sikyatki some of its people fled to Awatobi,
+but no one has yet stated that the Kokop people were represented in
+the latter pueblo. The distinctive clans of the pueblo of Antelope
+mesa are not mentioned as living in Sikyatki, and yet the two pueblos
+are said to have been kindred. The indications are that the inhabitants
+of both came from the east&mdash;possibly were intruders, which may have
+been the cause of the hostility entertained by both toward the Walpians.
+The problem is too complex to be solved with our present limited
+knowledge in this direction, and archeology seems not to afford very
+satisfactory evidence one way or the other. We may never know
+whether the Sikyatki refugees founded Awatobi or simply fled to that
+pueblo for protection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635">[Pg 635]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no good evidence that Sikyatki was destroyed
+by fire, nor would it seem that it was gradually abandoned. The larger
+beams of the houses have disappeared from many rooms, evidently
+having been appropriated in building or enlarging other pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing to show that any considerable massacre of the
+people took place when the village was destroyed, in which respect it
+differs considerably from Awatobi. There is little doubt that many
+Sikyatki women were appropriated by the Walpians, and in support of
+this it is stated that the Kokop people of the present Walpi are the
+descendants of the people of that clan who dwelt at Sikyatki. This
+conclusion is further substantiated by the statements of one of the
+oldest members of the Kokop phratry who frequently visited me while
+the excavations were in progress.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of Sikyatki and its consequent abandonment doubtless
+occurred before the Spaniards obtained a foothold in the country.
+The aged Hopi folklorists insist that such is the case, and the excavations
+did not reveal any evidence to the contrary. If we add to the
+negative testimony that Sikyatki is not mentioned in any of the early
+writings, and that no fragment of metal, glass, or Spanish glazed pottery
+has been taken from it, we appear to have substantial proof of its
+prehistoric character.</p>
+
+<p>In the early times when Sikyatki was a flourishing pueblo, Walpi
+was still a small settlement on the terrace of the mesa just below the
+present town that bears its name. Two ruins are pointed out as the
+sites of Old Walpi, one to the northward of the modern town, and a
+second more to the westward. The former is called at present the Ash-heap
+house or pueblo, the latter Kisakobi. It is said that the people
+whose ancestors formed the nucleus of the more northerly town moved
+from there to Kisakobi on account of the cold weather, for it was too
+much in the shadow of the mesa. Its general appearance would indicate
+it to be older than the more westerly ruin, higher up on the
+mesa. It was a pueblo of some size, and was situated on the edge
+of the terrace. The refuse from the settlement was thrown over the
+edge of the decline, where it accumulated in great quantities. This
+d&eacute;bris contains many fragments of characteristic pottery, similar to
+that from Sikyatki, and would well repay systematic investigation.
+No walls of the old town rise more than a few feet above the surface,
+for most of the stones have long ago been used in rebuilding the pueblo
+on other sites. Kisakobi was situated higher up on the mesa, and
+bears every appearance of being more modern than the ruin below.
+Its site may readily be seen from the road to Keam's canyon, on the terrace-like
+prolongation of the mesa. Some of the walls are still erect,
+and the house visible for a great distance is part of the old pueblo.
+This, I believe, was the site of Walpi at the time the Spaniards visited
+Tusayan, and I have found here a fragment of pottery which I believe
+is of Spanish origin. The ancient pueblo crowned the ridge of the terrace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636">[Pg 636]</a></span>
+which narrows here to 30 or 40 feet, so that ancient Walpi was an
+elongated pueblo, with narrow passageways and no rectangular court.
+I should judge, however, that the pueblo was not inhabited for a great
+period, but was moved to its present site after a few generations of occupancy.
+The Ash-hill village was inhabited contemporaneously with
+Sikyatki, but Kisakobi was of later construction. Neither Sichomovi
+nor Hano was in existence when Sikyatki was in its prime, nor, indeed,
+at the time of its abandonment. In 1782 Morfi spoke of Sichomovi
+as a pueblo recently founded, with but fifteen families. Hano, although
+older, was certainly not established before 1700.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>The assertions of all Hopi traditionists that Sikyatki is a prehistoric
+ruin, as well as the scientific evidence looking the same way, are
+most important facts in considering the weight of deductions in regard
+to the character of prehistoric Tusayan culture.</p>
+
+<p>Although we have no means of knowing how long a period has
+elapsed since the occupancy and abandonment of Sikyatki, we are
+reasonably sure that objects taken from it are purely aboriginal in
+character and antedate the inception of European influence. It is certain,
+however, that the Sikyatki people lived long enough in that
+pueblo to develop a ceramic art essentially peculiar to Tusayan.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NOMENCLATURE</h4>
+
+<p>The commonly accepted definition of Sikyatki is "yellow house"
+(<i>sikya</i>, yellow; <i>ki</i>, house). One of the most reliable chiefs of Walpi,
+however, called my attention to the fact that the hills in the locality
+were more or less parallel, and that there might be a relationship
+between the parallel valleys and the name. The application of the term
+"yellow" would not seem to be very appropriate so far as it is distinctive
+of the general color of the pueblo. The neighboring spring,
+however, contains water which after standing some time has a yellowish
+tinge, and it was not unusual to name pueblos from the color of
+the adjacent water or from some peculiarity of the spring, which was
+one of the most potent factors in the determination of the site of a
+village. Although the name may also refer to a cardinal point, a
+method of nomenclature followed in some regions of the Southwest, if
+such were the case in regard to Sikyatki it would be exceptional in
+Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CXV" id="PL_CXV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxv.jpg" width="600" height="344" alt="PL. CXV&mdash;
+SIKYATKI MOUNDS FROM THE KANELBA TRAIL" title="PL. CXV&mdash;
+SIKYATKI MOUNDS FROM THE KANELBA TRAIL" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">SIKYATKI MOUNDS FROM THE KANELBA TRAIL</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>FORMER INHABITANTS OF SIKYATKI</h4>
+
+<p>The origin of the pueblo settlement at Sikyatki is doubtful, but as I
+have shown in my enumeration of the clans of Walpi, the Kokop (Firewood)
+and the Isau&ucirc;h (Coyote) phratries which lived there are supposed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637">[Pg 637]</a></span>
+to have come into Tusayan from the far east or the valley of the Rio
+Grande. The former phratry is not regarded as one of the earliest
+arrivals in Tusayan, for when its members arrived at Walpi they
+found living there the Flute, Snake, and Water-house phratries. It is
+highly probable that the Firewood, or as they are sometimes called the
+Fire, people, once lived in the round pueblo known as Fire-house, and as
+the form of this ruin is exceptional in Tusayan, and highly characteristic
+of the region east of this province, there is archeological evidence
+of the eastern origin of the Fire people. Perhaps the most intelligent
+folklorist of the Kokop people was Nasyu&ntilde;weve, who died a few years
+ago&mdash;unfortunately before I had been able to record all the traditions
+which he knew concerning his ancestors. At the present day Katci,
+his successor<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> in these sacerdotal duties in the Antelope-Snake mysteries,
+claims that his people formerly occupied Sikyatki, and indeed the
+contiguous fields are still cultivated by members of that phratry.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly possible to do more than estimate the population of
+Sikyatki when in its prime, but I do not believe that it was more
+than 500;<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> probably 300 inhabitants would be a closer estimate if we
+judge from the relative population to the size of the pueblo of Walpi
+at the present time. On the basis of population given, the evidences
+from the size of the Sikyatki cemeteries would not point to an occupancy
+of the village for several centuries, although, of course, the
+strict confines of these burial places may not have been determined
+by our excavations. The comparatively great depth at which some
+of the human remains were found does not necessarily mean great
+antiquity, for the drifting sands of the region may cover or uncover
+the soil or rocks in a very short time, and the depth at which an object
+is found below the surface is a very uncertain medium for estimating
+the antiquity of buried remains.</p>
+
+
+<h4>GENERAL FEATURES</h4>
+
+<p>The ruin of Sikyatki (<a href="#PL_CXV">plates <span class="smcap">cxv</span></a>, <a href="#PL_CXVI"><span class="smcap">cxvi</span></a>) lies about three miles east of
+the recent settlement of Tanoan families at Isba or Coyote spring,
+near the beginning of the trail to Hano. Its site is in full view from
+the road extending from the last-mentioned settlement to Keam's
+canyon, and lies among the hills just below the two pyramidal elevations
+called K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo, which are visible for a much greater distance.
+When seen from this road the mounds of Sikyatki are observed to be
+elevated at least 300 feet above the adjacent cultivated plain, but at
+the ruin itself this elevation is scarcely appreciable, so gradual is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638">[Pg 638]</a></span>
+southerly decline to the arroyo which drains the plain. The ruin is
+situated among foothills a few hundred yards from the base of the
+mesa, and in the depression between it and the mesa there is a stretch
+of sand in which grow peach trees and a few stunted cedars. At this
+point, likewise, there is a spring, now feeble in its flow from the
+gradually drifting sand, yet sufficient to afford a trickling stream by
+means of which an enterprising native, named Tcino, irrigates a small
+garden of melons and onions. On all sides of the ruin there are barren
+stretches of sand relieved in some places by stunted trees and scanty
+vegetation similar to that of the adjacent plains. The soil in the plaza
+of the ruin is cultivated, yielding a fair crop of squashes, but is useless
+for corn or beans.</p>
+
+<p>Here and there about the ruins stand great jagged bowlders, relieving
+what would otherwise be a monotonous waste of sand. One of
+these stony outcrops forms what I have called the "acropolis" of
+Sikyatki, which will presently be described. On the eastern side the
+drifting sand has so filled in around the elevation on which the ruin
+stands that the ascent is gradual, and the same drift extends to the
+rim of the mesa, affording access to the summit that otherwise would
+necessitate difficult climbing. Along the ridge of this great drift there
+runs a trail which passes over the mesa top to a beautiful spring, on
+the other side, called Kanelba.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p>The highest point of the ruin as seen from the plain is the rocky
+eminence rising at the western edge, familiarly known among the
+members of my party as the "acropolis." As one approaches the ruin
+from a deep gulch on the west, the acropolis appears quite lofty, and a
+visitor would hardly suspect that it marks the culminating point of a
+ruin, so similar does it appear to surrounding hills of like geologic
+character where no vestiges of former house-walls appear.</p>
+
+<p>The spring from which the inhabitants of the old pueblo obtained
+their water supply lies between the ruin and the foot of the mesa,
+nearer the latter. The water is yellow in color, especially after it has
+remained undisturbed for some time, and the quantity is very limited.
+It trickles out of a bed of clay in several places and forms a pool from
+which it is drawn to irrigate a small garden and a grove of peach trees.
+It is said that when Sikyatki was in its prime this spring was larger
+than at present, and I am sure that a little labor spent in digging out
+the accumulation of sand would make the water more wholesome
+and probably sufficiently abundant for the needs of a considerable
+population.</p>
+
+<p>The nearest spring of potable water available for our excavation
+camp at Sikyatki was Kanelba, or Sheep spring, one of the best sources
+of water supply in Tusayan. The word Kanelba, containing a Spanish
+element, must have replaced a Hopi name, for it is hardly to be supposed
+that this spring was not known before sheep were brought into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_639" id="Page_639">[Pg 639]</a></span>
+the country. There is a legend that formerly the site of this spring was
+dry, when an ancient priest, who had deposited his <i>tiponi</i>, or chieftain's
+badge, at the place, caused the water to flow from the ground; at present
+however the water rushes from a hole as large as the arm in the
+face of the rock, as well as from several minor openings. It is situated
+on the opposite side of the mesa from Sikyatki, a couple of miles
+northeastward from the ruin.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 744px;"><a name="PL_CXVI" id="PL_CXVI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxvi.jpg" width="744" height="600" alt="PL. CXVI&mdash;
+GROUND PLAN OF SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXVI&mdash;
+GROUND PLAN OF SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">GROUND PLAN OF SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Half-way up the side of the mesa, about opposite Sikyatki, there is a
+large reservoir, used as a watering place for sheep. The splash of the
+water, as it falls into this reservoir, is an unusual sound in this arid
+region, and is worth a tramp of many miles. There are many evidences
+that this spring was a popular one in former times. As it
+is approached from the top of the mesa, a brief inspection of the
+surroundings shows that for about a quarter of a mile, on either side,
+there are signs of ancient terraced gardens, walled in with rows of
+stones. These gardens have today greatly diminished in size, as compared
+with the ancient outlines, and only that portion which is occupied
+by a grove of peach trees is now under cultivation, although
+there is plenty of water for the successful irrigation of a much larger
+tract of land than the gardens now cover.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> Judging from their size,
+many of the peach trees are very old, although they still bear their
+annual crop of fruit. Everything indicates, as the legends relate, that
+these Kanelba gardens, the walls of which now form sheep corrals,
+were long ago abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The terraces south of the Kanelba peach grove resemble the lower
+terraces of Wipo. About 100 rods farther south, along the foot of
+the mesa, on the same level, are a number of unused fields, and a
+cluster of house remains. The whole of this terrace is of a type which
+shows greater action of the weather than the others, but the boundaries
+of the fields are still marked with rows of stones. The adjacent foothills
+contain piles of ashes in several places, as if the sites of ancient pottery
+kilns, and very old stone inclosures occur on the top of the mesa above
+Kanelba. All indications seem to point to the ancient occupancy of
+the region about Kanelba by many more farmers than today. Possibly
+the inhabitants of Sikyatki, which is only two or three miles away, frequented
+this place and cultivated these ancient gardens. Kanelba is
+regarded as a sacred spring by several Hopi religious societies of East
+Mesa. The Snake priests of Walpi always celebrate a feast there on
+the day of the snake hunt to the east in odd years,<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> while in the alternate
+years it is visited by the Flute men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_640" id="Page_640">[Pg 640]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The present appearance of Sikyatki (<a href="#PL_CXV">plate <span class="smcap">cxv</span></a>) is very desolate, and
+when visited by our party previously to the initiation of the work,
+seemed to promise little in the way of archeological results. No walls
+were standing above ground, and the outlines of the rooms were very
+indistinct. All we saw at that time was a series of mounds, irregularly
+rectangular in shape, of varying altitude, with here and there
+faint traces of walls. Prominent above all these mounds, however, was
+the pinnacle of rock on the northwestern corner, rising abruptly from
+the remainder of the ruin, easily approached from the west and sloping
+more gradually to the south. This rocky elevation, which we styled
+the acropolis, was doubtless once covered with houses.</p>
+
+<p>On the western edge of the ruin a solitary farmhouse, used during
+the summer season, had been constructed of materials from the old
+walls, and was inhabited by an Indian named Lelo and his family during
+our excavations. He is the recognized owner of the farm land
+about Sikyatki and the cultivator of the soil in the old plaza of the
+ruins. Jakwaina, an enterprising Tewan who lives not far from Isba,
+the spring near the trail to Hano, has also erected a modern house
+near the Sikyatki spring, but it had not been completed at the time of
+our stay. Probably never since its destruction in prehistoric times have
+so many people as there were in our party lived for so long a time at
+this desolate place.</p>
+
+<p>The disposition of the mounds show that the ground plan of Sikyatki
+(<a href="#PL_CXVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxvi</span></a>) was rectangular in shape, the houses inclosing a court in
+which are several mounds that may be the remains of kivas. The
+highest range of rooms, and we may suppose the most populous part
+of the ancient pueblo, was on the same side as the acropolis, where a
+large number of walled chambers in several series were traced.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of what was formerly the plaza is crossed by rows of
+stones regularly arranged to form gardens, in which several kinds of
+gourds are cultivated. In the sands north of the ruin there are many
+peach trees, small and stunted, but yearly furnishing a fair crop.
+These are owned by Tcino,<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> and of course were planted long after the
+destruction of the pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain legends of the former occupancy and destruction
+of Sikyatki, I consulted Nasyu&ntilde;weve, the former head of the Kokop
+people, and while the results were not very satisfactory, I learned that
+the land about Sikyatki is still claimed by that phratry. Nasyu&ntilde;weve,<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_641" id="Page_641">[Pg 641]</a></span>
+Katci, and other prominent Kokop people occupy and cultivate the
+land about Sikyatki on the ground of inheritance from their ancestors
+who once inhabited the place.</p>
+
+<p>Two routes were taken to approach Sikyatki&mdash;one directly across the
+sandy plain from the entrance to Keam's canyon, following for some
+distance the road to East Mesa; the other along the edge of the mesa,
+on the first terrace, to the cluster of houses at Coyote spring. The
+trail to the pueblos of East Mesa ascends the cliff just above Sikyatki
+spring, and joins that to Kanelba or Sheep spring, not far from
+K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo, the twin mounds. By keeping along the first terrace a
+well-traveled trail, with interesting views of the plain and the ruin,
+joins the old wagon road to <i>Wala</i>, the "gap" of East Mesa, at a higher
+level than the cluster of Tewan houses at Isba. In going and returning
+from their homes our Hopi workmen preferred the trail along the
+mesa, which we also often used; but the climb to the mesa top from
+the ruin is very steep and somewhat tiresome.</p>
+
+<p>We prosecuted our excavations at Sikyatki for a few days over three
+weeks, choosing as a site for our camp a small depression to the east of
+the ruin near a dwarf cedar at the point where the trail to Kanelba
+passes the ruin. The place was advantageously near the cemeteries,
+and not too far from water. For purposes other than cooking and
+drinking the Sikyatki spring was used, the remainder of the supply
+being brought from Kanelba by means of a burro.</p>
+
+<p>I employed Indian workmen at the ruin, and found them, as a rule,
+efficient helpers. The zeal which they manifested at the beginning of
+the work did not flag, but it must be confessed that toward the close
+of the excavations it became necessary to incite their enthusiasm by
+prizes, and, to them, extraordinary offers of overalls and calico. They
+at first objected to working in the cemeteries, regarding it as a desecration
+of the dead, but several of their number overcame their scruples,
+even handling skulls and other parts of skeletons. The Snake chief,
+Kopeli, however, never worked with the others, desiring not to dig in
+the graves. Respecting his feelings, I allotted him the special task of
+excavating the rooms of the acropolis, which he performed with much
+care, showing great interest in the results. At the close of our daily
+work prayer-offerings were placed in the trenches by the Indian workmen,
+as conciliatory sacrifices to Masauw&ucirc;h, the dread God of Death, to
+offset any malign influence which might result from our desecration of
+his domain. A superstitious feeling that this god was not congenial to
+the work which was going on, seemed always to haunt the minds of the
+laborers, and once or twice I was admonished by old men, visitors from
+Walpi, not to persist in my excavations. The excavators, at times,
+paused in their work and called my attention to strange voices echoing
+from the cliffs, which they ascribed, half in earnest, to Masauw&ucirc;h.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians faithfully delivered to me all objects which they found
+in their digging, with the exception of turquoises, many of which, I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_642" id="Page_642">[Pg 642]</a></span>
+have good reason to suspect, they concealed while our backs were
+turned and, in a few instances, even before our eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying plan of Sikyatki (<a href="#PL_CXVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxvi</span></a>) shows that it was
+a rectangular ruin with an inclosed plaza. It is evident that the
+ancient pueblo was built on a number of low hills and that the eastern
+portion was the highest. In this respect it resembled Awatobi, but
+apparently differed from the latter pueblo in having the inclosed plaza.
+In the same way it was unlike Walpi or the ancient and modern pueblos
+of Middle Mesa and Oraibi. In fact, there is no Tusayan ruin which
+resembles it in ground plan, except Pay&uuml;pki, a Tanoan town of much
+later construction. The typical Tusayan form of architecture is the
+pyramidal, especially in the most ancient pueblos. The ground plan
+of Sikyatki is of a type more common in the eastern pueblo region
+and in those towns of Tusayan which were built by emigrants from
+the Rio Grande region. Sikyatki and some of the villages overlooking
+Antelope valley are of this type.</p>
+
+<p>In studying the ground plans of the three modern villages on East
+Mesa, the fact is noted that both Sichomovi and Hano differ architecturally
+from Walpi. The forms of the former smaller pueblos are
+primarily rectangular with an inclosed plaza in which is situated the
+kiva; Walpi, on the other hand, although furnished with a small plaza
+at the western end, has kivas located peripherally rather than in an
+open space between the highest house clusters. Sichomovi is considered
+by the Hopi as like Zu&ntilde;i, and is sometimes called by the Hano
+people, Sionimone, "Zu&ntilde;i court," because to the Tewan mind it resembles
+Zu&ntilde;i; but the term is never applied to Walpi.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The distinction thus
+recognized is, I believe, architecturally valid. The inclosed court or
+plaza in Tusayan is an intrusion from the east, and as eastern colonists
+built both Hano and Sichomovi, they preserved the form to which they
+were accustomed. The Sikyatki builders drew their architectural
+inspiration likewise from the east, hence the inclosed court in the ruins
+of that village.</p>
+
+<p>The two most considerable house clusters of Sikyatki are at each end
+of a longer axis, connected by a narrow row of houses on the other
+sides. The western rows of houses face the plain, and were of one
+story, with a gateway at one point. The opposite row was more elevated,
+no doubt overlooking cultivated fields beyond the confines of the ruin.
+No kivas were discovered, but if such exist they ought to be found in
+the mass of houses at the southern end. I thought we had found circular
+rooms in that region, but cursory excavations did not demonstrate
+their existence. As there is no reason to suspect the existence of circular
+kivas in ancient Tusayan, it would be difficult to decide whether or
+not any one of the large rectangular rooms was used for ceremonial
+purposes, for it is an interesting fact that some of the oldest secret<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_643" id="Page_643">[Pg 643]</a></span>
+rites in the Hopi villages occur, not in kivas, but in ordinary dwelling
+rooms in the village. It has yet to be shown that there were special
+kivas in prehistoric Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CXVII" id="PL_CXVII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxvii.jpg" width="600" height="423" alt="PL. CXVII&mdash;
+EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXVII&mdash;
+EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The longer axis of the ruin is about north and south; the greatest
+elevation is approximately 50 feet. Rocks outcrop only at one place,
+the remainder of the ruin being covered with rubble, sand, stones, and
+fragments of pottery. The mounds are not devoid of vegetation, for
+sagebrush, cacti, and other desert genera grow quite profusely over
+their surface; but they are wholly barren of trees or large bushes, and
+except in the plaza the ruin area is uncultivated. As previously stated,
+Sikyatki is situated about 250 or 300 feet above the plain, and when
+approached from Keam's canyon appears to be about halfway up the
+mesa height. On several adjacent elevations evidences of former fires,
+or places where pottery was burned, were found, and one has not to go
+far to discover narrow seams of an impure lignite. Here and there are
+considerable deposits of selenite, which, as pointed out by Sitgreaves in
+his report on the exploration of the Little Colorado, looks like frost
+exuding from the ground in early spring.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE ACROPOLIS</h4>
+
+<p>During the limited time devoted to the excavation of Sikyatki it was
+impossible, in a ruin so large, to remove the soil covering any considerable
+number of rooms. The excavations at different points over
+such a considerable area as that covered by the mounds would have
+been more or less desultory and unsatisfactory, but a limited section
+carefully opened would be much more instructive and typical. While,
+therefore, the majority of the Indian workmen were kept employed at
+the cemeteries, Kopeli, the Snake chief, a man in whom I have great
+confidence, was assigned to the excavation of a series of rooms at the
+highest point of the ruin, previously referred to as the acropolis (<a href="#Fig_262">figure 262</a>).
+Although his work in these chambers did not yield such rich
+results as the others, so far as the number of objects was concerned,
+he succeeded in uncovering a number of rooms to their floors, and
+unearthed many interesting objects of clay and stone. A brief description
+of these excavations will show the nature of the work at that
+point.</p>
+
+<p>The acropolis, or highest point of Sikyatki, is a prominent rocky elevation
+at the western angle, and overlooks the entire ruin. On the side
+toward the western cemetery it rises quite abruptly, but the ascent is
+more gradual from the other sides. The surface of this elevation, on
+which the houses stood, is of rock, and originally was as destitute of
+soil as the plaza of Walpi. This surface supported a double series
+of rooms, and the highest point is a bare, rocky projection.</p>
+
+<p>From the rooms of the acropolis there was a series of chambers,
+probably terraced, sloping to the modern gardens now occupying
+the old plaza, and the broken walls of these rooms still protrude from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_644" id="Page_644">[Pg 644]</a></span>
+the surface in many places <a href="#PL_CXVIII">(plate <span class="smcap">cxviii</span></a>). When the excavations
+on the acropolis were begun, no traces of the biserial rows of rooms
+were detected, although the remains of the walls were traceable. The
+surface was strewn with fragments of pottery and other evidences of
+former occupancy.</p>
+
+<p>On leveling the ground and throwing off the surface stones, it was
+found that the narrow ridge which formed the top of the acropolis
+was occupied by a double line of well-built chambers which show every
+evidence of having been living rooms. The walls were constructed of
+squared stones set in adobe, with the inner surface neatly plastered.
+Many of the rooms communicated by means of passageways with adjacent
+chambers, some of them being provided with niches and shelves.
+The average height of the standing walls revealed by excavation, as
+indicated by the distance of the floor below the surface of the soil, was
+about 5 feet.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_262" id="Fig_262"></a>
+<img src="images/fig262.jpg" width="600" height="481" alt="Fig. 262&mdash;The acropolis of Sikyatki" title="Fig. 262&mdash;The acropolis of Sikyatki" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 262&mdash;The acropolis of Sikyatki</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying illustration (<a href="#PL_CXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxviii</span></a>) shows a ground plan
+of nine of these rooms, which, for purposes of reference, are lettered
+<i>a</i> to <i>l</i>. A description of each, it is hoped, will give an idea of a typical
+room of Sikyatki. Room <i>a</i> is rectangular in shape, 5 feet 3 inches by
+6 feet 8 inches, and is 5 feet 8 inches deep. It has two depressions
+in the floor at the southeastern corner, and there is a small niche in the
+side wall above them. Some good specimens of mural plastering,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_645" id="Page_645">[Pg 645]</a></span>
+much blackened by soot, are found on the eastern wall. Room <i>a</i> has no
+passageway into room <i>b</i>, but it opens into the adjoining room <i>c</i> by an
+opening in the wall 3 feet 4 inches wide, with a threshold 9 inches
+high.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"><a name="PL_CXVIII" id="PL_CXVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxviii.jpg" width="422" height="600" alt="PL. CXVIII&mdash;
+PLAN OF EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI
+(Dimensions in feet and inches)" title="PL. CXVIII&mdash;
+PLAN OF EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI
+(Dimensions in feet and inches)" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PLAN OF EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI<br />
+(Dimensions in feet and inches)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The shape of room <i>b</i> is more irregular. It is 8 feet 1 inch long by 4
+feet 5 inches wide, and the floor is 5 feet 2 inches below the surface.
+In one corner there is a raised triangular platform 2 feet 7 inches above
+the floor. A large cooking pot, blackened with soot, was found in one
+corner of this room, and near it was a circular depression in the floor
+17 inches in diameter, evidently a fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>c</i> is smaller than either of the preceding, and is the only one
+with two passageways into adjoining chambers. Remains of wooden
+beams in a fair state of preservation were found on the floors of rooms
+<i>c</i> and <i>b</i>, but they were not charred, as is so often the case, nor were
+there any ashes except in the supposed fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>d</i> is larger than those already mentioned, being 7 feet 8 inches
+by 5 feet, and connects with room <i>c</i> by means of a passageway. Rooms
+<i>e</i> and <i>f</i> communicate with each other by an opening 16 inches wide.
+We found the floors of these rooms 4 feet below the surface. The
+length of room <i>e</i> is 8 feet.</p>
+
+<p>Room <i>f</i> is 6 feet 8 inches long and of the same width as <i>e</i>. The three
+chambers <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, and <i>i</i> are each 6 feet 9 inches wide, but of varying width.
+Room <i>g</i> is 5 feet 2 inches, <i>h</i> is 8 feet 6 inches, and <i>i</i>, the smallest of all,
+only a foot wide. These three rooms have no intercommunication.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence of former fires in some of these rooms, afforded by soot
+on the walls and ashes in the depressions identified as old fireplaces, is
+most important. In one or two places I broke off a fragment of the
+plastering and found it to be composed of many strata of alternating
+black and adobe color, indicating successive plasterings of the room.
+Apparently when the surface wall became blackened by smoke it was
+renewed by a fresh layer or wash of adobe in the manner followed in
+renovating the kiva walls today.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>An examination of the dimensions of the rooms of the acropolis will
+show that, while small, they are about the average size of the chambers
+in most other southwestern ruins. They are, however, much smaller
+than the rooms of the modern pueblo of Walpi or those of the cliff ruins
+in the Red-rock region, elsewhere described. Evidently the roof was
+2 or 3 feet higher than the top of the present walls, and the absence of
+external passageways would seem to indicate that entrance was through
+the roof. The narrow chamber, <i>i</i>, is no smaller than some of those which
+were excavated at Awatobi, but unless it was a storage bin or dark
+closet for ceremonial paraphernalia its function is not known to me.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_646" id="Page_646">[Pg 646]</a></span>
+The mural plastering was especially well done in rooms <i>g</i> and <i>h</i>, a section
+thereof showing many successive thin strata of soot and clay,
+implying long occupancy. No chimneys were found, the smoke, as is
+the case with that from kiva fires today, doubtless finding an exit
+through the hatchway in the roof.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MODERN GARDENS</h4>
+
+<p>The whole surface of the ancient plaza of Sikyatki is occupied by
+rectangular gardens outlined by rows of stones. These are of modern
+construction and are cultivated by an enterprising Hopi who, as
+previously mentioned, has erected a habitable dwelling on one of the
+western mounds from the stones of the old ruin. These gardens are
+planted yearly with melons and squashes, and stones forming the outlines
+serve as wind-breaks to protect the growing plants from drifting
+sand. The plotting of the plan of these gardens was made in 1891,
+when a somewhat larger part of the plaza was under cultivation than
+in 1895.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is a grove of dwarf peach trees in the sands between the
+northern side of the ruin and the mesa along the run through which
+sometimes trickles a little stream from the spring. These trees belong
+to an inhabitant of Sichomovi named Tcino, who, it is claimed, is a
+descendant of the ancient Sikyatkians. The trees were of course
+planted there since the fall of the village, on land claimed by the Kokop
+phratry by virtue of their descent from the same phratral organization
+of the ancient pueblo.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> The spring shows no evidence of having been
+walled up, but apparently has been filled in by drifting sand since the
+time that it formed the sole water supply of the neighboring pueblo.
+It still preserves the yellow color mentioned in traditions of the place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>THE CEMETERIES</h4>
+
+<p>By far the largest number of objects found at Sikyatki were gathered
+from the cemeteries outside the ruin, and were therefore mortuary
+in character. It would seem that the people buried their dead a short
+distance beyond the walls, at the three cardinal points. The first of
+these cemeteries was found in the dune between the ruin and the
+peach trees below the spring, and from its relative position from the
+pueblo has been designated the northern cemetery. The cemetery
+proper lies on the edge of the sandy tract, and was first detected by
+the finding of the long-bones of a human skeleton projecting from the
+soil. The position of individual graves was indicated usually by small,
+oblong piles of stones; but, as this was not an invariable sign, it was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_647" id="Page_647">[Pg 647]</a></span>
+deemed advisable to extend long trenches across the lower part of the
+dune. As a rule, the deeper the excavations the more numerous and
+elaborate were the objects revealed. Most of the skeletons were in a
+poor state of preservation, but several could have been saved had we
+the proper means at our disposal to care for them.</p>
+
+<p>No evidence of cremation of the dead was found, either at Awatobi
+or Sikyatki, nor have I yet detected any reference to this custom among
+the modern Hopi Indians. They have, however, a strange concept of
+the purification of the breath-body, or shade of the dead, by fire, which,
+although I have always regarded it as due to the teaching of Christian
+missionaries, may be aboriginal in character. This account of the judgment
+of the dead is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>There are two roads from the grave to the Below. One of these is a
+straight way connected with the path of the sun into the Underworld.
+There is a branch trail which divides from this straight way, passing
+from fires to a lake or ocean (<i>pat&uuml;bha</i>). At the fork of the road sits
+Tokonaka, and when the breath-body comes to this place this chief
+looks it over and, if satisfied, he says "<i>&Uuml;m-pac lo-la-mai, ta ai</i>," "You
+are very good; go on." Then the breath-body passes along the straight
+way to the far west, to the early <i>Sipap&ucirc;</i>, the Underworld from which it
+came, the home of M&uuml;iyinw&ucirc;. Another breath-body comes to the fork
+in the road, and the chief says, "You are bad," and he conducts it along
+the crooked path to the place of the first fire pit, where sits a second
+chief, Tokonaka, who throws the bad breath-body into the fire, and
+after a time it emerges purified, for it was not wholly bad. The chief
+says, "You are good now," and carries it back to the first chief, who
+accepts the breath-body and sends it along the straight road to the
+west.</p>
+
+<p>If, on emerging from the first fire, the soul is still unpurified, or not
+sufficiently so to be accepted, it is taken to the second fire pit and cast
+into it. If it emerges from this thoroughly purified, in the opinion of
+the judge, it is immediately transformed into a <i>ho-ho-ya-&uuml;h</i>, or prayer-beetle.
+All the beetles we now see in the valleys or among the mesas
+were once evil Hopi. If, on coming out of the second fire pit, the breath-body
+is still considered bad by the chief, he takes it to the third fire,
+and, if there be no evil in it when it emerges from this pit, it is metamorphosed
+into an ant, but if unpurified by these three fires&mdash;that is,
+if the chief still finds evil left in the breath-body&mdash;he takes it to a fourth
+fire and again casts it into the flames, where it is utterly consumed, the
+only residue being soot on the side of the pit.</p>
+
+<p>I have not recorded this as a universal or an aboriginal belief among
+the Hopi, but rather to show certain current ideas which may have
+been brought to Tusayan by missionaries or others. The details of the
+purification of the evil soul are characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>The western cemetery of Sikyatki is situated among the hillocks
+covered with surface rubble below a house occupied in summer by a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_648" id="Page_648">[Pg 648]</a></span>
+Hopi and his family. From the nature of the soil the excavation of
+this cemetery was very difficult, although the mortuary objects were
+more numerous. Repeated attempts to make the Indians work in a
+systematic manner failed, partly on account of the hard soil and partly
+from other reasons. Although the lower we went the more numerous
+and beautiful were the objects exhumed, the Indians soon tired of
+deep digging, preferring to confine their work to within two or three
+feet of the surface. At many places we found graves under and
+between the huge bowlders, which are numerous in this cemetery.</p>
+
+<p>The southern cemetery lies between the outer edge of the ruin on
+that side and the decline to the plain, a few hundred feet from the
+southern row of houses. Two conspicuous bowlders mark the site of
+most of the excavations in that direction. The mortuary objects from
+this cemetery are not inferior in character or number to those from
+the other burial places. All attempts to discover a cemetery on the
+eastern side of the pueblo failed, although a single food basin was
+brought to the camp by an Indian who claimed he had dug it out of the
+deep sand on the eastern side of the ruins. Another bowl was found
+in the sand drift near the trail over the mesa to Kanelba, but careful
+investigation failed to reveal any systematic deposit of mortuary vessels
+east of the ruin.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a></p>
+
+<p>The method of excavation pursued in the cemeteries was not so
+scientific as I had wished, but it was the only practicable one to be
+followed with native workmen. Having found the location of the
+graves by means of small prospecting holes sunk at random, the workmen
+were aligned and directed to excavate a single long, deep trench,
+removing all the earth as they advanced. It was with great difficulty
+that the Indians were taught the importance of excavating to a sufficient
+depth, and even to the end of the work they refused to be taught
+not to burrow. In their enthusiasm to get the buried treasures they
+worked very well so long as objects were found, but became at once
+discouraged when relics were not so readily forthcoming and went off
+prospecting in other places when our backs were turned. A shout that
+anyone had discovered a new grave in the trench was a signal for the
+others to stop work, gather around the place, light cigarettes, and
+watch me or my collaborators dig out the specimens with knives. This
+we always insisted on doing, for the reason that in their haste the
+Indians at first often broke fragile pottery after they had discovered it,
+and in spite of all precautions several fine jars and bowls were thus
+badly damaged by them. It is therefore not too much to say that most
+of the vessels which are now entire were dug out of the impacted sand
+by Mr Hodge or myself.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_649" id="Page_649">[Pg 649]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No rule could be formulated in regard to the place where the pottery
+would occur, and often the first indication of its presence was the
+stroke of a shovel on the fragile edge of a vase or bowl. Having once
+found a skeleton, or discolored sand which indicated the former presence
+of human remains, the probability that burial objects were near by
+was almost a certainty, although in several instances even these signs
+failed.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of the pottery objects had been broken when
+the soil and stones were thrown on the corpse at interment. So many
+were entire, however, that I do not believe any considerable number
+were purposely broken at that time, and none were found with holes
+made in them to "kill" or otherwise destroy their utility.</p>
+
+<p>No evidences of cremation&mdash;no charred bones of man or animal in
+or near the mortuary vessels&mdash;were found. From the character of the
+objects obtained from neighboring graves, rich and poor were apparently
+buried side by side in the same soil. Absolutely no evidence of
+Spanish influence was encountered in all the excavations at Sikyatki&mdash;no
+trace of metal, glass, or other object of Caucasian manufacture such
+as I have mentioned as having been taken from the ruins of Awatobi&mdash;thus
+confirming the native tradition that the catastrophe of Sikyatki
+antedated the middle of the sixteenth century, when the first Spaniards
+entered the country.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that in Sikyatki we found no fragments of basketry
+or cloth, the fame of which among the Pueblo Indians was known to
+Coronado before he left Mexico. That the people of Sikyatki wore cotton
+kilts no one can doubt, but these fabrics, if they were buried with
+the dead, had long since decayed. Specimens of strings and ropes of
+yucca, which were comparatively abundant at Awatobi, were not found
+at Sikyatki; yet their absence by no means proves that they were not
+used, for the marks of the strings used to bind feathers to the mortuary
+pahos, on the green paint with which the wood was covered, may
+still be readily seen.</p>
+
+<p>The insight into ancient beliefs and practices afforded by the numerous
+objects found at Sikyatki is very instructive, and while it shows
+the antiquity of some of the modern symbols, it betrays a still more
+important group of conventionalized figures, the meaning of which may
+always remain in doubt. This is particularly true of the decoration
+on many specimens of the large collection of highly ornamented pottery
+found in the Sikyatki cemeteries.</p>
+
+<p>If we consider the typical designs on modern Hopi pottery and compare
+them with the ancient, as illustrated by the collections from
+Awatobi and Sikyatki, it is noted, in the first place, how different they
+are, and secondly, how much better executed the ancient objects are
+than the modern. Nor is it always clear how the modern symbols are
+derived from the ancient, so widely do they depart from them in all
+their essential characters.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_650" id="Page_650">[Pg 650]</a></span></p>
+<h4>POTTERY</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Characteristics&mdash;Mortuary Pottery</span></h5>
+
+<p>The pottery exhumed from the burial places of Sikyatki falls in the
+divisions known as&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>I</small>&mdash;Coiled and indented ware.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>II</small>&mdash;Smooth undecorated ware.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><small>III</small>&mdash;Polished decorated ware.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>a</i>. Yellow.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>b</i>. Red.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>c</i>. Black-and-white.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>By far the largest number of ancient pottery objects from this locality
+belong to the yellow-ware group in the above classification. This is the
+characteristic pottery of Tusayan, although coiled and indented ware
+is well represented in the collection. The few pieces of red ware are
+different from that found in the ruins of the Little Colorado, while the
+black-and-white pottery closely resembles the archaic ware of northern
+cliff houses. Although the Sikyatki pottery bears resemblance to that
+of Awatobi, it can be distinguished from it without difficulty. The
+paste of both is of the finest character and was most carefully prepared.
+Some of the ancient specimens are much superior to those at present
+made, and are acknowledged by the finest potters of East Mesa to be
+beyond their power of ceramic production. The coloration is generally
+in red, brown, yellow, and black. Decorative treatment by spattering
+is common in the food basins, and this was no doubt performed, Chinese
+fashion, by means of the mouth. The same method is still employed by
+the Hopi priests in painting their masks.</p>
+
+<p>The Sikyatki collection of pottery shows little or no duplication in
+decorative design, and every ornamented food basin bears practically
+different symbols. The decoration of the food basins is mainly on
+the interior, but there is almost invariably a geometrical design of
+some kind on the outside, near the rim. The ladles, likewise, are ornamented
+on their interior, and their handles also are generally decorated.
+When the specimens were removed from the graves their colors,
+as a rule, were apparently as well preserved as at the time of their
+burial; nor, indeed, do they appear to have faded since their deposit in
+the National Museum.</p>
+
+<p>The best examples of ceramic art from the graves of Sikyatki, in
+texture, finish, and decoration, are, in my judgment, superior to any
+pottery made by ancient or modern Indians north of Mexico. Indeed,
+in these respects the old Tusayan pottery will bear favorable comparison
+even with Central American ware. It is far superior to the rude
+pottery of the eastern pueblos, and is also considerably better than that
+of the great villages of the Gila and Salado. Among the Hopi themselves
+the ceramic art has degenerated, as the few remaining potters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_651" id="Page_651">[Pg 651]</a></span>
+confess. These objects can hardly be looked upon as products of a
+savage people destitute of artistic feeling, but of a race which has developed
+in this line of work, through the plane of savagery, to a high stage
+of barbarism. While, as a whole, we can hardly regard the modern Hopi
+as a degenerate people with a more cultured ancestry, certainly the entire
+Pueblo culture in the Southwest, judged by the character of their pottery
+manufacture, has greatly deteriorated since the middle of the
+sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 451px;"><a name="PL_CXIX" id="PL_CXIX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxix.jpg" width="451" height="600" alt="PL. CXIX&mdash;
+COILED AND INDENTED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXIX&mdash;
+COILED AND INDENTED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">COILED AND INDENTED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Coiled and Indented Ware</span></h5>
+
+<p>The rudest type of pottery from Sikyatki has been classed as coiled
+and indented ware. It is coarse in texture, not polished, and usually
+not decorated. Although the outer surface of the pottery of this class
+is rough, the general form of the ware is not less symmetrical than
+that of the finer vessels. The objects belonging to this group are
+mostly jars and moccasin-shape vessels, there being no bowls of this
+type. As a rule, the vessels are blackened with soot, although some of
+the specimens are light-brown in color. The former variety were
+undoubtedly once used in cooking; the latter apparently for containing
+water or food. In the accompanying illustration (<a href="#PL_CXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>) is
+shown one of the best specimens of indented ware, the pits forming an
+equatorial zone about the vessel. All traces of the coil of clay with
+which the jar was built up have been obliterated save on the bottom.
+The vessel is symmetrical and the indentations regular, as if made with
+a pointed stone, bone, or stick.</p>
+
+<p>In another form of coarse pottery (<a href="#PL_CXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxix</span></a>, <i>b</i>) the rim merges into
+two ears or rudimentary handles on opposite sides. Traces of the
+original coiling are readily observable on the sides of this vessel.</p>
+
+<p>Another illustration (<a href="#PL_CXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxix</span></a>, <i>c</i>) shows an amphora or jar with
+diametrically opposite handles extending from the rim to the side of
+the bowl. The surface of this rude jar is rough and without decoration,
+but the form is regular and symmetrical. In another amphora
+(<a href="#PL_CXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxix</span></a>, <i>d</i>) the opposite handles appear below the neck of the
+vessel; they are broader and apparently more serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>The jar shown in <a href="#PL_CXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxix</span></a>, <i>e</i>, has two ear-like extensions or projections
+from the neck of the jar, which are perforated for suspension.
+This vessel is decorated with an incised zigzag line, which surrounds
+it just above its equator. This is a fair example of ornamented rough
+ware.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the vessels made of coarse clay mixed with sand, the
+grains of which make the surface very rough, are of slipper or moccasin
+shape. These are covered with soot or blackened by fire, indicating
+their former use as cooking pots. By adopting this form the ancients
+were practically enabled to use the principle of the dutch-oven, the
+coals being piled about the vessels containing the food to be cooked
+much more advantageously than in the vase-like forms.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_652" id="Page_652">[Pg 652]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The variations in slipper-shape cooking pots are few and simple. The
+blind end is sometimes of globular form, as in the example illustrated in
+<a href="#PL_CXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>, <i>a</i>, and sometimes pointed as in figures <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> of the same
+plate. One of the specimens of this type has a handle on the rim and
+another has a flaring lip. Slipper-form vessels are always of coarse
+ware for the obvious reason that, being somewhat more porous, they are
+more readily heated than polished utensils. They are not decorated for
+equally obvious reasons.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Smooth Undecorated Ware</span></h5>
+
+<p>There are many specimens of undecorated ware of all shapes and
+sizes, a type of which is shown in <a href="#PL_CXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>, <i>d</i>. These include food
+bowls, saucers, ladles, and jars, and were taken from many graves.
+These utensils differ from the coarse-ware vessels not only in the character
+of the clay from which they are made, but also in their superficial
+polish, which, in some instances, is as fine as that of vessels with
+painted designs. Several very good spoons of half-gourd shape were
+found, and there are many undecorated food bowls and vases. The
+first attempts at ornamentation appear to have been a simple spattering
+of the surface with liquid pigment or a drawing of simple encircling
+bands. In one instance (<a href="#PL_CXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>, <i>d</i>) a blackening of the surface by
+exposure to smoke was detected, but no superficial gloss, as in the
+Santa Clara ware, was noted.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Polished Decorated Ware</span></h5>
+
+<p>By far the greater number of specimens of mortuary pottery from
+Sikyatki are highly polished and decorated with more or less complicated
+designs. Of these there are at least three different groups,
+based on the color of the ware. Most of the vessels are light yellow or
+of cream color; the next group in point of color is the red ware, the
+few remaining specimens being white with black decorations in geometric
+patterns. These types naturally fall into divisions consisting of
+vases, jars, bowls, square boxes, cups, ladles, and spoons.</p>
+
+<p>In the group called vases (<a href="#PL_CXXI">plates <span class="smcap">cxxi</span></a>, <a href="#PL_CXXII"><span class="smcap">cxxii</span></a>) many varieties are
+found; some of these are double, with an equatorial constriction;
+others are rounded below, flat above, with an elevated neck and a
+recurved lip. It is noteworthy that these jars or vases are destitute
+of handles, and that their decoration is always confined to the equatorial
+and upper sections about the opening. In the specimens of this
+group which were found at Sikyatki there is no basal rim and no
+depression on the pole opposite the opening. No decoration is found
+on the interior of the vases, although in several instances the inside
+of the lip bears lines or markings of various kinds. The opening is
+always circular, sometimes small, often large; the neck of a vessel
+is occasionally missing, although the specimens bear evidence of use
+after having been thus broken. In one or two instances the equatorial
+constriction is so deep that the jar is practically double; in other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_653" id="Page_653">[Pg 653]</a></span>
+cases the constriction is so shallow that it is hardly perceptible (<a href="#PL_CXXVI">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxvi</span></a>, <i>a, b</i>). The size varies from a simple globular vessel not larger
+than a walnut to a jar of considerable size. Many show marks of
+previous use; others are as fresh as if made but yesterday.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 449px;"><a name="PL_CXX" id="PL_CXX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxx.jpg" width="449" height="600" alt="PL. CXX&mdash;
+SAUCERS AND SLIPPER BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXX&mdash;
+SAUCERS AND SLIPPER BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">SAUCERS AND SLIPPER BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>One of the most fragile of all the globular vessels is a specimen of
+very thin black-and-white ware, perforated near the rim for suspension
+(<a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>). This form, although rare at Sikyatki, is represented
+by several specimens, and in mode of decoration is very similar
+to the cliff-house pottery. From its scarcity in Tusayan I am inclined
+to believe that this and related specimens were not made of clay
+found in the immediate vicinity of Sikyatki, but that the vessels were
+brought to the ancient pueblo from distant places. As at least some
+of the cliff houses were doubtless inhabited contemporaneously with
+and long after the destruction of Sikyatki, I do not hesitate to say that
+the potters of that pueblo were familiar with the cliff-dweller type of
+pottery and acquainted with the technic which gave the black-and-white
+ware its distinctive colors.</p>
+
+<p>By far the largest number of specimens of smooth decorated pottery
+from Sikyatki graves are food bowls or basins, evidently the dishes in
+which food was placed on the floor before the members of a family at
+their meals. As the mortuary offerings were intended as food for the
+deceased it is quite natural that this form of pottery should far outnumber
+any and all the others. In no instance do the food bowls exhibit
+marks of smoke blackening, an indication that they had not been used
+in the cooking of food, but merely as receptacles of the same.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful decoration of these vessels speaks highly for the artistic
+taste of the Sikyatki women, and a feast in which they were used must
+have been a delight to the native eye so far as dishes were concerned.
+When filled with food, however, much of the decoration of the bowls
+must have been concealed, a condition avoided in the mode of ornamentation
+adopted by modern Tusayan potters; but there is no doubt
+that when not in use the decoration of the vessels was effectually
+exhibited in their arrangement on the floor or convenient shelves.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of these food bowls are hemispherical, gracefully rounded
+below, and always without an attached ring of clay on which to stand
+to prevent rocking. Their rims are seldom flaring, but sometimes have
+a slight constriction, and while the rims of the majority are perfectly
+circular, oblong variations are not wanting. Many of the bowls are
+of saucer shape, with almost vertical sides and flat bases; several are
+double, with rounded or flat base.</p>
+
+<p>The surface, inside and out, is polished to a fine gloss, and when
+exteriorly decorated, the design is generally limited to one side just
+below the rim, which is often ornamented with double or triple parallel
+lines, drawn in equidistant, quaternary, and other forms. Most of the
+bowls show signs of former use, either wear on the inner surface or on
+the base where they rested on the floor in former feasts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_654" id="Page_654">[Pg 654]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These mortuary vessels were discovered generally at one side of the
+chest or neck of the person whose remains they were intended to accompany,
+and a single specimen was found inverted over the head of the
+deceased. The number of vessels in each grave was not constant, and
+as many as ten were found with one skeleton, while in other graves only
+one or two were found. In one instance a nest of six of these basins, one
+inside another, was exhumed. While many of these mortuary offerings
+were broken and others chipped, there were still a large number as perfect
+as when made. Some of the bowls had been mended before burial,
+as holes drilled on each side of a crack clearly indicate. Fragments of
+various vessels, which evidently had been broken before they were
+thrown into the graves, were common.</p>
+
+<p>There is a general similarity in the artistic decoration of bowls found
+in the same grave, as if they were made by the same potter; and persons
+of distinction, as shown by other mortuary objects, were, as a rule, more
+honored than some of their kindred in the character and number of
+pottery objects deposited with their remains. There were also a
+number of skeletons without ceramic offerings of any kind.</p>
+
+<p>In one or two interments two or more small jars were found placed
+inside of a food bowl, and in many instances votive offerings, like turquois,
+beads, stones, and arrowpoints, had been deposited with the
+dead. The bowls likewise contained, in some instances, prayer-sticks
+and other objects, which will later be described.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting modifications in the form of the rim of
+one of these food bowls is shown in <a href="#PL_CXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>, <i>e</i>, which illustrates a
+variation from the circular shape, forming a kind of handle or support
+for the thumb in lifting the vessel. The utility of this projection in
+handling a bowl of hot food is apparent. This form of vessel is very
+rare, it being the only one of its kind in the collection.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of cups were found at Sikyatki; these vary
+in size and shape from a flat-bottom saucer like specimen to a mug-shape
+variety, always with a single handle (<a href="#PL_CXXV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxv</span></a>). Many of
+these resemble small bowls with rounded sides, but there are others in
+which the sides are vertical, and still others the sides of which incline
+at an angle to the flattened base.</p>
+
+<p>The handles of these cups are generally smooth, and in one instance
+adorned with a figure in relief. The rims of these dippers are never
+flaring, either inward or outward. As a rule they are decorated on the
+exterior; indeed there is only one instance of interior decoration. The
+handles of the dippers are generally attached at both ends, but sometimes
+the handle is free at the end near the body of the utensil and
+attached at the tip. These handles are usually flat, but sometimes
+they are round, and often are decorated. Traces of imitations of the
+braiding of two coils of clay are seen in a single specimen.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"><a name="PL_CXXI" id="PL_CXXI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxi.jpg" width="384" height="600" alt="PL. CXXI&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXI&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 382px;"><a name="PL_CXXII" id="PL_CXXII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxii.jpg" width="382" height="600" alt="PL. CXXII&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXII&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_655" id="Page_655">[Pg 655]</a></span></p>
+<p>Small and large ladles, with long handles, occurred in large numbers
+in Sikyatki graves, but there was little variation among them except in
+the forms of their handles. Many of these utensils were much worn by
+use, especially on the rim opposite the attachment of the handle, and
+in some specimens the handle itself had evidently been broken and
+the end rounded off by rubbing long before it was placed in the grave.
+From the comparatively solid character of the bowls of these dippers
+they were rarely fractured, and were commonly found to contain smaller
+mortuary objects, such as paint, arrowheads, or polishing stones.</p>
+
+<p>The ladles, unlike most of the cups, are generally decorated on the
+interior as well as on the exterior. Their handles vary in size and shape,
+are usually hollow, and sometimes are perforated at the end. In certain
+specimens the extremity is prolonged into a pointed, recurved tip,
+and sometimes is coiled in a spiral. A groove in the upper surface of
+one example is an unusual variation, and a right-angle bend of the tip
+is a unique feature of another specimen. The Sikyatki potters, like
+their modern descendants,<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> sometimes ornamented the tip of a single
+handle with the head of an animal and painted the upper surface of
+the shaft with alternate parallel bars, zigzags, terraces, and frets.</p>
+
+<p>Several spoons or scoops of earthenware, which evidently had been
+used in much the same way as similar objects in the modern pueblos,
+were found. Some of these have the shape of a half gourd&mdash;a natural
+object which no doubt furnished the pattern. These spoons, as a rule,
+were not decorated, but on a single specimen bars and parallel lines
+may be detected. In the innovations of modern times pewter spoons
+serve the same purpose, and their form is sometimes imitated in earthenware.
+More often, in modern and probably also in ancient usage, a roll
+of paper-bread or <i>piki</i> served the same purpose, being dipped into the
+stew and then eaten with the fingers. Possibly the Sikyatkian drank
+from the hollow handle of a gourd ladle, as is frequently done in Walpi
+today, but he generally slaked his thirst by means of a clay substitute.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p>
+
+<p>Several box-like articles of pottery of both cream and red ware were
+found in the Sikyatki graves, some of them having handles, others
+being without them (<a href="#PL_CXXV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxv</span></a>). They are ornamented on the exterior
+and on the rim, and the handle, when not lacking, is attached to the
+longer side of the rectangular vessel. Not a single bowl was found
+with a terraced rim, a feature so common in the medicine bowls of
+Tusayan at the present time.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_656" id="Page_656">[Pg 656]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In addition to the various forms of pottery which have been mentioned,
+there are also pieces made in the form of birds, one of the most
+typical of which is figured in <a href="#PL_CXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxii</span></a>, <i>c</i>. In these objects the
+wings are represented by elevations in the form of ridges on the sides,
+and the tail and head by prolongations, which unfortunately were
+broken off.</p>
+
+<p>Toys or miniature reproductions of all the above-mentioned ceramic
+specimens occurred in several graves. These are often very roughly
+made, and in some cases contained pigments of different colors. The
+finding of a few fragments of clay in the form of animal heads, and one
+or two rude images of quadrupeds, would seem to indicate that sometimes
+such objects were likewise deposited with the dead. A clay
+object resembling the flaring end of a flageolet and ornamented with a
+zigzag decoration is unique in the collections from Sikyatki, although
+in the western cemetery there was found a fragment of an earthenware
+tube, possibly a part of a flute.</p>
+
+<p>In order to show more clearly the association of mortuary objects in
+single graves a few examples of the grouping of these deposits will be
+given.</p>
+
+<p>In a grave in the western cemetery the following specimens were
+found: 1, ladle; 2, paint grinder; 3, paint slab; 4, arrowpoints; 5,
+fragments of a marine shell (<i>Pectunculus</i>); 6, pipe, with fragments of a
+second pipe, and 7, red paint (sesquioxide of iron).</p>
+
+<p>In the grave which contained the square medicine bowl shown in
+<a href="#PL_CXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxviii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, a ladle containing food was also unearthed.</p>
+
+<p>The bowl decorated with a picture of a girl's head was associated
+with fragments of another bowl and four ladles.</p>
+
+<p>Another single grave contained four large and small cooking pots
+and a broken metate.</p>
+
+<p>In a grave 8 feet below the surface in the western cemetery we
+found: 1, decorated food vessel; 2, black shoe-shape cooking pot resting
+in a food bowl and containing a small rude ladle; 3, coarse
+undecorated basin.</p>
+
+<p>A typical assemblage of mortuary objects comprised: 1, small decorated
+bowl containing polishing stones; 2, miniature cooking pot blackened
+by soot; 3, two small food bowls.</p>
+
+<p>In modern Hopi burials the food bowls with the food for the dead
+are not buried with the deceased, but are placed on the mound of soil
+and stones which covers the remains. From the position of the mortuary
+pottery as regards the skeletons in the Sikyatki interments, it is
+probable that this custom is of modern origin. Whether in former
+times food bowls were placed on the burial mounds as well as in the
+grave I am not able to say. The number of food bowls in ancient
+graves exceeds those placed on modern burials.</p>
+
+<p>The Sikyatki dead were apparently wrapped in coarse fabrics,
+possibly matting.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="PL_CXXIII" id="PL_CXXIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxiii.jpg" width="600" height="409" alt="PL. CXXIII&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXIII&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_657" id="Page_657">[Pg 657]</a></span></p>
+<h4>PALEOGRAPHY OF THE POTTERY</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">General Features</span></h5>
+
+<p>The pottery from Sikyatki is especially rich in picture writing, and
+imperfect as these designs are as a means of transmitting a knowledge
+of manners, customs, and religious conceptions, they can be interpreted
+with good results.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important lessons drawn from the pottery is to be
+had from a study of the symbols used in its decoration, as indicative
+of current beliefs and practices when it was made. The ancient inhabitants
+of Sikyatki have left no written records, for, unlike the more
+cultured people of Central America, they had no codices; but they
+have left on their old mortuary pottery a large body of picture writings
+or paleography which reveals many instructive phases of their former
+culture. The decipherment of these symbols is in part made possible
+by the aid of a knowledge of modern survivals, and when interpreted
+rightly they open a view of ancient Tusayan myths, and in some cases
+of prehistoric practices.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a></p>
+
+<p>Students of Pueblo mythology and ritual are accumulating a considerable
+body of literature bearing on modern beliefs and practices.
+This is believed to be the right method of determining their aboriginal
+status, and is therefore necessary as a basis of our knowledge of their
+customs and beliefs. It is reasonable to suppose that what is now
+practiced in Pueblo ritual contains more or less of what has survived
+from prehistoric times, but from Taos to Tusayan there is no pueblo
+which does not show modifications in mythology and ritual due to
+European contact. Modern Pueblo life resembles the ancient, but is
+not a facsimile of it, and until we have rightly measured the effects of
+incorporated elements, we are more or less inexact in our estimation
+of the character of prehistoric culture. The vein of similarity in the
+old and the new can be used in an interpretation of ancient paleography,
+but we overstep natural limitations if by so doing we ascribe
+to prehistoric culture every concept which we find current among the
+modern survivors. To show how much the paleography of Tusayan
+has changed since Sikyatki was destroyed, I need only say that most
+of the characteristic figures of deities which are used today in the
+decoration of pottery are not found on the Sikyatki ware. Perhaps
+the most common figures on modern food bowls is the head of a mythologic
+being, the Corn-maid, <i>Calako-mana</i>, but this picture, or any which
+resembles it, is not found on the bowls from Sikyatki. A knowledge
+of the cult of the Corn-maid possibly came into Tusayan, through
+foreign influences, after the fall of Sikyatki, and there is no doubt that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_658" id="Page_658">[Pg 658]</a></span>
+the picture decoration of modern Tusayan pottery, made within a league
+of Sikyatki, is so different from the ancient that it indicates a modification
+of the culture of the Hopi in historic times, and implies how
+deceptive it may be to present modern beliefs and practices as facsimiles
+of ancient culture.</p>
+
+<p>The main subjects chosen by the native women for the decoration of
+their pottery are symbolic, and the most abundant objects which bear
+these decorations are food bowls and water vases. Many mythic concepts
+are depicted, among which may be mentioned the Plumed Snake,
+various birds, reptiles, frogs, tadpoles, and insects. Plants or leaves
+are seldom employed as decorative motives, but the flower is sometimes
+used. The feather was perhaps the most common object utilized,
+and it may likewise be said the most highly conventionalized.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the decorations of modern food basins used in the
+villages of East Mesa shows that the mythologic personages most commonly
+chosen for the ornamentation of their interiors are the Corn or
+Germ goddesses.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> These assume a number of forms, yet all are reducible
+to one type, although known by very different names, as Hew&uuml;qti,
+"Old Woman," Kokle, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Figures of reptiles, birds, the antelope, and like animals do not occur
+on any of the food bowls from the large collection of modern Tusayan
+pottery which I have studied, and as these figures are well represented
+in the decorations on Sikyatki food bowls, we may suppose their use
+has been abandoned or replaced by figures of the Corn-maids.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> This
+fact, like so many others drawn from a study of the Tusayan ritual, indicates
+that the cult of the Corn-maids is more vigorous today than it
+was when Sikyatki was in its prime.</p>
+
+<p>Many pictures of masks on modern Tusayan bowls are identified as
+<i>Tacab</i> or Navaho <i>katcinas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a> Their symbolism is well characterized by
+chevrons on the cheeks or curved markings for eyes. None of these
+figures, however, have yet been found on ancient Tusayan ceramics.
+Taken in connection with facts adduced by Hodge indicative of a recent
+advent of this vigorous Athapascan tribe into Tusayan, it would seem
+that the use of the <i>Tacab katcina</i> pictures was of recent date, and is
+therefore not to be expected on the prehistoric pottery of the age of that
+found in Sikyatki.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_659" id="Page_659">[Pg 659]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the decoration of ancient pottery I find no trace of figures of
+the clown-priests, or <i>tcukuwympkiya</i>, who are so prominent in modern
+Tusayan <i>katcina</i> celebrations. These personages, especially the Tatcukti,
+often called by a corruption of the Zu&ntilde;i name K&oacute;yimse (K&oacute;yom&auml;shi),
+are very common on modern bowls, especially at the extremities
+of ladles or smaller objects of pottery.</p>
+
+<p>Many handles of ladles made at Hano in late times are modeled in
+the form of the Paiakyamu,<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> a glutton priesthood peculiar to that
+Tanoan pueblo. From the data at hand we may legitimately conclude
+that the conception of the clown-priest is modern in Tusayan, so far as
+the ornamentation of pottery is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The large collections of so-called modern Hopi pottery in our museums
+is modified Tanoan ware, made in Tusayan. Most of the component
+specimens were made by Hano potters, who painted upon them figures
+of <i>katcinas</i>, a cult which they and their kindred introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the food bowls had evidently cracked during their firing
+or while in use, and had been mended before they were buried in the
+graves. This repairing was accomplished either by filling the crack
+with gum or by boring a hole on each side of the fracture for tying.
+In one specimen of black-and-white ware a perfectly round hole was
+made in the bottom, as if purposely to destroy the usefulness of the
+bowl before burial. This hole had been covered inside with a rounded
+disk of old pottery, neatly ground on the edge. It was not observed
+that any considerable number of mortuary pottery objects were
+"killed" before burial, although a large number were chipped on the
+edges. It is a great wonder that any of these fragile objects were
+found entire, the stones and soil covering the corpse evidently having
+been thrown into the grave without regard to care.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the ancient symbols are incomprehensible to the
+present Hopi priests whom I have been able to consult, although they
+are ready to suggest many interpretations, sometimes widely divergent.
+The only reasonable method that can be pursued in determining the
+meaning of the conventional signs with which the modern Tusayan
+Indians are unfamiliar seems, therefore, to be a comparative one. This
+method I have attempted to follow so far as possible.</p>
+
+<p>There is a closer similarity between the symbolism of the Sikyatki
+pottery and that of the Awatobi ware than there is between the
+ceramics of either of these two pueblos and that of Walpi, and the
+same likewise may be said of the other Tusayan ruins so far as known.
+It is desirable, however, that excavations be made at the site of Old
+Walpi in order to determine, if possible, how widely different the
+ceramics of that village are from the towns whose ruins were studied
+in 1895. There are certain practical difficulties in regard to work at
+Old Walpi, one of the greatest of which is its proximity to modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_660" id="Page_660">[Pg 660]</a></span>
+burial places and shrines still used. Moreover, it is probable&mdash;indeed,
+quite certain&mdash;that most of the portable objects were carried from the
+abandoned pueblo to the present village when the latter was founded;
+but the old cemeteries of Walpi contain many ancient mortuary bowls
+which, when exhumed, will doubtless contribute a most interesting
+chapter to the history of modern Tusayan decorative art.</p>
+
+<p>One of the largest, and, so far as form goes, one of the most unique
+vessels, is shown in <a href="#PL_CXXVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxxvi</span></a>, <i>b</i>. This was not exhumed from
+Sikyatki, but was said to have been found in the vicinity of that ruin.
+While the ware is very old, I do not believe it is ancient, and it is introduced
+in order to show how cleverly ancient patterns maybe simulated
+by more modern potters. The sole way in which modern imitations of
+ancient vessels may be distinguished is by the peculiar crackled or crazed
+surface which the former always has. This is due, I believe, to the method
+of firing and the unequal contraction or expansion of the slip employed.
+All modern imitations are covered with a white slip which, after firing,
+becomes crackled, a characteristic unknown to ancient ware. The most
+expert modern potter at East Mesa is Namp&eacute;o, a Tanoan woman who
+is a thorough artist in her line of work. Finding a better market for
+ancient than for modern ware, she cleverly copies old decorations, and
+imitates the Sikyatki ware almost perfectly. She knows where the
+Sikyatki potters obtained their clay, and uses it in her work. Almost
+any Hopi who has a bowl to sell will say that it is ancient, and care
+must always be exercised in accepting such claims.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the ornamentation of the jar above referred to
+shows a series of birds drawn in the fashion common to early pottery
+decoration. This has led me to place this large vessel among the old
+ware, although the character of the pottery is different from that of
+the best examples found at Sikyatki. I believe this vessel was exhumed
+from a ruin of more modern date than Sikyatki. The woman who sold
+it to me has farming interests near Awatobi, which leads me to conjecture
+that she or possibly one of her ancestors found it at or near that
+ruin. She admitted that it had been in the possession of her family
+for some time, but that the story she had heard concerning it attributed
+its origin to Sikyatki.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Human Figures</span></h5>
+
+<p>Very few figures of men or women are found on the pottery, and
+these are confined to the interior of food basins (<a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>).<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> They
+are ordinarily very roughly drawn, apparently with less care and with
+much less detail than are the figures of animals. From their character
+I am led to the belief that the drawing of human figures on pottery
+was a late development in Tusayan art, and postdates the use of
+animal figures on their earthenware. There are, however, a few decorations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_661" id="Page_661">[Pg 661]</a></span>
+in which human figures appear, and these afford an interesting
+although meager contribution to our knowledge of ancient Tusayan art
+and custom.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 375px;"><a name="PL_CXXIV" id="PL_CXXIV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxiv.jpg" width="375" height="600" alt="PL. CXXIV&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXIV&mdash;
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>As is well known, the Hopi maidens wear their hair in two whorls,
+one over each ear, and that on their marriage it is tied in two coils
+falling on the breast. The whorl is arranged on a U-shape stick called
+a <i>g&ntilde;ela</i>; it is commonly done up by a sister, the mother, or some
+friend of the maiden, and is stiffened with an oil pressed from squash
+seeds. The curved stick is then withdrawn and the two puffs held in
+place by a string tightly wound between them and the head. The
+habit of dressing the hair in whorls is adopted after certain puberty
+ceremonials, which have elsewhere been described. When on betrothal
+a Hopi maid takes her gifts of finely ground cornmeal to the house of
+her future mother-in-law, her hair is dressed in this fashion for the last
+time, because on her return she is attacked by the women of the pueblo,
+drawn hither and thither, her hair torn down, and her body smeared
+with dirt. If her gifts are accepted she immediately becomes the wife
+of her lover, and her hair is thenceforth dressed in the fashion common
+to matrons.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolic meaning of the whorls of hair worn by the maidens is
+said to be the squash-flower, or, perhaps more accurately speaking, the
+potential power of fructification. There is legendary and other evidence
+that this custom is very ancient among the Tusayan Indians, and the
+data obtainable from their ritual point the same way. In the personification
+of ancestral "breath-bodies," or spirits by men, called <i>katcinas</i>,
+the female performers are termed <i>katcina-manas</i> (katcina-virgins), and
+it is their custom to wear the hair in the characteristic coiffure of
+maidens. In the personification of the Corn-maid by symbolic figures,
+such as graven images,<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> pictures, and the like, in secret rites, the style
+of coiffure worn by the maidens is common, as I have elsewhere shown
+in the descriptions of the ceremonials known as the Flute, <i>Lalakonti</i>,
+<i>Mamzrauti</i>, <i>Pal&uuml;l&uuml;ko&ntilde;ti</i>, and others. The same symbol is found in
+images used as dolls of Calako-mana, the equivalent, as the others, of
+the same Corn-maid. From the nature of these images there can
+hardly be a doubt of the great antiquity of this practice, and that it
+has been brought down, through their ritual, to the present day. This
+style of hair dressing was mentioned by the early Spanish explorers,
+and is represented in pictographs of ancient date; but if all these evidences
+of its antiquity are insufficient the testimony afforded by the
+pictures on certain food-basins from Sikyatki leaves no doubt on this
+point.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_662" id="Page_662">[Pg 662]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#PL_CXXIX">Plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>b</i>, represents a food-basin, on the inside of which is
+drawn, in brown, the head and shoulders of a woman. On either side
+the hair is done up in coils which bear some likeness to the whorls
+worn by the present Hopi maidens. It must be borne in mind, however,
+that similar coils are sometimes made after ceremonial head-washing,
+and certain other rites, when the hair is tied with corn husks.
+The face is painted reddish, and the ears have square pendants similar
+to the turquois mosaics worn by Hopi women at the present day.
+Although there is other evidence than this of the use of square ear-pendants,
+set with mosaic, among the ancient people&mdash;and traditions
+point the same way&mdash;this figure of the head of a woman from Sikyatki
+leaves no doubt of the existence of this form of ornament in that
+ancient pueblo.</p>
+
+<p>However indecisive the last-mentioned picture may be in regard to
+the coiffure of the ancient Sikyatki women, <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>, affords
+still more conclusive evidence. This picture represents a woman of
+remarkable form which, from likenesses to figures at present made in
+sand on an altar in the <i>Lalakonti</i> ceremony,<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> I have no hesitation in
+ascribing to the Corn-maid. The head has the two whorls of hair very
+similar to those made in that rite on the picture of the Goddess of
+Germs, and the square body is likewise paralleled in the same figure.
+The peculiar form is employed to represent the outstretched blanket, a
+style of art which is common in Mayan codices.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> On each lower corner
+representations of feathered strings, called in the modern ritual
+<i>nakw&aacute;kwoci</i>,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> are appended. The figure is represented as kneeling,
+and the four parallel lines are possibly comparable with the prayer-sticks
+placed in the belt of the Germ goddess on the <i>Lalakonti</i> altar.
+In her left hand (which, among the Hopi, is the ceremonial hand or
+that in which sacred objects are always carried) she holds an ear of
+corn, symbolic of germs, of which she is the deity. The many coincidences
+between this figure and that used in the ceremonials of the
+September moon, called Lalakonti, would seem to show that in both
+instances it was intended to represent the same mythic being.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, another aspect of this question which is of interest.
+In modern times there is a survival among the Hopi of the custom
+of decorating the inside of a food basin with a figure of the
+Corn-maid, and this is, therefore, a direct inheritance of ancient methods
+represented by the specimen under consideration. A large majority
+of modern food bowls are ornamented with an elaborate figure of Calako-mana,
+the Corn-maid, very elaborately worked out, but still retaining
+the essential symbolism figured in the Sikyatki bowl.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="PL_CXXV" id="PL_CXXV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxv.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="PL. CXXV&mdash;
+FLAT DIPPERS AND MEDICINE BOX FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXV&mdash;
+FLAT DIPPERS AND MEDICINE BOX FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FLAT DIPPERS AND MEDICINE BOX FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_663" id="Page_663">[Pg 663]</a></span></p>
+<p>While one of the two figures shown in <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>e</i>, is valuable as
+affording additional and corroborative evidence of the character of the
+ancient coiffure of the women, its main interest is of a somewhat different
+kind. Two figures are rudely drawn on the inside of the basin,
+one of which represents a woman, the other, judging from the character
+of the posterior extremity of the body, a reptilian conception in which a
+single foreleg is depicted, and the tail is articulated at the end, recalling
+a rattlesnake. Upon the head is a single feather;<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> the two eyes are
+represented on one side of the head, and the line of the alimentary tract
+is roughly drawn. The figure is represented as standing before that of
+the woman.</p>
+
+<p>With these few lines the potter no doubt intended to depict one of
+those many legends, still current, of the cultus hero and heroine of her
+particular family or priesthood. Supposing the reptilian figure to be a
+totemic one, our minds naturally recall the legend of the Snake-hero
+and the Corn-mist-maid<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> whom he brought from a mythic land to dwell
+with his people.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar hairdress is likewise represented in the figures on the
+food basin illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>c</i>, which represent a man and
+a woman. Although the figures are partly obliterated, it can easily be
+deciphered that the latter figure wears a garment similar to the <i>kwaca</i>
+or dark-blue blanket for which Tusayan is still famous, and that this
+blanket was bound by a girdle, the ends of which hang from the
+woman's left hip. While the figure of the man is likewise indistinct
+(the vessel evidently having been long in use), the nature of the act in
+which he is engaged is not left in doubt.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the numerous deities of the modern Hopi Olympus there is
+one called Kokopeli,<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> often represented in wooden dolls and clay
+images. From the obscurity of the symbolism, these dolls are never
+figured in works on Tusayan images. The figure in <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>d</i>,
+bears a resemblance to Kokopeli. It represents a man with arms raised
+in the act of dancing, and the head is destitute of hair as if covered
+by one of the peculiar helmets, used by the clowns in modern ceremonials.
+As many of the acts of these priests may be regarded as
+obscene from our point of view, it is not improbable that this figure
+may represent an ancient member of this archaic priesthood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_664" id="Page_664">[Pg 664]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The three human figures on the food basin illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>f</i>, are highly instructive as showing the antiquity of a curious
+and revolting practice almost extinct in Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p>As an accompaniment of certain religious ceremonials among the
+Pueblo and the Navaho Indians, it was customary for certain priests
+to insert sticks into the esophagus. These sticks are still used to some
+extent and may be obtained by the collector. The ceremony of stick-swallowing
+has led to serious results, so that now in the decline of this
+cult a deceptive method is often adopted.</p>
+
+<p>In Tusayan the stick-swallowing ceremony has been practically
+abandoned at the East Mesa, but I have been informed by reliable persons
+that it has not wholly been given up at Oraibi. The illustration
+above referred to indicates its former existence in Sikyatki. The middle
+figure represents the stick-swallower forcing the stick down his
+esophagus, while a second figure holds before him an unknown object.
+The principal performer is held by a third figure, an attendant, who
+stands behind him. This instructive pictograph thus illustrates the
+antiquity of this custom in Tusayan, and would seem to indicate that it
+was once a part of the Pueblo ritual.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> It is possible that the Navaho,
+who have a similar practice, derived it from the Pueblos, but there are
+not enough data at hand to demonstrate this beyond question.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding the pose of the three figures in this picture, I have been
+reminded by Dr Walter Hough of the performers who carry the wad
+of cornstalks in the Antelope dance. In this interpretation we have
+the "carrier," "hugger," and possibly an Antelope priest with the
+unknown object in his hand. This interpretation appears more likely
+to be a correct one than that which I have suggested; and yet Kopeli,
+the Snake chief, declares that the Snake family was not represented at
+Sikyatki. Possibly a dance similar to the Antelope performance on the
+eighth day of the Snake dance may have been celebrated at that pueblo,
+and the discovery of a rattlesnake's rattle in a Sikyatki grave is yet to
+be explained.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most prominent of all the deities in the modern Tusayan
+Olympus is the cultus-hero called P&uuml;&uuml;ko&ntilde;hoya, the Little War God.
+Hopi mythology teems with legends of this god and his deeds in killing
+monsters and aiding the people in many ways. He is reputed to
+have been one of twins, children of the Sun and a maid by parthenogenetic
+conception. His adventures are told with many variants and
+he reappears with many aliases.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;"><a name="PL_CXXVI" id="PL_CXXVI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxvi.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="PL. CXXVI&mdash;
+DOUBLE-LOBE VASES FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXVI&mdash;
+DOUBLE-LOBE VASES FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">DOUBLE-LOBE VASES FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of P&uuml;&uuml;ko&ntilde;hoya at the present day consists of parallel
+marks on the face or body, and when personated by a man the figure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_665" id="Page_665">[Pg 665]</a></span>
+is always represented as carrying weapons of war, such as a bow and
+arrows. Images of the same hero are used in ceremonies, and are
+sometimes found as household gods or penates, which are fed as if
+human beings. A fragment of pottery represented in the accompanying
+illustration (<a href="#Fig_263">figure 263</a>), shows enough of the head of a personage
+to indicate that P&uuml;&uuml;ko&ntilde;hoya was intended, for it bears on the cheek
+the two parallel marks symbolic of that deity, while in his hands he
+holds a bow and a jointed arrow as if shooting an unknown animal.
+All of these features are in harmony with the identification of the
+figure with that of the cultus-hero mentioned, and seem to indicate the
+truth of the current legend that as a mythologic conception he is of
+great antiquity in Tusayan.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;"><a name="Fig_263" id="Fig_263"></a>
+<img src="images/fig263.jpg" width="472" height="417" alt="Fig. 263&mdash;War god shooting an animal. (Fragment
+of food bowl.)" title="Fig. 263&mdash;War god shooting an animal. (Fragment
+of food bowl.)" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 263&mdash;War god shooting an animal. (Fragment
+of food bowl.)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In this connection it may be instructive to call attention to two figures
+on a food bowl collected by Mr H. R. Voth from a ruin near Oraibi.
+It represents a man and a woman, the former with two horns, a crescent
+on the forehead, and holding in
+his outstretched hand a staff.
+The woman has a curious gorget,
+similar to some which I have
+found in ruins near Tusayan,
+and a belt like those still worn
+by Pueblo Indians. This smaller
+figure likewise has a crescent
+on its face and three strange
+appendages on each side of the
+head.</p>
+
+<p>Another food basin in Mr
+Voth's collection is also instructive,
+and is different in its
+decoration from any which I
+have found. The character of
+the ware is ancient, but the figure is decidedly modern. If, however,
+it should prove to be an ancient vessel it would carry back to the time
+of its manufacture the existence of the <i>katcina</i> cult in Tusayan, no
+actual proof of the existence of which, at a time when Sikyatki was in
+its prime, has yet been discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The three figures represent Hahaiw&uuml;qti, Hew&uuml;qti, and Natacka
+exactly as these supernatural beings are now personated at Walpi in
+the <i>Powam&ucirc;</i>, as described and figured in a former memoir.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunate that the antiquity of this specimen, suggestive as
+it is, must be regarded as doubtful, for it was not exhumed from the
+ruin by an archeologist, and the exact locality in which it was found
+is not known.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_666" id="Page_666">[Pg 666]</a></span></p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">The Human Hand</span></h5>
+
+<p>Excepting the figure of the maid's head above described, the human
+hand, for some unknown reason, is the only part of the body chosen by
+the ancient Hopi for representation in the decoration of their pottery.
+Among the present Tusayan Indians the human hand is rarely used,
+but oftentimes the beams of the kivas are marked by the girls who have
+plastered them with impressions of their muddy hands, and there is a
+<i>katcina</i> mask which has a hand painted in white on the face. As in
+the case of the decoration of all similar sacred paraphernalia, there is
+a legend which accounts for the origin of the <i>katcina</i> with the imprint
+of the hand on its mask. The following tale, collected by the late
+A. M. Stephen, from whose manuscript I quote, is interesting in this
+connection:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The figure of a hand with extended fingers is very common, in the
+vicinity of ruins, as a rock etching, and is also frequently seen
+daubed on the rocks with colored pigments or white clay. These are
+vestiges of a test formerly practiced by the young men who aspired for
+admission to the fraternity of the Calako. The Calako is a trinity of
+two women and a man from whom the Hopi obtained the first corn, and
+of whom the following legend is told:</p>
+
+<p>"In the early days, before houses were built, the earth was devastated
+by a whirlwind. There was then neither springs nor streams, although
+water was so near the surface that it could be found by pulling up
+a tuft of grass. The people had but little food, however, and they
+besought Masauw&ucirc;h to help them, but he could not.</p>
+
+<p>"There came a little old man, a dwarf, who said that he had two
+sisters who were the wives of Calako, and it might be well to petition
+them. So they prepared an altar, every man making a <i>paho</i>, and these
+were set in the ground so as to encircle a sand hillock, for this occurred
+before houses were known.</p>
+
+<p>"Masauw&ucirc;h's brother came and told them that when Calako came to
+the earth's surface wherever he placed his foot a deep chasm was made;
+then they brought to the altar a huge rock, on which Calako might
+stand, and they set it between the two pahos placed for his wives.</p>
+
+<p>"Then the people got their rattles and stood around the altar, each
+man in front of his own paho; but they stood in silence, for they knew
+no song with which to invoke this strange god. They stood there for a
+long while, for they were afraid to begin the ceremonies until a young
+lad, selecting the largest rattle, began to shake it and sing. Presently
+a sound like rushing water was heard, but no water was seen; a sound
+also like great winds, but the air was perfectly still, and it was seen
+that the rock was pierced with a great hole through the center. The
+people were frightened and ran away, all save the young lad who had
+sung the invocation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="PL_CXXVII" id="PL_CXXVII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxvii.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="PL. CXXVII&mdash;
+UNUSUAL FORMS OF VASES FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXVII&mdash;
+UNUSUAL FORMS OF VASES FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">UNUSUAL FORMS OF VASES FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The lad soon afterward rejoined them, and they saw that his back
+was cut and bleeding and covered with splinters of yucca and willow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_667" id="Page_667">[Pg 667]</a></span>
+The flagellation, he told them, had been administered by Calako, who
+told him that he must endure this laceration before he could look upon
+the beings he had invoked; that only to those who passed through his
+ordeals could Calako become visible; and, as the lad had braved the
+test so well, he should thenceforth be chief of the Calako altar. The
+lad could not describe Calako, but said that his two wives were exceedingly
+beautiful and arrayed with all manner of fine garments. They
+wore great headdresses of clouds and every kind of corn which they
+were to give to the Hopi to plant for food. There were white, red, yellow,
+blue, black, blue-and-white speckled, and red-and-yellow speckled
+corn, and a seeded grass (<i>kwapi</i>).</p>
+
+<p>"The lad returned to the altar and shook his rattle over the hole in
+the rock, and from its interior Calako conversed with him and gave him
+instructions. In accordance with these he gathered all the Hopi youths
+and brought them to the rock, that Calako might select certain of them
+to be his priests. The first test was that of putting their hands in the
+mud and impressing them upon the rock. Only those were chosen as
+novices the imprints of whose hands had dried on the instant.</p>
+
+<p>"The selected youths then moved within the altar and underwent
+the test of flagellation. Calako lashed them with yucca and willow.
+Those who made no outcry were told to remain in the altar, to abstain
+from salt and flesh for ten days, when Calako would return and instruct
+them concerning the rites to be performed when they sought his aid.</p>
+
+<p>"Calako and his two wives appeared at the appointed time, and after
+many ceremonials gave to each of the initiated five grains of each of the
+different kinds of corn. The Hopi women had been instructed to place
+baskets woven of grass at the foot of the rock, and in these Calako's
+wives placed the seeds of squashes, melons, beans, and all the other
+vegetables which the Hopi have since possessed.</p>
+
+<p>"Calako and his wives, after announcing that they would again
+return, took off their masks and garments, and laying them on the rock
+disappeared within it.</p>
+
+<p>"Some time after this, when the initiated were assembled in the altar,
+the Great Plumed Snake appeared to them and said that Calako could
+not return unless one of them was brave enough to take the mask and
+garments down into the hole and give them to him. They were all
+afraid, but the oldest man of the Hopi took them down and was deputed
+to return and represent Calako.</p>
+
+<p>"Shortly afterward Masauw&ucirc;h stole the paraphernalia, and with his
+two brothers masqueraded as Calako and his wives. This led the Hopi
+into great trouble, and they incurred the wrath of Muiyinw&ucirc;h, who
+withered all their grain and corn.</p>
+
+<p>"One of the Hopi finally discovered that the supposed Calako carried
+a cedar bough in his hand, when it should have been willow; then they
+knew that it was Masauw&ucirc;h who had been misleading them.</p>
+
+<p>"The boy hero one day found Masauw&ucirc;h asleep, and so regained
+possession of the mask. Muiyinw&ucirc;h then withdrew his punishments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_668" id="Page_668">[Pg 668]</a></span>
+and sent Pal&uuml;l&uuml;ko&ntilde; (the Plumed Snake) to tell the Hopi that Calako
+would never return to them, but that the boy hero should wear his
+mask and represent him, and his festival should be celebrated when
+they had a proper number of novices to be initiated."<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several food basins from Sikyatki have a human hand depicted upon
+them, and in one of these both hands are represented. On the most
+perfect of these hand figures (<a href="#PL_CXXXVII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxvii</span></a>, <i>c</i>) a wristlet is well represented,
+with two triangular figures, which impart to it an unusual
+form. From between the index and second finger there arises a triangular
+appendage, which joins a graceful curve, extending on one side
+to the base of the thumb and continued on the other side to the arm.
+The whole inside of the basin, except the figure of the hand and its
+appendage, is decorated with spattering,<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> and on the outside there is
+a second figure, evidently a hand or the paw of some animal. This
+external decoration also has a triangular figure in which are two terraces,
+recalling rain-cloud symbols.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting representations of the human hand (<a href="#Fig_354">figure 354</a>)
+is found on the exterior of a beautiful bowl. The four fingers and
+the thumb are shown with representations of nails, a unique feature
+in such decorations. From between the index finger and the next, or
+rather from the tip of the former, arises an appendage comparable with
+that before mentioned, but of much simpler form. The palm of the
+hand is crossed by a number of parallel lines, which recall a custom of
+using the palm lines in measuring ceremonial prayer sticks, as I have
+described in a memoir on the Snake dance. In place of the arm this
+hand has many parallel lines, the three medial ones being continued
+far beyond the others, as shown in the figure.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Quadrupeds</span></h5>
+
+<p>Figures of quadrupeds are sparingly used in the decoration of food
+bowls or basins, but the collection shows several fine specimens on which
+appear some of the mammalia with which the Hopi are familiar. Most
+of these are so well drawn that there appears to be no question as to
+their identification.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most instructive of these figures is shown in <a href="#PL_CXXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>,
+<i>a</i>, which is much worn, and indistinct in detail, although from what
+can be traced it was probably intended to represent a mythic creature
+known as the Giant Elk. The head bears two branched horns, drawn
+without perspective, and the neck has a number of short parallel
+marks similar to those occurring on the figure of an antelope on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_669" id="Page_669">[Pg 669]</a></span>
+walls of one of the kivas at Walpi. The hoofs are bifid, and from a
+short stunted tail there arises a curved line which encircles the whole
+figure, connecting a series of round spots and terminating in a triangular
+figure with three parallel lines representing feathers. Perhaps
+the strangest of all appendages to this animal is at the tail, which is
+forked, recalling the tail of certain birds. Its meaning is unknown
+to me.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"><a name="PL_CXXVIII" id="PL_CXXVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxviii.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="PL. CXXVIII&mdash;
+MEDICINE BOX AND PIGMENT POTS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXVIII&mdash;
+MEDICINE BOX AND PIGMENT POTS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">MEDICINE BOX AND PIGMENT POTS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that the delineator sought to represent in
+this figure one of the numerous horned <i>Cervid&aelig;</i> with which the ancient
+Hopi were familiar, but the drawing is so incomplete that to choose
+between the antelope, deer, and elk seems impossible. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the Horn people are reputed to have been
+early arrivals in Tusayan, and it is not improbable that representatives
+of the Horn clans lived in Sikyatki
+previous to its overthrow.</p>
+
+<p>Two faintly drawn animals, evidently
+intended for quadrupeds,
+appear on the interior of the food
+bowl shown in <a href="#PL_CXXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>, <i>b</i>. These
+are interesting from the method in
+which they were drawn. They are
+not outlined with defined lines, but
+are of the original color of the bowl,
+and appear as two ghost-like figures
+surrounded by a dense spattering
+of red spots, similar in technic to the
+figure of the human hand. I am
+unable to identify these animals, but
+provisionally refer them to the rabbit.
+They have no distinctive symbolism,
+however, and are destitute
+of the characteristic spots which
+members of the Rabbit clan now invariably place on their totemic
+signatures.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"><a name="Fig_264" id="Fig_264"></a>
+<img src="images/fig264.png" width="470" height="600" alt="Fig. 264&mdash;Mountain sheep" title="Fig. 264&mdash;Mountain sheep" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 264&mdash;Mountain sheep</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The animal design on the bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>, <i>c</i>, probably
+represents a rabbit or hare, quite well drawn in profile, with a feathered
+appendage from the head. Behind it is the ordinary symbol of the
+dragon-fly. Several crosses are found in an opposite hemisphere, separated
+from that occupied by the two animal pictures by a series of
+geometric figures ornamented with crooks and other designs.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the food bowl shown in <a href="#PL_CXXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>, <i>d</i>, as well as the
+inner sides of the two ladles represented in <a href="#PL_CXXXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, are decorated
+with peculiar figures which suggest the porcupine. The body
+is crescentic and covered with spines, and only a single leg, with claws,
+is represented. It is worthy of mention that so many of these animal
+forms have only one leg, representative, no doubt, of a single pair, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_670" id="Page_670">[Pg 670]</a></span>
+that many of these have plantigrade paws like those of the bear and
+badger. The appendages to the head in this figure remind one of
+those of certain forms regarded as reptiles, with which this may be
+identical.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_265" id="Fig_265"></a>
+<img src="images/fig265.jpg" width="600" height="528" alt="Fig. 265&mdash;Mountain lion" title="Fig. 265&mdash;Mountain lion" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 265&mdash;Mountain lion</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In another decoration we have what is apparently the same animal
+furnished with both fore and hind legs, the tail curving upward like
+that of a cottontail rabbit, which it resembles in other particulars as
+well. This figure also hangs by a band from a geometric design
+formed of two crescents and bearing four parallel marks representing
+feathers. The single crescent depicted on the inside of the ladle
+shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>, <i>b</i>, is believed to represent the same conception,
+or the moon; and in this connection the very close phonetic resemblance
+between the Hopi name for moon<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> and that for the mammal
+may be mentioned. In the decoration last described the same crescentic
+figure is elaborated into its zo&ouml;morphic equivalent.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"><a name="PL_CXXIX" id="PL_CXXIX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxix.jpg" width="415" height="600" alt="PL. CXXIX&mdash;
+DESIGNS ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXIX&mdash;
+DESIGNS ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">DESIGNS ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_671" id="Page_671">[Pg 671]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>An enumeration of the pictographic representations of mammalia
+includes the beautiful food bowl shown in <a href="#PL_CXXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>, <i>e</i>, which is made
+of fine clay spattered with brown pigment. This design (reproduced
+in <a href="#Fig_264">figure 264</a>) represents probably some ruminant, as the mountain
+sheep or possibly the antelope, both of which gave names to clans
+said to have resided at Sikyatki. The hoofs are characteristic, and
+the markings on the back suggest a fawn or spotted deer. There is a
+close similarity between the design below this animal and that of the
+exterior decorations of certain vases and square medicine bowls.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pictures of quadrupedal animals depicted on ancient
+food bowls there is none more striking than that illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXX">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>, <i>f</i>, which has been identified as the mountain lion. While this
+identification is more or less problematical, it is highly possible. The
+claws of the forelegs (<a href="#Fig_265">figure 265</a>) are evidently those of one of the
+carnivora of the cat family, of which the mountain lion is the most
+prominent in Tusayan. The anterior part of the body is spotted; the
+posterior and the hind legs are black. The snout bears little resemblance
+to that of the puma.</p>
+
+<p>The entire inner surface of the bowl, save a central circle in which
+the head, fore-limbs, and anterior part of the body are represented, is
+decorated by spattering. Within this spattered area there are highly
+interesting figures, prominent among which is a squatting figure of a
+man, with the hand raised to the mouth and holding a ceremonial cigarette,
+as if engaged in smoking. The seven patches in black might
+well be regarded as either footprints or leaves, four of which appear
+to be attached to the band inclosing the central area. In the intervals
+between three of these there are branched bodies representing plants
+or bushes.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Reptiles</span></h5>
+
+<p>Snakes and other reptilian forms were represented by the ancient potters
+in the decoration of food bowls, and it is remarkable how closely
+some of these correspond in symbolism with conceptions still current
+in Tusayan. Of all reptilian monsters the worship of which forms a
+prominent element in Hopi ritual, that of the Great Plumed Snake is
+perhaps the most important. Effigies of this monster exist in all the
+larger Hopi villages, and they are used in at least two great rites&mdash;the
+<i>Soyalu&ntilde;a</i> in December and the <i>Pal&uuml;l&uuml;konti</i> in March, as I have
+already described. The symbolic markings and appendages of the
+Plumed Snake effigy are distinctive, and are found in all modern representations
+of this mystic being. While several pictographs of
+snakes are found on Sikyatki pottery, there is not a single instance in
+which these modern markings appear; consequently there is considerable
+doubt in regard to the identification of many of the Sikyatki
+serpents with modern mythologic representatives.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_266" id="Fig_266"></a>
+<img src="images/fig266.jpg" width="600" height="537" alt="Fig. 266&mdash;Plumed serpent" title="Fig. 266&mdash;Plumed serpent" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 266&mdash;Plumed serpent</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In questioning the priests in regard to the derivation of the Plumed
+Serpent cult in Tusayan, I have found that they declare that this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_672" id="Page_672">[Pg 672]</a></span>
+cultus was brought into Tusayan from a mythic land in the south,
+called Palatkwabi, and that the effigies and fetiches pertaining to it
+were introduced by the Patki or Water-house people. From good evidence,
+I suspect that the arrival of this phratry was comparatively
+late in Tusayan history, and it is possible that Sikyatki was destroyed
+before their advent, for in all the legends which I have been able to
+gather no one ascribes to Sikyatki any clan belonging to the phratries
+which are said to have migrated from the far south. I believe
+we must look toward the east, whence the ancestors of the Kokop or
+Firewood people are reputed to have come, for the origin of the symbolic
+markings of the snakes represented on Sikyatki ceramics. Figures
+of apodal reptiles, with feathers represented on their heads, occur in
+Sikyatki pictography, although there is no resemblance in the markings
+of their bodies to those of modern pictures. One of the most striking
+of these occurs on the inside of the food basin shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>, <i>a</i>. It represents a serpent with curved body, the tail being
+connected with the head, like an ancient symbol of eternity. The body
+(<a href="#Fig_266">figure 266</a>) is destitute of any distinctive markings, but is covered
+with a crosshatching of black lines. The head bears two triangular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_673" id="Page_673">[Pg 673]</a></span>
+markings, which are regarded as feather symbols. The position of
+the eyes would seem to indicate that the top of the head is represented,
+but this conclusion is not borne out by comparative studies,
+for it was often the custom of ancient Tusayan potters, like other primitive
+artists, to represent both eyes on one side of the head.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;"><a name="PL_CXXX" id="PL_CXXX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxx.jpg" width="394" height="600" alt="PL. CXXX&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF QUADRUPEDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXX&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF QUADRUPEDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF QUADRUPEDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The zigzag line occupying the position of the tongue and terminating
+in a triangle is a lightning symbol, with which the serpent is still
+associated. While striving not to strain the symbolism of this figure,
+it is suggested that the three curved marks on the lower and upper
+jaws represent fangs. It is highly probable that conceptions not
+greatly unlike those which cluster about the Great Plumed Serpent
+were associated with this mythic snake, the figure of which is devoid
+of some of the most essential elements of modern symbolism.</p>
+
+<p>While from the worn character of the middle of the food bowl illustrated
+in <a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, it is not possible to discover whether the
+animal was apodal or not from the crosshatching of the body and the
+resemblance of the appendages of the head to those of the figure last
+considered, it appears probable that this pictograph likewise was
+intended to represent a snake of mystic character. Like the previous
+figure, this also is coiled, with the tail near the head, its body crosshatched,
+and with two triangular appendages to the head. There is,
+however, but one eye, and the two jaws are elongated and provided
+with teeth,<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> as in the case of certain reptiles.</p>
+
+<p>The similarity of the head and its appendages to the snake figure last
+described would lead me to regard the figure shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>, <i>c</i>,
+as representing a like animal, but the latter picture is more elaborately
+worked out in details, and one of the legs is well represented. I have
+shown in the discussion of a former figure how the decorator, recognizing
+the existence of two eyes, represented them both on one side of the
+head of a profile figure, although only one is visible, and we see in this
+picture (<a href="#Fig_267">figure 267</a>) a somewhat similar tendency, which is very common
+in modern Tusayan figures of animals. The breath line is drawn
+from the extremity of the snout halfway down the length of the body.
+In modern pictography a representation of the heart is often depicted
+at the blind extremity of this line, as if, in fact, there was a connection
+with this organ and the tubes through which the breath passes. In the
+Sikyatki pottery, however, I find only this one specimen of drawing
+in which an attempt to represent internal organs is made.</p>
+
+<p>The tail of this singular picture of a reptile is highly conventionalized,
+bearing appendages of unknown import, but recalling feathers,
+while on the back are other appendages which might be compared with
+wings. Both of these we might expect, considering the association of
+bird and serpent in the Hopi conception of the Plumed Snake.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_674" id="Page_674">[Pg 674]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Exact identifications of these pictures with the animals by which
+the Hopi are or were surrounded, is, of course, impossible, for they are
+not realistic representations, but symbolic figures of mythic beings
+unknown save to the imagination of the primitive mythologist.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_267" id="Fig_267"></a>
+<img src="images/fig267.jpg" width="600" height="572" alt="Fig. 267&mdash;Unknown reptile" title="Fig. 267&mdash;Unknown reptile" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 267&mdash;Unknown reptile</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"><a name="PL_CXXXI" id="PL_CXXXI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxi.jpg" width="355" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXI&mdash;
+ORNAMENTED LADLES FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXI&mdash;
+ORNAMENTED LADLES FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">ORNAMENTED LADLES FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_268" id="Fig_268"></a>
+<img src="images/fig268.jpg" width="600" height="582" alt="Fig. 268&mdash;Unknown reptile" title="Fig. 268&mdash;Unknown reptile" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 268&mdash;Unknown reptile</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>A similar reptile is pictured on the food bowl shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>, <i>d</i>,
+in which design, however, there are important modifications, the most
+striking of which are: (1) The animal (<a href="#Fig_268">figure 268</a>) has both fore and
+hind legs represented; (2) the head is round; (3) the mouth is provided
+with teeth; and (4) there are four instead of two feather appendages
+on the head, two of which are much longer than the others. Were it
+not that ears are not represented in reptiles, one would be tempted to
+regard the smaller appendages as representations of these organs.
+Their similarity to the row of spines on the back and the existence of
+spines on the head of the "horned toad" suggests this reptile, with
+which both ancient and modern Hopi are very familiar. On a fragment
+of a vessel found at Awatobi there is depicted the head of a reptile
+evidently identical with this, since the drawing is an almost perfect
+reproduction. There is a like figure, also from Sikyatki, in the collection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_675" id="Page_675">[Pg 675]</a></span>
+of pottery made at that ruin by Dr Miller, of Prescott, the
+year following my work there. The most elaborate of all the pictures
+of reptiles found on ancient Tusayan pottery is shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>, <i>e</i>,
+in which the symbolism is complicated and the details carefully worked
+out. A few of these symbols I am able to decipher; others elude present
+analysis. There is no doubt as to the meaning of the appendage
+to the head (<a href="#Fig_269">figure 269</a>), for it well portrays an elaborate feathered
+headdress on which the markings that distinguish tail-feathers, three
+in number, are prominent. The extension of the snout is without
+homologue elsewhere in Hopi pictography, and, while decorative in
+part, is likewise highly conventionalized. On the body semicircular
+rain cloud symbols and markings similar to those of the bodies of certain
+birds are distinguishable. The feet likewise are more avian than
+reptilian, but of a form quite unusual in structure. It is interesting to
+note the similarity in the carved line with six sets of parallel bars to
+the band surrounding the figure of the human hand shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVII">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxvii</span></a>, <i>c</i>. In attempting to identify the pictograph on the bowl reproduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_676" id="Page_676">[Pg 676]</a></span>
+in <a href="#PL_CXXXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>, <i>a</i>, there is little to guide me, and the nearest I
+can come to its significance is to ascribe it to a reptile of some kind.
+Highly symbolic, greatly conventionalized as this figure is, there is
+practically nothing on which to base the absolute identification of the
+figure save the serrated appendage to the body and the leg, which
+resembles that of the lizard as it is sometimes drawn. The two eyes
+indicate that the enlargement in which these were placed is the head,
+and the extended curved snout a beak. All else is incomprehensible
+to me, and my identification is therefore provisional and largely
+speculative.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_269" id="Fig_269"></a>
+<img src="images/fig269.jpg" width="600" height="580" alt="Fig. 269&mdash;Unknown reptile" title="Fig. 269&mdash;Unknown reptile" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 269&mdash;Unknown reptile</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>I wish, however, in leaving the description of this beautiful bowl, to
+invite attention to the brilliancy and the characteristics of the coloring,
+which differ from the majority of the decorated ware from Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a name="PL_CXXXII" id="PL_CXXXII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxii.jpg" width="392" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF REPTILES FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF REPTILES FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF REPTILES FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"><a name="PL_CXXXIII" id="PL_CXXXIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxiii.jpg" width="380" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXIII&mdash;
+BOWLS AND DIPPERS WITH FIGURES OF TADPOLES, BIRDS, ETC. FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXIII&mdash;
+BOWLS AND DIPPERS WITH FIGURES OF TADPOLES, BIRDS, ETC. FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">BOWLS AND DIPPERS WITH FIGURES OF TADPOLES, BIRDS, ETC. FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 396px;"><a name="PL_CXXXIV" id="PL_CXXXIV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxiv.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXIV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN, BUTTERFLY, AND FLOWER FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXIV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN, BUTTERFLY, AND FLOWER FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN, BUTTERFLY, AND FLOWER FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Among the fragments of pottery found in the Sikyatki graves there
+was one which, had it been entire, would doubtless have thrown considerable
+light on ancient pictography. This fragment has depicted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_677" id="Page_677">[Pg 677]</a></span>
+upon it portions of the body and the whole head and neck of a reptilian
+animal. We find on that part of the body which is represented,
+three parallel marks which recall those on the modern pictures of the
+Great Plumed Serpent. On the back there were apparently the representations
+of wings, a feather of which is shown above the head. The
+head likewise bears a crest of three feathers, and there are three reptilian
+like toes. Whether this represents a reptile or a bird it is impossible
+for me to say, but enough has already been recorded to indicate
+how close the symbolism of these two groups sometimes is in ancient
+pictography. It would almost appear as if the profound anatomical
+discovery of the close kinship of birds and reptiles was unconsciously
+recognized by a people destitute of the rudiments of the knowledge of
+morphology.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Tadpoles</span></h5>
+
+<p>Among the inhabitants of an arid region, where rain-making forms a
+dominant element in their ritual, water animals are eagerly adopted as
+symbols. Among these the tadpole occupies a foremost position. The
+figures of this batrachian are very simple, and are among the most
+common of those used on ceremonial paraphernalia in Tusayan at the
+present time. In none of these is anything more than a globular head
+and a zigzag tail represented, and, as in nature, these are colored black.
+The tadpole appears on several pieces of painted pottery from Sikyatki,
+one of the best of which is the food bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiii</span></a>, <i>a</i>.
+The design represents a number of these aquatic animals drawn in line
+across the diameter of the inner surface of the bowl, while on each side
+there is a row of rectangular blocks representing rain clouds. These
+blocks are separated from the tadpole figures by crescentic lines, and
+above them are short parallel lines recalling the symbol of falling rain.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most beautiful forms of ladles from Sikyatki is figured in
+<a href="#PL_CXXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, a specimen in which the art of decoration by spattering
+is effectively displayed. The interior of the bowl of this dipper is
+divided by parallel lines into two zones, in each of which two tadpoles
+are represented. The handle is pointed at the end and is decorated.
+This specimen is considered one of the best from Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>The rudely drawn picture on the bowl figured in <a href="#PL_CXXXII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>, <i>f</i>,
+would be identified as a frog, save for the presence of a tail which
+would seem to refer it to the lizard kind. But in the evolution of the
+tadpole into the frog a tailed stage persists in the metamorphosis
+after the legs develop. In modern pictures<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> of the frog with which
+I am familiar, this batrachian is always represented dorsally or ventrally
+with the legs outstretched, while in the lizards, as we have seen,
+a lateral view is always adopted. As the sole picture found on ancient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_678" id="Page_678">[Pg 678]</a></span>
+pottery where the former method is employed, this fact may be of value
+in the identification of this rude outline as a frog rather than as a true
+reptile.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Butterflies or Moths</span></h5>
+
+<p>One of the most characteristic modern decorations employed by the
+Hopi, especially as a symbol of fecundity, is the butterfly or moth. It
+is a constant device on the beautiful white or cotton blankets woven
+by the men as wedding gifts, where it is embroidered on the margin
+in the forms of triangles or even in more realistic patterns. This
+symbol is a simple triangle, which becomes quite realistic when
+a line is drawn bisecting one of the angles. This double triangle
+is not only a constant symbol on wedding blankets, but also is found
+on the dadoes of houses, resembling in design the arrangement of
+tiles in the Alhambra and other Moorish buildings. This custom of
+decorating the walls of a building with triangles placed at intervals on
+the upper edge of a
+dado is a feature of
+cliff-house kivas, as
+shown in Nordenski&ouml;ld's
+beautiful
+memoir on the cliff
+villages of Mesa
+Verde. While an
+isosceles triangle
+represents the simplest
+form of the butterfly
+symbol, and
+is common on ancient pottery, a few vessels from Sikyatki show a
+much more realistic figure. In <a href="#PL_CXXXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>, <i>f</i>, is shown a moth
+with extended proboscis and articulated antenn&aelig;, and in <i>d</i> of the same
+plate another form, with the proboscis inserted in a flower, is given.
+As an associate with summer, the butterfly is regarded as a beneficent
+being aside from its fecundity, and one of the ancient Hopi clans
+regarded it as their totem. Perhaps the most striking, and I may say
+the most inexplicable, use of the symbol of the butterfly is the so-called
+<i>Hokona</i> or Butterfly virgin slab used in the Antelope ceremonies of the
+Snake dance at Walpi, where it is associated with the tadpole water
+symbol.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_270" id="Fig_270"></a>
+<img src="images/fig270.png" width="600" height="317" alt="Fig. 270&mdash;Outline of plate CXXXV, b" title="Fig. 270&mdash;Outline of plate CXXXV, b" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 270&mdash;Outline of <a href="#PL_CXXXV">plate CXXXV</a>, b</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The most beautiful of all the butterfly designs are the six figures on
+the vase reproduced in <a href="#PL_CXXXV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxv</span></a>, <i>b</i>. From the number of these pictures
+it would seem that they bore some relationship to the six world-quarters&mdash;north,
+west, south, east, zenith, and nadir. The vase has a
+flattened shoulder, and the six butterfly figures are represented as
+flying toward the orifice. These insect figures closely resemble one
+another, and are divided into two groups readily distinguished by the
+symbolism of the heads. Three have each a cross with a single dot in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_679" id="Page_679">[Pg 679]</a></span>
+each quadrant, and each of the other three has a dotted head without
+the cross. These two kinds alternate with each other, and the former
+probably indicate females, since the same symbols on the heads of the
+snakes in the sand picture of the Antelope altar in the Snake dance
+are used to designate the female.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 409px;"><a name="PL_CXXXV" id="PL_CXXXV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxv.jpg" width="409" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXV&mdash;
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BUTTERFLIES FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXV&mdash;
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BUTTERFLIES FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASES WITH FIGURES OF BUTTERFLIES FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="PL_CXXXVI" id="PL_CXXXVI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxvi.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXVI&mdash;
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXVI&mdash;
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Two antenn&aelig; and a double curved proboscis are indicated in all the
+figures of butterflies on the vase under consideration. The zones above
+and below are both cut by a "line of life," the opening through which
+is situated on opposite equatorial poles in the upper and under rim.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_271" id="Fig_271"></a>
+<img src="images/fig271.jpg" width="600" height="591" alt="Fig. 271&mdash;Butterfly design on upper surface of plate CXXXV, b" title="Fig. 271&mdash;Butterfly design on upper surface of plate CXXXV, b" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 271&mdash;Butterfly design on upper surface of <a href="#PL_CXXXV">plate CXXXV</a>, b</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The rectangular figures associated with the butterflies on this elaborately
+decorated vase are of two patterns alternating with each other.
+The rectangles forming one of these patterns incloses three vertical
+feathers, with a triangle on the right side and a crook on the left.
+The remaining three rectangles also have three feathers, but they are
+arranged longitudinally on the surface of the vase.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_680" id="Page_680">[Pg 680]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The elaborate decoration of the zone outside the six butterflies is
+made up of feathers arranged in three clusters of three each, alternating
+with key patterns, crosshatched crooks, triangles, and frets.
+The wealth of ornament on this part of the vase is noteworthy, and
+its interpretation very baffling. This vase may well be considered the
+most elaborately decorated in the whole collection from Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>There are several figures of butterflies, like those shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXI">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>, <i>a</i>, in which the modifications of wings and body have proceeded
+still further, and the only features which refer them to insects are the
+jointed antenn&aelig;. The passage from this highly conventionalized
+design into a triangular figure is not very great. There are still others
+where the head, with attached appendages, arises not from an angle of a
+triangle, but from the middle of one side. This gives us a very common
+form of butterfly symbol, which is found, variously modified, on
+many ancient vessels. In such designs there is commonly a row of
+dots on each side, which may be represented by a sinuous line, a series
+of triangles, bars, or parallel bars.</p>
+
+<p>The design reproduced in <a href="#PL_CXXXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>, <i>d</i>, represents a moth or
+butterfly associated with a flower, and several star symbols. It is
+evidently similar to that figured in <i>a</i> of the same plate, and has
+representations of antenn&aelig; and extended proboscis, the latter organ
+placed as if extracting honey from the flower. The conventional flower
+is likewise shown in <i>e</i> of this plate. The two crescentic designs in <a href="#PL_CXXXV">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxv</span></a>, <i>a</i>, are regarded as butterflies.</p>
+
+<p>The jar illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXLV">plate <span class="smcap">cxlv</span></a>, <i>b</i>, is ornamented with highly conventionalized
+figures on four sides, and is the only one taken from the
+Sikyatki cemeteries in which the designs are limited to the equatorial
+surface. The most striking figure, which is likewise found on the base
+of the paint saucer shown in <a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>, <i>f</i>, is a diamond-shape design
+with a triangle at each corner (<a href="#Fig_276">figure 276</a>). The pictures drawn on
+alternating quadrants have very different forms, which are difficult to
+classify, and I have therefore provisionally associated this beautiful
+vessel with those bearing the butterfly and the triangle. The form of
+this vessel closely approaches that of the graceful cooking pots made
+of coiled and coarse indented ware, but the vessel was evidently not
+used for cooking purposes, as it bears no marks of soot.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a></p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Dragon-flies</span></h5>
+
+<p>Among the most constant designs used in the decoration of Sikyatki
+pottery are figures of the dragon-fly. These decorations consist of a
+line, sometimes enlarged into a bulb at one end, with two parallel
+bars drawn at right angles across the end, below the enlargement.
+Like the tadpole, the dragon-fly is a symbol of water, and with it are
+associated many legends connected with the miraculous sprouting of
+corn in early times. It is a constant symbol on modern ceremonial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_681" id="Page_681">[Pg 681]</a></span>
+paraphernalia, as masks, tablets, and pahos, and it occurs also on
+several ancient vessels (<a href="#PL_CXL">plates <span class="smcap">cxl</span></a>, <i>b</i>; <a href="#PL_CLXIII"><span class="smcap">clxiii</span></a>, <i>a</i>), where it always has
+the same simple linear form, with few essential modifications.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="PL_CXXXVII" id="PL_CXXXVII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxvii.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXVII&mdash;
+VESSELS WITH FIGURES OF HUMAN HAND, BIRDS, TURTLE, ETC. FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXVII&mdash;
+VESSELS WITH FIGURES OF HUMAN HAND, BIRDS, TURTLE, ETC. FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VESSELS WITH FIGURES OF HUMAN HAND, BIRDS, TURTLE, ETC. FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The symbols of four dragon-flies are well shown on the rim of the
+square box represented in <a href="#PL_CXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxviii</span></a>, <i>a</i>. This box, which was probably
+for charm liquid, or possibly for feathers used in ceremonials, is
+unique in form and is one of the most beautiful specimens from the
+Sikyatki cemeteries. It is elaborately decorated on the four sides with
+rain-cloud and other symbols, and is painted in colors which retain
+their original brilliancy. The interior is not decorated.</p>
+
+<p>The four dragon-flies on the rim of this object are placed in such a
+way as to represent insects flying about the box in a dextral circuit,
+or with the heads turned to the right. This position indicates a
+ceremonial circuit, which is exceptional among the Tusayan people,
+although common in Navaho ceremonies. In the sand picture of the
+Snake society, for instance, where four snakes are represented in a
+border surrounding a mountain lion, these reptiles are represented as
+crawling about the picture from right to left. This sequence is prescribed
+in Tusayan ceremonials, and has elsewhere been designated by
+me as the sinistral circuit, or a circuit with the center on the left hand.
+The circuit used by the decorator of this box is dextral or sunwise.</p>
+
+<p>Several rectangular receptacles of earthenware, some with handles and
+others without them, were obtained in the excavations at Sikyatki.
+The variations in their forms may be seen in <a href="#PL_CXXVIII">plates <span class="smcap">cxxviii</span></a>, <i>a, c,</i> and
+<a href="#PL_CXXV"><span class="smcap">cxxv</span></a>, <i>f</i>. These are regarded as medicine bowls, and are supposed to
+have been used in ancient ceremonials where asperging was performed.
+In many Tusayan ceremonials square medicine bowls, some of them
+without handles, are still used,<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> but a more common and evidently more
+modern variety are round and have handles. The rim of these modern
+sacred vessels commonly bears, in its four quadrants, terraced elevations
+representing rain-clouds of the cardinal points, and the outer
+surface of the bowl is decorated with the same symbols, accompanied
+with tadpole or dragon-fly designs.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best figures of the dragon-fly is seen on the saucer shown
+in <a href="#PL_CXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>, <i>f</i>. The exterior of this vessel is decorated with four
+rectangular terraced rain-cloud symbols, one in each quadrant, and
+within each there are three well-drawn figures of the dragon-fly. The
+curved line below represents a rainbow. The terrace form of rain-cloud
+symbol is very ancient in Tusayan and antedates the well-known
+semicircular symbol which was introduced into the country by
+the Patki people. It is still preserved in the form of tablets<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> worn on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_682" id="Page_682">[Pg 682]</a></span>
+the head and in sand paintings and various other decorations on altars
+and religious paraphernalia.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Birds</span></h5>
+
+<p>The bird and the feather far exceed all other motives in the decoration
+of ancient Tusayan pottery, and the former design was probably
+the first animal figure employed for that purpose when the art passed
+out of the stage where simple geometric designs were used exclusively.
+A somewhat similar predominance is found in the part which the bird
+and the feather play in the modern Hopi ceremonial system. As one
+of the oldest elements in the decoration of Tusayan ceramics, figures of
+birds have in many instances become highly conventionalized; so
+much so, in fact, that their avian form has been lost, and it is one
+of the most instructive problems in the study of Hopi decoration
+to trace the modifications of these designs from the realistic to the more
+conventionalized. The large series of food bowls from Sikyatki afford
+abundant material for that purpose, and it may incidentally be said
+that by this study I have been able to interpret the meaning of certain
+decorations on Sikyatki bowls of which the best Hopi traditionalists
+are ignorant.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> In order to show the method of reasoning in this case
+I have taken a series illustrating the general form of an unknown bird.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no reasonable doubt that the decoration of the food
+basin shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxvii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, represents a bird, and analogy would
+indicate that it is the picture of some mythologic personage. It has a
+round head (<a href="#Fig_272">figure 272</a>), to which is attached a headdress, which we
+shall later show is a highly modified feather ornament. On each side
+of the body from the region of the neck there arise organs which are
+undoubtedly wings, with feathers continued into arrowpoints. The
+details of these wings are very carefully and, I may add, prescriptively
+worked out, so that almost every line, curve, or zigzag is important.
+The tail is composed of three large feathers, which project beyond two
+triangular extensions, marking the end of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The technic of this figure is exceedingly complicated and the colors
+very beautiful. Although this bowl was quite badly broken when
+exhumed, it has been so cleverly mended by Mr Henry Walther that no
+part of the symbolism is lost.</p>
+
+<p>While it is quite apparent that this figure represents a bird, and
+while this identification is confirmed by Hopi testimony, it is far from
+a realistic picture of any known bird with which the ancients could
+have been familiar. It is highly conventionalized and idealized with
+significant symbolism, which is highly suggestive.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 389px;"><a name="PL_CXXXVIII" id="PL_CXXXVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxviii.jpg" width="389" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXVIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXVIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_683" id="Page_683">[Pg 683]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bearing in mind the picture of this bird, we pass to a second form
+(<a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>a</i>), in which we can trace the same parts without
+difficulty. On a round head is placed a feathered headdress. The
+different parts of the outstretched wings are readily homologized even
+in details in the two figures. There are, for instance, two terminal
+wing feathers in each wing; the appendages to the shoulder exist in
+both, and the lateral spurs, exteriorly and interiorly, are represented
+with slight modifications.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 590px;"><a name="Fig_272" id="Fig_272"></a>
+<img src="images/fig272.jpg" width="590" height="600" alt="Fig. 272&mdash;Man-eagle" title="Fig. 272&mdash;Man-eagle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 272&mdash;Man-eagle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The body is ornamented in the same way in both figures. It is continued
+posteriorly on each side into triangular extensions, and the
+same is true of its anterior, which in one figure has three curved
+lines, and in the other a simple crook. There are three tail-feathers in
+each figure. I believe there can be no doubt that both these designs
+represent the same idea, and that a mythologic bird was intended in
+each instance.</p>
+
+<p>The step in conventionalism from the last-mentioned figure of a bird
+to the next (<a href="#PL_CXLVII">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvii</span></a>, <i>a</i>) is even greater than in the former. The head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_684" id="Page_684">[Pg 684]</a></span>
+in this picture is square or rectangular, and the wings likewise simple,
+ending in three incurved triangles without appendages. The tail has
+five feathers instead of three, in which, however, the same symbolic
+markings which distinguish tail-feathers are indicated.</p>
+
+<p>The conventionalized wings of this figure are repeated again and
+again in ancient Tusayan pottery decorations, as one may see by an
+examination of the various birds shown in the plates. In many instances,
+however, all the other parts of the bird are lost and nothing
+but the triangular feathers remain; but as these have the same form,
+whatever organs are missing, the presumption is that their meaning
+has not changed.</p>
+
+<p>In passing to the figure of the bird shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, we
+find features homologous with those already considered, but also detect
+considerable modification. The head is elongated, tipped with three
+parallel lines, but decorated with markings similar to those of the preceding
+figure. The outstretched wings have a crescentic form, on the
+anterior horn of which are round spots with parallel lines arising from
+them. This is a favorite figure in pottery decoration, and is found very
+abundantly on the exterior of food bowls; it represents highly conventionalized
+feathers, and should be so interpreted wherever found. The
+figure of the body of the bird depicted is simple, and the tail is continued
+into three tail-feathers, as is ordinarily the case in highly
+conventionalized bird figures.</p>
+
+<p>The most instructive of all the appendages to the body are the club-shape
+bodies, one on each side, rising from the point of union of the
+wings and the breast. These are spatulate in form, with a terraced
+terminal marking. They, like other appendages, represent feathers,
+but that peculiar kind which is found under the wing is called the
+breath feather.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> This feather is still used in certain ceremonials, and is
+tied to certain prayer offerings. Its ancient symbolism is very clearly
+indicated in this picture, and is markedly different from that of either
+the wing or tail feathers, which have a totally different ceremonial use
+at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>For convenience of comparison, a number of pictures which undoubtedly
+refer to different birds in ancient interpretations will be grouped
+in a single series.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">Plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>d</i>, represents a figure of a bird showing great relative
+modification of organs when compared with those previously discussed.
+The head is very much broadened, but the semicircular markings, which
+occur also on the heads of previously described bird figures, are well
+drawn. The wings are mere curved appendages, destitute of feather
+symbols, but are provided with lateral spurs and have knobs at their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_685" id="Page_685">[Pg 685]</a></span>
+bases. The body is rectangular; the tail-feathers are numerous, with
+well-marked symbolism. Perhaps the most striking appendages to the
+body are the two well-defined extensions of parts of the body itself,
+which, although represented in other pictures of birds, nowhere reach
+such relatively large size.</p>
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 389px;"><a name="PL_CXXXIX" id="PL_CXXXIX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxxxix.jpg" width="389" height="600" alt="PL. CXXXIX&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXXXIX&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The figure of a bird shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>c</i>, is similar in many
+respects to that last described. The semicircular markings on the head
+of the former are here replaced by triangles, but both are symbolic of
+rain-clouds. The wings are curved projections, without any suggestion
+of feathers or basal spurs and knobs. The tail-feathers show nothing
+exceptional, and the body is bounded posteriorly by triangular
+extensions, as in figures of birds already described.</p>
+
+<p>The representation of the bird in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>e</i>, has a triangular
+body continued into two points on the posterior end, between which
+the tail-feathers are situated. The body is covered with terraced and
+triangular designs, and the head is rectangular in form. On each side
+of the bird figure there is a symbol of a flower, possibly the sunflower
+or an aster.</p>
+
+<p>In the figures of birds already considered the relative sizes of the
+heads and bodies are not overdrawn, but in the picture of a bird on
+the food bowl shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>f</i>, the head is very much enlarged.
+It bears a well-marked terraced rain-cloud symbol above triangles of
+the same meaning. The wings are represented as diminutive appendages,
+each consisting of two feathers. The body has a triangular extension
+on each side, and the tail is composed of two comparatively short
+rectangular feathers. The figure itself could hardly be identified as
+a representation of a bird were it not for the correspondence, part for
+part, with figures which are undoubtedly those of birds or flying animals.</p>
+
+<p>A more highly conventionalized figure of a bird than any thus far
+described is painted on the food bowl reproduced in <a href="#PL_CXL">plate <span class="smcap">cxl</span></a>, <i>b</i>. The
+head is represented by a terraced figure similar to those which appear
+as decorations on some of the other vessels; the wings are simply
+extended crescents, the tips of which are connected by a band which
+encircles the body and tail; the body is continued at the posterior
+end into two triangular appendages, between which is a tail, the
+feathers of which are not differentiated. On each side of the body, in
+the space inclosed by the band connecting the tips of the wings, a figure
+of a dragon-fly appears.</p>
+
+<p>The figure on the food bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>c</i>, may also
+be reduced to a conventionalized bird symbol. The two pointed objects
+on the lower rim represent tail-feathers, and the triangular appendages,
+one on each side above them, the body, as in the designs which have
+already been described. Above the triangles is a rectangular figure
+with terraced rain-cloud emblems, a constant feature on the body and
+head of the bird, and on each side, near the rim of the bowl, occur
+the primary feathers of the wings. The cross, so frequently associated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_686" id="Page_686">[Pg 686]</a></span>
+with designs representing birds, is replaced by the triple intersecting
+lines in the remaining area. The resemblance of this figure to those
+already considered is clearly evident after a little study.</p>
+
+<p>The decoration on the food basin presented in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>, is
+interesting in the study of the evolution of bird designs into conventional
+forms. In this figure those parts which are identified as homologues
+of the wings extend wholly across the interior of the food bowl,
+and have the forms of triangles with smaller triangular spurs at their
+bases. The wings are extended at right angles to the axis of the body,
+and taper uniformly to the rim of the bowl. The smaller spurs near the
+union of the wings and body represent the posterior part of the latter,
+and between them are the tail-feathers, their number being indicated by
+three triangles.</p>
+
+<p>There is no representation of a head, although the terraced rain-cloud
+figure is drawn on the anterior of the body between the wings.</p>
+
+<p>The reduction of the triangular wings of the last figure to a simple
+band drawn diametrically across the inner surface of the bowl is accomplished
+in the design shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>b</i>. At intervals along
+this line there are arranged groups of blocks, three in each group,
+representing stars, as will later be shown. The semicircular head has
+lost all appendages and is reduced to a rain-cloud symbol. The posterior
+angles of the body are much prolonged, and the tail still bears
+the markings representing three tail-feathers.</p>
+
+<p>The association of a cross with the bird figure is both appropriate
+and common; its modified form in this decoration is not exceptional,
+but why it is appended to the wings is not wholly clear. We shall see
+its reappearance on other bowls decorated with more highly conventionalized
+bird figures.</p>
+
+<p>In the peculiar decoration used in the treatment of the food bowl
+shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>c</i>, we have almost a return to geometric
+figures in a conventional representation of a bird. In this case the
+semblance to wings is wholly lost in the line drawn diametrically across
+the interior of the bowl. On one side of it there are many crosses
+representing stars, and on the other the body and tail of a bird. The
+posterior triangular extensions of the former are continued to a bounding
+line of the bowl, and no attempt is made to represent feathers in the
+tail. The rectangular figure, with serrated lower edge and inclosed
+terraced figures, finds, however, a homologue in the heads and bodies
+of most of the representations of birds which have been described.</p>
+
+<p>This gradual reduction in semblance to a bird has gone still further
+in the figure represented in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>d</i>, where the posterior end
+of the body is represented by two spurs, and the tail by three feathers,
+the triangular rain-clouds still persisting in the rectangular body.
+In fact, it can hardly be seen how a more conventionalized figure of
+a bird were possible did we not find in <i>e</i> of the same plate this reduction
+still greater. Here the tail is represented by three parallel lines, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_687" id="Page_687">[Pg 687]</a></span>
+posterior of the body by two dentate appendages, and the body itself
+by a square.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 373px;"><a name="PL_CXL" id="PL_CXL"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxl.jpg" width="373" height="600" alt="PL. CXL&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXL&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXL</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#PL_CXL">plate <span class="smcap">cxl</span></a>, <i>c</i>, we have a similar conventional bird symbol where
+two birds, instead of one, are represented. In both these instances it
+would appear that the diametric band, originally homologous to wings,
+had lost its former significance.</p>
+
+<p>It must also be pointed out that there is a close likeness between
+some of these so-called conventionalized figures of birds and those of
+moths or butterflies. If, for instance, they are compared with the figures
+of the six designs of the upper surface of the vase shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXV">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxv</span></a>, <i>b</i>, we note especially this resemblance. While, therefore, it can
+hardly be said there is absolute proof that these highly conventionalized
+figures always represent birds, we may, I think, be sure that
+either the bird or the moth or butterfly is generally intended.</p>
+
+<p>There are several modifications of these highly conventionalized figures
+of birds which may be mentioned, one of the most interesting of
+which is figured in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>f</i>. In this representation the two
+posterior triangular extensions of the body are modified into graceful
+curves, and the tail-feathers are simply parallel lines. The figure in
+this instance is little more than a trifid appendage to a broad band
+across the inner surface of the food bowl. In addition to this highly
+conventionalized bird figure, however, there are two crosses which represent
+stars. In this decoration all resemblance to a bird is lost, and
+it is only by following the reduction of parts that one is able to identify
+this geometric design with the more elaborate pictures of mythic birds.
+When questioned in regard to the meaning of this symbol, the best
+informed Hopi priests had no suggestion to offer.</p>
+
+<p>In all the figures of birds thus far considered, the head, with one or
+two exceptions, is represented or indicated by symbolic markings.
+In that which decorates the vessel shown in <a href="#PL_CXL">plate <span class="smcap">cxl</span></a>, <i>a</i>, we find a
+new modification; the wings, instead of being attenuated into a diametric
+line or band, are in this case curved to form a loose spiral.
+Between them is the figure of a body and the three tail-feathers, while
+the triangular extensions which generally indicate the posterior of the
+body are simply two rounded knobs at the point of union of the wings
+and tail. There is no indication of a head.</p>
+
+<p>The modifications in the figure of the bird shown in the last mentioned
+pictograph, and the highly conventionalized forms which the wings and
+other parts assume, give me confidence to venture an interpretation of
+a strange figure shown in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate <span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>a</i>. This picture I regard as a
+representation of a bird, and I do so for the following resemblances to
+figures already studied. The head of the bird, as has been shown, is
+often replaced by a terraced rain-cloud symbol. Such a figure occurs in
+the pictograph under consideration, where it occupies the position of the
+head. On either side of what might be regarded as a body we find, at
+the anterior end, two curved appendages which so closely resemble<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_688" id="Page_688">[Pg 688]</a></span>
+similarly placed bodies in the pictograph last discussed that they are
+regarded as representations of wings. These extensions at the posterior
+end of the body are readily comparable with prolongations in that
+part on which we have already commented. The tail, although different
+from that in figures of birds thus far discussed, has many points
+of resemblance to them. The two circles, one on each side of the bird
+figure, are important additions which are treated in following pages.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
+
+<p>From the study of the conventionalized forms of birds which I have
+outlined above it is possible to venture the suggestion that the star-shape
+figure shown in <a href="#PL_CLXVII">plate <span class="smcap">clxvii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, may be referred to the same group,
+but in this specimen we appear to have duplication, or a representation
+of the bird symbol repeated in both semicircles of the interior of the
+bowl. Examining one of these we readily detect the two tail-feathers
+in the middle, with the triangular end of the body on each side. The
+lateral appendages duplicated on each side correspond with the band
+across the middle of the bowl in other specimens, and represent highly
+conventionalized wings. The middle of this compound figure is decorated
+with a cross, and in each quadrant there is a row of the same
+emblems, equidistant from one another.</p>
+
+<p>It would be but a short step from this figure to the ancient sun
+symbol with which the eagle and other raptorial birds are intimately
+associated. The figure represented in <a href="#PL_CXXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiii</span></a>, <i>c</i>, is a symbolic
+bird in which the different parts are directly comparable with the other
+bird pictographs already described. One may easily detect in it the
+two wings, the semicircular rain-cloud figures, and the three tail-feathers.
+As in the picture last considered, we see the two circles, each
+with a concentric smaller circle, one on each side of the mythic bird
+represented. Similar circular figures are likewise found in the zone
+surrounding the centrally placed bird picture.</p>
+
+<p>In the food bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate <span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>b</i>, we find the two circles
+shown, and between them a rectangular pictograph the meaning of
+which is not clear. The only suggestion which I have in regard to the
+significance of this object is that it is an example of substitution&mdash;the
+substitution of a prayer offering to the mythic bird represented in
+the other bowls for a figure of the bird itself. This interpretation,
+however, is highly speculative, and should be accepted only with limitations.
+I have sometimes thought that the prayer-stick or paho may
+originally have represented a bird, and the use of it is an instance of
+the substitution<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> of a symbolic effigy of a bird, a direct survival of
+the time when a bird was sacrificed to the deity addressed.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a name="PL_CXLI" id="PL_CXLI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxli.jpg" width="390" height="600" alt="PL. CXLI&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLI&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"><a name="PL_CXLII" id="PL_CXLII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxlii.jpg" width="430" height="600" alt="PL. CXLII&mdash;
+VASES, BOWL, AND LADLE, WITH FIGURES OF FEATHERS, FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLII&mdash;
+VASES, BOWL, AND LADLE, WITH FIGURES OF FEATHERS, FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASES, BOWL, AND LADLE, WITH FIGURES OF FEATHERS, FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_689" id="Page_689">[Pg 689]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The studies of the conventional bird figures which are developed in
+the preceding pages make it possible to interpret one of the two
+pictures on the food bowl represented in <a href="#PL_CLII">plate <span class="smcap">clii</span></a>, while the realistic
+character of the smaller figure leaves no question that we can rightly
+identify this also as a bird. In the larger figure the wings are of unequal
+size and are tipped with appendages of a more or less decorative
+nature. The posterior part of the body is formed of two triangular
+extensions, to which feathers are suspended, and the tail is composed
+of three large pointed feathers. The head bears the terraced rain-cloud
+designs almost universal in pictographs of birds.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary for me to indicate the head, body, wings, and
+legs of the smaller figure, for they are evidently avian, while the character
+of the beak would indicate that a parrot or raptorial genus was
+intended. The same beak is found in the decoration of a vase with a
+bird design, which will later be considered.</p>
+
+<p>From an examination of the various figures of birds on the Sikyatki
+pottery, and an analysis of the appendages to the wings, body, and
+legs, it is possible to determine the symbolic markings characteristic
+of two different kinds of feathers, the large wing or tail feathers and
+the so-called breath or body feathers. There is therefore no hesitation,
+when we find an object of pottery ornamented with these symbols, in
+interpreting them as feathers. Such a bowl is that shown in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>c</i>, in which we find a curved line to which are appended three
+breast feathers. This curved band from which they hang may take
+the form of a circle with two pendent feathers as in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate <span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>d</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the design on the bowl figured in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate <span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>e</i>, tail-feathers hang
+from a curved band, at each extremity of which is a square design in
+which the cross is represented. It has been suggested that this represents
+the feathered rainbow, a peculiar conception of both the Pueblo
+and the Navaho Indians. The design appearing on the small food bowl
+represented in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate <span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>f</i>, is no doubt connected in some way with
+that last mentioned, although the likeness between the appendages to
+the ring and feathers is remote. It is one of those conventionalized
+pictures, the interpretation of which, with the scanty data at hand,
+must be largely theoretical.</p>
+
+<p>Figures of feathers are most important features in the decoration of
+ancient Sikyatki pottery, and their many modifications may readily be
+seen by an examination of the plates. In modern Tusayan ceremonials
+the feather is appended to almost all the different objects used in
+worship; it is essential in the structure of the <i>tiponi</i> or badge of the
+chief, without which no elaborate ceremony can be performed or altar
+erected; it adorns the images on the altars, decorates the heads of
+participants, is prescribed for the prayer-sticks, and is always appended
+to aspergills, rattles, and whistles.</p>
+
+<p>In the performance of certain ceremonials water from sacred springs
+is used, and this water, sometimes brought from great distances, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_690" id="Page_690">[Pg 690]</a></span>
+kept in small gourd or clay vases, around the necks of which a string
+with attached feathers is tied. Such a vase is the so-called <i>patne</i> which
+has been described in a memoir on the Snake ceremonies at Walpi.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a>
+The artistic tendency of the ancient people of Sikyatki apparently
+exhibited itself in painting these feathers on the outside of similar
+small vases. <a href="#PL_CXLII">Plate <span class="smcap">cxlii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, shows one of these vessels, decorated with
+an elaborate design with four breath-feathers suspended from the equator.
+(See also <a href="#Fig_273">figure 273</a>.) On the vases shown in <a href="#PL_CXLII">plate <span class="smcap">cxlii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, are
+found figures of tail-feathers arranged in two groups on opposite sides
+of the rim or orifice. One of these groups has eight, the other seven,
+figures of these feathers, and on the two remaining quadrants are the
+star emblems so constantly seen in pottery decorated with bird figures.
+The upper surface of the vase (<a href="#Fig_274">figure 274</a>) shows a similar arrangement,
+although the feathers here are conventionalized into triangular
+dentations, seven on
+one side and three on
+the other, individual
+dentations alternating
+with rectangular designs
+which suggest
+rain-clouds. This vase
+(<a href="#PL_CXLIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxliii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>) is
+also striking in having
+a well-drawn figure of
+a bird in profile, the
+head, wings, tail, and
+legs suggesting a parrot.
+The zone of decoration
+of this vessel,
+which surrounds the
+rows of feathers, is strikingly complicated, and comprises rain-cloud,
+feather, and other designs.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_273" id="Fig_273"></a>
+<img src="images/fig273.jpg" width="600" height="441" alt="Fig. 273&mdash;Pendent feather ornaments on a vase." title="Fig. 273&mdash;Pendent feather ornaments on a vase." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 273&mdash;Pendent feather ornaments on a vase.</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In a discussion of the significance of the design on the food bowl
+represented in <a href="#PL_CXXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, I have shown ample reason for regarding
+it a figure of a highly conventionalized bird. On the upper surface
+of the vase (<a href="#PL_CXLIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxliv</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>) are four similar designs, representing
+birds of the four cardinal points, one on each quadrant. The wings are
+represented by triangular extensions, destitute of appendages but with
+a rounded body at their point of juncture with the trunk. Each bird
+has four tail-feathers and rain-cloud symbols on the anterior end of the
+body. As is the case with the figures on the food basins, there are
+crosses representing stars near the extended wings. A broad band
+connects all these birds, and terraced rain-cloud symbols, six in number<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_691" id="Page_691">[Pg 691]</a></span>
+and arranged in pairs, fill the peripheral sections between them.
+This vase, although broken, is one of the most beautiful and instructive
+in the rich collection of Sikyatki ceramics.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 406px;"><a name="PL_CXLIII" id="PL_CXLIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxliii.jpg" width="406" height="600" alt="PL. CXLIII&mdash;
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLIII&mdash;
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"><a name="PL_CXLIV" id="PL_CXLIV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxliv.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="PL. CXLIV&mdash;
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLIV&mdash;
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a name="PL_CXLV" id="PL_CXLV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxlv.jpg" width="392" height="600" alt="PL. CXLV&mdash;
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLV&mdash;
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_274" id="Fig_274"></a>
+<img src="images/fig274.jpg" width="600" height="558" alt="Fig. 274&mdash;Upper surface of vase with bird decoration" title="Fig. 274&mdash;Upper surface of vase with bird decoration" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 274&mdash;Upper surface of vase with bird decoration</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>I have not ventured, in the consideration of the manifold pictures of
+birds on ancient pottery, to offer an interpretation of their probable
+generic identification. There is no doubt, however, that they represent
+mythic conceptions, and are emblematic of birds which figured conspicuously
+in the ancient Hopi Olympus. The modern legends of
+Tusayan are replete with references to such bird-like beings which play
+important r&ocirc;les and which bear evidence of archaic origins. There is,
+however, one fragment of a food bowl which is adorned with a pictograph
+so realistic and so true to modern legends of a harpy that I have
+not hesitated to affix to it the name current in modern Tusayan folklore.
+This fragment is shown in <a href="#Fig_275">figure 275</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 562px;"><a name="Fig_275" id="Fig_275"></a>
+<img src="images/fig275.jpg" width="562" height="600" alt="Fig. 275&mdash;Kwataka eating an animal" title="Fig. 275&mdash;Kwataka eating an animal" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 275&mdash;Kwataka eating an animal</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>According to modern folklore there once lived in the sky a winged
+being called Kwataka, or Man-eagle, who sorely troubled the ancients.
+He was ultimately slain by their War god, the legends of which have
+elsewhere been published. There is a pictograph of this monster near<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_692" id="Page_692">[Pg 692]</a></span>
+Walpi,<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> and pictures of him, as he exists in modern conceptions, have
+been drawn for me by the priests. These agree so closely with the pictograph
+and with the representation on the potsherd from Sikyatki, that
+I regard it well-nigh proven that they represent the same personage.
+The head is round and bears two feathers, while the star emblem
+appears in the eye. The wing and the stump of a tail are well represented,
+while the leg has three talons, which can only be those of this
+monster. He holds in his grasp some animal form which he is represented
+as eating. Across the body is a kilt, or ancient blanket, with
+four diagonal figures which are said to represent flint arrowheads.
+It is a remarkable fact that these latter symbols are practically the
+same as those used by Nahuatl people for obsidian arrow- or spearpoints.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_693" id="Page_693">[Pg 693]</a></span>
+In Hopi lore Kwataka wore a garment of arrowpoints, or,
+according to some legends, a flint garment, and his wings are said to
+have been composed of feathers of the same material.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;"><a name="PL_CXLVI" id="PL_CXLVI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxlvi.jpg" width="384" height="600" alt="PL. CXLVI&mdash;
+BOWLS AND POTSHERD WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLVI&mdash;
+BOWLS AND POTSHERD WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">BOWLS AND POTSHERD WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 399px;"><a name="PL_CXLVII" id="PL_CXLVII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxlvii.jpg" width="399" height="600" alt="PL. CXLVII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS, FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLVII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS, FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS, FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>From the pose of the figure and the various details of its symbolism
+there can be little doubt that the ancient Sikyatki artists intended to
+represent this monster, of which the modern Hopi rarely speak, and
+then only in awe. Probably several other bird figures likewise represent
+Kwataka, but in none of these do the symbols conform so closely
+to legends of this monster which are still repeated in the Tusayan villages.
+The home of Kwataka is reputed to be in the sky, and consequently
+figures of him are commonly associated with star and cloud
+emblems; he is a god of luck or chance, hence it is not exceptional to
+find figures of gaming implements<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> in certain elaborate figures of this
+monster.</p>
+
+<p>By far the most beautiful of the many food bowls from Sikyatki, and,
+I believe, the finest piece of prehistoric aboriginal pottery from the
+United States, is that figured in <a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>, <i>d</i>. This remarkable
+object, found with others in the sands of the necropolis of this pueblo,
+several feet below the surface, is decorated with a highly conventional
+figure of a bird in profile, but so modified that it is difficult to determine
+the different parts. The four appendages to the left represent the
+tail; the two knobs at the right the head, but the remaining parts are
+not comprehensible. The delicacy of the detailed crosshatching on
+the body is astonishing, considering that it was drawn freehand and
+without pattern. The coloring is bright and the surface glossy.</p>
+
+<p>The curved band from which this strange figure hangs is divided into
+sections by perpendicular incised lines, which are connected by zigzag
+diagonals. The signification of the figure in the upper part of the
+bowl is unknown. While this vessel is unique in the character of its
+decoration, there are others of equal fineness but less perfect in design.
+Competent students of ceramics have greatly admired this specimen,
+and so fresh are the colors that some have found it difficult to believe
+it of ancient aboriginal manufacture. The specimen itself, now on
+exhibition in the National Museum, gives a better idea of its excellence
+than any figure which could be made. This specimen, like all the
+others, is in exactly the same condition as when exhumed, save that it
+has been wiped with a moist cloth to clean the traces of food from its
+inner surface. All the pottery found in the same grave is of the finest
+character, and although no two specimens are alike in decoration, their
+general resemblances point to the same maker. This fact has been
+noticed in several instances, although there were many exceptional
+cases where the coarsest and most rudely painted vessels were associated
+with the finest and most elaborately decorated ware.</p>
+
+<p>The ladle illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXLII">plate <span class="smcap">cxlii</span></a>, <i>e</i>, is one of the most beautiful in
+the collection. It is decorated with a picture of an unknown animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_694" id="Page_694">[Pg 694]</a></span>
+with a single feather on the head. The eyes are double and the snout
+continued into a long stick or tube, on which the animal stands. While
+the appendage to the head is undoubtedly a feather and the animal
+recalls a bird, I am in doubt as to its true identification. The star
+emblems on the handle of the ladle are in harmony with known pictures
+of birds.</p>
+
+<p>The feather decoration on the broken ladle shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>, <i>f</i>, is
+of more than usual interest, although it is not wholly comprehensible.
+The representations include rain-cloud symbols, birds, feathers, and
+falling rain. The medially placed design, with four parallel lines arising
+from a round spot, is interpreted as a feather design, and the two
+triangular figures, one on each side, are believed to represent birds.</p>
+
+<p>The design on the food bowl depicted in <a href="#PL_CXXXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>, <i>e</i>, is obscure,
+but in it feather and star symbols predominate. On the inside of the
+ladle shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXI">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>, <i>c</i>, there is a rectangular design with a
+conventionalized bird at each angle.
+The reduction of the figure of a bird
+to head, body, and two or more tail-feathers
+occurs very constantly in
+decorations, and in many instances
+nothing remains save a crook with
+appended parallel lines representing
+feathers. Examples of this kind occur
+on several vessels, of which that
+shown in <a href="#PL_CXLV">plate <span class="smcap">cxlv</span></a>, <i>a</i>, is an
+example.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="Fig_276" id="Fig_276"></a>
+<img src="images/fig276.png" width="400" height="371" alt="Fig. 276&mdash;Decoration on the bottom of plate CXLVI, f" title="Fig. 276&mdash;Decoration on the bottom of plate CXLVI, f" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 276&mdash;Decoration on the bottom of <a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate CXLVI</a>, <i>f</i></span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There are many pictures of birds
+and feathers where the design has
+become so conventionalized that it is
+very difficult to recognize the intention
+of the decorator. <a href="#PL_CXLVII">Plate <span class="smcap">cxlvii</span></a>, <i>f</i>, shows one of these in which the
+feather motive is prominent and an approximation to a bird form
+evident. The wings are shown with a symmetric arrangement on the
+sides of the tail, while the latter member has the three feathers which
+form so constant a feature in many bird symbols. In <i>b</i> of the same
+plate there is shown a more elaborated bird figure, also highly modified,
+yet preserving many of the parts which have been identified in
+the design last described.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful design shown in <a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>, <i>e</i>, represents a large
+breath feather with triangular appendages on the sides, recalling the
+posterior end of the body of the bird figures above discussed.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the saucer illustrated in <a href="#PL_CLXVI">plate <span class="smcap">clxvi</span></a>, <i>f</i>, is decorated
+with feather symbols and four triangles. The remaining figures of
+this plate have already been considered.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="PL_CXLVIII" id="PL_CXLVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxlviii.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="PL. CXLVIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLVIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"><a name="PL_CXLIX" id="PL_CXLIX"></a>
+<img src="images/platecxlix.jpg" width="395" height="600" alt="PL. CXLIX&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CXLIX&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The figures on the vessel shown in <a href="#PL_CLXVII">plate <span class="smcap">clxvii</span></a> are so arranged that
+there can be little question of their homologies, and from comparisons
+it is clear that they should all be regarded as representations of birds.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_695" id="Page_695">[Pg 695]</a></span>
+There appears no necessity of discussing figures <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> of the plate
+in this interpretation. In figure <i>c</i> the center of the design becomes
+circular, recalling certain sun symbols, and the tail-feathers are readily
+recognized on one side. I am by no means sure, however, that the
+lateral terraced appendages at the opposite pole are representations of
+wings, but such an interpretation can not be regarded as a forced one.
+Figure <i>d</i> shows the three tail-feathers, lateral appendages suggestive
+of wings, and a square body with the usual decorations of the body
+and head of a bird. The design shown in figure <i>f</i> suggests in many
+ways a sun-bird, and is comparable with those previously studied and
+illustrated. There is no question of the homologues of tail, head, and
+wings. The meridional band across the bowl is similar to those
+already discussed, and its relationship to the head and tail of the bird
+identical. This design is interpreted as that of one of the numerous
+birds associated with the sun. The crescentic extension above what
+is apparently the head occurs in many bird figures and may represent
+a beak.</p>
+
+<p>Many food bowls from Sikyatki are ornamented on their interior with
+highly conventionalized figures, generally of curved form, in which the
+feather is predominant. Many of these are shown in <a href="#PL_CXLVIII">plates <span class="smcap">cxlviii</span></a>
+to <a href="#PL_CLVII"><span class="smcap">clvii</span></a>, inclusive, and in studying them I have found it very difficult
+to interpret the symbolism, although the figures of feathers are easy to
+find in many of them. While my attempt at decipherment is not
+regarded as final, it is hoped that it may at least reveal the important
+place which the feather plays in Tusayan ceramic decoration.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#PL_CXLVIII">Plate <span class="smcap">cxlviii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, shows the spiral ornament worn down to its lowest
+terms, with no hint of the feather appendage, but its likeness in outline
+to those designs where the feather occurs leads me to introduce it in
+connection with those in which the feather is more prominent. Figure
+<i>b</i> of the same plate represents a spiral figure with a bird form at the
+inner end, and a bundle of tail-feathers at the outer extremity. On this
+design there is likewise a figure of the dragon-fly and several unknown
+emblems. Figure <i>c</i> has at one extremity a trifid appendage, recalling
+a feather ornament on the head of a bird shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>a</i>.
+Figure <i>d</i> has no conventionalized feather decoration, but the curved
+line terminates with a triangle. Its signification is unknown to me.
+For several reasons the design in <i>e</i> reminds me of a bird; it is accompanied
+by three crosses, which are almost invariably found in connection
+with bird figures, and at the inner end there is attached a breath
+feather. This end of the figure is supposed to be the head, as will
+appear by later comparative studies. The bird form is masked in <i>f</i>,
+but the feather designs are prominent. This bowl is exceptional in
+having an encircling band broken at two points, one of the components
+of which is red, the other black.</p>
+
+<p>Feather designs are conspicuous in <a href="#PL_CXLIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxlix</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, in the former
+of which curved incised lines are successfully used. In <i>c</i>, however, is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_696" id="Page_696">[Pg 696]</a></span>
+found the best example of the use of incised work as an aid in pottery
+decoration, for in this specimen there are semicircles, and rings with
+four triangles, straight lines, and circles. The symbolism of the whole
+figure has eluded analysis. Figure <i>d</i> has no feather symbols, but <i>e</i>
+may later be reduced to a circle with feathers. The only symbols in
+the design shown in <i>f</i> which are at all recognizable are the two zigzag
+figures which may have been intended to represent snakes, lightning,
+or tadpoles.</p>
+
+<p>When the design in <a href="#PL_CL">plate <span class="smcap">cl</span></a>, <i>a</i>, is compared with the beautiful bowl
+shown in <a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>, <i>d</i>, a treatment of somewhat similar nature is
+found. It is believed that both represent birds drawn in profile; the
+four bands (<i>a</i>) are tail-feathers, while the rectangle represents the body
+and the curved appendage a part of the head. From a similarity
+to modern figures of a turkey feather, it is possible that the triangle at
+the end of the curved appendage is the feather of this bird. An examination
+of <i>b</i> leads to the conclusion that the inner end of the spiral
+represents a bird's head. Two eyes are represented therein, and from
+it feathers are appended. The parallel marks on the body are suggestive
+of similar decorations on the figure of the Plumed Snake painted
+on the kilts of the Snake priests of Walpi. The star emblems are constant
+accompaniments of bird designs. Figure <i>c</i> has, in addition to
+the spiral, the star symbols and what appears to be a flower. The design
+shown in <i>d</i> is so exceptional that it is here represented with the
+circular forms. It will be seen that there are well-marked feathers in
+its composition. Figure <i>f</i> is made up of several bird forms, feathers,
+rectangles, and triangles, combined in a complicated design, the parts
+of which may readily be interpreted in the light of what has already
+been recorded.</p>
+
+<p>The significance of the spiral in the design on <a href="#PL_CLI">plate <span class="smcap">cli</span></a>, <i>a</i>, is unknown.
+It is found in several pictures, in some of which it appears to have
+avian relationship. Figure <i>b</i> of the same plate is a square terraced
+design appended to the median line, on which symbolic stars are
+depicted. As in many bird figures, a star is found on the opposite
+semicircle. There is a remote likeness between this figure and that of
+the head of the bird shown in <a href="#PL_CXLV">plate <span class="smcap">cxlv</span></a>, <i>d</i>. <a href="#PL_CLI">Plate <span class="smcap">cli</span></a>, <i>c</i>, is a compound
+figure, with four feathers arranged in two pairs at right angles to a
+median band. The triangular figure associated with them is sometimes
+found in symbols of the sun. Figure <i>d</i> is undoubtedly a bird symbol,
+as may be seen by a comparison of it with the bird figures shown
+in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>, <i>a-f</i>. There are two tail-feathers, two outstretched
+wings, and a head which is rectangular, with terraced designs. The
+cross is triple, and occupies the opposite segment, which is finely spattered
+with pigment. This trifid cross represents a game played by the
+Hopi with reeds and is depicted on many objects of pottery. As representations
+of it sometimes accompany those of birds I am led to interpret
+the figure (<a href="#PL_CLVII">plate <span class="smcap">clvii</span></a>, <i>c</i>) as that of a bird, which it somewhat resembles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_697" id="Page_697">[Pg 697]</a></span>
+The two designs shown in <a href="#PL_CLI">plate <span class="smcap">cli</span></a>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, are believed to be
+decorative, or, if symbolic, they have been so worn by the constant use
+of the vessel that it is impossible to determine their meaning by
+comparative methods. Both of these figures show the "line of life" in
+a somewhat better way than any yet considered.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a name="PL_CL" id="PL_CL"></a>
+<img src="images/platecl.jpg" width="392" height="600" alt="PL. CL&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CL&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CL</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"><a name="PL_CLI" id="PL_CLI"></a>
+<img src="images/platecli.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="PL. CLI&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLI&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#PL_CLII">plate <span class="smcap">clii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, is shown a compound figure of doubtful significance,
+made up of a series of crescents, triangles, and spirals, which, in <i>c</i>, are
+more compactly joined together, and accompanied by three parallel
+lines crossing three other lines. The curved figure shown in <i>b</i> represents
+three feathers; a large one on each side, inclosing a medially
+smaller member. In <i>d</i> is shown the spiral bird form with appended
+feathers, triangles, and terraced figures. Figure <i>f</i> of this plate is
+decorated with a design which bears many resemblances to a flower,
+the peripheral appendages resembling bracts of a sunflower. A somewhat
+similar design is painted on the side of the helmets of some
+<i>katcina</i> dancers, where the bracts or petals are colored in sequence,
+with the pigments corresponding to the six directions&mdash;north, west,
+south, east, above, and below. In the decoration on the ancient
+Sikyatki bowl we find seven peripheral bracts, one of which is speckled.
+The six groups of stamens(?) are represented between the triangular
+bracts.</p>
+
+<p>The designs shown in <a href="#PL_CLIII">plates <span class="smcap">cliii</span></a> to <a href="#PL_CLV"><span class="smcap">clv</span></a>, inclusive, still preserve
+the spiral form with attached feathers, some of them being greatly
+conventionalized or differentiated. In the first of these plates (figure <i>b</i>)
+is represented a bird form with triangular head with four feathers
+arranged in fan shape. These feathers are different from any which
+I have been able to find attached to the bodies of birds, and are thus
+identified from morphological rather than from other reasons.</p>
+
+<p>The body of the conventionalized bird is decorated with terraced
+figures, spirals, flowers, and other designs arranged in a highly complicated
+manner. From a bar connecting the spiral with the encircling
+line there arises a tuft of feathers. Figure <i>a</i> of the same plate is characterized
+by a medially placed triangle and a graceful pendant from
+which hangs seven feathers. In this instance these structures take the
+form of triangles and pairs of lines. The relation of these structures
+to feathers would appear highly speculative, but they have been so
+interpreted for the following reason: If we compare them with the
+appendages represented in the design on the vase shown in <span class="smcap">cxliii</span>, <i>b</i>,
+we find them the same in number, form, and arrangement; the triangles
+in the design on this vase are directly comparable with the figures in
+<a href="#PL_CXLIII">plate <span class="smcap">cxliii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, in the same position, which are undoubtedly feathers, as
+has been shown in the discussion of this figure. Consequently, although
+the triangles on the pendant in <a href="#PL_CLIII">plate <span class="smcap">cliii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, appear at first glance to
+have no relation to the prescribed feather symbol, morphology shows
+their true interpretation. The reduction of the wing feather to a simple
+triangular figure is likewise shown in several other pictures on food<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_698" id="Page_698">[Pg 698]</a></span>
+vessels, notably in the figure, undoubtedly of a bird, represented in
+<a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the two figures forming <a href="#PL_CLIV">plate <span class="smcap">cliv</span></a> are found simple bird symbols
+and feather designs very much conventionalized. The same is true of
+the two figures given in <a href="#PL_CLV">plate <span class="smcap">clv</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p>The vessels illustrated in <a href="#PL_CLVI">plate <span class="smcap">clvi</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, are decorated with designs
+of unknown meaning, save that the latter recalls the modification of
+the feather into long triangular forms. On the outer surface this bowl
+has a row of tadpoles encircling it in a sinistral direction, or with the
+center of the bowl on the left. The design of figure <i>c</i> shows a bird's
+head in profile, with a crest of feathers and with the two eyes on one
+side of the head and a necklace. The triangular figure bears the symbolism
+of the turkey feather, as at present designated in Tusayan altar
+paraphernalia. As with other bird figures, there is a representation in
+red of the triple star.</p>
+
+<p>Figure <i>d</i> is the only specimen of a vessel in the conventional form of
+a bird which was found at Sikyatki; it evidently formerly had a handle.
+The vessel itself is globular, and the form of the bird is intensified by
+the designs on its surface. The bird's head is turned to the observer,
+and the row of triangles represent wing feathers. The signification of
+the designs on <i>e</i> and <i>f</i> is unknown to me.</p>
+
+<p>Figures <i>e</i> and <i>f</i> of <a href="#PL_CLVI">plate <span class="smcap">clvi</span></a> are avian decorations, reduced in the
+case of the former to geometric forms. The triangular figure is a
+marked feature in the latter design.</p>
+
+<p>The designs represented in <a href="#PL_CLVII">plate <span class="smcap">clvii</span></a> are aberrant bird forms. Of
+these <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are the simplest and <i>c</i> one of the most complicated.
+Figure <i>d</i> is interpreted as a double bird, or twins with a common head
+and tails pointing in opposite directions. Figure <i>e</i> shows a bird in profile
+with one wing, furnished with triangular feathers, extended. There
+is some doubt about the identification of <i>f</i> as a bird, but there is no
+question that the wing, tail, and breath feathers are represented in it.
+Of the last mentioned there are three, shown by the notch, colored
+black at their extremities.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Vegetal Designs</span></h5>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as they so readily lend themselves as a motive of decoration,
+it is remarkable that the ancient Hopi seem to have used plants
+and their various organs so sparingly in their pottery painting. Elsewhere,
+especially among modern Pueblos, this is not the case, and
+while plants, flowers, and leaves are not among the common designs
+on modern Tusayan ware, they are often employed. It would appear
+that the corn plant or fruit would be found among other designs,
+especially as corn plays a highly symbolic part in mythic conceptions,
+but we fail to find it used as a decoration on any ancient vessel.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="PL_CLII" id="PL_CLII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclii.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="PL. CLII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH BIRD, FEATHER, AND FLOWER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH BIRD, FEATHER, AND FLOWER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH BIRD, FEATHER, AND FLOWER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"><a name="PL_CLIII" id="PL_CLIII"></a>
+<img src="images/platecliii.jpg" width="385" height="600" alt="PL. CLIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In a figure previously described, a flower, evidently an aster or sunflower,
+appears with a butterfly, and in the bowl shown in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_699" id="Page_699">[Pg 699]</a></span>
+<a href="#PL_CXXXIV">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>, <i>e</i>, we have a similar design. This figure evidently represents
+the sunflower, the seeds of which were ground and eaten in ancient
+times. The plant apparently is represented as growing from the earth
+and is surrounded by a broad band of red in rudely circular form.
+The totem of the earth today among the Hopi is a circle; possibly it
+was the same among the ancients, in which case the horizon may have
+been represented by the red encircling band, which is accompanied by
+the crook and the emblem of rain. The petals are represented by a
+row of dots and no leaves are shown. From the kinship of the ancient
+accolents of Sikyatki with the Flute people, it is to be expected that
+in their designs figures of asters or sunflowers would appear, for these
+plants play a not inconspicuous r&ocirc;le in the ritual of this society which
+has survived to modern times.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">The Sun</span></h5>
+
+<p>Sun worship plays a most important part in modern Tusayan ritual,
+and the symbol of the sun in modern pictography can not be mistaken
+for any other. It is a circle with radiating feathers on the periphery
+and ordinarily with four lines arranged in quaternary groups. The
+face of the sun is indicated by triangles on the forehead, two slits for
+eyes, and a double triangle for the mouth. This symbol, however, is
+not always used as that of the sun, for in the Oraibi <i>Powalaw&ucirc;</i> there
+is an altar in which a sand picture of the sun has the form of a four-pointed
+star. The former of these sun symbols is not found on Sikyatki
+pottery, but there is one picture which closely resembles the latter.
+This occurs on the bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CLXI">plate <span class="smcap">clxi</span></a>, <i>c</i>. The main design
+is a four-pointed star, alternating with crosses and surrounded by a
+zone in which are rectangular blocks. While the identification may
+be fanciful, its resemblances are highly suggestive. The existence of a
+double triangle adjacent to this figure on the same bowl, and its likeness
+to the modern mouth-design of sun pictures, appears to be more
+than a coincidence, and is so regarded in this identification.</p>
+
+<p>In the design shown in <a href="#PL_CLVIII">plate <span class="smcap">clviii</span></a>, <i>a</i>, one of the elaborate ancient
+sun figures is represented. As in modern symbols, the tail-feathers of
+the periphery of the disk are arranged in the four quadrants, and in
+addition there are appended to the same points curved figures which
+recall the objects, identified as stringed feathers, attached to the blanket
+of the maid (<a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>). The design on the disk is different
+from that of any sun emblem known to me, and escapes my interpretation.
+I have used the distribution of the feathers on the four quadrants
+as an indication that this figure is a sun symbol, although it
+must be confessed this evidence is not so strong as might be wished.
+The triangles at the sides of two feathers indicate that a tail-feather is
+intended, and for the correlated facts supporting this conclusion the
+reader is referred to the description of the vessels shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVIII">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_700" id="Page_700">[Pg 700]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It would appear that there is even more probability that the picture
+on the bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CLVIII">plate <span class="smcap">clviii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, is a sun symbol. It represents
+a disk with tail and wing feathers arranged on the periphery in
+four groups. This recalls the sun emblems used in Tusayan at the
+present time, although the face of the sun is not represented on this
+specimen. There is a still closer approximation to the modern symbol
+of the sun on a bowl in a private collection from Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#PL_CLVIII">plate <span class="smcap">clviii</span></a>, <i>c</i>, the sun's disk is represented with the four clusters
+of feathers replaced by the extremities of the bodies of four birds, the
+tail-feathers, for some unknown reason, being omitted. The design
+on the disk is highly symbolic, and the only modern sun symbol found
+in it are the triangles, which form the mouth of the face of the sun in
+modern Hopi symbolism.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most aberrant pictures of the sun, which I think can be
+identified with probability, is shown in the design on the specimen
+illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>, <i>b</i>. The reasons which have led me to this
+identification may briefly be stated as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Among the many supernaturals with which modern Hopi mythology
+is replete is one called Calako-taka, or the male Calako. In legends
+he is the husband of the two Corn-maids of like name. The ceremonials
+connected with this being occur in Sichomovi in July, when four
+giant personifications enter the village as have been described in a former
+memoir. The heads of these giants are provided with two curved
+horns, between which is a crest of eagle tail-feathers.</p>
+
+<p>Two of these giants, under another name, but with the same symbolism,
+are depicted on the altars of the <i>katcinas</i> at Walpi and Misho&ntilde;inovi,
+where they represent the sun. A chief personifying the same
+supernatural flogs children when they are initiated into the knowledge
+of the <i>katcinas</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The figure on the bowl under discussion has many points of resemblance
+to the symbolism of this personage as depicted on the altars
+mentioned. The head has two horns, one on each side, with a crest,
+apparently of feathers, between them. The eyes and mouth are represented,
+and on the body there is a four-pointed cross. The meaning
+of the remaining appendages is unknown, but the likenesses to
+Calako-taka<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> symbolism are noteworthy and important. The figure on
+the food bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CXXXIV">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>, <i>c</i>, is likewise regarded as
+a sun emblem. The disk is represented by a ring in the center, to which
+feathers are appended. The triangle, which is still a sun symbol, is
+shown below a band across the bowl. This band is decorated with
+highly conventionalized feathers.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 386px;"><a name="PL_CLIV" id="PL_CLIV"></a>
+<img src="images/platecliv.jpg" width="386" height="600" alt="PL. CLIV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLIV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="PL_CLV" id="PL_CLV"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclv.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="PL. CLV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"><a name="PL_CLVI" id="PL_CLVI"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclvi.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="PL. CLVI&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLVI&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_701" id="Page_701">[Pg 701]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It may be added that in this figure we have probably the most aberrant
+sun-symbol yet recognized, and on that account there is a possibility
+that the validity of my identification is more or less doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>The three designs shown in <a href="#PL_CLVIII">plate <span class="smcap">clviii</span></a>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, evidently belong in
+association with sun or star symbols, but it is hardly legitimate to
+definitely declare that such an interpretation can be demonstrated.
+The modern Tusayan Indians declare that the equal-arm cross is a
+symbol of the "Heart of the Sky" god, which, from my studies of the
+effigies of this personage on various altars, I have good reason to
+identify with the lightning.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Geometric Figures</span></h5>
+
+<h6>INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURES</h6>
+
+<p>Most of the pottery from Sikyatki is ornamented with geometric
+designs and linear figures, the import of many of which are unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Two extreme views are current in regard to the significance of these
+designs. To one school everything is symbolic of something or some
+religious conception; to the other the majority are meaningless save as
+decorations. I find the middle path the more conservative, and while
+regarding many of the designs as highly conventionalized symbols,
+believe that there are also many where the decorator had no thought
+of symbolism. I have ventured an explanation of a few of the former.</p>
+
+<p>Terraced figures are among the most common rectangular elements in
+Pueblo ceramic decorations. These designs bear so close a likeness to
+the modern rain-cloud symbol that they probably may all be referred
+to this category. Their arrangement on a bowl or jar is often of such
+a nature as to impart very different patterns. Thus terraced figures
+placed in opposition to each other may leave zigzag spaces suggesting
+lightning, but such forms can hardly be regarded as designed for
+symbols.</p>
+
+<p>Rectangular patterns (<a href="#PL_CLXII">plates <span class="smcap">clxii</span></a><a href="#PL_CLXV">-<span class="smcap">clxv</span></a>) are more ancient in the
+evolution of designs on Tusayan pottery than curved geometric figures,
+and far outnumber them in the most ancient specimens; but there has
+been no epoch in the development reaching to modern times when they
+have been superseded. While there are many specimens of Sikyatki
+pottery of the type decorated with geometric figures, which bear ornamentations
+of simple and complex terraced forms, the majority placed in
+this type are not reducible to stepped or terraced designs, but are
+modified straight lines, bars, crosshatching, and the like. In older
+Pueblo pottery the relative proportion of terraced figures is even less,
+which would appear to indicate that basket-ware patterns were
+secondary rather than primary decorative forms.</p>
+
+<p>By far the largest element in ancient Tusayan pottery decoration
+must be regarded as simple geometric lines, triangles, spirals, curves,
+crosshatching, and the like, some of which are no doubt symbolic,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_702" id="Page_702">[Pg 702]</a></span>
+others purely decorative (<a href="#PL_CLXVI">plate <span class="smcap">clxvi</span></a>). In the evolution of design I
+am inclined to believe that this was the simplest form, and I find it the
+most constant in the oldest ware. Rectangular figures are regarded as
+older than circular figures, and they possibly preceded the latter in
+evolution, but in many instances both are forms of reversion, highly
+conventionalized representations of more elaborate figures. Circles
+and crosses are sometimes combined, the former modified into a wavy
+line surrounding the latter, as in <a href="#PL_CLIX">plate <span class="smcap">clix</span></a>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, where there is a suggestion
+(<i>d</i>) of a sun emblem.</p>
+
+
+<h6>CROSSES</h6>
+
+<p>A large number of food bowls are decorated with simple or elaborate
+crosses, stars, and like patterns. Simple crosses with arms of equal
+length appear on the vessels shown in <a href="#PL_CLIX">plate <span class="smcap">clix</span></a>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>. There are
+many similar crosses, subordinate to the main design, in various bowls,
+especially those decorated with figures of birds and sky deities.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#PL_CLX">Plate <span class="smcap">clx</span></a>, <i>a</i>, exhibits a cruciform design, to the extremities of three
+arms of which bird figures are attached. In this design there are likewise
+two sunflower symbols. The modified cross figure in <i>b</i> of the
+same plate, like that just mentioned, suggests a swastica, but fails to
+be one, and unless the complicated design in figure <i>c</i> may be so interpreted,
+no swastica was found at Sikyatki or Awatobi. <a href="#PL_CLX">Plate <span class="smcap">clx</span></a>, <i>d</i>,
+shows another form of cross, two arms of which are modified into
+triangles.</p>
+
+<p>On the opening of the great ceremony called <i>Powam&ucirc;</i> or "Bean-planting,"
+which occurs in February in the modern Tusayan villages,
+there occurs a ceremony about a sand picture of the sun which is
+called <i>Powalaw&ucirc;</i>. The object of this rite is the fructification of all
+seeds known to the Hopi. The sand picture of the sun which is made
+at that time is in its essentials identical with the design on the food
+bowl illustrated in <a href="#PL_CLXI">plate <span class="smcap">clxi</span></a>, <i>c</i>; consequently it is possible that this
+star emblem represents the sun, and the occurrence of the eight triangles
+in the rim, replaced in the modern altar by four concentric bands
+of differently colored sands, adds weight to this conclusion. The twin
+triangles outside the main figure are identical with those in the mouth
+of modern sun emblems. These same twin triangles are arranged in
+lines which cross at right angles in <a href="#PL_CLXI">plate <span class="smcap">clxi</span></a>, <i>d</i>, but from their resemblance
+to figure <i>b</i> they possibly have a different meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The most complicated of all the star-shape figures, like the simplest,
+takes us to sun emblems, and it seems probable that there is a relationship
+between the two. <a href="#PL_CLXI">Plate <span class="smcap">clxi</span></a>, <i>f</i>, represents four bundles of
+feathers arranged in quadrants about a rectangular center. These
+feathers vary in form and arrangement, and the angles between them
+are occupied by horn-shape bodies, two of which have highly complicated
+extremities recalling conventionalized birds.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"><a name="PL_CLVII" id="PL_CLVII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclvii.jpg" width="392" height="600" alt="PL. CLVII&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLVII&mdash;
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU Of AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"><a name="PL_CLVIII" id="PL_CLVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclviii.jpg" width="414" height="600" alt="PL. CLVIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLVIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>A large number of crosses are represented in <a href="#PL_CLXII">plate <span class="smcap">clxii</span></a>, <i>d</i>, in which
+the remaining semicircle is filled with a tessellated pattern. A spiral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_703" id="Page_703">[Pg 703]</a></span>
+line with round spots at intervals adorns the specimen shown in <a href="#PL_CLXI">plate
+<span class="smcap">clxi</span></a>, <i>a</i>. Parallel lines with similar spots appear on the vessel illustrated
+in <a href="#PL_CLXII">plate <span class="smcap">clxii</span></a>, <i>e</i>, and a network of the same is shown in <i>f</i> of the
+same plate. <a href="#PL_CLXVII">Plate <span class="smcap">clxvii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, represents a compound star.</p>
+
+<p>While simple swasticas are not found on any of the Sikyatki pottery,
+modified and compound forms are well represented. There are several
+specimens of figures of the Maltese cross, and one closely approximating
+the Saint Andrew's cross. It is scarcely necessary to say that the
+presence of the various kinds of crosses do not necessarily indicate the
+influence of Semitic or Aryan races, for I have already shown<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> that
+even cross-shape prayer-sticks were in use among the Pueblos when
+Coronado first visited them.</p>
+
+
+<h6>TERRACED FIGURES</h6>
+
+<p>Among the most common of all geometric designs on ancient Tusayan
+pottery none excel in variety or number those which I place in the
+above group. They form the major part of all decoration, and there is
+hardly a score of ornamented vessels in which they can not be detected.
+In a typical form they appear as stepped designs, rectangular figures
+with diagonals continuous, or as triangular designs with steps represented
+along their sides.</p>
+
+<p>While it is probable that in some instances these figures are simply
+decorative, with no attempt at symbolism, in other cases without doubt
+they symbolize rain-clouds, and the same figures are still used with similar
+intent in modern ceremonial paraphernalia&mdash;altars, mask-tablets,
+and the like. Decorative modifications of this figure were no doubt
+adopted by artistic potters, thus giving varieties where the essential
+meaning has been much obscured or lost.</p>
+
+
+<h6>THE CROOK</h6>
+
+<p>Among the forms of geometric designs on ancient Tusayan pottery
+there are many jars, bowls, and other objects on which a crook, variously
+modified, is the essential type. This figure is so constant that it
+must have had a symbolic as well as a decorative meaning. The crook
+plays an important part in the modern ritual, and is prominent on
+many Tusayan altars. Around the sand picture of the rain-cloud, for
+example, we find a row of wooden rods with curved ends, and in the
+public Snake dance these are carried by participants called the Antelopes.
+A crook in the form of a staff to which an ear of corn and several
+feathers are attached is borne by <i>katcinas</i> or masked participants
+in certain rain dances. It is held in the hand by a personage who flogs
+the children when they are initiated into certain religious societies.
+Many other instances might be mentioned in which this crozier-like<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_704" id="Page_704">[Pg 704]</a></span>
+object is carried by important personages. While it is not entirely
+clear to me that in all instances this crook is a badge of authority, in
+some cases it undoubtedly represents the standing of the bearer.
+There are, likewise, prayer offerings in the form of crooks, and even
+common forms of prayer-sticks have miniature curved sticks attached
+to them.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the warrior societies are said to make offerings in the form
+of a crook, and a stick of similar form is associated with the gods of
+war. There is little doubt that some of the crook-form decorations on
+ancient vessels may have been used as symbols with the same intent as
+the sticks referred to above. The majority of the figures of this shape
+elude interpretation. Many of them have probably no definite meaning,
+but are simply an effective motive of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>In some instances the figure of the crook on old pottery is a symbol
+of a prayer offering of a warrior society, made in the form of an
+ancient weapon, allied to a bow.</p>
+
+
+<h6>THE GERMINATIVE SYMBOL</h6>
+
+<p>The ordinary symbol of germination, a median projection with lateral
+extensions at the base (<a href="#PL_CXLIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxlix</span></a>, <i>e</i>), occurs among the figures on this
+ancient pottery. In its simplest form, a median line with a triangle on
+each side attached to one end, it is a phallic emblem. When this median
+line becomes oval, and the triangles elongated and curved at the ends,
+it represents the ordinary squash symbol,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> also used as an emblem of
+fertility.</p>
+
+<p>The triangle is also an emblem of germination and of fecundity&mdash;the
+female, as the previously mentioned principle represents the male. The
+geometric designs on the ancient Sikyatki ware abundantly illustrate
+both these forms.</p>
+
+
+<h6>BROKEN LINES</h6>
+
+<p>In examining the simple encircling bands of many of the food bowls,
+jars, and other ceramic objects, it will be noticed that they are not
+continuous, but that there is a break at one point, and this break is
+usually limited to one point in all the specimens. Various explanations
+of the meaning of this failure to complete the band have been
+suggested, and it is a remarkable fact that it is one of the most widely
+extended characteristics of ancient pottery decoration in the whole
+Pueblo area, including the Salado and Gila basins. While in the
+specimens from Sikyatki the break is simple and confined to one
+point, in those from other regions we find two or three similar failures
+in the continuity of encircling lines, and in some instances the lines at
+the point of separation are modified into spirals, terraces, and other
+forms of geometric figures. In the more complex figures we find the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_705" id="Page_705">[Pg 705]</a></span>
+most intricate variations, which depart so widely from the simple forms
+that their resemblances are somewhat difficult to follow. A brief consideration
+of these modifications may aid toward an understanding of
+the character of certain geometric ornamental motives.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"><a name="PL_CLIX" id="PL_CLIX"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclix.jpg" width="390" height="600" alt="PL. CLIX&mdash;
+CROSS AND RELATED DESIGNS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLIX&mdash;
+CROSS AND RELATED DESIGNS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">CROSS AND RELATED DESIGNS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"><a name="PL_CLX" id="PL_CLX"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclx.jpg" width="395" height="600" alt="PL. CLX&mdash;
+CROSS AND OTHER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLX&mdash;
+CROSS AND OTHER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">CROSS AND OTHER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"><a name="PL_CLXI" id="PL_CLXI"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxi.jpg" width="395" height="600" alt="PL. CLXI&mdash;
+STAR, SUN, AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXI&mdash;
+STAR, SUN, AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">STAR, SUN, AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>If any of the interlocking spirals on bowls or vases are traced, it
+is found that they do not join at the center of the figure. The same
+is true when these spirals become frets. There is always a break in
+the network which they form. This break is comparable with the
+hiatus on encircling bands and probably admits of the same interpretation.
+In a simple form this motive appears as two crescents or two
+key patterns with the ends overlapping. This simple ornament, called
+the friendship sign, is commonly used in the decoration of the bodies
+of <i>katcinas</i>, and has been likened to the interlocking of fingers or
+hands of the participants in certain dances, the fingers half retracted
+with inner surfaces approximated, the palms of the hands facing in
+opposite directions and the wrists at opposite points. If the points be
+extended into an elaborate key pattern or curved into extended spirals,
+a complicated figure is produced in which the separation is less conspicuous
+although always present.</p>
+
+<p>The same points may be modified into terraced figures, the separation
+then appearing as a zigzag line drawn across the figure, or they
+may have interlocking dentate or serrate prolongations imparting a
+variety of forms to the interval between them.<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a> In order to trace out
+these modifications it would be necessary to specify each individual
+case, but I think that is unnecessary. In other words, the broken line
+appears to be a characteristic not only of simple encircling bands, but
+also of all geometric figures in which highly complicated designs extend
+about the periphery of a utensil.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Decorations on the Exterior of Food Bowls</span></h5>
+
+<p>The decorations on the exterior of the ancient food bowls are in most
+instances very characteristic and sometimes artistic. Generally they
+reproduce patterns which are found on the outside of vases and jars
+and sometimes have a distant relationship to the designs in the interior
+of the bowl upon which they occur. Usually these external decorations
+are found only on one side, and in that respect they differ from the
+modern food bowls, in which nothing similar to them appears.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of the external decorations of food bowls are symbolic,
+mostly geometric, square or rectangular, triangular or stepped<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_706" id="Page_706">[Pg 706]</a></span>
+figures; curved lines and spirals rarely if ever occur, and human or
+animal figures are unknown in this position in Sikyatki pottery; the
+geometric figures can be reduced to a few patterns of marked simplicity.</p>
+
+<p>It is apparent that I can best discuss the variety of geometric designs
+by considering these external decorations of food vessels at length.
+From the fact that they are limited to one side, the
+design is less complicated by repetition and seems
+practically the same as the more typical forms. It
+is rarely that two of these designs are found to be
+exactly the same, and as there appears to be no duplication
+a classification of them is difficult. Each potter
+seems to have decorated her ware without regard
+to the work of her contemporaries, using simple designs
+but combining them in original ways. Hence the
+great variety found even in the grave of the same
+woman, whose handiwork was buried with her. As,
+however, the art of the potter degenerated, as it has in later times, the
+patterns became more alike, so that modern Tusayan decorated earthenware
+has little variety in ornamentation and no originality in design.
+Every potter uses the same figures.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;"><a name="Fig_277" id="Fig_277"></a>
+<img src="images/fig277.png" width="232" height="300" alt="Fig. 277&mdash;Oblique parallel line decoration" title="Fig. 277&mdash;Oblique parallel line decoration" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 277&mdash;Oblique parallel line decoration</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_278" id="Fig_278"></a>
+<img src="images/fig278.png" width="600" height="140" alt="Fig. 278&mdash;Parallel lines fused at one point" title="Fig. 278&mdash;Parallel lines fused at one point" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 278&mdash;Parallel lines fused at one point</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_279" id="Fig_279"></a>
+<img src="images/fig279.png" width="600" height="165" alt="Fig. 279&mdash;Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement" title="Fig. 279&mdash;Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 279&mdash;Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form of decoration on the exterior of a food bowl is a
+band encircling it. This line may be complete or it may be broken at
+one point. The next more complicated geometric decoration is a double
+or multiple band, which, however, does not occur in any of the specimens
+from Sikyatki. The breaking up of this multiple band into parallel
+bars is shown in <a href="#Fig_277">figure 277</a>. These bars generally have a quadruple
+arrangement, and are horizontal, vertical, or, as in the illustration, inclined
+at an angle. They are often found on the lips of the bowls and
+in a similar position on jars, dippers, and vases. The parallel lines
+shown in <a href="#Fig_278">figure 278</a> are seven in number, and do not encircle the bowl.
+They are joined by a broad connecting band near one extremity. The
+number of parallel bands in this decoration is highly suggestive.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 383px;"><a name="PL_CLXII" id="PL_CLXII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxii.jpg" width="383" height="600" alt="PL. CLXII&mdash;
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXII&mdash;
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_707" id="Page_707">[Pg 707]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Four parallel bands encircle the bowl shown in <a href="#Fig_279">figure 279</a>, but they
+are so modified in their course as to form a number of trapezoidal
+figures placed with alternating sides parallel. This interesting
+pattern is found only on one vessel.</p>
+
+<p>The use of simple parallel bars, arranged at equal intervals
+on the outside of food bowls, is not confined to these
+vessels, for they occur on the margin of vases, cups, and
+dippers. They likewise occur on ladle handles, where they
+are arranged in alternate transverse and longitudinal
+clusters.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="Fig_280" id="Fig_280"></a>
+<img src="images/fig280.png" width="200" height="233" alt="Fig. 280&mdash;Parallel lines connected by middle bar." title="Fig. 280&mdash;Parallel lines connected by middle bar." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 280&mdash;Parallel lines connected by middle bar.</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The combination of two vertical bands connected by a
+horizontal band, forming the letter H, is an ornamental design frequently
+occurring on the finest Hopi ware. <a href="#Fig_280">Figure 280</a> shows such an H form,
+which is ordinarily repeated four times about the bowl.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_281" id="Fig_281"></a>
+<img src="images/fig281.png" width="600" height="90" alt="Fig. 281&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; serrate margin" title="Fig. 281&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; serrate margin" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 281&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; serrate margin</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The interval between the parallel bands around the vessel may be
+very much reduced in size, and some of the bands may be of different
+width, or otherwise modified. Such a deviation is seen in <a href="#Fig_281">figure 281</a>,
+which has three bands, one of which is broad with straight edges, the
+other with serrate margin and hook-like appendages.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_282" id="Fig_282"></a>
+<img src="images/fig282.png" width="600" height="161" alt="Fig. 282&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; median serrate" title="Fig. 282&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; median serrate" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 282&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; median serrate</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_283" id="Fig_283"></a>
+<img src="images/fig283.png" width="600" height="138" alt="Fig. 283&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; marginal serrate" title="Fig. 283&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; marginal serrate" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 283&mdash;Parallel lines of different width; marginal serrate</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_282">figure 282</a> eight bands are shown, the marginal broad with edges
+entire, and the median pair serrated, the long teeth fitting each other
+in such a way as to impart a zigzag effect to the space which separates
+them. The remaining four lines, two on each side, appear as black
+bands on a white ground. It will be noticed that an attempt was made
+to relieve the monotony of the middle band of figure 282 by the introduction
+of a white line in zigzag form. A similar result was accomplished
+in the design shown in <a href="#Fig_283">figure 283</a> by rectangles and dots.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_708" id="Page_708">[Pg 708]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_284" id="Fig_284"></a>
+<img src="images/fig284.jpg" width="600" height="109" alt="Fig. 284&mdash;Parallel lines and triangles" title="Fig. 284&mdash;Parallel lines and triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 284&mdash;Parallel lines and triangles</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The modification of the multiple bands in <a href="#Fig_283">figure 283</a> has produced a
+very different decorative form. This design is composed of five bands,
+the marginal on each side serrate, and the middle band relatively very
+broad, with diagonals, each containing four round dots regularly
+arranged. In <a href="#Fig_284">figure 284</a> there are many parallel, noncontinuous bands
+of different breadth, arranged in groups separated by triangles with
+sides parallel, and the whole united by bounding lines. This is the
+most complicated form of design where straight lines only are used.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_285" id="Fig_285"></a>
+<img src="images/fig285.png" width="600" height="128" alt="Fig. 285&mdash;Line with alternate triangles" title="Fig. 285&mdash;Line with alternate triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 285&mdash;Line with alternate triangles</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>We have thus far considered modifications brought about by fusion
+and other changes in simple parallel lines. They may be confined to
+one side of the food bowl, may repeat each other at intervals, or surround
+the whole vessel. Ordinarily, however, they are confined to one
+side of the bowls from Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_286" id="Fig_286"></a>
+<img src="images/fig286.png" width="600" height="83" alt="Fig. 286&mdash;Single line with alternate spurs" title="Fig. 286&mdash;Single line with alternate spurs" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 286&mdash;Single line with alternate spurs</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_287" id="Fig_287"></a>
+<img src="images/fig287.png" width="600" height="79" alt="Fig. 287&mdash;Single line with hourglass figures" title="Fig. 287&mdash;Single line with hourglass figures" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 287&mdash;Single line with hourglass figures</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the single encircling band, it is found, in <a href="#Fig_285">figure 285</a>,
+broken up into alternating equilateral triangles, each pair united at
+their right angles. This modification is carried still further in <a href="#Fig_286">figure 286</a>,
+where the triangles on each side of the single line are prolonged
+into oblique spurs, the pairs separated a short distance from each
+other. In <a href="#Fig_287">figure 287</a> there is shown still another arrangement of these
+triangular decorations, the pairs forming hourglass-shape figures connected
+by an encircling line passing through their points of junction.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 391px;"><a name="PL_CLXIII" id="PL_CLXIII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxiii.jpg" width="391" height="600" alt="PL. CLXIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXIII&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_288" id="Fig_288"></a>
+<img src="images/fig288.jpg" width="600" height="77" alt="Fig. 288&mdash;Single line with triangles" title="Fig. 288&mdash;Single line with triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 288&mdash;Single line with triangles</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_289" id="Fig_289"></a>
+<img src="images/fig289.jpg" width="600" height="59" alt="Fig. 289&mdash;Single line with alternate triangles and ovals" title="Fig. 289&mdash;Single line with alternate triangles and ovals" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 289&mdash;Single line with alternate triangles and ovals</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_290" id="Fig_290"></a>
+<img src="images/fig290.jpg" width="600" height="90" alt="Fig. 290&mdash;Triangles and quadrilaterals" title="Fig. 290&mdash;Triangles and quadrilaterals" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 290&mdash;Triangles and quadrilaterals</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_291" id="Fig_291"></a>
+<img src="images/fig291.jpg" width="600" height="110" alt="Fig. 291&mdash;Triangle with spurs" title="Fig. 291&mdash;Triangle with spurs" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 291&mdash;Triangle with spurs</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_709" id="Page_709">[Pg 709]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_288">figure 288</a> the double triangles, one on each side of the encircling
+band, are so placed that their line of separation is lost, and a single
+triangle replaces the pair. These are connected by the line surrounding
+the bowl and there is a dot at the smallest angle. In <a href="#Fig_289">figure 289</a> there
+is a similar design, except that alternating with each triangle, which
+bears more decoration than that shown in figure 288, there are hourglass
+figures composed of ovals and triangles. The dots at the apex
+of that design are replaced by short parallel lines of varying width.
+The triangles and ovals last considered are arranged symmetrically in
+relation to a simple band. By a reduction in the intervening spaces
+these triangles may be brought together and the line disappears. I
+have found no specimen of design illustrating the simplest form of the
+resultant motive, but that shown in <a href="#Fig_290">figure 290</a> is a new combination
+comparable with it.</p>
+
+<p>The simple triangular decorative design reaches a high degree of
+complication in <a href="#Fig_290">figure 290</a>, where a connecting line is absent, and two
+triangles having their smallest angles facing each other are separated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_710" id="Page_710">[Pg 710]</a></span>
+by a lozenge shape figure made up of many parallel lines placed obliquely
+to the axis of the design. The central part is composed of seven
+parallel lines, the marginal of which, on two opposite sides, is minutely
+dentate. The median band is very broad and is relieved by two wavy
+white lines. The axis of the design on each side is continued into two
+triangular spurs, rising from a rectangle in the middle of each triangle.
+This complicated design is the highest development reached by the use
+of simple triangles. In <a href="#Fig_291">figure 291</a>, however, we have a simpler form of
+triangular decoration, in which no element other than the rectangle is
+employed. In the chaste decoration seen in <a href="#Fig_292">figure 292</a> the use of the
+rectangle is shown combined with the triangle on a simple encircling
+band. This design is reducible to that shown in figure 290, but is simpler,
+yet not less effective. In <a href="#Fig_293">figure 293</a> there is an aberrant form of design
+in which the triangle is used in combination with parallel and oblique
+bands. This form, while one of the simplest in its elements, is effective
+and characteristic. The triangle predominates in <a href="#Fig_294">figure 294</a>, but the
+details are worked out in rectangular patterns, producing the terraced
+designs so common in all Pueblo decorations. Rectangular figures
+are more commonly used than the triangular in the decoration of the
+exterior of the bowls, and their many combinations are often very
+perplexing to analyze.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_292" id="Fig_292"></a>
+<img src="images/fig292.jpg" width="600" height="114" alt="Fig. 292&mdash;Rectangle with single line" title="Fig. 292&mdash;Rectangle with single line" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 292&mdash;Rectangle with single line</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_293" id="Fig_293"></a>
+<img src="images/fig293.png" width="600" height="174" alt="Fig. 293&mdash;Double triangle; multiple lines" title="Fig. 293&mdash;Double triangle; multiple lines" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 293&mdash;Double triangle; multiple lines</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_294" id="Fig_294"></a>
+<img src="images/fig294.png" width="600" height="210" alt="Fig. 294&mdash;Double triangle; terraced edges" title="Fig. 294&mdash;Double triangle; terraced edges" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 294&mdash;Double triangle; terraced edges</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_295" id="Fig_295"></a>
+<img src="images/fig295.png" width="600" height="66" alt="Fig. 295&mdash;Single line; closed fret" title="Fig. 295&mdash;Single line; closed fret" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 295&mdash;Single line; closed fret</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="PL_CLXIV" id="PL_CLXIV"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxiv.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="PL. CLXIV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXIV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_296" id="Fig_296"></a>
+<img src="images/fig296.png" width="600" height="60" alt="Fig. 296&mdash;Single line; open fret" title="Fig. 296&mdash;Single line; open fret" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 296&mdash;Single line; open fret</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_297" id="Fig_297"></a>
+<img src="images/fig297.png" width="600" height="51" alt="Fig. 297&mdash;Single line; broken fret" title="Fig. 297&mdash;Single line; broken fret" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 297&mdash;Single line; broken fret</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_298" id="Fig_298"></a>
+<img src="images/fig298.png" width="600" height="129" alt="Fig. 298&mdash;Single line; parts displaced" title="Fig. 298&mdash;Single line; parts displaced" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 298&mdash;Single line; parts displaced</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_711" id="Page_711">[Pg 711]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_295">figure 295</a>, starting with the simple encircling band, it is found
+divided into alternating rectangles. The line is continuous, and hence
+one side of each rectangle is not complete. Both this design and its
+modification in <a href="#Fig_296">figure 296</a> consist of an unbroken line of equal breadth
+throughout. In the latter figure, however, the openings in the sides
+are larger or the approach to a straight line closer. The forms are
+strictly rectangular, with no additional elements. <a href="#Fig_297">Figure 297</a> introduces
+an important modification of the rectangular motive, consisting
+of a succession of lines broken at intervals, but when joined are always
+arranged at right angles.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_299" id="Fig_299"></a>
+<img src="images/fig299.png" width="600" height="43" alt="Fig. 299&mdash;Open fret; attachment displaced" title="Fig. 299&mdash;Open fret; attachment displaced" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 299&mdash;Open fret; attachment displaced</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_300" id="Fig_300"></a>
+<img src="images/fig300.png" width="600" height="198" alt="Fig. 300&mdash;Simple rectangular design" title="Fig. 300&mdash;Simple rectangular design" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 300&mdash;Simple rectangular design</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Possibly the least complex form of rectangular ornamentation, next
+to a simple bar or square, is the combination shown in <a href="#Fig_298">figure 298</a>, a type
+in which many changes are made in interior as well as in exterior decorations
+of Pueblo ware. One of these is shown in <a href="#Fig_299">figure 299</a>, where the
+figure about the vessel is continuous. An analysis of the elements in
+<a href="#Fig_300">figure 300</a> shows squares united at their angles, like the last, but that
+in addition to parallel bands connecting adjacent figures there are two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_712" id="Page_712">[Pg 712]</a></span>
+marginal lines uniting the series. Each of the inner parallel lines is
+bound to a marginal on the opposite side by a band at right angles to
+it. The marginal lines are unbroken through the length of the figure.
+Like the last, this motive also may be regarded as developed from a
+single line.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_301" id="Fig_301"></a>
+<img src="images/fig301.png" width="600" height="108" alt="Fig. 301&mdash;Rectangular reversed S-form" title="Fig. 301&mdash;Rectangular reversed S-form" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 301&mdash;Rectangular reversed S-form</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_302" id="Fig_302"></a>
+<img src="images/fig302.png" width="600" height="112" alt="Fig. 302&mdash;Rectangular S-form with crooks" title="Fig. 302&mdash;Rectangular S-form with crooks" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 302&mdash;Rectangular S-form with crooks</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_301">Figures 301</a> and <a href="#Fig_302">302</a> are even simpler than the design shown in <a href="#Fig_300">figure 300</a>,
+with appended square key patterns, all preserving rectangular
+forms and destitute of all others. They are of S-form, and differ more
+especially in the character of their appendages.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_303" id="Fig_303"></a>
+<img src="images/fig303.png" width="600" height="129" alt="Fig. 303&mdash;Rectangular S-form with triangles" title="Fig. 303&mdash;Rectangular S-form with triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 303&mdash;Rectangular S-form with triangles</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_304" id="Fig_304"></a>
+<img src="images/fig304.png" width="600" height="163" alt="Fig. 304&mdash;Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles" title="Fig. 304&mdash;Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 304&mdash;Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>While the same rectangular idea predominates in <a href="#Fig_303">figure 303</a>, it is
+worked out with the introduction of triangles and quadrilateral designs.
+This fairly compound pattern, however, is still classified among rectangular
+forms. A combination of rectangular and triangular geometric
+designs, in which, however, the former predominate, is shown in <a href="#Fig_304">figure 304</a>,
+which can readily be reduced to certain of those forms already mentioned.
+The triangles appear to be subordinated to the rectangles, and
+even they are fringed on their longer sides with terraced forms. It may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_713" id="Page_713">[Pg 713]</a></span>
+be said that there are but two elements involved, the rectangle and the
+triangle.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_305" id="Fig_305"></a>
+<img src="images/fig305.png" width="600" height="152" alt="Fig. 305&mdash;S-form with interdigitating spurs" title="Fig. 305&mdash;S-form with interdigitating spurs" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 305&mdash;S-form with interdigitating spurs</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The decoration in <a href="#Fig_305">figure 305</a> consists of rectangular and triangular
+figures, the latter so closely approximated as to leave zigzag lines in
+white. These lines are simply highly modified breaks in bands which
+join in other designs, and lead by comparison to the so-called "line of
+life" which many of these figures illustrate.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_306" id="Fig_306"></a>
+<img src="images/fig306.png" width="600" height="176" alt="Fig. 306&mdash;Square with rectangles and parallel lines" title="Fig. 306&mdash;Square with rectangles and parallel lines" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 306&mdash;Square with rectangles and parallel lines</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_307" id="Fig_307"></a>
+<img src="images/fig307.jpg" width="600" height="93" alt="Fig. 307&mdash;Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers" title="Fig. 307&mdash;Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 307&mdash;Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The distinctive feature of <a href="#Fig_306">figure 306</a> is the square, with rectangular
+designs appended to diagonally opposite angles and small triangles at
+intermediate corners. These designs have a distant resemblance to
+figures later referred to as highly conventionalized birds, although
+they may be merely simple geometrical patterns which have lost their
+symbolic meaning.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_308" id="Fig_308"></a>
+<img src="images/fig308.png" width="600" height="119" alt="Fig. 308&mdash;Crook, feathers, and parallel lines" title="Fig. 308&mdash;Crook, feathers, and parallel lines" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 308&mdash;Crook, feathers, and parallel lines</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_307">Figure 307</a> shows a complicated design, introducing at least two
+elements in addition to rectangles and triangles. One of these is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_714" id="Page_714">[Pg 714]</a></span>
+curved crook etched on a black ground. In no other exterior decoration
+have curved lines been found except in the form of circles, and it
+is worthy of note how large a proportion of the figures are drawn in
+straight lines. The circular figures with three parallel lines extending
+from them are found so constantly in exterior decorations, and are so
+strikingly like some of the figures elsewhere discussed, that I have ventured
+a suggestion in regard to their meaning. I believe they represent
+feathers, because the tail-feathers of certain birds are symbolized in
+that manner, and their number corresponds with those generally
+depicted in the highly conventionalized tails of birds. With this
+thought in mind, it may be interesting to compare the two projections,
+one on each side of the three tail-feathers of this figure, with the
+extremity of the body of a bird shown in <a href="#PL_CXLI">plate <span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>, <i>e</i>. On the supposition
+that a bird figure was intended in this design, it is interesting also
+to note the rectangular decorations of the body and the association with
+stars made of three blocks in several bird figures, as already described.
+It is instructive also to note the fact that the figure of a maid represented
+in <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>, has two of the round designs with appended
+parallel lines hanging to her garment, and four parallel marks drawn
+from her blanket. It is still customary in Hopi ceremonials to tie
+feathers to the garments of those who personate certain mythic beings,
+and it is possible that such was also the custom at Sikyatki. If so, it
+affords additional evidence that the parallel lines are representations of
+feathers.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_309" id="Fig_309"></a>
+<img src="images/fig309.png" width="600" height="94" alt="Fig. 309&mdash;Crooks and feathers" title="Fig. 309&mdash;Crooks and feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 309&mdash;Crooks and feathers</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_310" id="Fig_310"></a>
+<img src="images/fig310.jpg" width="600" height="90" alt="Fig. 310&mdash;Rectangle, triangles, and feathers" title="Fig. 310&mdash;Rectangle, triangles, and feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 310&mdash;Rectangle, triangles, and feathers</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_311" id="Fig_311"></a>
+<img src="images/fig311.jpg" width="600" height="127" alt="Fig. 311&mdash;Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers" title="Fig. 311&mdash;Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 311&mdash;Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;"><a name="PL_CLXV" id="PL_CLXV"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxv.jpg" width="388" height="600" alt="PL. CLXV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXV&mdash;
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_308">figure 308</a> a number of these parallel lines are represented, and
+the general character of the design is rectangular. In <a href="#Fig_309">figure 309</a> is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_715" id="Page_715">[Pg 715]</a></span>
+shown a combination of rectangular and triangular figures with three
+tapering points and circles with lines at their tips radiating instead of
+parallel. Another modification is shown in <a href="#Fig_310">figure 310</a> in which the
+triangle predominates, and <a href="#Fig_311">figure 311</a> evidently represents one-half of
+a similar device with modifications.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_312" id="Fig_312"></a>
+<img src="images/fig312.png" width="600" height="180" alt="Fig. 312&mdash;Double key" title="Fig. 312&mdash;Double key" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 312&mdash;Double key</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_313" id="Fig_313"></a>
+<img src="images/fig313.jpg" width="600" height="164" alt="Fig. 313&mdash;Triangular terrace" title="Fig. 313&mdash;Triangular terrace" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 313&mdash;Triangular terrace</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>One of the most common designs on ancient pottery is the stepped
+figure, a rectangular ornamentation, modifications of which are shown
+in figures 312-314. This is a very common design on the interior of
+food vessels, where it is commonly interpreted as a rain-cloud symbol.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_314" id="Fig_314"></a>
+<img src="images/fig314.png" width="600" height="214" alt="Fig. 314&mdash;Crook, serrate end" title="Fig. 314&mdash;Crook, serrate end" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 314&mdash;Crook, serrate end</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Of all patterns on ancient Tusayan ware, that of the terrace figures
+most closely resemble the geometrical ornamentation of cliff-house pottery,
+and there seems every reason to suppose that this form of design
+admits of a like interpretation. The evolution of this pattern from
+plaited basketry has been ably discussed by Holmes and Nordenski&ouml;ld,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_716" id="Page_716">[Pg 716]</a></span>
+whose works have already been quoted in this memoir. The terraced
+forms from the exterior of food bowls here considered are highly
+aberrent; they may be forms of survivals, motives of decoration which
+have persisted from very early times. Whatever the origin of the
+stepped figure in Pueblo art was, it is well to remember, as shown by
+Holmes, that it is "impossible to show that any particular design of the
+highly constituted kind was desired through a certain identifiable series
+of progressive steps."</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_315" id="Fig_315"></a>
+<img src="images/fig315.png" width="600" height="173" alt="Fig. 315&mdash;Key pattern; rectangle and triangles" title="Fig. 315&mdash;Key pattern; rectangle and triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 315&mdash;Key pattern; rectangle and triangles</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_316" id="Fig_316"></a>
+<img src="images/fig316.jpg" width="600" height="123" alt="Fig. 316&mdash;Rectangle and crook" title="Fig. 316&mdash;Rectangle and crook" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 316&mdash;Rectangle and crook</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>For some unknown reason the majority of the simple designs on the
+exterior of food bowls from Tusayan are rectangular, triangular, or
+linear in their character. Many can be reduced to simple or multiple
+lines. Others were suggested by plaited ware.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_317" id="Fig_317"></a>
+<img src="images/fig317.png" width="600" height="206" alt="Fig. 317&mdash;Crook and tail feathers" title="Fig. 317&mdash;Crook and tail feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 317&mdash;Crook and tail feathers</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_312">figure 312</a> is found one of the simplest of rectangular designs, a
+simple band, key pattern in form, at one end, with a reentrant square
+depression at the opposite extremity. In <a href="#Fig_313">figure 313</a> is an equally
+simple terrace pattern with stepped figures at the ends and in the
+middle. These forms are common decorative elements on the exterior
+of jars and vases, where they occur in many combinations, all of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_717" id="Page_717">[Pg 717]</a></span>
+are reducible to these types. The simplest form of the key pattern is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_314">figure 314</a>, and in <a href="#Fig_315">figure 315</a> there is a second modification
+of the same design a little more complicated. This becomes somewhat
+changed in <a href="#Fig_316">figure 316</a>, not only by the modifications of the two extremities,
+but also by the addition of a median geometric figure.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_318" id="Fig_318"></a>
+<img src="images/fig318.png" width="600" height="92" alt="Fig. 318&mdash;Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs" title="Fig. 318&mdash;Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 318&mdash;Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_319" id="Fig_319"></a>
+<img src="images/fig319.png" width="600" height="192" alt="Fig. 319&mdash;W-pattern; terminal crooks" title="Fig. 319&mdash;W-pattern; terminal crooks" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 319&mdash;W-pattern; terminal crooks</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_320" id="Fig_320"></a>
+<img src="images/fig320.png" width="600" height="133" alt="Fig. 320&mdash;W-pattern; terminal rectangles" title="Fig. 320&mdash;W-pattern; terminal rectangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 320&mdash;W-pattern; terminal rectangles</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The design in <a href="#Fig_317">figure 317</a> is rectangular, showing a key pattern at one
+end, with two long feathers at the opposite extremity. The five bodies
+on the same end of the figure are unique and comparable with conventionalized
+star emblems. The series of designs in the upper left-hand
+end of this figure are unlike any which have yet been found on the
+exterior of food bowls, but are similar to designs which have elsewhere
+been interpreted as feathers. On the hypothesis that these two parts
+of the figure are tail-feathers, we find in the crook the analogue of the
+head of a bird. Thus the designs on the equator of the vase (<a href="#PL_CXLV">plate
+<span class="smcap">cxlv</span></a>, <i>a</i>), which are birds, have the same crook for the head, and two
+simple tail-feathers, rudely drawn but comparable with the two in <a href="#Fig_317">figure 317</a>.
+The five dentate bodies on the lower left-hand end of the figure
+also tell in favor of the avian character of the design, for the following
+reason: These bodies are often found accompanying figures of conventionalized
+birds (<a href="#PL_CXLIV">plates <span class="smcap">cxliv</span></a>, <a href="#PL_CLIV"><span class="smcap">cliv</span></a>, and others). They are regarded
+as modified crosses of equal arms, which are all but universally present
+in combinations with birds and feathers (<a href="#PL_CXLIV">plates <span class="smcap">cxliv</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>; <a href="#PL_CLIV"><span class="smcap">cliv</span></a>, <i>a</i>), from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_718" id="Page_718">[Pg 718]</a></span>
+the fact that in a line of crosses depicted on a bowl one of the crosses
+is replaced by a design of similar character. The arms of the cross are
+represented; their intersection is left in white. The interpretation of
+<a href="#Fig_317">figure 317</a> as a highly conventionalized bird design is also in accord
+with the same interpretation of a number of similar, although less complicated,
+figures which appear with crosses. Thus the three arms of
+<a href="#PL_CLX">plate <span class="smcap">clx</span></a>, <i>a</i>, have highly conventionalized bird symbols attached to
+their extremities. In the cross figure shown in <a href="#PL_CLVIII">plate <span class="smcap">clviii</span></a>, <i>d</i>, we find
+four bird figures with short, stumpy tail-feathers. These highly conventionalized
+birds, with the head in the form of a crook and the tail-feathers
+as parallel lines, are illustrated on many pottery objects,
+nowhere better, however, than in those shown in <a href="#PL_CXXVI">plates <span class="smcap">cxxvi</span></a>, <i>a</i>, and
+<a href="#PL_CLX"><span class="smcap">clx</span></a>, <i>e</i>. <a href="#Fig_318">Figure 318</a> may be compared with <a href="#Fig_317">figure 317</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_321" id="Fig_321"></a>
+<img src="images/fig321.png" width="600" height="209" alt="Fig. 321&mdash;W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks." title="Fig. 321&mdash;W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 321&mdash;W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks.</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_322" id="Fig_322"></a>
+<img src="images/fig322.jpg" width="600" height="175" alt="Fig. 322&mdash;W-pattern; terminal spurs" title="Fig. 322&mdash;W-pattern; terminal spurs" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 322&mdash;W-pattern; terminal spurs</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Numerous modifications of a key pattern, often assuming a double
+triangular form, but with rectangular elements, are found on the exterior
+of many food bowls. These are variations of a pattern the simplest
+form of which is shown in <a href="#Fig_319">figure 319</a>. Resolving this figure into
+two parts by drawing a median line, we find the arrangement is bilaterally
+symmetrical, the two sides exactly corresponding. Each side
+consists of a simple key pattern with the shank inclined to the rim of
+the bowl and a bird emblem at its junction with the other member.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_320">figure 320</a> there is a greater development of this pattern by an
+elaboration of the key, which is continued in a line resembling a
+square spiral. There are also dentations on a section of the edge of
+the lines.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;"><a name="PL_CLXVI" id="PL_CLXVI"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxvi.jpg" width="401" height="600" alt="PL. CLXVI&mdash;
+LINEAR FIGURES ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXVI&mdash;
+LINEAR FIGURES ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">LINEAR FIGURES ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_719" id="Page_719">[Pg 719]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_321">figure 321</a> there is a still further development of the same design
+and a lack of symmetry on the two sides. The square spirals are
+replaced on the left by three stepped figures, and white spaces with
+parallel lines are introduced in the arms of a W-shape figure.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_323" id="Fig_323"></a>
+<img src="images/fig323.png" width="600" height="309" alt="Fig. 323&mdash;W-pattern; bird form" title="Fig. 323&mdash;W-pattern; bird form" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 323&mdash;W-pattern; bird form</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_322">figure 322</a> the same design is again somewhat changed by modification
+of the spirals into three triangles rimmed on one side with a
+row of dots, which are also found on the outer lines surrounding the
+lower part of the design.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_324" id="Fig_324"></a>
+<img src="images/fig324.png" width="600" height="119" alt="Fig. 324&mdash;W-pattern; median triangle" title="Fig. 324&mdash;W-pattern; median triangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 324&mdash;W-pattern; median triangle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_323">figure 323</a> the same W shape design is preserved, but the space
+in the lower reentrant angle is occupied by a symmetrical figure
+resembling two tail-feathers and the extremity of the body of a bird.
+When this figure is compared with the design on <a href="#PL_CXLVI">plate <span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>, <i>a</i>, resemblances
+are found in the two lateral appendages or wings. The star
+emblem is also present in the design. The median figure in that design
+which I have compared to the tail of a bird is replaced in <a href="#Fig_324">figure 324</a> by
+a triangular ornament. The two wings are not symmetrical, but no
+new decorative element is introduced. It, however, will be noticed that
+there is a want of symmetry on the two sides of a vertical line in the
+figure last mentioned. The right-hand upper side is continued into
+five pointed projections, which fail on the left-hand side. There is likewise
+a difference in the arrangement of the terraced figures in the two
+parts. The sides of the median triangles are formed of alternating black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_720" id="Page_720">[Pg 720]</a></span>
+and white blocks, and the quadrate figure which it incloses is etched
+with a diagonal and cross.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_325" id="Fig_325"></a>
+<img src="images/fig325.png" width="600" height="144" alt="Fig. 325&mdash;Double triangle; two breath feathers" title="Fig. 325&mdash;Double triangle; two breath feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 325&mdash;Double triangle; two breath feathers</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_326" id="Fig_326"></a>
+<img src="images/fig326.png" width="600" height="142" alt="Fig. 326&mdash;Double triangle; median trapezoid" title="Fig. 326&mdash;Double triangle; median trapezoid" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 326&mdash;Double triangle; median trapezoid</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The decoration in <a href="#Fig_325">figure 325</a> consists of two triangles side by side,
+each having marginal serrations, and a median square key pattern.
+One side of these triangles is continued into a line from which hang
+two breath feathers, while the other end of the same line ends in a
+round dot with four radiating, straight lines. The triangles recall the
+butterfly symbol, the key pattern representing the head.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_327" id="Fig_327"></a>
+<img src="images/fig327.png" width="600" height="147" alt="Fig. 327&mdash;Double triangle; median rectangle" title="Fig. 327&mdash;Double triangle; median rectangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 327&mdash;Double triangle; median rectangle</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_328" id="Fig_328"></a>
+<img src="images/fig328.png" width="600" height="100" alt="Fig. 328&mdash;Double compound triangle; median rectangle" title="Fig. 328&mdash;Double compound triangle; median rectangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 328&mdash;Double compound triangle; median rectangle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#Fig_326">figure 326</a> there is a still more aberrant form of the W-shape
+design. The wings are folded, ending in triangles, and prolonged at
+their angles into projections to which are appended round dots with
+three parallel lines. The median portion, or that in the reentrant
+angle of the W, is a four-sided figure in which the triangle predominates
+with notched edges. <a href="#Fig_327">Figure 327</a> shows the same design with
+the median portion replaced by a rectangle, and in which the key<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_721" id="Page_721">[Pg 721]</a></span>
+pattern has wholly disappeared from the wings. In <a href="#Fig_328">figure 328</a> there
+are still greater modifications, but the symmetry about a median axis
+remains. The ends of the wings instead of being folded are expanded,
+and the three triangles formerly inclosed are now free and extended.
+The simple median rectangle is ornamented with a terrace pattern on
+its lower angles.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_329" id="Fig_329"></a>
+<img src="images/fig329.png" width="600" height="107" alt="Fig. 329&mdash;Double triangle; median triangle" title="Fig. 329&mdash;Double triangle; median triangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 329&mdash;Double triangle; median triangle</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_330" id="Fig_330"></a>
+<img src="images/fig330.png" width="600" height="107" alt="Fig. 330&mdash;Double compound triangle" title="Fig. 330&mdash;Double compound triangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 330&mdash;Double compound triangle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_329">Figure 329</a> shows a design in which the extended triangles are even
+more regular and simple, with triangular terraced figures on their
+inner edge. The median figure is a triangle instead of a rectangle.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_331" id="Fig_331"></a>
+<img src="images/fig331.png" width="600" height="144" alt="Fig. 331&mdash;Double rectangle; median rectangle" title="Fig. 331&mdash;Double rectangle; median rectangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 331&mdash;Double rectangle; median rectangle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_330">Figure 330</a> shows the same design with modification in the position
+of the median figure, and a slight curvature in two of its sides.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_332" id="Fig_332"></a>
+<img src="images/fig332.png" width="600" height="177" alt="Fig. 332&mdash;Double rectangle; median triangle" title="Fig. 332&mdash;Double rectangle; median triangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 332&mdash;Double rectangle; median triangle</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_333" id="Fig_333"></a>
+<img src="images/fig333.png" width="600" height="90" alt="Fig. 333&mdash;Double triangle with crooks" title="Fig. 333&mdash;Double triangle with crooks" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 333&mdash;Double triangle with crooks</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Somewhat similar designs, readily reduced to the same type as the
+last three or four which have been mentioned, are shown in <a href="#Fig_331">figures 331</a> and <a href="#Fig_332">332</a>.
+The resemblances are so close that I need not refer to
+them in detail. The W form is wholly lost, and there is no resemblance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_722" id="Page_722">[Pg 722]</a></span>
+to a bird, even in its most highly conventionalized forms. The median
+design in <a href="#Fig_331">figure 331</a> consists of a rectangle and two triangles so arranged
+as to leave a rectangular white space between them. In <a href="#Fig_332">figure 332</a> the
+median triangle is crossed by parallel and vertical zigzag lines.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_334" id="Fig_334"></a>
+<img src="images/fig334.png" width="600" height="100" alt="Fig. 334&mdash;W-shape figure; single line with feathers" title="Fig. 334&mdash;W-shape figure; single line with feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 334&mdash;W-shape figure; single line with feathers</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the design represented in <a href="#Fig_333">figure 333</a> there are two triangular figures,
+one on each side of a median line, in relation to which they are
+symmetrical. Each triangle has a simple key pattern in the middle,
+and the line from which they appear to hang is blocked off with alternating
+black and white rectangles. At either extremity of this line
+there is a circular dot from which extend four parallel lines.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_335" id="Fig_335"></a>
+<img src="images/fig335.png" width="600" height="119" alt="Fig. 335&mdash;Compound rectangle, triangles, and feathers" title="Fig. 335&mdash;Compound rectangle, triangles, and feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 335&mdash;Compound rectangle, triangles, and feathers</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat simpler form of the same design is found in <a href="#Fig_334">figure 334</a>,
+showing a straight line above terminating with dots, from which extend
+parallel lines, and two triangular figures below, symmetrically placed
+in reference to an hypothetical upright line between them.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_336" id="Fig_336"></a>
+<img src="images/fig336.png" width="600" height="88" alt="Fig. 336&mdash;Double triangle" title="Fig. 336&mdash;Double triangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 336&mdash;Double triangle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_335">Figure 335</a> bears a similarity to the last mentioned only so far as the
+lower half of the design is concerned. The upper part is not symmetrical,
+but no new decorative element is introduced. Triangles, frets,
+and terraced figures are inserted between two parallel lines which terminate
+in round dots with parallel lines.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"><a name="PL_CLXVII" id="PL_CLXVII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxvii.jpg" width="385" height="600" alt="PL. CLXVII&mdash;
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI" title="PL. CLXVII&mdash;
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_337" id="Fig_337"></a>
+<img src="images/fig337.jpg" width="600" height="85" alt="Fig. 337&mdash;Double triangle and feathers" title="Fig. 337&mdash;Double triangle and feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 337&mdash;Double triangle and feathers</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The design in <a href="#Fig_336">figure 336</a> is likewise unsymmetrical, but it has two
+lateral triangles with incurved terrace and dentate patterns. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_723" id="Page_723">[Pg 723]</a></span>
+same general form is exhibited in <a href="#Fig_337">figure 337</a>, with the introduction of
+two pointed appendages facing the hypothetical middle line. From
+the general form of these pointed designs, each of which is double,
+they have been interpreted as feathers. They closely resemble the tail-feathers
+of bird figures on several bowls in the collection, as will be seen
+in several of the illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_338" id="Fig_338"></a>
+<img src="images/fig338.png" width="600" height="133" alt="Fig. 338&mdash;Twin triangles" title="Fig. 338&mdash;Twin triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 338&mdash;Twin triangles</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_339" id="Fig_339"></a>
+<img src="images/fig339.png" width="600" height="184" alt="Fig. 339&mdash;Triangle with terraced appendages" title="Fig. 339&mdash;Triangle with terraced appendages" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 339&mdash;Triangle with terraced appendages</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_340" id="Fig_340"></a>
+<img src="images/fig340.png" width="600" height="99" alt="Fig. 340&mdash;Mosaic pattern" title="Fig. 340&mdash;Mosaic pattern" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 340&mdash;Mosaic pattern</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_338">Figure 338</a> is composed of two triangular designs fused at the greatest
+angles. The regularity of these triangles is broken by a square space
+at the fusion. At each of the acute angles of the two triangles there
+are circular designs with radiating lines, a common motive on the
+exterior of food bowls. Although no new elements appear in figure
+338, with the exception of bracket marks, one on each side of a circle,
+the arrangement of the two parts symmetrically about a line parallel
+with the rim of the bowl imparts to the design a unique form. The
+motive in <a href="#Fig_339">figure 339</a> is reducible to triangular and rectangular forms,
+and while exceptional as to their arrangement, no new decorative feature
+is introduced.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_724" id="Page_724">[Pg 724]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The specimen represented in <a href="#Fig_340">figure 340</a> has as its decorative elements,
+rectangles, triangles, parallel lines, and birds' tails, to which
+may be added star and crosshatch motives. It is therefore the most
+complicated of all the exterior decorations which have thus far been
+considered. There is no symmetry in the arrangement of figures about
+a central axis, but rather a repetition of similar designs.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_341" id="Fig_341"></a>
+<img src="images/fig341.png" width="600" height="99" alt="Fig. 341&mdash;Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel lines" title="Fig. 341&mdash;Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel lines" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 341&mdash;Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel lines</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The use of crosshatching is very common on the most ancient Pueblo
+ware, and is very common in designs on cliff-house pottery. This style
+of decoration is only sparingly used on Sikyatki ware. The crosshatching
+is provisionally interpreted as a mosaic pattern, and reminds one
+of those beautiful forms of turquois mosaic on shell, bone, or wood
+found in ancient pueblos, and best known in modern times in the square
+ear pendants of Hopi women. <a href="#Fig_340">Figure 340</a> is one of the few designs
+having terraced figures with short parallel lines depending from them.
+These figures vividly recall the rain-cloud symbol with falling rain represented
+by the parallel lines. <a href="#Fig_341">Figure 341</a> is a perfectly symmetrical
+design with figures of stars, rectangles, and parallel lines. It may be
+compared with that shown in <a href="#Fig_340">figure 340</a> in order to demonstrate how
+wide the difference in design may become by the absence of symmetrical
+relationship. It has been shown in some of the previous motives
+that the crook sometimes represents a bird's head, and parallel lines
+appended to it the tail-feathers. Possibly the same interpretation may
+be given to these designs in the following figures, and the presence of
+stars adjacent to them lends weight to this hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_342" id="Fig_342"></a>
+<img src="images/fig342.png" width="600" height="81" alt="Fig. 342&mdash;Continuous crooks" title="Fig. 342&mdash;Continuous crooks" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 342&mdash;Continuous crooks</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_343" id="Fig_343"></a>
+<img src="images/fig343.jpg" width="600" height="148" alt="Fig. 343&mdash;Rectangular terrace pattern" title="Fig. 343&mdash;Rectangular terrace pattern" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 343&mdash;Rectangular terrace pattern</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>An indefinite repetition of the same pattern of rectangular design is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_342">figure 342</a>. This highly decorative motive may be varied
+indefinitely by extension or concentration, and while it is modified in
+that manner in many of the decorations of vases, it is not so changed
+on the exterior of food bowls.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_725" id="Page_725">[Pg 725]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There are a number of forms which I am unable to classify with the
+foregoing, none of which show any new decorative design. All possible
+changes have been made in them without abandoning the elemental
+ornamental motives already considered. The tendency to step or terrace
+patterns predominates, as exemplified in simple form in <a href="#Fig_343">figure 343</a>.
+In <a href="#Fig_344">figure 344</a> there is a different arrangement of the same terrace
+pattern, and the design is helped out with parallel bands of different
+length at the ends of a rectangular figure. A variation in the depth
+of color of these lines adds to the effectiveness of the design. This
+style of ornamentation is successfully used in the designs represented
+in <a href="#Fig_345">figures 345</a> and <a href="#Fig_346">346</a>, in the body of which a crescentic figure in the
+black serves to add variety to a design otherwise monotonous. The
+two appendages to the right of figure 346 are interpreted as feathers,
+although their depart forms widely from that usually assumed by these
+designs. The terraced patterns are replaced by dentate margins in
+this figure, and there is a successful use of most of the rectangular and
+triangular designs.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_344" id="Fig_344"></a>
+<img src="images/fig344.jpg" width="600" height="149" alt="Fig. 344&mdash;Terrace pattern with parallel lines" title="Fig. 344&mdash;Terrace pattern with parallel lines" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 344&mdash;Terrace pattern with parallel lines</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_345" id="Fig_345"></a>
+<img src="images/fig345.jpg" width="600" height="99" alt="Fig. 345&mdash;Terrace pattern" title="Fig. 345&mdash;Terrace pattern" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 345&mdash;Terrace pattern</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_346" id="Fig_346"></a>
+<img src="images/fig346.jpg" width="600" height="139" alt="Fig. 346&mdash;Triangular pattern with feathers" title="Fig. 346&mdash;Triangular pattern with feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 346&mdash;Triangular pattern with feathers</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the specimens represented in <a href="#Fig_347">figures 347</a> and <a href="#Fig_348">348</a> marginal dentations
+are used. I have called the design referred to an S-form, which,
+however, owing to its elongation is somewhat masked. The oblique
+bar in the middle of the figure represents the body of the letter, the
+two extremities taking the forms of triangles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_726" id="Page_726">[Pg 726]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_347" id="Fig_347"></a>
+<img src="images/fig347.png" width="600" height="124" alt="Fig. 347&mdash;S-pattern" title="Fig. 347&mdash;S-pattern" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 347&mdash;S-pattern</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_348" id="Fig_348"></a>
+<img src="images/fig348.png" width="600" height="122" alt="Fig. 348&mdash;Triangular and terrace figures" title="Fig. 348&mdash;Triangular and terrace figures" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 348&mdash;Triangular and terrace figures</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>So far as decorative elements are concerned the design in <a href="#Fig_349">figure 349</a>
+can be compared with some of those preceding, but it differs from them
+in combination. The motive in <a href="#Fig_350">figure 350</a> is not unlike the ornamentation
+of certain oriental vases, except from the presence of the terraced
+figures. In <a href="#Fig_351">figure 351</a> there are two designs separated by an inclined
+break the edge of which is dentate. This figure is introduced to show
+the method of treatment of alternating triangles of varying depth of
+color and the breaks in the marginal bands or "lines of life." One of
+the simplest combinations of triangular and rectangular figures is
+shown in <a href="#Fig_353">figure 353</a>, proving how effectually the original design may
+be obscured by concentration.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_349" id="Fig_349"></a>
+<img src="images/fig349.png" width="600" height="87" alt="Fig. 349&mdash;Crook, terrace, and parallel lines" title="Fig. 349&mdash;Crook, terrace, and parallel lines" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 349&mdash;Crook, terrace, and parallel lines</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_350" id="Fig_350"></a>
+<img src="images/fig350.png" width="600" height="75" alt="Fig. 350&mdash;Triangles, squares, and terraces" title="Fig. 350&mdash;Triangles, squares, and terraces" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 350&mdash;Triangles, squares, and terraces</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>In the foregoing descriptions I have endeavored to demonstrate that,
+notwithstanding the great variety of designs considered, the types
+used are very limited in number. The geometrical forms are rarely
+curved lines, and it may be said that spirals, which appear so constantly
+on pottery from other (and possibly equally ancient or older) pueblos
+than Sikyatki, are absent in the external decorations of specimens
+found in the ruins of the latter village.</p>
+
+<p>Every student of ancient and modern Pueblo pottery has been
+impressed by the predominance of terraced figures in its ornamentation,
+and the meaning of these terraces has elsewhere been spoken of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_727" id="Page_727">[Pg 727]</a></span>
+at some length. It would, I believe, be going too far to say that these
+step designs always represent clouds, as in some instances they are
+produced by such an arrangement of rectangular figures that no other
+forms could result.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;"><a name="PL_CLXVIII" id="PL_CLXVIII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxviii.jpg" width="394" height="600" alt="PL. CLXVIII&mdash;
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI" title="PL. CLXVIII&mdash;
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_351" id="Fig_351"></a>
+<img src="images/fig351.jpg" width="600" height="105" alt="Fig. 351&mdash;Bifurcated rectangular design" title="Fig. 351&mdash;Bifurcated rectangular design" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 351&mdash;Bifurcated rectangular design</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_352" id="Fig_352"></a>
+<img src="images/fig352.jpg" width="600" height="108" alt="Fig. 352&mdash;Lines of life and triangles" title="Fig. 352&mdash;Lines of life and triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 352&mdash;Lines of life and triangles</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_353" id="Fig_353"></a>
+<img src="images/fig353.png" width="600" height="227" alt="Fig. 353&mdash;Infolded triangles" title="Fig. 353&mdash;Infolded triangles" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 353&mdash;Infolded triangles</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The material at hand adds nothing new to the theory of the evolution
+of the terraced ornament from basketry or textile productions, so
+ably discussed by Holmes, Nordenski&ouml;ld, and others. When the Sikyatki
+potters decorated their ware the ornamentation of pottery had
+reached a high development, and figures both simple and complicated
+were used contemporaneously. While, therefore, we can so arrange
+them as to make a series, tracing modifications from simple to complex
+designs, thus forming a supposed line of evolution, it is evident that
+there is no proof that the simplest figures are the oldest. The great
+number of terraced figures and their use in the representation of
+animals seem to me to indicate that they antedate all others, and I see
+no reason why they should not have been derived from basketry patterns.
+We must, however, look to pottery with decorations less highly
+developed for evidence bearing on this point. The Sikyatki artists had
+advanced beyond simple geometric figures, and had so highly modified
+these that it is impossible to determine the primitive form.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_728" id="Page_728">[Pg 728]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As I have shown elsewhere, the human hand is used as a decorative
+element in the ornamentation of the interior of several food bowls. It
+is likewise in one instance chosen to adorn the exterior. It is the only
+part of the human limbs thus used. <a href="#Fig_354">Figure 354</a> shows the hand with
+marks on the palm probably intended to represent the lines which are
+used in the measurement of the length of pahos or prayer-sticks. From
+between the index and the middle finger rises a line which recalls that
+spoken of in the account of the hand on the interior of the food bowl
+shown in <a href="#PL_CXXXVII">plate <span class="smcap">cxxxvii</span></a>.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_354" id="Fig_354"></a>
+<img src="images/fig354.jpg" width="600" height="122" alt="Fig. 354&mdash;Human hand" title="Fig. 354&mdash;Human hand" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 354&mdash;Human hand</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The limb of an animal with a paw, or possibly a human arm and hand,
+appears as a decoration on the outside of another food bowl, where it is
+combined with the ever-constant stepped figure, as shown in <a href="#Fig_355">figure 355</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_355" id="Fig_355"></a>
+<img src="images/fig355.png" width="600" height="172" alt="Fig. 355&mdash;Animal paw, limb, and triangle" title="Fig. 355&mdash;Animal paw, limb, and triangle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 355&mdash;Animal paw, limb, and triangle</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>PIGMENTS</h4>
+
+<p>The ancient Sikyatki people were accustomed to deposit in their
+mortuary vessels fragments of minerals or ground oxides and carbonates,
+of different colors, used as paints. It thus appears evident that
+these substances were highly prized in ancient as in modern times, and
+it may be mentioned that the present native priests regard the pigments
+found in the graves as so particularly efficacious in coloring their ceremonial
+paraphernalia that they begged me to give them fragments for
+that purpose. The green color, which was the most common, is an
+impure carbonate of copper, the same as that with which pahos are
+painted for ceremonial use today. Several shallow, saucer-like vessels
+contained yellow ocher, and others sesquioxide of iron, which afforded
+both the ancients and the moderns the red pigment called <i>cuta</i>, an
+especial favorite of the warrior societies. The inner surface of some of
+the bowls is stained with the pigments which they had formerly contained,
+and it was not uncommon to find several small paint pots
+deposited in a single grave. The white used was an impure kaolin,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_729" id="Page_729">[Pg 729]</a></span>
+which was found both in masses and in powdered form, and there were
+unearthed several disks of this material which had been cut into definite
+shape as if for a special purpose.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"><a name="PL_CLXIX" id="PL_CLXIX"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxix.jpg" width="378" height="600" alt="PL. CLXIX&mdash;
+ARROWSHAFT SMOOTHERS, SELENITE, AND SYMBOLIC CORN FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXIX&mdash;
+ARROWSHAFT SMOOTHERS, SELENITE, AND SYMBOLIC CORN FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">ARROWSHAFT SMOOTHERS, SELENITE, AND SYMBOLIC CORN FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>One of these disks or circular plates (<a href="#Fig_356">figure 356</a>) was found on the head
+of a skeleton. The rim is rounded, and the opposite faces are concave,
+with a perforation in the middle. Other forms of this worked kaolin
+are spherical, oblong, or lamellar, sometimes more or less decorated on
+the outer surface, as shown in <a href="#PL_CLXXII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxii</span></a>, <i>e</i>. Another, shown in
+<i>f</i>, of the same plate, is cylindrical, and other fragments of irregular
+shapes were found. A pigment made of micaceous hematite was found
+in one of the Sikyatki paint jars. This material is still used as coloring
+matter by the Tusayan Indians, by whom it is called <i>yayala</i>, and
+is highly prized by the members of the warrior societies.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_356" id="Fig_356"></a>
+<img src="images/fig356.jpg" width="600" height="333" alt="Fig. 356&mdash;Kaolin disk (natural size)" title="Fig. 356&mdash;Kaolin disk (natural size)" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 356&mdash;Kaolin disk (natural size)</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>STONE OBJECTS</h4>
+
+<p>Almost every grave at Sikyatki contained stone objects which were
+found either in the bowls or in the soil in the immediate neighborhood
+of the skeletons. Some of these implements are pecked or chipped,
+others are smooth&mdash;pebbles apparently chosen for their botryoidal
+shape, polished surface, or fancied resemblance to some animal or other
+form.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the smooth stones were probably simply polishing stones,
+used by the women in rubbing pottery to a gloss before it was fired.
+Others were charm stones such as are still employed in making medicine,
+as elsewhere described. There were still other stones which,
+from their resemblance to animals, may have been personal fetishes.
+Among the unusual forms of stones found in this association is a
+quartz crystal. As I have shown in describing several ceremonies still
+observed, a quartz crystal is used to deflect a ray of sunlight into
+the medicine bowl, and is placed in the center of a sand picture of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_730" id="Page_730">[Pg 730]</a></span>
+the sun in certain rites called <i>Powalaw&ucirc;</i>; the crystal is also used in
+divining, and for other purposes, and is highly prized by modern
+Tusayan priests.</p>
+
+<p>A botryoidal fragment of hematite found in a grave reminds me that in
+the so-called Antelope rock<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> at Walpi, around which the Snake dancers
+biennially carry reptiles in their mouths, there is in one side a niche in
+which is placed a much larger mass of that material, to which prayers
+are addressed on certain ceremonial occasions, and upon which sacred
+meal and prayer emblems are placed.</p>
+
+<p>One or two mortuary bowls contained fragments of stalactites apparently
+from the Grand canyon of the Colorado or from some other
+locality where water is or has been abundant.</p>
+
+<p>The loose shaly deposit which underlies the Tusayan mesas contains
+many cephalopod fossils, a collection of which was made in former
+years and deposited in the National Museum. Among these the most
+beautiful are small cephalopods called by the Hopi, <i>koaitcoko</i>. Among
+the many sacred objects in the <i>tiponi</i> baskets of the Lalakonti society,
+as described in my account<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> of the unwrapping of that fetish, there
+was a specimen of this ammonite; that the shell was preserved in this
+sacred bundle is sufficient proof that it is highly venerated. As a
+natural object with a definite form it is regarded as a fetish which is
+looked upon with reverence by the knowing ones and pronounced bad
+by the uninitiated. The occurrence of this fossil in one of the mortuary
+bowls is in harmony with the same idea and shows that it was regarded
+in a similar light by the ancient occupants of Sikyatki.</p>
+
+<p>But the resemblance of these and other stones to animal fossils<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> is
+not always so remote as in the instances above mentioned. There was
+in one grave a single large fetish of a mountain lion, made of sandstone
+(<a href="#PL_CLXXII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>), in which legs, ears, tail, and eyes are represented,
+and the mouth still retains the red pigment with which it was
+colored, although there was no sign of paint on other parts of the
+body. This fetish is very similar to the one found at Awatobi, and is
+identical in form with those made by the Hopi at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>It was customary to bury in Sikyatki graves plates or fragments of
+selenite or mica, some of which are perforated as if for suspension,
+while others are in plain sheets (<a href="#PL_CLXIX">plate <span class="smcap">clxix</span></a>, <i>c</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Among the stone implements used as mortuary offerings which were
+found in the cemeteries, was one made of the same fine lithographic
+limestone as the so-called <i>tcamahia</i> (<a href="#PL_CLXXI">plate <span class="smcap">clxxi</span></a>, <i>g</i>) which occur on the
+Antelope altar in the Snake ceremonies. The exceptional character of
+this fragment is instructive, and its resemblance to the finely polished
+stone hoes found in other ruins is very suggestive.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"><a name="PL_CLXX" id="PL_CLXX"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxx.jpg" width="410" height="600" alt="PL. CLXX&mdash;
+CORN GRINDER FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXX&mdash;
+CORN GRINDER FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXX</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">CORN GRINDER FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>There were found many disk-shape stones, pecked on the periphery
+as if used in grinding pigment or in bruising seeds, and spheroidal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_731" id="Page_731">[Pg 731]</a></span>
+stones with a facet worn at one pole as if used for the same or a similar
+purpose (<a href="#PL_CLXXI">plate <span class="smcap">clxxi</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>). A few stone axes and hatchets were also
+taken from the graves; most of these are rude specimens of stone
+working, although one of them can hardly be excelled in any other collection.
+Many arrowpoints were found, but these are in no respect
+peculiar. They are made of many different kinds of stone, but those
+of obsidian are the most numerous. They were generally found in
+numbers, sometimes in bowls. Evidently they had not been attached
+to shafts when buried, for no sign of the reeds remained. Arrowheads
+sewed into a bandoleer are still worn as insignia of rank by warriors,
+and it is probable that such was also true in the past, so that on interment
+these arrowpoints might have been placed in the mortuary basin
+deposited by the side of the warrior, as indicative of his standing or
+rank, and the bandoleer or leather strap to which they were attached
+decayed during its long burial in the earth. Spearpoints of much
+coarser make and larger in size than the arrowheads were also found
+in the graves, and a rare knife, made of chalcedony, showed that the
+ancient, like the modern Hopi, prized a sharp cutting instrument.</p>
+
+<p>Among the many large stones picked up on the mounds of Sikyatki
+there was one the use of which has long puzzled me. This is a rough
+stone, not worked save in an equatorial groove. The object is too heavy
+to have been carried about, except with the utmost difficulty, and the
+probability of the former existence of a handle is out of the question.
+It has been suggested that this and similar but larger grooved stones
+might have been used as tethers for some domesticated animal, as the
+eagle or the turkey, which is about the only explanation I can suggest.
+Both of these creatures, and (if we may trust early accounts) a quadruped
+about the size of a dog, were domesticated by the ancient Pueblo
+people, but I have found no survival of tethering in use today. Eagles,
+however, are tied by the legs and not confined in corrals as at Zu&ntilde;i,
+while sheep are kept in stone inclosures. It is probable that this latter
+custom came with the introduction of sheep, and that these stones were
+weights to which the Sikyatki people tied by the legs the eagles and
+turkeys, the feathers of which play an important part in their sacred
+observances.</p>
+
+<p>Certain small rectangular slabs of stone have been found, with a
+groove extending across one surface diagonally from one angle to
+another (<a href="#PL_CLXIX">plate <span class="smcap">clxix</span></a>, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>.) These are generally called arrowshaft polishers,
+and were used to rub down the surface of arrowshafts or prayer-sticks.
+Several of these polishers were taken from Sikyatki graves,
+and one or two were of such regular form that considerable care must
+have been used in their manufacture. A specimen from Awatobi is
+decorated with a bow and an arrow scratched on one side, and one
+of dark basaltic rock evidently came from a distance. A number of
+metates and mullers were found in the graves at Sikyatki. One of the
+best of the latter is shown in <a href="#PL_CLXX">plate <span class="smcap">clxx</span></a>. These stones are of different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_732" id="Page_732">[Pg 732]</a></span>
+degrees of fineness, and vary from simple triangular slabs of fine sandstone
+to very coarse lava. The specimen figured has depressions on
+the sides to facilitate handling.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the most significant of all the worked stones found in the
+Sikyatki cemeteries were the flat slabs the edges of which near the
+surface of the soil marked the presence of the graves. These slabs
+may be termed headstones, but they have a far different meaning from
+those that bear the name of the deceased with which we are most
+familiar, for when they have any marking on their faces, it is not a
+totem of the dead, but a symbol of the rain-cloud, which is connected
+with ancestor worship.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best of these mortuary slabs has its edge cut in such a
+way as to give it a terraced outline, and on one face a similar terrace
+is drawn in black pigment. These figures are symbols of rain-clouds,
+and the interpretation of the use of this design in graves is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The dead, according to current Tusayan thought, become rain-cloud
+gods, or powerful intercessors with those deities which cause or send
+the rains. Hence, the religious society to which the deceased belonged,
+and the members of the clan who survive, place in the mortuary bowls,
+or in the left hand of their friend, the paho or prayer emblem for rain;
+hence, also, in prayers at interment they address the breath body of
+the dead as a <i>katcina</i>, or rain god. These <i>katcinas</i>, as divinized ancestors,
+are supposed to return to the villages and receive prayers for rain.
+In strict accord with this conception the rain-cloud symbol is placed, in
+some instances, on the slab of rock in the graves of the dead at Sikyatki.
+It proves to me that the cult of ancestor worship, and the conception
+that the dead have power to bring needed rain, were recognized
+in Sikyatki when the pueblo was in its prime. One of these slabs is
+perforated by a small hole, an important fact, but one for which I have
+only a fanciful explanation, namely, to allow the escape of the breath
+body. Elsewhere I have found many instances of perforated mortuary
+stone slabs, which will be considered in a report of my excavations in
+1896.</p>
+
+
+<h4>OBSIDIAN</h4>
+
+<p>Many fragments of obsidian, varying in size, are found strewn over
+the surface of the majority of ancient ruins in Tusayan, and the quantity
+of this material on some mounds indicates its abundance in those
+early habitations. This material must have been highly prized for
+knives, arrowpoints, and weapons of various kinds, as several of the
+graves contained large fragments of it, some more or less chipped,
+others in natural forms. The fact of its being deemed worthy of deposit
+in the graves of the Sikyatkians would indicate that it was greatly
+esteemed. I know of no natural deposit of obsidian near Sikyatki or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_733" id="Page_733">[Pg 733]</a></span>
+in the province of Tusayan, so that the probability is that these fragments
+had been brought a considerable distance before they were buried
+in the earth that now covers the dead of the ancient pueblos.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;"><a name="PL_CLXXI" id="PL_CLXXI"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxxi.jpg" width="423" height="600" alt="PL. CLXXI&mdash;
+STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM PALATKI, AWATOBI, AND SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXXI&mdash;
+STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM PALATKI, AWATOBI, AND SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXI</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM PALATKI, AWATOBI, AND SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4>NECKLACES, GORGETS, AND OTHER ORNAMENTS</h4>
+
+<p>The Sikyatki people buried their dead adorned with necklaces and
+other ornaments as when living. The materials most highly prized for
+necklaces were turquois and shell which were fashioned into beads,
+some of which were finely made. These necklaces did not differ from
+those now worn, and the shells employed were mostly marine varieties
+of the genus <i>Pectunculus</i>. The turquois beads are often as finely cut as
+any now worn, and their presence in the graves led to the only serious
+trouble which I had with my native workmen, as they undoubtedly
+appropriated many which were found. Some of these turquois beads are
+simply flat fragments, perforated at one end, others are well formed.
+Many skeletons had a single turquois near the mastoid process of the
+skull, showing that they had been worn as ear pendants. On the neck
+of one skeleton we found a necklace of many strands, composed of segments
+of the leg bones of the turkey, stained green. There were other
+specimens of necklaces made of turkey bones, which were smoothly
+finished and apparently had not been stained.</p>
+
+<p>Necklaces of perforated cedar berries were likewise found, some of
+them still hanging about the necks of the dead, and in one instance, a
+small saucer like vessel (<a href="#PL_CXX">plate <span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>, <i>d</i>) was filled with beads of this kind,
+as if the necklace had thus been deposited in the grave as a votive
+offering.</p>
+
+<p>For gorgets the Sikyatki people apparently prized slabs of lignite
+(<a href="#PL_CLXXII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxii</span></a>, <i>d</i>) and plates of selenite. It was likewise customary to
+make small clay imitations of birds and shells for this and for other
+ornamental purposes; these, for the most part, however, were not found
+in the graves, but were picked up on the surface or in the d&eacute;bris within
+the rooms.</p>
+
+<p>The three forms imitating birds shown in <a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>i</i>, are
+rude in character, and one of them is crossed by a black line from
+which depend parallel lines, representing falling rain; all of these
+specimens have a perforated knot on the under side for suspension, as
+shown in the figure between them.</p>
+
+<p>The forms of imitations of shells, in clay, of which examples are shown
+in <a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>j</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, are rude in character; they are often painted
+with longitudinal or vertical black lines, and have a single or double
+perforation for suspension. The shell imitated is probably the young
+<i>Pectunculus</i>, a Pacific-coast mollusk, with which the ancient Hopi were
+familiar.</p>
+
+
+<h4>TOBACCO PIPES</h4>
+
+<p>I have elsewhere mentioned that every modern Tusayan ceremony
+opens and closes with a ceremonial smoke, and it is apparent that pipes
+were highly prized by the ancient Sikyatkians.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_734" id="Page_734">[Pg 734]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The form of pipe used in most ceremonials today has a bowl with its
+axis at right angles to the stem, but so far as I have studied ancient
+Pueblo pipes this form appears to be a modern innovation.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> To determine
+the probable ancient form of pipe, as indicated by the ritual, I
+will invite attention to one of the most archaic portions of the ceremonies
+about the altar of the Antelope priesthood, at the time of the
+Snake dance at Walpi:<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p>
+
+<p>"The songs then ceased, and W&iacute;-ki sent K&aacute;-tci to bring him a light.
+K&aacute;-tci went out, and soon returned with a burning corncob, while all
+sat silently awaiting W&iacute;-ki's preparation for the great <i>&Oacute;-mow-&ucirc;h</i> smoke,
+which was one of the most sacred acts performed by the Antelope
+priests in these ceremonials.</p>
+
+<p>"The <i>wu-k&oacute;-tco-&ntilde;o</i> is a huge, stemless pipe, which has a large opening
+in the blunt end, and a smaller one in the pointed. It is five
+inches long, one inch in diameter at the large aperture, and its greatest
+circumference is seven and a half inches. The pipe is made of
+some black material, possibly stone, and as far as could be seen was
+not ornamented. The bowl had previously been filled with leaves
+carefully gathered from such places as are designated by tradition.
+In the subsequent smokes the ashes, "dottle," were saved, being
+placed in a small depression in the floor, but were not again put in the
+pipe.</p>
+
+<p>"W&iacute;-ki took the live ember from K&aacute;-tci and placed it in the large
+opening of the pipe, on the leaves which filled its cavity. He then
+knelt down and placed the pipe between the two <i>t&iacute;-po-nis</i>, so that the
+pointed end rested on the head of the large fetish, between the ears.
+Every one remained silent, and W&iacute;-ki blew several dense clouds of
+smoke upon the sand altar, one after another, so that the picture was
+concealed. The smoke was made by blowing through the pipe, the fire
+being placed in the bowl next the mouth, and the whole larger end of
+the pipe was taken into the mouth at each exhalation.</p>
+
+<p>"At the San Juan pueblo, near Santa F&eacute;, where I stopped on my
+way to Tusayan, I purchased a ceremonial headdress upon which several
+spruce twigs were tied. W&iacute;-ki received some fragments of these
+with gratitude, and they formed one of the ingredients which were
+smoked in the great <i>&oacute;-mow-&ucirc;h</i> pipe. The scent of the mixture was
+very fragrant, and filled the room, like incense. The production of this
+great smoke-cloud, which is supposed to rise to the sky, and later
+bring the rain, ended the first series of eight songs.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"><a name="PL_CLXXII" id="PL_CLXXII"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxxii.jpg" width="416" height="600" alt="PL. CLXXII&mdash;
+PAINT GRINDER, FETISH, KAOLIN DISKS, AND LIGNITE FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXXII&mdash;
+PAINT GRINDER, FETISH, KAOLIN DISKS, AND LIGNITE FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PAINT GRINDER, FETISH, KAOLIN DISKS, AND LIGNITE FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>"Immediately after this event, H&aacute;-ha-we filled one of the small-stemmed
+pipes lying near the fireplace with native tobacco, and after
+lighting it puffed smoke on the altar. He passed the pipe to W&iacute;-ki,
+holding it near the floor, bowl foremost, as he did so, and exchanging
+the customary terms of relationship. W&iacute;-ki then blew dense clouds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_735" id="Page_735">[Pg 735]</a></span>
+smoke over the two <i>t&iacute;-po-nis</i> and on the sand picture. H&aacute;-ha-we, meanwhile,
+lit a second pipe, and passed it to K&oacute;-pe-li, the Snake chief, who
+enjoyed it in silence, indiscriminately puffing smoke on the altar, to the
+cardinal points, and in other directions. K&oacute;-pe-li later gave his pipe to
+K&aacute;-kap-ti, who sat at his right, and W&iacute;-ki passed his to Na-syu&ntilde;-'we-ve,
+who, after smoking, handed the pipe to Kw&aacute;-a, who in turn passed it
+to K&aacute;-tci, by whom it was given to H&aacute;-ha-we. K&aacute;-tci, the last priest
+to receive it before it was returned to the pipe-lighter, smoked for a
+long time, and repeatedly puffed clouds of smoke upon the sand picture.
+Meanwhile K&aacute;-kap-ti had handed his pipe to H&aacute;-ha-we, both
+exchanging terms of relationship and carefully observing the accompanying
+ceremonial etiquette. H&aacute;-ha-we, as was his unvarying custom,
+carefully cleaned the two pipes, and laid them on the floor by the
+side of the fireplace."</p>
+
+<p>The form of pipe used in the above ceremony is typical of ancient
+Pueblo pipes, several of which were found at Sikyatki. One of these,
+much smaller than the <i>&oacute;-mow-&ucirc;h</i> pipe, was made of lava, and bore
+evidence of use before burial. It is evident, however, that these
+straight pipes were not always smoked as above described. The most
+interesting pipes found at Sikyatki were more elongated than that
+above mentioned and were made of clay. Their forms are shown in
+<a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>. One of these (<i>b</i>) is very smooth, almost glazed,
+and enlarged into two lateral wings near the mouth end, which is perforated
+with a small hole. The cavity at the opposite end is large
+enough to hold sufficient for a good smoke, and shows evidence of
+former use. The whole median region of the exterior is formed by a
+collar incised with lines, as if formerly wrapped with fiber. In some of
+the modern ceremonials, as that of the Bear-Puma dramatization in the
+Snake dance, a reed cigarette is used, ancient forms of which have been
+found in sacrificial caves, and there seems no doubt that this pipe is
+simply a clay form of those reeds. The markings on the collar would
+by this interpretation indicate the former existence of a small fabric
+wrapped about it. The two pipes shown, in <a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, are
+tubular in shape,<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> highly polished, and on one of them (<i>f</i>) we see
+scratches representing the same feature as the collar of <i>b</i>, and probably
+made with the same intent.</p>
+
+<p>The fragment of a pipe shown in <a href="#PL_CLXXIII">plate <span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>, <i>d</i>, is interesting in
+the same connection. The end of this pipe is broken, but the stem is
+intact, and on two sides of the bowl there are elevations covered with
+crosshatching. The pipe is of clay and has a rough external surface.</p>
+
+<p>It is improbable that these pipes were always smoked as the <i>wu-k&oacute;-tco-&ntilde;o</i>
+of the Snake ceremony, but the smaller end was placed to the
+mouth, and smoke taken into the mouth and exhaled. It is customary
+in ceremonials now practiced, to wind a wisp of yucca about the stem
+of a short pipe, that it may not become too hot to hold in the hand.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_736" id="Page_736">[Pg 736]</a></span>
+This may be a possible explanation<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> of the
+scratches on the sides of the ancient tube pipes
+from Sikyatki.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRAYER-STICKS</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most important objects made in
+the secret ceremonials of the modern Pueblos
+is sacrificial in nature, and is called a paho
+or "water wood," which is used as an offering
+to the gods (<a href="#Fig_357">figure 357</a>). These pahos
+are made of a prescribed wood, of length
+determined by tradition, and to them are tied
+appendages of symbolic meaning. They are
+consecrated by songs, about an altar, upon
+which they are laid, and afterward deposited
+in certain shrines by a special courier.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 143px;"><a name="Fig_357" id="Fig_357"></a>
+<img src="images/fig357.jpg" width="143" height="600" alt="Fig. 357&mdash;Mortuary prayer-stick (natural size)" title="Fig. 357&mdash;Mortuary prayer-stick (natural size)" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 357&mdash;Mortuary prayer-stick (natural size)</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the forms of these pahos
+differ very greatly, the shape depending on
+the society which makes them, the god addressed,
+and the purpose for which they are
+used, as understood by the initiated. Among
+many other uses they are sometimes mortuary
+in character, and are deposited in the graves
+of chiefs, as offerings either to the God of
+Death, or to other deities, to whom they may
+be presented by the shade or breath body of
+the deceased. This use of pahos is of ancient
+origin in Tusayan, as shown by the excavations
+at Sikyatki, where they were found in
+mortuary bowls or vases deposited by the relatives
+or surviving members of the sacerdotal
+societies to which the deceased had belonged.</p>
+
+<p>This pre-Spanish custom in Tusayan was
+discovered in my excavations at Awatobi, but
+the prayer-sticks from that place were fragmentary
+as compared with the almost perfect
+pahos from Sikyatki. These pahos are of many
+forms;<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> some of them are of considerable size,
+and the majority are of distinctive forms
+(<a href="#PL_CLXXIV">plates <span class="smcap">clxxiv</span></a><a href="#PL_CLXXV">-<span class="smcap">clxxv</span></a>). There are also
+many fragments, the former shapes of
+which could not be determined. When it is
+considered that these wooden objects with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_737" id="Page_737">[Pg 737]</a></span>
+their neat carvings were fashioned with stone implements, the high
+character of the work is very remarkable. They show, in several
+instances, the imprint of attached strings and feathers, portions of
+which still remain; also, in one instance, fragments of a pine needle.
+They are painted with green and black mineral pigments, the former
+of which had undoubtedly done much to preserve the soft wood of
+which they were manufactured. As at the present day, cottonwood
+and willow were the favorite prescribed woods for pahos, and some of
+the best were made of pine. The forms of these ancient prayer offerings,
+as mentioned hereafter, differ somewhat from those of modern
+make, although in certain instances there is a significant resemblance
+between the two kinds.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 469px;"><a name="PL_CLXXIII" id="PL_CLXXIII"></a><a href="images/plateclxxiii-lg.jpg">
+<img src="images/plateclxxiii.jpg" width="469" height="600" alt="PL. CLXXIII&mdash;
+PIPES, BELL, AND CLAY BIRDS AND SHELLS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXXIII&mdash;
+PIPES, BELL, AND CLAY BIRDS AND SHELLS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI" /></a>
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXIII</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PIPES, BELL, AND CLAY BIRDS AND SHELLS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>One of the most striking instances of resemblance between the old
+and the new is the likeness of some of these ancient pahos to those now
+made by the Flute society, and if this resemblance is more than a
+coincidence, the conclusion that the present flute paho is a survival of
+the ancient form may be accepted. As adding weight to this theory it
+may be mentioned that traditionally the Flute people claim to be the
+ancient people of Tusayan, and possibly contemporaries, in that
+province, with the ancient inhabitants of Sikyatki. There is likewise
+a most suggestive resemblance between these pahos and certain similar
+sticks from cliff dwellings, and it is a belief, which I can not yet
+demonstrate as true, that kindred people, or the same sacerdotal societies
+represented in cliff houses and in Sikyatki, manufactured ceremonial
+prayer offerings which are identical in design. <a href="#PL_CLXXIV">Plate <span class="smcap">clxxiv</span></a>, <i>a</i>,
+represents a double stick paho, which closely resembles the prayer offering
+of the modern Flute society. The two rods were found together
+and originally had been attached, as indicated by the arrangement of
+the impression of the string midway of their length. The stick of the
+left has a facet cut on one side, upon which originally three dots were
+depicted to represent the eyes and the mouth. This member of the
+paho was the female; the remaining stick was the male. There are
+two deep grooves, or ferules, cut midway of their length, a distinctive
+characteristic of the modern flute paho. Both components are painted
+green, as is still customary in prayer-sticks of this fraternity. The
+pahos shown in <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>d</i>, are likewise ascribed to the same society,
+and differ from the first only in length. They represent female sticks
+of double flute pahos. The length of these prayer-sticks varies on
+different ceremonial days, and is determined by the distance of the
+shrines for which they are intended. The unit of measurement is the
+length of certain joints of the finger, and the space between the tip of
+longest digit to certain creases in the palm of the hand. The length of
+the ancient Sikyatki pahos, ascribed to the Flute society, follows the
+same rule.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#PL_CLXXIV">Plate <span class="smcap">clxxiv</span></a>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, have the same ferules referred to in the description
+above, but are of greater diameter. They are unlike any modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_738" id="Page_738">[Pg 738]</a></span>
+paho except in this particular. In <i>g</i> is depicted a still larger prayer-stick,
+with two serrate incisions on each side of the continuation of the
+flattened facet.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens <i>h</i> to <i>m</i> are forms of pahos which I can not identify. They
+are painted green, generally with black tips, round, flattened, and of
+small size. Figure <i>n</i> is a part of a paho which closely resembles prayer-sticks
+found in the cliff houses of Mesa Verde and San Juan valley of
+northern New Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous specimens of a peculiar razor-shape paho were found, two
+of which are shown in <a href="#PL_CLXXV">plate <span class="smcap">clxxv</span></a>, <i>o</i>, <i>s</i>. The paho shown in figure <i>d</i>
+is flat on one side and rounded on the other, narrowing at one end,
+where it was probably continued in a shaft, and a hole is punctured at
+the opposite extremity, as if for suspension. It is barely possible that
+this may have been a whizzer or bull-roarer, such as are used at the
+present day to imitate the wind, and commonly carried by the performer
+in a public dance who personifies the warrior. Figure <i>t</i> differs
+from the ordinary flute paho in having five constrictions in the upper
+part, and in being continued into a very long shank.</p>
+
+<p>The best preserved of all the pahos from the Sikyatki graves are
+represented in <i>u</i> and <i>v</i>, both of which were found in the same mortuary
+bowl. They are painted with a thick layer of green pigment, and have
+shafts, which are blackened and placed in opposite directions in the
+two figures. Their general form may be seen at a glance. The lower
+surface of the object shown in <i>u</i> is perfectly flat, and the part represented
+at the upper end is evidently broken off. This is likewise true
+of both extremities of the object shown in <i>v</i>; it is also probable that
+it had originally a serrated end, comparable with that shown in <i>c</i>. A
+similar terraced extremity survives in the corn paho carried by the so-called
+Flute girls in the biennial celebrations of the Flute ceremonies
+in the modern Tusayan pueblos.</p>
+
+<p>I refer the paho to the second group of sacrifices mentioned by Tylor,<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a>
+that of homage, "a doctrine that the gist of sacrifice is rather in the
+worshiper giving something precious to himself than in the deity
+receiving benefit. This may be called the abnegation theory, and its
+origin may be fairly explained by considering it as derived from the
+original gift theory."</p>
+
+<p>While it is probably true that the Hopi barters his paho with the
+idea of receiving in return some desired gift, the main element is probably
+homage, but there is involved in it the third and highest element
+of sacrifice, abnegation. It is a sacrifice by symbolism, a part for the
+whole.</p>
+
+<p>On this theory the query naturally is, what does a paho represent?
+While it is difficult to answer this question, I think a plausible suggestion
+can be made. It is a sacrifice by symbolic methods of that
+which the Hopi most prize, corn or its meal.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"><a name="PL_CLXXIV" id="PL_CLXXIV"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxxiv.jpg" width="403" height="600" alt="PL. CLXXIV&mdash;
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXXIV&mdash;
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXIV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br /><br /><br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="PL_CLXXV" id="PL_CLXXV"></a>
+<img src="images/plateclxxv.jpg" width="400" height="600" alt="PL. CLXXV&mdash;
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI" title="PL. CLXXV&mdash;
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI" />
+<span class="captiontop">BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY&mdash;&mdash;
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXV</span><br /><br />
+
+<span class="caption">PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI</span><br /><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_739" id="Page_739">[Pg 739]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In a simple prayer the sacrifice is a pinch of meal thrown on the
+fetish or toward it. This is an individual method of prayer, and
+the pinch of meal, his prayer bearer, the sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>When a society made its prayers this meal, symbolic of a gift of
+corn, is tied in a packet and attached to two sticks, one male, the other
+female, with prescribed herbs and feathers. Here we have the ordinary
+prayer-stick, varying in details but essentially the same, a sacrifice to
+the gods appropriately designated by prescribed accessories.</p>
+
+<p>Frequently this packet of meal may be replaced by a picture of an
+ear of corn drawn on a flat slat, the so-called "corn paho" of the Flute
+maidens,<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> or we may have an ear of corn tied to the wooden slat. In
+the <i>Mamzrau</i> ceremony the women carry these painted slats in their
+hands, as I have elsewhere described.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> It appears as if, in all these
+instances, there exists a sacrificial object, a symbolic offering of corn
+or meal.</p>
+
+<p>The constant appearance of the feather on the paho has suggested
+an interpretation of the prayer-plumes as symbolic sacrifices of birds
+on the theory of a part for the whole; we know that among the Nahua
+sacrifices of birds were common in many ceremonials. The idea of
+animal sacrifice, and, if we judge from legends, of human sacrifice, was
+not an unknown conception among the Pueblos. While it is possible
+that the omnipresence of the feather on the prayer-sticks may admit of
+that interpretation, to which it must be confessed the male and the
+female components in double pahos lend some evidence,<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a> I believe the
+main object was, as above stated, an offering of meal, which constituted
+the special wealth of an agricultural people.</p>
+
+
+<h4>MARINE SHELLS AND OTHER OBJECTS</h4>
+
+<p>The excavations at Sikyatki did not reveal a large number of marine
+shells, although some of the more common genera used in the ancient
+pueblos were found.</p>
+
+<p>There were several fragments of <i>Pectunculus</i> cut into the form of
+wristlets, like those from the ruins on the Little Colorado which I have
+described. Two beautiful specimens of <i>Oliva angulata</i>, truncated at
+each pole, which occurred in one of the mortuary bowls, and a few conical
+rattles, made of the spires of <i>Conus</i>, were taken from the graves;
+there were also a few fragments of an unknown <i>Haliotis</i>. All of the
+above genera are common to the Pacific, and no doubt were obtained by
+barter or brought by migratory clans to Tusayan from the far south.
+One of the most interesting objects in Sikyatki food basins from the
+necropolis was a comparatively well preserved rattle of a rattlesnake.
+The Walpi Snake chief, who was employed by me when this was found
+and was present at the time it was removed from the earth, declared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_740" id="Page_740">[Pg 740]</a></span>
+that, according to the legends, there were no Snake people living at
+Sikyatki when it was destroyed, but the discovery of the snake rattle
+shows that the rattler was not without reverence there, even if not in
+the house of his friends, and some other explanation may be suggested
+to account for this discovery. There are evidences that the ancient
+Hopi, like certain Yuman tribes, wore a snake's rattle as an ornament
+for the neck, in which case the rattle found in the Sikyatki food basin
+may have been simply a votive offering, and in no way connected with
+ceremonial symbolism.</p>
+
+<p>Among many other mortuary offerings was one which was particularly
+suggestive. This specimen represented in <a href="#PL_CLXIX">plate <span class="smcap">clxix</span></a>, <i>e</i>, is made
+of unbaked clay, and has a reticulated surface, as if once incrusted
+with foreign objects. The Hopi who were at work for me declared
+that this incrustation had been composed of seeds, and that the pits
+over the surface of the clay cone were evidence of their former existence.
+They identified this object as a "corn mound," and reminded me that
+a similar object is now used in the <i>Powamu</i>, <i>Lalakonti</i>, and certain other
+ceremonies. I have elsewhere mentioned the clay corn mound incrusted
+with seeds of various kinds in a description of the altar of the last-mentioned
+ceremony. These corn mountains (<i>k&aacute;-&uuml;-t&uuml;'-kwi</i>) are made in
+the November ceremony called the <i>N&#257;-&aacute;c-nai-ya</i>, as described in my
+account of those rites from which I quote<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The <i>T&aacute;-tau-kya-m&ucirc;</i> were very busy in their kib-va. Every member
+was shelling corn of the different colors as if on a wager. Each man
+made a figure of moist clay, about four or five inches across the base.
+Some of these were in the form of two mamm&aelig;, and there were also
+many wedge and cone forms, in all of which were embedded corn kernels,
+forming the cloud and other of the simpler conventional figures
+in different colors, but the whole surface was studded as full as possible
+with the kernels. Each man brought down his own <i>p&oacute;-o-tas</i>
+(tray), on which he sprinkled prayer-meal, and set his <i>k&aacute;-&uuml;-t&uuml;'-kwi</i> (corn
+mountain) upon it. He also placed ears of corn on the tray."</p></div>
+
+<p>These corn mountains were carried by the <i>T&aacute;-tau-kya-m&ucirc;</i> priesthood
+during an interesting ceremony which I have thus described:<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The whole line then passed slowly along the front of the village
+sideways, facing the north, and singing, and all the women came out
+and helped themselves to the clay molds and the ears of corn borne
+by the <i>T&aacute;-tau-kya-m&ucirc;</i>, bestowing many thanks upon the priests."</p></div>
+
+<p>The fragment of polished stone shown in <a href="#PL_CLXIX">plate <span class="smcap">clxix</span></a>, <i>d</i>, is perforated
+near the edge for suspension, and was found near the aural orifice of a
+skull, apparently indicating that it had been used as a pendant. With
+this object, many rude arrowpoints, concretions of stone, and the kaolin
+disk mentioned above were also found. Small round disks of pottery,
+with a median perforation, were not common, although sometimes
+present. They are identified as parts of primitive drills.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_741" id="Page_741">[Pg 741]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No object made of metal was found at Sikyatki, nor is there any evidence
+that the ancient people of that pueblo ever saw the Spaniards or
+used any implement of their manufacture. While negative evidence
+can hardly be regarded as a safe guide to follow, so far as knowledge of
+copper is concerned, it is possible that the people of ancient Tusayan
+pueblos, in their trading expeditions to southern Arizona, may have
+met races who owned small copper bells and trinkets of metal. I can
+hardly believe, however, that the Tusayan Indians were familiar with
+the art of tempering copper, and even if objects showing this treatment
+shall be found hereafter in the ruins of this province it will have to be
+proved that they were made in that region, and not brought from the
+far south.</p>
+
+<p>No glazed pottery showing Spanish influence was found at Sikyatki,
+but there can hardly be a doubt that the art of glazing pottery was
+practiced by the ancestors of the Tusayan people. The modern potters
+of the East Mesa never glaze their pottery, and no fragment of glazed
+ware was obtained from the necropolis of Sikyatki.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PERISHABLE CONTENTS OF MORTUARY FOOD BOWLS</h4>
+
+<p>It is the habit of the modern Tusayan Indians to deposit food of
+various kinds on the graves of their dead. The basins used for that
+purpose are heaped up with paper-bread, stews, and various delicacies
+for the breath-body of the deceased. Naturally from its exposed position
+much of this food is devoured by animals or disappears in other
+ways. There appears excellent evidence, however, that the mortuary
+food offerings of the ancient Sikyatkians were deposited with the body
+and covered with soil and sometimes stones.</p>
+
+<p>The lapse of time since these burials took place has of course caused
+the destruction of the perishable food substances, which are found to be
+simple where any sign of their former presence remains. Thin films
+of interlacing rootlets often formed a delicate network over the whole
+inner surface of the bowl. Certain of the contents of these basins in
+the shape of seeds still remain; but these seeds have not germinated,
+possibly on account of previous high temperatures to which they have
+been submitted. A considerable quantity of these contents of mortuary
+bowls were collected and submitted to an expert, the result of
+whose examination is set forth in the accompanying letter:</p>
+
+<p class="datesig">
+<span class="smcap">U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Botony</span>,<br />
+<i>Washington, D. C., March 25, 1896.</i><br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Dear Dr Fewkes</span>: Having made a cursory examination of the samples of supposed
+vegetable material sent by you day before yesterday, collected at Sikyatki,
+Arizona, in supposed prehistoric burial places, I have the following preliminary
+report to make:</p>
+
+<p>No. 156247. A green resinous substance. I am unable to say whether or not this
+is of vegetable origin.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156248. A mass of fibrous material intermixed with sand, the fibers consisting
+in part of slender roots, in part of the hair of some animal.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_742" id="Page_742">[Pg 742]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No. 156249. This consists of a mixture of seed with a small amount of sand present.
+The seeds are, in about the relative order of their abundance, (<i>a</i>) a leguminous
+shiny seed of a dirty olive color, possibly of the genus <i>Parosela</i> (usually known as
+<i>Dalea</i>); (<i>b</i>) the black seed shells, flat on one side and almost invariably broken, of
+a plant apparently belonging to the family <i>Malvaceae</i>; (<i>c</i>) large, flat, nearly black
+achenia, possibly of a <i>Coreopsis</i>, bordered with a narrow-toothed wing; (<i>d</i>) the thin
+lenticular utricles of a <i>Carex</i>; (<i>e</i>) the minute black, bluntly trihedral seeds of some
+plant of the family <i>Polygonaceae</i>, probably an <i>Eriogonum</i>. The majority of these seeds
+have a coating of fine sand, as if their surface had originally been viscous; (<i>f</i>) a
+dried chrysalis bearing a slight resemblance to a seed.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156250. This bottle contains the same material as No. 156249, except that no
+larv&aelig; are found, but a large, plump, brownish, lenticular seed 4 mm. in diameter,
+doubtless the seed of a <i>Croton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156251. A thin fragment of matter consisting of minute roots of plants partially
+intermixed on one surface with sand.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156252. This consists almost wholly of plant rootlets and contains a very
+slight amount of sand.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156254. This consists of pieces of rotten wood through which had grown the
+rootlets of plants. The wood, upon a microscopical examination, is shown to be that
+of some dicotyledonous tree of a very loose and light texture. The plant rootlets in
+most cases followed the large ducts that run lengthwise through the pieces of wood
+and take up the greater part of the space.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156255. The mass contained in this bottle is made up of (<i>a</i>) grains, contained
+in their glumes or husks, of some grass, probably <i>Oryzopsis membranacea</i>; (<i>b</i>) what
+appears to be the minute spherical spore cases of some microscopical fungus. The
+spore cases have a wall with a shiny brown covering, or apparently with this covering
+worn off and exhibiting an interior white shell. Within this is a very large
+number of spherical spore-like bodies of a uniform size; (<i>c</i>) a few plant rootlets.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156256. The material in this bottle is similar to that in 156255 except that the
+amount of rootlets is greater, the grass seeds are of a darker color, seemingly somewhat
+more disorganized, and somewhat more slender in form, and that the spore
+cases seem to be entirely wanting.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156257. The material in this bottle is similar to that in No. 156249, containing
+the seeds numbered <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, and <i>d</i> mentioned under that number, besides a greater
+amount of plant rootlets and some fragments of corncob.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156258. This consists almost entirely of plant rootlets and sand.</p>
+
+<p>No. 156259. This consists chiefly of the leaves of some coniferous tree, either an
+<i>Abies</i> or a <i>Pseudotsuga</i>.</p>
+
+<p>All the seeds with the exception of those of the leguminous plant are dead and
+their seed-coats rotten. The leguminous seeds are still hard and will be subjected
+to a germination test.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p>
+
+<p>For a specific and positive identification of these seeds it will be necessary either
+for a botanist to visit the region from which they came or to have at his disposal a
+complete collection of the plants of the vicinity. Under such conditions he could
+by process of exclusion identify the seeds with an amount of labor almost infinitely
+less than would be required in their identification by other means.</p></div>
+
+<p class="datesig">
+Very sincerely yours,<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Frederick V. Coville</span>, <i>Botanist.</i><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES</h2>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See "The Prehistoric Culture of Tusayan," <i>American Anthropologist</i>, May, 1896. "Two Ruins
+Recently Discovered in the Red Rock Country, Arizona," ibid., August, 1896. "The Cliff Villages of
+the Red Rock Country, and the Tusayan Ruins, Sikyatki and Awatobi, Arizona," Smithsonian Report
+for 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The reader's attention is called to the fact that this report is not intended to cover all the ruins
+in the section of Arizona through which the expedition passed; it is simply a description of those
+which were examined, with a brief mention of such others as would aid in a general comprehension
+of the subject. The ruins on the Little Colorado, near Winslow, Arizona, will be considered in a
+monograph to follow the present, which will be a report on the field work in 1896. If a series of
+monographs somewhat of this nature, but more comprehensive, recording explorations during many
+years in several different sections, were available, we would have sufficient material for a comprehensive
+treatment of southwestern archeology.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> It may be borne in mind that several other clans besides the Patki claim to have lived long ago
+in the region southward from modern Tusayan. Among these may be mentioned the Patu&ntilde; (Squash)
+and the Tawa (Sun) people who played an important part in the early colonization of Middle Mesa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Report upon the Indian Tribes, Pacific Railroad Survey, vol. <span class="smcap">iii</span>, pt. iii, p. 14, Washington, 1856.
+The cavate dwellings of the Rio Verde were first described by Dr E. A. Mearns. Although it has
+sometimes been supposed that Coronado followed the trail along Verde valley, and then over the
+Mogollones to Rio Colorado Chiquito, Bandelier has conclusively shown a more easterly route.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See mention of cliff houses in Walnut canyon in the Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The kinship of Cliff dwellers and Pueblos was long ago recognized by ethnologists, both from
+resemblances of skulls, the character of architecture, and archeological objects found in each class
+of dwellings. It is only in later years, however, that the argument from similar ceremonial paraphernalia
+has been adduced, owing to an increase of our knowledge of this side of Pueblo life. See
+Bessels, Bull. U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, 1876; Hoffman,
+Report on Chaco Cranium, ibid., 1877, p. 457. Holmes, in 1878, says: "The ancient peoples of the San
+Juan country were doubtless the ancestors of the present Pueblo tribes of New Mexico and Arizona."
+See, likewise, Cushing, Nordenski&ouml;ld, and later writers regarding the kinship of Cliff villagers
+and Pueblos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Report of the Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology for the year ending June 30, 1894;
+Smithsonian Report, 1894.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The ruins in Chaves Pass, 110 miles south of Oraibi, will be considered in the report of the expedition
+of 1896, when extensive excavations were made at this point. About midway between the
+Chaves Pass ruins and those of Beaver creek, in Verde valley, there are other ruins, as at Rattlesnake
+Tanks, and as a well-marked trail passes by these former habitations and connects the Verde series
+with those of Chaves Pass, it is possible that early migrations may have followed this course. There
+is also a trail from Homolobi and the Colorado Chiquito ruins through Chaves Pass into Tonto Basin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Smithsonian Report, 1883; Report of Major Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 57 et
+seq. Explorations in the Southwest, ibid., 1886, p. 52 et seq.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Report of an Expedition down the Zu&ntilde;i and Colorado rivers; Washington, 1853.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Smithsonian Report, 1883, Report of the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 62: "Pending
+the arrival of goods at Moki, Mr Cushing returned across the country to Zu&ntilde;i for the purpose of
+observing more minutely than on former occasions the annual sun ceremonials. En route he discovered
+two ruins, apparently before unvisited. One of these was the outlying structure of K'n'-i-K'&eacute;l,
+called by the Navajos Z&iuml;nni-jin'ne and by the Zu&ntilde;is He'-sho'ta pathl-t&acirc;&#301;e, both, according to Zu&ntilde;i tradition,
+belonging to the Thl&eacute;-e-t&acirc;-kwe, the name given to the traditional northwestern migration
+of the Bear, Crane, Frog, Deer, Yellow-wood, and other gentes of the ancestral pueblos."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The reduplicated syllable recalls Hopi methods of forming their plural, but is not characteristic of
+them, and the word Totonteac has a Hopi sound. The supposed derivation of Tonto from Spanish
+<i>tonto</i>, "fool," is mentioned, elsewhere. The so-called Tonto Apache was probably an intruder, the
+cause of the desertion of the "basin" by the housebuilders. The question whether Totonteac is the
+same as Tusayan or Tuchano is yet to be satisfactorily answered. The map makers of the sixteenth
+century regarded them as different places, and notwithstanding Totonteac was reported to be "a hotte
+lake" in the middle of the previous century, it held its place on maps into the seventeenth century.
+It is always on or near a river flowing into the Gulf of California.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Mr Mindeleff's descriptions deal with the same cluster of cavate ruins here described, but are
+more specially devoted to the more southern section of them, not considering, if I understand him,
+the northern row here described. I had also made extensive studies of the rooms figured by him
+previously to the publication of his article, but as my notes on these rooms are anticipated by his
+excellent memoir I have not considered the rooms described by him, but limited my account to brief
+mention of a neighboring row of chambers not described in his report.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, No. 1. All the Tusayan kivas with which
+I am familiar have this raised spectator's part at one end. The altars are always erected at the
+opposite end of the room, in which is likewise the hole in the floor called the <i>sipap&ucirc;</i>, symbolic of
+the traditional opening through which races emerged to the earth's surface from an underworld.
+Banquettes exist in some Tusayan kivas; in others, however, they are wanting. The raised platform
+in dwelling rooms is commonly a sleeping place, above which blankets are hung and, in some
+instances, corn is stored. A small opening in the step often admits light to an otherwise dark granary
+below the floor. In no instance, however, are there more than one such platform, and that commonly
+partakes of the nature of another room, although seldom separated from the other chamber by
+a partition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Counting from the point of the cliff shown in <a href="#PL_XCIa">plate <span class="smcap">xci</span><i>a</i></a>. The positions of the rooms are indicated
+by the row of entrances.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> It was from this region that the individual chambers, described by Mindeleff, were chosen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Mr Mindeleff, in his valuable memoir, has so completely described the cavate dwellings of the
+Rio Grande and San Juan regions that their discussion in this account would be superfluous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See Mindeleff, Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, <i>American Anthropologist</i>, April, 1895. The suggestion
+that cliff outlooks were farming shelters in some instances is doubtless true, but I should
+hesitate giving this use a predominance over outlooks for security. In times of danger, naturally
+the agriculturist seeks a high or commanding position for a wide outlook; but to watch his crops he
+must camp among them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Ancient Dwellings of the Rio Verde Valley, Dr E. A. Mearns; <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, vol.
+<span class="smcap">xxvii</span>. Mindeleff, Aboriginal Remains in Verde Valley; Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau
+of Ethnology.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Since the above lines were written Mr C. F. Lummis, who has made many well-known contributions
+to the ethnology and archeology of the Pueblo area, has published in <i>Land of Sunshine</i> (Los
+Angeles, 1895), a beautiful photographic illustration and an important description of this unique place.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations on Indians inhabiting Nevada, California, and Arizona,
+Tenth Annual Report of the Hayden Survey, p. 478; Washington, 1878.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The cliff houses of Bloody Basin I have not examined, but I suspect they are of the same type as
+the so-called Montezuma Castle, or Casa Montezuma, on the right bank of Beaver creek. The latter
+is referred to the cliff-house class, but it differs considerably from the ruins of the Red-rocks, on
+account of the character of the cavern in which it is built (see <a href="#Fig_246">figure 246</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Fortified hilltops occur in many places in Arizona and are likewise found in the Mexican states of
+Sonora and Chihuahua, where they are known as <i>trincheras</i>. They are regarded as places of refuge
+of former inhabitants of the country, contemporaneous with ancient pueblos and cliff houses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> This pinnacle is visible for miles, and is one of many prominences in the surrounding country.
+Unfortunately this region is so imperfectly surveyed that only approximations of distances are possible
+in this account, and the maps known to me are too meager in detail to fairly illustrate the distribution
+of these buttes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> In certain cavate houses on Oak creek we find these caverns in two tiers, one above the other, and
+the hill above is capped by a well-preserved building. In one of these we find the entrance to the
+cavern walled in, with the exception of a T-shape doorway and a small window. This chamber shows
+a connecting link between the type of true cavate dwellings and that of cliff-houses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The absence of kivas in the ruins of the Verde has been commented on by Mindeleff, and has
+likewise been found to be characteristic of the cliff houses on the upper courses of the other tributaries
+of Gila and Salado rivers. The round kiva appears to be confined to the middle and eastern
+ruins of the pueblo area, and are very numerous in the ruins of San Juan valley.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See "Tusayan Totemic Signatures," <i>American Anthropologist</i>, Washington, January, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> An exhaustive report on the ruins near Winslow, at the Sunset Crossing of the Little Colorado,
+will later be published. These ruins were the sites of my operations in the summer of 1896, and
+from them a very large collection of prehistoric objects was taken. The report will consider also the
+ruins at Chaves Pass, on the trail of migration used by the Hopi in prehistoric times in their visits,
+for barter and other purposes, to the Gila-Salado watershed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Possibly the Shoshonean elements in Hopi linguistics are due to the Snake peoples, the early colonists
+who came from the north, where they may have been in contact with Paiute or other divisions
+of the Shoshonean stock. The consanguinity of this phratry may have been close to that of the Shoshonean
+tribes, as that of the Patki was to the Piman, or the Asa to the Tanoan. The present Hopi
+are a composite people, and it is yet to be demonstrated which stock predominates in them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola; Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of
+Ethnology, 1886-87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> This account was copied from a copy made by the eminent scholar, A. F. Bandelier, for the archives
+of the Hemenway Expedition, now at the Peabody Museum, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Hano or "Tewa."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Sichomovi. In the manuscript report by Don Jos&eacute; Cortez, who wrote of the northern provinces
+of Mexico, where he lived in 1799, Sichomovi is mentioned as a nameless village between Tanos (Hano)
+and Gualpi (Walpi), settled by colonists from the latter pueblo. One of the first references to this
+village by name was in a report by Indian Agent Calhoun (1850), where it is called Chemovi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Misho&ntilde;inovi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Shipaulovi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Shu&ntilde;opovi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> In 1896 I collected over a hundred beautiful specimens from this cemetery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> There lived in Walpi, years ago, an old woman, who related to a priest, who repeated the story to
+the writer, that when a little girl she remembered seeing the Pay&uuml;pki people pass along the valley
+under Walpi when they returned to the Rio Grande. Her story is quite probable, for the lives of two
+aged persons could readily bridge the interval between that event and our own time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> "La Mission de N. Sra. de las Dolores de Zandia de Indios Teguas &aacute; Moqui."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See J. F. Meline, Two Thousand Miles on Horseback, 1867. Sandia, according to Bancroft, is
+not mentioned by Menchero in 1744, but Bonilla gave it a population of 400 Indians in 1749. In 1742
+two friars visited Tusayan, and, it is said, brought out 441 apostate Tiguas, who were later settled in
+the old pueblo of Sandia. Considering, then, that Sandia was resettled in 1748, six years after this
+visit, and that the numbers so closely coincide, we have good evidence that Pay&uuml;pki, in Tusayan,
+was abandoned about 1742. It is probable, from known evidence, that this pueblo was built somewhere
+between 1680 and 1690; so that the whole period of its occupancy was not far from fifty years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Mindeleff mentions two other sites of Old Walpi&mdash;a mound near <i>Wala</i>, and one in the plain between
+Misho&ntilde;inovi and Walpi; but neither of these is large, although claimed as former sites of the
+early clans which later built the town on the terrace of East Mesa below Walpi. I have regarded
+K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela as the ancient Walpi, but have no doubt that the Hopi emigrants had several temporary
+dwellings before they settled there.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Sometimes called N&uuml;saki, a corruption of "Missa ki," Mass House, Mission. One of the beams of the
+old mission at N&uuml;saki or Kisakobi is in the roof of Pauwatiwa's house in the highest range of rooms
+of Walpi. This beam is nicely squared, and bears marks indicative of carving. There are also large
+planks in one of the kivas which were also probably from the church building, although no one has
+stated that they are. Pauwatiwa, however, declares that a legend has been handed down in his family
+that the above-mentioned rafter came from the mission.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, January 2, 1895, p. 441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Thus in Casta&ntilde;eda's account we are told: "Farther off [near Cia?] was another large village where
+we found in the courtyards a great number of stone balls of the size of a leather bag, containing one
+arroba. They seem to have been cast with the aid of machines, and to have been employed in the
+destruction of the village." It is needless for me to say that I find no knowledge of such a machine
+in Tusayan!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The ceremonials attending to burial of the eagle, whose plumes are used in secret rites, have never
+been described, and nothing is known of the rites about the Eagle shrine at Tukinobi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Recent Archeologic Find in Arizona, <i>American Anthropologist</i>, Washington, July, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> For a previous description see the Preliminary Account, Smithsonian Report for 1895; also "Awatobi:
+An Archeological Verification of a Tusayan Legend," <i>American Anthropologist</i>, Washington,
+October, 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> This important ceremony celebrates the departure from the pueblos of ancestral gods called
+<i>katcinas</i>, and is one of the most popular in the ritual.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Pacheco-Cardenas, Colleccion de Documentos In&eacute;ditos, <span class="smcap">xv</span>, 122, 182.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Voyages, <span class="smcap">iii</span>, pp. 463, 470, 1600; reprint 1810.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Pacheco-Cardenas, Documentos In&eacute;ditos, op. cit., <span class="smcap">xvi</span>, 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Menologio Franciscano, 275; Teatro Mexicano, <span class="smcap">iii</span>, 321.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> San Bernardino de Ahuatobi (Vetancurt, 1680); San Bernardo de Aguatuvi (Vargas, 1692). I find
+that the mission at Walpi was also mentioned by Vargas as dedicated to San Bernardino. The church
+at Oraibi was San Francisco de Oraybe and San Miguel. The mission at Shu&ntilde;opovi was called San
+Bartolom&eacute;, San Bernardo, and San Bernabe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> This article was in type too early for a review of Dellenbaugh's identification of Cibola with a
+more southeasterly locality. His arguments bear some plausibility, but they are by no means decisive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> An exact translation by Winship of the copy of Casta&ntilde;eda in the Lenox Library was published in
+the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> "At evening the chiefs asked that notices be written for them warning all white people to keep
+away from the mesa tomorrow, and these were set up by the night patrols in cleft wands on all the
+principal trails. At daybreak on the following morning the principal trails leading from the four
+cardinal points were 'closed' by sprinkling meal across them and laying on each a whitened elk
+horn. Anawita told the observer that in former times if any reckless person had the temerity to
+venture within this proscribed limit the Kwakwant&ucirc; inevitably put him to death by decapitation
+and dismemberment." ("Naacnaiya," <i>Journal of American Folk-lore</i>, vol. v, p. 201.) This appears
+to be the same way in which the Awatobians "closed" the trail to Tobar.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> When the Flute people approach Walpi, as is biennially dramatized at the present time, "an assemblage
+of people there (at the entrance to the village) meet them, and just back of a line of meal drawn
+across the trail stood Winuta and Ho&ntilde;yi," also two girls and a boy. After these Flute people are
+challenged and sing their songs the trail is opened, viz: "Alosaka drew the end of his <i>mo&ntilde;kohu</i> along
+the line of meal, and Winuta rubbed off the remainder from the trail with his foot." "Walpi Flute
+Observance," <i>Journal of American Folk-lore</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">vii</span>, p. 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> This custom of sprinkling the trail with sacred meal is one of the most common in the Tusayan
+ritual. The gods approach and leave the pueblos along such lines, and no doubt the Awatobians
+regarded the horses of Espejo as supernatural beings and threw meal on the trail before them with
+the same thought in mind that they now sprinkle the trails with meal in all the great ceremonials
+in which personators of the gods approach the villages.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> According to the reprint of 1891. In the reprint of 1810 it appears as "Ahuato." I would suggest
+that possibly the error in giving the name of a pueblo to a chief may have arisen not from the copyist
+or printer, but from inability of the Spaniards and Hopi to understand each other. If you ask a Hopi
+Indian his name, nine times out of ten he will not tell you, and an interlocutor for a party of natives
+will almost invariably name the pueblos from which his comrades came.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> This was possibly the expedition which P. Fr. Antonio (Alonzo?) made among the Hopi in 1628;
+however that may be, there is good evidence that Porras, after many difficulties, baptized several
+chiefs in 1629.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Segunda Relacion de la grandiosa conversion que ha avido en el Nuevo Mexico. Embiada por el Padre
+Estev&#257; de Perea</i>, etc, 1633.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> An earlier rumor was that the horses were anthropophagous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> As Vargas appears not to have entered Oraibi at this time he may have found it too hostile.
+Whether Frasquillo had yet arrived with his Tanos people and their booty is doubtful. The story of
+the migration to Tusayan of the Tanos under Frasquillo, the assassin of Fray Sim&oacute;n de Jesus, and
+the establishment there of a "kingdom" over which he ruled as king for thirty years, is a most interesting
+episode in Tusayan history. Many Tanos people arrived in several bands among the Hopi
+about 1700, but which of them were led by Frasquillo is not known to me.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> "El templo acabo en llamas." At this time Awatobi was said to have 800 inhabitants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> At the present time one of the most bitter complaints which the Hopi have against the Spaniards
+is that they forcibly baptized the children of their people during the detested occupancy by the conquerors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> <i>Naacnaiya</i> and <i>W&uuml;w&uuml;tcimti</i> are the elaborate and abbreviated New-fire ceremonies now observed
+by four religious warrior societies, known as the <i>Tataukyam&ucirc;</i>, <i>W&uuml;w&uuml;tcimt&ucirc;</i>, <i>Aalt&ucirc;</i> and <i>Kwakwant&ucirc;</i>.
+Both of these ceremonials, as now observed at Walpi, have elsewhere been described.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Obiit 1892. Shimo was chief of the Flute Society and "Governor" of Walpi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Oldest woman of the Snake clan; mother of Kopeli, the Snake chief of Walpi; chief priestess of
+the Mamzr&aacute;uti ceremony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Vetancurt, Chronica, says that Aguatobi (Awatobi) had 800 inhabitants and was converted by
+Padre Francisco de Porras. In 1630 Benavides speaks of the Mokis as being rapidly converted. It
+would appear, if we rely on Vetancurt's figures, that Awatobi was not one of the largest villages of
+Tusayan in early times, for he ascribes 1,200 to Walpi and 14,000 to Oraibi. The estimate of the population
+of Awatobi was doubtless nearer the truth than that of the other pueblos, and I greatly doubt
+if Oraibi ever had 14,000 people. Probably 1,400 would be more nearly correct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Architecture of Cibola and Tusayan, p. 225.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> There are two fragments, one of which is large enough to show the size of the bell, which was
+made either in Mexico or in Spain. The smaller fragment was used for many years as a paint-grinder
+by a Walpi Indian priest.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> See his Final Report, p. 372.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> The only Awatobi name I know is that of a chief, Tapolo, which is not borne by any Hopi of my
+acquaintance (see page 603).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> This explains the fact that the ruins in Tusayan, as a rule, have no signs of kivas, and the same
+appears to be true of the ruins of the pueblos on the Little Colorado and the Verde, in Tonto Basin,
+and other more southerly regions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> See Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology, vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> "Las casas son de tres altos"&mdash;<i>Segunda Relacion</i>, p. 580.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> So far as our limited knowledge of the older ruins of Tusayan goes, we find that their inhabitants
+must have been as far removed from rude Shohonean nomads as their descendants are today. The
+settlement at the early site of Walpi is reported to have been made in very early times, some legends
+stating that it occurred at a period when the people were limited to one family&mdash;the Snake. The fragments
+of pottery which I have found in the mounds of that ancient habitation are as fine and as
+characteristic of Tusayan as that of Sikyatki or Awatobi. It is inferior to none in the whole pueblo
+area, and betrays long sedentary life of its makers before it was manufactured.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Journal of American Folk-lore, vol. v, No. xviii, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> There is a rude sketch of these two idols of <i>Alosaka</i> in the archives of the Hemenway Expedition.
+They represent figurines about 4 feet tall, with two horns on the head not unlike those of the Tewan
+clowns or gluttons called Paiakyam&ucirc;. As so little is known of the Misho&ntilde;inovi ritual, the rites in
+which they are used are at present inexplicable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> See the ear-ornament of the mask shown in plate <span class="smcap">cviii</span>, of the Fifteenth Annual Report.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Similar "spouts" were found by Mindeleff at Awatobi, and a like use of them is suggested in his
+valuable memoir.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> The Keresan people are called by the same name, Kawaika, which, as hitherto explained, is specially
+applied to the modern pueblo of Laguna.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The Asa people who came to Tusayan from the Rio Grande claim to have lived for a few generations
+in Tubka or Ts&eacute;gi (Chelly) canyon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> The pottery of ancient Cibola is practically identical with that of the ruined pueblos of the Colorado
+Chiquito, near Winslow, Arizona.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> The specimens labeled "New Mexico" and "Arizona" are too vaguely classified to be of any
+service in this consideration. It is suggested that collectors carefully label their specimens with the
+exact locality in which they are found, giving care to their association and, when mortuary, to their
+position in the graves in relation to the skeletons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> I am informed by Mr F. W. Hodge that similar fragments were found by the Hemenway Expedition
+in 1888 in the prehistoric ruins of the Salado.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> The head is round, with lateral appendages. The face is divided into two quadrants above, with
+chin blackened, and marked with zigzag lines, which are lacking in modern pictures. In the left
+hand the figure holds a rattle. The body is wanting, but the breast is decorated with rectangles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> A single metate of lava or malpais was excavated at Awatobi. This object must have had a long
+journey before it reached the village, since none of the material from which it was made is found
+within many miles of the ruin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> There are many fine pictographs, some of which are evidently ancient, on the cliffs of the Awatobi
+mesa. These are in no respect characteristic, and among them I have seen the <i>awata</i> (bow),
+<i>honani</i> (badger's paw), <i>tc&uuml;a</i> (snake), and <i>omow&ucirc;h</i> (rain-cloud). On the side of the precipitous wall of
+the mesa south of the western mounds there is a row of small hemispherical depressions or pits, with a
+groove or line on one side. There is likewise, not far from this point, a realistic figure of a vulva,
+not very unlike the <i>asha</i> symbols on Thunder mountain, near Zu&ntilde;i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> <i>Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, No. 1, p. 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> In the expedition of 1896 there were found a large number of shell ornaments, which will be
+described in a forthcoming report of the operations during that year. See the preliminary account
+in the article "Pacific Coast Shells in Tusayan Ruins," <i>American Anthropologist</i>, December, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> One of these bells was found in a grave at Chaves Pass during the field work of 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Bells made of clay are not rare in modern Tusayan villages, and while their form is different from
+that of the Awatobi specimen, and the size larger, there seems no reason to doubt the antiquity of the
+specimen from the ruin of Antelope mesa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Many of the specimens in the well-known Keam collection, now in the Tusayan room of the Peabody
+Museum at Cambridge, are undoubtedly from Sikyatki, and still more are from Awatobi. Since
+the beginning of my excavations at Sikyatki it has come to be a custom for the Hopi potters to dispose
+of, as Sikyatki ware, to unsuspecting white visitors, some of their modern objects of pottery.
+These fraudulent pieces are often very cleverly made.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> Architecture of Tusayan and Cibola, op. cit., pp. 20, 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> These rooms I failed to find. One of the rocky knolls may be that called by me the "acropolis."
+The second knoll I cannot identify, unless it is the elevation in continuation of the same side toward
+the east. Possibly he confounded the ruin of K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo with that of Sikyatki.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> The legends of the origin of Oraibi are imperfectly known, but it has been stated that the pueblo
+was founded by people from Old Shu&ntilde;opovi. It seems much more likely, however, that our knowledge
+is too incomplete to accept this conclusion without more extended observations. The composition of
+the present inhabitants indicates amalgamation from several quarters, and neighboring ruins should
+be studied with this thought in mind.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> It is distinctly stated that the Tanoan families whose descendants now inhabit Hano were not in
+Tusayan when Awatobi fell. To be sure they may have been sojourning in some valley east of the
+province, which, however, is not likely, since they were "invited" to East Mesa for the specific purpose
+of aiding the Hopi against northern nomads. Much probability attaches to a suggestion that
+they belonged to the emigrants mentioned by contemporary historians as leaving the Rio Grande on
+account of the unsettled condition of the country after the great rebellion of 1680.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The succession of priests is through the clan of the mother, so that commonly, as in the case of
+Katci, the nephew takes the place of the uncle at his death. Some instances, however, have come to
+my knowledge where, the clan having become extinct, a son has been elevated to the position made
+vacant by the death of a priest. The Kokop people at Walpi are vigorous, numbering 21 members
+if we include the Coyote and Wolf clans, the last mentioned of which may be descendants of
+the former inhabitants of K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo, the twin ruins on the mesa above Sikyatki.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> In this census I have used also the apparently conservative statement of Vetancurt that there
+were 800 people in Awatobi at the end of the seventeenth century.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> <i>Kanel</i> = Spanish <i>carnero</i>, sheep; <i>ba</i> = water, spring.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Wipo spring, a few miles northward from the eastern end of the mesa, would be an excellent site
+for a Government school. It is sufficiently convenient to the pueblos, has an abundant supply of
+potable water at all seasons, and cultivable fields in the neighborhood.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> The boy who brought our drinking water from Kanelba could not be prevailed upon to visit it on
+the day of the snake hunt to the east in 1895, on the ground that no one not a member of the society
+should be seen there or take water from it at that time. This is probably a phase of the taboo of all
+work in the world-quarter in which the snake hunts occur, when the Snake priests are engaged in
+capturing these reptilian "elder brothers."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Tcino lives at Sichomovi, and in the Snake dance at Walpi formerly took the part of the old man
+who calls out the words, "<i>Awahaia</i>," etc. at the kisi, before the reptiles are carried about the plaza.
+These words are Keresan, and Tcino performed this part on account of his kinship. He owns the
+grove of peach trees because they are on land of his ancestors, a fact confirmatory of the belief that
+the people of Sikyatki came from the Rio Grande.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Nasyu&ntilde;weve, who died a few years ago, formerly made the prayer-stick to Masauw&ucirc;h, the Fire or
+Death god. This he did as one of the senior members of the Kokop or Firewood people, otherwise
+known as the Fire people, because they made fire with the fire-drill. On his death his place in the
+kiva was taken by Katci. Nasyu&ntilde;weve was Intiwa's chief assistant in the Walpi <i>katcinas</i>, and wore
+the mask of Eototo in the ceremonials of the <i>Niman</i>. All this is significant, and coincides with the
+theory that <i>katcinas</i> are incorporated in the Tusayan ritual, that Eototo is their form of Masauw&ucirc;h,
+and that he is a god of fire, growth, and death, like his dreaded equivalent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> The Hano people call the Hopi <i>Koco</i> or <i>Koso</i>; the Santa Clara (also Tewa) people call them <i>Khoso</i>,
+according to Hodge.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> The replastering of kivas at Walpi takes place during the <i>Powamu</i>, an elaborate <i>katcina</i> celebration.
+I have noticed that in this renovation of the kivas one corner, as a rule, is left unplastered,
+but have elicited no satisfactory explanation of this apparent oversight, which, no doubt, has significance.
+Someone, perhaps overimaginative, suggested to me that the unplastered corner was the
+same as the break in encircling lines on ancient pottery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> I was aided in making this plan by the late J. G. Owens, my former assistant in the field work of
+the Hemenway Expedition. It was prepared with a few simple instruments, and is not claimed to
+be accurate in all particulars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> The existence of these peach trees near Sikyatki suggests, of course, an abandonment of the neighboring
+pueblo in historic times, but I hardly think it outweighs other stronger proofs of antiquity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> The position of the cemeteries in ancient Tusayan ruins is by no means uniform. They are
+rarely situated far from the houses, and are sometimes just outside the walls. While the dead were
+seldom carried far from the village, a sandy locality was generally chosen and a grave excavated a
+few feet deep. Usually a few stones were placed on the surface of the ground over the burial place,
+evidently to protect the remains from prowling beasts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> The excavations at Homolobi in 1896 revealed two beautiful cups with braided handles and one
+where the clay strands are twisted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> The modern potters commonly adorn the ends of ladle handles with heads of different mythologic
+beings in their pantheon. The knob-head priest-clowns are favorite personages to represent, although
+even the Corn-maid and different <i>katcinas</i> are also sometimes chosen for this purpose. The heads of
+various animals are likewise frequently found, some in artistic positions, others less so.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> The clay ladles with perforated handles with which the modern Hopi sometimes drink are
+believed to be of late origin in Tusayan.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> The oldest medicine bowls now in use ordinarily have handles and a terraced rim, but there are one
+or two important exceptions. In this connection it may be mentioned that, unlike the Zu&ntilde;i, the Hopi
+never use a clay bowl with a basket-like handle for sacred meal, but always carry the meal in basket
+trays. This the priests claim is a very old practice, and so far as my observations go is confirmed
+by archeological evidence. The bowl with a basket-form handle is not found either in ancient or
+modern Tusayan.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Symbolism rather than realism was the controlling element of archaic decoration. Thus, while
+objects of beauty, like flowers and leaves, were rarely depicted, and human forms are most absurd
+caricatures, most careful attention was given to minute details of symbolism, or idealized animals
+unknown to the naturalist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> Certainly no more appropriate design could be chosen for the decoration of the inside of a food
+vessel than the head of the Corn-maid, and from our ideas of taste none less so than that of a lizard
+or bird. The freshness and absence of wear of many of the specimens of Sikyatki mortuary pottery
+raises the question whether they were ever in domestic use. Many evidently were thus employed, as
+the evidences of wear plainly indicate, but possibly some of the vessels were made for mortuary
+purposes, either at the time of the decease of a relative or at an earlier period.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> The figure shown in <a href="#PL_CXXIX">plate <span class="smcap">cxxix</span>, <i>a</i></a>, was probably intended to represent the Corn-maid, or an
+Earth goddess of the Sikyatki pantheon. Although it differs widely in drawing from figures of
+Calako-mana on modern bowls, it bears a startling resemblance to the figure of the Germ goddess
+which appears on certain Tusayan altars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Hopi legends recount how certain clans, especially those of Tanoan origin, lived in Ts&eacute;gi canyon
+and intermarried with the Navaho so extensively that it is said they temporarily forgot their own
+language. From this source may have sprung the numerous so-called Navaho <i>katcinas</i>, and the
+reciprocal influence on the Navaho cults was even greater.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> These priests wear a close-fitting skullcap, with two long, banded horns made of leather, to the end
+of which corn husks are tied. For an extended description see <i>Journal of American Ethnology and
+Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">ii</span>, No. 1, page 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> The rarity of human figures on such kinds of pottery as are found in the oldest ruins would appear
+to indicate that decorations of this kind were a late development. No specimen of black-and-white
+ware on which pictures of human beings are present has yet been figured. The sequence of evolution
+in designs is believed to be (1) geometrical figures, (2) birds, (3) other animals, (4) human beings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> In some of the figurines used in connection with modern Hopi altars these whorls are represented
+by small wheels made of sticks radiating from a common juncture and connected by woolen yarn.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> The natives of Cibola, according to Casta&ntilde;eda, "gather their hair over the two ears, making a frame
+which looks like an old-fashioned headdress." The Tusayan Pueblo maidens are the only Indians
+who now dress their hair in this way, although the custom is still kept up by men in certain sacred
+dances at Zu&ntilde;i. The country women in Salamanca, Spain, do their hair up in two flat coils, one on
+each side of the forehead, a custom which Casta&ntilde;eda may have had in mind when he compared the
+Pueblo coiffure to an "old-fashioned headdress."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>American Anthropologist</i>, April, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Troano and Cortesiano codices.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> A <i>nakw&aacute;kwoci</i> is an individual prayer-string, and consists of one or more prescribed feathers tied
+to a cotton string. These prayer emblems are made in great numbers in every Tusayan ceremony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> The evidence afforded by this bowl would seem to show that the cult of the Corn-maid was a part
+of the mythology and ritual of Sikyatki. The elaborate figures of the rain-cloud, which are so prominent
+in representations of the Corn-maid on modern plaques, bowls, and dolls, are not found in the
+Sikyatki picture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> The reason for my belief that this is a breath feather will be shown under the discussion of feather
+and bird pictures.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> For the outline of this legend see <i>Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">iv</span>. The maid
+is there called the Tc&uuml;a-mana or Snake-maid, a sacerdotal society name for the Germ goddess. The
+same personage is alluded to under many different names, depending on the society, but they are all
+believed to refer to the same mythic concept.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> The attitude of the male and female here depicted was not regarded as obscene; on the contrary,
+to the ancient Sikyatki mind the picture had a deep religious meaning. In Hopi ideas the male is a
+symbol of active generative power, the female of passive reproduction, and representations of these
+two form essential elements of the ancient pictorial and graven art of that people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> The doll of Kokopeli has along, bird-like beak, generally a rosette on the side of the head, a hump
+on the back, and an enormous penis. It is a phallic deity, and appears in certain ceremonials which
+need not here be described. During the excavations at Sikyatki one of the Indians called my attention
+to a large Dipteran insect which he called "Kokopeli."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> The practice still exists at Zu&ntilde;i, I am told, and there is no sign of its becoming extinct. It is said
+that old Naiutci, the chief of the Priesthood of the Bow, was permanently injured during one of
+these performances. (Since the above lines were written I have excavated from one of the ruins on
+the Little Colorado a specimen of one of these objects used by ancient stick-swallowers. It is made
+of bone, and its use was explained to me by a reliable informant familiar with the practices of Oraibi
+and other villagers. It is my intention to figure and describe this ancient object in the account of the
+explorations of 1896.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> "Tusayan Katcinas," Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1893-94, Washington,
+1897. Hew&uuml;qti is also called Soyokmana, a Keresan-Hopi name meaning the Natacka-maid. The
+Keresan (Sia) Skoyo are cannibal giants, according to Mrs Stevenson, an admirable definition of the
+Hopi Natackas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The celebration occurs in the modern Tusayan pueblos in the <i>Powam&ucirc;</i> where the representative of
+Calako flogs the children. Calako's picture is found on the <i>Powam&ucirc;</i> altars of several of the villages
+of the Hopi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> Figures of the human hand have been found on the walls of cliff houses. These were apparently
+made in somewhat the same way as that on the above bowl, the hand being placed on the surface and
+pigment spattered about it. See "The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly," by Cosmos Mindeleff; Sixteenth
+Annual Report, 1894-95.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> Mu<sup>r</sup>yi, mole or gopher; mu<sup>r</sup>iyaw&ucirc;, moon. There maybe some Hopi legend connecting the gopher
+with the moon, but thus far it has eluded my studies, and I can at present do no more than call attention
+to what appears to be an interesting etymological coincidence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> This form of mouth I have found in pictures of quadrupeds, birds, and insects, and is believed to
+be conventionalized. Of a somewhat similar structure are the mouths of the <i>Natacka</i> monsters
+which appear in the Walpi <i>Powam&ucirc;</i> ceremony. See the memoir on "Tusayan Katcinas," in the
+Fifteenth Annual Report.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Figures of the tadpole and frog are often found on modern medicine bowls in Tusayan. The
+snake, so common on Zu&ntilde;i ceremonial pottery, has not been seen by me on a single object of earthenware
+in use in modern Hopi ritual.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> <i>Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">iv</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Although made of beautiful yellow ware, it shows at one point marks of having been overheated
+in firing, as is often the case with larger vases and jars.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> One of the best examples of the rectangular or ancient type of medicine bowl is used in the celebration
+of the Snake dance at Oraibi, where it stands on the rear margin of the altar of the Antelope
+priesthood of that pueblo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> One of the best of these is that of the Humis-katcina, but good examples occur on the dolls of the
+Calakomanas. The Lakone maid, however, wears a coronet of circular rain-cloud symbols, which
+corresponds with traditions which recount that this form was introduced by the southern clans or
+the Patki people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> In the evolution of ornament among the Hopi, as among most primitive peoples where new designs
+have replaced the old, the meaning of the ancient symbols has been lost. Consequently we are forced
+to adopt comparative methods to decipher them. If, for instance, on a fragment of ancient pottery we
+find the figure of a bird in which the wing or tail feathers have a certain characteristic symbol form,
+we are justified, when we find the same symbolic design on another fragment where the rest of the
+bird is wanting, in considering the figure that of a wing or tail feather. So when the prescribed
+figure of the feather has been replaced by another form it is not surprising to find it incomprehensible
+to modern shamans. The comparative ethnologist may in this way learn the meanings of symbols
+to which the modern Hopi priest can furnish no clue.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> In an examination of many figures of ancient vessels where this peculiar design occurs it will be
+found that in all instances they represent feathers, although the remainder of the bird is not to be
+found. The same may also be said of the design which represents the tail-feathers. This way of
+representing feathers is not without modern survival, for it may still be seen in many dolls of mystic
+personages who are reputed to have worn feathered garments.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> At the present time the circle is the totemic signature of the Earth people, representing the horizon,
+but it has likewise various other meanings. With certain appendages it is the disk of the sun&mdash;and
+there are ceremonial paraphernalia, as annulets, placed on sand pictures or tied to helmets, which
+may be represented by a simple ring. The meaning of these circles in the bowl referred to above is
+not clear to me, nor is my series of pictographs sufficiently extensive to enable a discovery of its significance
+by comparative methods. A ring of meal sometimes drawn on the floor of a kiva is called
+a "house," and a little imagination would easily identify these with the mythic houses of the sky-bird,
+but this interpretation is at present only fanciful.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> The <i>paho</i> is probably a substitution of a sacrifice of corn or meal given as homage to the god
+addressed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> <i>Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">iv</span>. These water gourds figure conspicuously
+in many ceremonies of the Tusayan ritual. The two girls personating the Corn-maids carry them in
+the Flute observance, and each of the Antelope priests at Oraibi bears one of these in the Antelope or
+Corn dance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> "A few Tusayan Pictographs;" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, Washington, January, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> A beautiful example of this kind was found at Homolobi in the summer of 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> In this connection the reader is referred to the story, already told in former pages of this memoir,
+concerning the flogging of the youth by the husband of the two women who brought the Hopi the
+seeds of corn. It may be mentioned as corroboratory evidence that Calako-taka represents a supernatural
+sun-bird, that the Tataukyam&ucirc; priests carry a shield with Tunwup (Calako-taka) upon it in the
+Soyalu&ntilde;a. These priests, as shown by the etymology of their name, are associated with the sun. In
+the Sun drama, or Calako ceremony, in July, Calako-takas are personated, and at Zu&ntilde;i the Shalako
+is a great winter sun ceremony.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> <i>American Anthropologist</i>, April, 1895, p. 133. As these cross-shape pahos which are now made in
+Tusayan are attributed to the Kawaika or Keres group of Indians, and as they were seen at the Keresan
+pueblo of Acoma in 1540, it is probable that they are derivative among the Hopi; but simple cross
+decorations on ancient pottery were probably autochthonous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> In dolls of the Corn-maids this germinative symbol is often found made of wood and mounted on
+an elaborate tablet representing rain-clouds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> Many similarities might be mentioned between the terraced figures used in decoration in Old
+Mexico and in ancient Tusayan pottery, but I will refer to but a single instance, that of the stuccoed
+walls of Mitla, Oaxaca, and Teotitlan del Valle. Many designs from these ruins are gathered together
+for comparative purposes by that eminent Mexicanist, Dr E. Seler, in his beautiful memoir on
+Mitla (<i>Wandmalereien von Mitla</i>, plate <span class="smcap">x</span>). In this plate exact counterparts of many geometric
+patterns on Sikyatki pottery appear, and even the broken spiral is beautifully represented. There
+are key patterns and terraced figures in stucco on monuments of Central America identical with the
+figures on pottery from Sikyatki.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> This pillar, so conspicuous in all photographs of Walpi, is commonly called the Snake rock.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> <i>American Anthropologist</i>, April, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> I failed to find out how the Hopi regard fossils.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> These objects were eagerly sought by the Hopi women who visited the camps at Awatobi and
+Sikyatki.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> The tubular form of pipe was almost universal in the pueblo area, and I have deposited in the
+National Museum pipes of this kind from several ruins in the Rio Grande valley.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> <i>Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">iv</span>, pp. 31, 32, 33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> This form of pipe occurs over the whole pueblo area.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Ancient cigarette reeds, found in sacrificial caves, have a small fragment of woven fabric tied
+about them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> The so-called "implements of wood" figured by Nordenski&ouml;ld ("The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa
+Verde," plate <span class="smcap">xlii</span>) are identical with some of the pahos from Sikyatki, and are undoubtedly prayer-sticks.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> Primitive Culture, vol. ii, p. 396.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Journal of American Ethnology and Arch&aelig;ology, Vol. <i>ii</i>, p. 131.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> <i>American Anthropologist</i>, July, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> As stated in former pages, there is some paleographic evidence looking in that direction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> <i>Journal of American Folk-Lore</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">v</span>, no. xviii, p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Op. cit., p. 214.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> They failed to germinate.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_743" id="Page_743">[Pg 743]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following list introduces the numbers by which the specimens
+illustrated in this memoir are designated in the catalog of the United
+States National Museum. Each specimen is also marked with a field
+catalog number, the locality in which it was found, and the name of the
+collector:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="apndx">
+<tr><td align='right'><span class="smcap">Plate</span> <a href="#PL_CXI"><span class="smcap">cxi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155895; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155897; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155898; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155896; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155900; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155916.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXII"><span class="smcap">cxii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155875; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155996; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155902; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155996; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155997.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXIII"><span class="smcap">cxiii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155992; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155913; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155991; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155994; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155993.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXIV"><span class="smcap">cxiv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>-<i>g</i>, 156018; </td><td align='right'><i>h</i>, 156131; </td><td align='right'><i>i</i>, 156091; </td><td align='right'><i>j</i>, 156018.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXIX"><span class="smcap">cxix</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155806; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155841; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155832; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155678; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155820; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155838.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXX"><span class="smcap">cxx</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155867; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155866; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155871; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155856; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155861; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155460.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXI"><span class="smcap">cxxi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155694; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155698; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155719.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXII"><span class="smcap">cxxii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155702; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155684; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155688.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXIII"><span class="smcap">cxxiii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155711; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155703; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155707; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155673.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXIV"><span class="smcap">cxxiv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155674; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155683.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXV"><span class="smcap">cxxv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155750; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155753; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155751; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155752; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155749; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155747.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXVI"><span class="smcap">cxxvi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155700; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155682.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXVII"><span class="smcap">cxxvii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155718; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155714; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155723; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155691.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXVIII"><span class="smcap">cxxviii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155745; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155744; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155746; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155735; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155734; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155733; </td><td align='right'><i>g</i>, 155736.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXIX"><span class="smcap">cxxix</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155467; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155462; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155463; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155464; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155466; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155465.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXX"><span class="smcap">cxxx</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155474; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155475; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155477; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155484; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155473; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155476.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXI"><span class="smcap">cxxxi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155758; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155773; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155768; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155771; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155546; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i> 155764.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXII"><span class="smcap">cxxxii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155482; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155483; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155481; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155480; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155479; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155485.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXIII"><span class="smcap">cxxxiii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155614; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155757; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155502; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155772; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155758; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155781.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXIV"><span class="smcap">cxxxiv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155570; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155597; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155567; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155507; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155575; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155505.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXV"><span class="smcap">cxxxv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155692; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155681.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXVI"><span class="smcap">cxxxvi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155687; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155737; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155695.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXVII"><span class="smcap">cxxxvii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155488; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155450; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155468; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155732; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155776; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155740.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXVIII"><span class="smcap">cxxxviii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155498; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155490; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155492; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155500; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155499; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155494.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXXXIX"><span class="smcap">cxxxix</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155524; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155528; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155491; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155523; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155527; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155522.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXL"><span class="smcap">cxl</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155529; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155489; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155540; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155541; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155606; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155410.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLI"><span class="smcap">cxli</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155501; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155503; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155509; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155511; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155510; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155512.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLII"><span class="smcap">cxlii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155712; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155693; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155756; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155636; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155697.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLIII"><span class="smcap">cxliii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, 155690.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLIV"><span class="smcap">cxliv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, 155689.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLV"><span class="smcap">cxlv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155717; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155696.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLVI"><span class="smcap">cxlvi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155538; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155508; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155802; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155537; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155487; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155653.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLVII"><span class="smcap">cxlvii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155493; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155497; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155602; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155504; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155608; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155495.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLVIII"><span class="smcap">cxlviii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155556; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155408; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155545; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155548; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155544; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155542.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CXLIX"><span class="smcap">cxlix</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155554; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155549; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155573; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155607; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155572; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155581.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CL"><span class="smcap">cl</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155565; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155519; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155518; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155569; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155551; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155574.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLI"><span class="smcap">cli</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155535; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155532; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155539; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155526; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155613; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155615.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLII"><span class="smcap">clii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155555; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155547; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155571; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155553; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155536; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155521.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLIII"><span class="smcap">cliii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155558; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155564.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLIV"><span class="smcap">cliv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155560; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155568.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_744" id="Page_744">[Pg 744]</a></span><a href="#PL_CLV"><span class="smcap">clv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155543; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155557.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLVI"><span class="smcap">clvi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155562; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155561; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155562; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155796; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155601; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155588.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLVII"><span class="smcap">clvii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155531; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155530; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155525; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155585; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155563; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155552.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLVIII"><span class="smcap">clviii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155628; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155742; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155632; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155633; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155587; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155634.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLIX"><span class="smcap">clix</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155583; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155598; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155516; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155629; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155590; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155520.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLX"><span class="smcap">clx</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155577; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155576; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155622; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155594; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155647; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155654.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXI"><span class="smcap">clxi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155642; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155506; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155517; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155472; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155589; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155600.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXII"><span class="smcap">clxii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155637; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155618; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155643; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155621; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155534; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155533.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXIII"><span class="smcap">clxiii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155611; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155612.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXIV"><span class="smcap">clxiv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155610; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155609.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXV"><span class="smcap">clxv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155593; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155592.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXVI"><span class="smcap">clxvi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155641; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155616; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155617; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155619; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155584; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155640.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXVII"><span class="smcap">clxvii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155877; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155878; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155892; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155882; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155890; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155881.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXVIII"><span class="smcap">clxviii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155876; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155891; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 155884; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 155914; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 155940; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 155880.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXIX"><span class="smcap">clxix</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 156095; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 156098; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 156175; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 156174; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 156154; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 156065.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXX"><span class="smcap">clxx</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, 156227.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXI"><span class="smcap">clxxi</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 156270; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, 156303; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 156199; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 156043.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXII"><span class="smcap">clxxii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 156042; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 156169; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 156169; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 156170; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, 156184; </td><td align='right'><i>f</i>, 156164.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXIII"><span class="smcap">clxxiii</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 155999; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, 155154; </td><td align='right'><i>c</i>, 156128; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 156131; </td><td align='right'><i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, 1561?0; </td><td align='right'><i>g</i>, 156010; </td><td align='right'><i>h-l</i>, 156130.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXIV"><span class="smcap">clxxiv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>a</i>, 156191; </td><td align='right'><i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, 156183; </td><td align='right'><i>d</i>, 156185; </td><td align='right'><i>e-g</i>, 156183; </td><td align='right'><i>h-j</i>, 156194; </td><td align='right'><i>k</i>, 156180; </td><td align='right'><i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, 156191; </td><td align='right'><i>n</i>, 156182.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'><a href="#PL_CLXXV"><span class="smcap">clxxv</span></a>. </td><td align='right'><i>o</i>, 156188; </td><td align='right'><i>p</i>, 156185; </td><td align='right'><i>q</i>, 156191; </td><td align='right'><i>r</i>, 156186; </td><td align='right'><i>s</i>, 156180; </td><td align='right'><i>t</i>, 156188; </td><td align='right'><i>u</i>, 156181; </td><td align='right'><i>v</i>, 156179; </td><td align='right'><i>w</i>, 156187.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_745" id="Page_745">[Pg 745]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Acropolis</span> of Sikyatki <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a><a href="#Page_646">-646</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Adobe</span> plastering in cavate houses <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Adobe</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Masonry">Masonry</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plastering">Plastering</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Agave</span> fiber used in Tusayan <a href="#Page_629">629</a>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguato</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguatobi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguatuv&iacute;</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguatuya</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguatuyb&aacute;</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aguitobi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ahuato</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ahuatobi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ahuatu</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ahuatuyba</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ah-wat-tenna</span> an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Alosaka" id="Alosaka"></a>Alosaka</span> idols in Awatobi shrine <a href="#Page_619">619</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Anawita</span>, traditional information given by <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ancestor</span> worship at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_732">732</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Antelope valley</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Jeditoh_valley">Jeditoh valley</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Apache</span> depredation in Tusayan <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Apache</span>], late appearance of, at Tusayan <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Apache</span>] occupancy of Verde ruins <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_565">565</a>, <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Apache</span>] pictographs in Verde valley <a href="#Page_550">550</a>, <a href="#Page_556">556</a>, <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aquatasi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aquatubi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Archeological</span> expedition to Arizona, 1895 <a href="#Page_519">519</a><a href="#Page_744">-744</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Arizona</span>, archeological expedition to, 1895 <a href="#Page_519">519</a><a href="#Page_744">-744</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Arizona</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Navaho">Navaho</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arrowhead kilt</span> worn by man-eagle <a href="#Page_692">692</a><a href="#Page_693">-693</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Arrowheads</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_618">618</a>, <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Arrowheads</span>] in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_731">731</a>, <a href="#Page_740">740</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Arrowshaft polishers</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_611">611</a>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Arrowshaft polishers</span>] in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Art remains</span> in Palatki and Honanki <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Asa people</span> join the Hopi <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Asa people</span>], migration of <a href="#Page_622">622</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Asa people</span>] settle at Sichomovi <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ash-heap pueblo</span>, former site of Walpi <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Atabi-hogandi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Aua-tu-ui</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">A-wa-te-u</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Awatobi" id="Awatobi"></a>Awatobi</span> and Sikyatki pottery compared <a href="#Page_659">659</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>], arrowshaft polishers from <a href="#Page_611">611</a>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>], etymology of <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>], legend of destruction of <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>], population of <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>], reasons for excavating <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>] ruin discussed <a href="#Page_592">592</a><a href="#Page_631">-631</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>] ruin examined <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>], settlement of Sikyatki people at <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>] settled by K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo and Sikyatki people <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Awatobi</span>] visited in 1540 <a href="#Page_596">596</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Awat&ucirc;bi</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">&Aacute;-wat-u-i</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Awls</span>, bone, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Axes</span>, stone, in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_730">730</a>, <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Axes</span>] from Awatobi <a href="#Page_625">625</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Badger people</span> settle Sichomovi <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Baer, Erwin</span>, with archeological expedition in 1895 <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bancroft, H. H.</span>, on destruction of Awatobi <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bandelier, A. F.</span>, Cibola identified by <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bandelier, A. F.</span>], on record of Awatobi destruction <a href="#Page_610">610</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Baptism</span> opposed by the Hopi <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Basins</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Basketry</span> found in Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Basketry</span>] not found at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bat-house</span>, ruin of the <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Beads</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Beads</span>] in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Beams</span> of mission in Walpi houses <a href="#Page_586">586</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Beams</span>] of Palatki ruin <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bean-planting</span> ceremony of the Hopi <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bear clans</span>, early arrival of, at Tusayan <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bell</span>, clay, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bell</span>], copper fragments of, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_609">609</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bell</span>] used in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Berries</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bessels, Emil</span>, on affinity of cliff-dwellers and pueblos <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bickford, F. D.</span>, on cliff houses in Walnut canyon <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bird</span> figures on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_660">660</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bird</span>] figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_682">682</a><a href="#Page_698">-698</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bird</span>] ornaments from Awatobi <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bird</span>] ornaments in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bird</span>] vessels from Awatobi <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bloody Basin</span>, cliff houses of <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bodkins</span>, bone, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bone beads</span> from Honanki <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bone beads</span>] in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bone objects</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_627">627</a>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bone objects</span>], from Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bonilla</span>, &mdash;, on Sandia population in 1749 <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bourke, J. G.</span>, identifies Tally-hogan with Awatobi <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bowls</span>, Sikyatki, decorations on <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Bowls</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Boxes</span>, earthenware, from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_655">655</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Bracelets</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Butterfly</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery. <a href="#Page_678">678</a><a href="#Page_680">-680</a>, <a href="#Page_698">698</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Butterfly</span>] symbol on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_687">687</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_746" id="Page_746">[Pg 746]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Calako" id="Calako"></a>Calako</span> in Hopi mythology <a href="#Page_700">700</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Calako</span>] katcina, origin of <a href="#Page_666">666</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Campbell, Geo.</span>, cliff houses discovered by <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Camp Verde</span>, ruins near <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cardenas, G. L.</span>, visits Tusayan in 1540 <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cardinal points</span> in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_613">613</a>, <a href="#Page_628">628</a>, <a href="#Page_678">678</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Casa Grande</span> ascribed to the Hopi <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Casa Grandes</span>, pottery from <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Casa Montezuma</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Montezuma_Castle">Montezuma Castle</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Caste&ntilde;eda, P. de</span>, account of Tusayan <a href="#Page_596">596</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Caste&ntilde;eda, P. de</span>] on Cibola hair-dressing <a href="#Page_661">661</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Caste&ntilde;eda, P. de</span>] on early pueblo warfare <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Caste&ntilde;eda, P. de</span>] on Hopi fabrics <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Caste&ntilde;eda, P. de</span>] on pueblo kivas in 1540 <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Caste&ntilde;eda, P. de</span>] on visit to Tusayan in 1540 <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cavate dwellings</span>, function of <a href="#Page_544">544</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cavate dwellings</span>] in Verde valley discussed <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_537">537</a><a href="#Page_545">-545</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Cemeteries" id="Cemeteries"></a>Cemeteries</span> of Sikyatki <a href="#Page_646">646</a><a href="#Page_649">-649</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cemetery</span> of Awatobi <a href="#Page_593">593</a>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ceremonial circuit</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_681">681</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Chairs</span> tabooed in Hopi kivas <a href="#Page_626">626</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Charm stones</span> from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_729">729</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Chavero, A.</span>, on Nahuatl water symbol <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Chaves pass</span>, ruins at <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Chelly_canyon" id="Chelly_canyon"></a>Chelly canyon</span>, cliff houses in <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Chelly canyon</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Ts">Ts&eacute;gi</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Chimneys</span>, absence of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Chukubi</span>, ruin of, discussed <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cibola</span>, identification of <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cibola</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Zu">Zu&ntilde;i</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cigarettes</span> of reeds in sacrificial caves <a href="#Page_736">736</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cigarettes</span>] in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_735">735</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cinder cones</span>, ruins in <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Circular ruins</span> absent in southern pueblo area <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cist</span> in Awatobi kiva <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cist</span>] in cavate lodges <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cist</span>] near cavate houses <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Clans</span> formerly occupying Sikyatki <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Clans</span>] of Awatobi <a href="#Page_610">610</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Clans</span>] of K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo and Sikyatki <a href="#Page_587">587</a>, <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cliff dwellers</span> defined <a href="#Page_531">531</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>, age of, in Red-rocks <a href="#Page_545">545</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>] and pueblos similar <a href="#Page_537">537</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>] formerly occupied by Hopi <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>], human hand figures on <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>] in Walnut canyon <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>] of the Red-rocks <a href="#Page_548">548</a>, <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cliff houses</span>] of Verde valley classified <a href="#Page_536">536</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cliff Palace</span> and Honanki compared <a href="#Page_552">552</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cliff's Ranch</span>, pictographs near <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cloud</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Raincloud">Raincloud</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Clown-priest</span> figures on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_659">659</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Colander</span> fragments from Tusayan ruins <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Comupav&iacute;</span> identified with Shu&ntilde;opovi <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Concepcion, Cristoval de la</span>, at founding of Awatobi mission <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Copper</span> found in Awatobi <a href="#Page_608">608</a>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Copper</span>] bells in Arizona ruins <a href="#Page_628">628</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Copper</span>] unknown to ancient Tusayan <a href="#Page_741">741</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Corn</span> attached to prayer-sticks <a href="#Page_739">739</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn</span>] found in Awatobi <a href="#Page_606">606</a>, <a href="#Page_619">619</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn</span>] found in Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn</span>], Hopi symbolism of <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn</span>] in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn</span>], sweet, introduced in Misho&ntilde;inovi <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Corn-maid</span> dolls of the Hopi <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn-maid</span>] figures of the Hopi <a href="#Page_661">661</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Corn-maid</span>] figures on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_657">657</a>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Corn mound</span>, symbolic <a href="#Page_740">740</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Corn pollen</span> in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cornado, F. V. de</span>, route of <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Cosmogony" id="Cosmogony"></a>Cosmogony</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_666">666</a>, <a href="#Page_732">732</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cotton</span> cultivated by the Hopi <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cotton</span>] fabrics in Verde ruins <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cotton</span>] garments of the Hopi <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Coville, F. V.</span>, on identification of ancient food remains <a href="#Page_741">741</a><a href="#Page_742">-742</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cremation</span> not practiced at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Crooks</span> in Tusayan ritual <a href="#Page_703">703</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Crooks</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_703">703</a><a href="#Page_704">-704</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cross</span> figure allied to sun symbol <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cross</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Crystal</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Quartz_crystal">Quartz crystal</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cuanrabi</span> mentioned by O&ntilde;ate <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Cups</span> from Sikyatki described <a href="#Page_654">654</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cups</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cushing, F. H.</span>, on affinity of cliff dwellers and pueblos <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cushing, F. H.</span>], on southern origin of Zu&ntilde;i clans <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Cushing, F. H.</span>], ruins visited by <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Decoration" id="Decoration"></a>Decoration</span> of Awatobi pottery <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_624">624</a><a href="#Page_625">-625</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Decoration</span>] of Honanki pottery <a href="#Page_570">570</a>, <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Decoration</span>] of ladle handles <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Decoration</span>] of pottery by spattering <a href="#Page_650">650</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Decoration</span>] of Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_650">650</a>, <a href="#Page_652">652</a>, <a href="#Page_655">655</a>, <a href="#Page_657">657</a><a href="#Page_728">-728</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Dellenbaugh, F. S.</span>, on identification of Cibola <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Dippers</span> from Awatobi described <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Dippers</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Dolls" id="Dolls"></a>Dolls</span>, Corn-maid, of the Hopi <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Domestic animals</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Doorway" id="Doorway"></a>Doorways</span> of cavate houses <a href="#Page_543">543</a>, <a href="#Page_552">552</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Dragonfly</span> symbolic of rain <a href="#Page_630">630</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Dragonfly</span>] symbol on pottery <a href="#Page_669">669</a>, <a href="#Page_680">680</a><a href="#Page_682">-682</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Drill</span> balances from Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_740">740</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Eagle plumes</span> in Hopi rites <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Eagle shrine</span> at Tukinobi <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Eagles</span> kept by the Hopi <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">East mesa</span>, ruins at <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_747" id="Page_747">[Pg 747]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Espejo, Antonio</span>, Awatobi referred to by <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Espejo, Antonio</span>], Awatobi visited by <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Espejo, Antonio</span>], on Hopi fabrics <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Espejo, Antonio</span>], visits Tusayan in 1583 <a href="#Page_598">598</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Espeleta</span>, an Oraibi chief <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Espeleta</span>], visits Santa F&eacute; <a href="#Page_601">601</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Espeleta</span>, Jos&eacute;, killed at Oraibi <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Esperiez</span> mentioned by O&ntilde;ate <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Estufa</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Kiva">Kiva</a></span>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fabrics</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Textile">Textile</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Feather</span> fabrics from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Feather</span>] symbols on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Feather</span>] symbols on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_682">682</a><a href="#Page_698">-698</a>, <a href="#Page_714">714</a>, <a href="#Page_723">723</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Feathered strings</span> represented on pottery <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Feathers</span> on prayer-sticks <a href="#Page_739">739</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Fetish" id="Fetish"></a>Fetish</span>, mountain lion, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_618">618</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Fetish</span>], mountain lion, from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_730">730</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Fetish</span>], personal, from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_729">729</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fewkes, J. W.</span>, on archeological expedition to Arizona, 1895 <a href="#Page_519">519</a><a href="#Page_744">-744</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Figueroa, Jos&eacute;</span>, killed at Awatobi <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fire</span>, Hopi purification by <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Fire</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#New-fire_ceremonies">New-fire ceremony</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fire-house</span>, ancient occupancy of <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Fire-house</span>] ruin of Tusayan <a href="#Page_590">590</a>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fireplaces</span> in cavate dwellings <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Firewood people</span> at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_632">632</a>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Firewood people</span>] of Tusayan <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flagstaff</span>, cliff houses near <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flower figure</span> on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_697">697</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Flower figure</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_680">680</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flowers</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Vegetal_designs">Vegetal designs</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Flute ceremony</span> not performed in kiva <a href="#Page_575">575</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Flute ceremony</span>], trails closed during <a href="#Page_597">597</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flute-like objects</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Flute-like objects</span>] from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Flute society</span>, prayer-sticks of the <a href="#Page_737">737</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Food remains</span> in mortuary vessels <a href="#Page_741">741</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fossils</span> used in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_730">730</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Frasquillo</span>, flight of Tanoan refugees under <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Frog</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Frog</span>] figures on Tusayan bowls <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Garaycoechea, Juan</span>, Awatobi visited by <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Garaycoechea, Juan</span>], missionary labors of <a href="#Page_601">601</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Gardens</span>, modern, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Genesis" id="Genesis"></a>Genesis</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Geometric</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_701">701</a><a href="#Page_705">-705</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Germinative</span> symbol on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Goddard, S.</span>, with archeological expedition in 1895 <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="God_of_Death" id="God_of_Death"></a>God of Death</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Goode, G. Brown</span>, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Gorgets</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Gutierrez, Andres</span>, at founding of Awatobi mission <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Hair</span>, human, woven by the Hopi <a href="#Page_630">630</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hairdressing</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_661">661</a>, <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hance's ranch</span>, pictograph bowlder near <a href="#Page_545">545</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hand</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_666">666</a><a href="#Page_668">-668</a>, <a href="#Page_728">728</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hano</span> compared with Walpi <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hano</span>] in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hano</span>], when established <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Havasupai</span>, cliff dwellings occupied by <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Heart</span> represented in animal figures <a href="#Page_673">673</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hematite</span> fetish from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_730">730</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hemenway, Mary</span>, Kawaika pottery purchased by <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">H&eacute;-sh&oacute;ta-pathl-t&acirc;&#301;e</span>, Zu&ntilde;i name of Kintiel <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hodge, F. W.</span>, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hodge, F. W.</span>] on colander fragments from Salado ruins <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hodge, F. W.</span>] on recent advent of the Navaho <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hodge, F. W.</span>], Sikyatki excavation aided by <a href="#Page_648">648</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hodge</span>, <i>Mrs</i> M. W., acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hoffman, W. J.</span>, on ruins at Montezuma Well <a href="#Page_546">546</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Holbrook</span>, ruins near <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Holguin</span>, <i>Capt</i>., Pay&uuml;pki attacked by <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Holmes, W. H.</span>, on evolution of pottery designs <a href="#Page_715">715</a>, <a href="#Page_716">716</a>, <a href="#Page_727">727</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Homolobi</span>, location of <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Honanki" id="Honanki"></a>Honanki</span>, art remains found at <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Honanki</span>], origin of name <a href="#Page_553">553</a>, <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Honanki</span>], discovery of ruin of <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Honanki</span>] ruin discussed <a href="#Page_558">558</a><a href="#Page_569">-569</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Hopi" id="Hopi"></a>Hopi</span>, abandonment of villages by <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>] and Verde ruins compared <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>], early migrations of clans of <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>] knowledge of Montezuma Well <a href="#Page_547">547</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>] pictographic score <a href="#Page_568">568</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>] pueblos in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>] request removal to Tonto basin <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>] ruins, distribution of <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Hopi</span>], southern origin of part of <a href="#Page_568">568</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Horn clans</span> at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_669">669</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Horn-house</span>, ruin of <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Horses</span>, how regarded by ancient Hopi <a href="#Page_598">598</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Hough, W.</span>, pottery figure interpreted by <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Howell, E.</span>, cliff houses discovered by <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Human figures</span> on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_660">660</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Human remains</span> in Awatobi ruins <a href="#Page_610">610</a>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Human remains</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cemeteries">Cemeteries</a></span>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Idol</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Alosaka">Alosaka</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Dolls">Doll</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Fetish">Fetish</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Insect</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Irrigation</span> represented in pictography <a href="#Page_545">545</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Irrigation</span>] ditches in Verde valley <a href="#Page_538">538</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Jacob's Well</span> described <a href="#Page_546">546</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Jakwaina</span>, farm of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Jaramillo, Juan</span>, on "Tucayan" <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Jars</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Jeditoh_valley" id="Jeditoh_valley"></a>Jeditoh valley</span>, ruins in <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_589">589</a>, <a href="#Page_592">592</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Judd, James S.</span>, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kachinba</span> ruin described <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Katci</span>, a Hopi folklorist <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_748" id="Page_748">[Pg 748]</a></span>
+[<span class="smcap">Katci</span>], farm of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Katcina</span> cult in Tusayan <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Katcina</span>] defined <a href="#Page_661">661</a>, <a href="#Page_732">732</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Katcina</span>] figures on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_624">624</a>, <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_665">665</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kawaika</span>, application of name <a href="#Page_622">622</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kawaika</span>], pottery from <a href="#Page_622">622</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kawaika</span>], ruins at <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Keam, T. V.</span>, excavations by, at Kawaika <a href="#Page_622">622</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Keam, T. V.</span>], idols removed and returned by <a href="#Page_619">619</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Keam's canyon</span>, ruins in <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Kinnazinde" id="Kinnazinde"></a>Kinnazinde</span>, ruin of <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Kintiel" id="Kintiel"></a>Kintiel</span> ascribed to the Zu&ntilde;i <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kintiel</span>], location of <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kisakobi</span>, former site of Walpi <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kisakobi</span>] ruins described <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kisakobi</span>], settlement of <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kishyuba</span>, a Hopi ruin <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kisi</span> and cavate house compared <a href="#Page_544">544</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kiva-like</span> remains at Honanki <a href="#Page_560">560</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Kiva" id="Kiva"></a>Kivas</span>, absence of, in Sikyatki <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kivas</span>], absence of, in southern cliff houses <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kivas</span>], ceremonial replastering of <a href="#Page_645">645</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kivas</span>], distribution of <a href="#Page_561">561</a>, <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kivas</span>] of Awatobi <a href="#Page_611">611</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kivas</span>], platforms characteristic of <a href="#Page_541">541</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Kivas</span>], round, evolution of <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">K'n'-i-K'&eacute;l</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Kintiel">Kintiel</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Kokopeli</span>, a Hopi deity <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kopeli</span>, services of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">K&oacute;yimse</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_659">659</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela</span>, former site of Walpi <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">K&uuml;chapt&uuml;vela</span>] ruin described <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo</span> ruins described <a href="#Page_586">586</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Kwataka</span>, a Hopi monster <a href="#Page_691">691</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ladles</span> from Awatobi described <a href="#Page_624">624</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ladles</span>] from Sikyatki described <a href="#Page_655">655</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ladles</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Langley, S. P.</span>, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_528">528</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lelo</span>, farm of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Leroux, A.</span>, Verde ruins discovered by <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lightning</span> symbol on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_673">673</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lignite</span> deposits near Sikyatki <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Lignite</span>] gorgets in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lines</span>, broken, on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_704">704</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lummis, C. F.</span>, on Montezuma Well ruins <a href="#Page_546">546</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mamzr&aacute;uti</span> ceremony introduced at Walpi <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Man-eagle</span>, a Hopi monster <a href="#Page_691">691</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Man-eagle</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_683">683</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Marie, Aug. Sta.</span>, an Awatobi missionary <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Masauw&ucirc;h</span> in Hopi mythology <a href="#Page_666">666</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Masauw&ucirc;h</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#God_of_Death">God of Death</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Masiumptiwa</span>, Awatobi legend repeated by <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Masonry" id="Masonry"></a>Masonry</span> of Awatobi <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Masonry</span>] of Honanki <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Masonry</span>] of Palatki <a href="#Page_554">554</a><a href="#Page_555">-555</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Masonry</span>] of Sikyatki <a href="#Page_644">644</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Meal</span>, sacred, trail closed with <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Meal</span> sacrifice by the Hopi <a href="#Page_739">739</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mearns, E. A.</span>, on Verde valley ruins <a href="#Page_535">535</a>, <a href="#Page_544">544</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Medicine bowls</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_681">681</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Medicine bowls</span> of the Zu&ntilde;i and Hopi <a href="#Page_655">655</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Meline, J. F.</span>, on settlement of Sandia <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mescal</span> in Verde valley caves <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Metal</span> not found at Honanki <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Metal</span>] not found at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_741">741</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Metates</span> found in Awatobi <a href="#Page_625">625</a>, <a href="#Page_626">626</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Metates</span>] found in Honanki <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Metates</span>] found in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_731">731</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mica</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Selenite">Selenite</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Middle mesa</span>, ruins at <a href="#Page_581">581</a>, <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Migration</span> of Hopi clans <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Miller</span>, <i>Dr</i>, pottery collected by <a href="#Page_675">675</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>, Homolobi ruins examined by <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>], on absence of kivas in Verde ruins <a href="#Page_561">561</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>], on cavate houses <a href="#Page_543">543</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>], on function of cavate lodges <a href="#Page_544">544</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>], on origin of circular kivas <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>], on similarity of cliff dwellings and pueblos <a href="#Page_537">537</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Cosmos</span>], on Verde valley ruins <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>, Awatobi described by <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], groundplan of Chukubi by <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], groundplan of Mishiptonga by <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], on Awatobi kivas <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], on distribution of Tusayan ruins <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], on former sites of Walpi <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], on Horn-house and Bat-house <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], on origin of circular kivas <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], Shitaimovi mentioned by <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mindeleff, Victor</span>], Sikyatki described by <a href="#Page_632">632</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mishiptonga</span>, ruin of <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Misho&ntilde;inovi</span> in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Misho&ntilde;inovi, Old</span>, discussed <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mission</span>, ruins of, at Awatobi <a href="#Page_606">606</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mission</span>], when established at Awatobi <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Missions</span> among the Hopi <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Moki</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hopi">Hopi</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Montezuma_Castle" id="Montezuma_Castle"></a>Montezuma Castle</span> and Honanki compared <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Montezuma Castle</span>] on Beaver creek <a href="#Page_549">549</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Montezuma Well</span>, ruins at <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_546">546</a><a href="#Page_548">-548</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mooney, James</span>, cited on Kawaika pottery <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Morfi, Juan A.</span>, on Hopi pueblos in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Morfi, Juan A.</span>], on settlement of Sandia <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mortars</span> found in Awatobi <a href="#Page_626">626</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mortuary</span> customs of the Hopi <a href="#Page_648">648</a>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mortuary</span>] <span class="smcap">objects</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_650">650</a>, <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mortuary</span>] <span class="smcap">remains</span> in Awatobi <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mortuary</span>] <span class="smcap">slabs</span> from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_732">732</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mortuary</span>] <span class="smcap">vessels</span>, food remains in <a href="#Page_741">741</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Moth figures</span> on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_678">678</a><a href="#Page_680">-680</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mountain-lion</span> fetish from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_730">730</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mountain-lion</span>] figure on pottery <a href="#Page_671">671</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mountain-lion</span>] in Hopi mythology <a href="#Page_545">545</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Mountain-sheep</span> figure on pottery <a href="#Page_669">669</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">M&uuml;yinw&ucirc;</span>, a Hopi deity <a href="#Page_647">647</a>, <a href="#Page_667">667</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Myth</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Genesis">Genesis</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Mythic</span> origin of Kanelba <a href="#Page_638">638</a><a href="#Page_639">-639</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Mythic</span>] personages on pottery <a href="#Page_665">665</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_749" id="Page_749">[Pg 749]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Nahuatl</span> and Hopi pictographs compared <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Naiutci</span> injured by stick swallowing <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Nakw&aacute;kwoci</span> defined <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Namp&eacute;o</span>, a Hopi potter <a href="#Page_660">660</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Nasyu&ntilde;weve</span>, a Hopi folklorist <a href="#Page_637">637</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Navaho" id="Navaho"></a>Navaho</span> and Hopi intermarriage <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>] ceremonial circuit <a href="#Page_681">681</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>] depredations in Tusayan <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>] in Antelope valley <a href="#Page_592">592</a>, <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>] katcinas on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>], late appearance of, in Tusayan <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>] name of Awatobi <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>], recent advent of, in New Mexico <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Navaho</span>], shrine robbed by <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Naybi</span> identified with Oraibi <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Necklaces</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Needles</span>, bone, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="New-fire_ceremonies" id="New-fire_ceremonies"></a>New-fire ceremonies</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_586">586</a>, <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">New Mexico</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Navaho">Navaho</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Niel, J. A.</span>, on Tanoan migration to Tusayan <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Nimankatcina</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_593">593</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Niza, Marcos de</span>, on Totonteac fabrics <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Nomenclature</span> of Awatobi <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Nomenclature</span>] of Sikyatki <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Nordenski&ouml;ld, G.</span>, on affinity of cliff dwellers and pueblos <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Nordenski&ouml;ld, G.</span>], on evolution of pottery design <a href="#Page_716">716</a>, <a href="#Page_727">727</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Nordenski&ouml;ld, G.</span>], cited on Mesa Verde villages <a href="#Page_555">555</a>, <a href="#Page_563">563</a>, <a href="#Page_678">678</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Nordenski&ouml;ld, G.</span>], on origin of round kivas <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Nordenski&ouml;ld, G.</span>], on platforms in Mesa Verde kivas <a href="#Page_541">541</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Nordenski&ouml;ld, G.</span>], prayer-sticks found by <a href="#Page_736">736</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">N&uuml;shaki</span>, etymology of <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_586">586</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oak creek</span>, ruins on <a href="#Page_533">533</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Obsidian</span> objects from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_732">732</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Offerings" id="Offerings"></a>Offerings</span> by Indian excavators <a href="#Page_641">641</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">O&ntilde;ate, Juan de</span>, Awatobi visited by <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Openings</span> in Honanki walls <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Openings</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Doorway">Doorway</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Oraibi</span>, age of <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Oraibi</span>] in 1782 <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Oraibi</span>] legendary origin of <a href="#Page_634">634</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Oraibi</span>], site of <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Orientation</span> of Awatobi mission <a href="#Page_609">609</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ornaments</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Otermin, Ant.</span>, attempted reconquest by <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Owens, J. G.</span>, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Padilla, Juan</span>, visits Tusayan in 1540 <a href="#Page_596">596</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Paho</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Prayer-stick">Prayer-stick</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Paiakyamu</span> figures on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_659">659</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Paint</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pigment">Pigment</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Palatki" id="Palatki"></a>Palatki</span>, art remains found at <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Palatki</span>], population of <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Palatki</span>] ruins discovered <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_551">551</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Palatki</span>] ruins described <a href="#Page_553">553</a><a href="#Page_558">-558</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Palatkwabi</span>, a traditional land of the Hopi <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Paleography</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Decoration">Decoration</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Passageways</span> in cavate dwellings <a href="#Page_542">542</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Passageways</span>] in Honanki <a href="#Page_565">565</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Patki" id="Patki"></a>Patki people</span>, early migrations of the <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Patki people</span>], southern origin of the <a href="#Page_529">529</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Patu&ntilde; phratry</span>, southern origin of <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Pay&uuml;pki</span>, a ruin in Tusayan <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_583">583</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pay&uuml;pki</span>], possible origin of <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Peaches</span> cultivated near Sikyatki <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Peaches</span>] introduced in Oraibi <a href="#Page_604">604</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Peaches</span>] of the Hopi <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Phallic</span> representations among the Hopi <a href="#Page_663">663</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span> at Honanki <a href="#Page_567">567</a>, <a href="#Page_568">568</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>] at Palatki ruin <a href="#Page_556">556</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>] in Verde valley <a href="#Page_545">545</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>] near Montezuma Well <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>] near Sch&uuml;rmann's ranch <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>] of Awatobi totems <a href="#Page_610">610</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>] on Awatobi cliffs <a href="#Page_626">626</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pictographs</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Decoration">Decoration</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Pigment" id="Pigment"></a>Pigment</span> found at Awatobi <a href="#Page_618">618</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pigment</span>] found at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_728">728</a>, <a href="#Page_729">729</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pigment</span>] how applied by the Hopi <a href="#Page_650">650</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pigment</span>] used on prayer-sticks <a href="#Page_630">630</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Pipes</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Plastering" id="Plastering"></a>Plastering</span> on Awatobi walls <a href="#Page_616">616</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Plastering</span>] of Honanki ruin <a href="#Page_563">563</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Plastering</span>] of Palatki ruin <a href="#Page_555">555</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Plastering</span>] of Sikyatki rooms <a href="#Page_645">645</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Platforms</span> in cavate dwellings <a href="#Page_541">541</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Platforms</span>] in Honanki <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Plumed_snake" id="Plumed_snake"></a>Plumed snake</span> cult in Tusayan <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Plumed snake</span>] figures on Hopi kilts <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Plumed snake</span>] figure on pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Plumed snake</span>] in Hopi mythology <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Polishing stones</span> from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_729">729</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Population</span> of Awatobi <a href="#Page_605">605</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Population</span>] of Honanki <a href="#Page_567">567</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Porcupine</span> figure on pottery <a href="#Page_669">669</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Porras</span>, <i>Padre</i>, missionary labors of <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Pottery" id="Pottery"></a>Pottery</span> decoration of the Hopi <a href="#Page_569">569</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from ancient Walpi <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from Awatobi <a href="#Page_621">621</a><a href="#Page_625">-625</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from Honanki classified <a href="#Page_570">570</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from Pay&uuml;pki <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from Shu&ntilde;opovi and Misho&ntilde;inovi <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from Sikyatki discussed <a href="#Page_650">650</a><a href="#Page_728">-728</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] from Verde and Colorado Chiquito compared <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>], mortuary, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>], mortuary, from Kawaika <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>], mortuary, from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pottery</span>] of ancient Tusayan <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Powam&ucirc;</span> ceremony of the Hopi <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Powell, J. W.</span>, ruins found by <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Prayer-stick" id="Prayer-stick"></a>Prayer-sticks</span>, cross-shape, of Keres origin <a href="#Page_703">703</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks</span>] from Awatobi <a href="#Page_613">613</a>, <a href="#Page_618">618</a>, <a href="#Page_630">630</a><a href="#Page_631">-631</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks</span>] from Honanki <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks</span>] from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_649">649</a>, <a href="#Page_736">736</a><a href="#Page_739">-739</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks</span>] in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks</span>], prescribed length of <a href="#Page_668">668</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Prayer-sticks</span>], significance of <a href="#Page_688">688</a>, <a href="#Page_738">738</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_750" id="Page_750">[Pg 750]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Prayer-strings</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Priests</span>, Hopi, succession of <a href="#Page_637">637</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Pueblo Grande</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Kintiel">Kintiel</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Pueblo Indians</span> descended from cliff dwellers <a href="#Page_531">531</a>, <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pueblo Indians</span>] <span class="smcap">ruins</span>, of Verde valley classified <a href="#Page_536">536</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Pueblo Indians</span>] and cliff dwellings similar <a href="#Page_537">537</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Quadruped</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_668">668</a><a href="#Page_671">-671</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Quartz_crystal" id="Quartz_crystal"></a>Quartz crystal</span> from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_729">729</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Rabbit</span> figure on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_669">669</a>, <a href="#Page_670">670</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Rabbit-skin</span> robes of Tusayan <a href="#Page_629">629</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Rain</span> symbol on bird ornaments <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Rainbow</span> symbols on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_681">681</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Raincloud" id="Raincloud"></a>Raincloud symbol</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_681">681</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Raincloud symbol</span>] on Awatobi cist <a href="#Page_613">613</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Raincloud symbol</span>] on gravestones <a href="#Page_732">732</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Raincloud symbol</span>] on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_694">694</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Raincloud symbol</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_689">689</a>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Rattlesnake Tanks</span>, ruins at <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Red rocks</span>, cliff houses of the <a href="#Page_548">548</a><a href="#Page_549">-549</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Reptile</span> figures on pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a><a href="#Page_677">-677</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Ruins</span> of East Mesa discussed <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ruins</span>] of Tusayan <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ruins</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Awatobi">Awatobi</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Honanki">Honanki</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Palatki">Palatki</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#Sikyatki">Sikyatki</a></span>, etc.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Sacrifice</span> among the Hopi <a href="#Page_738">738</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sacrifice</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Offerings">Offering</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Saint Johns</span>, ruins near <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Saliko</span>, Awatobi legend repeated by <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Saliko</span>] on the Awatobi Mamzr&aacute;utu <a href="#Page_611">611</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">San Bernabe</span>, mission name of Shu&ntilde;opovi <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">San Bernardo</span>, mission name of Awatobi <a href="#Page_594">594</a>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sandals</span> found in Honanki <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sandia</span>, Hopi name for <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sandia</span>] settled by Tanoan people from Tusayan <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">San Juan</span>, headdress from <a href="#Page_734">734</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sch&uuml;rmann</span>, &mdash;, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sch&uuml;rmann</span>], ruins near ranch of <a href="#Page_550">550</a><a href="#Page_553">-553</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Seats</span>, stone, in Awatobi ruins <a href="#Page_626">626</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Seeds</span> in mortuary vessels <a href="#Page_741">741</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Selenite" id="Selenite"></a>Selenite</span> deposits near Sikyatki <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Selenite</span>] in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_730">730</a>, <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Seler, E.</span>, Mexican designs gathered by <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Serpent</span>, plumed, of the Hopi <a href="#Page_547">547</a>, <a href="#Page_548">548</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Shalako</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Calako">Calako</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Shell</span> beads from Honanki <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shell</span>] bracelet from Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shell</span>] from Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_739">739</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shell</span>] ornaments from Awatobi <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shell</span>] ornaments in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Shimo</span>, Awatobi legend repeated by <a href="#Page_602">602</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Shipaulovi</span> in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Shitaimovi</span>, ruin of <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Shrines</span> at Awatobi described <a href="#Page_619">619</a><a href="#Page_621">-621</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shrines</span>] at Walpi <a href="#Page_586">586</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shrines</span>] near Tukinobi <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shrines</span>] robbed by Navaho <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shrines</span>] unearthed at Awatobi <a href="#Page_613">613</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shrines</span>] of the Hopi <a href="#Page_613">613</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Shu&ntilde;opovi</span> in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Shu&ntilde;opovi</span>], <span class="smcap">Old</span>, discussed <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sichomovi</span> compared with Walpi <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sichomovi</span>], Tewa name for <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sichomovi</span>], when established <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Sikyatki" id="Sikyatki"></a>Sikyatki</span> and Awatobi pottery compared <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_659">659</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>] and modern Hopi pottery compared <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>], destruction of <a href="#Page_633">633</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>], etymology of <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>] inhabitants settle at Awatobi <a href="#Page_596">596</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>] people harrassed by Walpians <a href="#Page_588">588</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>], prehistoric character of <a href="#Page_592">592</a>, <a href="#Page_632">632</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>] ruins described <a href="#Page_631">631</a><a href="#Page_742">-742</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>], reasons for excavating <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sikyatki</span>] ruins examined <a href="#Page_535">535</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sites</span> of Tusayan pueblos <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sitgreaves, L.</span>, on ruins near San Francisco mountains <a href="#Page_532">532</a>, <a href="#Page_533">533</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sitgreaves, L.</span>], cited on selenite deposits <a href="#Page_643">643</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Slipper-form vessels</span> from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_652">652</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Smoking" id="Smoking"></a>Smoking</span> in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_734">734</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Snake</span> represented on pottery <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Snake</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Plumed_snake">Plumed snake</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Snake hunt</span>, taboo of work during <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Snake people</span>, absence of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_740">740</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Snake people</span>], early arrival of, at Tusayan <a href="#Page_582">582</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Snake people</span>], northern origin of <a href="#Page_575">575</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Snake people</span>] settle at Walpi <a href="#Page_617">617</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Snake-rattle</span> in Sikyatki grave <a href="#Page_740">740</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Snake-rattle</span>] used for ornament <a href="#Page_740">740</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sorcery</span>, Awatobi men accused of <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Spanish objects</span> found at Awatobi <a href="#Page_606">606</a>, <a href="#Page_623">623</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Spanish objects</span>] unknown to early Tusayan <a href="#Page_741">741</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Spattering</span>, pottery decorated by <a href="#Page_650">650</a>, <a href="#Page_668">668</a>, <a href="#Page_671">671</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Spoons</span> from Sikyatki described <a href="#Page_655">655</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Spoons</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Squash</span> indigenous to the southwest <a href="#Page_621">621</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Squash</span>] flower, symbolism of the <a href="#Page_661">661</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Squaw mountain</span>, cavate dwellings near <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stalactites</span> in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_730">730</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Star</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_702">702</a>, <a href="#Page_724">724</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Star</span>] symbol on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_696">696</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Star</span>] symbols on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_680">680</a>, <a href="#Page_690">690</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stephen, A. M.</span>, on Awatobi kivas <a href="#Page_612">612</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Stephen, A. M.</span>], on Horn-house and Bat-house <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Stephen, A. M.</span>], on Mishiptonga ruin <a href="#Page_590">590</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Stephen, A. M.</span>], on occupancy of K&uuml;k&uuml;chomo <a href="#Page_587">587</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Stephen, A. M.</span>], on origin of certain katcina <a href="#Page_666">666</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stevenson, James</span>, ruins discovered by <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stevenson, M. C.</span>, on Keresan cannibal giants <a href="#Page_665">665</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stick swallowing</span> by the Hopi <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Stone implements</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_625">625</a><a href="#Page_626">-626</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_751" id="Page_751">[Pg 751]</a></span>
+[<span class="smcap">Stone implements</span>] from Honanki <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Stone implements</span>] from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_729">729</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sun figure</span> in Powam&ucirc; ceremony <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sunflower</span> symbols on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_702">702</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sun symbol</span>, cross allied to <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Sun symbol</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_699">699</a><a href="#Page_701">-701</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Sun worship</span> of the Hopi <a href="#Page_699">699</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Supela</span>, Awatobi legend repeated by <a href="#Page_603">603</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Swastika</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_703">703</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Taboo</span> of work during snake hunt <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tadpole</span> figures on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_658">658</a>, <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Talla-hogan</span>, meaning of <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Talla-hogan</span>], Navaho name of Awatobi <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tanoan</span> migration to Tusayan <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>, <a href="#Page_636">636</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tapolo</span>, an Awatobi chief <a href="#Page_603">603</a>, <a href="#Page_611">611</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tataukyam&ucirc;</span>, a Hopi priesthood <a href="#Page_611">611</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tatcukti</span>, a Hopi clown-priest <a href="#Page_659">659</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tawa (sun) phratry</span>, southern origin of <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tcino</span>, garden of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_640">640</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Terraced figures</span> of Mexico and Tusayan <a href="#Page_705">705</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Terraced figures</span>] on Sikyatki pottery <a href="#Page_701">701</a>, <a href="#Page_703">703</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tewa people</span> occupy Pay&uuml;pki <a href="#Page_584">584</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Tewa people</span>], progressiveness of, in Tusayan <a href="#Page_580">580</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Textile" id="Textile"></a>Textile fabrics</span> from Awatobi <a href="#Page_629">629</a><a href="#Page_630">-630</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Textile fabrics</span>], absence of, at Sikyatki <a href="#Page_649">649</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Textile fabrics</span>] found in Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Textile fabrics</span>], Sikyatki dead wrapped with <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tinder tube</span> from Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a>, <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tobacco</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Smoking">Smoking</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tobacco phratry</span> in Awatobi <a href="#Page_611">611</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tobar, Pedro</span>, visits Tusayan in 1540 <a href="#Page_578">578</a>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>, <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, <a href="#Page_631">631</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tonto</span>, origin of term <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tonto Basin</span>, ruins in <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Totonaka</span>, a Hopi deity <a href="#Page_647">647</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Totonteac</span> identified with Tusayan <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Totonteac</span>], suggested origin of <a href="#Page_534">534</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Toys</span> of pottery from Sikyatki <a href="#Page_656">656</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Trails</span> ceremonially closed <a href="#Page_596">596</a><a href="#Page_597">-597</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Trincheras</span> defined <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Trincheras</span>] in Red-rock country <a href="#Page_549">549</a>, <a href="#Page_550">550</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Trujillo, Jos&eacute;</span>, probably killed at Shu&ntilde;opovi <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Ts" id="Ts"></a>Ts&ecirc;gi canyon</span> and Tusayan pottery compared <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ts&ecirc;gi canyon</span>] formerly occupied by Hopi clans <a href="#Page_658">658</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ts&ecirc;gi canyon</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Chelly_canyon">Chelly canyon</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tubes</span>, bone, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tucano</span>, name applied to Tusayan <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tucayan</span>, name applied to Tusayan <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tukinobi</span>, ruin of, described <a href="#Page_589">589</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Turquois</span> beads found at Honanki <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Turquois</span>] mosaics of the Hopi <a href="#Page_662">662</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Turquois</span>] objects in Sikyatki graves <a href="#Page_641">641</a>, <a href="#Page_733">733</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tusayan</span>, application of term <a href="#Page_577">577</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Tusayan</span>] identified with Hopi villages <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Tusayan</span>] ruins discussed <a href="#Page_577">577</a><a href="#Page_742">-742</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Tusayan</span>] towns in 1540 <a href="#Page_606">606</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Tusayan</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Hopi">Hopi</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Tuzan</span>, name applied to Tusayan <a href="#Page_595">595</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Tylor, E. B.</span>, cited on primitive sacrifice <a href="#Page_738">738</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ute</span> depredations in Tusayan <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Ute</span>], late appearance of, at Tusayan <a href="#Page_581">581</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Vargas, Diego de</span>, Awatobi visited by <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Vargas, Diego de</span>], Tusayan conquered by <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Vases</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Pottery">Pottery</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Vegetal_designs" id="Vegetal_designs"></a>Vegetal designs</span> on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_698">698</a><a href="#Page_699">-699</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Verde valley</span> and Tusayan ruins compared <a href="#Page_573">573</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Verde valley</span>], archeology of <a href="#Page_530">530</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Verde valley</span>] ruins discussed <a href="#Page_536">536</a>, <a href="#Page_576">576</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Vetancurt, A. de</span>, Awatobi mentioned by <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Vetancurt, A. de</span>], on destruction of Awatobi mission <a href="#Page_600">600</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Voth, H. R.</span>, decorated bowl collected by <a href="#Page_665">665</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Voth, H. R.</span>], on ancient pottery found at Oraibi <a href="#Page_607">607</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Walls</span> of Honanki described <a href="#Page_559">559</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walls</span>] of Palatki ruin <a href="#Page_557">557</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walls</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Masonry">Masonry</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Walnut canyon</span>, cliff houses in <a href="#Page_532">532</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>, ancient, pottery of <a href="#Page_660">660</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>] compared with other villages <a href="#Page_642">642</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>], former sites of <a href="#Page_585">585</a>, <a href="#Page_635">635</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>], gradual desertion of <a href="#Page_586">586</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>] in 1540 <a href="#Page_578">578</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>] in 1782 <a href="#Page_579">579</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>], origin of name <a href="#Page_585">585</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Walpi</span>], southern origin of clans of <a href="#Page_529">529</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Walther, Henry</span>, pottery repaired by <a href="#Page_682">682</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">War god</span> symbolism on Hopi pottery <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Water</span> used in Hopi ceremony <a href="#Page_689">689</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Water-house people</span> of Tusayan <a href="#Page_672">672</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Water-house people</span>], <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Patki">Patki</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap">Water supply</span> of Sikyatki <a href="#Page_638">638</a>, <a href="#Page_646">646</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Weapons</span> of ancient Tusayan <a href="#Page_596">596</a>, <a href="#Page_598">598</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Whistles</span>, bone, from Awatobi <a href="#Page_627">627</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Whistles</span>] used in Hopi ceremonies <a href="#Page_628">628</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Winship, G. P.</span>, acknowledgments to <a href="#Page_527">527</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Winship, G. P.</span>], Casta&ntilde;eda's narrative translated by <a href="#Page_596">596</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Wipo spring</span> in Tusayan <a href="#Page_639">639</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Wood</span> in Palatki ruin <a href="#Page_555">555</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Wood</span>], method of working, at Honanki <a href="#Page_571">571</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Wood</span>], remains of, at Honanki <a href="#Page_562">562</a>, <a href="#Page_566">566</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Wood</span>], objects of, from Honanki <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Wood's ranch</span>, pictograph bowlder near <a href="#Page_545">545</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Xumupam&iacute;</span> identified with Shu&ntilde;opovi <a href="#Page_599">599</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Yucca</span> fiber anciently used <a href="#Page_572">572</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_752" id="Page_752">[Pg 752]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Zagnato</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Zaguate</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Zaguato</span>, an Awatobi synonym <a href="#Page_594">594</a><br />
+<span class="smcap">Zinni-jinne</span>, <i>see</i> <span class="smcap"><a href="#Kinnazinde">Kinnazinde</a></span>.<br />
+<span class="smcap"><a name="Zu" id="Zu"></a>Zu&ntilde;i</span> and other pottery compared <a href="#Page_623">623</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Zu&ntilde;i</span>] origin of Kintiel <a href="#Page_534">534</a>, <a href="#Page_591">591</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Zu&ntilde;i</span>], Shalako ceremony of <a href="#Page_700">700</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Zu&ntilde;i</span>], snake figures on pottery of <a href="#Page_677">677</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Zu&ntilde;i</span>], southern origin of clans of <a href="#Page_574">574</a><br />
+[<span class="smcap">Zu&ntilde;i</span>], stick-swallowing at <a href="#Page_664">664</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3>
+
+
+<p>Some illustrations have been repositioned to avoid breaking up the
+text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations refer to the original printed report.
+The Index has been edited to list only the topics contained in this report.<br />
+</p>
+<p><a href="#Page_522">Page 522</a>, Table of Contents: Ornaments, necklaces, and gorgets (page 733) in original report
+changed to Necklaces, gorgets, and other ornaments to match the actual section heading.<br />
+</p>
+<p><a href="#Page_525">Page 525</a>, List of Illustrations: CXXXV, <i>a</i> in original report changed to
+CXXXV, <i>b</i> to match the actual caption.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Fig. 270. Outline of plate CXXXV, _a_)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p><a href="#Page_526">Page 526</a>, List of Illustrations: triangles in original report changed to triangle
+to match the actual captions.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Fig. 336. Double triangles) and</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Fig. 337. Double triangles and feathers)</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_652">652</a>: attemps in original report changed to attempts.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(The first attemps at ornamentation)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page 688, Footnote 1 in original report, now <a href="#Footnote_145_145">Footnote 145</a>:<br />
+annulets is possibly a typo for amulets.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ceremonial paraphernalia, as annulets, placed on sand pictures)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_702">702</a>: respresented in original report changed to represented.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(A large number of crosses are respresented in plate)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_706">706</a>: Sityatki in original report changed to Sikyatki.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(animal figures are unknown in this position in Sityatki pottery;)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page 709 in original report, now page <a href="#Page_708">708</a>: lines in original report changed to line.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Fig. 288--Single lines with triangles)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_731">731</a>: to-day in original report changed to today for consistency.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(tethering in use today.)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_737">737</a>: offerigs in original report changed to offerings.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ancient prayer offerigs)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_741">741</a>: accompaning in original report changed to accompanying.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(is set forth in the accompaning letter)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_744">744</a>: In Appendix, Plate CLXXIII, <i>f</i>, the 5th digit of number<br />
+is missing in original report; represented by a question mark.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>f</i>, 1561 0;)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p><a href="#PL_CXL">Plate CXL</a>: SITYATKI in original report changed to SIKYATKI.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SITYATKI)</span><br />
+</p>
+<p>All other spelling and accent variations and inconsistencies have not
+been changed from the original document, except for minor punctuation
+corrections.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Archeological Expedition to Arizona in
+1895, by Jesse Walter Fewkes
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895, by
+Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Archeological Expedition to Arizona in 1895
+       Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
+       Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
+       1895-1896, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1898,
+       pages 519-744
+
+Author: Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+Release Date: December 3, 2007 [EBook #23691]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Carlo
+Traverso, Diane Monico, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by the
+Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895
+
+BY
+
+JESSE WALTER FEWKES
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                    Page
+Introductory note                                    527
+Plan of the expedition                               529
+Ruins in Verde valley                                536
+  Classification of the ruins                        536
+  Cavate dwellings                                   537
+  Montezuma Well                                     546
+  Cliff houses of the Red-rocks                      548
+  Ruins near Schuermann's ranch                       550
+  Palatki                                            553
+  Honanki                                            558
+  Objects found at Palatki and Honanki               569
+  Conclusions regarding the Verde valley ruins       573
+Ruins in Tusayan                                     577
+  General features                                   577
+  The Middle Mesa ruins                              582
+    Shunopovi                                        582
+    Mishoninovi                                      582
+    Chukubi                                          583
+    Payuepki                                          583
+  The East Mesa ruins                                585
+    Kuechaptuevela and Kisakobi                        585
+    Kuekuechomo                                        586
+    Kachinba                                         589
+    Tukinobi                                         589
+  Jeditoh valley ruins                               589
+  Awatobi                                            592
+    Characteristics of the ruin                      592
+    Nomenclature of Awatobi                          594
+    Historical knowledge of Awatobi                  595
+    Legend of the destruction of Awatobi             603
+    Evidences of fire in the destruction             606
+    The ruins of the mission                         606
+    The kivas of Awatobi                             611
+    Old Awatobi                                      614
+    Rooms of the western mound                       614
+    Smaller Awatobi                                  617
+    Mortuary remains                                 617
+    Shrines                                          619
+    Pottery                                          621
+    Stone implements                                 625
+    Bone objects                                     627
+    Miscellaneous objects                            628
+      Ornaments in the form of birds and shells      628
+      Clay bell                                      628
+      Textile fabrics                                629
+      Prayer-sticks--Pigments                        630
+      Objects showing Spanish influence              631
+  The ruins of Sikyatki                              631
+    Traditional knowledge of the pueblo              631
+    Nomenclature                                     636
+    Former inhabitants of Sikyatki                   636
+    General features                                 637
+    The acropolis                                    643
+    Modern gardens                                   646
+    The cemeteries                                   646
+    Pottery                                          650
+      Characteristics--Mortuary pottery              650
+      Coiled and indented ware                       651
+      Smooth undecorated ware                        652
+      Polished decorated ware                        652
+    Paleography of the pottery                       657
+      General features                               657
+      Human figures                                  660
+      The human hand                                 666
+      Quadrupeds                                     668
+      Reptiles                                       671
+      Tadpoles                                       677
+      Butterflies or moths                           678
+      Dragon-flies                                   680
+      Birds                                          682
+      Vegetal designs                                698
+      The sun                                        699
+      Geometric figures                              701
+        Interpretation of the figures                701
+        Crosses                                      702
+        Terraced figures                             703
+        The crook                                    703
+        The germinative symbol                       704
+        Broken lines                                 704
+      Decorations on the exterior of food bowls      705
+    Pigments                                         728
+    Stone objects                                    729
+    Obsidian                                         732
+    Necklaces, gorgets, and other ornaments          733
+    Tobacco pipes                                    733
+    Prayer-sticks                                    736
+    Marine shells and other objects                  739
+    Perishable contents of mortuary food bowls       741
+FOOTNOTES
+APPENDIX                                             743
+INDEX                                                745
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PLATE                                                             Page
+XCI_a_.   Cavate dwellings--Rio Verde                              537
+XCI_b_.   Cavate dwellings--Oak creek                              539
+XCII.     Entrances to cavate ruins                                541
+XCIII.    Bowlder with pictographs near Wood's ranch               545
+XCIV.     Montezuma Well                                           547
+XCV.      Cliff house, Montezuma Well                              549
+XCVI.     Ruin on the brink of Montezuma Well                      551
+XCVII.    Pictographs near Cliff ranch, Verde valley               553
+XCVIII.   The Red-rocks; Temple canyon                             555
+XCIX.     Palatki (Ruin I)                                         557
+C.        Palatki (Ruin I)                                         559
+CI.       Front wall of Palatki (Ruin II)                          561
+CII       Honanki (Ruin II)                                        563
+CIII.     Walls of Honanki                                         565
+CIV.      Approach to main part of Honanki                         567
+CV.       Map of the ruins of Tusayan                              583
+CVI.      The ruins of Kuekuechomo                                   587
+CVII.     Ground plan of Awatobi                                   603
+CVIII.    Ruins of San Bernardino de Awatobi                       607
+CIX.      Excavations in the western mound of Awatobi              615
+CX.       Excavated room in the western mound of Awatobi           617
+CXI.      Vase and mugs from the western mounds of Awatobi         618
+CXII.     Paint pots, vase, and dipper from Awatobi                620
+CXIII.    Pottery from intramural burial at Awatobi                622
+CXIV.     Bone implements from Awatobi and Sikyatki                626
+CXV.      Sikyatki mounds from the Kanelba trail                   637
+CXVI.     Ground plan of Sikyatki                                  639
+CXVII.    Excavated rooms on the acropolis of Sikyatki             643
+CXVIII.   Plan of excavated rooms on the acropolis of Sikyatki     644
+CXIX.     Coiled and indented pottery from Sikyatki                650
+CXX.      Saucers and slipper bowls from Sikyatki                  652
+CXXI.     Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          654
+CXXII.    Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          654
+CXXIII.   Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          657
+CXXIV.    Decorated pottery from Sikyatki                          660
+CXXV.     Flat dippers and medicine box from Sikyatki              662
+CXXVI.    Double-lobe vases from Sikyatki                          664
+CXXVII.   Unusual forms of vases from Sikyatki                     666
+CXXVIII.  Medicine box and pigment pots from Sikyatki              668
+CXXIX.    Designs on food bowls from Sikyatki                      670
+CXXX.     Food bowls with figures of quadrupeds from Sikyatki      672
+CXXXI.    Ornamented ladles from Sikyatki                          674
+CXXXII.   Food bowls with figures of reptiles from Sikyatki        676
+CXXXIII.  Bowls and dippers with figures of tadpoles, birds,
+            etc., from Sikyatki                                    676
+CXXXIV.   Food bowls with figures of sun, butterfly, and flower,
+            from Sikyatki                                          676
+CXXXV.    Vases with figures of butterflies from Sikyatki          678
+CXXXVI.   Vases with figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki   678
+CXXXVII.  Vessels with figures of human hand, birds, turtle,
+            etc., from Sikyatki                                    680
+CXXXVIII. Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki           682
+CXXXIX.   Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki           684
+CXL.      Figures of birds from Sikyatki                           686
+CXLI.     Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               688
+CXLII.    Vases, bowls, and ladle with figures of feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               688
+CXLIII.   Vase with figures of birds from Sikyatki                 690
+CXLIV.    Vase with figures of birds from Sikyatki                 690
+CXLV.     Vases with figures of birds from Sikyatki                690
+CXLVI.    Bowls and potsherd with figures of birds from Sikyatki   692
+CXLVII.   Food bowls with figures of birds from Sikyatki           692
+CXLVIII.  Food bowls with symbols of feathers from Sikyatki        694
+CXLIX.    Food bowls with symbols of feathers from Sikyatki        694
+CL.       Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki              696
+CLI.      Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki              696
+CLII.     Food bowls with bird, feather, and flower symbols from
+            Sikyatki                                               698
+CLIII.    Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               698
+CLIV.     Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               700
+CLV.      Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               700
+CLVI.     Food bowls with figures of birds and feathers from
+            Sikyatki                                               700
+CLVII.    Figures of birds and feathers from Sikyatki              702
+CLVIII.   Food bowls with figures of sun and related symbols
+            from Sikyatki                                          702
+CLIX.     Cross and related designs from Sikyatki                  704
+CLX.      Cross and other symbols from Sikyatki                    704
+CLXI.     Star, sun, and related symbols from Sikyatki             704
+CLXII.    Geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki                    706
+CLXIII.   Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki    708
+CLXIV.    Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki    710
+CLXV.     Food bowls with geometric ornamentation from Sikyatki    714
+CLXVI.    Linear figures on food bowls from Sikyatki               718
+CLXVII.   Geometric ornamentation from Awatobi                     722
+CLXVIII.  Geometric ornamentation from Awatobi                     726
+CLXIX.    Arrowshaft smoothers, selenite, and symbolic corn from
+            Sikyatki                                               728
+CLXX.     Corn grinder from Sikyatki                               730
+CLXXI.    Stone implements from Palatki, Awatobi, and Sikyatki     732
+CLXXII.   Paint grinder, fetish, lignite, and kaolin disks from
+            Sikyatki                                               734
+CLXXIII.  Pipes, bell, clay birds, and shells from Awatobi and
+            Sikyatki                                               736
+CLXXIV.   Pahos or prayer-sticks from Sikyatki                     738
+CLXXV.    Pahos or prayer-sticks from Sikyatki                     738
+
+FIGURE
+245.      Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde                     540
+246.      Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek                           552
+247.      Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins I and II)                  554
+248.      Ground plan of Honanki                                   559
+249.      The main ruin of Honanki                                 562
+250.      Structure of wall of Honanki                             564
+251.      Stone implement from Honanki                             571
+252.      Tinder tube from Honanki                                 572
+253.      Kuekuechomo                                                587
+254.      Defensive wall on the East Mesa                          588
+255.      Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi                 608
+256.      Structure of house wall of Awatobi                       615
+257.      Alosaka shrine at Awatobi                                620
+258.      Shrine at Awatobi                                        621
+259.      Shrine at Awatobi                                        621
+260.      Shrine at Awatobi                                        621
+261.      Clay bell from Awatobi                                   629
+262.      The acropolis of Sikyatki                                644
+263.      War god shooting an animal (fragment of food bowl)       665
+264.      Mountain sheep                                           669
+265.      Mountain lion                                            670
+266.      Plumed serpent                                           672
+267.      Unknown reptile                                          674
+268.      Unknown reptile                                          675
+269.      Unknown reptile                                          676
+270.      Outline of plate CXXXV, _b_                              678
+271.      Butterfly design on upper surface of plate CXXXV, _b_    679
+272.      Man-eagle                                                683
+273.      Pendent feather ornaments on a vase                      690
+274.      Upper surface of vase with bird decoration               691
+275.      Kwataka eating an animal                                 692
+276.      Decoration on the bottom of plate CXLVI, _f_             694
+277.      Oblique parallel line decoration                         706
+278.      Parallel lines fused at one point                        706
+279.      Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement                   706
+280.      Parallel lines connected by middle bar                   707
+281.      Parallel lines of different width; serrate margin        707
+282.      Parallel lines of different width; median serrate        707
+283.      Parallel lines of different width; marginal serrate      707
+284.      Parallel lines and triangles                             708
+285.      Line with alternate triangles                            708
+286.      Single line with alternate spurs                         708
+287.      Single line with hourglass figures                       708
+288.      Single line with triangles                               709
+289.      Single line with alternate triangles and ovals           709
+290.      Triangles and quadrilaterals                             709
+291.      Triangle with spurs                                      709
+292.      Rectangle with single line                               709
+293.      Double triangle; multiple lines                          710
+294.      Double triangle; terraced edges                          710
+295.      Single line; closed fret                                 710
+296.      Single line; open fret                                   711
+297.      Single line; broken fret                                 711
+298.      Single line; parts displaced                             711
+299.      Open fret; attachment displaced                          711
+300.      Simple rectangular design                                711
+301.      Rectangular S-form                                       712
+302.      Rectangular S-form with crooks                           712
+303.      Rectangular S-form with triangles                        712
+304.      Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles               712
+305.      S-form with interdigitating spurs                        713
+306.      Square with rectangles and parallel lines                713
+307.      Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers               713
+308.      Crook, feathers, and parallel lines                      713
+309.      Crooks and feathers                                      714
+310.      Rectangle, triangles, and feathers                       714
+311.      Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers                   714
+312.      Double key                                               715
+313.      Triangular terrace                                       715
+314.      Crook, serrate end                                       715
+315.      Key pattern; rectangle and triangles                     716
+316.      Rectangle and crook                                      716
+317.      Crook and tail-feathers                                  716
+318.      Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs                   717
+319.      W-pattern; terminal crooks                               717
+320.      W-pattern; terminal rectangles                           717
+321.      W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks                  718
+322.      W-pattern; terminal spurs                                718
+323.      W-pattern; bird form                                     719
+324.      W-pattern; median triangle                               719
+325.      Double triangle; two breath feathers                     720
+326.      Double triangle; median trapezoid                        720
+327.      Double triangle; median rectangle                        720
+328.      Double compound triangle; median rectangle               720
+329.      Double triangle; median triangle                         721
+330.      Double compound triangle                                 721
+331.      Double rectangle; median rectangle                       721
+332.      Double rectangle; median triangle                        721
+333.      Double triangle with crooks                              722
+334.      W-shape figure; single line with feathers                722
+335.      Compound rectangles, triangles, and feathers             722
+336.      Double triangle                                          722
+337.      Double triangle and feathers                             723
+338.      Twin triangles                                           723
+339.      Triangle with terraced appendages                        723
+340.      Mosaic pattern                                           723
+341.      Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel lines            724
+342.      Continuous crooks                                        724
+343.      Rectangular terrace pattern                              724
+344.      Terrace pattern with parallel lines                      725
+345.      Terrace pattern                                          725
+346.      Triangular pattern with feathers                         725
+347.      S-pattern                                                726
+348.      Triangular and terrace figures                           726
+349.      Crook, terrace, and parallel lines                       726
+350.      Triangles, squares, and terraces                         726
+351.      Bifurcated rectangular design                            727
+352.      Lines of life and triangles                              727
+353.      Infolded triangles                                       727
+354.      Human hand                                               728
+355.      Animal paw, limb, and triangle                           728
+356.      Kaolin disk                                              729
+357.      Mortuary prayer-stick                                    736
+
+
+
+
+ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA IN 1895
+
+By JESSE WALTER FEWKES
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE
+
+
+About the close of May, 1895, I was invited to make a collection of
+objects for the National Museum, illustrating the archeology of the
+Southwest, especially that phase of pueblo life pertaining to the
+so-called cliff houses. I was specially urged to make as large a
+collection as possible, and the choice of locality was generously left
+to my discretion.
+
+Leaving Washington on the 25th of May, I obtained a collection and
+returned with it to that city on the 15th of September, having spent
+three months in the field. The material brought back by the expedition
+was catalogued under 966 entries, numbering somewhat over a thousand
+specimens. The majority of these objects are fine examples of mortuary
+pottery of excellent character, fully 500 of which are decorated.
+
+I was particularly fortunate in my scientific collaborators. Mr F. W.
+Hodge, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, joined me at Sikyatki, and
+remained with the expedition until it disbanded, at the close of
+August. Much of my success in the work at that ruin was due to his
+advice and aid. He was constantly at the excavations, and the majority
+of the beautiful specimens were taken out of the graves by him. It is
+with the greatest pleasure that I am permitted to express my
+appreciation of his assistance in my archeological investigations at
+Sikyatki. Mr G. P. Winship, now librarian of the John Carter Brown
+Library at Providence, visited our camp at the ruin mentioned, and
+remained with us a few weeks, rendering important aid and adding an
+enthusiastic student to our number. Mr James S. Judd was a volunteer
+assistant while we were at Sikyatki, aiding me in many ways,
+especially in the management of our camp. I need only to refer to the
+beautiful drawings which accompany this memoir to show how much I am
+indebted to Mrs Hodge for faithful colored figures of the remarkable
+pottery uncovered from the Tusayan sands. My party included Mr S.
+Goddard, of Prescott, Arizona, who served as cook and driver, and Mr
+Erwin Baer, of the same city, as photographer. The manual work at the
+ruins was done by a number of young Indians from the East Mesa, who
+very properly were employed on the Moki reservation. An all too
+prevalent and often unjust criticism that Indians will not work if
+paid for their labor, was not voiced by any of our party. They gave
+many a weary hour's labor in the hot sun, in their enthusiasm to make
+the collection as large as possible.
+
+On my return to Washington I was invited to prepare a preliminary
+account of my work in the field, which the Secretary of the
+Smithsonian Institution did me the honor to publish in his report for
+1895. This report was of a very general character, and from necessity
+limited in pages; consequently it presented only the more salient
+features of my explorations.
+
+The following account was prepared as a more exhaustive discussion of
+the results of my summer's work. The memoir is much more extended than
+I had expected to make it when I accepted the invitation to collect
+archeological objects for the Museum, and betrays, I fear,
+imperfections due to the limited time spent in the field. The main
+object of the expedition was a collection of specimens, the majority
+of which, now on exhibition in the National Museum, tell their own
+story regarding its success.
+
+I am under deep obligations to the officers of the Smithsonian
+Institution, the National Museum, and the Bureau of American Ethnology
+for many kindnesses, and wish especially to express my thanks to Mr S.
+P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for the
+opportunity to study the ancient ruins of Tusayan. Nothing had a
+greater influence on my final decision to abandon other congenial work
+and undertake this, than my profound respect for the late Dr G. Brown
+Goode, who suggested the expedition to me and urged me to plan and
+undertake it.
+
+                           JESSE WALTER FEWKES.
+
+_Washington, May, 1897._
+
+
+
+
+PLAN OF THE EXPEDITION
+
+
+It seemed to me in making a plan for archeological field work in 1895,
+that the prehistoric cliff houses, cave dwellings, and ruined pueblos
+of Arizona afforded valuable opportunities for research, and past
+experience induced me to turn my steps more especially to the northern
+and northeastern parts of the territory.[1] The ruins of ancient
+habitations in these regions had been partially, and, I believe,
+unsatisfactorily explored, especially those in a limited area called
+Tusayan, now inhabited by the Moki or Hopi Indians. These agricultural
+people claim to be descendants of those who once lived in the now
+deserted villages of that province.
+
+I had some knowledge of the ethnology of the Hopi, derived from
+several summers' field work among them, and I believed this
+information could be successfully utilized in an attempt to solve
+certain archeological questions which presented themselves.[2] I
+desired, among other things, to obtain new information on the former
+extension, in one direction, of the ancestral abodes of certain clans
+of the sedentary people of Tusayan which are now limited to six
+pueblos in the northeastern part of the territory. In carrying out
+this general plan I made an examination of cliff dwellings and other
+ruins in Verde valley, and undertook an exploration of two old pueblos
+near the Hopi villages. The reason which determined my choice of the
+former as a field for investigation was a wish to obtain archeological
+data bearing on certain Tusayan traditions. It is claimed by the
+traditionists of Walpi, especially those of the Patki[3] or
+Water-house phratry, that their ancestors came from a land far to the
+south of Tusayan, to which they give the name Palatkwabi. The
+situation of this mythic place is a matter of considerable conjecture,
+but it was thought that an archeological examination of the country at
+or near the headwaters of the Rio Verde and its tributaries might shed
+light on this tradition.
+
+It is not claimed, however, that all the ancestors of the Tusayan
+people migrated from the south, nor do I believe that those who came
+from that direction necessarily passed through Verde valley. Some, no
+doubt, came from Tonto Basin, but I believe it can be shown that a
+continuous line of ruins, similar in details of architecture, extend
+along this river from its junction with Salt river to well-established
+prehistoric dwelling places of the Hopi people. Similar lines may
+likewise be traced along other northern tributaries of the Salt or the
+Gila, which may be found to indicate early migration stages.
+
+The ruins of Verde valley were discovered in 1854 by Antoine Leroux, a
+celebrated guide and trapper of his time, and were thus described by
+Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner in the following year:
+
+     The river banks were covered with ruins of stone houses and
+     regular fortifications; which, he [Leroux] says, appeared to
+     have been the work of civilized men, but had not been
+     occupied for centuries. They were built upon the most
+     fertile tracts of the valley, where were signs of acequias
+     and of cultivation. The walls were of solid masonry, of
+     rectangular form, some twenty or thirty paces in length, and
+     yet remaining ten or fifteen feet in height. The buildings
+     were of two stories, with small apertures or loopholes for
+     defence when besieged.... In other respects, however, Leroux
+     says that they reminded him of the great pueblos of the
+     Moquinos.[4]
+
+A fragment of folklore, which is widely distributed among both the
+aboriginal peoples of Gila valley and the modern Tusayan Indians,
+recounts how the latter were at one time in communication with the
+people of the south, and traditions of both distinctly connect the
+sedentary people of Tusayan with those who formerly inhabited the
+great pueblos, now in ruins, dotting the plain in the delta between
+Gila and Salt rivers. That archeology might give valuable information
+on this question had long been my conviction, and was the main
+influence which led me to the studies recorded in the following pages.
+
+An examination of a map of Arizona will show that one of the pathways
+or feasible routes of travel possible to have been used in any
+connection between the pueblos of the Gila and those of northern
+Arizona would naturally be along Rio Verde valley. Its tributaries
+rise at the foot of San Francisco mountains, and the main river
+empties into the Salt, traversing from north to south a comparatively
+fertile valley, in the main advantageous for the subsistence of
+semisedentary bands in their migrations. Here was a natural highway
+leading from the Gila pueblos, now in ruins, to the former villages in
+the north.
+
+The study of the archeology of Verde valley had gone far enough to
+show that the banks of the river were formerly the sites of many and
+populous pueblos, while the neighboring mesas from one end to another
+are riddled with cavate dwellings or crowned with stone buildings.
+Northward from that famous crater-like depression in the Verde region,
+the so-called Montezuma Well on Beaver creek, one of the affluents of
+the Rio Verde, little archeological exploration had been attempted.
+There was, in other words, a break in the almost continuous series of
+ruins from Tusayan as far south as the Gila. Ruined towns had been
+reported as existing not far southward from San Francisco
+mountains,[5] and from there by easy stages the abodes of a former
+race had been detected at intervals all the way to the Tusayan
+pueblos. At either end the chain of ruins between the Tusayan towns
+and the Gila ruins was unbroken, but middle links were wanting. All
+conditions imply former habitations in this untrodden hiatus, the
+region between the Verde and the Tusayan series, ending near the
+present town of Flagstaff, Arizona; but southward from that town the
+country was broken and impassable, a land where the foot of the
+archeologist had not trodden. Remains of human habitations had,
+however, been reported by ranchmen, but these reports were vague and
+unsatisfactory. So far as they went they confirmed my suspicions, and
+there were other significant facts looking the same way. The color of
+the red cliffs fulfilled the Tusayan tradition of Palatkwabi, or their
+former home in the far south. Led by all these considerations, before
+I took to the field I had long been convinced that this must have been
+one of the homes of certain Hopi clans, and when the occasion
+presented itself I determined to follow the northward extension of the
+ancient people of the Verde into these rugged rocks. By my discoveries
+in this region of ruins indicative of dwellings of great size in
+ancient times I have supplied the missing links in the chain of
+ancient dwellings extending from the great towns of the Gila to the
+ruins west of the modern Tusayan towns. If this line of ruins,
+continuous from Gila valley to Tusayan and beyond, be taken in
+connection with legends ascribing Casa Grande to the Hopi and those of
+certain Tusayan clans which tell of the homes of their ancestors in
+the south, a plausible explanation is offered for the many
+similarities between two apparently widely different peoples, and the
+theory of a kinship between southern and northern sedentary tribes of
+Arizona does not seem as unlikely as it might otherwise appear.
+
+The reader will notice that I accept without question the belief that
+the so-called cliff dwellers were not a distinct people, but a
+specially adaptive condition of life of a race whose place of
+habitation was determined by its environment. We are considering a
+people who sometimes built dwellings in caverns and sometimes in the
+plains, but often in both places at the same epoch. Moreover, as long
+ago pointed out by other students, the existing Pueblo Indians are
+descendants of a people who at times lived in cliffs, and some of the
+Tusayan clans have inhabited true cliff houses in the historic period.
+By intermarriage with nomadic races and from other causes the
+character of Pueblo consanguinity is no doubt somewhat different from
+that of their ancient kin, but the character of the culture, as shown
+by a comparison of cliff-house and modern objects, has not greatly
+changed.
+
+While recognizing the kinship of the Pueblos and the Cliff villagers,
+this resemblance is not restricted to any one pueblo or group of
+modern pueblos to the exclusion of others. Of all modern
+differentiations of this ancient substratum of culture of which cliff
+villages are one adaptive expression, the Tusayan Indians are the
+nearest of all existing people of the Southwest[6] to the ancient
+people of Arizona.
+
+The more southerly ruins of Tusayan, which I have been able
+satisfactorily to identify and to designate by a Hopi name, are those
+called Homolobi, situated not far from Winslow, Arizona, near where
+the railroad crosses the Little Colorado. These ruins are claimed by
+the Hopi as the former residences of their ancestors, and were halting
+places in the migration of certain clans from the south. They were
+examined by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
+in 1893,[7] but no report on them has yet been published.
+
+While, however, the Homolobi group of ruins is the most southerly to
+which I have been able to affix a Hopi name, others still more to the
+southward are claimed by certain of their traditions.[8] The Hopi
+likewise regard as homes of their ancestors certain habitations, now
+in ruins, near San Francisco mountains. In a report on his exploration
+of Zuni and Little Colorado rivers in 1852, Captain L. Sitgreaves
+called attention to several interesting ruins, one of which was not
+far from the "cascades" of the latter river. After ascending the
+plateau, which he found covered with volcanic detritus, he discovered
+that "all the prominent points" were "occupied by the ruins of stone
+houses, which were in some instances three stories in height. They are
+evidently," he says, "the remains of a large town, as they occurred at
+intervals for an extent of eight or nine miles, and the ground was
+thickly strewn with fragments of pottery in all directions."
+
+In 1884 a portion of Colonel James Stevenson's expedition, under F. D.
+Bickford, examined the cliff houses in Walnut canyon, and in 1886
+Major J. W. Powell and Colonel Stevenson found scattered ruins north
+of San Francisco mountains having one, two, or three rooms, each
+"built of basaltic cinders and blocks of lava." These explorers
+likewise reported ruins of extensive dwellings in the same region
+made of sandstone and limestone. At about 25 miles north of the
+mountains mentioned they discovered a small volcanic cone of cinders
+and basalt, which was formerly the site of a village or pueblo built
+around a crater, and estimated that this little pueblo contained 60 or
+70 rooms, with a plaza occupying one-third of an acre of surface.[9]
+
+Twelve miles eastward from San Francisco mountains they found another
+cinder cone resembling a dome, and on its southern slope, in a
+coherent cinder mass, were many chambers, of which one hundred and
+fifty are said to have been excavated. They mention the existence on
+the summit of this cone of a plaza inclosed by a rude wall of volcanic
+cinders, with a carefully leveled floor. The former inhabitants of
+these rooms apparently lived in underground chambers hewn from the
+volcanic formation. Eighteen miles farther eastward was another ruined
+village built about the crater of a volcanic cone. Several villages
+were discovered in this locality and many natural caves which had been
+utilized as dwellings by inclosing them in front with walls of
+volcanic rocks and cinders. These cavate rooms were arranged tier
+above tier in a very irregular way.
+
+At this place three distinct kinds of ruins were found--cliff
+villages, cave dwellings, and pueblos. Eight miles southeastward from
+Flagstaff, in Oak creek canyon, a cliff house of several hundred rooms
+was discovered. It was concluded that all these ruins were abandoned
+at a comparatively recent date, or not more than three or four
+centuries ago, and the Havasupai Indians of Cataract canyon were
+regarded as descendants of the former inhabitants of these villages.
+The situation of some of these ruins and the published descriptions
+would indicate that some of them were similar to those described and
+figured by Sitgreaves,[10] to which reference has already been made.
+
+In 1896 two amateur explorers, George Campbell and Everett Howell, of
+Flagstaff, reported that they had found, about eighteen miles from
+that place, several well-preserved cliff towns and a remarkable tunnel
+excavation. The whole region in the immediate neighborhood of San
+Francisco mountains appears, therefore, to have been populated in
+ancient times by an agricultural people, and legends ascribe some of
+these ruins to ancestors of the Hopi Indians.
+
+There are several ruins due south of Tusayan which have not been
+investigated, but which would furnish important contributions to a
+study of Hopi migrations. Near Saint Johns, Arizona, likewise, there
+are ruins of considerable size, possibly referable to the Cibolan
+series; and south of Holbrook, which lies about due south of Walpi,
+there are ruins, the pottery from which I have examined and found to
+be of the black-and-white ware typical of the Cliff people. Perhaps,
+however, no ruined pueblo presents more interesting problems than the
+magnificent Pueblo Grande or Kintiel, about 20 miles north of Navaho
+Springs. This large ruin, lying between the Cibolan and Tusayan
+groups, has been referred to both of these provinces, and would, if
+properly excavated, shed much light on the archeology of the two
+provinces.[11] Kinnazinde lies not far from Kintiel.
+
+The ruins reported from Tonto Basin, of which little is known, may
+later be found to be connected with early migrations of those Hopi
+clans which claim southern origin. From what I can judge by the
+present appearance of ruins just north of the Mogollon mountains, in a
+direct line between Tonto Basin and the present Tusayan towns, there
+is nothing to show the age of these ruined villages, and it is quite
+likely that they may have been inhabited in the middle of the
+sixteenth century. While it is commonly agreed that the province of
+"Totonteac," which figures extensively in certain early Spanish
+narratives, was the same as Tusayan, the linguistic similarity of the
+word to "tonto" has been suggested by others. In the troublesome years
+between 1860 and 1870 the Hopi, decimated by disease and harried by
+nomads, sent delegates to Prescott asking to be removed to Tonto
+Basin, and it is not improbable that in making this reasonable request
+they simply wished to return to a place which they associated with
+their ancestors, who had been driven out by the Apache. Totonteac[12]
+is ordinarily thought to be the same as Tusayan, but it may have
+included some of the southern pueblos now in ruins west of Zuni.
+
+Having determined that the line of Verde ruins was continued into the
+Red-rock country, it was desirable to see how the latter compared with
+those nearer Tusayan. This necessitated reexamination of many ruins in
+Verde valley, which was my aim during the most of June. I followed
+this valley from the cavate dwellings near Squaw mountain past the
+great ruin in the neighborhood of Old Camp Verde, the unique Montezuma
+Well, to the base of the Red-rocks. Throughout this region I saw, as
+had been expected, no change in the character of the ruins great
+enough to indicate that they originally were inhabited by peoples
+racially different. Stopped from further advance by a barrier of
+rugged cliffs, I turned westward along their base until I found
+similar ruins, which were named Palatki and Honanki. Having satisfied
+myself that there was good evidence that the numbers of ancient
+people were as great here as at any point in the Verde valley and that
+their culture was similar, I continued the work with an examination of
+the ruins north of the Red-rocks, where there is substantial evidence
+that these were likewise of the same general character.
+
+The last two months of the summer, July and August, 1895, were devoted
+to explorations of two Tusayan ruins, called Awatobi and Sikyatki. In
+this work, apparently unconnected with that already outlined, I still
+had in mind the light to be shed on the problem of Tusayan origin. The
+question which presented itself was: How are these ruins related to
+the modern pueblos? Awatobi was a historic ruin, destroyed in 1700,
+and therefore somewhat influenced by the Spaniards. Many of the
+survivors became amalgamated with pueblos still inhabited. Its kinship
+with the surviving villagers was clear. Sikyatki, however, was
+overthrown in prehistoric times, and at its destruction part of its
+people went to Awatobi. Its culture was prehistoric. The discovery of
+what these two ruins teach, by bringing prehistoric Tusayan culture
+down to the present time and comparing them with the ruins of Verde
+valley and southern Arizona, is of great archeological interest.
+
+While engaged in preparing this report, having in fact written most of
+it, I received Mr Cosmos Mindeleff's valuable article on the Verde
+ruins,[13] in which special attention is given to the cavate lodges
+and villages of this interesting valley. This contribution anticipates
+many of my observations on these two groups of aboriginal habitations,
+and renders it unnecessary to describe them in the detailed manner I
+had planned. I shall therefore touch but briefly on these ruins,
+paying special attention to the cliff houses of Verde valley, situated
+in the Red-rock country. This variety of dwelling was overlooked in
+both Mearns' and Mindeleff's classifications, from the fact that it
+seems to be confined to the region of the valley characterized by the
+red-rock formation, which appears not to have been explored by them.
+The close resemblance of these cliff houses to those of the region
+north of Tusayan is instructive, in view of the ground, well taken, I
+believe, by Mr Mindeleff, that there is a close likeness between the
+Verde ruins and those farther north, especially in Tusayan.
+
+
+
+
+RUINS IN VERDE VALLEY
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE RUINS
+
+
+The ruined habitations in the valley of the Rio Verde may be
+considered under three divisions or types, differing in form, but
+essentially the same in character. In adopting this classification,
+which is by no means restricted to this single valley, I do not claim
+originality, but follow that used by the best writers on this subject.
+My limitation of the types and general definitions may, however, be
+found to differ somewhat from those of my predecessors.
+
+The three groups of ruins in our Southwest are the following:
+
+  I--Pueblos, or Independent habitations.
+ II--Cliff Houses        }
+III--Cavate Dwellings    } Dependent habitations.
+
+In the first group are placed those ancient or modern habitations
+which are isolated, on all sides, from cliffs. They may be situated in
+valleys or on elevations or mesas; they may be constructed of clay,
+adobe, or stone of various kinds, but are always isolated from cliffs.
+They are single or multiple chambered, circular or rectangular in
+shape, and may have been built either as permanent habitations or as
+temporary outlooks. Their main feature is freedom, on all sides except
+the foundation, from cliffs or walls of rock in place.
+
+The second group includes those not isolated from natural cliffs, but
+with some part of their lateral walls formed by natural rock in situ,
+and are built ordinarily in caverns with overhanging roofs, which the
+highest courses of their walls do not join. Generally erected in
+caves, their front walls never close the entrances to those caverns.
+This kind of aboriginal buildings may, like the former, vary in
+structural material; but, so far as I know, they are not, for obvious
+reasons, made of adobe alone.
+
+The third kind of pueblo dwellings are called cavate dwellings or
+lodges, a group which includes that peculiar kind of aboriginal
+dwelling where the rooms are excavated from the cliff wall, forming
+caves, where natural rock is a support or more often serves as the
+wall itself of the dwelling. The entrance may be partially closed by
+masonry, the floor laid with flat stones, and the sides plastered with
+clay; but never in this group is there a roof distinct from the top of
+the cave.
+
+Naturally cavate dwellings grade into cliff houses, but neither of
+these types can be confounded with the first group, which affords us
+no difficulty in identification. All these kinds of dwellings were
+made by people of the same culture, the character of the habitation
+depending on geological environment.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCI^_a_
+
+CAVATE DWELLINGS--RIO VERDE]
+
+In Verde valley, villages, cliff houses, and cavate dwellings exist
+together, and were, I believe, contemporaneously inhabited by a people
+of the same culture.
+
+These types of ancient habitations are not believed to stand in the
+relationship of sequence in development; nor is one simpler or less
+difficult of construction than the others. Cliff houses display no
+less skill and daring than do the villages in the plain, called
+pueblos. The cavate dwellings are likewise a form of habitation which
+shows considerable workmanship, and are far from caves like those
+inhabited by "cave men." These dwellings were laboriously excavated
+with rude implements; had floors, banquettes, windows, walled
+recesses, and the like. It is hardly proper to regard them, as less
+difficult to construct than pueblos or cliff houses.
+
+Cavate dwellings, like villages or cliff houses, may be single or
+multiple, single or many chambered, and a cluster of these troglodytic
+dwellings was, in fact, as truly a village as a pueblo or cliff house.
+The same principle of seeking safety by crowding together held in all
+three instances; and this very naturally, for the culture of the
+inhabitants was identical. I shall consider only two of the three
+types of dwellings in Verde valley, namely, the second and third
+groups.
+
+It has, I think, been conclusively shown by Mr Cosmos Mindeleff, so
+far as types of the first group of ruins on the Verde are concerned,
+that they practically do not differ from the modern Tusayan pueblos.
+The remaining types, when rightly interpreted, furnish evidence of no
+less important character. Notwithstanding Mindeleff's excellent
+descriptions of the cavate dwellings of this region, already cited, I
+have thought it well to bring into prominence certain features which
+seem to me to indicate that this form of aboriginal dwelling was high
+in its development, showing considerable skill in its construction,
+and was fashioned on the same general plan as the others. For this
+demonstration I have chosen one of the most striking clusters in Verde
+valley.
+
+
+CAVATE DWELLINGS
+
+The most accessible cavate dwellings in Verde valley (plate XCI _a_)
+are situated on the left bank of the river, about eight miles
+southward from Camp Verde and three miles from the mouth of Clear
+creek. The general characteristics of this group have been well
+described by Mr Mindeleff in the Thirteenth Annual Report of the
+Bureau, so that I need but refer to a few additional observations made
+on these interesting habitations.[14]
+
+These cavate lodges afford a fair idea of the best known of these
+prehistoric dwellings in this part of Arizona. Although Verde valley
+has many fine ranches, the land in immediate proximity to these ruins
+is uncultivated. The nearest habitation, however, is not far away, and
+it is not difficult to find guides to these caves, so well known are
+they to the inhabitants of this part of the valley. It did not take
+long to learn that any investigations which I might attempt there had
+been anticipated by other archeologists and laymen, for many of the
+rooms had been rifled of their contents and their walls thrown down,
+while it was also evident that some careful excavations had been made.
+
+There is, however, abundant opportunity for more detailed scientific
+work than has yet been attempted on these ruins, and what has thus far
+been accomplished has been more in the nature of reconnoissance. The
+cemeteries and burial places of the prehistoric people of the cavate
+dwellings are yet to be discovered, and it is probable, judging from
+experience gained at other ruins, that when they are found and
+carefully investigated much light will be thrown on the character of
+ancient cave life.
+
+The entrances to the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw mountain are
+visible from the road for quite a distance, appearing as rows of holes
+in the steep walls of the cliff on the opposite or left bank of the
+Rio Verde. Owing to their proximity to the river, from which the
+precipice in which they are situated rises almost vertically, we were
+unable to camp under them, but remained on the right bank of the
+river, where a level plain extends for some distance, bordering the
+river and stretching back to the distant cliffs. We pitched our camp
+on a bluff, about 30 feet above the river, in full sight of the cave
+entrances, near a small stone inclosure which bears quite a close
+resemblance to a Tusayan shrine.
+
+Aboriginal people had evidently cultivated the plain where we camped,
+for there are many evidences of irrigating ditches and even walls of
+former houses. At present, however, this once highly cultivated field
+lies unused, and is destitute of any valuable plants save the scanty
+grass which served to eke out the fodder of our horses.
+
+At the time of my visit the water of Rio Verde at this point was
+confined to a very narrow channel under the bluff near its right bank,
+but the appearance of its bed showed that in heavy freshets during the
+rainy season the water filled the interval between the base of the
+cliffs in which the cavate dwellings are situated and the bluffs which
+form the right bank.
+
+In visits to the caves it was necessary, on account of the site of the
+camp, to ford the stream each time and to climb to their level over
+fallen stones, a task of no slight difficulty. The water in places was
+shallow and the current only moderately rapid. Considering the fact
+that it furnished potable liquid for ourselves and horses, and that
+the line of trees which skirted the bluff was available for firewood,
+our camp compared well with many which we subsequently made in our
+summer's explorations.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCI^_b_
+
+CAVATE DWELLINGS--OAK CREEK]
+
+The section of the cliff which was examined embraced the northern
+series of these caves, extending from a promontory forming one side of
+a blind or box canyon to nearly opposite our camp. Adjacent to this
+series of rooms, but farther down the river, on the same side, there
+are two narrow side canyons, in both of which are also numerous caves,
+in all respects similar to the series we chose for examination. At
+several points on the summit of the cliffs, above the caves, large
+rectangular ruins, with fallen walls, were discovered; these ruins
+are, however, in no respect peculiar, but closely resemble those
+ordinarily found in a similar position throughout this region and
+elsewhere in Arizona and New Mexico. From their proximity to the caves
+it would seem that the cavate dwellings, and the pueblos on the
+summits of the mesas in which they are found, had been inhabited by
+one people; but better evidence that such is true is drawn from the
+character of the architecture and the nature of the art remains common
+to both.
+
+Let us first consider the series of caves from a point opposite our
+camp to the promontory which forms a pinnacle at the mouth of the
+first of the two side caverns--a row of caves the entrances to which
+are shown in the accompanying illustration (plate XCII). I have
+lettered these rooms, as indicated by their entrances, _a_ to _l_,
+beginning with the opening on the left.
+
+The rock in which these caves have been hewn is very soft, and almost
+white in color, save for a slightly reddish brown stratum just below
+the line of entrances to the cavate chambers. Although, as a general
+thing, the wall of the cliff is almost perpendicular, and the caves at
+points inaccessible, entrance to the majority of them can be effected
+by mounting the heaps of small stones forming the debris, which has
+fallen even to the bed of the river at various places, and by
+following a ledge which connects the line of entrances. The easiest
+approach mounts a steep decline, not far from the promontory at the
+lower level of the line, which conducts to a ledge running along in
+front of the caves about 150 feet above the bed of the stream. Roughly
+speaking, this ledge is about 100 feet below the summit of the cliff.
+It was impossible to reach several of the rooms, and it is probable
+that when the caves were inhabited access to any one of them was even
+more difficult than at present.
+
+Judging from the number of rooms, the cliffs on the left bank of the
+Verde must have had a considerable population when inhabited. These
+caverns, no doubt, swarmed with human beings, and their inaccessible
+position furnished the inhabitants with a safe refuge from enemies, or
+an advantageous outlook or observation shelter for their fields on the
+opposite side of the stream. The soft rock of which the mesa is formed
+is easily worked, and there are abundant evidences, from the marks of
+tools employed, that the greater part of each cave was pecked out by
+hand. Fragments of wood were very rarely seen in these cliff dugouts;
+and although there is much adobe plastering, only in a few instances
+were the mouths of the caves walled or a doorway of usual shape
+present. The last room at the southern end, near the promontory at the
+right of the entrance to a side canyon, has walls in front resembling
+those of true cliff houses and pueblos in the Red-rock country farther
+northward, as will be shown in subsequent pages.
+
+This group of cavate dwellings, while a good example of the cavern
+type of ruins, is so closely associated, both in geographical position
+and in archeological remains, with other types in Verde valley, that
+we are justified in referring them to one and the same people. The
+number of these troglodytic dwelling places on the Verde is very
+large; indeed the mesas may be said to be fairly honeycombed with
+subterranean habitations. Confined as a general thing to the softer
+strata of rock, which from its character was readily excavated, they
+lie side by side at the same general level, and are entered from a
+projecting ledge, formed by the top of the talus which follows the
+level of their entrances.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 245--Plan of cavate dwelling on Rio Verde]
+
+This ledge is easily accessible in certain places from the river bed,
+where stones have fallen to the base of the cliff; but at most points
+no approach is possible, and in their impregnable position the
+inhabitants could easily defend themselves from hostile peoples.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCII
+
+ENTRANCES TO CAVATE RUINS]
+
+Whether the rock had recesses in it before the caves were enlarged
+would seem to be answered in the affirmative, for similar caves
+without evidences of habitations were observed. These, however, are as
+a rule small, and wherever available the larger caverns have been
+appropriated and enlarged by stone implements, as shown by the pecking
+on the walls. The enlargement of these caverns, however, would not be
+a difficult task, for the rock is very soft and easily worked.
+
+Entering one of these cavate rooms the visitor finds himself in a dark
+chamber, as a rule with side openings or passageways into adjoining
+rooms. Broad lateral banquettes are prominent features in the most
+complicated caves, and there are many recesses and small closets or
+cists.
+
+The ramifications formed by lateral rooms are often extensive, and the
+chambers communicate with others so dark that we can hardly regard
+them as once inhabited. In these dimly lighted rooms the walls were
+blackened with smoke, as if from former fires, and in many of the
+largest the position of fireplaces could plainly be discovered. As a
+type of one of the more complicated I have chosen that figured to
+illustrate the arrangement of these cavate dwellings (figure 245).
+Many are smaller, others have more lateral chambers, but one type is
+characteristic of all.
+
+A main room (_A_, figure 245), or that first entered from outside, is
+roughly rectangular in shape, 12 feet long by 6 feet wide, and about 6
+feet high. The floor, however, was covered with very dry debris which
+had blown in from the exterior or, in some instances, fallen from the
+roof. That part of the floor which was exposed shows that it was
+roughly plastered, sometimes paved or formed of solid rock.
+
+On three sides of this room there is a step 2 feet high, to platforms,
+three in number, one in the rear and one on each side. These platforms
+are 5, 6, and 6 feet 6 inches wide, respectively, and of the same
+length as the corresponding sides of the central room. It would appear
+that these platforms are characteristic architectural features of
+these habitations, and we find them reproduced in some of the rooms of
+the cliff houses of the Red-rocks, while Nordenskioeld has described a
+kindred feature in the kivas of the Mesa Verde ruins. A somewhat
+similar elevation of the floor in modern Tusayan kivas forms what may
+be called the spectator's part, in front of the ladder as one
+descends, and the same feature is common to many older Hopi
+dwellings.[15]
+
+Beginning with the lateral platforms (_B_, figure 245) we first note,
+as we step upon it at _c_, about midway of its length, a small
+circular depression in the floor of the central room extending
+slightly beneath the platform, as indicated by the dotted line. It is
+possible that this niche was a receptacle for important household
+objects, although it may have been a fireplace.
+
+In a corner of the right platform a round cist, partially hewn out of
+the rock, was found, but its walls (_a_, figure 245) were badly broken
+down by some former explorer. The floor of this recess lies below that
+of the platform, while the cist itself (_D_) reminds one of the closed
+or walled structures, so commonly found in the Verde, attached to the
+side of the cliff. On the lateral wall of this chamber, at about the
+height of the head, a row of small holes had been drilled into the
+solid wall. These holes (_d_, _d_, _d_) are almost too small for the
+insertion of roof beams, and were probably made for pegs on which to
+rest a beam for hanging blankets and other textile fabrics when not in
+use. The roof of the cave was the natural rock, and showed over its
+whole surface marks of a pecking implement.
+
+The left chamber is 6 feet 6 inches broad, and from one corner,
+opposite the doorway, a low passageway leads into a circular chamber,
+6 feet in diameter, with its floor below the platform of the lateral
+room. Between the chamber, on the left of the entrance, and the open
+air, the wall of solid rock is broken by a slit-like crevice, which
+allows the light to enter, and no doubt served as a window. A recess,
+the floor of which is elevated, on a platform opposite the doorway, is
+5 feet broad, and has a small circular depression in one corner. The
+floor and upraise of this recess is plastered with adobe, which in
+several places is smooth and well made.
+
+In comparing the remaining cavate dwellings of this series with that
+described, we find every degree of complication in the arrangement of
+rooms, from a simple cave, or irregular hole in the side of the cliff,
+to squared chambers with lateral rooms. The room _I_,[16] for
+instance, is rectangular, 6 feet long by 3 feet wide, with an entrance
+the same width as that of the room itself.
+
+In room _III_, however, the external opening is very small, and there
+is a low, narrow ledge, or platform, opposite the doorway. There is
+likewise in this room a small shelf in the left-hand wall. In _IV_
+there is a raised platform on two adjacent sides of the square room,
+and the doorway is an irregular orifice broken through the wall to the
+open air.
+
+Room _IV_ is a subterranean chamber, most of the floor of which is
+littered with large fragments of rock which have fallen from the roof.
+It has numerous small recesses in the wall resembling cubby-holes
+where household utensils of various kinds were undoubtedly formerly
+kept. This room is instructive, in that the entrance is partially
+closed by two walls of masonry, which do not join. The stones are
+laid in adobe in which fragments of pottery were detected. These
+unjoined walls leave a doorway which is thus flanked on each side by
+stone masonry, recalling in every particular the well-known walls of
+cliff houses. Here, in fact, we have so close a resemblance to the
+masonry of true cliff houses that we can hardly doubt that the
+excavators of the cavate dwellings were, in reality, people similar to
+those who built the cliff houses of Verde valley.
+
+Room _VIII_ is a simple cave hewn out of the rock, with a chamber
+behind it, entered by a passageway made of masonry, which partially
+fills a larger opening. The doorway through this masonry is small
+below, but broadens above in much the same manner as some of the
+doorways in Tusayan of today.
+
+Continuing along the left bank of the river, from the row of cavate
+rooms, just described, on the first mesa, we round a promontory and
+enter a small canyon,[17] which is perforated on each side with
+numerous other cavate dwellings, large and small, all of the same
+general character as the type described. Here, likewise, are small
+external openings which evidently communicated with subterranean
+chambers, but many of them are so elevated that access to them from
+the floor of the canyon or from the cliff above is not possible. A
+marked feature of the whole series is the existence here and there of
+small, often inaccessible, stone cists of masonry plastered to the
+side of the rocky cliff like swallows' nests.
+
+All of these cists which are accessible had been opened and plundered
+before my visit, but there yet remain a few which are still intact and
+would repay examination and study. Similar walled-up cists are
+likewise found, as we shall see later, in the cliff-houses of the
+Red-rock country, hence are not confined to the Verde system of ruins.
+
+Cavate dwellings similar to those here described are reported to exist
+in the canyons of upper Salado, Gala, and Zuni rivers, and we may with
+reason suspect that the distribution[18] of cavate dwellings is as
+wide as that of the pueblos themselves, the sole requisite being a
+soft tufaceous rock, capable of being easily worked by people with
+stone implements. In none of the different regions in which they exist
+is there any probability that these caves were made by people
+different in culture from pueblo or cliff dwellers. They are much more
+likely to have been permanent than temporary habitations of the same
+culture stock of Indians who availed themselves of rock shelters
+wherever the nature of the cliff permitted excavation in its walls.
+
+That the cavate lodges are simple "horticultural outlooks" is an
+important suggestion, but one might question whether they were
+conveniently placed for that purpose. So far as overlooking the
+opposite plain (which had undoubtedly been cultivated in ancient
+times) is concerned, the position of some of them may be regarded good
+for that purpose, but certainly not so commanding as that of the hill
+or mesa above, where well-marked ruins still exist.
+
+The position of the cavate dwellings is a disadvantageous one to reach
+any cultivated fields if defenders were necessary. When the Tusayan
+Indian today moves to his _kisi_ or summer brush house shelter he
+practically camps in his corn or near it, in easy reach to drive away
+crows, or build wind-breaks to shelter the tender sprouts; but to go
+to their cornfields the inhabitants of the cavate dwellings I have
+described were forced to cross a river before the farm was reached.
+That these cavate dwellings were lookouts none can deny, but I incline
+to a belief that this does not tell the whole story if we limit them
+to such use. It is not wholly clear to me that they were not likewise
+an asylum for refuge, possibly not inhabited continuously, but a very
+welcome retreat when the agriculturist was sorely pressed by enemies.
+Following the analogy of a Hopi custom of building temporary booths
+near their fields, may we not suppose that the former inhabitants of
+Verde valley may have erected similar shelters in their cornfields
+during summer months, retiring to the cavate dwellings and the mesa
+tops in winter? All available evidence would indicate that the cavate
+dwellings were permanent habitations.[19]
+
+There are several square ruins on top of the mesa above the cavate
+dwellings. The walls of these were massive, but they are now very much
+broken down, and the adobe plastering is so eroded from the masonry
+that I regard them of considerable antiquity. They do not differ from
+other similar ruins, so common elsewhere in New Mexico and Arizona,
+and are identical with others in the Verde region. I visited several
+of these ruins, but made no excavations in them, nor added any new
+data to our knowledge of this type of aboriginal buildings. The
+pottery picked up on the surface resembles that of the ruins of the
+Little Colorado and Gila.
+
+The dwellings which I have mentioned above are said[20] to be
+duplicated at many other points in the watershed of the Verde, and
+many undescribed ruins of this nature were reported to me by ranchmen.
+I do not regard them as older than the adjacent ruins on the mesa
+above or the plains below them, much less as productions of people of
+different stages of culture, for everything about them suggests
+contemporaneous occupancy.
+
+From what little I saw of the village sites on the Verde I believe
+that Mindeleff is correct in considering that these ruins represent
+a comparatively late period of pueblo architecture. The character
+of the cliff houses of the Red-rocks shows no very great antiquity of
+occupancy. While it is not possible to give any approximate date when
+they were inhabited, their general appearance indicates that they are
+not more than two centuries old. There is, however, no reference to
+them in the early Spanish history of the Southwest.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIII
+
+BOWLDER WITH PICTOGRAPHS NEAR WOOD'S RANCH]
+
+Few pictographs were found in the immediate neighborhood of the cavate
+dwellings; indeed the rock in their vicinity is too soft to preserve
+for any considerable time any great number of these rock etchings.
+Examples of ancient paleography were, however, discovered a short
+distance higher up the river on malpais rock, which is harder and less
+rapidly eroded. A half-buried bowlder (plate XCIII) near Wood's ranch
+was found to be covered with the well-known spirals with zigzag
+attachments, horned animals resembling antelopes, growing corn, rain
+clouds, and similar figures. These pictographs occur on a black,
+superficial layer of lava rock, or upon lighter stone with a malpais
+layer, which had been pecked through, showing a lighter color beneath.
+There is little doubt that many examples of aboriginal pictography
+exist in this neighborhood, which would reward exploration with
+interesting data. The Verde pictographs can not be distinguished, so
+far as designs are concerned, from many found elsewhere in Colorado,
+Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona.
+
+An instructive pictograph, different from any which I have elsewhere
+seen, was discovered on the upturned side of a bowlder not far from
+Hance's ranch, near the road from Camp Verde to the cavate dwellings.
+The bowlder upon which they occur lies on top of a low hill, to the
+left of the road, near the river. It consists of a rectangular network
+of lines, with attached key extensions, crooks, and triangles, all
+pecked in the surface. This daedalus of lines arises from grooves,
+which originate in two small, rounded depressions in the rock, near
+which is depicted the figure of a mountain lion. The whole pictograph
+is 3-1/2 feet square, and legible in all its parts.
+
+The intent of the ancient scribe is not wholly clear, but it has been
+suggested that he sought to represent the nexus of irrigating ditches
+in the plain below. It might have been intended as a chart of the
+neighboring fields of corn, and it is highly suggestive, if we adopt
+either of these explanations or interpretations, that a figure of the
+mountain lion is found near the depressions, which may provisionally
+be regarded as representing ancient reservoirs. Among the Tusayan
+Indians the mountain lion is looked on as a guardian of cultivated
+fields, which he is said to protect, and his stone image is sometimes
+placed there for the same purpose.
+
+In the vicinity of the pictograph last described other bowlders, of
+which there are many, were found to be covered with smaller rock
+etchings in no respect characteristic, and there is a remnant of an
+ancient shrine a few yards away from the bowlder upon which they
+occur.
+
+
+MONTEZUMA WELL
+
+One of the most interesting sites of ancient habitation in Verde
+valley is known as Montezuma Well, and it is remarkable how little
+attention has been paid to it by archeologists.[21] Dr Mearns, in his
+article on the ancient dwellings of Verde valley, does not mention the
+well, and Mindeleff simply refers to the brief description by Dr
+Hoffman in 1877. These ruins are worthy of more study than I was able
+to give them, for like many other travelers I remained but a short
+time in the neighborhood. It is possible, however, that some of my
+hurried observations at this point may be worthy of record.
+
+Montezuma Well (plate XCIV) is an irregular, circular depression,
+closely resembling a volcanic crater, but evidently, as Dr Hoffman
+well points out, due to erosion rather than to volcanic agencies. As
+one approaches it from a neighboring ranch the road ascends a low
+elevation, and when on top the visitor finds that the crater occupies
+the whole interior of the hill. The exact dimensions I did not
+accurately determine, but the longest diameter of the excavation is
+estimated at about 400 feet; its depth possibly 70 feet. On the
+eastern side this depression is separated from Beaver creek by a
+precipitous wall which can not be scaled from that side. At the time
+of my visit there was considerable water in the "well," which was
+reported to be very deep, but did not cover the whole bottom. It is
+possible to descend to the water at one point on the eastern side,
+where a trail leads to the water's edge.
+
+There appears to be a subterranean waterway under the eastern rim of
+the well, and the water from the spring rushes through this passage
+into Beaver creek. At the time of my visit this outflow was very
+considerable, and in the rainy season it must be much greater. The
+well is never dry, and is supplied by perennial subterranean springs
+rather than by surface drainage.
+
+The geological agency which has been potent in giving the remarkable
+crater-like form to Montezuma Well was correctly recognized by Dr
+Hoffman[22] and others as the solvent or erosive power of the spring.
+There is no evidence of volcanic formation in the neighborhood, and
+the surrounding rocks are limestones and sandstones. Not far from
+Navaho springs there is a similar circular depression, called Jacob's
+Well, but which was dry when visited by me. This may later be found to
+have been formed in a similar way. At several places in Arizona there
+are formations of like geological character.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIV
+
+MONTEZUMA WELL]
+
+The walls of Montezuma Well are so nearly perpendicular that descent
+to the edge of the water is difficult save by a single trail which
+follows the detritus to a cave on one side. In this cave, the roof of
+which is not much higher than the water level, there are fragments
+of masonry, as if structures of some kind had formerly been erected in
+it. I have regarded this cave rather as a place of religious rites
+than of former habitation, possibly a place of retreat for ancient
+priests when praying for rain or moisture, or a shrine for the deposit
+of prayer offerings to rain or water gods.
+
+Several isolated cliff dwellings are built at different levels in the
+sides of the cliffs. One of the best of these is diametrically
+opposite the cave mentioned above, a few feet below the rim of the
+depression. While this house was entered with little difficulty, there
+were others which I did not venture to visit.
+
+The accompanying illustration (plate XCV) gives an idea of the general
+appearance of one of these cliff houses of Montezuma Well. It is built
+under an overhanging archway of rock in a deep recess, with masonry on
+three sides. The openings are shown, one of which overlooks the
+spring; the other is an entrance at one side. The face of masonry on
+the front is not plastered, and if it was formerly rough cast the mud
+has been worn away, leaving the stones exposed. The side wall, which
+has been less exposed to the elements, still retains the plastering,
+which is likewise found on the inner walls where it is quite smooth in
+places.
+
+The number of cliff rooms in the walls of the well is small and their
+capacity, if used as dwellings, very limited. There are, however,
+ruins of pueblos of some size on the edge of the well.
+
+One of the largest of these, shown in the accompanying illustration
+(plate XCVI), is situated on the neck of land separating the well from
+the valley of Beaver creek. This pueblo was rectangular in form, of
+considerable size, built of stones, and although at present almost
+demolished, shows perfectly the walls of former rooms. Fragments of
+ancient pottery would seem to indicate that the people who once
+inhabited this pueblo were in no respect different from other
+sedentary occupants of Verde valley. From their housetops they had a
+wide view over the creek on one side and the spring on the other,
+defending, by the site of their village, the one trail by which
+descent to the well was possible.
+
+The remarkable geological character of Montezuma Well, and the spring
+within it, would have profoundly impressed itself on the folklore of
+any people of agricultural bent who lived in its neighborhood after
+emigrating to more arid lands. About a month after my visit to this
+remarkable spring I described the place to some of the old priests at
+Walpi and showed them sketches of the ruins. These priests seemed to
+have legendary knowledge of a place somewhat like it where they said
+the Great Plumed Snake had one of his numerous houses. They reminded
+me of a legend they had formerly related to me of how the Snake arose
+from a great cavity or depression in the ground, and how, they had
+heard, water boiled out of that hole into a neighboring river. The
+Hopi have personal knowledge of Montezuma Well, for many of their
+number have visited Verde valley, and they claim the ruins there as
+the homes of their ancestors. It would not be strange, therefore, if
+this marvelous crater was regarded by them as a house of Palueluekon,
+their mythic Plumed Serpent.
+
+Practically little is known of the pictography of this part of the
+Verde valley people, although it has an important bearing on the
+distribution of the cliff dwellers of the Southwest. There is evidence
+of at least two kinds of petroglyphs, indicative of two distinct
+peoples. One of these was of the Apache Mohave; the other, the
+agriculturists who built the cliff homes and villages of the plain.
+Those of the latter are almost identical with the work of the Pueblo
+peoples in the cliff dweller stage, from southern Utah and Colorado to
+the Mexican boundary. It is not a difficult task to distinguish the
+pictography of these two peoples, wherever found. The pictographs of
+the latter are generally pecked into the rock with a sharpened
+implement, probably of stone, while those of the former are usually
+scratched or painted on the surface of the rocks. Their main
+differences, however, are found in the character of the designs and
+the objects represented. This difference can be described only by
+considering individual rock drawings, but the practiced eye may
+readily distinguish the two kinds at a glance. The pictographs which
+are pecked in the cliff are, as a rule, older than those which are
+drawn or scratched, and resemble more closely those widely spread in
+the Pueblo area, for if the cliff-house people ever made painted
+pictographs, as there is every reason to believe they did, time has
+long ago obliterated them.
+
+The pictured rocks (plate XCVII) near Cliff's ranch, on Beaver creek,
+four miles from Montezuma Well, have a great variety of objects
+depicted upon them. These rocks, which rise from the left bank of the
+creek opposite Cliff's ranch, bear over a hundred different rock
+pictures, figures of which are seen in the accompanying illustration.
+The rock surface is a layer of black malpais, through which the totem
+signatures have been pecked, showing the light stone beneath, and thus
+rendering them very conspicuous. Among these pictographs many familiar
+forms are recognizable, among them being the crane or blue heron,
+bears' and badgers' paws, turtles, snakes, antelopes, earth symbols,
+spirals, and meanders.
+
+Among these many totems there was an unusual pictograph in the form of
+the figure 8, above which was a bear's paw accompanied by a human
+figure so common in southwestern rock etchings. A square figure with
+interior parallel squares extending to the center is also found, as
+elsewhere, in cliff-dweller pictography.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCV
+
+CLIFF HOUSE, MONTEZUMA WELL]
+
+
+CLIFF HOUSES OF THE RED-ROCKS
+
+After the road from old Camp Verde to Flagstaff passes a deserted
+cabin at Beaver Head, it winds up a steep hill of lava or malpais to
+the top of the Mogollones. If, instead of ascending this hill, one
+turns to the left, taking an obscure road across the river bed,
+which is full of rough lava blocks, and in June, when I traveled its
+course, was without water, he soon finds himself penetrating a rugged
+country with bright-red cliffs on his right (plate XCVIII). Continuing
+through great parks and plains he finally descends to the well-wooded
+valley of Oak creek, an affluent of Rio Verde. Here he finds evidences
+of aboriginal occupancy on all sides--ruins of buildings, fortified
+hilltops, pictographs, and irrigating ditches--testifying that there
+was at one time a considerable population in this valley. The fields
+of the ancient inhabitants have now given place to many excellent
+ranches, one of the most flourishing of which is not far from a lofty
+butte of red rock called the Court-house, which from its great size is
+a conspicuous object for miles around. In many of these canyons there
+are evidences of a former population, but the country is as yet almost
+unexplored; there are many difficult places to pass, yet once near the
+base of the rocks a way can be picked from the mouth of one canyon to
+another. It does not take long to discover that this now uninhabited
+region contains, like that along the Verde and its tributaries, many
+ancient dwellings, for there is scarcely a single canyon leading into
+these red cliffs in which evidences of former human habitations are
+not found in the form of ruins. There is little doubt that these
+unfrequented canyons have many and extensive cliff houses, the
+existence of which has thus far escaped the explorer. The sandstone of
+which they are composed is much eroded into caves with overhanging
+roofs, forming admirable sites for cliff houses as distinguished from
+cavate dwellings like those we have described. They are the only
+described ruins of a type hitherto thought to be unrepresented in the
+valley of the Verde.[23]
+
+In our excursion into the Red-rock country we were obliged to make our
+own wagon road, as no vehicle had ever penetrated the rugged canyons
+visited by us. It was necessary to carry our drinking water with us
+from Oak creek, which fact impeded our progress and limited the time
+available in our reconnoissance. There was, however, in the pool near
+the ruins of Honanki enough water for our horses, and at the time we
+were there a limited amount of grass for fodder was found. I was told
+that later in the season both forage and water are abundant, so that
+these prime necessities being met, there is no reason why successful
+archeological investigations may not be successfully conducted in this
+part of the Verde region.
+
+The limited population of this portion of the country rendered it
+difficult to get laborers at the time I made my reconnoissance, so
+that it would be advisable for one who expects to excavate the ruins
+in this region to take with him workmen from the settled portions of
+the valley.
+
+
+RUINS NEAR SCHUeRMANN'S RANCH
+
+The valley of Oak creek, near Court-house butte, especially in the
+vicinity of Schuermann's ranch, is dotted with fortifications, mounds
+indicative of ruins, and like evidences of aboriginal occupancy. There
+is undoubted proof that the former occupants of this plain constructed
+elaborate irrigating ditches, and that the waters of Oak creek were
+diverted from the stream and conducted over the adjoining valleys.
+There are several fortified hills in this locality. One of the best of
+these defensive works crowned a symmetrical mountain near Schuermann's
+house. The top of this mesa is practically inaccessible from any but
+the southern side, and was found to have a flat surface covered with
+scattered cacti and scrub cedar, among which were walls of houses
+nowhere rising more than two feet. The summit is perhaps 200 feet
+above the valley, and the ground plan of the former habitations
+extends over an area 100 feet in length, practically occupying the
+whole of the summit. Although fragments of pottery are scarce, and
+other evidences of long habitation difficult to find, the house walls
+give every evidence of being extremely ancient, and most of the rooms
+are filled with red soil out of which grow trees of considerable age.
+
+Descending from this ruin-capped mesa, I noticed on the first terrace
+the remains of a roundhouse, or lookout, in the middle of which a
+cedar tree had taken root and was growing vigorously. Although the
+walls of this structure do not rise above the level of the ground,
+there is no doubt that they are the remains of either a lookout or
+circular tower formerly situated at this point.
+
+Many similar ruins are found throughout this vicinity, yet but little
+more is known of them than that they antedate the advent of white men.
+The majority of them were defensive works, built by the house
+dwellers, and their frequency would indicate either considerable
+population or long occupancy. Although many of those on the hilltops
+differ somewhat from the habitations in the valleys, I think there is
+little doubt that both were built by the same people.[24] There are
+likewise many caves in this region, which seem to have been camping
+places, for their walls are covered with soot and their floors strewn
+with charred mescal, evidences, probably, of Apache occupancy. This
+whole section of country was a stronghold of this ferocious tribe
+within the last few decades, which may account for the modern
+appearance of many of the evidences of aboriginal habitation.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVI
+
+RUIN ON THE BRINK OF MONTEZUMA WELL]
+
+There are some good pictographs on the foundation rocks of that great
+pinnacle of red rock, called the Court-house, not far from Schuermann's
+ranch.[25] Some of these are Apache productions, and the neighboring
+caves evidently formed shelters for these nomads, as ash pit and
+half-burnt logs would seem to show. This whole land was a stronghold
+of the Apache up to a recent date, and from it they were dislodged,
+many of the Indians being killed or removed by authority of the
+Government.
+
+From the geological character of the Red-rocks I was led to suspect
+that cavate dwellings were not to be expected. The stone is hard and
+not readily excavated by the rude implements with which the aborigines
+of the region were supplied. But the remarkable erosion shown in this
+rock elsewhere had formed many deep caverns or caves, with
+overreaching roofs, very favorable for the sites of cliff houses. My
+hurried examination confirmed my surmises, for we here found dwellings
+of this kind, so similar to the type best illustrated in Mancos canyon
+of southern Colorado. There were several smoke-blackened caves without
+walls of masonry, but with floors strewn with charred wood, showing
+Apache occupancy. No cavate dwellings were found in the section of the
+Red-rocks visited by our party.
+
+The two largest of the Red-rock cliff houses to which I shall refer
+were named Honanki or Bear-house and Palatki or Red-house. The former
+of these, as I learned from the names scribbled on its walls, had
+previously been visited by white men, but so far as I know it has
+never been mentioned in archeological literature. My attention was
+called to it by Mr Schuermann, at whose hospitable ranch I outfitted
+for my reconnoissance into the Red-rock country. The smaller ruin,
+Palatki, we discovered by chance during our visit, and while it is
+possible that some vaquero in search of a wild steer may have visited
+the neighborhood before us, there is every reason to believe that the
+ruin had escaped even the notice of these persons, and, like Honanki,
+was unknown to the archeologist.
+
+The two ruins, Honanki and Palatki, are not the only ones in the lone
+canyon where we encamped. Following the canyon a short distance from
+its entrance, there was found to open into it from the left a
+tributary, or so-called box canyon, the walls of which are very
+precipitous. Perched on ledges of the cliffs there are several rows of
+fortifications or walls of masonry extending for many yards. It was
+impossible for us to enter these works, even after we had clambered up
+the side of the precipice to their level, so inaccessible were they to
+our approach. These "forts" were probably for refuge, but they are ill
+adapted as points of observation on account of the configuration of
+the canyon. Their masonry, as examined at a distance with a field
+glass, resembles that of Palatki and Honanki.
+
+I was impressed by the close resemblance between the large cliff
+houses of the Red-rocks, with their overhanging roof of rock, and
+those of the San Juan and its tributaries in northern New Mexico.
+While it is recognized that cliff houses have been reported from Verde
+valley, I find them nowhere described, and our lack of information
+about them, so far as they are concerned, may have justified
+Nordenskioeld's belief that "the basin of the Colorado actually
+contains almost all the cliff dwellings of the United States." As the
+Gila flows into the Colorado near its mouth, the Red-rock ruins may in
+a sense be included in the Colorado basin, but there are many and
+beautiful cliff houses higher up near the sources of the Gila and its
+tributary, the Salt. In calling attention to the characteristic cliff
+dwellings of the Red-rocks I am making known a new region of ruins
+closely related to those of Canyon de Tsegi, or Chelly, the San Juan
+and its tributaries.
+
+Although the cliff houses of Verde valley had been known for many
+years, and the ruins here described are of the same general character,
+anyone who examines Casa Montezuma, on Beaver creek, and compares it
+with Honanki, will note differences of an adaptive nature. The one
+feature common to Honanki and the "Cliff Palace" of Mancos canyon is
+the great overhanging roof of the cavern, which, in that form, we miss
+in Casa Montezuma (figure 246).[26]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 246--Casa Montezuma on Beaver creek]
+
+We made two camps in the Red-rock country, one at the mouth of a wild
+canyon near an older camp where a well had been dug and the cellar of
+an American house was visible. This camp was fully six miles from
+Schuermann's ranch and was surrounded by some of the wildest scenery
+that I had ever witnessed. The accompanying view (plate XCVIII) was
+taken from a small elevation near by, and gives a faint idea of the
+magnificent mountains by which we were surrounded. The colors of the
+rocks are variegated, so that the gorgeous cliffs appear to be banded,
+rising from 800 to 1,000 feet sheer on all sides. These rocks had
+weathered into fantastic shapes suggestive of cathedrals, Greek
+temples, and sharp steeples of churches extending like giant needles
+into the sky. The scenery compares very favorably with that of the
+Garden of the Gods, and is much more extended. This place, I have no
+doubt, will sooner or later become popular with the sightseer, and I
+regard the discovery of these cliffs one of the most interesting of my
+summer's field work.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVII
+
+PICTOGRAPHS NEAR CLIFF RANCH, VERDE VALLEY]
+
+On the sides of these inaccessible cliffs we noticed several cliff
+houses, but so high were they perched above us that they were almost
+invisible. To reach them at their dizzy altitude was impossible, but
+we were able to enter some caves a few hundred feet above our camp,
+finding in them nothing but charred mescal and other evidences of
+Apache camps. Their walls and entrances are blackened with smoke, but
+no sign of masonry was detected.
+
+We moved our camp westward from this canyon (which, from a great cliff
+resembling the Parthenon, I called Temple canyon), following the base
+of the precipitous mountains to a second canyon, equally beautiful but
+not so grand, and built our fire in a small grove of scrub oak and
+cottonwood. In this lonely place Lloyd had lived over a winter,
+watching his stock, and had dug a well and erected a corral. We
+adopted his name for this camp and called it Lloyd canyon. There was
+no water in the well, but a few rods beyond it there was a pool, from
+which we watered our horses. On the first evening at this camp we
+sighted a bear, which gave the name Honanki, "Bear-house," to the
+adjacent ruined dwellings.
+
+The enormous precipice of red rock west of our camp at Lloyd's corral
+hid Honanki from view at first, but we soon found a trail leading
+directly to it, and during our short stay in this neighborhood we
+remained camped near the cottonwoods at the entrance to the canyon,
+not far from the abandoned corral. Our studies of Honanki led to the
+discovery of Palatki (figure 247), which we investigated on our return
+to Temple canyon. I will, therefore, begin my description of the
+Red-rock cliff houses with those last discovered, which, up to the
+visit which I made, had never been studied by archeologists.
+
+
+PALATKI
+
+There are two neighboring ruins which I shall include in my
+consideration of Palatki, and these for convenience may be known as
+Ruin I and Ruin II, the former situated a little eastward from the
+latter. They are but a short distance apart, and are in the same box
+canyon. Ruin I (plate XCIX) is the better preserved, and is a fine
+type of the compact form of cliff dwellings in the Red-rock country.
+
+This ruin is perched on the top of a talus which has fallen from the
+cliff above, and is visible for some distance above the trees, as one
+penetrates the canyon. It is built to the side of a perpendicular
+wall of rock which, high above its tallest walls, arches over it,
+sheltering the walls from rain or eroding influences. From the dry
+character of the earth on the floors I suspect that for years not a
+drop of water has penetrated the inclosures, although they are now
+roofless.
+
+A highly characteristic feature of Ruin I is the repetition of rounded
+or bow-shape front walls, occurring several times in their length, and
+arranged in such a way as to correspond roughly to the inclosures
+behind them. By this arrangement the size of the rooms was increased
+and possibly additional solidity given to the wall itself. This
+departure from a straight wall implies a degree of architectural
+skill, which, while not peculiar to the cliff dwellings of the
+Red-rocks, is rarely found in southern cliff houses. The total length
+of the front wall of the ruin, including the part which has fallen, is
+approximately 120 feet, and the altitude of the highest wall is not
+far from 30 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 247--Ground plan of Palatki (Ruins I and II)]
+
+From the arrangement of openings in the front wall at the highest part
+there is good evidence of the former existence of two stories. At
+several points the foundation of the wall is laid on massive bowlders,
+which contribute to the height of the wall itself. The masonry is made
+up of irregular or roughly squared blocks of red stone laid in red
+clay, both evidently gathered in the immediate neighborhood of the
+ruin. The building stones vary in size, but are as a rule flat, and
+show well directed fractures as if dressed by hammering. In several
+places there still remains a superficial plastering, which almost
+conceals the masonry. The blocks of stone in the lower courses are
+generally more massive than those higher up; this feature, however,
+whether considered as occurring here or in the cliff houses of Mesa
+Verde, as pointed out by Nordenskioeld, seems to me not to indicate
+different builders, but is due simply to convenience. There appears to
+be no regularity in the courses of component blocks of stone, and when
+necessity compelled, as in the courses laid on bowlders, which serve
+as a foundation, thin wedges of stone, or spalls, were inserted in the
+crevices. The walls are vertical, but the corners are sometimes far
+from perpendicular.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVIII
+
+THE RED ROCKS; TEMPLE CANYON]
+
+The interior of the ruin is divided into a number of inclosures by
+partitions at right angles to the front wall, fastening it to the face
+of the cliff. This I have lettered, beginning at the extreme right
+inclosure with _A_. The inclosure has bounding walls, built on a
+bowlder somewhat more than six feet high. It has no external
+passageway, and probably the entrance was from the roof. This
+inclosure communicates by a doorway directly with the adjoining
+chamber, _B_. The corner of this room, or the angle made by the
+lateral with the front walls, is rounded, a constant feature in
+well-built cliff houses. No windows exist, and the upper edge of both
+front and lateral walls is but slightly broken.
+
+The front wall of inclosure _B_ bulges into bow-shape form, and was
+evidently at least two stories high. This wall is a finely laid
+section of masonry, composed of large, rough stones in the lower
+courses, upon which smaller, roughly hewn stones are built. It is
+probable, from the large amount of debris in the neighborhood, that
+formerly there were rows of single-story rooms in front of what are
+now the standing walls, but the character of their architecture is
+difficult to determine with certainty. Their foundations, although
+partially covered, are not wholly concealed.
+
+The front wall of inclosure _B_ is pierced by three openings, the
+largest of which is a square passageway into the adjoining room, and
+is situated in the middle of the curved wall. A wooden lintel, which
+had been well hewn with stone implements, still remains in place above
+this passageway, and under it the visitor passes through a low opening
+which has the appearance of having been once a doorway. Above this
+entrance, on each side, in the wall, is a square hole, which
+originally may have been the points of support of floor beams.
+Formerly, likewise, there was a large square opening above the middle
+passageway, but this has been closed with masonry, leaving in place
+the wooden beam which once supported the wall above. The upper edge of
+the front wall of inclosure _B_ is level, and is but little broken
+except in two places, where there are notches, one above each of the
+square holes already mentioned. It is probable that these depressions
+were intended for the ends of the beams which once supported a
+combined roof and floor.
+
+On the perpendicular wall which forms the rear of inclosure _B_, many
+feet above the top of the standing front walls, there are several
+pictographs of Apache origin. The height of these above the level of
+the former roof would appear to indicate the existence of a third
+story, for the hands which drew them must have been at least 15 feet
+above the present top of the standing wall.
+
+The front of _C_ is curved like that of inclosure _B_, and is much
+broken near the foundations, where there is a passageway. There is a
+small hole on each side of a middle line, as in _B_, situated at about
+the same level as the floor, indicating the former position of a beam.
+Within the ruin there is a well-made partition separating inclosures
+_B_ and _C_.
+
+The size of room _D_ is much less than that of _B_ or _C_, but, with
+the exception of a section at the left, the front wall has fallen. The
+part which remains upright, however, stands like a pinnacle,
+unconnected with the face of the cliff or with the second-story wall
+of inclosure _C_. It is about 20 feet in height, and possibly its
+altitude appears greater than it really is from the fact that its
+foundations rest upon a bowlder nearly six feet high (plate CX).
+
+The foundations of rooms _E_ and _F_ (plate C) are built on a lower
+level than those of _B_ and _C_ or _D_, and their front walls, which
+are really low, are helped out by similar bowlders, which serve as
+foundations. The indications are that both these inclosures were
+originally one story in height, forming a wing to the central section
+of the ruin, which had an additional tier of rooms. There is an
+entrance to _F_ at the extreme left, and the whole room was lower than
+the floor of the lower stories of _B_, _C_, and _D_.
+
+The most conspicuous pictograph on the cliff above Ruin I of Palatki,
+is a circular white figure, seen in the accompanying illustration.
+This pictograph is situated directly above the first room on the
+right, _A_, and was apparently made with chalk, so elevated that at
+present it is far above the reach of a person standing on any of the
+walls. From its general character I am led to believe that it was made
+by the Apache and not by the builders of the pueblo.
+
+There were no names of white visitors anywhere on the walls of
+Palatki, which, so far as it goes, affords substantial support of my
+belief that we were the first white men to visit this ruin. While it
+can not be positively asserted that we were the original discoverers
+of this interesting building, there is no doubt that I was the first
+to describe it and to call attention to its highly characteristic
+architectural plan.
+
+The walls of Palatki are not so massive as those of the neighboring
+Honanki, and the number of rooms in both ruins which form Palatki is
+much smaller. Each of these components probably housed not more than a
+few families, while several phratries could readily be accommodated in
+Honanki.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIX
+
+PALATKI (RUIN I)]
+
+The second Palatki ruin is well preserved, and as a rule the rooms,
+especially those in front, have suffered more from vandalism and from
+the elements than have those of Ruin I. The arrangement of the rooms
+is somewhat different from that of the more exposed eastern ruin, to
+which it undoubtedly formerly belonged.
+
+Ruin II lies in a deep recess or cave, the roof of which forms a
+perfect arch above the walls. It is situated a few hundred feet to the
+west, and is easily approached by following the fallen debris at the
+foot of a perpendicular cliff. The front walls have all fallen,
+exposing the rear wall of what was formerly a row of rooms, as shown
+in the accompanying illustration (plate CI). There are evidences that
+this row of rooms was but a single story in height, while those behind
+it have indications of three stories. Ruin II is more hidden by the
+trees and by its obscure position in a cavern than the former, but the
+masonry in both is of the same general character.
+
+On approaching Ruin II from Ruin I there is first observed a well-made
+though rough wall, as a rule intact, along which the line of roof and
+flooring can readily be traced (plate CI). In front of this upright
+wall are fragments of other walls, some standing in unconnected
+sections, others fallen, their fragments extending down the sides of
+the talus among the bushes. It was observed that this wall is broken
+by an entrance which passes into a chamber, which may be called _A_,
+and two square holes are visible, one on each side, above it. These
+holes were formerly filled by two logs, which once supported the floor
+of a second chamber, the line of which still remains on the upright
+wall. The small square orifice directly above the entrance is a
+peephole.
+
+In examining the character of the wall it will be noticed that its
+masonry is in places rough cast, and that there was little attempt at
+regularity in the courses of the component stones, which are neither
+dressed nor aligned, although the wall is practically vertical.
+
+At one point, in full view of the observer, a log is apparently
+inserted in the wall, and if the surrounding masonry be examined it
+will be found that an opening below it had been filled in after the
+wall was erected. It is evident, from its position relatively to the
+line indicating the roof, that this opening was originally a
+passageway from one room to another. Passing back of the standing wall
+an inclosure (room _A_) is entered, one side of which is the rock of
+the cliff, while the other three bounding walls are built of masonry,
+20 feet high. This inclosure was formerly divided into an upper and a
+lower room by a partition, which served as the roof of the lower and
+the floor of the upper chambers. Two beams stretched across this
+inclosure about six feet above the debris of the present floor, and
+the openings in the walls, where these beams formerly rested, are
+readily observed. In the same way the beam-holes of the upper story
+may also be easily seen on the top of the wall. Between the rear wall
+of this inclosure and the perpendicular cliff there was a recess which
+appears to have been a dark chamber, probably designed for use as a
+storage room or granary. The configuration of the cliff, which forms
+the major part of the inclosing wall of this chamber, imparts to it an
+irregular or roughly triangular form.
+
+The entire central portion of the ruin is very much broken down, and
+the floor is strewn to a considerable depth with the debris of fallen
+walls. On both sides there are nicely aligned, smoothly finished
+walls, with traces of beams on the level of former floors. Some of
+these bounding walls are curved; others are straight, and in places
+they rise 20 feet. Marks of fire are visible everywhere; most of the
+beams have been wrenched from their places, as a result of which the
+walls have been much mutilated, badly cracked, or thrown down.
+
+There are no pictographs near this ruin, and no signs of former visits
+by white men.
+
+Midway between Honanki and the second Palatki ruin a small ancient
+house of the same character as the latter was discovered. This ruin is
+very much exposed, and therefore the walls are considerably worn, but
+six well-marked inclosures, indicative of former rooms, were readily
+made out. No overarching rock shielded this ruin from the elements,
+and rubble from fallen walls covers the talus upon which it stands.
+The adobe mortar between the stones is much worn, and no fragment of
+plastering is traceable within or without. This evidence of the great
+weathering of the walls of the ruin is not considered indicative of
+greater age than the better preserved ruins in the neighborhood, but
+rather of exposure to the action of the elements. Not only are the
+walls in a very poor condition, but also the floors show, from the
+absence of dry soil upon them, that the whole ruin has suffered
+greatly from the same denudation. There are no fragments of pottery
+about it, and small objects indicating former habitation are also
+wanting. A cedar had taken root where the floor once was, and its
+present great size shows considerable age. If any pictographs formerly
+existed in the adjacent cliff they have disappeared. There is likewise
+no evidence that the Apache had ever sought it for shelter, or if they
+had, their occupancy occurred so long ago that time has effaced all
+evidence of their presence.
+
+
+HONANKI
+
+The largest ruin visited in the Red-rock country was called, following
+Hopi etymology, Honanki; but the nomenclature was adopted not because
+it was so called by the Hopi, but following the rule elsewhere
+suggested.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. C
+
+PALATKI (RUIN I)]
+
+This ruin lies under a lofty buttress of rock westward from Lloyd's
+canyon, which presented the only available camping place in its
+neighborhood. At the time of my visit there was but scanty water in
+the canyon and that not potable except for stock. We carried with us
+all the water we used, and when this was exhausted were obliged to
+retrace our steps to Oak creek. There are groves of trees in the
+canyon and evidences that at some seasons there is an abundant water
+supply. A corral had been made and a well dug near its mouth, but with
+these exceptions there were no evidences of previous occupancy by
+white men. We had hardly pitched our camp before tracks of large game
+were noticed, and before we left we sighted a bear which had come down
+to the water to drink, but which beat a hasty retreat at our approach.
+As previously stated, the knowledge of this ruin was communicated to
+me by Mr Schuermann.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 248--Ground plan of Honanki]
+
+The Honanki ruin (figure 248) extends along the base of the cliff for
+a considerable distance, and may for convenience of description be
+divided into two sections, which, although generally similar, differ
+somewhat in structural features. The former is lineal in its
+arrangement, and consists of a fringe of houses extending along the
+base of the cliff at a somewhat lower level than the other. The walls
+of this section were for the greater part broken, and at no place
+could anything more than the foundation of the front wall be detected,
+although fragments of masonry strewed the sides of the declivity near
+its base. The house walls which remain are well-built parallel spurs
+constructed at right angles to the cliff, which served as the rear of
+all the chambers. At the extreme right end of this row of rooms,
+situated deep in a large cavern with overhanging roof, portions of a
+rear wall of masonry are well preserved, and the lateral walls of one
+or two chambers in this portion of the ruin are still intact.
+Straggling along from that point, following the contour of the base of
+the cliff under which it lies, there extends a long row of rooms, all
+destitute of a front wall.
+
+The first division (plate CII), beginning with the most easterly of
+the series, is quite hidden at one end in a deep cavern. At this point
+the builders, in order to obtain a good rear wall to their rooms,
+constructed a line of masonry parallel with the face of the cliff. At
+right angles to this construction, at the eastern extremity, there are
+remnants of a lateral wall, but the remainder had tumbled to the
+ground. The standing wall of _z_ is not continuous with that of the
+next room, _y_, and apparently was simply the rear of a large room
+with the remains of a lateral wall at right angles to it. The other
+walls of this chamber had tumbled into a deep gorge, overgrown with
+bushes which conceal the fragments. This building is set back deeply
+in the cave, and is isolated from the remaining parts of the ruin,
+although at the level which may have been its roof there runs a kind
+of gallery formed by a ledge of rock, plastered with adobe, which
+formerly connected the roof with the rest of the pueblo. This ledge
+was a means of intercommunication, and a continuation of the same
+ledge, in rooms _s_, _t_, and _u_, supported the rafters of these
+chambers. At _u_ there are evidences of two stories or two tiers of
+rooms, but those in front have fallen to the ground.
+
+The standing wall at _u_ is about five feet high, connected with the
+face of the cliff by masonry. The space between it and the cliff was
+not large enough for a habitable chamber, and was used probably as a
+storage place. In front of the standing wall of room _u_ there was
+another chamber, the walls of which now strew the talus of the cliff.
+
+The highest and best preserved room of the second series of chambers
+at Honanki is that designated _p_, at a point where the ruin reached
+an elevation of 20 feet. Here we have good evidence of rooms of two
+stories, as indicated by the points of insertion of the beams of a
+floor, at the usual levels above the ground. In fact, it is probable
+that the whole section of the ruin was two stories high throughout,
+the front walls having fallen along the entire length. From the last
+room on the left to the eastern extremity of the line of houses which
+leads to the main ruin of Honanki, no ground plans were detected at
+the base of the cliffs, but fallen rocks and scattered debris are
+strewn over the whole interval.
+
+The eastern part of the main ruin of Honanki, however, lies but a
+short distance west of that described, and consists of many similar
+chambers, arranged side by side. These are lettered in the diagram _h_
+to _u_, beginning with _h_, which is irregularly circular in form, and
+ends with a high wall, the first to be seen as one approaches the ruin
+from Lloyd canyon. This range of houses is situated on a lower
+foundation and at a lower level than that of the main quarter of
+Honanki, and a trail runs along so close to the rooms that the whole
+series is easily visited without much climbing. No woodwork remains in
+any of these rooms, and the masonry is badly broken in places either
+by natural agencies or through vandalism.
+
+Beginning with _h_, the round room, which adjoins the main quarter of
+Honanki, we find much in its shape to remind us of a kiva. The walls
+are in part built on foundations of large bowlders, one of which
+formed the greater part of the front wall. This circular room was
+found to be full of fallen debris, and could not be examined without
+considerable excavation. If it were a kiva, which I very much doubt,
+it is an exception among the Verde valley ruins, where no true kiva
+has yet been detected.[27]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CI
+
+FRONT WALL OF PALATKI (RUIN II)]
+
+Following _h_ there is an inclosure which originally may have been a
+habitable room, as indicated by the well-constructed front wall, but
+it is so filled with large stones that it is difficult to examine its
+interior. On one side the wall, which is at right angles to the face
+of the cliff, is 10 feet high, and the front wall follows the surface
+of a huge bowlder which serves as its foundation.
+
+Room _i_ is clearly defined, and is in part inclosed by a large rock,
+on top of which there still remains a fragment of a portion of the
+front wall. A spur of masonry connects this bowlder with the face of
+the cliff, indicating all that remains of the former division between
+rooms _i_ and _j_. An offshoot from this bowlder, in the form of a
+wall 10 feet high, formerly inclosed one side of a room. In the rear
+of chamber _j_ there are found two receptacles or spaces left between
+the rear wall and the face of the cliff, while the remaining wall,
+which is 10 feet high, is a good specimen of pueblo masonry.
+
+The two side walls of room _k_ are well preserved, but the chamber
+resembles the others of the series in the absence of a front wall. In
+this room, however, there remains what may have been the fragment of a
+rear wall parallel with the face of the cliff. This room has also a
+small cist of masonry in one corner, which calls to mind certain
+sealed cavities in the cavate dwellings.
+
+The two side walls of _m_ and _n_ are respectively eight and ten feet
+high. There is nothing exceptional in the standing walls of room _o_,
+one of which, five feet in altitude, still remains erect. Room _p_ has
+a remnant of a rear wall plastered to the face of the cliff.
+
+Room _r_ (plate CIII) is a finely preserved chamber, with lateral
+walls 20 feet high, of well-constructed masonry, that in the rear,
+through which there is an opening leading into a dark chamber,
+occupying the space between it and the cliff. It is braced by
+connecting walls at right angles to the face of the solid rock.
+
+At _s_, the face of the cliff forms a rear wall of the room, and one
+of the side walls is fully 20 feet high. The points of insertion of
+the flooring are well shown, about 10 feet from the ground, proving
+that the ruin at this point was at least two stories high.
+
+Two walled inclosures, one within the other, characterize room _u_. On
+the cliff above it there is a series of simple pictographs, consisting
+of short parallel lines pecked into the rock, and are probably of
+Apache origin. This room closes the second series, along the whole
+length of which, in front of the lateral walls which mark different
+chambers, there are, at intervals, piles of debris, which enabled an
+approximate determination of the situation of the former front wall,
+fragments of the foundations of which are traceable in situ in several
+places.
+
+The hand of man and the erosion of the elements have dealt harshly
+with this portion of Honanki, for not a fragment of timber now remains
+in its walls. This destruction, so far as human agency is concerned,
+could not have been due to white men, but probably to the Apache, or
+possibly to the cliff villagers themselves at the time of or shortly
+after the abandonment of the settlement.
+
+From the second section of Honanki we pass to the third and
+best-preserved portion of the ruins (figure 249), indicated in the
+diagram from _a_ to _g_. To this section I have referred as the "main
+ruin," for it was evidently the most populous quarter of the ancient
+cliff dwelling. It is better preserved than the remainder of Honanki,
+and is the only part in which all four walls of the chambers still
+remain erect. Built at a higher level than the series of rooms already
+considered, it must have towered above them, and possibly served as a
+place of retreat when danger beset the more exposed quarters of the
+village.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 249--The main ruin of Honanki]
+
+Approaching the main ruin of Honanki (plate CIV) from the east, or
+the parts already described, one passes between the buttress on which
+the front wall of the rounded room _h_ is built and a fragment of
+masonry on the left, by a natural gateway through which the trail is
+very steep. On the right there towers above the visitor a
+well-preserved wall of masonry, the front of room _a_, and he soon
+passes abreast of the main portion of the ruin of Honanki. This
+section is built in a huge cavern, the overhanging roof of which, is
+formed by natural rock, arching far above the tops of the highest
+walls of the pueblo and suggesting the surroundings of the "Cliff
+Palace" of Mesa Verde, so well described by the late Baron G.
+Nordenskioeld in his valuable monograph on the ruins of that section of
+southern Colorado. The main ruin of Honanki is one of the largest and
+best preserved architectural monuments of the former people of Verde
+valley that has yet been described. Although somewhat resembling its
+rival, the well-known "Casa Montezuma" of Beaver creek, its
+architecture is dissimilar on account of the difference in the form of
+the cavern in which it is built and the geological character of the
+surrounding cliffs. Other Verde ruins may have accommodated more
+people, when inhabited, but none of its type south of Canyon de Chelly
+have yet been described which excel it in size and condition of
+preservation. I soon found that our party were not the first whites
+who had seen this lonely village, as the names scribbled on its walls
+attested; but so far as I know it had not previously been visited by
+archeologists.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CII
+
+HONANKI (RUIN II)]
+
+In the main portion of Honanki we found that the two ends of the
+crescentic row of united rooms which compose it are built on rocky
+elevations, with foundations considerably higher than those of the
+rooms in the middle portion of the ruins. The line of the front wall
+is, therefore, not exactly crescentic, but irregularly curved (figure
+249), conforming to the rear of the cavern in which the houses are
+situated. About midway in the curve of the front walls two walls
+indicative of former rooms extend at an angle of about 25 deg. to the main
+front wall. All the component rooms of the main part of Honanki can be
+entered, some by external passageways, others by doorways
+communicating with adjacent chambers. None of the inclosures have
+roofs or upper floors, although indications of the former existence of
+both these structural features may readily be seen in several places.
+Although wooden beams are invariably wanting, fragments of these still
+project from the walls, almost always showing on their free ends,
+inside the rooms, the effect of fire. I succeeded in adding to the
+collection a portion of one of these beams, the extremity of which had
+been battered off, evidently with a stone implement. In the alkaline
+dust which covered the floor several similar specimens were seen.
+
+The stones which form the masonry of the wall (figure 250) were not,
+as a rule, dressed or squared before they were laid with adobe mortar,
+but were generally set in place in the rough condition in which they
+may still be obtained anywhere under the cliff.
+
+All the mortar used was of adobe or the tenacious clay which serves so
+many purposes among the Pueblos. The walls of the rooms were plastered
+with a thick layer of the same material. The rear wall of each room is
+the natural rock of the cliff, which rises vertically and has a very
+smooth surface. The great natural archway which covers the whole
+pueblo protects it from wind and rain, and as a consequence, save on
+the front face, there are few signs of natural erosion. The hand of
+man, however, has dealt rudely with this venerable building, and many
+of the walls, especially of rooms which formerly stood before the
+central portion, lie prone upon the earth; but so securely were the
+component stones held together by the adobe that even after their fall
+sections of masonry still remain intact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 250--Structure of wall of Honanki]
+
+There are seven walled inclosures in the main part of Honanki, and as
+each of these was formerly at least two stories high there is
+substantial evidence of the former existence of fourteen rooms in this
+part of the ruin. There can be little doubt that there were other
+rooms along the front of the central portion, and the fallen walls
+show them to have been of large size. It would likewise appear that
+the middle part was higher than the two wings, which would increase
+the number of chambers, so that with these additions it may safely be
+said that this part of Honanki alone contained not far from twenty
+rooms.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIII
+
+WALLS OF HONANKI]
+
+The recess in the cliff in which the ruin is situated is lower in the
+middle than at either side, where there are projecting ledges of rock
+which were utilized by the builders in the construction of the
+foundations, the line of the front wall following the inequalities of
+the ground. It thus results that rooms _g_, _a_, _b_, and a part of
+_c_, rise from a foundation about breast high, or a little higher than
+the base of rooms _d_, _e_, and _f_.
+
+The front wall of _a_ has for its foundation a spur or ledge of rock,
+which is continued under _b_ and a part of _c_. The corner or angle of
+this wall, facing the round chamber, is curved in the form of a tower,
+a considerable section of its masonry being intact. Near the
+foundation and following the inequalities of the rock surface the
+beginning of a wall at right angles to the face of the ruin at this
+point is seen. A small embrasure, high above the base of the front
+wall, on the side by which one approaches the ruin from the east, and
+two smaller openings on the same level, looking out over the valley,
+suggest a floor and lookouts. The large square orifice in the middle
+of the face of the wall has a wooden lintel, still in place; the
+opening is large enough for use as a door or passageway. The upper
+edge of the front wall is somewhat irregular, but a notch in it above
+the square opening is conspicuous.
+
+The rear wall of room _a_ was the face of the cliff, formed of solid
+rock without masonry and very much blackened by smoke from former
+fires. As, however, there is evidence that since its destruction or
+abandonment by its builders this ruin has been occupied as a camping
+place by the Apache, it is doubtful to which race we should ascribe
+this discoloration of the walls by soot.
+
+On the ground floor there is a passageway into chamber _b_, which is
+considerably enlarged, although the position of the lintel is clearly
+indicated by notches in the wall. The beam which was formed there had
+been torn from its place and undoubtedly long ago used for firewood by
+nomadic visitors. The open passageway, measured externally, is about
+15 feet above the foundation of the wall, through which it is broken,
+and about 8 feet below the upper edge of the wall.
+
+Room _b_ is an irregular, square chamber, two stories high,
+communicating with _a_ and _c_ by passages which are enlarged by
+breakage in the walls. A small hole in the front wall, about 6 feet
+from the floor, opens externally to the air. The walls are, in
+general, about 2 feet thick, and are composed of flat red stones laid
+in clay of the same color. The cliff forms the rear wall of the
+chamber. The clay at certain places in the walls, especially near the
+insertions of the beams and about the window openings, appears to have
+been mixed with a black pitch, which serves to harden the mixture.
+
+Room _c_ is the first of a series of chambers, with external
+passageways, but its walls are very much broken down, and the openings
+thereby enlarged. The front wall is almost straight and in one place
+stands 30 feet, the maximum height of the standing wall of the ruins.
+In one corner a considerable quantity of ashes and many evidences of
+fire, some of which may be ascribed to Apache occupants, was detected.
+A wooden beam, marking the line of the floor of a second story, was
+seen projecting from the front wall, and there are other evidences of
+a floor at this level. Large beams apparently extended from the front
+wall to the rear of the chamber, where they rested on a ledge in the
+cliff, and over these smaller sticks were laid side by side and at
+right angles to the beams. These in turn supported either flat stones
+or a layer of mud or clay. The method of construction of one of these
+roofs is typical of a Tusayan kiva, where ancient architectural forms
+are adhered to and best preserved.
+
+The entrance to room _d_ is very much enlarged by the disintegration
+of the wall, and apparently there was at this point a difference in
+level of the front wall, for there is evidence of rooms in advance of
+those connected with the chambers described, as shown by a line of
+masonry, still standing, parallel to the front face of inclosures _c_
+and _d_.
+
+Room _e_ communicates by a doorway with the chamber marked _f_, and
+there is a small window in the same partition. This room had a raised
+banquette on the side toward the cliff, recalling an arrangement of
+the floor similar to that in the cavate dwellings opposite Squaw
+mountain which I have described. This platform is raised about three
+feet above the remainder of the floor of _f_, and, like it, is strewn
+with large slabs of stone, which have fallen from the overhanging
+roof. In the main floor, at one corner, near the platform, there is a
+rectangular box-like structure made of thin slabs of stone set on
+edge, suggesting the grinding bins of the Pueblos. Room _f_
+communicates with _g_ by a passageway which has a stone lintel. The
+holes in the walls, in which beams were once inserted, are seen in
+several places at different levels above the floor. The ends of
+several beams, one extremity of which is invariably charred, were
+found set in the masonry, and others were dug from the debris in the
+floor.
+
+As a result of the curve in the front wall of the ruin at that point,
+the shape of room _f_ is roughly quadrate, with banquettes on two
+sides. There are six large beam holes in the walls, and the position
+of the first floor is well shown on the face of the partition,
+separating _f_ from _g_. The passageway from one of these rooms to the
+other is slightly arched.
+
+Room _g_ is elongated, without an external entrance, and communicates
+with _f_ by a small opening, through which it is very difficult to
+crawl. Its longest dimension is almost at right angles to the front
+face of the remaining rooms, and it is raised above them by its
+foundation on an elevated rock like that of _a_, _b_, and _c_. There
+is a small, square, external opening which may have served as the
+position of a former beam or log. The upper level of the front wall is
+more or less broken down in places, and formerly may have been much
+higher. Beyond _g_ a spur of masonry is built at right angles to the
+cliff, inclosing a rectangular chamber at the end of the ruin which
+could not be entered. Possibly in former times it was accessible by
+means of a ladder from the roof, whence communication with other
+portions of the structure was also had.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIV
+
+APPROACH TO MAIN PART OF HONANKI]
+
+A short distance beyond the westernmost rooms of Honanki, almost
+covered with bushes and adjoining the base of the cliff, there is a
+large ash heap in which are many fragments of pottery and the bones of
+various animals. It is probable that excavation in this quarter would
+reveal many interesting objects. In the cliffs above this ash heap,
+far beyond reach, there is a walled niche which has never been
+disturbed. This structure is similar to those near the cavate
+dwellings, and when opened will probably be found to contain buried
+mortuary objects of interesting character. I did not disturb this
+inclosure, inasmuch as I had no ladders or ropes with which to
+approach it.
+
+It is very difficult to properly estimate, from the number of rooms in
+a cliff house, the former population, and as a general thing the
+tendency is rather to overstate than to fall short of the true total.
+In a pueblo like Hano, on the first or east mesa of Tusayan, for
+instance, there are many uninhabited rooms, and others serve as
+storage chambers, while in places the pueblo has so far fallen into
+ruin as to be uninhabitable. If a pueblo is very much concentrated the
+population varies at different seasons of the year. In summer it is
+sparsely inhabited; in winter it is rather densely populated. While
+Palatki and Honanki together had rooms sufficient to house 500 people,
+I doubt whether their aggregate population, ever exceeded 200. This
+estimate, of course, is based on the supposition that these villages
+were contemporaneously inhabited.
+
+The evidences all point to a belief, however, that they were both
+permanent dwelling places and not temporary resorts at certain seasons
+of the year.
+
+The pictographs on the face of the cliff above Honanki are for the
+greater part due to the former Apache occupants of the rooms, and are
+situated high above the tops of the walls of the ruin. They are, as a
+rule, drawn with white chalk, which shows very clearly on the red
+rock, and are particularly numerous above room _g_. The figure of a
+circle, with lines crossing one another diametrically and continued as
+rays beyond the periphery, possibly represent the sun. Many spiral
+figures, almost constant pictographs in cliff ruins, are found in
+several places. Another strange design, resembling some kind of
+insect, is very conspicuous.
+
+A circle painted green and inclosed in a border of yellow is
+undoubtedly of Apache origin. There is at one point a row of small
+pits, arranged in line, suggesting a score or enumeration of some
+kind, and a series of short parallel lines of similar import was found
+not far away. This latter method of recording accounts is commonly
+used at the present time in Tusayan, both in houses and on cliffs; and
+one of the best of these, said to enumerate the number of Apache
+killed by the Hopi in a raid many years ago, may be seen above the
+trail by which the visitor enters the pueblo of Hano on the East Mesa.
+The names of several persons scratched on the face of the cliff
+indicate that Americans had visited Honanki before me.
+
+The majority of the paleoglyphs at both Palatki and Honanki are of
+Apache origin, and are of comparatively modern date, as would
+naturally be expected. In some instances their colors are as fresh as
+if made a few years ago, and there is no doubt that they were drawn
+after the building was deserted by its original occupants. The
+positions of the pictographs on the cliffs imply that they were drawn
+before the roofs and flooring had been destroyed, thus showing how
+lately the ruin preserved its ancient form. In their sheltered
+position there seems to be no reason why the ancient pictographs
+should not have been preserved, and the fact that so few of the
+figures pecked in the cliff now remain is therefore instructive.
+
+One of the first tendencies of man in visiting a ruin is to inscribe
+his name on its walls or on neighboring cliffs. This is shared by both
+Indians and whites, and the former generally makes his totem on the
+rock surface, or adds that of his gods, the sun, rain-cloud, or
+katcinas. Inscriptions recording events are less common, as they are
+more difficult to indicate with exactitude in this system of
+pictography. The majority of ancient pictographs in the Red-rock
+country, like those I have considered in other parts of Verde valley,
+are identical with picture writings now made in Tusayan, and are
+recognized and interpreted without hesitation by the Hopi Indians. In
+their legends, in which the migrations of their ancestors are
+recounted, the traditionists often mention the fact that their
+ancestors left their totem signatures at certain points in their
+wanderings. The Patki people say that you will find on the rocks of
+Palatkwabi, the "Red Land of the South" from which they came, totems
+of the rain-cloud, sun, crane, parrot, etc. If we find these markings
+in the direction which they are thus definitely declared to exist, and
+the Hopi say similar pictures were made by their ancestors, there
+seems no reason to question such circumstantial evidence that some of
+the Hopi clans once came from this region.[28]
+
+One of the most interesting of the pictographs pecked in the rock is a
+figure which, variously modified, is a common decoration on
+cliff-dweller pottery from the Verde valley region to the ruins of the
+San Juan and its tributaries. This figure has the form of two
+concentric spirals, the ends of which do not join. As this design
+assumes many modifications, it may be well to consider a few forms
+which it assumes on the pottery of the cliff people and on that of
+their descendants, the Pueblos.
+
+The so-called black-and-white ware, or white pottery decorated with
+black lines, which is so characteristic of the ceramics of the
+cliff-dwellers, is sometimes, as we shall see, found in ruins like
+Awatobi and Sikyatki; but it is so rare, as compared with other
+varieties, that it may be regarded as intrusive.
+
+One of the simplest forms of the broken-line motive is a Greek fret,
+in which there is a break in the component square figures or where the
+line is noncontinuous. In the simplest form, which appears prominently
+on modern pottery, but which is rare or wanting on true
+black-and-white ware, we have two crescentic figures, the concavities
+of which face in different directions, but the horns overlap. This is
+a symbol which the participants in the dance called the Humiskatcina
+still paint with pigments on their breasts, and which is used on
+shields and various religious paraphernalia.
+
+A study of any large collection of decorated Pueblo ware, ancient or
+modern, will show many modifications of this broken line, a number of
+which I shall discuss more in detail when pottery ornamentation is
+considered. A design so distinctive and so widespread as this must
+certainly have a symbolic interpretation. The concentric spirals with
+a broken line, the Hopi say, are symbols of the whirlpool, and it is
+interesting to find in the beautiful plates of Chavero's _Antigueedades
+Mexicanas_ that the water in the lagoon surrounding the ancient Aztec
+capital was indicated by the Nahuatl Indians with similar symbols.
+
+
+OBJECTS FOUND AT PALATKI AND HONANKI
+
+The isolation of these ruins and the impossibility of obtaining
+workmen, combined with the brief visit which I was able to make to
+them, rendered it impossible to collect very many specimens of ancient
+handiwork. The few excavations which were made were limited almost
+wholly to Honanki, and from their success I can readily predict a rich
+harvest for anyone who may attempt systematic work in this virgin
+field. We naturally chose the interior of the rooms for excavation,
+and I will say limited our work to these places. Every chamber was
+more or less filled with debris--fragments of overturned walls,
+detached rock from the cliff above, dry alkaline soil, drifted sand,
+dust, and animal excreta. In those places where digging was possible
+we found the dust and guano so dry and alkaline that it was next to
+impossible to work for any length of time in the rooms, for the air
+became so impure that the workmen could hardly breathe, especially
+where the inclosing walls prevented ventilation. Notwithstanding this
+obstacle, however, we removed the accumulated debris down to the floor
+in one or two chambers, and examined with care the various objects of
+aboriginal origin which were revealed.
+
+In studying the specimens found in cliff-houses due attention has not
+always been given to the fact that occupants have oftentimes camped in
+them subsequently to their abandonment by the original builders. As a
+consequence of this temporary habitation objects owned by unrelated
+Indians have frequently been confused with those of the cliff-dwellers
+proper. We found evidences that both Honanki and Palatki had been
+occupied by Apache Mohave people for longer or shorter periods of
+time, and some of the specimens were probably left there by these
+inhabitants.
+
+The ancient pottery found in the rooms, although fragmentary, is
+sufficiently complete to render a comparison with known ceramics from
+the Verde ruins. Had we discovered the cemeteries, for which we
+zealously searched in vain, no doubt entire vessels, deposited as
+mortuary offerings, would have been found; but the kind of ware of
+which they were made would undoubtedly have been the same as that of
+the fragments.
+
+No pottery distinctively different from that which has already been
+reported from the Verde valley ruins was found, and the majority
+resembled so closely in texture and symbolism that of the cliff houses
+of the San Juan, in northern New Mexico and southern Utah, that they
+may be regarded as practically identical.
+
+The following varieties of pottery were found at Honanki:
+
+  I. Coiled ware.
+ II. Indented ware.
+III. Smooth ware.
+ IV. Smooth ware painted white, with black geometric figures.
+  V. Smooth red ware, with black decoration.
+
+By far the largest number of fragments belong to the first division,
+and these, as a rule, are blackened by soot, as if used in cooking.
+The majority are parts of large open-mouth jars with flaring rims,
+corrugated or often indented with the thumb-nail or some hard
+substance, the coil becoming obscure on the lower surface. The inside
+of these jars is smooth, but never polished, and in one instance the
+potter used the corrugations of the coil as an ornamental motive. The
+paste of which this coiled ware was composed is coarse, with
+argillaceous grains scattered through it; but it was well fired and is
+still hard and durable. When taken in connection with its tenuity,
+these features show a highly developed potter's technique. A single
+fragment is ornamented with an S-shape coil of clay fastened to the
+corrugations in much the same way as in similar ware from the ruins
+near the Colorado Chiquito.
+
+The fragments of smooth ware show that they, too, had been made
+originally in the same way as coiled ware, and that their outer as
+well as their inner surface had been rubbed smooth before firing. As a
+rule, however, they are coarse in texture and have little symmetry of
+form. Fragments identified as parts of bowls, vases, jars, and dippers
+are classed under this variety. As a rule they are badly or unevenly
+fired, although evidently submitted to great heat. There was seldom an
+effort made to smooth the outer surface to a polish, and no attempt at
+pictorial ornamentation was made.
+
+The fragments represented in classes IV and V were made of a much
+finer clay, and the surface bears a gloss, almost a glaze. The
+ornamentation on the few fragments which were found is composed of
+geometric patterns, and is identical with the sherds from other ruins
+of Verde valley. A fragment each of a dipper and a ladle, portions of
+a red bowl, and a rim of a large vase of the same color were picked up
+near the ruin. Most of the fragments, however, belong to the first
+classes--the coiled and indented wares.
+
+There was no evidence that the former inhabitants of these buildings
+were acquainted with metals. The ends of the beams had been hacked off
+evidently with blunt stone axes, aided by fire, and the lintels of the
+houses were of split logs which showed no evidence that any metal
+implement was used in fashioning them. We found, however, several
+stone tools, which exhibit considerable skill in the art of stone
+working. These include a single ax, blunt at one end, sharpened at the
+other, and girt by a single groove. The variety of stone from which
+the ax was made does not occur in the immediate vicinity of the ruin.
+There were one or two stone hammers, grooved for hafting, like the ax.
+A third stone maul, being grooveless, was evidently a hand tool for
+breaking other stones or for grinding pigments.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 251--Stone implement from Honanki]
+
+Perhaps the most interesting stone implement which was found was
+uncovered in the excavation of one of the middle rooms of the western
+part of the ruin, about three feet below the surface. It consists of a
+wooden handle rounded at each end and slightly curved, with a
+sharpened stone inserted midway of its length and cemented to the wood
+with pitch or asphaltum. The stone of this implement would hardly bear
+rough usage, or sustain, without fracture, a heavy blow. The edge is
+tolerably sharp, and it therefore may have been used in skinning
+animals. Judging from the form of the handle, the implement is better
+suited for use as a scraper than for any other purpose which has
+occurred to me (figure 251).
+
+The inhabitants of the two ruins of the Red-rocks used obsidian
+arrowpoints with shafts of reeds, and evidently highly regarded
+fragments of the former material for knives, spearheads, and one or
+two other purposes.
+
+The stone metates from these ruins are in no respect characteristic,
+and several fine specimens were found in place on the floors of the
+rooms. One of these was a well-worn specimen of lava, which must have
+been brought from a considerable distance, since none of that
+material occurs in the neighborhood. The existence of these grinding
+stones implies the use of maize as food, and this evidence was much
+strengthened by the finding of corncobs, kernels of corn, and charred
+fragments at several points below the surface of the debris in the
+chambers of Honanki. One of these grinding stones was found set in the
+floor of one of the rooms in the same way that similar metates may be
+seen in Walpi today.
+
+Of bone implements, our limited excavations revealed only a few
+fragments. Leg bones of the turkey were used for awls, bodkins,
+needles, and similar objects. In general character the implements of
+this kind which were found are almost identical in form with the bone
+implements from Awatobi and Sikyatki, which are later figured and
+described. Although the bone implements unearthed were not numerous,
+we were well repaid for our excavations by finding an ancient
+fireboard, identical with those now used at Tusayan in the ceremony of
+kindling "new fire," and probably universally used for that purpose in
+former times. The only shell was a fragment of a bracelet made from a
+_Pectunculus_, a Pacific coast mollusk highly esteemed in ancient
+times among prehistoric Pueblos. The majority of the wooden objects
+found showed marks of fire, which were especially evident on the ends
+of the roof and floor beams projecting from the walls.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 252--Tinder tube from Honanki]
+
+A considerable collection of objects made of wickerwork and woven
+vegetal fiber was found in the alkaline dust and ashes of the Red-rock
+cliff houses, and while there is some difficulty here as elsewhere, in
+deciding whether certain specimens belonged to the original builders
+or to later temporary occupants, there is little doubt that most of
+them were the property of the latter.
+
+There were many specimens of basketry found on the surface of the
+rubbish of the floors which, from the position of their occurrence and
+from their resemblance to the wickerwork still used by the Apache,
+seem without doubt to have been left there by temporary occupants of
+the rooms. There were likewise many wisps of yucca fiber tied in knots
+which must probably be regarded as of identical origin. The _Yucca
+baccata_ affords the favorite fiber used by the natives at the present
+time, and it appears to have been popular for that purpose among the
+ancients.
+
+Several specimens of sandals, some of which are very much worn on the
+soles, were found buried at the floor level. These are all of the same
+kind, and are made of yucca leaves plaited in narrow strips. The mode
+of attachment to the foot was evidently by a loop passing over the
+toes. Hide and cloth sandals have as yet not been reported from the
+Red-rock ruins of Verde valley. These sandals belonged to the original
+occupants of the cliff houses.
+
+Fabrics made of cotton are common in the ruins of the Red-rocks, and
+at times this fiber was combined with yucca. Some of the specimens of
+cotton cloth were finely woven and are still quite strong, although
+stained dark or almost black. Specimens of netting are also common,
+and an open-mesh legging, similar to the kind manufactured in ancient
+times by the Hopi and still worn by certain personators in their
+sacred dances, were taken from the western room of Honanki. There were
+also many fragments of rope, string, cord, and loosely twisted bands,
+resembling head bands for carrying burdens.
+
+A reed (figure 252) in which was inserted a fragment of cotton fiber
+was unlike anything yet reported from cliff houses, and as the end of
+the cotton which projected beyond the cavity of the reed was charred,
+it possibly was used as a slow-match or tinder-box.
+
+Several shell and turquois beads were found, but my limited studies of
+the cliff-houses revealed only a few other ornaments, among them being
+beads of turkey-bone and a single wristlet fashioned from a
+_Pectunculus_. One or two fragments of prayer-sticks were discovered
+in a rock inclosure in a cleft to the west of the ruin.
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE VERDE VALLEY RUINS
+
+The ruins of the Verde region closely resemble those of Tusayan, and
+seem to support the claim of the Hopi that some of their ancestors
+formerly lived in that region. This is true more especially of the
+villages of the plains and mesa tops, for neither cave-houses nor
+cavate dwellings are found in the immediate vicinity of the inhabited
+Tusayan pueblos. The objects taken from the ruins are similar to those
+found universally over the pueblo area, and from them alone we can not
+say more than that they probably indicate the same substratum of
+culture as that from which modern pueblo life with its many
+modifications has sprung.
+
+The symbolism of the decorations on the fragments of pottery found in
+the Verde ruins is the same as that of the ancient pueblos of the
+Colorado Chiquito, and it remains to be shown whether the ancestors of
+these were Hopi or Zuni. I believe it will be found that they were
+both, or that when the villages along the Colorado Chiquito[29] were
+abandoned part of the inhabitants went to the mesas of Tusayan and
+others migrated farther up the river to the Zuni villages.
+
+Two centers of distribution of cliff houses occur in our Southwest:
+those of the upper tributaries of the Colorado in the north and the
+cliff houses of the affluents of the Salt and the Gila in the south.
+The watershed of the Rio Grande is, so far as is known, destitute of
+this kind of aboriginal dwellings. Between the two centers of
+distribution lie the pueblos of the Little Colorado and its
+tributaries, the home of the ancestors of the Hopi and the Zuni. The
+many resemblances between the cliff houses of the north and those of
+the south indicate that the stage of culture of both was uniform, and
+probably the same conditions of environment led both peoples to build
+similar dwellings. All those likenesses which can be found between the
+modern Zuni and the Hopi to the former cliff peoples of the San Juan
+region in the north, apply equally to those of the upper Salado and
+the Gila and their tributaries to the south; and so far as arguments
+of a northern origin of either, built on architectural or
+technological resemblances, are concerned, they are not conclusive,
+since they are also applicable to the cliff peoples of the south. The
+one important difference between the northern and the southern tier of
+cliff houses is the occurrence of the circular kiva, which has never
+been reported south of the divide between the Little Colorado and the
+Gila-Salado drainage. If a kiva was a feature in southern cliff
+houses, which I doubt, it appears to have been a rectangular chamber
+similar to a dwelling room. The circular kiva exists in neither the
+modern Hopi nor the Zuni pueblos, and it has not been found in
+adjacent Tusayan ruins; therefore, if these habitations were
+profoundly influenced by settlers from the north, it is strange that
+such a radical change in the form of this room resulted. The arguments
+advanced that one of the two component stocks of the Zuni, and that
+the aboriginal, came from the cliff peoples of the San Juan, are not
+conclusive, although I have no doubt that the Zuni may have received
+increment from that direction.
+
+Cushing has, I believe, furnished good evidence that some of the
+ancestors of the Zuni population came from the south and southwest;
+and that some of these came from pueblos now in ruins on the Little
+Colorado is indicated by the great similarity in the antiquities of
+ancient Zuni and the Colorado Chiquito ruins. Part of the Patki people
+of the Hopi went to Zuni and part to Tusayan, from the same abandoned
+pueblo, and the descendants of this family in Walpi still recognize
+this ancient kinship; but I do not know, and so far as can be seen
+there is no way of determining, the relative antiquity of the pueblos
+in Zuni valley and those on the lower Colorado.
+
+The approximate date of the immigration of the Patki people to Tusayan
+is as yet a matter of conjecture. It may have been in prehistoric
+times, or more likely at a comparatively late period in the history of
+the people. It seems well substantiated, however, that when this
+Water-house people joined the other Hopi, the latter inhabited pueblos
+and were to all intents a pueblo people. If this hypothesis be a
+correct one, the Snake, Horn, and Bear peoples, whom the southern
+colonists found in Tusayan, had a culture of their own similar to that
+of the people from the south. Whence that culture came must be
+determined by studies of the component clans of the Hopi before the
+arrival of the Patki people.[30]
+
+The origin of the round shape of the estufa, according to Nordenskioeld
+(p. 168), is most easily explained on the hypothesis that it is a
+reminiscence of the cliff-dwellers' nomadic period. "There must be
+some very cogent reason for the employment of this shape," he says,
+"for the construction of a cylindrical chamber within a block of
+rectangular rooms involves no small amount of labor. We know how
+obstinately primitive nations cling to everything connected with their
+religious ideas. Then what is more natural than the retention, for the
+room where religious ceremonies were performed, of the round shape
+characteristic of the original dwelling place, the nomadic hut? This
+assumption is further corroborated by the situation of the hearth and
+the structure of the roof of the estufa, when we find points of
+analogy to the method employed by certain nomadic Indians in the
+erection of their huts." This theory of the origin of the round form
+of dwelling and its retention in the architecture of the kiva,
+advanced by Nordenskioeld in 1893, has much in its favor, but the
+rectangular form, which, so far as known, is the only shape of these
+sacred rooms in the Tusayan region, is still unexplained. From
+Castaneda's narrative of the Coronado expedition it appears that in
+the middle of the sixteenth century the eastern pueblos had both
+square and round estufas or kivas, and that these kivas belonged to
+the men while the rooms of the pueblo were in the possession of the
+women. The apparent reason why we find no round rooms or kivas in the
+southern cliff houses and in Tusayan may be due to several causes.
+Local conditions, including the character of the building sites on the
+Hopi mesa, made square rooms more practical, or the nomadic stage was
+so far removed that the form of the inclosure in which the ancients
+held their rites had not been preserved. Moreover, some of the most
+ancient and secret observances at Walpi, as the Flute ceremony, are
+not performed in special kivas, but take place in ordinary living
+rooms.
+
+As in all the other ruins of Verde valley, circular kivas are absent
+in the Red-rock country, and this fact, which has attracted the
+attention of several observers, is, I believe, very significant.
+Although as yet our knowledge of the cliff houses of the upper Gila
+and Salado and their numerous tributaries is very fragmentary, and
+generalization on that account unsafe, it may be stated provisionally
+that no circular kivas have yet been found in any ruins of the
+Gila-Salado watershed. This form of kiva, however, is an essential
+feature of the cliff dwellings of Rio Colorado, especially of those
+along its affluents in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico.
+Roughly speaking, then, the circular kiva is characteristic of the
+ruins of this region and of certain others in the valley of the Rio
+Grande, where they still survive in inhabited pueblos.
+
+Circular ruins likewise are limited in their distribution in the
+Southwest, and it is an interesting fact that the geographic
+distribution of ancient pueblos of this form is in a general way the
+same as that of circular kivas. There are, of course, many exceptions,
+but so far as I know these can readily be explained. No ruins of
+circular dwellings occur in the Gila-Salado drainage area, where
+likewise no circular kivas have been observed. Moreover, the circular
+form of dwelling and kiva is distinctively characteristic of
+prehistoric peoples east of Tusayan, and the few instances of their
+occurrence on its eastern border can readily be explained as
+extra-Hopi.
+
+The explanation of these circular kivas advanced by Nordenskioeld and
+the Mindeleffs, that they are survivals of round habitations of
+nomads, has much to commend it; but whether sufficient or not, the
+geographic limitation of these structures tells in favor of the
+absence of any considerable migration of the prehistoric peoples of
+the upper Colorado and Rio Grande watersheds southward into the
+drainage area of the Gila-Salado. Had the migration been in that
+direction it may readily be believed that the round kiva and the
+circular form of dwelling would have been brought with it.
+
+The round kiva has been regarded as a survival of the form of the
+original homes of the nomad, when he became a sedentary agriculturist
+by conquest and marriage.
+
+The presence of rectangular kivas in the same areas in which round
+kivas occur does not necessarily militate against this theory, nor
+does it oblige us to offer an explanation of a necessarily radical
+change in architecture if we would derive it from a circular form. It
+would indeed be very unusual to find such a change in a structure
+devoted to religious purposes where conservatism is so strong. The
+rectangular kiva is the ancient form, or rather the original form; the
+round kiva is not a development from it, but an introduction from an
+alien people. It never penetrated southward of the Colorado and upper
+Rio Grande drainage areas because the element which introduced it in
+the north was never strong enough to influence the house builders of
+the Gila-Salado and tributary valleys.
+
+
+
+
+
+RUINS IN TUSAYAN
+
+GENERAL FEATURES
+
+
+No region of our Southwest presents more instructive antiquities than
+the ancient province of Tusayan, more widely known as the Moki
+reservation. In the more limited use of the term, Tusayan is applied
+to the immediate surroundings of the Hopi pueblos, to which "province"
+it was given in the middle of the sixteenth century. In a broader
+sense the name would include an as yet unbounded country claimed by
+the component clans of this people as the homes of their ancestors.
+
+The general character and distribution of Tusayan ruins (plate XVI)
+has been ably presented by Mr Victor Mindeleff in a previous
+report.[31] While this memoir is not regarded as exhaustive, it
+considers most of the large ruins in immediate proximity to the three
+mesas on which the pueblos inhabited by the Hopi are situated. It is
+not my purpose here to consider all Tusayan ruins, even if I were able
+to do so, but to supplement with additional data the observations
+already published on two of the most noteworthy pueblo settlements.
+Broadly speaking, I have attempted archeological excavations in order
+to obtain more light on the nature of prehistoric life in Tusayan. It
+may be advantageous, however, to refer briefly to some of the ruins
+thus far discovered in the Tusayan region as preliminary to more
+systematic descriptions of the two which I have chosen for special
+description.
+
+The legends of the surviving Hopi contain constant references to
+former habitations of different clans in the country round about their
+present villages. These clans, which by consolidation make up the
+present population of the Hopi pueblos, are said to have originally
+entered Tusayan from regions as far eastward as the Rio Grande, and
+from the southern country included within the drainage of the Gila,
+the Salt, and their affluents. Other increments are reputed to have
+come from the northward and the westward, so that the people we now
+find in Tusayan are descendants from an aggregation of stocks from
+several directions, some of them having migrated from considerable
+distances. Natives of other regions have settled among the ancient
+Hopi, built pueblos, and later returned to their former homes; and the
+Hopi in turn have sent colonists into the eastern pueblo country.
+
+These legends of former movements of the tribal clans of Tusayan are
+supplemented and supported by historical documents, and we know from
+this evidence that there has been a continual interchange between the
+people of Tusayan and almost every large pueblo of New Mexico and
+Arizona. Some of the ruins of this region were abandoned in historic
+times; others are prehistoric; many were simply temporary halting
+places in Hopi migrations, and were abandoned as the clans drifted
+together in friendship or destroyed as a result of internecine
+conflicts.
+
+There is documentary evidence that in the years following the great
+rebellion of the Pueblo tribes in 1680, which were characterized by
+catastrophes of all kinds among the Rio Grande villagers, many Tanoan
+people fled to Tusayan to escape from their troubles. According to
+Niel, 4,000 Tanoan refugees, under Frasquillo, loaded with booty which
+they had looted from the churches, went to Oraibi by way of Zuni, and
+there established a "kingdom," with their chief as ruler. How much
+reliance may be placed on this account is not clear to me, but there
+is no doubt that many Tanoan people joined the Hopi about this time,
+and among them were the Asa people, the ancestors of the present
+inhabitants of Hano pueblo, and probably the accolents of Payuepki. The
+ease with which two Franciscan fathers, in 1742, persuaded 441 of
+these to return to the Rio Grande, implies that they were not very
+hostile to Christianity, and it is possible that one reason they
+sought Tusayan in the years after the Spaniards were expelled may have
+been their friendship for the church party.
+
+With the exception of Oraibi, not one of the present inhabited pueblos
+of Tusayan occupies the site on which it stood in the sixteenth
+century, and the majority of them do not antedate the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. The villages have shifted their positions but
+retained their names.
+
+At the time of the advent of Tobar, in 1540, there was but one of the
+present three villages of East Mesa. This was Walpi, and at the period
+referred to it was situated on the terrace below the site of the
+present town, near the northwestern base of the mesa proper. Two
+well-defined ruins, called Kisakobi and Kuechaptuevela, are now pointed
+out as the sites of Old Walpi. Of these Kuechaptuevela is regarded as
+the older.
+
+Judging by their ruins these towns were of considerable size. From
+their exposed situation they were open to the inroads of predatory
+tribes, and from these hostile raids their abandonment became
+necessary. From Kuechaptuevela the ancient Walpians moved to a point
+higher on the mesa, nearer its western limit, and built Kisakobi,
+where the pueblo stood in the seventeenth century. There is evidence
+that a Spanish mission was erected at this point, and the place is
+sometimes called Nueshaki, a corruption of "Missa-ki," Mass-house. From
+this place the original nucleus of Walpians moved to the present site
+about the close of the seventeenth century. Later the original
+population was joined by other phratries, some of which, as the Asa,
+had lived in the cliff-houses of Tsegi, or Canyon de Chelly, as late
+as the beginning of the eighteenth century. This, however, is not the
+place to trace the composition of the different modern villages.
+
+Sichomovi was a colony from Walpi, founded about 1750, and Hano was
+built not earlier than 1700. The former was settled by the Badger
+people, later joined by a group of Tanoan clans called the Asa, from
+the Rio Grande, who were invited to Tusayan to aid the Hopi in
+resisting the invasions of northern nomads.
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century the population of the province
+of Tusayan was for the first time distributed in the seven pueblos now
+inhabited. No village has been deserted since that time, nor has any
+new site been occupied.
+
+In order that the reader may have an idea of the Tusayan pueblos at
+the time mentioned, an account of them from a little-known description
+by Morfi in 1782 is introduced:[32]
+
+     _Morfi's account of the Tusayan pueblos_
+
+     Quarenta y seis leguas al Poniente de Zuni, con alguna
+     inclinacion al N. O. estan los tres primeros pueblos de la
+     provincia de Moqui, que en el dia en el corto distrito de
+     4-1/2 leguas (112 recto) tiene siete pueblos en tres mesas o
+     penoles que corren linea recta de Oriente a Poniente.
+
+     _Tanos_[33]
+
+     En la punta occidental de la primera, y en la mas estrecho
+     de su eminencia estan situados tres de los quales el primero
+     es el de Tanos (alli dicen Tegueas), cuyas moradores tienen
+     idioma particular y distinto del Moquino. Es pueblo regular
+     con un plaza en el centro, y un formacion de calles. Tendra
+     110 familias.
+
+     El segundo[34] pueblo dista del precedente como un tiro de
+     piedra, es de fundacion moderna, y se compondra de mas 15
+     familias que se retiraron aqui de:
+
+     _Gualpi_
+
+     Gualpi que dista del anterior un tiro de fusil, es mas
+     grande y populoso que los dos anteriores, puede tener hasta
+     200 familias. Estas tres pueblos tienen poco caballada, y
+     algunas vacas; pero mucho ganado lanar.
+
+     _Mosasnabi_[35]
+
+     Al poniente de esta mesa, y a legua y media de distancia
+     esta la segunda, cuyo intermedio es un (112 v.) arenal, que
+     ertrando un poco en ella la divide en dos brazas. En el
+     septentrional, que es el mas inmediata a Gualpi hay dos
+     anillos distantes entre si un tiro de piedra. En la cima del
+     primero esta situado el pueblo de Mosasnabi compuesto de 50
+     familias poco mas o menos.
+
+     _Xipaolabi_[36]
+
+     En la cumbre del secundo cerrito se fundo el quinto pueblo
+     llamado Xipaolabi, que tendra solo 14 familias: esta casi
+     arruinado, porque sus vecinos se han trasladado al brazo
+     austral de la mesa y formaron el sexto pueblo llamado:
+
+     _Xongopabi_[37]
+
+     Xongopabi goza mejor situacion que todos los demas, tienen
+     tres quarteles mui bien dispuestos y en ellas unas 60
+     familias. Estos tres pueblos tienen mas caballada que los
+     primeros y mucho ganado menor.
+
+
+     _Oraybe_
+
+     Dos y media leguas al Poniente de esta mesa, esta la
+     tercera, y en sucima el septimo pueblo que llaman Oraybe. Es
+     como la capital de la provincia, el mayor y mas bien formado
+     de toda ella, y acaso de todas las provincias internas.
+     Tiene once quarteles o manzanas bien largas y dispuestos con
+     calles a cordel ya (113 r.) todos vientos, y puede llegar su
+     poblacion a 800 familias. Tienen buena caballada, mucho
+     ganado menor y algun vacuno. Aunque no gozan sino una
+     pequena fuente de buena agua, distante del pueblo mas de una
+     milla al Norte, han construido para suplir esta escasez, en
+     la misma mesa, y mui inmediato a las casas seis cisternas
+     grandes donde recoger la agua de las lluvias y nieves.
+
+The distribution of the population of Tusayan in the seven pueblos
+mentioned above remained practically the same during the century
+between 1782 and 1882. Summer settlements for farming purposes were
+inhabited by the Oraibi for brief periods. Between the years 1880 and
+1890 a beginning of a new distribution of Hopi families began, when
+one or two of the less timid erected houses near Coyote spring, at the
+East Mesa. The Tewa, represented by Polaka and Jakwaina, took the lead
+in this movement. From 1890 to the present time a large number of
+Walpi, Sichomovi, and Hano families have built houses in the foothills
+of the East Mesa and in the plain beyond the "wash." A large
+schoolhouse has been erected at Sun spring and a considerable number
+of East Mesa villagers have abandoned their mesa dwellings. In this
+shifting of the population the isolated house is always adopted and
+the aboriginal method of roof building is abandoned. The indications
+are that in a few years the population of the East Mesa will be
+settled in unconnected farmhouses with little resemblance to the
+ancient communal pueblo.
+
+This movement is shared to a less extent by the Middle Mesa and Oraibi
+people. On my first visit to the pueblos of these mesas, in 1890,
+there was not a single permanent dwelling save in the ancient pueblos;
+but now numerous small farmhouses have been erected at or near the
+springs in the foothills. I mention these facts as a matter of record
+of progress in the life of these people in adapting themselves to the
+new conditions or influences by which they are surrounded. I believe
+that if this exodus of Hopi families from the old pueblo to the plain
+continues during the next two decades as it has in the last ten years,
+there are children now living in Walpi who will some day see it
+uninhabited.
+
+This disintegration of the Hopi phratries, by which families are
+separated from one another, is, I believe, a return to the prehistoric
+distribution of the clans, and as Walpi grew into a pueblo by a union
+of kindred people, so now it is again being divided and distributed,
+still preserving family ties in new clusters or groupings. It is thus
+not impossible that the sites of certain old ruins, as Sikyatki,
+deserted for many years, will again be built upon if better suited for
+new modes of life. The settlement near Coyote spring, for instance, is
+not far from the old site of a former home of the Tanoan families, who
+went to Tusayan in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and the
+people who inhabit these new houses are all Tanoan descendants of the
+original contingent.
+
+In order to become familiar with the general character of Tusayan
+ruins, I made a brief reconnoissance of those mentioned in the
+following list, from which I selected Awatobi and Sikyatki as places
+for a more exhaustive exploration. This list is followed by a brief
+mention of those which I believe would offer fair opportunities for a
+continuation of the work inaugurated. The ruins near Oraibi were not
+examined and are therefore omitted, not that they are regarded as less
+important, but because I was unable to undertake a study of them in
+the limited time at my disposal. There are also many ruins in Tusayan,
+north of the inhabited pueblos, which have never been described, and
+would well repay extended investigation. Some of these, as the ruins
+at the sacred spring called Kishuba, are of the utmost traditional
+importance.
+
+     I. _Middle Mesa ruins_--(1) Old Shunopovi; (2) Old
+     Mishoninovi; (3) Shitaumu; (4) Chukubi; (5) Payuepki.
+
+     II. _East Mesa ruins_--(1) Kisakobi; (2) Kuechaptuevela; (3)
+     Kuekuechomo; (4) Tukinobi; (5) Kachinba; (6) Sikyatki.
+
+     III. _Ruins in Keam's canyon_.
+
+     IV. _Jeditoh valley ruins_--(1) Bat-house; (2) Jeditoh,
+     Kawaika; (3) Horn-house; (4) Awatobi; Smaller Awatobi.
+
+This method of classification is purely geographical, and is adopted
+simply for convenience; but there are one or two facts worthy of
+mention in regard to the distribution of ruins in these four sections.
+The inhabited pueblos, like the ruins, are, as a rule, situated on the
+eastern side of their respective mesas, or on the cliffs or hills
+which border the adjacent plains on the west. This uniformity is
+thought to have resulted from a desire to occupy a sunny site for
+warmth and for other reasons.
+
+The pueblos at or nearest the southern ends of the mesas were found to
+be best suited for habitation, consequently the present towns occupy
+those sites, or, as in the case of the Jeditoh series, the pueblo at
+that point was the last abandoned. The reason for this is thought to
+be an attempt to concentrate on the most inaccessible sites available,
+which implies inroads of hostile peoples. For the same reason,
+likewise, the tendency was to move from the foothills to the mesa tops
+when these invasions began.
+
+Early settlers near East Mesa appeared to have chosen exposed sites
+for their pueblos. This would imply that they feared no invasion, and
+legendary history indicates that the first pueblos were erected before
+the hostile Ute, Apache, and Navaho appeared. The early settlements on
+Middle Mesa were also apparently not made with an absorbing idea of
+inaccessibility. All the Jeditoh villages, however, were on the mesa
+tops, these sites having been selected evidently with a view to
+protection, since they were not convenient to the farms.
+
+For many reasons it would seem that the people who occupied the now
+ruined Jeditoh villages were later arrivals in Tusayan than those of
+East and Middle Mesas, and that, as a rule, they came from the
+eastward, while those of Middle Mesa arrived from the south. The first
+colonists of all, however, appear to have been the East Mesa clans,
+the Bear and Snake families. If this conjecture be true, we may
+believe that the oldest pueblos in Tusayan were probably the house
+groups of the Snake clan of East Mesa, for whom their traditionists
+claim a northern origin.
+
+
+THE MIDDLE MESA RUINS
+
+SHUNOPOVI
+
+The site of Old Shunopovi (plate CV) at the advent of the first
+Spaniards, and for a century or more afterward, was at the foot of the
+mesa on which the present village stands. The site of the old pueblo
+is easily detected by the foundations of the ancient houses and their
+overturned walls, surrounded by mounds of soil filled with fragments
+of the finest pottery.
+
+The old village was situated on a ridge of foothills east of the
+present town and near the spring, which is still used. On the highest
+point of the ridge there rise to a considerable height the massive
+walls of the old Spanish mission church, forming an inclosure, now
+used as a sheep corral. The cemeteries are near by, close to the outer
+walls, and among a clump of peach trees about half a mile east of the
+old houses. The pottery,[38] as shown by the fragments, is of the
+finest old Tusayan ware, cream and red being the predominating colors,
+while fragments of coiled and black-and-white ware are likewise
+common.
+
+
+MISHONINOVI
+
+The ruins of Old Mishoninovi lie west of the present pueblo in the
+foothills, not far from the two rocky pinnacles at that point and
+adjacent to a spring. In strolling over the site of the old town I
+have noted its ground plan, and have picked up many sherds which
+indicate that the pottery made at that place was the fine cream-color
+ware for which Tusayan has always been famous. The site offers unusual
+opportunities for archeological studies, but excavation there is not
+practicable on account of the opposition of the chiefs.
+
+Old Mishoninovi was a pueblo of considerable size, and was probably
+inhabited up to the close of the seventeenth century. It was probably
+on this site that the early Spanish explorers found the largest pueblo
+of the Middle Mesa. The ruin of Shitaimovi, in the foothills near
+Mishoninovi, mentioned by Mindeleff, was not visited by our party.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CV.
+
+SKETCH MAP OF THE MESA COUNTRY
+OCCUPIED BY THE
+HOPI INDIANS]
+
+
+CHUKUBI
+
+The ruin of Chukubi bears every evidence of antiquity. It is situated
+on one of the eastward projecting spurs of Middle Mesa, midway between
+Payuepki and Shipaulovi, near an excellent spring at the base of the
+mesa.
+
+Chukubi was built in rectangular form, with a central plaza surrounded
+by rooms, two deep. There are many indications of outlying chambers,
+some of which are arranged in rows. The house walls are almost wholly
+demolished, and in far poorer state of preservation than those of the
+neighboring ruin of Payuepki. The evidence now obtainable indicates
+that it was an ancient habitation of a limited period of occupancy. It
+is said to have been settled by the Patun or Squash people, whose
+original home was far to the south, on Little Colorado river. A fair
+ground plan is given by Mindeleff in his memoir on Pueblo
+Architecture; but so far as known no studies of the pottery of this
+pueblo have ever been made.
+
+
+PAYUePKI
+
+One of the best-preserved ruins on Middle Mesa is called Payuepki by
+the Hopi, and is interesting in connection with the traditions of the
+migration of peoples from the Rio Grande, which followed the
+troublesome years at the close of the seventeenth century. In the
+reconquest of New Mexico by the Spaniards we can hardly say that
+Tusayan was conquered; the province was visited and nominally
+subjugated after the great rebellion, but with the exception of
+repeated expeditions, which were often repulsed, the Hopi were
+practically independent and were so regarded. No adequate punishment
+was inflicted on the inhabitants of Walpi for the destruction of the
+town of Awatobi, and although there were a few military expeditious to
+Tusayan no effort at subjugation was seriously made.
+
+Tusayan was regarded as an asylum for the discontented or apostate,
+and about the close of the seventeenth century many people from the
+Rio Grande fled there for refuge. Some of these refugees appear to
+have founded pueblos of their own; others were amalgamated with
+existing villages. Payuepki seems to have been founded about this
+period, for we find no account of it before this time, and it is not
+mentioned in connection with ancient migrations. In 1706 Holguin is
+said to have attacked the "Tanos" village between Walpi and Oraibi and
+forced the inhabitants to give hostages, but he was later set upon by
+the Tano and driven back to Zuni. It would hardly seem possible that
+the pueblo mentioned could have been Hano, for this village does not
+lie between Oraibi and Walpi and could not have been surrounded in the
+way indicated in the account. Payuepki, however, not only lay on the
+trail between Walpi and Oraibi--about midway, as the chronicler
+states--but was so situated on a projecting promontory that it could
+easily have been surrounded and isolated from the other pueblos.
+
+The Hopi legends definitely assert that the Payuepki people came from
+the "great river," the Rio Grande, and spoke a language allied to that
+of the people of Hano. They were probably apostates, who came from the
+east about 1680, but did not seem to agree well with the people of the
+Middle Mesa, and about 1750 returned to the river and were domiciled
+in Sandia, where their descendants still live. The name Payuepki is
+applied by the Hopi to the pueblo of Sandia as well as to the ruin on
+the Middle Mesa. The general appearance of the ruin of Payuepki
+indicates that it was not long inhabited, and that it was abandoned at
+a comparatively recent date. The general plan is not that common to
+ancient Tusayan ruins, but more like that of Hano and Sichomovi, which
+were erected about the time Payuepki was built. Many fragments of a
+kind of pottery which in general appearance is foreign to Tusayan, but
+which resembles the Rio Grande ware, were found on the mounds, and the
+walls are better preserved than those of the ancient Tusayan ruins.
+
+A notable absence of fragments of obsidian, the presence of which in
+abundance is characteristic of ancient ruins, was observed on the site
+of Payuepki. All these evidences substantiate the Hopi legend that the
+Tanoan inhabitants of the village of Middle Mesa, above the trail from
+Walpi to Oraibi, made but a short stay in Tusayan.[39]
+
+There is good documentary evidence that Sandia was settled by Tanoan
+people from Tusayan. Morfi in 1782 so states,[40] and in a copy of the
+acts of possession of the pueblo grants of 1748 we find still further
+proof of the settlement of "Moquinos" in Sandia.[41]
+
+When Otermin returned to New Mexico in his attempted reconquest, in
+1681, he reached Isleta on December 6, and on the 8th Dominguez
+encamped in sight of Sandia, but found the inhabitants had fled. The
+discord following this event drove the few surviving families of the
+Tiwa on their old range to Tusayan, for they were set upon by Keres
+and Jemez warriors on the plea that they received back the Spaniards.
+Possibly these families formed the nucleus of Payuepki. It was about
+this time, also, if we can believe Niel's story, that 4,000 Tanos went
+to Tusayan. It would thus appear that the Hopi Payuepki was settled in
+the decade 1680-1690.
+
+
+THE EAST MESA RUINS
+
+KUeCHAPTUeVELA AND KISAKOBI
+
+The two ruins of Kuechaptuevela and Kisakobi mark the sites of Walpi
+during the period of Spanish exploration and occupancy between 1540
+and 1700. The former was the older. In all probability the latter had
+a mission church and was inhabited at the time of the great rebellion
+in 1680, having been founded about fifty years previously.
+
+The former or more ancient[42] pueblo was situated on the first or
+lowest terrace of East Mesa, below the present pueblo, on the northern
+and western sides. The name Kuechaptuevela signifies "Ash-hill terrace,"
+and probably the old settlement, like the modern, was known as Walpi,
+"Place-of-the-gap," referring to the gap or notch (_wala_) in the mesa
+east of Hano.
+
+Old Walpi is said to have been abandoned because it was in the shade
+of the mesa, but doubtless the true cause of its removal was that the
+site was too much exposed, commanded as it was by the towering mesa
+above it, and easily approached on three sides. The Walpi which was
+contemporary with Sikyatki was built in an exposed location, for at
+that time the Hopi were comparatively secure from invaders. Later,
+however, Apache, Ute, and Navaho began to raid their fields, and the
+Spaniards came in their midst again and again, forcing them to work
+like slaves. A more protected site was necessary, and late in the
+seventeenth century the Walpians began to erect houses on the mesa,
+which formed the nucleus of the present town. The standing walls of
+Old Walpi are buried in the debris, but the plans of the rooms may
+readily be traced. Comparatively speaking, it was a large, compact,
+well-built pueblo, and, from the great piles of debris in the
+neighborhood, would seem to have been occupied during several
+generations.
+
+The pottery found in the neighborhood is the fine, ancient Tusayan
+ware, like that of Sikyatki and Shunopovi. Extended excavations would
+reveal, I am sure, many beautiful objects and shed considerable light
+on the obscure history of Walpi and its early population.
+
+After moving from Old Walpi it seems that the people first built
+houses on the terrace above, or on the platform extending westward
+from the western limits of the summit of East Mesa. The whole top of
+that part of the mesa is covered with house walls, showing the former
+existence of a large pueblo. Here, no doubt, if we can trust
+tradition, the mission of Walpi was built, and I have found in the
+debris fragments of pottery similar to that used in Mexico, and very
+different from ancient or modern Pueblo ware. But even Kisakobi[43]
+was not a safe site for the Walpians to choose for their village, so
+after they destroyed the mission and killed the priest they moved up
+to their present site and abandoned both of their former villages.
+
+It is said that with this removal of the villagers there were found to
+be no easy means of climbing the precipitous walls, and that the
+stairway trails were made as late as the beginning of the present
+century. In those early days there was a ladder near where the
+stairway trail is now situated, and some of the older men of Walpi
+have pointed out to me where this ladder formerly stood.
+
+The present plan of Walpi shows marked differences from that made
+twenty years ago, and several houses between the stairway trail and
+the Wikwaliobi kiva, on the edge of the mesa, which have now fallen
+into ruin, were inhabited when I first visited Walpi in 1890. The
+buildings between the Snake kiva and the Nacab kiva are rapidly
+becoming unsafe for habitation, and most of these rooms will soon be
+deserted. As many Walpi families are building new houses on the plain,
+it needs no prophet to predict that the desertion of the present site
+of Walpi will progress rapidly in the next few years, and possibly by
+the end of our generation the pueblo may be wholly deserted--one more
+ruin added to the multitudes in the Southwest.
+
+The site of Old Walpi, at Kuechaptuevela, is the scene of an interesting
+rite in the New-fire ceremony at Walpi, for not far from it is a
+shrine dedicated to a supernatural being called Tuewapontumsi,
+"Earth-altar-woman." This shrine, or house, as it is called, is about
+230 feet from the ruin, among the neighboring bowlders, and consists
+of four flat slabs set upright, forming an inclosure in which stands a
+log of fossil wood.
+
+The ceremonials at Old Walpi in the New-fire rites are described in my
+account[44] of this observance, and from their nature I suspect that
+the essential part of this episode is the deposit of offerings at this
+shrine. The circuits about the old ruin are regarded as survivals of
+the rites which took place in former times at Old Walpi. The ruin was
+spoken of in the ceremony as the _Sipapueni_, the abode of the dead who
+had become _katcinas_, to whom the prayers said in the circuits were
+addressed.
+
+
+KUeKUeCHOMO
+
+The two conical mounds on the mesa above Sikyatki are often referred
+to that ancient pueblo, but from their style of architecture and from
+other considerations I am led to connect them with other phratries of
+Tusayan. From limited excavations made in these mounds in 1891, I was
+led to believe that they were round pueblos, similar to those east of
+Tusayan, and that they were temporary habitations, possibly vantage
+points, occupied for defense. Plate CVI illustrates their general
+appearance, while the rooms of which they are composed are shown in
+figure 253. At the place where the mesa narrows between these mounds
+and the pueblos to the west, a wall was built from one edge of the
+mesa to the other to defend the trail on this side. This wall appears
+to have had watch towers or houses at intervals, which are now in
+ruins, as shown in figure 254.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVI
+
+THE RUINS OF KUeKUeCHOMO]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 253--Kuekuechomo]
+
+The legends concerning the ancient inhabitants of Kuekuechomo are
+conflicting. The late A. M. Stephen stated that tradition ascribes
+them to the Coyote and Pikya (Corn) peoples, with whom the denizens of
+Sikyatki made friendship, and whom the latter induced to settle there
+to protect them from the Walpians. He regarded them as the last
+arrivals of the Water-house phratry, while the Coyote people came from
+the north at nearly the same time. From his account it would appear
+that the twin mounds, Kuekuechomo, were abandoned before the destruction
+of Sikyatki. The Coyote people were, I believe, akin to the Kokop or
+Firewood phratry, and as the pueblo of Sikyatki was settled by the
+latter, it is highly probable that the inhabitants of the two villages
+were friendly and naturally combined against the Snake pueblo of
+Walpi. I believe, however, there is some doubt that any branch of the
+Patki people settled in Kuekuechomo, and the size of the town as
+indicated by the ruin was hardly large enough to accommodate more than
+one clan. Still, as there are two Kuekuechomo ruins, there may have been
+a different family in each of the two house clusters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 254--Defensive wall on the East Mesa]
+
+It has been said that in ancient times, before the twin mounds of
+Kuekuechomo were erected, the people of Sikyatki were greatly harassed
+by the young slingers and archers of Walpi, who would come across to
+the edge of the high cliff and assail them with impunity. Anyone,
+however, who contemplates the great distance from Sikyatki to the edge
+of the mesa may well doubt whether it was possible for the Walpi
+bowmen to inflict much harm in that way.
+
+Moreover, if the word "slingers" is advisedly chosen, it introduces a
+kind of warfare which is not mentioned in other Tusayan legends,
+although apparently throwing stones at their enemies was practiced
+among Pueblos of other stocks in early historic times.[45]
+
+We may suppose, however, that the survivors of both Kuekuechomo and
+Sikyatki sought refuge in Awatobi after the prehistoric destruction of
+their pueblos, for both were peopled by clans which came from the
+east, and naturally went to that village, the founders of which
+migrated from the same direction.
+
+
+KACHINBA
+
+The small ruin at Kachinba, the halting place of the Kachina people,
+seems to have escaped the attention of students of Tusayan archeology.
+It lies about six miles from Sikyatki, about east of Walpi, and is
+approached by following the trail at the foot of the same mesa upon
+which Kuekuechomo is situated. The ruin is located on a small foothill
+and has a few standing walls. It was evidently diminutive in size and
+only temporarily inhabited. The best wall found at this ruin lies at
+the base of the hill, where the spring formerly was. This spring is
+now filled in, but a circular wall of masonry indicates its great size
+in former times.
+
+
+TUKINOBI
+
+There are evidences that the large hill on top of East Mesa, not far
+from the twin mounds, was once the site of a pueblo of considerable
+size, but I have not been able to gather any definite legend about it.
+Near this ruin is the "Eagle shrine" in which round wooden imitations
+of eagle eggs are ceremonially deposited, and in the immediate
+vicinity of which is another shrine near which tracks are cut in the
+rock, and which were evidently considered by the Indian who pointed
+them out to me as having been made by some bird.[46] It is probably
+from these footprints, which are elsewhere numerous, that the two
+ruins called Kuekuechomo ("footprints mound") takes its name.
+
+
+JEDITOH VALLEY RUINS
+
+As one enters Antelope valley, following the Holbrook road, he finds
+himself in what was formerly a densely populated region of Tusayan.
+This valley in former times was regarded as a garden spot, and the
+plain was covered with patches of corn, beans, squashes, and chile.
+The former inhabitants lived in pueblos on the northern side, high up
+on the mesa which separates Jeditoh valley from Keam's canyon. All of
+these pueblos are now in ruins, and only a few Navaho and Hopi
+families cultivate small tracts in the once productive fields.
+
+The majority of the series of ruins along the northern rim of Antelope
+valley resemble Awatobi, which is later described in detail. It is
+interesting to note that in the abandonment of villages the same law
+appears to have prevailed here as in the other Tusayan mesas, for in
+the shrinkage of the Hopi people they concentrated more and more to
+the points of the mesas. Thus, at East Mesa, Sikyatki, Kachinba, and
+Kuekuechomo were destroyed, while Walpi remained. At Middle Mesa,
+Chukubi and Payuepki became ruins, and in Antelope valley Awatobi was
+the last of the Jeditoh series to fall. There has thus been a gradual
+tendency to drift from readily accessible locations to the most
+impregnable sites, which indicates how severely the Hopi must have
+been harassed by their foes. It is significant that some of the oldest
+pueblos were originally built in the most exposed positions, and it
+may rightly be conjectured that the pressure on the villagers came
+long after these sites were chosen. The ancient or original Hopi had a
+sense of security when they built their first houses, and they,
+therefore, did not find it necessary to seek the protection of cliffs.
+Many of them lived in the valley of the Colorado Chiquito, others at
+Kishuba. As time went on, however, they were forced, as were their
+kindred in other pueblos, to move to inaccessible mesas guarded by
+vertical cliffs.
+
+Of the several ruins of Antelope valley, that on the mesa above
+Jeditoh or Antelope spring is one of the largest and most interesting.
+Stephen calls this ruin Mishiptonga, and a plan of the old house is
+given by Mindeleff.
+
+The spring called Kawaika, situated near the former village of the
+same name, was evidently much used by the ancient accolents of
+Antelope valley. From this neighborhood there was excavated a few
+years ago a beautiful collection of ancient mortuary pottery objects,
+which was purchased by Mrs Mary Hemenway, of Boston, and is now in the
+Peabody Museum at Cambridge. These objects have never been adequately
+described, although a good illustration of some of the specimens, with
+a brief reference thereto, was published by James Mooney[47] a few
+years ago.
+
+Among the most striking objects in this collection are clay models of
+houses, dishes, and small vases with rims pierced with holes, and
+rectangular vessels ornamented with pictures of birds. There are
+specimens of cream, yellow, red, and white pottery in the collection
+which, judging by the small size of most of the specimens, was
+apparently votive in character.
+
+The ruins called by Stephen "Horn-house" and "Bat-house," as well as
+the smaller ruin between them, have been described by Mindeleff, who
+has likewise published plans of the first two. From their general
+appearance I should judge they were not occupied for so long a time as
+Awatobi, and by a population considerably smaller. If all these
+Jeditoh pueblos were built by peoples from the Rio Grande, it is
+possible that those around Jeditoh spring were the first founded and
+that Awatobi was of later construction; but from the data at hand the
+relative age of the ruins of this part of Tusayan can not be
+determined.
+
+There are many ruins situated on the periphery of Tusayan which are
+connected traditionally with the Hopi, but are not here mentioned. Of
+these, the so-called "Fire-house" is said to have been the home of
+the ancestors of Sikyatki, and Kintiel of certain Zuni people akin to
+the Hopi. Both of the ruins mentioned differ in their architectural
+features from characteristic prehistoric Tusayan ruins, for they are
+circular in form, as are many of the ruins in the middle zone of the
+pueblo area. With these exceptions there are no circular ruins within
+the area over which the Hopi lay claim, and it is probable that the
+accolents of Kintiel were more Zuni than Hopi in kinship.
+
+Many ruins north of Oraibi and in the neighborhood of the farming
+village of Moenkopi are attributed to the Hopi by their traditionists.
+The ruins about Kishyuba, connected with the Kachina people, also
+belong to Tusayan. These and many others doubtless offer most
+important contributions to an exact knowledge of the prehistoric
+migrations of this most interesting people.
+
+Among the many Tusayan ruins which offer good facilities for
+archeological work, the two which I chose for that purpose are Awatobi
+and Sikyatki. My reasons for this choice may briefly be stated.
+
+Awatobi is a historic pueblo of the Hopi, which was more or less under
+Spanish influence between the years 1540 and 1700. When properly
+investigated, in the light of archeology, it ought to present a good
+picture of Tusayan life before the beginning of the modifications
+which appear in the modern villages of that isolated province. While I
+expected to find evidences of Spanish occupancy, I also sought facts
+bearing on the character of Tusayan life in the seventeenth century.
+
+Sikyatki, however, showed us the character of Tusayan life in the
+fifteenth century, or the unmodified aboriginal pueblo culture of this
+section of the Southwest. Here we expected to find Hopi culture
+unmodified by Spanish influence.
+
+The three pueblos of Sikyatki, Awatobi, and Walpi, when properly
+studied, will show the condition of pueblo culture in three
+centuries--in Sikyatki, pure, unmodified pueblo culture; in Awatobi,
+pueblo life as slightly modified by the Spaniards, and in Walpi, those
+changes resulting from the advent of Americans superadded. While
+special attention has thus far been given by ethnologists mainly to
+the last-mentioned pueblo, a study of the ruins of the other two
+villages is of great value in showing how the modern life developed
+and what part of it is due to foreign influence.
+
+A knowledge of the inner life of the inhabitants of Tusayan as it
+exists today is a necessary prerequisite to the interpretation of the
+ancient culture of that province; but we must always bear in mind the
+evolution of society and the influences of foreign origin which have
+been exerted on it. Many, possibly the majority, of modern customs at
+Walpi are inherited, but others are incorporated and still others, of
+ancient date, have become extinct.
+
+As much stress is laid in this memoir on the claim that objects from
+Sikyatki indicate a culture uninfluenced by the Spaniards, it is well
+to present the evidence on which this assertion is based.
+
+(1) Hopi legends all declare that Sikyatki was destroyed before the
+Spaniards, called the "long-gowned" and "iron-shirted" men, came to
+Tusayan. (2) Sikyatki is not mentioned by name in any documentary
+account of Tusayan, although the other villages are named and are
+readily identifiable with existing pueblos. (3) No fragment of glass,
+metal, or other object indicative of the contact of European
+civilization was found anywhere in the ruin. If we add to the above
+the general appearance of age in the mounds and the depth of the
+debris which has accumulated in the rooms and over the graves, we have
+the main facts on which I have relied to support my belief that
+Sikyatki is a prehistoric ruin.
+
+
+AWATOBI
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUIN
+
+No Tusayan ruin offers to the archeologist a better picture of the
+character of Hopi village life in the seventeenth century than that
+known as Awatobi (plate CVII).[48] It is peculiarly interesting as
+connecting the prehistoric culture of Sikyatki and modern Tusayan
+life, with which we have become well acquainted through recent
+research. Awatobi was one of the largest Tusayan pueblos in the middle
+of the sixteenth century, and continued to exist to the close of the
+seventeenth. It was therefore a historic pueblo. It had a mission,
+notices of which occur in historical documents of the period. From its
+preponderance in size, no less than from its position, we may suspect
+that it held relatively the same leadership among the other Antelope
+valley ruins that Walpi does today to Sichomovi and Hano.
+
+The present condition of the ruins of Awatobi is in no respect
+peculiar or different from that of the remains of prehistoric
+structures, except that its mounds occupy a position on a mesa top
+commanding a wide outlook over a valley. On its east it is hemmed in
+by extensive sand dunes, which also stretch to the north and west,
+receding from the village all the way from a few hundred yards to a
+quarter of a mile. On the south the ruins overlook the plain, and the
+sands on the west separate it from a canyon in which there are several
+springs, some cornfields, and one or two modern Hopi houses. There is
+no water in the valley which stretches away from the mesa on which
+Awatobi is situated, and the foothills are only sparingly clothed with
+desert vegetation. The mounds of the ruin have numerous clumps of
+_sibibi_ (_Rhus trilobata_), and are a favorite resort of Hopi women
+for the berries of this highly prized shrub. There is a solitary tree
+midway between the sand dunes west of the village and the western
+mounds, near which we found it convenient to camp. The only
+inhabitants of the Awatobi mesa are a Navaho family, who have
+appropriated, for the shade it affords, a dwarf cedar east of the old
+mission walls. No land is cultivated, save that in the canyons above
+mentioned, west of the sand hills; some fair harvests are, however,
+still gathered from Antelope valley by the Navaho, especially in the
+section higher up, near Jeditoh spring.
+
+The ruin may be approached from the road between Holbrook and Keam's
+Canyon, turning to the left after climbing the mesa. This road,
+however, is not usually traveled, since it trends through the
+difficult sand hills. As Keam's Canyon is the only place in this
+region at which to provision an expedition, it is usual to approach
+Awatobi from that side, the road turning to the right shortly after
+one ascends the steep hill out of the canyon near Keam's trading post.
+
+My archeological work at Awatobi began on July 6, 1895, and was
+continued for two weeks, being abandoned on account of the defection
+of my Hopi workmen, who left their work to attend the celebration of
+the _Niman_ or "Farewell" _katcina_,[49] a July festival in which many
+of them participated. The ruin is conveniently situated for the best
+archeological results; it has a good spring near by, and is not far
+from Keam's Canyon, the base of supplies. The soil covering the rooms,
+however, is almost as hard as cement, and fragile objects, such as
+pottery, were often broken before their removal from the matrix. A
+considerable quantity of debris had to be removed before the floors
+were reached, and as this was firmly impacted great difficulty was
+encountered in successful excavations.
+
+With a corps of trained workmen much better results than those we
+obtained might have been expected, and the experience which the
+Indians subsequently had at Sikyatki would have made my excavations at
+Awatobi, had they been carried on later in the season, more
+remunerative. While my archeological work at certain points in these
+interesting mounds of Awatobi was more or less superficial, it was in
+other places thorough, and revealed many new facts in regard to the
+culture of the inhabitants of this most important pueblo.
+
+I found it inexpedient to dig in the burial places among the sand
+dunes, on account of the religious prejudices of my workmen. This fear
+they afterward overcame to a certain extent, but never completely
+outgrew, although the cemeteries at Sikyatki were quite thoroughly
+excavated, yielding some of the most striking results of the summer's
+exploration. The sand hills west of Sikyatki are often swept by
+violent gales, by which the surface is continually changing, and
+mortuary pottery is frequently exposed. This has always been a
+favorite place for the collector, and many a beautiful food bowl has
+been carried by the Indians from this cemetery to the trading store,
+for the natives do not seem to object to selling a vase or other
+object which they find on the surface, but rarely dig in the ground
+for the purpose of obtaining specimens.
+
+
+NOMENCLATURE OF AWATOBI
+
+The name Awatobi is evidently derived from _awata_, a bow (referring
+to the Bow clan, one of the strongest in the ancient pueblo), and
+_obi_, "high place of." A derivation from _owa_, rock, has also been
+suggested, but it seems hardly distinctive enough to be applicable,
+and is not accepted by the Hopi themselves.
+
+While the different pueblos of Tusayan were not specially mentioned
+until forty years after they were first visited, the name Awatobi is
+readily recognized in the account of Espejo in 1583, where it is
+called Aguato,[50] which appears as Zaguato and Ahuato in Hakluyt.[51]
+In the time of Onate (1598) the same name is written Aguatuyba.[52]
+Vetancurt,[53] about 1680, mentions the pueblo under the names
+Aguatobi and Ahuatobi, and in 1692, or twelve years after the great
+rebellion, Vargas visited "San Bernardo de Aguatuvi," ten leagues from
+Zuni. The name appears on maps up to the middle of the eighteenth
+century, several years after its destruction. In more modern times
+various older spellings have been adopted or new ones introduced.
+Among these may be mentioned:
+
+AGUATUVI. Buschmann, Neu-Mexico, 231, 1858.
+AGUATUYA. Bandelier in Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, III, 85, 1892 (misquoting Onate).
+AGUITOBI. Bandelier in Archaeological Institute Papers, Am. series, III, pt. 1, 115, 1890.
+AHUATU. Bandelier, ibid., 115, 135.
+AHUATUYBA. Bandelier, ibid., 109.
+AH-WAT-TENNA. Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona, 195, 1884 (so called by a Tusayan Indian).
+AQUATASI. Walch, Charte America, 1805.
+AQUATUBI. Davis, Spanish Conquest of New Mexico, 368, 1869.
+ATABI-HOGANDI. Bourke, op. cit., 84, 1884 (Navaho name).
+AUA-TU-UI. Bandelier in Archaeological Institute Papers, op. cit., IV, pt. 2, 368, 1892.
+A-WA-TE-U. Cushing in Atlantic Monthly, 367, September, 1882.
+AWATUBI. Bourke, op. cit., 91, 1884.
+A WAT U I. Cushing in Fourth Report Bureau of Ethnology, 493, 1886 (or Aguatobi).
+ZAGNATO. Brackenridge, Early Spanish Discoveries, 19, 1857 (misprint of Hakluyt's Zaguato).
+ZAGUATE. Prince, New Mexico, 34, 1883 (misquoting Hakluyt).
+ZUGUATO. Hinton, Handbook to Arizona, 388, 1878 (misquoting Hakluyt).
+
+The Navaho name of the ruin, as is well known, is Talla-hogan,
+ordinarily translated "Singing-house," and generally interpreted to
+refer to the mass said by the padres in the ancient church. It is
+probable, however, that kivas were used as chambers where songs were
+sung in ceremonials prior to the introduction of Christianity.
+Therefore why Awatobi should preeminently be designated as the
+"Singing-house" is not quite apparent.
+
+The name of the mission, San Bernardino,[54] or San Bernardo, refers
+to its patron saint, and was first applied by Porras in honor of the
+natal day of this saint, on which day, in 1629, he and his companions
+arrived in Tusayan.
+
+
+HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE OF AWATOBI
+
+The identification of Tusayan with the present country of the Hopi
+depends in great measure on the correct determination of the situation
+of Cibola. I have regarded as conclusive Bandelier's argument that
+Cibola comprised the group of pueblos inhabited by the Zuni in the
+sixteenth century.[55] Regarding this as proven, Tusayan corresponds
+with the Hopi villages, of which Awatobi was one of the largest. It
+lies in the same direction and about the same distance from Zuni as
+stated in Castaneda's narrative. The fact that Cardenas passed through
+Tusayan when he went from Cibola to the Grand Canyon in 1540 is in
+perfect harmony with the identification of the Hopi villages with
+Tusayan, and Zuni with Cibola. Tobar, in Tusayan, heard of the great
+river to the west, and when he returned to the headquarters of
+Coronado at Cibola the general dispatched Cardenas to investigate the
+truth of the report. Cardenas naturally went to Tusayan where Tobar
+had heard the news, and from there took guides who conducted him to
+the Grand Canyon. Had the general been in any Hopi town at the time he
+sent Tobar, and later Cardenas, it is quite impossible to find any
+cluster of ruins which we can identify as Tusayan in the direction
+indicated. There can be no doubt that Tusayan was the modern Hopi
+country, and with this in mind the question as to which Hopi pueblo
+was the one first visited by Tobar is worthy of investigation.
+
+In order to shed what light is possible on this question, I have
+examined the account by Castaneda, the letter of Coronado to Mendoza,
+and the description in the "Relacion del Suceso," but find it
+difficult to determine that point definitely.
+
+In Hakluyt's translation of Coronado's letter, it is stated that the
+houses of the "cities" which Tobar was sent to examine were "of
+earth," and the "chiefe" of these towns is called "Tucano." As this
+letter was written before Coronado had received word from Tobar
+concerning his discoveries, naturally we should not expect definite
+information concerning the new province. Capt. Juan Jaramillo's
+account speaks of "Tucayan" as a province composed of seven towns, and
+states that the houses are terraced.
+
+In the "Relacion del Suceso" we likewise find the province called
+"Tuzan" (Tusayan), and the author notes the resemblance of the
+villages to Cibola, but he distinctly states that the inhabitants
+cultivated cotton.
+
+Castaneda's account, which is the most detailed, is that on which I
+have relied in my identification of Awatobi as the first Hopi pueblo
+seen by the Spaniards.
+
+It seems that Don Pedro de Tobar was dispatched by Coronado to explore
+a province called Tusayan which was reported to be twenty-five leagues
+from Cibola. He had in his command seventeen horsemen and one or two
+foot-soldiers, and was accompanied by Friar Juan de Padilla. They
+arrived in the new province after dark and concealed themselves under
+the edge of the mesa, so near that they heard the voices of the
+Indians in their houses. The natives, however, discovered them at
+daylight drawn up in order, and came out to meet them armed with
+wooden clubs, bow and arrows, and carrying shields. The chief drew a
+line of sacred meal across the trail, and in that way symbolized that
+the entrance to their pueblo was closed to the intruders. During a
+parley, however, one of the men made a move to cross the line of meal,
+and an Indian struck his horse on the bridle. This opened hostilities,
+in which the Hopi were worsted, but apparently without loss of life.
+The vanquished brought presents of various kinds--cotton cloth,
+cornmeal, birds, skins, pinon nuts, and a few turquoises--and finding
+a good camping place near their pueblo, Tobar established headquarters
+and received homage from all the province. They allowed the Spaniards
+to enter their villages and traded with them.[56]
+
+Espejo's reference to Awatobi in 1583 leaves no doubt that the pueblo
+was in existence in that year, and while, of course, we can not
+definitely say that it was not built between 1540 and 1583, the
+indications are that it was not. Hopi traditions assert that it was in
+existence when the Spaniards came, and the statement of the legendists
+whom I have consulted are definite that the survivors of Sikyatki went
+to Awatobi after the overthrow of the former pueblo. It would not
+appear, however, that Awatobi was founded prior to Sikyatki, nor is it
+stated that the refugees from Sikyatki built Awatobi, which is within
+the bounds of possibility, but it seems to be quite generally conceded
+that the Sikyatki tragedy antedated the arrival of the first
+Spaniards.
+
+There can, I think, be no doubt that the Hopi pueblo first entered by
+Pedro de Tobar, in 1540, was Awatobi, and that the first conflict of
+Spanish soldiers and Hopi warriors, which occurred at that time, took
+place on the well-known Zuni trail in Antelope valley, not far from
+Jeditoh or Antelope spring. This pueblo is the nearest village to
+Cibola (Zuni), from which Tobar came, and as he took the Zuni trail he
+would naturally first approach this village, even if the other pueblos
+on the rim of this valley were inhabited. It is interesting to
+consider a few lines from Castaneda, describing the event of that
+episode, to see how closely the site of Awatobi conforms to the
+narrative. In Castaneda's account of Tobar's visit we find that the
+latter with his command entered Tusayan so secretly that their
+presence was unknown to the inhabitants, and they traversed a
+cultivated plain without being seen, so that, we are told, they
+approached the village near enough to hear the voices of the Indians
+without being discovered. Moreover, the Indians, the narrative says,
+had a habit of descending to their cultivated fields, which implies
+that they lived on a mesa top. Awatobi was situated on a mesa, and the
+cultivated fields were in exactly the position indicated. The habit of
+retiring to their pueblo at night is still observed, or was to within
+a few years. Tobar arrived at the edge of Antelope valley after dark
+(otherwise he would have been discovered), crossed the cultivated
+fields under cover of night, and camped under the town at the base of
+the mesa. The soldiers from that point could readily hear the voices
+of the villagers above them. Even at the base of the lofty East Mesa I
+have often heard the Walpi people talking, while the words of the town
+crier are intelligible far out on the plain. From the configuration of
+the valley it would not, however, have been easier for Awatobians to
+have seen the approaching Spaniards than for the Walpians; still it
+was possible for the invaders to conceal their approach to Walpi in
+the same way. If, however, the first pueblo approached was Walpi, and
+Tobar followed the Zuni trail, I think he would have been discovered
+by the Awatobi people before nightfall if he entered the cultivated
+fields early in the evening. It would be incredible to believe that he
+wandered from the trail; much more likely he went directly to Awatobi,
+the first village en route, and then encamped until the approach of
+day before entering the pueblo. At sunrise the inhabitants, early
+stirring, detected the presence of the intruders, and the warriors
+went down the mesa to meet them. They had already heard from Cibola of
+the strange beings, men mounted on animals which were said to devour
+enemies.
+
+It may seem strange that the departure of an expedition against
+Tusayan was unknown to the Hopi, but the narrative leads us to believe
+that such was the fact. The warriors descended to the plain, and their
+chief drew a line of sacred meal across the trail to symbolize that
+the way to their pueblo was closed; whoever crossed it was an enemy,
+and punishment should be meted out to him. This custom is still
+preserved in several ceremonials at the present day, as, for instance,
+in the New-fire rites[57] in November and in the Flute observance in
+July.[58] The priests say that in former times whoever crossed a line
+of meal drawn on the trail at that festival was killed, and even now
+they insist that no one is allowed to pass a closed trail. The Awatobi
+warriors probably warned Tobar and his comrades not to advance, but
+the symbolic barrier was not understood by them. The Spaniards were
+not there to parley long, and it is probable that their purpose was to
+engage in a quarrel with the Indians. Urged on by the priest, Juan de
+Padilla, "who had been a soldier in his youth," they charged the
+Indians and overthrew a number, driving the others before them. The
+immediate provocation for this, according to the historian, was that
+an Indian struck one of the horses on the bridle, at which the holy
+father, losing patience, exclaimed to his captain, "Why are we here?"
+which was interpreted as a sign for the assault.
+
+It must, however, be confessed that if the pueblo of Walpi was the
+first discovered an approach by stealth without being seen would have
+been easier for Tobar if the village referred to was Walpi then
+situated on the Ash-hill terrace, with the East Mesa between it and
+the Zuni trail. To offset this probability, however, is the fact that
+the Zuni trail now runs through Awatobi, or in full view of it and
+there is hardly a possibility that Tobar left that trail to avoid
+Awatobi. He would naturally visit the first village, and not go out of
+his way seven miles beyond it, seeking a more distant pueblo.
+
+The effect of this onslaught on men armed with spears, clubs, and
+leather shields can be imagined, and the encounter seems to have
+discouraged the Awatobi warriors from renewed resistance. They fled,
+but shortly afterward brought presents as a sign of submission, when
+Tobar called off his men. Thus was the entry of the Spaniards into
+Tusayan marked with bloodshed for a trifling offense. Shortly
+afterward Tobar entered the village and received the complete
+submission of the people.
+
+The names of the Tusayan pueblos visited by Tobar in this first
+entrance are nowhere mentioned in the several accounts which have come
+down to us. Forty years later, however, the Spaniards returned and
+found the friendly feeling of Awatobi to the visitors had not lapsed.
+When Espejo approached the town in 1583, over the same Zuni trail, the
+multitudes with their caciques met him with great joy and poured maize
+(sacred meal?) on the ground for the horses to walk upon. This was
+symbolic of welcome; they "made" the trail, a ceremony which is still
+kept up when entrance to the pueblo is formally offered.[59]
+
+The people, considering their poverty, were generous, and gave Espejo
+"hand towels with tassels" at the corners. These were probably dance
+kilts and ceremonial blankets, which then, as now, the Hopi made of
+cotton.
+
+The pueblo, called "Aguato" in the account of that visit, was without
+doubt Awatobi. The name Aguatuyba, mentioned by Onate, is also
+doubtless the same, although, as pointed out to me by Mr Hodge,
+"through an error probably of the copyist or printer, the name
+Aguatuyba is inadvertently given by Onate among his list of Hopi
+chiefs, while Esperiez is mentioned among the pueblos." In Onate's
+list we recognize Oraibi in "Naybi," and Shunopovi in "Xumupami" and
+"Comupavi," the most westerly town of the Middle Mesa. "Cuanrabi" and
+"Esperiez" are not recognizable as pueblos.
+
+Espejo, therefore, appears to have been the first to mention Awatobi
+as "Aguato," which is metamorphosed in Hakluyt into "Zaguato or
+"Ahuzto,"[60] although evidently Onate's "Aguatuyba" was intended as a
+name of a pueblo.
+
+I have not been able to determine satisfactorily the date of the
+erection of the mission building of San Bernardino at Awatobi, but the
+name is mentioned as early as 1629. In that year three friars went to
+Tusayan and began active efforts to convert the Hopi.[61]
+
+It is recorded[62] that Padre Porras, with Andres Gutierrez, Cristoval
+de la Concepcion, and ten soldiers, arrived in Tusayan, "dia del
+glorioso San Bernardo (que es el apellido que aora tiene aquel
+pueblo)," which leaves no doubt why the mission at Awatobi was so
+named. Although an apostate Indian had spread the report, previously
+to the advent of these priests in Tusayan, that the Spaniards were
+coming among them to burn their pueblos, rob their homes, and
+devour[63] their children, the zealous missionaries in 1629 converted
+many of the chiefs and baptized their children. The cacique, Don
+Augustin, who appears to have been baptized at Awatobi, apparently
+lived in Walpi or at the Middle Mesa, and returning to his pueblo,
+prepared the way for a continuation of the apostolic work in the
+villages of the other mesas.
+
+But the missionary labors of Porras came to an untimely end. It is
+written that by 1633 he had made great progress in converting the
+Hopi, but in that year, probably at Awatobi, he was poisoned. Of the
+fate of his two companions and the success of their work little is
+known, but it is recorded that the succession of padres was not
+broken up to the great rebellion in 1680. Figueroa, who was massacred
+at Awatobi in that year, went to Tusayan in 1674 with Aug. Sta. Marie.
+Between the death of Porras and the arrival of Figueroa there was an
+interval of eleven years, during which time the two comrades of Porras
+or Espeleta, who went to Tusayan in 1650, took charge of the spiritual
+welfare of the Hopi. Espeleta and Aug. Sta. Marie were killed in 1680
+at San Francisco de Oraibi and Walpi, respectively, and Jose Trujillo
+probably lost his life at Old Shunopovi at the same time. As there is
+no good reason to suppose that Awatobi, one of the most populous
+Tusayan pueblos, was neglected by the Spanish missionaries after the
+death of Porras in 1633, and as it was the first pueblo encountered on
+the trail from Zuni, doubtless San Bernardino was one of the earliest
+missions erected in Tusayan. From 1680 until 1692, the period of
+independence resulting from the great Pueblo revolt, there was no
+priest in Tusayan, nor, indeed, in all New Mexico. Possibly the
+mission was repaired between 1692 and 1700, but it is probable that it
+was built as early as the time Porras lived in Awatobi. It is
+explicitly stated that in the destruction of Awatobi in 1700 no
+missionaries were killed, although it is recorded that early in that
+year Padre Garaycoechea made it a visit.
+
+The disputes between the Jesuits and Franciscans to obtain the Hopi
+field for missionary work during the eighteenth century naturally
+falls in another chapter of Spanish-Tusayan history. Aside from
+sporadic visits to the pueblos, nothing tangible appears to have
+resulted from the attempts at conversion in this epoch. True, many
+apostates were induced to return to their old homes on the Rio Grande
+and some of the Hopi frequently asked for resident priests, making
+plausible offers to protect them; but the people as a whole were
+hostile, and the mission churches were never rebuilt, nor did the
+fathers again live in this isolated province.
+
+In 1692 Awatobi was visited by Don Diego de Vargas, the reconquerer of
+New Mexico, who appears to have had no difficulty bringing to terms
+the pueblos of Awatobi, Walpi, Mishoninovi, and Shunopovi.[64] He
+found, however, that Awatobi was "fortified," and the entrance so
+narrow that but one man could enter at a time. The description leads
+us to conclude that the fortification was the wall at the eastern end,
+and the entrance the gateway, the sides of which are still to be seen.
+The plaza in which the cross was erected was probably just north of
+the walls of the mission.
+
+There would seem to be no doubt that a mission building was standing
+at Awatobi before 1680, for Vetancurt, writing about the year named,
+states that in the uprising it was burned.[65] At the time of the
+visit of Garaycoechea, in the spring of 1700, he found that the
+mission had been rebuilt. In this connection it is instructive, as
+bearing on the probable cause of the destruction of Awatobi, to find
+that while the inhabitants of this pueblo desired to have the mission
+rehabilitated, the other Tusayan pueblos were so hostile that the
+friends of the priest in Awatobi persuaded him not to attempt to visit
+the other villages. This warning was no doubt well advised, and the
+tragic fate which befell Awatobi before the close of the year shows
+that the trouble was brewing when the padre was there, and possibly
+Garaycoechea's visit hastened the catastrophe or intensified the
+hatred of the other pueblos.
+
+At the time of Garaycoechea's visit he baptized, it is said, 73
+persons. This rite was particularly obnoxious[66] to the Hopi, as
+indeed to the other Pueblo Indians, notwithstanding they performed
+practically the same ceremony in initiations into their own secret
+societies. The Awatobians, however, or at least some of them, allowed
+this rite of the Christians, thus intensifying the hatred of the more
+conservative of their own village and of the neighboring pueblos.
+These and other facts seem to indicate that the real cause of the
+destruction of Awatobi was the reception of Christianity by its
+inhabitants, which the other villagers regarded as sorcery. The
+conservative party, led by Tapolo, opened the gate of the town to the
+warriors of Walpi and Mishoninovi, who slaughtered the liberals, thus
+effectually rooting out the new faith from Tusayan, for after that
+time it never again obtained a foothold.
+
+The visit of Padre Juan Garaycoechea to Tusayan was at the invitation
+of Espeleta, chief of Oraibi, but he went no farther than Awatobi,
+where he baptized the 73 Hopi. He then returned to the "governor," and
+arrived at Zuni in June. According to Bancroft (p. 222), "In the
+'Moqui Noticias' MS., 669, it is stated that the other Moquis, angry
+that Aguatuvi had received the padres, came and attacked the pueblo,
+killed all the men, and carried off all the women and children,
+leaving the place for many years deserted." Although I have not been
+able to consult the document quoted, this conclusion corresponds so
+closely with Hopi tradition that I believe it is practically true,
+although Bancroft unfortunately closes the quotation I have made from
+his account with the words, "I think this must be an error." Espeleta,
+the Oraibi chief, and 20 companions were in Santa Fe in October, 1700,
+and proposed a peace in which the Hopi asked for religious toleration,
+which Governor Cubero refused. As a final appeal he desired that the
+fathers should not permanently reside with them, but should visit one
+pueblo each year for six years; but this request was also rejected.
+Espeleta returned to Oraibi, and immediately on his appearance an
+unsuccessful attempt was made to destroy Awatobi, followed, as
+recounted in the legend, by a union with Walpi and Mishoninovi, by
+which the liberal-minded villagers of the Antelope mesa were
+overthrown. Documentary and legendary accounts are thus in strict
+accord regarding the cause of the destruction.
+
+The meager fragmentary historical evidence that can be adduced shows
+that the destruction of Awatobi occurred in the autumn or early winter
+of 1700. In May of that year we have the account of the visiting
+padre, and in the summer when Espeleta was at Santa Fe, the pueblo was
+flourishing. The month of November would have been a favorable one for
+the destruction of the town for the reason that during this time the
+warriors would all be engaged in secret kiva rites. The legend relates
+that the overthrow of the pueblo was at the _Naacnaiya_,[67] which now
+takes place in November.
+
+For many years after its destruction the name of Awatobi was still
+retained on maps including the Tusayan province, and there exist
+several published references to the place as if still inhabited; but
+these appear to be compilations, as no traveler visited the site
+subsequently to 1700. It is never referred to in writings of the
+eighteenth or first half of the nineteenth centuries, and its site
+attracted no attention. The ruins remained unidentified until about
+1884, when the late Captain J. G. Bourke published his book on the
+"Snake Dance of the Moquis," in which he showed that the ruin called
+by the Navaho Tally-hogan was the old Awatobi which played such a
+prominent part in early Tusayan history.
+
+The ruin was described and figured a few years later by Mr Victor
+Mindeleff in his valuable memoir on Cibola and Tusayan architecture.
+Bourke's reference is very brief and Mindeleff's plan deficient, as it
+includes only a portion of the ruin, namely, the conspicuous mission
+walls and adjacent buildings, overlooking entirely the older or
+western mounds, which are the most characteristic. In 1892 I published
+the first complete ground-plan of the ruins of Awatobi, including both
+eastern and western sections. As Mindeleff's plan is defective, his
+characterization of the architectural features of the pueblo is
+consequently faulty. He says: "The plan suggests that the original
+pueblo was built about three sides of a rectangular court, the fourth
+or southeast side, later occupied by the mission buildings, being left
+open or protected by a low wall." While the eastern portion
+undoubtedly supports this conclusion, had he examined the western or
+main section he would doubtless have qualified his conclusion (plate
+CVII). This portion was compact, without a rectangular court, and was
+of pyramidal form. The eastern section was probably of later
+construction, and the mission was originally built outside the main
+pueblo, although probably a row of rooms of very ancient date extended
+along the northern side opposite the church. As it was customary in
+Tusayan to isolate the kivas, these rooms in Awatobi were probably
+extramural and may have been situated in this eastern court, but the
+majority of the people lived in the western section. The architecture
+of the mission and adjacent rooms shows well-marked Spanish influence,
+which is wholly absent in the buildings forming the western mounds.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVII
+
+GROUND PLAN OF AWATOBI]
+
+
+LEGEND OF THE DESTRUCTION OF AWATOBI
+
+The legend of the overthrow of Awatobi is preserved in detail among
+the living villagers of Tusayan, and like all stories which have been
+transmitted for several generations exist in several variants,
+differing in episodes, but coinciding in general outlines. In the
+absence of contemporary documentary history, which some time may
+possibly be brought to light, the legends are the only available data
+regarding an event of great importance in the modern history of
+Tusayan.
+
+I have obtained the legends from Supela, Shimo,[68] Masiumptiwa, and
+Saliko, and the most complete appears to be that of the last
+mentioned. The others dilated more on the atrocities which were
+committed on the bodies of the unfortunate captives, and the tortures
+endured before they were killed. All show traces of modification,
+incorporation, and modern invention.
+
+
+_Destruction of Awatobi as related by Saliko_[69]
+
+    "The chiefs Wiki and Shimo, and others, have told you their
+    stories, and surely their ancestors were living here at Walpi
+    when Awatobi was occupied. It was a large village, and many
+    people lived there, and the village chief was called Tapolo,
+    but he was not at peace with his people, and there were
+    quarreling and trouble. Owing to this conflict only a little
+    rain fell, but the land was fertile and fair harvests were
+    still gathered. The Awatobi men were bad (_powako_,
+    sorcerers). Sometimes they went in small bands among the
+    fields of the other villagers and cudgeled any solitary
+    worker they found. If they overtook any woman they ravished
+    her, and they waylaid hunting parties, taking the game, after
+    beating and sometimes killing the hunters. There was
+    considerable trouble in Awatobi, and Tapolo sent to the
+    Oraibi chief asking him to bring his people and kill the evil
+    Awatobians. The Oraibi came and fought with them, and many
+    were killed on both sides, but the Oraibi were not strong
+    enough to enter the village, and were compelled to withdraw.
+    On his way back the Oraibi chief stopped at Walpi and talked
+    with the chiefs there. Said he, 'I can not tell why Tapolo
+    wants the Oraibi to kill his folks, but we have tried and
+    have not succeeded very well. Even if we did succeed, what
+    benefit would come to us who live too far away to occupy the
+    land? You Walpi people live close to them and have suffered
+    most at their hands; it is for you to try.' While they were
+    talking Tapolo had also come, and it was then decided that
+    other chiefs of all the villages should convene at Walpi to
+    consult. Couriers were sent out, and when all the chiefs had
+    arrived Tapolo declared that his people had become sorcerers
+    (Christians), and hence should all be destroyed.
+
+    "It was then arranged that in four days large bands from all
+    the other villages should prepare themselves, and assemble at
+    a spring not far from Awatobi. A long while before this, when
+    the Spaniards lived there, they had built a wall on the side
+    of the village that needed protection, and in this wall was a
+    great, strong door. Tapolo proposed that the assailants
+    should come before dawn, and he would be at this door ready
+    to admit them, and under this compact he returned to his
+    village. During the fourth night after this, as agreed upon,
+    the various bands assembled at the deep gulch spring, and
+    every man carried, besides his weapons, a cedar-bark torch
+    and a bundle of greasewood. Just before dawn they moved
+    silently up to the mesa summit, and, going directly to the
+    east side of the village, they entered the gate, which opened
+    as they approached. In one of the courts was a large kiva,
+    and in it were a number of men engaged in sorcerer's rites.
+    The assailants at once made for the kiva, and plucking up the
+    ladder, they stood around the hatchway, shooting arrows down
+    among the entrapped occupants. In the numerous cooking pits
+    fire had been maintained through the night for the
+    preparation of food for a feast on the appointed morning, and
+    from these they lighted their torches. Great numbers of these
+    and the bundles of greasewood being set on fire, they were
+    cast down the hatchway, and firewood from stacks upon the
+    house terraces were also thrown into the kiva. The red
+    peppers for which Awatobi was famous were hanging in thick
+    clusters along the fronts of the houses, and these they
+    crushed in their hands and flung upon the blazing fire in the
+    kiva to further torment their burning occupants. After this,
+    all who were capable of moving were compelled to travel or
+    drag themselves until they came to the sand-hills of
+    Mishoninovi, and there the final disposition of the prisoners
+    was made.
+
+    "My maternal ancestor had recognized a woman chief (_Mamzrau
+    monwi_), and saved her at the place of massacre called Maski,
+    and now he asked her whether she would be willing to initiate
+    the woman of Walpi in the rites of the _Mamzrau_. She
+    complied, and thus the observance of the ceremonial called
+    the Mamzrauti came to Walpi. I can not tell how it came to
+    the other villages. This Mamzrau-monwi had no children, and
+    hence my maternal ancestor's sister became chief, and her
+    _tiponi_ (badge of office) came to me. Some of the other
+    Awatobi women knew how to bring rain, and such of them as
+    were willing to teach their songs were spared and went to
+    different villages. The Oraibi chief saved a man who knew how
+    to cause peaches to grow, and that is why Oraibi has such an
+    abundance of peaches now. The Mishoninovi chief saved a
+    prisoner who knew how to make the sweet, small-ear corn grow,
+    and that is why it is more abundant there than elsewhere. All
+    the women who knew song prayers and were willing to teach
+    them were spared, and no children were designedly killed, but
+    were divided among the villages, most of them going to
+    Mishoninovi. The remainder of the prisoners, men and women,
+    were again tortured and dismembered and left to die on the
+    sand hills, and there their bones are, and that is the reason
+    the place is called _Maschomo_ (Death-mound). This is the
+    story of Awatobi told by my old people."
+
+All variants of the legend are in harmony in this particular, that
+Awatobi was destroyed by the other Tusayan pueblos, and that
+Mishoninovi, Walpi, and probably Oraibi and Shunopovi participated in
+the deed. A grievance that would unite the other villagers against
+Awatobi must have been a great one, indeed, and not a mere dispute
+about water or lands. The more I study the real cause, hidden in the
+term _powako_, "wizard" or "sorcerer," the more I am convinced that
+the progress Christianity was making in Awatobi, after the reconquest
+of the Pueblos in 1692, explains the hostility of the other villagers.
+The party favoring the Catholic fathers in Awatobi was increasing, and
+the other Tusayan pueblos watched its growth with alarm. They foresaw
+that it heralded the return of the hated domination of the priests,
+associated in their minds with practical slavery, and they decided on
+the tragedy, which was carried out with all the savagery of which
+their natures were capable.
+
+They greatly feared the return of the Spanish soldiers, as the epoch
+of Spanish rule, mild though it may have been, was held in universal
+detestation. Moreover, after the reconquest of the Rio Grande pueblos,
+many apostates fled to Tusayan and fanned the fires of hatred against
+the priests. Walpi received these malcontents, who came in numbers a
+few years later. Among these arrivals were Tanoan warriors and their
+families, part of whom were ancestors of the present inhabitants of
+Hano.
+
+It was no doubt hoped that the destruction of Awatobi would
+effectually root out the growing Christian influence, which it in fact
+did; and for fifty years afterward Tusayan successfully resisted all
+efforts to convert it. Franciscans from the east and Jesuits from the
+Gila in the south strove to get a new hold, but they never succeeded
+in rebuilding the missions in this isolated province, which was
+generally regarded as independent.
+
+From the scanty data I have been able to collect from historical and
+legendary sources, it seems probable that Awatobi was always more
+affected by the padres than were the other Tusayan pueblos. This was
+the village which was said to have been "converted" by Padre Porras,
+whose work, after his death by poison in 1633, was no doubt continued
+by his associates and successors. About 1680, as we learn from
+documentary accounts, the population of Awatobi was 800,[70] and it
+was probably not much smaller in 1700, the time of its destruction.
+
+
+EVIDENCES OF FIRE IN THE DESTRUCTION
+
+Wherever excavations were conducted in the eastern section of Awatobi,
+we could not penetrate far below the surface without encountering
+unmistakable evidences of a great conflagration. The effect of the
+fire was particularly disastrous in the rooms of the eastern section,
+or that part of the pueblo contiguous to the mission. Hardly a single
+object was removed from this part of Awatobi that had not been
+charred. Many of the beams were completely burned; others were charred
+only on their surfaces. The rooms were filled with ashes and scoriae,
+while the walls had been cracked as if by intense heat.
+
+Perhaps the most significant fact in regard to the burning of Awatobi
+was seen in some of the houses where the fire seems to have been less
+intense. In many chambers of the eastern section, which evidently were
+used as granaries, the corn was stacked in piles just as it is today
+under many of the living rooms at Walpi, a fact which tends to show
+that there was no attempt to pillage the pueblo before its
+destruction. The ears of corn in these store-rooms were simply
+charred, but so well preserved that entire ears of maize were
+collected in great numbers. It may here be mentioned that upon one of
+the stacks of corn I found during my excavations for the Hemenway
+Expedition in 1892, a rusty iron knife-blade, showing that the owner
+of the room was acquainted with objects of Spanish manufacture. This
+blade is now deposited with the Hemenway collection in the Peabody
+Museum at Cambridge.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF THE MISSION
+
+The mission church of San Bernardino de Awatobi was erected very early
+in the history of the Spanish occupancy, and its ruined walls are the
+only ones now standing above the surface. This building was
+constructed by the padres on a mesa top, while the churches at Walpi
+and Shunopovi were built in the foothills near those pueblos. The
+mission at Oraibi likewise stood on a mesa top, so that we must
+qualify Mindeleff's statement[71] that "at Tusayan there is no
+evidence that a church or mission house ever formed part of the
+villages on the mesa summits.... These summits have been extensively
+occupied only in comparatively recent time, although one or more
+churches may have been built here at an early date as outlooks over
+the fields in the valley below."
+
+At the time of the Spanish invasion three of the Hopi villages stood
+on the foothills or lower terraces of the mesas on which they now
+stand, and the other two, Awatobi and Oraibi, occupied the same sites
+as today, on the summits of the mesas.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVIII
+
+RUINS OF SAN BERNARDINO DE AWATOBI]
+
+I believe that at the time of the Spanish discovery of Tusayan by
+Pedro de Tobar in 1540, there were only five Tusayan towns--Walpi,
+Awatobi, Shunopovi, Mishoninovi, and Oraibi. Later, Awatobi was
+destroyed, and shortly after 1680 Walpi, the only East Mesa town,
+together with Mishoninovi and Shunopovi, on the Middle Mesa, were
+moved to the elevated sites they now occupy. Oraibi, therefore, is
+probably the only Tusayan pueblo, at present inhabited, which occupies
+practically the same site that it did in 1540.
+
+In their excavations for the foundations of new houses the present
+inhabitants of Oraibi often find, as I am informed by Mr H. R. Voth,
+the missionary at that place, vessels or potsherds of ancient Tusayan
+ware closely resembling that which is found in the ruins of Sikyatki
+and Awatobi.
+
+The mission building at Awatobi, known in the church history of New
+Mexico and Arizona as San Bernardo or San Bernardino, was reputed to
+be the largest in Tusayan, and its walls are still the best preserved
+of any mission structure in that province. This, however, does not
+imply that the church structures of Tusayan are well preserved, for
+the mission buildings at Walpi have wholly disappeared, while at
+Oraibi little more than a pile of stones remains. Of the Shunopovi
+mission of San Bernabe there are no standing walls save at one end,
+which are now used as a sheep corral.
+
+The mission of San Bernardino de Awatobi was built on the southern
+side of the eastern part of the pueblo on the edge of the cliff, and
+its walls are the only ones of Awatobi now standing above ground. From
+the situation of these walls, as compared with the oldest part of
+Awatobi--the western mounds--I believe that San Bernardino mission
+was, when erected, beyond the limits of the pueblo proper--a custom
+almost universally followed in erecting pueblo mission
+churches--necessary in this instance, since from the compactness of
+the village there was no other available site. The same was true of
+the missions of Oraibi and Shunopovi, and probably of Old Walpi. As
+time passed additional buildings were erected near it, this eastward
+extension altering the original plan of the town, but in no way
+affecting the configuration of the older portion.
+
+From its commanding position on the edge of the mesa the mission walls
+must have presented an imposing appearance from the plain below,
+rising as they did almost continuously with the side of the cliff,
+making a conspicuous structure for miles across Antelope valley, from
+which its crumbling walls are still visible (plate CVIII).
+
+When compared with the masonry of unmodified pueblo ruins the walls of
+the mission may be designated massive, and excavation at their
+foundations was very difficult on account of the great amount of
+debris which had fallen about them. With the limited force of laborers
+at my command the excavations could not be conducted with a great
+degree of thoroughness.
+
+In the middle of what I supposed to have been the main church there
+was much sand, evidently drift, and in it I sank a trench 10 feet
+below the surface without reaching anything which I considered a
+floor. We found in excavations at the foundation of the church walls
+fragments of glass, several copper nails, a much-corroded iron hook, a
+copper bell pivot, and fragments of Spanish pottery. From the
+character of these objects alone there is no doubt in my mind of the
+former existence of Spanish influence, and the method of construction
+of the mission walls and the addition constructed of adobe containing
+chopped straw, substantiate this conclusion. Supposing, from the
+architecture and orientation of other New Mexican missions, that the
+altar was at the western end, opposite the entrance to the church, I
+sank a trench along the foundation of the wall on that side, but
+encountered such a mass of fallen stone at that point that I found it
+impossible to make much progress, and the fact that the floor was more
+than 10 feet below the surface of the central depression led me to
+abandon, as impossible with my little band of native excavators, the
+laying bare of the floor of the church.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 255--Ground plan of San Bernardino de Awatobi]
+
+The ground plan (figure 255) of the mission resembles that of the Zuni
+church, and is not unlike the plans of the churches in the Rio Grande
+pueblos. The tall buttresses, which rise 15 or 20 feet above the trail
+up the mesa on the southern corner, are, I believe, remnants of
+towers which formerly supported a balcony. During a previous visit to
+Tusayan I obtained fragments[72] of the ancient bell, which are now on
+exhibition in the Hemenway section of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge.
+
+The stone walls of the mission were rarely dressed or carefully
+fitted, the interstices being filled in with loose rubble laid in
+adobe. There was apparently a gallery over the entrance to the
+building overlooking many smaller buildings, which evidently were the
+quarters of the resident priest. The construction of the walls was
+apparently a laborious task, as many of the stones are large and must
+have been brought a considerable distance. These stones were laid in
+adobe, and apparently were plastered without and within, although
+little evidence of the former plastering may now be seen. At the
+northwestern corner, however, there still remain well-made adobe
+walls, the clay having been intermixed with straw. From the general
+appearance of these walls I regard them as of late construction,
+probably long after the destruction of the mission.
+
+An examination of the plan of the mission building shows that it was
+oriented about north and south, with the entrance toward the latter
+direction. Compared with many other pueblo missions, this would seem
+to be an exceptional position. In my excavations I naturally sought
+the probable position of the entrance and, opposite it, the recess for
+the altar. It is evident, from the form of the standing walls, that an
+entrance from the east would be blocked by standing walls, and the
+axis of the building is north and south. The theory that the door was
+at the south has much in its favor, but there are several almost fatal
+objections to this conclusion.
+
+If, however, we suppose that the entrance was in the south wall, the
+high walls still standing above the trail up the mesa would then
+recall the facades of other missions. The rooms east of the largest
+inclosure, by this interpretation, would be outbuildings--residence
+rooms for the padres--one side of which forms the eastern walls of the
+church edifice. The form of the Awatobi church, as indicated by the
+walls still standing, is very similar to that of Zuni, notwithstanding
+the orientation appears to be somewhat different.
+
+Excavations failed to reveal any sign of the altar recess at either
+the northern or the western end, which is not surprising, since the
+walls are so poorly preserved in both these directions. It was,
+moreover, very difficult to make a satisfactory examination of the
+foundations of the walls at any point on account of the fallen
+stories, which encumbered the floor at their bases.
+
+From the appearance of antiquity it seems probable that long before
+the mission buildings were erected a ridge of many-storied houses
+extended eastward from the pueblo on the northern side of a level
+space or court, in which there were, either then or later, ceremonial
+chambers or kivas. The southern side of this open space was the site
+of the mission, but was then unoccupied. This open space recalls the
+large court at Walpi, where the Snake dance occurs, but it was
+considerably broader, one side being formed by the structures which
+rose from the edge of the mesa. In course of time, however, the
+mission buildings were erected on this site, and a wall connecting the
+ridge of houses on the north and the outhouses of the mission was
+made, thus inclosing the court on all four sides. It was into this
+inclosure, through a gateway, the buttresses of which still remain,
+that the assailants passed on that eventful night when Awatobi was
+destroyed.
+
+There is good evidence that a massacre of Awatobians occurred in the
+southeastern angle of the eastern part of the pueblo, just east of the
+mission. If so, it is probable that many of the unfortunates sought
+refuge in the outbuildings of the church. Suspecting that such was the
+case, I excavated a considerable space of ground at these places and
+found many human skulls and other bones thrown together in confusion.
+The earth was literally filled with bones, evidently hastily placed
+there or left where the dead fell. These bodies were not buried with
+pious care, for there were no fragments of mortuary pottery or other
+indication of burial objects. Many of the skulls were broken, some
+pierced with sharp implements. While it is true that possibly this may
+have been a potter's field, or, from its position east of the mission,
+a Christian burial place, as at Zuni, the evidence from the appearance
+of the bodies points to a different conclusion. According to the
+legends, the hostiles entered the pueblo through the adjacent gateway;
+their anger led them especially against those of the inhabitants who
+were regarded as _powako_ or sorcerers, and their first acts of
+violence would naturally have been toward those who sought refuge in
+the buildings adjacent the church. Near this hated "Singing-house" the
+slaughter began, soon extending to the kivas and the whole of the
+eastern section of the village. There was no evidence of murderous
+deeds in the rooms of the western section of the old pueblo, and the
+legends agree in relating that most of the men were in kivas, not far
+from the mission, when the village was overthrown. There is no
+legendary evidence that there were any Spanish priests in the mission
+at the time of its destruction, and there is no record extant of any
+Spaniards losing their lives at Awatobi at the time of its
+destruction, although the fact of the occurrence, according to
+Bandelier,[73] was recorded.
+
+The traditional clans which inhabited Awatobi were the Awata (Bow),
+Honani (Badger), Piba (Tobacco), and Buli (Butterfly). The Bow people
+appear to have been the most important of these, since their name was
+applied to the village. Their totemic signatures, in pictographic
+form, may still be seen on the sides of the cliff under Awatobi, and
+in the ruins was found a fine arrowshaft polisher on which was an
+incised drawing of a bow and an arrow, suggesting that the owner was a
+member of the Bow phratry. Saliko, the chief of the woman's society
+known as the Mamzrautu, insists that this priesthood was strong in the
+fated pueblo, and that a knowledge of its mysteries was brought to
+Walpi by one of the women who was saved.
+
+It is claimed by the folklorists of the Tataukyamu, a priesthood
+which, controls the New-fire ceremonies at Walpi, and is prominent in
+the Soyaluna, or the rites of the winter solstice, that the Piba or
+Tobacco phratry brought the fetishes of that society to Walpi, and
+there are many obscurely known resemblances between the Mamzrauti and
+the Wuewuetcimti celebrations in Walpi which appear to support that
+claim. The Piba phratry is likewise said to have come to Walpi
+comparatively late in the history of the village, which fact points
+the same way.
+
+Undoubtedly Awatobi received additions to its population from the
+south when the pueblos on the Little Colorado were abandoned, and
+there are obscure legends which support that belief; but the largest
+numbers were recruited from the pueblos in the eastern section of the
+country.[74]
+
+
+THE KIVAS OF AWATOBI
+
+A pueblo of the size of Awatobi, with so many evidences of long
+occupancy, would no doubt have several ceremonial chambers or kivas,
+but as yet no one has definitely indicated their positions. I have
+already called attention to evidences that if they existed they were
+probably to be looked for in the open court east of the western mounds
+and in the space north of the mission. In all the inhabited Tusayan
+pueblos the kivas are separated from the house clusters and are
+surrounded by courts or dance plazas. No open spaces existed in the
+main or western mounds of Awatobi, and there was no place there for
+kivas unless the pueblo was exceptional in having such structures
+built among the dwellings, as at Zuni. A tradition has survived that
+Awatobi had regular kivas, partially subterranean, of rectangular
+shape, and that they were situated in open courts. This would indicate
+that the space east of the oldest part of the ruin may have been the
+sites of these chambers. The old priests whom I have consulted in
+regard to the probable positions of Awatobi kivas have invariably
+pointed out the mounds north of the mission walls in the eastern
+section of the ruin as the location of the kivas, and in 1892 I proved
+to my satisfaction that these directions were correct.
+
+There is no reason to suppose that the kiva was a necessity in the
+ancient performance of the Tusayan ritual, and there are still
+performed many ceremonials as secret and as sacred as any others which
+occur in rooms used as dwellings or for the storage of corn. Thus, the
+Flute ceremony, one of the most complicated in Tusayan, is not, and
+according to legends never was, performed in a kiva. On the contrary,
+the secret rites of the Flute society are performed in the ancestral
+Flute chamber or home of the oldest woman of the Flute clan.
+Originally, I believe, the same was true in the case of other
+ceremonials, and that the kiva was of comparatively recent
+introduction into Tusayan.[75]
+
+Speaking of the sacred rooms of Awatobi, Mindeleff says: "No traces of
+kivas were visible at the time the ruin was surveyed," but Stephen is
+quoted in a legend that "the people of Walpi had partly cleaned out
+one of these chambers and used it as a depository for ceremonial
+plume-sticks, but the Navaho carried off their sacred deposits,
+tempted probably by their market value as ethnologic specimens." It is
+true that while from a superficial examination of the Awatobi mounds
+the position of the kivas is difficult to locate, a little excavation
+brings their walls to light. It is likewise quite probable that the
+legend reported by Stephen has a basis in fact, and that the people at
+Walpi may have used old shrines in Awatobi, after its destruction, as
+the priests of Mishoninovi do at the present time; but I very much
+doubt if the Navaho sold any of the sacred prayer emblems from these
+fanes. It is hardly characteristic of these people to barter such
+objects among one another, and no specimens from the shrines appear to
+have made their way into the numerous collections of traders known to
+me. There is, however, archeological evidence revealed by excavations
+that the room centrally placed in the court north of the mission
+contained a shrine in its floor on the night Awatobi fell.
+
+In 1892, while removing the soil from a depression about the middle of
+the eastern court of Awatobi, about 100 feet north of the northern
+wall of the mission, I laid bare a room 28 by 14 feet, in which were
+found a skull and many other human bones which, from their
+disposition, had not been buried with care. The discovery of these
+skeletons accorded with the Hopi traditions that this was one of the
+rooms in which the men of Awatobi were gathered on the fatal night,
+and the inclosure where many died. I was deterred from further
+excavation at that place by the horror of my workmen at the
+desecration of the chamber. In 1895, however, I determined to continue
+my earlier excavations and to trace the course of the walls of
+adjacent rooms. The results obtained in this work led to a new phase
+of the question, which sheds more light on the character of the rooms
+in the middle of the eastern court of Awatobi. Instead of a single
+room at this point, there are three rectangular chambers side by side,
+all of about the same size (plate CVIII). In the center of the floor
+of the middle room, 6 feet below the surface, I came upon a cist or
+stone shrine. As the workmen approached the floor they encountered a
+stone slab, horizontally placed in the pavement of the room. This slab
+was removed, and below it was another flat stone which was perforated
+by a rectangular hole just large enough to admit the hand and forearm.
+This second slab was found to cover a stone box, the sides of which
+were formed of stone slabs about 2-1/2 feet square. On the inner faces
+of the upright slabs rain-cloud symbols were painted. These symbols
+were of terrace form, in different colors outlined with black lines.
+One of the stones bore a yellow figure, another a red, and a third
+white. The color of the fourth was not determinable, but evidently,
+from its position relatively to the others, was once green. This
+arrangement corresponds with the present ceremonial assignment of
+colors to the cardinal points, or at least the north and south, as at
+the present time, were yellow and red, respectively, and presumably
+the white and green were on the east and west sides of the cist. The
+colors are still fairly bright and may be seen in the restoration of
+this shrine now in the National Museum.
+
+There was no stone floor to this shrine, but within it were found
+fragments of prayer-plumes or pahos painted green, but so decayed
+that, when exposed to sunlight, some of them fell into dust. There
+were likewise fragments of green carbonate of copper and kaolin, a
+yellow ocher, and considerable vegetal matter mixed with the sand. All
+these facts tend to the belief that this crypt was an ancient shrine
+in the floor of a chamber which may have been a kiva.
+
+The position of this room with a shrine in the middle of the court is
+interesting in comparison with that of similar shrines in some of the
+modern Hopi pueblos. Shrines occupy the same relative position in
+Sichomovi, Hano, Shipaulovi, and elsewhere, and within them sacred
+prayer-offerings are still deposited on ceremonial occasions. At
+Walpi, in the middle of the plaza, there is a subterranean crypt in
+which offerings are often placed, as I have elsewhere described in
+treating of certain ceremonies. This shrine is not visible, for a slab
+of stone which is placed over it lies on a level with the plaza, and
+is securely luted in place with adobe. There are similar subterranean
+prayer crypts in other Tusayan villages. They represent the
+traditional opening, or _sipapu_, through which, in Pueblo cosmogony,
+races crawled to the surface of the earth from an underworld. In
+Awatobi also there is a similar shrine, for the deposit of
+prayer-offerings, almost in the middle of a plaza bounded on three
+sides by the mission, the spur of many-storied houses, and the wall
+with a gateway, while the remaining side was formed by the great
+communal houses of the western part of the pueblo.
+
+While we were taking from their ancient resting places the slabs of
+stone which formed this Awatobi shrine, the workmen reminded me how
+closely it resembled the _pahoki_ used by the _katcinas_, and when, a
+month later, I witnessed the _Niman-katcina_ ceremony at Walpi, and
+accompanied the chief, Intiwa, when he deposited the prayer-sticks in
+that shrine,[76] I was again impressed by the similarity of the two,
+one in a ruin deserted two centuries ago, the other still used in the
+performance of ancient rites, no doubt much older than the overthrow
+of the great pueblo of Antelope mesa.
+
+
+OLD AWATOBI
+
+The western mounds of Awatobi afford satisfactory evidence that they
+cover the older rooms of the pueblo, and show by their compact form
+that the ancient village in architectural plan was similar to modern
+Walpi. They indicate that Awatobi was of pyramidal form, was
+symmetrical, three or four stories high,[77] without a central plaza,
+but probably penetrated by narrow courts or passages. No great
+ceremonial dance could have taken place in the heart of the pueblo,
+since there was not sufficient space for its celebration, but it must
+have occurred outside the village, probably in the open space to the
+east, near where the ruined walls of the mission now stand.
+
+From the nature of the western mounds I found it advantageous to begin
+the work of excavation in the steep decline on the southern side, and
+to penetrate the mound on the level of its base or the rock formation
+which forms its foundation. In this way all the debris could
+advantageously be moved and thrown over the side of the mesa. We began
+to open the mounds, therefore, on the southern side, making converging
+trenches at intervals, working toward their center. We found that
+these trenches followed continuous walls connected by cross
+partitions, forming rooms, and that these were continued as far as we
+penetrated. The evidence is good that these rooms are followed by
+others which extend into the deepest part of the mound. We likewise
+excavated at intervals over the whole surface of the western area of
+Awatobi, and wherever we dug, walls of former rooms, which diminished
+in altitude on the northern side, were found. From these excavations I
+concluded that if any part of the western mound was higher than the
+remainder, it was on the southern side just above the edge of the
+mesa, and from that highest point the pueblo diminished in altitude to
+the north, in which direction it was continued for some distance in
+low, single-story rooms.
+
+
+ROOMS OF THE WESTERN MOUND
+
+The older or western portion of Awatobi is thus believed to be made up
+of a number of high mounds which rise steeply, and for a considerable
+height from the southern edge of the cliff, from which it slopes more
+gradually to the north and west. On account of this steep declivity we
+were able to examine, in vertical section, the arrangement of the
+rooms, one above the other (figure 256). By beginning excavations on
+the rocky foundation and working into the mound, parallel walls were
+encountered at intervals as far as we penetrated. From the edge of the
+cliff there seemed to extend a series of these parallel walls,
+which were united by cross partitions, forming a series of rooms,
+one back of another. The deeper we penetrated the mound the higher the
+walls were found to be, and this was true of the excavations along the
+whole southern side of the elevation (plate CIX). If, as I suspect,
+these parallel walls extend to the heart of the mounds, the greatest
+elevation of the former buildings must have been four stories. It
+would likewise seem probable that the town was more or less pyramidal,
+with the highest point somewhat back from the one- or two-story walls
+at the edge of the cliff, a style of architecture still preserved in
+Walpi. The loftiest wall, which was followed down to the floor, was 15
+feet high, but as that was measured over 20 feet below the apex of the
+mound, it would seem that, from a distance, there would be a wall 30
+feet high in the center of the mound. Even counting 7 feet as the
+height of each story we would have four stories above the foundation,
+and this, I believe, was the height of the old pueblo. But probably
+the wall did not rise to this height at the edge of the mesa, where it
+could not have been more than one or two stories high. There is no
+evidence of the former existence of an inclosed court of any
+considerable size between the buildings and the cliff, although a
+passage probably skirted the brink of the precipice, and house ladders
+may have been placed on that side for ready access to upper rooms. By
+a series of platforms or terraces, which were in fact the roofs of the
+houses, one mounted to the upper stories which formed the apex of the
+pueblo.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIX
+
+EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 256--Structure of house wall of Awatobi]
+
+On the western, northern, and eastern sides the slope is more gradual,
+and while there are many obscurely marked house plans visible over the
+surface, even quite near the top of the elevation, they are doubtless
+the remains of single-story structures. This leads me to suspect that
+when Awatobi was built it was reared on a mound of soil or sand, and
+not on the solid rock surface of the mesa. The configuration, then,
+shows that the pueblo sloped by easy decline to the plain to the
+north, but rose more abruptly from the south and west. There are low
+extramural mounds to the north, showing that on this side the
+dwellings were composed of straggling chambers. The general character
+of the rooms on the level slope at the western side of old Awatobi is
+shown in the accompanying illustration (plate CX). The peculiarity of
+these rooms appears by a comparison with the many-story chambers of
+the southern declivity of the ruin. Extending the excavations four
+feet below the surface we encountered a floor which rested on solid
+earth, and there were no signs of walls beneath it. This was without
+doubt a single-story house, the roof of which had disappeared. The
+surrounding surface of the ground is level, but the tops of adjoining
+walls of rooms may readily be traced near by.
+
+The room was rectangular, twice as long as wide, and without
+passageways into adjoining chambers. The northern, eastern, and
+western walls were unbroken, and there was nothing peculiar in the
+floor of these sections; but we found a well-preserved, elevated
+settle at the southern side, extending two-thirds of the length of the
+main wall to a small side wall, inclosing a square recess, the object
+of which is unknown to me.
+
+All walls were smoothly plastered, and the floor was paved with flat
+stones set in adobe. The singular inclosure at the southern corner
+could not be regarded as a fireplace, for there was no trace of soot
+upon its walls. I incline to the belief that it may have served as a
+closet, or possibly as a granary. Its arrangement is not unlike that
+in certain modern rooms at Walpi.
+
+An examination of the masonry of the rooms of the western mounds of
+Awatobi shows that the component stones were in a measure dressed into
+shape, which was, as a rule, cubical. In this respect they differ from
+the larger stones of which the mission walls were built, for in this
+masonry the natural cleavage is utilized for the face of the wall.
+
+The differences between the masonry of the mission and that of the
+room in which we found a chief buried were very marked. In the former,
+elongated slabs of stone, without pecking or dressing, were universal,
+while in the latter the squared stones were laid in courses and neatly
+fitted together. The partitions likewise are narrower, being not more
+than 6 inches thick.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CX
+
+EXCAVATED ROOM IN THE WESTERN MOUND OF AWATOBI]
+
+
+SMALLER AWATOBI
+
+About an eighth of a mile west of the great mounds of Awatobi there is
+a small rectangular ruin, the ground plan of which is well marked, and
+in which individual houses are easy to trace. Like its larger
+neighbor, it stands on the very edge of the mesa. None of its walls
+rise above the surface of the mounds, which, however, are considerably
+elevated and readily distinguished for some distance. The pueblo was
+built in the form of a rectangle of single-story houses surrounding a
+plaza. There was an opening or entrance on the southern side, near
+which is a mound, possibly the remains of a kiva. A trail now passes
+directly through the ruin and down the mesa side to Jeditoh valley,
+probably the pathway by which the ancient inhabitants ascended the
+cliff. The Hopi Indians employed by me in excavating Awatobi had no
+name for this ruin and were not familiar with its existence before I
+pointed it out to them. For want of a better interpretation I have
+regarded it as a colony of old Awatobi, possibly of later
+construction.
+
+Excavations in its mounds revealed no objects of interest, although
+fragments of beautiful pottery, related to that found at Awatobi and
+Sikyatki, show that it must have been made by people of the older or
+best epoch[78] of Tusayan ceramics.
+
+
+MORTUARY REMAINS
+
+Although it is well known that the ancient inhabitants of the great
+houses of the Gila-Salado drainage buried some of their dead within
+their dwellings, or in other rooms, and that the same mortuary
+practice was observed in ancient Zuni-Cibola, up to the time of my
+excavations this form of burial had never been found in Tusayan. I am
+now able to record that the same custom was practiced at Awatobi.
+
+Excavation made in the southeastern declivity of the western mounds
+led to a burial chamber in which we found the well-preserved skeleton
+of an old man, apparently a priest. The body was laid on the floor, at
+full length, and at his head, which pointed southward, had been
+placed, not mortuary offerings of food in bowls, but insignia of his
+priestly office. Eight small objects of pottery were found on his left
+side (plate CXII, _a_, _b_, _d_, _e_). Among these was a symmetrical
+vase of beautiful red ware (plate CXI, _a_) richly decorated with
+geometric patterns, and four globular paint pots, each full of pigment
+of characteristic color. These paint pots were of black-and-white
+ware, and contained, respectively, yellow ocher, sesquioxide of iron,
+green copper carbonate, and micaceous hematite (plate CXIII, _a_,
+_d_, _e_) such as is now called _yayala_ and used by the Snake priests
+in the decoration of their faces. There were also many arrowpoints in
+an earthen colander, and a ladle was luted over the mouth of the red
+vase. My native excavators pronounced this the grave of a warrior
+priest. The passageways into this chamber of death had all been
+closed, and there were no other mortuary objects in the room. This was
+the only instance of intramural interment which I discovered in the
+excavations at Awatobi, but a human bone was found on the floor of
+another chamber. So far as known the Awatobi people buried most of
+their dead outside the town, either in the foothills at the base of
+the mesa, or in the adjacent sand-dunes.
+
+The work of excavating the graves at the foot of the mesa was
+desultory, as I found no single place where many interments had been
+made. Several food vessels were dug up at a grave opened by Kopeli,
+the Snake chief. I was not with him when he found the grave, but he
+called me to see it soon after its discovery. We took from this
+excavation a sandstone fetish of a mountain-lion, a fragment of the
+bottom of a basin perforated with holes as if used as a colander.
+Deposited in this fragment were many stone arrowheads, several
+fragments of green paint, a flat green paho ornamented with figures of
+dragon-flies in black. In addition to a single complete prayer-stick
+there were fragments of many others too much broken to be identified.
+One of these was declared by Kopeli to be a chief's paho. The grave in
+which these objects were found was situated about halfway down the
+side of the mesa to the southward of the highest mounds of the western
+division of the pueblo.
+
+Here and there along the base of all the foothills south of Awatobi
+are evidences of former burials, and complete bowls, dippers, and
+vases were unearthed (plate CXIII, _b_, _c_). The soil is covered with
+fragments of pottery, and in places, where the water has washed
+through them, exposing a vertical section of the ground, it was found
+that the fragments of pottery extended through the soil sometimes to a
+depth of fifty feet below the surface. There was evidence, however,
+that this soil had been transported more or less by rain water, which
+often courses down the sides of the mesa in impetuous torrents.
+
+Human bones and mortuary vessels were found south of the mission near
+the trail, at the foot of the mesa. In a single grave, a foot below
+the surface, there were two piles of food bowls, each pile containing
+six vessels, all broken.
+
+The cemetery northwest of Awatobi, where the soil is sandy and easy to
+excavate, had been searched by others, and many beautiful objects of
+pottery taken from it. This burial place yielded many bowls (plates
+CLXVII, CLXVIII) and jars, as well as several interesting pahos
+similar to those from Sikyatki, which I shall later describe but which
+have never before been reported from Awatobi. It was found that one of
+these prayer-sticks was laid over the heart of the deceased, and as
+the skeleton was in a sitting posture, with the hand on the breast,
+the prayer-stick may thus have been held at the time of burial. Our
+success in finding places of interment on all sides of Sikyatki,
+irrespective of direction, leads me to suspect that further
+investigation of the sand-dunes north of Awatobi will reveal graves at
+that point.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXI
+
+VASE AND MUGS FROM THE WESTERN MOUNDS OF AWATOBI]
+
+I have already called attention to the great abundance of charred corn
+found in the rooms north of the mission. Renewed work in this quarter
+revealed still greater quantities of this corn stacked in piles,
+sometimes filling the entire side of a room. Evidently, as I have
+elsewhere shown, the row of rooms at this part of the ruin were burned
+with all their contents. The corn was not removed from the granaries,
+as it would have been if the place had been gradually abandoned. When
+an Indian burns stored corn in such quantities as were found at
+Awatobi we can not believe he was bent on pillage, and it is an
+instructive fact that thus far no stacked corn has been found in the
+western or most ancient section of Awatobi.
+
+
+SHRINES
+
+Although Awatobi was destroyed almost two centuries ago, the shrines
+of the old pueblo were used for many years afterward, and are even now
+frequented by some of the Mishoninovi priests. In one of these ancient
+depositories two wooden figurines sat in state up to within a few
+years ago.
+
+This shrine lies below the ruins of the mission, among the bowlders on
+the side of the cliff, about fifty feet from the edge of the mesa, and
+is formed in an eroded cavity in the side of a bowlder of unusual
+size. A rude wall had been built before this recess, which opened to
+the east, and apparently the orifice was closed with logs, which have
+now fallen in. The present appearance of this shrine is shown in the
+accompanying illustration (figure 257).
+
+In former times two wooden idols, called the _Alosaka_, were kept in
+this crypt, in much the same manner as the Dawn Maid is now sealed up
+by the Walpians, when not used in the New-fire ceremony, as I have
+described in my account of _Naacnaiya_.[79] Mr Thomas V. Keam, not
+knowing that the Awatobi idols were still used in the Mishoninovi
+ritual, had removed them to his residence, but when this was known a
+large number of priests begged him to return them, saying that they
+were still used in religious exercises. With that consideration which
+he has always shown to the Indians, Mr Keam allowed the priests to
+take the images of _Alosaka_. The figurines were this time carried to
+Mishoninovi, the priests sprinkling a line of meal along the trail
+over which they carried them. The two idols[80] have not been seen by
+white people since that time, and are now, no doubt, in some hidden
+crypt near the Mishoninovi village.
+
+There is a shrine of simple character, near the ruins of smaller
+Awatobi, which bears evidence of antiquity (figure 258). It consisted,
+in 1892, of a circle of small stones in which were two large
+water-worn stones and a fragment of petrified wood. There was no
+evidence that it had lately been used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 257--Alosaka shrine at Awatobi]
+
+On the extreme western point of the mesa, at the very edge of the
+cliff, there was also a simple shrine (figure 259). Judging from its
+general appearance, this, likewise, had not been used in modern times,
+but there were several old prayer-sticks not far away.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXII
+
+PAINT POTS, BOWL, AND DIPPER FROM AWATOBI]
+
+At the foot of the mesa, below the point last mentioned, however,
+there is a shrine (figure 260), the earth of which contained hundreds
+of prayer-sticks, in all stages of decay, while some of them had been
+placed there only a few days before my visit. This shrine, I was
+told, is still used by the Mishoninovi priests in their sacred
+observances. Among other forms of prayer offerings there were many
+small wooden cylinders with radiating sticks connected with yarn, the
+symbolic prayer offering for squashes.[81] In former times Antelope
+valley was the garden spot of Tusayan, and from what we know of the
+antiquity of the cultivation of squashes in the Southwest, there is
+little doubt that they were cultivated by the Awatobians, and that
+similar offerings were made by the ancient farmers for a good crop of
+these vegetables.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 258--Shrine at Awatobi]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 259--Shrine at Awatobi]
+
+
+POTTERY
+
+The mounds of Awatobi are entirely covered with fragments of pottery
+of all the various kinds and colors known to ancient Tusayan. There
+were found coiled and indented ware, coarse undecorated vessels, fine
+yellow and smooth ware with black-and-white and red decorations. There
+is no special kind of pottery peculiar to Awatobi, but it shares with
+the other Tusayan ruins all types, save a few fragments of black
+glazed ware, which occur elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 260--Shrine at Awatobi]
+
+It is highly probable that the few specimens of black-and-white ware
+found in this ruin were not manufactured in the village, and the red
+ware probably came from settlements to the south, on the Little
+Colorado. These colors are in part due to the character of the paste
+which was used, and the clay most often selected by Awatobi potters
+made a fine yellow vessel. The material from which most of the vessels
+were manufactured came, no doubt, from a bank near the ruin, where
+there is good evidence that it was formerly quarried.
+
+Three coarse clay objects, such as might have been used for roof
+drains, were found. The use of these objects, possibly indicated by
+their resemblance, is not, however, perfectly clear. Their capacity
+would not be equal to the torrents of rain which, no doubt, often fell
+on the housetops of Awatobi, and they can hardly be identified as
+spouts of large bowls, since they are attached to a circular disk with
+smooth edges. In want of a satisfactory explanation I have
+provisionally regarded them as water spouts, but whether they are from
+ancient vessels or from the roofs of houses I am in much doubt.[82]
+
+One of the most instructive fragments of pottery taken from the ruins
+is that of a coarse clay vessel, evidently a part of a flat basin or
+saucer. The rim of this vessel is punctured with numerous holes, the
+intervals between which are not greater than the diameter of the
+perforations.
+
+Several platter-like vessels with similar holes about their rims have
+been taken from other ruins of Jeditoh valley and mesa, the holes
+being regarded as having been made as a means of suspension. Near a
+sacred spring called Kawaika,[83] not far from Jeditoh, near Awatobi,
+a large number of beautiful vessels with similar holes in their rims
+were excavated by Mr T. V. Keam, and later passed into the collections
+of the Hemenway Expedition, now installed at Cambridge. They are of
+all kinds of ware, widely different in shape, the number of marginal
+perforations varying greatly. As they were found in large numbers near
+a spring they are regarded as sacrificial vessels, in which food or
+sacred meal was deposited as an offering to some water deity. The
+handle of a mug (plate CXI, _f_) from Awatobi, so closely resembles
+the handles of certain drinking cups taken from the cliff-houses of
+San Juan valley that it should be specially mentioned. There is in the
+handle of this mug a T-shape opening quite similar in form to the
+peculiar doorways of certain cliff-dwellings. The mug is made of the
+finest white ware, decorated with black lines arranged in geometric
+patterns. So close is its likeness in form and texture to cliff-house
+pottery that the two may be regarded as identical. Moreover, it is not
+impossible that the object may have been brought to Tusayan from Tsegi
+canyon, in the cliff-houses of which Hopi clans[84] lived while
+Awatobi was in its prime, and, indeed, possibly after the tragedy of
+1700. The few fragments of Tsegi canyon pottery known to me have
+strong resemblances to ancient Hopi ware, although the black-and-white
+variety predominates.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIII
+
+POTTERY FROM INTRAMURAL BURIAL AT AWATOBI]
+
+The collection of pottery from Awatobi is, comparatively speaking,
+small, but it shows many interesting forms. Awatobi pottery may be
+classed under the same groups as other old Tusayan ceramics, but most
+of the specimens collected belong to the yellow, black-and-white, and
+red varieties. It resembles that of Sikyatki, but bears little
+likeness to modern ware in texture or symbolism. One is impressed by
+the close resemblance between the Awatobi pottery and that from the
+ruins of the Little Colorado and Zuni,[85] which no doubt is
+explained, in part, by the identity in the constituents of the
+potter's clay near Awatobi with that in more southerly regions.
+
+Evidences of Spanish influence may be traced on certain objects of
+pottery from Awatobi, especially on those obtained from the eastern
+mounds of the ruin. In most essentials, however, the Awatobi ware
+resembles that of the neighboring ruins, and is characteristically
+Tusayan.
+
+The differentiation in modern Cibolan and Tusayan symbolism is much
+greater than that of the ancient pottery from the same provinces, a
+fact which is believed to point to a similarity, possibly identity, of
+culture in ancient times. With this thought in mind, it would be
+highly instructive to study the ancient ruins of the Rio Grande
+region, as unfortunately no large collections of archeological objects
+from that part of the Southwest have been made.[86]
+
+The majority of the bowls from Awatobi are decorated in geometric
+patterns and a few have animal or human figures. The symbols, as well
+as the pottery itself, can not be distinguished from those of
+Sikyatki. Fragments of glazed ware are not unknown at Awatobi, but so
+far as recorded, entire specimens have never been obtained from the
+latter ruin.
+
+In order that the character of the geometric designs on Awatobi
+pottery may be better understood, two plates are introduced to
+illustrate their modifications in connection with my discussion of the
+geometric forms figured on Sikyatki ware. The figures on these bowls
+(plates CLXVI, CLXVII), with one or two exceptions, need no special
+description in addition to what is said of Sikyatki geometric designs,
+which they closely resemble.
+
+The cross-shape figure (plate CLXVI, _b_) may profitably be studied in
+connection with the account of the modification of Sikyatki sun
+symbols. Evidences of the use of a white pigment as a slip were found
+on one or two fragments of fine pottery from Awatobi, but no
+decoration of this kind was observed on the Sikyatki vessels. The red
+ware is the same as that found in ancient Cibola, while one or two
+fragments of glossy black recall the type common to modern Santa
+Clara.
+
+Two bird-shape vessels, one made of black-and-white ware, the other
+red with black-and-white decoration, were found at Awatobi. Large
+masses of clay suited to the potter's art were not uncommonly found in
+the corners of the rooms or in the niches in their walls. Some of
+these masses are of fine paste, the others coarse with grains of sand.
+The former variety was used in making the finest Tusayan ceramics; the
+latter was employed in modeling cooking pots and other vessels of
+ruder finish.
+
+Several flute-shape objects of clay, with flaring extremities, were
+found on the surface of the mounds of Awatobi, and one was taken from
+a Sikyatki grave. The use of these objects is unknown to me.
+
+Among the fragments of dippers from Awatobi are several with
+perforations in the bottom, irregularly arranged or in geometric form,
+as that of a cross. These colanders were rare at Sikyatki, but I find
+nothing in them to betray Spanish influence.[87] Handled dippers or
+mugs have been found so often by me in the prehistoric ruins of our
+Southwest that I can not accept the dictum that the mug form was not
+prehistoric, and the conclusion is legitimate that the Tusayan Indians
+were familiar with mugs when the Spaniards came among them. The
+handles of the dippers or ladles are single or double, solid or
+hollow, simply turned up at one end or terminating with the head of an
+animal. The upper side of the ladle handle may be grooved or convex.
+No ladle handle decorated with an image of a "mud-head" or clown
+priest, so common on modern ladles, was found either at Awatobi or
+Sikyatki.
+
+Rudely made imitations in miniature of all kinds of pottery,
+especially of ladles, were common. These are regarded as votive
+offerings, from the fact that they were found usually in the graves of
+children, and were apparently used as playthings before they were
+buried.
+
+A common decoration on the handles of ladles is a series of short
+parallel lines arranged in alternating longitudinal and transverse
+zones. This form of decoration of ladle handles I have observed on
+similar vessels from the Casas Grandes of Chihuahua, and it reappears
+on pottery in all the ruins I have studied between Mexico and Tusayan.
+In the exhibit of the Mexican Government at Madrid in 1892-93 a fine
+collection of ancient pottery from Oaxaca was shown, and I have
+drawings of one of these ladles with the same parallel marks on the
+handle that are found on Pueblo ware from the Gila-Salado, the Cibola,
+and the Tusayan regions.
+
+The only fragment of pottery from Awatobi or Sikyatki with designs
+which could be identified with any modern picture of a _katcina_ was
+found, as might be expected, in the former ruin. This small fragment
+is instructive, in that it indicates the existence of the _katcina_
+cult in Tusayan before 1700; but the rarity of the figures of these
+supernatural beings is very suggestive. The fragment in question is of
+ancient ware, resembling the so-called orange type of pottery, and is
+apparently a part of the neck of a vase. The figure represents Wupamo,
+the Great-cloud _katcina_, and is marked like the doll of the same as
+it appears in the _Powamu_ or February celebration at Walpi.[88]
+
+The associates of the _katcinas_ are the so-called "mud-heads" or
+clowns, an order of priests as widely distributed as the Pueblo area.
+In Tusayan villages they are called the Tcukuwympkia, and are
+variously personated. As they belong especially to the _katcina_ cult,
+which is naturally supposed to have been in vogue at Awatobi, I was
+greatly interested in the finding of a fragment representing a
+grotesque head which reminded me of a glutton of the division of the
+Tcukuwympkia called Tcuckutu. While there may be some doubt of the
+validity of my identification, yet, taken in connection with the
+fragment of a vase with the face of Wupamo, I think there is no doubt
+that the _katcina_ cult was practiced at Awatobi.
+
+
+STONE IMPLEMENTS
+
+Comparatively few stone implements, such as mauls, hammers, axes, and
+spearpoints, were found; but some of those unearthed from the mounds
+are finely finished, being regular in form and highly polished. There
+were many spherical stones, resembling those still sometimes used in
+Tusayan on important occasions as badges of authority. These stones
+were tied in a buckskin bag, which was attached to a stick and used as
+a warclub. Many of the axes were grooved for hafting; one of the
+specimens was doubly grooved and had two cutting edges. By far the
+largest number were blunt at one pole and sharpened at the opposite
+end. A single highly polished specimen (plate CLXXI, _f_) resembles a
+type very common in the Gila Salado ruins.
+
+Arrowheads, some of finely chipped obsidian, were common, being
+frequently found in numbers in certain mortuary bowls. Three or four
+specimens of other kinds of implements fashioned from this volcanic
+glass were picked up on the surface of the mounds.
+
+Metates, or flat stones for grinding corn, were dug up in several
+houses; they were in some instances much worn, and were eagerly sought
+by the Indian women who visited our camp. These specimens differ in no
+respect from similar mealing stones still used at Walpi and other
+modern Tusayan pueblos. Many were made of very coarse stone[89] for
+use in hulling corn preparatory to grinding; others were of finer
+texture, and both kinds were accompanied by the corresponding mano or
+muller held in the hand in grinding meal.
+
+The modern Hopi often use as seats in their kivas cubical blocks of
+stone with depressions in two opposite sides which serve as handholds
+by which they are carried from place to place. Two of these stones,
+about a cubic foot in size, were taken out of the chamber which I have
+supposed to be the Awatobi kiva. In modern Tusayan these seats are
+commonly made of soft sandstone, and are so few in number that we can
+hardly regard them as common. They are often used to support the
+uprights of altars when they are erected, and I have seen priests
+grind pigments in the depressions. Incidentally, it may be said that I
+have never seen priests use chairs in any kiva celebration; nor do
+they have boxes to sit upon. During the droning of the tedious songs
+they have nothing under them except a folded blanket or sheepskin.
+
+Excavations in the Awatobi rooms revealed several interesting shallow
+mortars used for grinding pigments, but no one of these is comparable
+in finish with that shown in the accompanying illustration (plate
+CLXXII, _a_). This object is made of a hard stone in the form of a
+perfect parallelopipedon with slightly rounded faces. The depression
+is shallow, and when found there was a discoloration of pigment upon
+its surface.
+
+In almost every house that bore evidence of former occupancy,
+beautifully made mullers and metates were exhumed. These were
+ordinarily in place in the corner of the chamber, and were much worn,
+as if by constant use. In one grave there was found a metate reversed
+over a skeleton, probably that of a woman--although the bones were so
+disintegrated that the determination of the sex of the individual was
+impossible. Several of these metates were taken by Indian women, who
+prized them so highly that they loaded the stones on burros and
+carried them ten miles to Walpi, where they are now applied to the
+same purpose for which they were used over two centuries ago.
+
+On the surface of the mesa, beyond the extension of the ground plan of
+the ruin, there are many depressions worn in the rocks where the
+Awatobi women formerly whetted their grinding stones, doubtless in the
+manner practiced by the modern villagers of Tusayan. These depressions
+are especially numerous near the edge of the cliff, between the
+eastern and western sections of the ruin.[90]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIV
+
+BONE IMPLEMENTS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI]
+
+
+BONE OBJECTS
+
+A large and varied collection of bone implements was gathered at
+Awatobi, and a few additional specimens were exhumed from Sikyatki. It
+is worthy of note that, as a rule, bone implements are more common in
+houses than in graves; and since the Awatobi excavations were
+conducted mostly in living rooms, while those at Sikyatki were largely
+in the cemeteries, the bone implements from the former pueblo far
+outnumber those from the latter.
+
+The collection consists of awls, bodkins, needles, whistles, and tubes
+made of the bones of birds and quadrupeds. The two animals which
+contributed more than others to these objects were the turkey and the
+rabbit, although there were fragments of the horns and shin-bones of
+the antelope or deer. Several of these specimens were blackened by
+fire, and one was stained with green pigment. There was also evidence
+of an attempt at ornamenting the implements by incised lines, while
+one was bound with string. Bones of animals which had served for food
+were very common in all the excavations at Awatobi, especially near
+the floors of the houses. With the exception of a number of large
+bones of a bear, found in one of the houses in the northern range of
+the eastern section, these bones were not carefully collected.
+
+Plate CXIV gives a general idea of some of the forms of worked bone
+which were obtained. Figure _a_ shows an awl, for the handle of which
+one of the trochanters was used, the point at the opposite end being
+very sharp; _b_ and _c_ are similar objects, but slighter, and more
+carefully worked; _d_ is a flattened bone implement perforated with
+two holes, and may have been used as a needle. There are similar
+implements in the collection, but with a single terminal perforation.
+Other forms of bone awls are shown in _e_, _f_, _g_, and _j_.
+
+There are a number of bone objects the use of which is problematical.
+One of the best of these is a section of the tibia of a bird, cut
+longitudinally, convex on the side represented in plate CXIV, _h_, and
+concave on the opposite side. When found this bone fragment was tied
+to a second similar section by a string (remnants of which can be seen
+in the figure), thus forming a short tube. The use of this object is
+not known to me, nor were any satisfactory suggestions made by the
+Indians whom I consulted in relation to it. This does not apply,
+however, to the object illustrated in plate CXIV, _i_, which was
+declared by several Hopi to be a bird whistle, similar to that used in
+ceremonials connected with medicine making.
+
+The manner in which a bone whistle is used in imitation of a bird's
+call has been noticed by me in the accounts of several ceremonials,
+and I will therefore quote the description of its use in the
+_Nimankatcina_ at Walpi.[91]
+
+    Then followed an interval of song and accompanying rattle, at
+    the termination of which Intiwa's associate took the bird
+    whistle (_tatuekpi_) and blew three times into the liquid,
+    making a noise not unlike that produced by a toy bird
+    whistle. This was repeated four times, accompanied by song
+    and rattle. He first inserted the bone whistle on the north
+    side, then on the other cardinal points in turn. The
+    monotonous song and rattle then ceased, and Intiwa sprinkled
+    corn pollen on the ears of corn in the water, and upon the
+    line of pahos.
+
+The object of the whistle is to call the summer birds which are
+associated with planting and harvesting. The whistle figures in many
+rites, especially in those connected with the making of medicine or
+charm liquid.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS
+
+ORNAMENTS IN THE FORM OF BIRDS AND SHELLS
+
+In the excavations, as well as on the surface of the mounds at
+Awatobi, were found many imitations of marine shells made of clay,
+often painted red and ranging from the size of half a dollar to that
+of the thumb nail (plate CLXXIII, _j-m_). On the convex surface of
+these objects parallel lines are etched, and they are pierced at the
+valves for suspension. I have never found them suspended from the neck
+of a skeleton, although their general appearance indicates that they
+were used as ornaments. Similarly made clay images of birds (plate
+CLXXIII, _g_, _h_, _i_) with extended wings were also found, and of
+these there are several different forms in the collection. A small
+perforated knob at the breast served for attachment. In the absence of
+any better explanation of these objects, I have regarded them as
+gorgets, or pendants, for personal decoration.
+
+In the Awatobi collections there are several small disks made
+apparently of pipe clay, which also were probably used as ornaments.
+These are very smooth and wonderfully regular in shape--in one case
+with a perforation near the rim. Turquois and shell beads were found
+in considerable numbers in the excavations at Awatobi, but, as they
+are similar to those from Sikyatki, I have reserved a discussion of
+them for following pages. A few fragments of shell armlets and
+wristlets were also exhumed. These were made generally of the Pacific
+coast _Pectunculus_, so common in the ruins of the Little
+Colorado.[92]
+
+
+CLAY BELL
+
+Copper bells are said to be used in the secret ceremonials of the
+modern Tusayan villages, and in certain of the ceremonial foot races
+metal bells of great age and antique pattern are sometimes tied about
+the waists of the runners. Small copper hawk bells,[93] found in
+southern Arizonian ruins, are identical in form and make with those
+used by the ancient Nahuatl people. So far as the study of the
+antiquities of the ruins of Tusayan immediately about the inhabited
+towns has gone, we have no record of the finding of copper bells of
+any great age. It was, therefore, with considerable interest that I
+exhumed from one of the rooms of the westernmost or oldest section of
+Awatobi a clay bell (figure 261) made in exact imitation of one of the
+copper bells that have been reported from several southern ruins
+(plate CLXXIII, _a_). While it may be said that it would be more
+decisive evidence of the prehistoric character of this object if
+Awatobi had not been under Spanish influence for over a century,
+still, from the position where it was dug up and its resemblance to
+metal bells which are undoubtedly prehistoric, there seems to be
+little reason to question its age. As with the imitation of marine
+shells in clay, it is probable that in this bell we have a facsimile
+of a metal bell with which the ancient Tusayan people were undoubtedly
+familiar.[94]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 261--Clay Bell from Awatobi (natural size)]
+
+
+TEXTILE FABRICS
+
+In the very earliest accounts which we have of Tusayan the Hopi are
+said to raise cotton and to weave it into mantles. These mantles, or
+"towels" as they were styled by Espejo, were, according to Castaneda,
+ornamented with embroidery, and had tassels at the corners. In early
+times garments were made of the fiber of the maguey, and of feathers
+and rabbit skins. Fabrics made of animal fiber are mentioned by Friar
+Marcos de Niza, and he was told that the inhabitants of Totonteac
+obtained the material from which they were made from animals as large
+as the greyhounds which the father had with him. The historical
+references which can be mentioned to prove that the Tusayan people,
+when they were first visited, knew how to spin and weave are numerous,
+and need not be quoted here. That the people of Awatobi made cotton
+fabrics there is no doubt, for it is distinctly stated by early
+visitors that they were acquainted with the art of weaving, and some
+of the presents made to the first Spanish explorers were of native
+cotton.
+
+The archeological evidence supports the historical in this particular,
+and several fragments of cloth were found in our excavations in the
+western mounds of the village. These fragments were of cotton and
+agave fiber, of cotton alone, and in one instance of the hair of some
+unknown animal. No signs of the famous rabbit-skin blankets were seen,
+and from the perishable nature of the material of which they were made
+it would be strange if any traces had been discovered. At Sikyatki a
+small textile fragment made of feathers was found in one of the
+burial vases, but no feather garments or even fragments of the same
+were unearthed at Awatobi.
+
+A woven rope of agave fiber and many charred strings of the same
+material were found in a niche in the wall of a house in the eastern
+section, and from the same room there was taken a string, over a yard
+long, made of human hair. It was suggested to me by one of the Hopi
+that this string was part of the coiffure of an Awatobi maid, and that
+it was probably used to tie up her hair in whorls above the ears, as
+is still the Hopi custom.
+
+The whole number of specimens of textile fabrics found at Awatobi was
+small, and their character disappointing for study, for the conditions
+of burial in the soil are not so good for their preservation as in the
+dry caves or cliff houses, from which beautifully preserved cloth,
+made at a contemporary period, has been taken.
+
+
+PRAYER-STICKS--PIGMENTS
+
+Among the most significant mortuary objects used by the ancient
+Tusayan people may be mentioned the so-called prayer-sticks or pahos.
+These were found in several graves, placed on the breast, in the hand,
+or at the side of the person interred, and have a variety of form, as
+shown in the accompanying illustrations (plates CLXXIV, CLXXV). As I
+shall discuss the forms and meaning of prayer-sticks in my account of
+Sikyatki, where a much larger number were found, I will simply mention
+a few of the more striking varieties from Awatobi.
+
+One of the most instructive of these objects is flat in shape, painted
+green, and decorated with figures of a dragon-fly. As this insect is a
+symbol of rain, its occurrence on mortuary objects is in harmony with
+the Hopi conception of the dead which will later be explained.
+
+Pahos, in the form of flat slats with a notched extension at one end
+were common, but generally were poorly preserved. The prayer-sticks
+from the shrine in the middle of the rooms in the plaza of the eastern
+section crumbled into fragments when exposed to the air, but they were
+apparently small, painted green, and decorated with black spots. On
+several of the prayer-sticks the impressions of the string and
+feathers that were formerly attached are still readily seen. It is
+probable that the solution of a carbonate of copper, with which the
+green pahos were so colored, contributed to the preservation of the
+wood of which they had been manufactured.
+
+The only pigments detected on the prayer-sticks are black, red, and
+green, and traces of red are found also on the inner surface of a
+stone implement from a grave at the base of the mesa. All the pigments
+used by the modern Tusayan Indians were found in the intramural burial
+already described. My Hopi workmen urged me to give them small
+fragments of these paints, regarding them efficacious in their
+ceremonials.
+
+
+OBJECTS SHOWING SPANISH INFLUENCE
+
+We would naturally expect to find many objects of Caucasian origin in
+the ruins of a pueblo which had been under Spanish influence for a
+century. I have already spoken of certain architectural features in
+the eastern part of Awatobi which may be traced to the influence of
+the Spanish missionaries, and of small objects there were several
+different kinds which show the same thing. The old iron knife-blade
+already mentioned as having been found among the corn in a storage
+chamber in the northern row of houses was not the only metallic object
+found. Not far from the mission there were unearthed many corroded
+iron nails, a small hook of the same metal, a piece of cast copper,
+and a fragment of what appeared to be a portion of a bell. There were
+several pieces of glass, the surfaces of which had become ground by
+the sand which had beaten upon them during the years in which they had
+been exposed. There was found also a fragment of a green glazed cup,
+which was undoubtedly of Spanish or Mexican make, and sherds of white
+china similar to that sold today by the traders. These latter
+specimens were, as a rule, found on the surface of the ground.
+
+It will therefore appear that the archeology of Awatobi supports the
+documentary evidence that the pueblo was under Spanish influence for
+some time, and the fact that all the above-mentioned objects were
+taken on or in the eastern mounds emphasizes the conclusion that this
+section of the town was the part directly under Spanish influences.
+Nothing of Spanish manufacture was found in the rooms of the western
+mounds, but from this negative evidence there is no reason to suspect
+that this section of Awatobi was not inhabited contemporaneously with
+that in the vicinity of the mission.
+
+
+THE RUINS OF SIKYATKI
+
+TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE PUEBLO
+
+Very vague ideas are current regarding the character of Hopi culture
+prior to Tobar's visit to Tusayan in 1540, and with the exception of
+the most meager information nothing concerning it has come down to us
+from early historical references in the sixteenth century. It is
+therefore interesting to record all possible information in regard to
+these people prior to the period mentioned, and this must be done
+mainly through archeology.
+
+Although there are many Tusayan ruins which we have every reason to
+believe are older than the time of Coronado, no archeologist has
+gathered from them the evidences bearing on prehistoric Tusayan
+culture which they will undoubtedly yield. Large and beautiful
+collections of pottery ascribed to Tusayan ruins have shown the
+excellent artistic taste of the ancient potters of this region,
+indicating that in the ceramic art they were far in advance of their
+descendants. But these collections have failed to teach, the lesson
+they might have taught, from the fact that data concerning the objects
+composing them are so indefinite. Very little care had been taken to
+label these collections accurately or to collect any specimens but
+those which were strikingly beautiful or commercially valuable. It was
+therefore with the hope of giving a more precise and comprehensive
+character to our knowledge of Tusayan antiquities that I wished to
+excavate one of the ruins of this province which was undoubtedly
+prehistoric. Conditions were favorable for success at the mounds
+called by the Indians Sikyatki.[95] These ruins are situated near the
+modern Tusayan pueblos of East Mesa, from which I could hire workmen,
+and not far from Keam's Canyon, which could be made a base of
+supplies. The existing legends bearing on these ruins, although
+obscure, are sufficiently definite for all practical purposes.
+
+I find no mention of Sikyatki in early historical documents, nor can
+the name be even remotely identified with any which has been given to
+a Tusayan pueblo. My knowledge of the mounds which mark the site of
+this ancient village dates back to 1892, when I visited them with one
+of the old men of Walpi, who then and there narrated the legend of its
+destruction by the Walpians previously to the advent of the Spaniards.
+I was at that time impressed by the extent of the mounds, and prepared
+a rough sketch of the ground plan of the former houses, but from lack
+of means was unable to conduct any systematic excavation of the ruin.
+
+Comparatively nothing concerning the ruin of Sikyatki has been
+published, although its existence had been known for several years
+previously to my visit. In his brief account Mr Victor Mindeleff[96]
+speaks of it as two prominent knolls, "about 400 yards apart," the
+summits of which are covered with house walls. He also found portions
+of walls on intervening hummocks, but gives no plan of the ruin. The
+name, Sikyatki, is referred to the color of the sandstone of which the
+walls were built. He found some of the rooms were constructed of small
+stones, dressed by rubbing, and laid in mud. The largest chamber was
+stated to be 9-1/2 by 4-1/2 feet, and it was considered that many of
+the houses were "built in excavated places around the rocky summits of
+the knolls."[97] Mr Mindeleff identified the former inhabitants with
+the ancestors of the Kokop people, and mentioned the more important
+details of their legend concerning the destruction of the village.
+
+We can rely on the statement that Sikyatki was inhabited by the Kokop
+or Firewood people of Tusayan, who were so named because they obtained
+fire from wood by the use of drills. These people are represented
+today at Walpi by Katci, whose totem is a picture of Masauwu, the God
+of Fire. It is said that the home of the Firewood people before they
+built Sikyatki was at Tebunki, or Fire-house, a round ruin
+northeastward from Keam's canyon. They were late arrivals in Tusayan,
+coming at least after the Flute people, and probably before the Honani
+or Badger people, who brought, I believe, the _katcina_ cult. Although
+we can not definitely assert that this cultus was unknown at Sikyatki,
+it is significant that in the ruins no ornamental vessel was found
+with a figure of a _katcina_ mask, although these figures occur on
+modern bowls. The original home of the Kokop people is not known, but
+indefinite legends ascribe their origin to Rio Grande valley. They are
+reputed to have had kindred in Antelope valley and at the Fire-house,
+above alluded to, near Eighteen-mile spring.
+
+The ruin of Fire-house, one of the pueblos where the Kokop people are
+reputed to have lived before they built Sikyatki, is situated on the
+periphery of Tusayan. It is built of massive stones and differs from
+all other ruins in that province in that it is circular in form. The
+round type of ruin is, however, to be seen in the two conical mounds
+on the mesa above Sikyatki, which was connected in some way with the
+inhabitants who formerly lived at its base.
+
+The reason the Kokop people left Fire-house is not certain, but it is
+said that they came in conflict with Bear clans who were entering the
+province from the east. Certain it is that if the Kokop people once
+inhabited Fire-house they must have been joined by other clans when
+they lived at Sikyatki, for the mounds of this pueblo indicate a
+village much larger than the round ruin on the brink of the mesa
+northeast of Keam's canyon. The general ground plan of the ruin
+indicates an inclosed court with surrounding tiers of houses,
+suggesting the eastern type of pueblo architecture.
+
+The traditional knowledge of the destruction of Sikyatki is very
+limited among the present Hopi, but the best folklorists all claim
+that it was destroyed by warriors from Walpi and possibly from Middle
+Mesa. Awatobi seems not to have taken part in the tragedy, while Hano
+and Sichomovi did not exist when the catastrophe took place.
+
+The cause of the destruction of Sikyatki is not clearly known, and
+probably was hardly commensurate with the result. Its proximity to
+Walpi may have led to disputes over the boundaries of fields or the
+ownership of the scanty water supply. The people who lived there were
+intruders and belonged to clans not represented in Walpi, which in all
+probability kept hostility alive. The early Tusayan peoples did not
+readily assimilate, but quarreled with one another even when sorely
+oppressed by common enemies.
+
+There is current in Walpi a romantic story connected with the
+overthrow of Sikyatki. It is said that a son of a prominent chief,
+disguised as a _katcina_, offered a prayer-stick to a maiden, and as
+she received it he cut her throat with a stone knife. He is said to
+have escaped to the mesa top and to have made his way along its edge
+to his own town, taunting his pursuers. It is also related that the
+Walpians fell upon the village of Sikyatki to avenge this bloody deed,
+but it is much more likely that there was ill feeling between the two
+villages for other reasons, probably disputes about farm limits or the
+control of the water supply, inflamed by other difficulties. The
+inhabitants of the two pueblos came into Tusayan from different
+directions, and as they may have spoken different languages and thus
+have failed to understand each other, they may have been mutually
+regarded as interlopers. Petty quarrels no doubt ripened into
+altercations, which probably led to bloodshed. The forays of the
+Apache from the south and the Ute from the north, which began at a
+later period, should naturally have led to a defensive alliance; but
+in those early days confederation was not dreamed of and the feeling
+between the two pueblos culminated in the destruction of Sikyatki.
+This was apparently the result of a quarrel between two pueblos of
+East Mesa, or at least there is no intimation that the other pueblos
+took prominent part in it. It is said that after the destruction some
+of those who escaped fled to Oraibi, which would imply that the Walpi
+and Oraibi peoples, even at that early date, were not on very friendly
+terms. If, however, the statement that Oraibi was then a distinct
+pueblo be true, it in a way affords a suggestion of the approximate
+age[98] of this village.
+
+There was apparently a more or less intimate connection between the
+inhabitants of old Sikyatki and those of Awatobi, but whether or not
+it indicates that the latter was founded by the refugees from the
+former I have not been able definitely to make out. All my informants
+agree that on the destruction of Sikyatki some of its people fled to
+Awatobi, but no one has yet stated that the Kokop people were
+represented in the latter pueblo. The distinctive clans of the pueblo
+of Antelope mesa are not mentioned as living in Sikyatki, and yet the
+two pueblos are said to have been kindred. The indications are that
+the inhabitants of both came from the east--possibly were intruders,
+which may have been the cause of the hostility entertained by both
+toward the Walpians. The problem is too complex to be solved with our
+present limited knowledge in this direction, and archeology seems not
+to afford very satisfactory evidence one way or the other. We may
+never know whether the Sikyatki refugees founded Awatobi or simply
+fled to that pueblo for protection.
+
+There appears to be no good evidence that Sikyatki was destroyed by
+fire, nor would it seem that it was gradually abandoned. The larger
+beams of the houses have disappeared from many rooms, evidently having
+been appropriated in building or enlarging other pueblos.
+
+There is nothing to show that any considerable massacre of the people
+took place when the village was destroyed, in which respect it differs
+considerably from Awatobi. There is little doubt that many Sikyatki
+women were appropriated by the Walpians, and in support of this it is
+stated that the Kokop people of the present Walpi are the descendants
+of the people of that clan who dwelt at Sikyatki. This conclusion is
+further substantiated by the statements of one of the oldest members
+of the Kokop phratry who frequently visited me while the excavations
+were in progress.
+
+The destruction of Sikyatki and its consequent abandonment doubtless
+occurred before the Spaniards obtained a foothold in the country. The
+aged Hopi folklorists insist that such is the case, and the
+excavations did not reveal any evidence to the contrary. If we add to
+the negative testimony that Sikyatki is not mentioned in any of the
+early writings, and that no fragment of metal, glass, or Spanish
+glazed pottery has been taken from it, we appear to have substantial
+proof of its prehistoric character.
+
+In the early times when Sikyatki was a flourishing pueblo, Walpi was
+still a small settlement on the terrace of the mesa just below the
+present town that bears its name. Two ruins are pointed out as the
+sites of Old Walpi, one to the northward of the modern town, and a
+second more to the westward. The former is called at present the
+Ash-heap house or pueblo, the latter Kisakobi. It is said that the
+people whose ancestors formed the nucleus of the more northerly town
+moved from there to Kisakobi on account of the cold weather, for it
+was too much in the shadow of the mesa. Its general appearance would
+indicate it to be older than the more westerly ruin, higher up on the
+mesa. It was a pueblo of some size, and was situated on the edge of
+the terrace. The refuse from the settlement was thrown over the edge
+of the decline, where it accumulated in great quantities. This debris
+contains many fragments of characteristic pottery, similar to that
+from Sikyatki, and would well repay systematic investigation. No walls
+of the old town rise more than a few feet above the surface, for most
+of the stones have long ago been used in rebuilding the pueblo on
+other sites. Kisakobi was situated higher up on the mesa, and bears
+every appearance of being more modern than the ruin below. Its site
+may readily be seen from the road to Keam's canyon, on the
+terrace-like prolongation of the mesa. Some of the walls are still
+erect, and the house visible for a great distance is part of the old
+pueblo. This, I believe, was the site of Walpi at the time the
+Spaniards visited Tusayan, and I have found here a fragment of pottery
+which I believe is of Spanish origin. The ancient pueblo crowned the
+ridge of the terrace which narrows here to 30 or 40 feet, so that
+ancient Walpi was an elongated pueblo, with narrow passageways and no
+rectangular court. I should judge, however, that the pueblo was not
+inhabited for a great period, but was moved to its present site after
+a few generations of occupancy. The Ash-hill village was inhabited
+contemporaneously with Sikyatki, but Kisakobi was of later
+construction. Neither Sichomovi nor Hano was in existence when
+Sikyatki was in its prime, nor, indeed, at the time of its
+abandonment. In 1782 Morfi spoke of Sichomovi as a pueblo recently
+founded, with but fifteen families. Hano, although older, was
+certainly not established before 1700.[99]
+
+The assertions of all Hopi traditionists that Sikyatki is a
+prehistoric ruin, as well as the scientific evidence looking the same
+way, are most important facts in considering the weight of deductions
+in regard to the character of prehistoric Tusayan culture.
+
+Although we have no means of knowing how long a period has elapsed
+since the occupancy and abandonment of Sikyatki, we are reasonably
+sure that objects taken from it are purely aboriginal in character and
+antedate the inception of European influence. It is certain, however,
+that the Sikyatki people lived long enough in that pueblo to develop a
+ceramic art essentially peculiar to Tusayan.
+
+
+NOMENCLATURE
+
+The commonly accepted definition of Sikyatki is "yellow house"
+(_sikya_, yellow; _ki_, house). One of the most reliable chiefs of
+Walpi, however, called my attention to the fact that the hills in the
+locality were more or less parallel, and that there might be a
+relationship between the parallel valleys and the name. The
+application of the term "yellow" would not seem to be very appropriate
+so far as it is distinctive of the general color of the pueblo. The
+neighboring spring, however, contains water which after standing some
+time has a yellowish tinge, and it was not unusual to name pueblos
+from the color of the adjacent water or from some peculiarity of the
+spring, which was one of the most potent factors in the determination
+of the site of a village. Although the name may also refer to a
+cardinal point, a method of nomenclature followed in some regions of
+the Southwest, if such were the case in regard to Sikyatki it would be
+exceptional in Tusayan.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXV
+
+SIKYATKI MOUNDS FROM THE KANELBA TRAIL]
+
+
+FORMER INHABITANTS OF SIKYATKI
+
+The origin of the pueblo settlement at Sikyatki is doubtful, but as I
+have shown in my enumeration of the clans of Walpi, the Kokop
+(Firewood) and the Isauuh (Coyote) phratries which lived there are
+supposed to have come into Tusayan from the far east or the valley
+of the Rio Grande. The former phratry is not regarded as one of the
+earliest arrivals in Tusayan, for when its members arrived at Walpi
+they found living there the Flute, Snake, and Water-house phratries.
+It is highly probable that the Firewood, or as they are sometimes
+called the Fire, people, once lived in the round pueblo known as
+Fire-house, and as the form of this ruin is exceptional in Tusayan,
+and highly characteristic of the region east of this province, there
+is archeological evidence of the eastern origin of the Fire people.
+Perhaps the most intelligent folklorist of the Kokop people was
+Nasyunweve, who died a few years ago--unfortunately before I had been
+able to record all the traditions which he knew concerning his
+ancestors. At the present day Katci, his successor[100] in these
+sacerdotal duties in the Antelope-Snake mysteries, claims that his
+people formerly occupied Sikyatki, and indeed the contiguous fields
+are still cultivated by members of that phratry.
+
+It is hardly possible to do more than estimate the population of
+Sikyatki when in its prime, but I do not believe that it was more than
+500;[101] probably 300 inhabitants would be a closer estimate if we
+judge from the relative population to the size of the pueblo of Walpi
+at the present time. On the basis of population given, the evidences
+from the size of the Sikyatki cemeteries would not point to an
+occupancy of the village for several centuries, although, of course,
+the strict confines of these burial places may not have been
+determined by our excavations. The comparatively great depth at which
+some of the human remains were found does not necessarily mean great
+antiquity, for the drifting sands of the region may cover or uncover
+the soil or rocks in a very short time, and the depth at which an
+object is found below the surface is a very uncertain medium for
+estimating the antiquity of buried remains.
+
+
+GENERAL FEATURES
+
+The ruin of Sikyatki (plates CXV, CXVI) lies about three miles east of
+the recent settlement of Tanoan families at Isba or Coyote spring,
+near the beginning of the trail to Hano. Its site is in full view from
+the road extending from the last-mentioned settlement to Keam's
+canyon, and lies among the hills just below the two pyramidal
+elevations called Kuekuechomo, which are visible for a much greater
+distance. When seen from this road the mounds of Sikyatki are observed
+to be elevated at least 300 feet above the adjacent cultivated plain,
+but at the ruin itself this elevation is scarcely appreciable, so
+gradual is the southerly decline to the arroyo which drains the plain.
+The ruin is situated among foothills a few hundred yards from the base
+of the mesa, and in the depression between it and the mesa there is a
+stretch of sand in which grow peach trees and a few stunted cedars. At
+this point, likewise, there is a spring, now feeble in its flow from
+the gradually drifting sand, yet sufficient to afford a trickling
+stream by means of which an enterprising native, named Tcino,
+irrigates a small garden of melons and onions. On all sides of the
+ruin there are barren stretches of sand relieved in some places by
+stunted trees and scanty vegetation similar to that of the adjacent
+plains. The soil in the plaza of the ruin is cultivated, yielding a
+fair crop of squashes, but is useless for corn or beans.
+
+Here and there about the ruins stand great jagged bowlders, relieving
+what would otherwise be a monotonous waste of sand. One of these stony
+outcrops forms what I have called the "acropolis" of Sikyatki, which
+will presently be described. On the eastern side the drifting sand has
+so filled in around the elevation on which the ruin stands that the
+ascent is gradual, and the same drift extends to the rim of the mesa,
+affording access to the summit that otherwise would necessitate
+difficult climbing. Along the ridge of this great drift there runs a
+trail which passes over the mesa top to a beautiful spring, on the
+other side, called Kanelba.[102]
+
+The highest point of the ruin as seen from the plain is the rocky
+eminence rising at the western edge, familiarly known among the
+members of my party as the "acropolis." As one approaches the ruin
+from a deep gulch on the west, the acropolis appears quite lofty, and
+a visitor would hardly suspect that it marks the culminating point of
+a ruin, so similar does it appear to surrounding hills of like
+geologic character where no vestiges of former house-walls appear.
+
+The spring from which the inhabitants of the old pueblo obtained their
+water supply lies between the ruin and the foot of the mesa, nearer
+the latter. The water is yellow in color, especially after it has
+remained undisturbed for some time, and the quantity is very limited.
+It trickles out of a bed of clay in several places and forms a pool
+from which it is drawn to irrigate a small garden and a grove of peach
+trees. It is said that when Sikyatki was in its prime this spring was
+larger than at present, and I am sure that a little labor spent in
+digging out the accumulation of sand would make the water more
+wholesome and probably sufficiently abundant for the needs of a
+considerable population.
+
+The nearest spring of potable water available for our excavation camp
+at Sikyatki was Kanelba, or Sheep spring, one of the best sources of
+water supply in Tusayan. The word Kanelba, containing a Spanish
+element, must have replaced a Hopi name, for it is hardly to be
+supposed that this spring was not known before sheep were brought into
+the country. There is a legend that formerly the site of this spring
+was dry, when an ancient priest, who had deposited his _tiponi_, or
+chieftain's badge, at the place, caused the water to flow from the
+ground; at present however the water rushes from a hole as large as
+the arm in the face of the rock, as well as from several minor
+openings. It is situated on the opposite side of the mesa from
+Sikyatki, a couple of miles northeastward from the ruin.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVI
+
+GROUND PLAN OF SIKYATKI]
+
+Half-way up the side of the mesa, about opposite Sikyatki, there is a
+large reservoir, used as a watering place for sheep. The splash of the
+water, as it falls into this reservoir, is an unusual sound in this
+arid region, and is worth a tramp of many miles. There are many
+evidences that this spring was a popular one in former times. As it is
+approached from the top of the mesa, a brief inspection of the
+surroundings shows that for about a quarter of a mile, on either side,
+there are signs of ancient terraced gardens, walled in with rows of
+stones. These gardens have today greatly diminished in size, as
+compared with the ancient outlines, and only that portion which is
+occupied by a grove of peach trees is now under cultivation, although
+there is plenty of water for the successful irrigation of a much
+larger tract of land than the gardens now cover.[103] Judging from
+their size, many of the peach trees are very old, although they still
+bear their annual crop of fruit. Everything indicates, as the legends
+relate, that these Kanelba gardens, the walls of which now form sheep
+corrals, were long ago abandoned.
+
+The terraces south of the Kanelba peach grove resemble the lower
+terraces of Wipo. About 100 rods farther south, along the foot of the
+mesa, on the same level, are a number of unused fields, and a cluster
+of house remains. The whole of this terrace is of a type which shows
+greater action of the weather than the others, but the boundaries of
+the fields are still marked with rows of stones. The adjacent
+foothills contain piles of ashes in several places, as if the sites of
+ancient pottery kilns, and very old stone inclosures occur on the top
+of the mesa above Kanelba. All indications seem to point to the
+ancient occupancy of the region about Kanelba by many more farmers
+than today. Possibly the inhabitants of Sikyatki, which is only two or
+three miles away, frequented this place and cultivated these ancient
+gardens. Kanelba is regarded as a sacred spring by several Hopi
+religious societies of East Mesa. The Snake priests of Walpi always
+celebrate a feast there on the day of the snake hunt to the east in
+odd years,[104] while in the alternate years it is visited by the
+Flute men.
+
+The present appearance of Sikyatki (plate CXV) is very desolate, and
+when visited by our party previously to the initiation of the work,
+seemed to promise little in the way of archeological results. No walls
+were standing above ground, and the outlines of the rooms were very
+indistinct. All we saw at that time was a series of mounds,
+irregularly rectangular in shape, of varying altitude, with here and
+there faint traces of walls. Prominent above all these mounds,
+however, was the pinnacle of rock on the northwestern corner, rising
+abruptly from the remainder of the ruin, easily approached from the
+west and sloping more gradually to the south. This rocky elevation,
+which we styled the acropolis, was doubtless once covered with houses.
+
+On the western edge of the ruin a solitary farmhouse, used during the
+summer season, had been constructed of materials from the old walls,
+and was inhabited by an Indian named Lelo and his family during our
+excavations. He is the recognized owner of the farm land about
+Sikyatki and the cultivator of the soil in the old plaza of the ruins.
+Jakwaina, an enterprising Tewan who lives not far from Isba, the
+spring near the trail to Hano, has also erected a modern house near
+the Sikyatki spring, but it had not been completed at the time of our
+stay. Probably never since its destruction in prehistoric times have
+so many people as there were in our party lived for so long a time at
+this desolate place.
+
+The disposition of the mounds show that the ground plan of Sikyatki
+(plate CXVI) was rectangular in shape, the houses inclosing a court in
+which are several mounds that may be the remains of kivas. The highest
+range of rooms, and we may suppose the most populous part of the
+ancient pueblo, was on the same side as the acropolis, where a large
+number of walled chambers in several series were traced.
+
+The surface of what was formerly the plaza is crossed by rows of
+stones regularly arranged to form gardens, in which several kinds of
+gourds are cultivated. In the sands north of the ruin there are many
+peach trees, small and stunted, but yearly furnishing a fair crop.
+These are owned by Tcino,[105] and of course were planted long after
+the destruction of the pueblo.
+
+In order to obtain legends of the former occupancy and destruction of
+Sikyatki, I consulted Nasyunweve, the former head of the Kokop people,
+and while the results were not very satisfactory, I learned that the
+land about Sikyatki is still claimed by that phratry. Nasyunweve,[106]
+Katci, and other prominent Kokop people occupy and cultivate the land
+about Sikyatki on the ground of inheritance from their ancestors who
+once inhabited the place.
+
+Two routes were taken to approach Sikyatki--one directly across the
+sandy plain from the entrance to Keam's canyon, following for some
+distance the road to East Mesa; the other along the edge of the mesa,
+on the first terrace, to the cluster of houses at Coyote spring. The
+trail to the pueblos of East Mesa ascends the cliff just above
+Sikyatki spring, and joins that to Kanelba or Sheep spring, not far
+from Kuekuechomo, the twin mounds. By keeping along the first terrace a
+well-traveled trail, with interesting views of the plain and the ruin,
+joins the old wagon road to _Wala_, the "gap" of East Mesa, at a
+higher level than the cluster of Tewan houses at Isba. In going and
+returning from their homes our Hopi workmen preferred the trail along
+the mesa, which we also often used; but the climb to the mesa top from
+the ruin is very steep and somewhat tiresome.
+
+We prosecuted our excavations at Sikyatki for a few days over three
+weeks, choosing as a site for our camp a small depression to the east
+of the ruin near a dwarf cedar at the point where the trail to Kanelba
+passes the ruin. The place was advantageously near the cemeteries, and
+not too far from water. For purposes other than cooking and drinking
+the Sikyatki spring was used, the remainder of the supply being
+brought from Kanelba by means of a burro.
+
+I employed Indian workmen at the ruin, and found them, as a rule,
+efficient helpers. The zeal which they manifested at the beginning of
+the work did not flag, but it must be confessed that toward the close
+of the excavations it became necessary to incite their enthusiasm by
+prizes, and, to them, extraordinary offers of overalls and calico.
+They at first objected to working in the cemeteries, regarding it as a
+desecration of the dead, but several of their number overcame their
+scruples, even handling skulls and other parts of skeletons. The Snake
+chief, Kopeli, however, never worked with the others, desiring not to
+dig in the graves. Respecting his feelings, I allotted him the special
+task of excavating the rooms of the acropolis, which he performed with
+much care, showing great interest in the results. At the close of our
+daily work prayer-offerings were placed in the trenches by the Indian
+workmen, as conciliatory sacrifices to Masauwuh, the dread God of
+Death, to offset any malign influence which might result from our
+desecration of his domain. A superstitious feeling that this god was
+not congenial to the work which was going on, seemed always to haunt
+the minds of the laborers, and once or twice I was admonished by old
+men, visitors from Walpi, not to persist in my excavations. The
+excavators, at times, paused in their work and called my attention to
+strange voices echoing from the cliffs, which they ascribed, half in
+earnest, to Masauwuh.
+
+The Indians faithfully delivered to me all objects which they found in
+their digging, with the exception of turquoises, many of which, I
+have good reason to suspect, they concealed while our backs were
+turned and, in a few instances, even before our eyes.
+
+The accompanying plan of Sikyatki (plate CXVI) shows that it was a
+rectangular ruin with an inclosed plaza. It is evident that the
+ancient pueblo was built on a number of low hills and that the eastern
+portion was the highest. In this respect it resembled Awatobi, but
+apparently differed from the latter pueblo in having the inclosed
+plaza. In the same way it was unlike Walpi or the ancient and modern
+pueblos of Middle Mesa and Oraibi. In fact, there is no Tusayan ruin
+which resembles it in ground plan, except Payuepki, a Tanoan town of
+much later construction. The typical Tusayan form of architecture is
+the pyramidal, especially in the most ancient pueblos. The ground plan
+of Sikyatki is of a type more common in the eastern pueblo region and
+in those towns of Tusayan which were built by emigrants from the Rio
+Grande region. Sikyatki and some of the villages overlooking Antelope
+valley are of this type.
+
+In studying the ground plans of the three modern villages on East
+Mesa, the fact is noted that both Sichomovi and Hano differ
+architecturally from Walpi. The forms of the former smaller pueblos
+are primarily rectangular with an inclosed plaza in which is situated
+the kiva; Walpi, on the other hand, although furnished with a small
+plaza at the western end, has kivas located peripherally rather than
+in an open space between the highest house clusters. Sichomovi is
+considered by the Hopi as like Zuni, and is sometimes called by the
+Hano people, Sionimone, "Zuni court," because to the Tewan mind it
+resembles Zuni; but the term is never applied to Walpi.[107] The
+distinction thus recognized is, I believe, architecturally valid. The
+inclosed court or plaza in Tusayan is an intrusion from the east, and
+as eastern colonists built both Hano and Sichomovi, they preserved the
+form to which they were accustomed. The Sikyatki builders drew their
+architectural inspiration likewise from the east, hence the inclosed
+court in the ruins of that village.
+
+The two most considerable house clusters of Sikyatki are at each end
+of a longer axis, connected by a narrow row of houses on the other
+sides. The western rows of houses face the plain, and were of one
+story, with a gateway at one point. The opposite row was more
+elevated, no doubt overlooking cultivated fields beyond the confines
+of the ruin. No kivas were discovered, but if such exist they ought to
+be found in the mass of houses at the southern end. I thought we had
+found circular rooms in that region, but cursory excavations did not
+demonstrate their existence. As there is no reason to suspect the
+existence of circular kivas in ancient Tusayan, it would be difficult
+to decide whether or not any one of the large rectangular rooms was
+used for ceremonial purposes, for it is an interesting fact that some
+of the oldest secret rites in the Hopi villages occur, not in kivas,
+but in ordinary dwelling rooms in the village. It has yet to be shown
+that there were special kivas in prehistoric Tusayan.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVII
+
+EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI]
+
+The longer axis of the ruin is about north and south; the greatest
+elevation is approximately 50 feet. Rocks outcrop only at one place,
+the remainder of the ruin being covered with rubble, sand, stones, and
+fragments of pottery. The mounds are not devoid of vegetation, for
+sagebrush, cacti, and other desert genera grow quite profusely over
+their surface; but they are wholly barren of trees or large bushes,
+and except in the plaza the ruin area is uncultivated. As previously
+stated, Sikyatki is situated about 250 or 300 feet above the plain,
+and when approached from Keam's canyon appears to be about halfway up
+the mesa height. On several adjacent elevations evidences of former
+fires, or places where pottery was burned, were found, and one has not
+to go far to discover narrow seams of an impure lignite. Here and
+there are considerable deposits of selenite, which, as pointed out by
+Sitgreaves in his report on the exploration of the Little Colorado,
+looks like frost exuding from the ground in early spring.
+
+
+THE ACROPOLIS
+
+During the limited time devoted to the excavation of Sikyatki it was
+impossible, in a ruin so large, to remove the soil covering any
+considerable number of rooms. The excavations at different points over
+such a considerable area as that covered by the mounds would have been
+more or less desultory and unsatisfactory, but a limited section
+carefully opened would be much more instructive and typical. While,
+therefore, the majority of the Indian workmen were kept employed at
+the cemeteries, Kopeli, the Snake chief, a man in whom I have great
+confidence, was assigned to the excavation of a series of rooms at the
+highest point of the ruin, previously referred to as the acropolis
+(figure 262). Although his work in these chambers did not yield such
+rich results as the others, so far as the number of objects was
+concerned, he succeeded in uncovering a number of rooms to their
+floors, and unearthed many interesting objects of clay and stone. A
+brief description of these excavations will show the nature of the
+work at that point.
+
+The acropolis, or highest point of Sikyatki, is a prominent rocky
+elevation at the western angle, and overlooks the entire ruin. On the
+side toward the western cemetery it rises quite abruptly, but the
+ascent is more gradual from the other sides. The surface of this
+elevation, on which the houses stood, is of rock, and originally was
+as destitute of soil as the plaza of Walpi. This surface supported a
+double series of rooms, and the highest point is a bare, rocky
+projection.
+
+From the rooms of the acropolis there was a series of chambers,
+probably terraced, sloping to the modern gardens now occupying the old
+plaza, and the broken walls of these rooms still protrude from the
+surface in many places (plate CXVIII). When the excavations on the
+acropolis were begun, no traces of the biserial rows of rooms were
+detected, although the remains of the walls were traceable. The
+surface was strewn with fragments of pottery and other evidences of
+former occupancy.
+
+On leveling the ground and throwing off the surface stones, it was
+found that the narrow ridge which formed the top of the acropolis was
+occupied by a double line of well-built chambers which show every
+evidence of having been living rooms. The walls were constructed of
+squared stones set in adobe, with the inner surface neatly plastered.
+Many of the rooms communicated by means of passageways with adjacent
+chambers, some of them being provided with niches and shelves. The
+average height of the standing walls revealed by excavation, as
+indicated by the distance of the floor below the surface of the soil,
+was about 5 feet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 262--The acropolis of Sikyatki]
+
+The accompanying illustration (plate CXVIII) shows a ground plan of
+nine of these rooms, which, for purposes of reference, are lettered
+_a_ to _l_. A description of each, it is hoped, will give an idea of a
+typical room of Sikyatki. Room _a_ is rectangular in shape, 5 feet 3
+inches by 6 feet 8 inches, and is 5 feet 8 inches deep. It has two
+depressions in the floor at the southeastern corner, and there is a
+small niche in the side wall above them. Some good specimens of mural
+plastering, much blackened by soot, are found on the eastern wall.
+Room _a_ has no passageway into room _b_, but it opens into the
+adjoining room _c_ by an opening in the wall 3 feet 4 inches wide,
+with a threshold 9 inches high.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXVIII
+
+PLAN OF EXCAVATED ROOMS ON THE ACROPOLIS OF SIKYATKI
+
+(Dimensions in feet and inches)]
+
+The shape of room _b_ is more irregular. It is 8 feet 1 inch long by 4
+feet 5 inches wide, and the floor is 5 feet 2 inches below the
+surface. In one corner there is a raised triangular platform 2 feet 7
+inches above the floor. A large cooking pot, blackened with soot, was
+found in one corner of this room, and near it was a circular
+depression in the floor 17 inches in diameter, evidently a fireplace.
+
+Room _c_ is smaller than either of the preceding, and is the only one
+with two passageways into adjoining chambers. Remains of wooden beams
+in a fair state of preservation were found on the floors of rooms _c_
+and _b_, but they were not charred, as is so often the case, nor were
+there any ashes except in the supposed fireplace.
+
+Room _d_ is larger than those already mentioned, being 7 feet 8 inches
+by 5 feet, and connects with room _c_ by means of a passageway. Rooms
+_e_ and _f_ communicate with each other by an opening 16 inches wide.
+We found the floors of these rooms 4 feet below the surface. The
+length of room _e_ is 8 feet.
+
+Room _f_ is 6 feet 8 inches long and of the same width as _e_. The
+three chambers _g_, _h_, and _i_ are each 6 feet 9 inches wide, but of
+varying width. Room _g_ is 5 feet 2 inches, _h_ is 8 feet 6 inches,
+and _i_, the smallest of all, only a foot wide. These three rooms have
+no intercommunication.
+
+The evidence of former fires in some of these rooms, afforded by soot
+on the walls and ashes in the depressions identified as old
+fireplaces, is most important. In one or two places I broke off a
+fragment of the plastering and found it to be composed of many strata
+of alternating black and adobe color, indicating successive
+plasterings of the room. Apparently when the surface wall became
+blackened by smoke it was renewed by a fresh layer or wash of adobe in
+the manner followed in renovating the kiva walls today.[108]
+
+An examination of the dimensions of the rooms of the acropolis will
+show that, while small, they are about the average size of the
+chambers in most other southwestern ruins. They are, however, much
+smaller than the rooms of the modern pueblo of Walpi or those of the
+cliff ruins in the Red-rock region, elsewhere described. Evidently the
+roof was 2 or 3 feet higher than the top of the present walls, and the
+absence of external passageways would seem to indicate that entrance
+was through the roof. The narrow chamber, _i_, is no smaller than some
+of those which were excavated at Awatobi, but unless it was a storage
+bin or dark closet for ceremonial paraphernalia its function is not
+known to me. The mural plastering was especially well done in rooms
+_g_ and _h_, a section thereof showing many successive thin strata of
+soot and clay, implying long occupancy. No chimneys were found, the
+smoke, as is the case with that from kiva fires today, doubtless
+finding an exit through the hatchway in the roof.
+
+
+MODERN GARDENS
+
+The whole surface of the ancient plaza of Sikyatki is occupied by
+rectangular gardens outlined by rows of stones. These are of modern
+construction and are cultivated by an enterprising Hopi who, as
+previously mentioned, has erected a habitable dwelling on one of the
+western mounds from the stones of the old ruin. These gardens are
+planted yearly with melons and squashes, and stones forming the
+outlines serve as wind-breaks to protect the growing plants from
+drifting sand. The plotting of the plan of these gardens was made in
+1891, when a somewhat larger part of the plaza was under cultivation
+than in 1895.[109]
+
+There is a grove of dwarf peach trees in the sands between the
+northern side of the ruin and the mesa along the run through which
+sometimes trickles a little stream from the spring. These trees belong
+to an inhabitant of Sichomovi named Tcino, who, it is claimed, is a
+descendant of the ancient Sikyatkians. The trees were of course
+planted there since the fall of the village, on land claimed by the
+Kokop phratry by virtue of their descent from the same phratral
+organization of the ancient pueblo.[110] The spring shows no evidence
+of having been walled up, but apparently has been filled in by
+drifting sand since the time that it formed the sole water supply of
+the neighboring pueblo. It still preserves the yellow color mentioned
+in traditions of the place.
+
+
+THE CEMETERIES
+
+By far the largest number of objects found at Sikyatki were gathered
+from the cemeteries outside the ruin, and were therefore mortuary in
+character. It would seem that the people buried their dead a short
+distance beyond the walls, at the three cardinal points. The first of
+these cemeteries was found in the dune between the ruin and the peach
+trees below the spring, and from its relative position from the pueblo
+has been designated the northern cemetery. The cemetery proper lies on
+the edge of the sandy tract, and was first detected by the finding of
+the long-bones of a human skeleton projecting from the soil. The
+position of individual graves was indicated usually by small, oblong
+piles of stones; but, as this was not an invariable sign, it was
+deemed advisable to extend long trenches across the lower part of the
+dune. As a rule, the deeper the excavations the more numerous and
+elaborate were the objects revealed. Most of the skeletons were in a
+poor state of preservation, but several could have been saved had we
+the proper means at our disposal to care for them.
+
+No evidence of cremation of the dead was found, either at Awatobi or
+Sikyatki, nor have I yet detected any reference to this custom among
+the modern Hopi Indians. They have, however, a strange concept of the
+purification of the breath-body, or shade of the dead, by fire, which,
+although I have always regarded it as due to the teaching of Christian
+missionaries, may be aboriginal in character. This account of the
+judgment of the dead is as follows:
+
+There are two roads from the grave to the Below. One of these is a
+straight way connected with the path of the sun into the Underworld.
+There is a branch trail which divides from this straight way, passing
+from fires to a lake or ocean (_patuebha_). At the fork of the road
+sits Tokonaka, and when the breath-body comes to this place this chief
+looks it over and, if satisfied, he says "_Uem-pac lo-la-mai, ta ai_,"
+"You are very good; go on." Then the breath-body passes along the
+straight way to the far west, to the early _Sipapu_, the Underworld
+from which it came, the home of Mueiyinwu. Another breath-body comes to
+the fork in the road, and the chief says, "You are bad," and he
+conducts it along the crooked path to the place of the first fire pit,
+where sits a second chief, Tokonaka, who throws the bad breath-body
+into the fire, and after a time it emerges purified, for it was not
+wholly bad. The chief says, "You are good now," and carries it back to
+the first chief, who accepts the breath-body and sends it along the
+straight road to the west.
+
+If, on emerging from the first fire, the soul is still unpurified, or
+not sufficiently so to be accepted, it is taken to the second fire pit
+and cast into it. If it emerges from this thoroughly purified, in the
+opinion of the judge, it is immediately transformed into a
+_ho-ho-ya-ueh_, or prayer-beetle. All the beetles we now see in the
+valleys or among the mesas were once evil Hopi. If, on coming out of
+the second fire pit, the breath-body is still considered bad by the
+chief, he takes it to the third fire, and, if there be no evil in it
+when it emerges from this pit, it is metamorphosed into an ant, but if
+unpurified by these three fires--that is, if the chief still finds
+evil left in the breath-body--he takes it to a fourth fire and again
+casts it into the flames, where it is utterly consumed, the only
+residue being soot on the side of the pit.
+
+I have not recorded this as a universal or an aboriginal belief among
+the Hopi, but rather to show certain current ideas which may have been
+brought to Tusayan by missionaries or others. The details of the
+purification of the evil soul are characteristic.
+
+The western cemetery of Sikyatki is situated among the hillocks
+covered with surface rubble below a house occupied in summer by a
+Hopi and his family. From the nature of the soil the excavation of
+this cemetery was very difficult, although the mortuary objects were
+more numerous. Repeated attempts to make the Indians work in a
+systematic manner failed, partly on account of the hard soil and
+partly from other reasons. Although the lower we went the more
+numerous and beautiful were the objects exhumed, the Indians soon
+tired of deep digging, preferring to confine their work to within two
+or three feet of the surface. At many places we found graves under and
+between the huge bowlders, which are numerous in this cemetery.
+
+The southern cemetery lies between the outer edge of the ruin on that
+side and the decline to the plain, a few hundred feet from the
+southern row of houses. Two conspicuous bowlders mark the site of most
+of the excavations in that direction. The mortuary objects from this
+cemetery are not inferior in character or number to those from the
+other burial places. All attempts to discover a cemetery on the
+eastern side of the pueblo failed, although a single food basin was
+brought to the camp by an Indian who claimed he had dug it out of the
+deep sand on the eastern side of the ruins. Another bowl was found in
+the sand drift near the trail over the mesa to Kanelba, but careful
+investigation failed to reveal any systematic deposit of mortuary
+vessels east of the ruin.[111]
+
+The method of excavation pursued in the cemeteries was not so
+scientific as I had wished, but it was the only practicable one to be
+followed with native workmen. Having found the location of the graves
+by means of small prospecting holes sunk at random, the workmen were
+aligned and directed to excavate a single long, deep trench, removing
+all the earth as they advanced. It was with great difficulty that the
+Indians were taught the importance of excavating to a sufficient
+depth, and even to the end of the work they refused to be taught not
+to burrow. In their enthusiasm to get the buried treasures they worked
+very well so long as objects were found, but became at once
+discouraged when relics were not so readily forthcoming and went off
+prospecting in other places when our backs were turned. A shout that
+anyone had discovered a new grave in the trench was a signal for the
+others to stop work, gather around the place, light cigarettes, and
+watch me or my collaborators dig out the specimens with knives. This
+we always insisted on doing, for the reason that in their haste the
+Indians at first often broke fragile pottery after they had discovered
+it, and in spite of all precautions several fine jars and bowls were
+thus badly damaged by them. It is therefore not too much to say that
+most of the vessels which are now entire were dug out of the impacted
+sand by Mr Hodge or myself.
+
+No rule could be formulated in regard to the place where the pottery
+would occur, and often the first indication of its presence was the
+stroke of a shovel on the fragile edge of a vase or bowl. Having once
+found a skeleton, or discolored sand which indicated the former
+presence of human remains, the probability that burial objects were
+near by was almost a certainty, although in several instances even
+these signs failed.
+
+A considerable number of the pottery objects had been broken when the
+soil and stones were thrown on the corpse at interment. So many were
+entire, however, that I do not believe any considerable number were
+purposely broken at that time, and none were found with holes made in
+them to "kill" or otherwise destroy their utility.
+
+No evidences of cremation--no charred bones of man or animal in or
+near the mortuary vessels--were found. From the character of the
+objects obtained from neighboring graves, rich and poor were
+apparently buried side by side in the same soil. Absolutely no
+evidence of Spanish influence was encountered in all the excavations
+at Sikyatki--no trace of metal, glass, or other object of Caucasian
+manufacture such as I have mentioned as having been taken from the
+ruins of Awatobi--thus confirming the native tradition that the
+catastrophe of Sikyatki antedated the middle of the sixteenth century,
+when the first Spaniards entered the country.
+
+It is remarkable that in Sikyatki we found no fragments of basketry or
+cloth, the fame of which among the Pueblo Indians was known to
+Coronado before he left Mexico. That the people of Sikyatki wore
+cotton kilts no one can doubt, but these fabrics, if they were buried
+with the dead, had long since decayed. Specimens of strings and ropes
+of yucca, which were comparatively abundant at Awatobi, were not found
+at Sikyatki; yet their absence by no means proves that they were not
+used, for the marks of the strings used to bind feathers to the
+mortuary pahos, on the green paint with which the wood was covered,
+may still be readily seen.
+
+The insight into ancient beliefs and practices afforded by the
+numerous objects found at Sikyatki is very instructive, and while it
+shows the antiquity of some of the modern symbols, it betrays a still
+more important group of conventionalized figures, the meaning of which
+may always remain in doubt. This is particularly true of the
+decoration on many specimens of the large collection of highly
+ornamented pottery found in the Sikyatki cemeteries.
+
+If we consider the typical designs on modern Hopi pottery and compare
+them with the ancient, as illustrated by the collections from Awatobi
+and Sikyatki, it is noted, in the first place, how different they are,
+and secondly, how much better executed the ancient objects are than
+the modern. Nor is it always clear how the modern symbols are derived
+from the ancient, so widely do they depart from them in all their
+essential characters.
+
+
+POTTERY
+
+CHARACTERISTICS--MORTUARY POTTERY
+
+The pottery exhumed from the burial places of Sikyatki falls in the
+divisions known as--
+
+    I--Coiled and indented ware.
+    II--Smooth undecorated ware.
+    III--Polished decorated ware.
+        _a_. Yellow.
+        _b_. Red.
+        _c_. Black-and-white.
+
+By far the largest number of ancient pottery objects from this
+locality belong to the yellow-ware group in the above classification.
+This is the characteristic pottery of Tusayan, although coiled and
+indented ware is well represented in the collection. The few pieces of
+red ware are different from that found in the ruins of the Little
+Colorado, while the black-and-white pottery closely resembles the
+archaic ware of northern cliff houses. Although the Sikyatki pottery
+bears resemblance to that of Awatobi, it can be distinguished from it
+without difficulty. The paste of both is of the finest character and
+was most carefully prepared. Some of the ancient specimens are much
+superior to those at present made, and are acknowledged by the finest
+potters of East Mesa to be beyond their power of ceramic production.
+The coloration is generally in red, brown, yellow, and black.
+Decorative treatment by spattering is common in the food basins, and
+this was no doubt performed, Chinese fashion, by means of the mouth.
+The same method is still employed by the Hopi priests in painting
+their masks.
+
+The Sikyatki collection of pottery shows little or no duplication in
+decorative design, and every ornamented food basin bears practically
+different symbols. The decoration of the food basins is mainly on the
+interior, but there is almost invariably a geometrical design of some
+kind on the outside, near the rim. The ladles, likewise, are
+ornamented on their interior, and their handles also are generally
+decorated. When the specimens were removed from the graves their
+colors, as a rule, were apparently as well preserved as at the time of
+their burial; nor, indeed, do they appear to have faded since their
+deposit in the National Museum.
+
+The best examples of ceramic art from the graves of Sikyatki, in
+texture, finish, and decoration, are, in my judgment, superior to any
+pottery made by ancient or modern Indians north of Mexico. Indeed, in
+these respects the old Tusayan pottery will bear favorable comparison
+even with Central American ware. It is far superior to the rude
+pottery of the eastern pueblos, and is also considerably better than
+that of the great villages of the Gila and Salado. Among the Hopi
+themselves the ceramic art has degenerated, as the few remaining
+potters confess. These objects can hardly be looked upon as products
+of a savage people destitute of artistic feeling, but of a race which
+has developed in this line of work, through the plane of savagery, to
+a high stage of barbarism. While, as a whole, we can hardly regard the
+modern Hopi as a degenerate people with a more cultured ancestry,
+certainly the entire Pueblo culture in the Southwest, judged by the
+character of their pottery manufacture, has greatly deteriorated since
+the middle of the sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXIX
+
+COILED AND INDENTED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+
+COILED AND INDENTED WARE
+
+The rudest type of pottery from Sikyatki has been classed as coiled
+and indented ware. It is coarse in texture, not polished, and usually
+not decorated. Although the outer surface of the pottery of this class
+is rough, the general form of the ware is not less symmetrical than
+that of the finer vessels. The objects belonging to this group are
+mostly jars and moccasin-shape vessels, there being no bowls of this
+type. As a rule, the vessels are blackened with soot, although some of
+the specimens are light-brown in color. The former variety were
+undoubtedly once used in cooking; the latter apparently for containing
+water or food. In the accompanying illustration (plate CXIX, _a_) is
+shown one of the best specimens of indented ware, the pits forming an
+equatorial zone about the vessel. All traces of the coil of clay with
+which the jar was built up have been obliterated save on the bottom.
+The vessel is symmetrical and the indentations regular, as if made
+with a pointed stone, bone, or stick.
+
+In another form of coarse pottery (plate CXIX, _b_) the rim merges
+into two ears or rudimentary handles on opposite sides. Traces of the
+original coiling are readily observable on the sides of this vessel.
+
+Another illustration (plate CXIX, _c_) shows an amphora or jar with
+diametrically opposite handles extending from the rim to the side of
+the bowl. The surface of this rude jar is rough and without
+decoration, but the form is regular and symmetrical. In another
+amphora (plate CXIX, _d_) the opposite handles appear below the neck
+of the vessel; they are broader and apparently more serviceable.
+
+The jar shown in plate CXIX, _e_, has two ear-like extensions or
+projections from the neck of the jar, which are perforated for
+suspension. This vessel is decorated with an incised zigzag line,
+which surrounds it just above its equator. This is a fair example of
+ornamented rough ware.
+
+Several of the vessels made of coarse clay mixed with sand, the grains
+of which make the surface very rough, are of slipper or moccasin
+shape. These are covered with soot or blackened by fire, indicating
+their former use as cooking pots. By adopting this form the ancients
+were practically enabled to use the principle of the dutch-oven, the
+coals being piled about the vessels containing the food to be cooked
+much more advantageously than in the vase-like forms.
+
+The variations in slipper-shape cooking pots are few and simple. The
+blind end is sometimes of globular form, as in the example illustrated
+in plate CXX, _a_, and sometimes pointed as in figures _b_ and _c_ of
+the same plate. One of the specimens of this type has a handle on the
+rim and another has a flaring lip. Slipper-form vessels are always of
+coarse ware for the obvious reason that, being somewhat more porous,
+they are more readily heated than polished utensils. They are not
+decorated for equally obvious reasons.
+
+
+SMOOTH UNDECORATED WARE
+
+There are many specimens of undecorated ware of all shapes and sizes,
+a type of which is shown in plate CXX, _d_. These include food bowls,
+saucers, ladles, and jars, and were taken from many graves. These
+utensils differ from the coarse-ware vessels not only in the character
+of the clay from which they are made, but also in their superficial
+polish, which, in some instances, is as fine as that of vessels with
+painted designs. Several very good spoons of half-gourd shape were
+found, and there are many undecorated food bowls and vases. The first
+attempts at ornamentation appear to have been a simple spattering of
+the surface with liquid pigment or a drawing of simple encircling
+bands. In one instance (plate CXX, _d_) a blackening of the surface by
+exposure to smoke was detected, but no superficial gloss, as in the
+Santa Clara ware, was noted.
+
+
+POLISHED DECORATED WARE
+
+By far the greater number of specimens of mortuary pottery from
+Sikyatki are highly polished and decorated with more or less
+complicated designs. Of these there are at least three different
+groups, based on the color of the ware. Most of the vessels are light
+yellow or of cream color; the next group in point of color is the red
+ware, the few remaining specimens being white with black decorations
+in geometric patterns. These types naturally fall into divisions
+consisting of vases, jars, bowls, square boxes, cups, ladles, and
+spoons.
+
+In the group called vases (plates CXXI, CXXII) many varieties are
+found; some of these are double, with an equatorial constriction;
+others are rounded below, flat above, with an elevated neck and a
+recurved lip. It is noteworthy that these jars or vases are destitute
+of handles, and that their decoration is always confined to the
+equatorial and upper sections about the opening. In the specimens of
+this group which were found at Sikyatki there is no basal rim and no
+depression on the pole opposite the opening. No decoration is found on
+the interior of the vases, although in several instances the inside of
+the lip bears lines or markings of various kinds. The opening is
+always circular, sometimes small, often large; the neck of a vessel is
+occasionally missing, although the specimens bear evidence of use
+after having been thus broken. In one or two instances the equatorial
+constriction is so deep that the jar is practically double; in other
+cases the constriction is so shallow that it is hardly perceptible
+(plate CXXVI, _a, b_). The size varies from a simple globular vessel
+not larger than a walnut to a jar of considerable size. Many show
+marks of previous use; others are as fresh as if made but yesterday.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXX
+
+SAUCERS AND SLIPPER BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+One of the most fragile of all the globular vessels is a specimen of
+very thin black-and-white ware, perforated near the rim for suspension
+(plate CXXXII). This form, although rare at Sikyatki, is represented
+by several specimens, and in mode of decoration is very similar to the
+cliff-house pottery. From its scarcity in Tusayan I am inclined to
+believe that this and related specimens were not made of clay found in
+the immediate vicinity of Sikyatki, but that the vessels were brought
+to the ancient pueblo from distant places. As at least some of the
+cliff houses were doubtless inhabited contemporaneously with and long
+after the destruction of Sikyatki, I do not hesitate to say that the
+potters of that pueblo were familiar with the cliff-dweller type of
+pottery and acquainted with the technic which gave the black-and-white
+ware its distinctive colors.
+
+By far the largest number of specimens of smooth decorated pottery
+from Sikyatki graves are food bowls or basins, evidently the dishes in
+which food was placed on the floor before the members of a family at
+their meals. As the mortuary offerings were intended as food for the
+deceased it is quite natural that this form of pottery should far
+outnumber any and all the others. In no instance do the food bowls
+exhibit marks of smoke blackening, an indication that they had not
+been used in the cooking of food, but merely as receptacles of the
+same.
+
+The beautiful decoration of these vessels speaks highly for the
+artistic taste of the Sikyatki women, and a feast in which they were
+used must have been a delight to the native eye so far as dishes were
+concerned. When filled with food, however, much of the decoration of
+the bowls must have been concealed, a condition avoided in the mode of
+ornamentation adopted by modern Tusayan potters; but there is no doubt
+that when not in use the decoration of the vessels was effectually
+exhibited in their arrangement on the floor or convenient shelves.
+
+The forms of these food bowls are hemispherical, gracefully rounded
+below, and always without an attached ring of clay on which to stand
+to prevent rocking. Their rims are seldom flaring, but sometimes have
+a slight constriction, and while the rims of the majority are
+perfectly circular, oblong variations are not wanting. Many of the
+bowls are of saucer shape, with almost vertical sides and flat bases;
+several are double, with rounded or flat base.
+
+The surface, inside and out, is polished to a fine gloss, and when
+exteriorly decorated, the design is generally limited to one side just
+below the rim, which is often ornamented with double or triple
+parallel lines, drawn in equidistant, quaternary, and other forms.
+Most of the bowls show signs of former use, either wear on the inner
+surface or on the base where they rested on the floor in former
+feasts.
+
+These mortuary vessels were discovered generally at one side of the
+chest or neck of the person whose remains they were intended to
+accompany, and a single specimen was found inverted over the head of
+the deceased. The number of vessels in each grave was not constant,
+and as many as ten were found with one skeleton, while in other graves
+only one or two were found. In one instance a nest of six of these
+basins, one inside another, was exhumed. While many of these mortuary
+offerings were broken and others chipped, there were still a large
+number as perfect as when made. Some of the bowls had been mended
+before burial, as holes drilled on each side of a crack clearly
+indicate. Fragments of various vessels, which evidently had been
+broken before they were thrown into the graves, were common.
+
+There is a general similarity in the artistic decoration of bowls
+found in the same grave, as if they were made by the same potter; and
+persons of distinction, as shown by other mortuary objects, were, as a
+rule, more honored than some of their kindred in the character and
+number of pottery objects deposited with their remains. There were
+also a number of skeletons without ceramic offerings of any kind.
+
+In one or two interments two or more small jars were found placed
+inside of a food bowl, and in many instances votive offerings, like
+turquois, beads, stones, and arrowpoints, had been deposited with the
+dead. The bowls likewise contained, in some instances, prayer-sticks
+and other objects, which will later be described.
+
+One of the most interesting modifications in the form of the rim of
+one of these food bowls is shown in plate CXX, _e_, which illustrates
+a variation from the circular shape, forming a kind of handle or
+support for the thumb in lifting the vessel. The utility of this
+projection in handling a bowl of hot food is apparent. This form of
+vessel is very rare, it being the only one of its kind in the
+collection.
+
+A considerable number of cups were found at Sikyatki; these vary in
+size and shape from a flat-bottom saucer like specimen to a mug-shape
+variety, always with a single handle (plate CXXV). Many of these
+resemble small bowls with rounded sides, but there are others in which
+the sides are vertical, and still others the sides of which incline at
+an angle to the flattened base.
+
+The handles of these cups are generally smooth, and in one instance
+adorned with a figure in relief. The rims of these dippers are never
+flaring, either inward or outward. As a rule they are decorated on the
+exterior; indeed there is only one instance of interior decoration.
+The handles of the dippers are generally attached at both ends, but
+sometimes the handle is free at the end near the body of the utensil
+and attached at the tip. These handles are usually flat, but sometimes
+they are round, and often are decorated. Traces of imitations of the
+braiding of two coils of clay are seen in a single specimen.[112]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXI
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXII
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Small and large ladles, with long handles, occurred in large numbers
+in Sikyatki graves, but there was little variation among them except
+in the forms of their handles. Many of these utensils were much worn
+by use, especially on the rim opposite the attachment of the handle,
+and in some specimens the handle itself had evidently been broken and
+the end rounded off by rubbing long before it was placed in the grave.
+From the comparatively solid character of the bowls of these dippers
+they were rarely fractured, and were commonly found to contain smaller
+mortuary objects, such as paint, arrowheads, or polishing stones.
+
+The ladles, unlike most of the cups, are generally decorated on the
+interior as well as on the exterior. Their handles vary in size and
+shape, are usually hollow, and sometimes are perforated at the end. In
+certain specimens the extremity is prolonged into a pointed, recurved
+tip, and sometimes is coiled in a spiral. A groove in the upper
+surface of one example is an unusual variation, and a right-angle bend
+of the tip is a unique feature of another specimen. The Sikyatki
+potters, like their modern descendants,[113] sometimes ornamented the
+tip of a single handle with the head of an animal and painted the
+upper surface of the shaft with alternate parallel bars, zigzags,
+terraces, and frets.
+
+Several spoons or scoops of earthenware, which evidently had been used
+in much the same way as similar objects in the modern pueblos, were
+found. Some of these have the shape of a half gourd--a natural object
+which no doubt furnished the pattern. These spoons, as a rule, were
+not decorated, but on a single specimen bars and parallel lines may be
+detected. In the innovations of modern times pewter spoons serve the
+same purpose, and their form is sometimes imitated in earthenware.
+More often, in modern and probably also in ancient usage, a roll of
+paper-bread or _piki_ served the same purpose, being dipped into the
+stew and then eaten with the fingers. Possibly the Sikyatkian drank
+from the hollow handle of a gourd ladle, as is frequently done in
+Walpi today, but he generally slaked his thirst by means of a clay
+substitute.[114]
+
+Several box-like articles of pottery of both cream and red ware were
+found in the Sikyatki graves, some of them having handles, others
+being without them (plate CXXV). They are ornamented on the exterior
+and on the rim, and the handle, when not lacking, is attached to the
+longer side of the rectangular vessel. Not a single bowl was found
+with a terraced rim, a feature so common in the medicine bowls of
+Tusayan at the present time.[115]
+
+In addition to the various forms of pottery which have been mentioned,
+there are also pieces made in the form of birds, one of the most
+typical of which is figured in plate CXII, _c_. In these objects the
+wings are represented by elevations in the form of ridges on the
+sides, and the tail and head by prolongations, which unfortunately
+were broken off.
+
+Toys or miniature reproductions of all the above-mentioned ceramic
+specimens occurred in several graves. These are often very roughly
+made, and in some cases contained pigments of different colors. The
+finding of a few fragments of clay in the form of animal heads, and
+one or two rude images of quadrupeds, would seem to indicate that
+sometimes such objects were likewise deposited with the dead. A clay
+object resembling the flaring end of a flageolet and ornamented with a
+zigzag decoration is unique in the collections from Sikyatki, although
+in the western cemetery there was found a fragment of an earthenware
+tube, possibly a part of a flute.
+
+In order to show more clearly the association of mortuary objects in
+single graves a few examples of the grouping of these deposits will be
+given.
+
+In a grave in the western cemetery the following specimens were found:
+1, ladle; 2, paint grinder; 3, paint slab; 4, arrowpoints; 5,
+fragments of a marine shell (_Pectunculus_); 6, pipe, with fragments
+of a second pipe, and 7, red paint (sesquioxide of iron).
+
+In the grave which contained the square medicine bowl shown in plate
+CXXVIII, _a_, a ladle containing food was also unearthed.
+
+The bowl decorated with a picture of a girl's head was associated with
+fragments of another bowl and four ladles.
+
+Another single grave contained four large and small cooking pots and a
+broken metate.
+
+In a grave 8 feet below the surface in the western cemetery we found:
+1, decorated food vessel; 2, black shoe-shape cooking pot resting in a
+food bowl and containing a small rude ladle; 3, coarse undecorated
+basin.
+
+A typical assemblage of mortuary objects comprised: 1, small decorated
+bowl containing polishing stones; 2, miniature cooking pot blackened
+by soot; 3, two small food bowls.
+
+In modern Hopi burials the food bowls with the food for the dead are
+not buried with the deceased, but are placed on the mound of soil and
+stones which covers the remains. From the position of the mortuary
+pottery as regards the skeletons in the Sikyatki interments, it is
+probable that this custom is of modern origin. Whether in former times
+food bowls were placed on the burial mounds as well as in the grave I
+am not able to say. The number of food bowls in ancient graves exceeds
+those placed on modern burials.
+
+The Sikyatki dead were apparently wrapped in coarse fabrics, possibly
+matting.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIII
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+
+PALEOGRAPHY OF THE POTTERY
+
+GENERAL FEATURES
+
+The pottery from Sikyatki is especially rich in picture writing, and
+imperfect as these designs are as a means of transmitting a knowledge
+of manners, customs, and religious conceptions, they can be
+interpreted with good results.
+
+One of the most important lessons drawn from the pottery is to be had
+from a study of the symbols used in its decoration, as indicative of
+current beliefs and practices when it was made. The ancient
+inhabitants of Sikyatki have left no written records, for, unlike the
+more cultured people of Central America, they had no codices; but they
+have left on their old mortuary pottery a large body of picture
+writings or paleography which reveals many instructive phases of their
+former culture. The decipherment of these symbols is in part made
+possible by the aid of a knowledge of modern survivals, and when
+interpreted rightly they open a view of ancient Tusayan myths, and in
+some cases of prehistoric practices.[116]
+
+Students of Pueblo mythology and ritual are accumulating a
+considerable body of literature bearing on modern beliefs and
+practices. This is believed to be the right method of determining
+their aboriginal status, and is therefore necessary as a basis of our
+knowledge of their customs and beliefs. It is reasonable to suppose
+that what is now practiced in Pueblo ritual contains more or less of
+what has survived from prehistoric times, but from Taos to Tusayan
+there is no pueblo which does not show modifications in mythology and
+ritual due to European contact. Modern Pueblo life resembles the
+ancient, but is not a facsimile of it, and until we have rightly
+measured the effects of incorporated elements, we are more or less
+inexact in our estimation of the character of prehistoric culture. The
+vein of similarity in the old and the new can be used in an
+interpretation of ancient paleography, but we overstep natural
+limitations if by so doing we ascribe to prehistoric culture every
+concept which we find current among the modern survivors. To show how
+much the paleography of Tusayan has changed since Sikyatki was
+destroyed, I need only say that most of the characteristic figures of
+deities which are used today in the decoration of pottery are not
+found on the Sikyatki ware. Perhaps the most common figures on modern
+food bowls is the head of a mythologic being, the Corn-maid,
+_Calako-mana_, but this picture, or any which resembles it, is not
+found on the bowls from Sikyatki. A knowledge of the cult of the
+Corn-maid possibly came into Tusayan, through foreign influences,
+after the fall of Sikyatki, and there is no doubt that the picture
+decoration of modern Tusayan pottery, made within a league of
+Sikyatki, is so different from the ancient that it indicates a
+modification of the culture of the Hopi in historic times, and implies
+how deceptive it may be to present modern beliefs and practices as
+facsimiles of ancient culture.
+
+The main subjects chosen by the native women for the decoration of
+their pottery are symbolic, and the most abundant objects which bear
+these decorations are food bowls and water vases. Many mythic concepts
+are depicted, among which may be mentioned the Plumed Snake, various
+birds, reptiles, frogs, tadpoles, and insects. Plants or leaves are
+seldom employed as decorative motives, but the flower is sometimes
+used. The feather was perhaps the most common object utilized, and it
+may likewise be said the most highly conventionalized.
+
+An examination of the decorations of modern food basins used in the
+villages of East Mesa shows that the mythologic personages most
+commonly chosen for the ornamentation of their interiors are the Corn
+or Germ goddesses.[117] These assume a number of forms, yet all are
+reducible to one type, although known by very different names, as
+Hewueqti, "Old Woman," Kokle, and the like.
+
+Figures of reptiles, birds, the antelope, and like animals do not
+occur on any of the food bowls from the large collection of modern
+Tusayan pottery which I have studied, and as these figures are well
+represented in the decorations on Sikyatki food bowls, we may suppose
+their use has been abandoned or replaced by figures of the
+Corn-maids.[118] This fact, like so many others drawn from a study of
+the Tusayan ritual, indicates that the cult of the Corn-maids is more
+vigorous today than it was when Sikyatki was in its prime.
+
+Many pictures of masks on modern Tusayan bowls are identified as
+_Tacab_ or Navaho _katcinas_.[119] Their symbolism is well
+characterized by chevrons on the cheeks or curved markings for eyes.
+None of these figures, however, have yet been found on ancient Tusayan
+ceramics. Taken in connection with facts adduced by Hodge indicative
+of a recent advent of this vigorous Athapascan tribe into Tusayan, it
+would seem that the use of the _Tacab katcina_ pictures was of recent
+date, and is therefore not to be expected on the prehistoric pottery
+of the age of that found in Sikyatki.
+
+In the decoration of ancient pottery I find no trace of figures of the
+clown-priests, or _tcukuwympkiya_, who are so prominent in modern
+Tusayan _katcina_ celebrations. These personages, especially the
+Tatcukti, often called by a corruption of the Zuni name Koyimse
+(Koyomaeshi), are very common on modern bowls, especially at the
+extremities of ladles or smaller objects of pottery.
+
+Many handles of ladles made at Hano in late times are modeled in the
+form of the Paiakyamu,[120] a glutton priesthood peculiar to that
+Tanoan pueblo. From the data at hand we may legitimately conclude that
+the conception of the clown-priest is modern in Tusayan, so far as the
+ornamentation of pottery is concerned.
+
+The large collections of so-called modern Hopi pottery in our museums
+is modified Tanoan ware, made in Tusayan. Most of the component
+specimens were made by Hano potters, who painted upon them figures of
+_katcinas_, a cult which they and their kindred introduced.
+
+Several of the food bowls had evidently cracked during their firing or
+while in use, and had been mended before they were buried in the
+graves. This repairing was accomplished either by filling the crack
+with gum or by boring a hole on each side of the fracture for tying.
+In one specimen of black-and-white ware a perfectly round hole was
+made in the bottom, as if purposely to destroy the usefulness of the
+bowl before burial. This hole had been covered inside with a rounded
+disk of old pottery, neatly ground on the edge. It was not observed
+that any considerable number of mortuary pottery objects were "killed"
+before burial, although a large number were chipped on the edges. It
+is a great wonder that any of these fragile objects were found entire,
+the stones and soil covering the corpse evidently having been thrown
+into the grave without regard to care.
+
+The majority of the ancient symbols are incomprehensible to the
+present Hopi priests whom I have been able to consult, although they
+are ready to suggest many interpretations, sometimes widely divergent.
+The only reasonable method that can be pursued in determining the
+meaning of the conventional signs with which the modern Tusayan
+Indians are unfamiliar seems, therefore, to be a comparative one. This
+method I have attempted to follow so far as possible.
+
+There is a closer similarity between the symbolism of the Sikyatki
+pottery and that of the Awatobi ware than there is between the
+ceramics of either of these two pueblos and that of Walpi, and the
+same likewise may be said of the other Tusayan ruins so far as known.
+It is desirable, however, that excavations be made at the site of Old
+Walpi in order to determine, if possible, how widely different the
+ceramics of that village are from the towns whose ruins were studied
+in 1895. There are certain practical difficulties in regard to work at
+Old Walpi, one of the greatest of which is its proximity to modern
+burial places and shrines still used. Moreover, it is
+probable--indeed, quite certain--that most of the portable objects
+were carried from the abandoned pueblo to the present village when the
+latter was founded; but the old cemeteries of Walpi contain many
+ancient mortuary bowls which, when exhumed, will doubtless contribute
+a most interesting chapter to the history of modern Tusayan decorative
+art.
+
+One of the largest, and, so far as form goes, one of the most unique
+vessels, is shown in plate CXXVI, _b_. This was not exhumed from
+Sikyatki, but was said to have been found in the vicinity of that
+ruin. While the ware is very old, I do not believe it is ancient, and
+it is introduced in order to show how cleverly ancient patterns maybe
+simulated by more modern potters. The sole way in which modern
+imitations of ancient vessels may be distinguished is by the peculiar
+crackled or crazed surface which the former always has. This is due, I
+believe, to the method of firing and the unequal contraction or
+expansion of the slip employed. All modern imitations are covered with
+a white slip which, after firing, becomes crackled, a characteristic
+unknown to ancient ware. The most expert modern potter at East Mesa is
+Nampeo, a Tanoan woman who is a thorough artist in her line of work.
+Finding a better market for ancient than for modern ware, she cleverly
+copies old decorations, and imitates the Sikyatki ware almost
+perfectly. She knows where the Sikyatki potters obtained their clay,
+and uses it in her work. Almost any Hopi who has a bowl to sell will
+say that it is ancient, and care must always be exercised in accepting
+such claims.
+
+An examination of the ornamentation of the jar above referred to shows
+a series of birds drawn in the fashion common to early pottery
+decoration. This has led me to place this large vessel among the old
+ware, although the character of the pottery is different from that of
+the best examples found at Sikyatki. I believe this vessel was exhumed
+from a ruin of more modern date than Sikyatki. The woman who sold it
+to me has farming interests near Awatobi, which leads me to conjecture
+that she or possibly one of her ancestors found it at or near that
+ruin. She admitted that it had been in the possession of her family
+for some time, but that the story she had heard concerning it
+attributed its origin to Sikyatki.
+
+
+HUMAN FIGURES
+
+Very few figures of men or women are found on the pottery, and these
+are confined to the interior of food basins (plate CXXIX).[121] They
+are ordinarily very roughly drawn, apparently with less care and with
+much less detail than are the figures of animals. From their character
+I am led to the belief that the drawing of human figures on pottery
+was a late development in Tusayan art, and postdates the use of animal
+figures on their earthenware. There are, however, a few decorations in
+which human figures appear, and these afford an interesting although
+meager contribution to our knowledge of ancient Tusayan art and
+custom.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIV
+
+DECORATED POTTERY FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+As is well known, the Hopi maidens wear their hair in two whorls, one
+over each ear, and that on their marriage it is tied in two coils
+falling on the breast. The whorl is arranged on a U-shape stick called
+a _gnela_; it is commonly done up by a sister, the mother, or some
+friend of the maiden, and is stiffened with an oil pressed from squash
+seeds. The curved stick is then withdrawn and the two puffs held in
+place by a string tightly wound between them and the head. The habit
+of dressing the hair in whorls is adopted after certain puberty
+ceremonials, which have elsewhere been described. When on betrothal a
+Hopi maid takes her gifts of finely ground cornmeal to the house of
+her future mother-in-law, her hair is dressed in this fashion for the
+last time, because on her return she is attacked by the women of the
+pueblo, drawn hither and thither, her hair torn down, and her body
+smeared with dirt. If her gifts are accepted she immediately becomes
+the wife of her lover, and her hair is thenceforth dressed in the
+fashion common to matrons.
+
+The symbolic meaning of the whorls of hair worn by the maidens is said
+to be the squash-flower, or, perhaps more accurately speaking, the
+potential power of fructification. There is legendary and other
+evidence that this custom is very ancient among the Tusayan Indians,
+and the data obtainable from their ritual point the same way. In the
+personification of ancestral "breath-bodies," or spirits by men,
+called _katcinas_, the female performers are termed _katcina-manas_
+(katcina-virgins), and it is their custom to wear the hair in the
+characteristic coiffure of maidens. In the personification of the
+Corn-maid by symbolic figures, such as graven images,[122] pictures,
+and the like, in secret rites, the style of coiffure worn by the
+maidens is common, as I have elsewhere shown in the descriptions of
+the ceremonials known as the Flute, _Lalakonti_, _Mamzrauti_,
+_Palueluekonti_, and others. The same symbol is found in images used as
+dolls of Calako-mana, the equivalent, as the others, of the same
+Corn-maid. From the nature of these images there can hardly be a doubt
+of the great antiquity of this practice, and that it has been brought
+down, through their ritual, to the present day. This style of hair
+dressing was mentioned by the early Spanish explorers, and is
+represented in pictographs of ancient date; but if all these evidences
+of its antiquity are insufficient the testimony afforded by the
+pictures on certain food-basins from Sikyatki leaves no doubt on this
+point.[123]
+
+Plate CXXIX, _b_, represents a food-basin, on the inside of which is
+drawn, in brown, the head and shoulders of a woman. On either side the
+hair is done up in coils which bear some likeness to the whorls worn
+by the present Hopi maidens. It must be borne in mind, however, that
+similar coils are sometimes made after ceremonial head-washing, and
+certain other rites, when the hair is tied with corn husks. The face
+is painted reddish, and the ears have square pendants similar to the
+turquois mosaics worn by Hopi women at the present day. Although there
+is other evidence than this of the use of square ear-pendants, set
+with mosaic, among the ancient people--and traditions point the same
+way--this figure of the head of a woman from Sikyatki leaves no doubt
+of the existence of this form of ornament in that ancient pueblo.
+
+However indecisive the last-mentioned picture may be in regard to the
+coiffure of the ancient Sikyatki women, plate CXXIX, _a_, affords
+still more conclusive evidence. This picture represents a woman of
+remarkable form which, from likenesses to figures at present made in
+sand on an altar in the _Lalakonti_ ceremony,[124] I have no
+hesitation in ascribing to the Corn-maid. The head has the two whorls
+of hair very similar to those made in that rite on the picture of the
+Goddess of Germs, and the square body is likewise paralleled in the
+same figure. The peculiar form is employed to represent the
+outstretched blanket, a style of art which is common in Mayan
+codices.[125] On each lower corner representations of feathered
+strings, called in the modern ritual _nakwakwoci_,[126] are appended.
+The figure is represented as kneeling, and the four parallel lines are
+possibly comparable with the prayer-sticks placed in the belt of the
+Germ goddess on the _Lalakonti_ altar. In her left hand (which, among
+the Hopi, is the ceremonial hand or that in which sacred objects are
+always carried) she holds an ear of corn, symbolic of germs, of which
+she is the deity. The many coincidences between this figure and that
+used in the ceremonials of the September moon, called Lalakonti, would
+seem to show that in both instances it was intended to represent the
+same mythic being.
+
+There is, however, another aspect of this question which is of
+interest. In modern times there is a survival among the Hopi of the
+custom of decorating the inside of a food basin with a figure of the
+Corn-maid, and this is, therefore, a direct inheritance of ancient
+methods represented by the specimen under consideration. A large
+majority of modern food bowls are ornamented with an elaborate figure
+of Calako-mana, the Corn-maid, very elaborately worked out, but still
+retaining the essential symbolism figured in the Sikyatki bowl.[127]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXV
+
+FLAT DIPPERS AND MEDICINE BOX FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+While one of the two figures shown in plate CXXIX, _e_, is valuable as
+affording additional and corroborative evidence of the character of
+the ancient coiffure of the women, its main interest is of a somewhat
+different kind. Two figures are rudely drawn on the inside of the
+basin, one of which represents a woman, the other, judging from the
+character of the posterior extremity of the body, a reptilian
+conception in which a single foreleg is depicted, and the tail is
+articulated at the end, recalling a rattlesnake. Upon the head is a
+single feather;[128] the two eyes are represented on one side of the
+head, and the line of the alimentary tract is roughly drawn. The
+figure is represented as standing before that of the woman.
+
+With these few lines the potter no doubt intended to depict one of
+those many legends, still current, of the cultus hero and heroine of
+her particular family or priesthood. Supposing the reptilian figure to
+be a totemic one, our minds naturally recall the legend of the
+Snake-hero and the Corn-mist-maid[129] whom he brought from a mythic
+land to dwell with his people.
+
+The peculiar hairdress is likewise represented in the figures on the
+food basin illustrated in plate CXXIX, _c_, which represent a man and
+a woman. Although the figures are partly obliterated, it can easily be
+deciphered that the latter figure wears a garment similar to the
+_kwaca_ or dark-blue blanket for which Tusayan is still famous, and
+that this blanket was bound by a girdle, the ends of which hang from
+the woman's left hip. While the figure of the man is likewise
+indistinct (the vessel evidently having been long in use), the nature
+of the act in which he is engaged is not left in doubt.[130]
+
+Among the numerous deities of the modern Hopi Olympus there is one
+called Kokopeli,[131] often represented in wooden dolls and clay
+images. From the obscurity of the symbolism, these dolls are never
+figured in works on Tusayan images. The figure in plate CXXIX, _d_,
+bears a resemblance to Kokopeli. It represents a man with arms raised
+in the act of dancing, and the head is destitute of hair as if covered
+by one of the peculiar helmets, used by the clowns in modern
+ceremonials. As many of the acts of these priests may be regarded as
+obscene from our point of view, it is not improbable that this figure
+may represent an ancient member of this archaic priesthood.
+
+The three human figures on the food basin illustrated in plate CXXIX,
+_f_, are highly instructive as showing the antiquity of a curious and
+revolting practice almost extinct in Tusayan.
+
+As an accompaniment of certain religious ceremonials among the Pueblo
+and the Navaho Indians, it was customary for certain priests to insert
+sticks into the esophagus. These sticks are still used to some extent
+and may be obtained by the collector. The ceremony of stick-swallowing
+has led to serious results, so that now in the decline of this cult a
+deceptive method is often adopted.
+
+In Tusayan the stick-swallowing ceremony has been practically
+abandoned at the East Mesa, but I have been informed by reliable
+persons that it has not wholly been given up at Oraibi. The
+illustration above referred to indicates its former existence in
+Sikyatki. The middle figure represents the stick-swallower forcing the
+stick down his esophagus, while a second figure holds before him an
+unknown object. The principal performer is held by a third figure, an
+attendant, who stands behind him. This instructive pictograph thus
+illustrates the antiquity of this custom in Tusayan, and would seem to
+indicate that it was once a part of the Pueblo ritual.[132] It is
+possible that the Navaho, who have a similar practice, derived it from
+the Pueblos, but there are not enough data at hand to demonstrate this
+beyond question.
+
+Regarding the pose of the three figures in this picture, I have been
+reminded by Dr Walter Hough of the performers who carry the wad of
+cornstalks in the Antelope dance. In this interpretation we have the
+"carrier," "hugger," and possibly an Antelope priest with the unknown
+object in his hand. This interpretation appears more likely to be a
+correct one than that which I have suggested; and yet Kopeli, the
+Snake chief, declares that the Snake family was not represented at
+Sikyatki. Possibly a dance similar to the Antelope performance on the
+eighth day of the Snake dance may have been celebrated at that pueblo,
+and the discovery of a rattlesnake's rattle in a Sikyatki grave is yet
+to be explained.
+
+One of the most prominent of all the deities in the modern Tusayan
+Olympus is the cultus-hero called Pueuekonhoya, the Little War God. Hopi
+mythology teems with legends of this god and his deeds in killing
+monsters and aiding the people in many ways. He is reputed to have
+been one of twins, children of the Sun and a maid by parthenogenetic
+conception. His adventures are told with many variants and he
+reappears with many aliases.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVI
+
+DOUBLE-LOBE VASES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The symbolism of Pueuekonhoya at the present day consists of parallel
+marks on the face or body, and when personated by a man the figure
+is always represented as carrying weapons of war, such as a bow and
+arrows. Images of the same hero are used in ceremonies, and are
+sometimes found as household gods or penates, which are fed as if
+human beings. A fragment of pottery represented in the accompanying
+illustration (figure 263), shows enough of the head of a personage to
+indicate that Pueuekonhoya was intended, for it bears on the cheek the
+two parallel marks symbolic of that deity, while in his hands he holds
+a bow and a jointed arrow as if shooting an unknown animal. All of
+these features are in harmony with the identification of the figure
+with that of the cultus-hero mentioned, and seem to indicate the truth
+of the current legend that as a mythologic conception he is of great
+antiquity in Tusayan.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 263--War god shooting an animal. (Fragment of food
+bowl.)]
+
+In this connection it may be instructive to call attention to two
+figures on a food bowl collected by Mr H. R. Voth from a ruin near
+Oraibi. It represents a man and a woman, the former with two horns, a
+crescent on the forehead, and holding in his outstretched hand a
+staff. The woman has a curious gorget, similar to some which I have
+found in ruins near Tusayan, and a belt like those still worn by
+Pueblo Indians. This smaller figure likewise has a crescent on its
+face and three strange appendages on each side of the head.
+
+Another food basin in Mr Voth's collection is also instructive, and is
+different in its decoration from any which I have found. The character
+of the ware is ancient, but the figure is decidedly modern. If,
+however, it should prove to be an ancient vessel it would carry back
+to the time of its manufacture the existence of the _katcina_ cult in
+Tusayan, no actual proof of the existence of which, at a time when
+Sikyatki was in its prime, has yet been discovered.
+
+The three figures represent Hahaiwueqti, Hewueqti, and Natacka exactly
+as these supernatural beings are now personated at Walpi in the
+_Powamu_, as described and figured in a former memoir.[133]
+
+It is unfortunate that the antiquity of this specimen, suggestive as
+it is, must be regarded as doubtful, for it was not exhumed from the
+ruin by an archeologist, and the exact locality in which it was found
+is not known.
+
+
+THE HUMAN HAND
+
+Excepting the figure of the maid's head above described, the human
+hand, for some unknown reason, is the only part of the body chosen by
+the ancient Hopi for representation in the decoration of their
+pottery. Among the present Tusayan Indians the human hand is rarely
+used, but oftentimes the beams of the kivas are marked by the girls
+who have plastered them with impressions of their muddy hands, and
+there is a _katcina_ mask which has a hand painted in white on the
+face. As in the case of the decoration of all similar sacred
+paraphernalia, there is a legend which accounts for the origin of the
+_katcina_ with the imprint of the hand on its mask. The following
+tale, collected by the late A. M. Stephen, from whose manuscript I
+quote, is interesting in this connection:
+
+"The figure of a hand with extended fingers is very common, in the
+vicinity of ruins, as a rock etching, and is also frequently seen
+daubed on the rocks with colored pigments or white clay. These are
+vestiges of a test formerly practiced by the young men who aspired for
+admission to the fraternity of the Calako. The Calako is a trinity of
+two women and a man from whom the Hopi obtained the first corn, and of
+whom the following legend is told:
+
+    "In the early days, before houses were built, the earth was
+    devastated by a whirlwind. There was then neither springs nor
+    streams, although water was so near the surface that it could
+    be found by pulling up a tuft of grass. The people had but
+    little food, however, and they besought Masauwuh to help
+    them, but he could not.
+
+    "There came a little old man, a dwarf, who said that he had
+    two sisters who were the wives of Calako, and it might be
+    well to petition them. So they prepared an altar, every man
+    making a _paho_, and these were set in the ground so as to
+    encircle a sand hillock, for this occurred before houses were
+    known.
+
+    "Masauwuh's brother came and told them that when Calako came
+    to the earth's surface wherever he placed his foot a deep
+    chasm was made; then they brought to the altar a huge rock,
+    on which Calako might stand, and they set it between the two
+    pahos placed for his wives.
+
+    "Then the people got their rattles and stood around the
+    altar, each man in front of his own paho; but they stood in
+    silence, for they knew no song with which to invoke this
+    strange god. They stood there for a long while, for they were
+    afraid to begin the ceremonies until a young lad, selecting
+    the largest rattle, began to shake it and sing. Presently a
+    sound like rushing water was heard, but no water was seen; a
+    sound also like great winds, but the air was perfectly still,
+    and it was seen that the rock was pierced with a great hole
+    through the center. The people were frightened and ran away,
+    all save the young lad who had sung the invocation.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVII
+
+UNUSUAL FORMS OF VASES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+    "The lad soon afterward rejoined them, and they saw that his
+    back was cut and bleeding and covered with splinters of yucca
+    and willow. The flagellation, he told them, had been
+    administered by Calako, who told him that he must endure this
+    laceration before he could look upon the beings he had
+    invoked; that only to those who passed through his ordeals
+    could Calako become visible; and, as the lad had braved the
+    test so well, he should thenceforth be chief of the Calako
+    altar. The lad could not describe Calako, but said that his
+    two wives were exceedingly beautiful and arrayed with all
+    manner of fine garments. They wore great headdresses of
+    clouds and every kind of corn which they were to give to the
+    Hopi to plant for food. There were white, red, yellow, blue,
+    black, blue-and-white speckled, and red-and-yellow speckled
+    corn, and a seeded grass (_kwapi_).
+
+    "The lad returned to the altar and shook his rattle over the
+    hole in the rock, and from its interior Calako conversed with
+    him and gave him instructions. In accordance with these he
+    gathered all the Hopi youths and brought them to the rock,
+    that Calako might select certain of them to be his priests.
+    The first test was that of putting their hands in the mud and
+    impressing them upon the rock. Only those were chosen as
+    novices the imprints of whose hands had dried on the instant.
+
+    "The selected youths then moved within the altar and
+    underwent the test of flagellation. Calako lashed them with
+    yucca and willow. Those who made no outcry were told to
+    remain in the altar, to abstain from salt and flesh for ten
+    days, when Calako would return and instruct them concerning
+    the rites to be performed when they sought his aid.
+
+    "Calako and his two wives appeared at the appointed time, and
+    after many ceremonials gave to each of the initiated five
+    grains of each of the different kinds of corn. The Hopi women
+    had been instructed to place baskets woven of grass at the
+    foot of the rock, and in these Calako's wives placed the
+    seeds of squashes, melons, beans, and all the other
+    vegetables which the Hopi have since possessed.
+
+    "Calako and his wives, after announcing that they would again
+    return, took off their masks and garments, and laying them on
+    the rock disappeared within it.
+
+    "Some time after this, when the initiated were assembled in
+    the altar, the Great Plumed Snake appeared to them and said
+    that Calako could not return unless one of them was brave
+    enough to take the mask and garments down into the hole and
+    give them to him. They were all afraid, but the oldest man of
+    the Hopi took them down and was deputed to return and
+    represent Calako.
+
+    "Shortly afterward Masauwuh stole the paraphernalia, and with
+    his two brothers masqueraded as Calako and his wives. This
+    led the Hopi into great trouble, and they incurred the wrath
+    of Muiyinwuh, who withered all their grain and corn.
+
+    "One of the Hopi finally discovered that the supposed Calako
+    carried a cedar bough in his hand, when it should have been
+    willow; then they knew that it was Masauwuh who had been
+    misleading them.
+
+    "The boy hero one day found Masauwuh asleep, and so regained
+    possession of the mask. Muiyinwuh then withdrew his
+    punishments and sent Palueluekon (the Plumed Snake) to tell
+    the Hopi that Calako would never return to them, but that the
+    boy hero should wear his mask and represent him, and his
+    festival should be celebrated when they had a proper number
+    of novices to be initiated."[134]
+
+Several food basins from Sikyatki have a human hand depicted upon
+them, and in one of these both hands are represented. On the most
+perfect of these hand figures (plate CXXXVII, _c_) a wristlet is well
+represented, with two triangular figures, which impart to it an
+unusual form. From between the index and second finger there arises a
+triangular appendage, which joins a graceful curve, extending on one
+side to the base of the thumb and continued on the other side to the
+arm. The whole inside of the basin, except the figure of the hand and
+its appendage, is decorated with spattering,[135] and on the outside
+there is a second figure, evidently a hand or the paw of some animal.
+This external decoration also has a triangular figure in which are two
+terraces, recalling rain-cloud symbols.
+
+One of the most interesting representations of the human hand (figure
+354) is found on the exterior of a beautiful bowl. The four fingers
+and the thumb are shown with representations of nails, a unique
+feature in such decorations. From between the index finger and the
+next, or rather from the tip of the former, arises an appendage
+comparable with that before mentioned, but of much simpler form. The
+palm of the hand is crossed by a number of parallel lines, which
+recall a custom of using the palm lines in measuring ceremonial prayer
+sticks, as I have described in a memoir on the Snake dance. In place
+of the arm this hand has many parallel lines, the three medial ones
+being continued far beyond the others, as shown in the figure.
+
+
+QUADRUPEDS
+
+Figures of quadrupeds are sparingly used in the decoration of food
+bowls or basins, but the collection shows several fine specimens on
+which appear some of the mammalia with which the Hopi are familiar.
+Most of these are so well drawn that there appears to be no question
+as to their identification.
+
+One of the most instructive of these figures is shown in plate CXXX,
+_a_, which is much worn, and indistinct in detail, although from what
+can be traced it was probably intended to represent a mythic creature
+known as the Giant Elk. The head bears two branched horns, drawn
+without perspective, and the neck has a number of short parallel marks
+similar to those occurring on the figure of an antelope on the walls
+of one of the kivas at Walpi. The hoofs are bifid, and from a short
+stunted tail there arises a curved line which encircles the whole
+figure, connecting a series of round spots and terminating in a
+triangular figure with three parallel lines representing feathers.
+Perhaps the strangest of all appendages to this animal is at the tail,
+which is forked, recalling the tail of certain birds. Its meaning is
+unknown to me.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXVIII
+
+MEDICINE BOX AND PIGMENT POTS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+There can be no doubt that the delineator sought to represent in this
+figure one of the numerous horned _Cervidae_ with which the ancient
+Hopi were familiar, but the drawing is so incomplete that to choose
+between the antelope, deer, and elk seems impossible. It may be
+mentioned, however, that the Horn people are reputed to have been
+early arrivals in Tusayan, and it is not improbable that
+representatives of the Horn clans lived in Sikyatki previous to its
+overthrow.
+
+Two faintly drawn animals, evidently intended for quadrupeds, appear
+on the interior of the food bowl shown in plate CXXX, _b_. These are
+interesting from the method in which they were drawn. They are not
+outlined with defined lines, but are of the original color of the
+bowl, and appear as two ghost-like figures surrounded by a dense
+spattering of red spots, similar in technic to the figure of the human
+hand. I am unable to identify these animals, but provisionally refer
+them to the rabbit. They have no distinctive symbolism, however, and
+are destitute of the characteristic spots which members of the Rabbit
+clan now invariably place on their totemic signatures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 264--Mountain sheep]
+
+The animal design on the bowl illustrated in plate CXXX, _c_, probably
+represents a rabbit or hare, quite well drawn in profile, with a
+feathered appendage from the head. Behind it is the ordinary symbol of
+the dragon-fly. Several crosses are found in an opposite hemisphere,
+separated from that occupied by the two animal pictures by a series of
+geometric figures ornamented with crooks and other designs.
+
+The interior of the food bowl shown in plate CXXX, _d_, as well as the
+inner sides of the two ladles represented in plate CXXXI, _b_, _d_,
+are decorated with peculiar figures which suggest the porcupine. The
+body is crescentic and covered with spines, and only a single leg,
+with claws, is represented. It is worthy of mention that so many of
+these animal forms have only one leg, representative, no doubt, of a
+single pair, and that many of these have plantigrade paws like those
+of the bear and badger. The appendages to the head in this figure
+remind one of those of certain forms regarded as reptiles, with which
+this may be identical.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 265--Mountain lion]
+
+In another decoration we have what is apparently the same animal
+furnished with both fore and hind legs, the tail curving upward like
+that of a cottontail rabbit, which it resembles in other particulars
+as well. This figure also hangs by a band from a geometric design
+formed of two crescents and bearing four parallel marks representing
+feathers. The single crescent depicted on the inside of the ladle
+shown in plate CXXXI, _b_, is believed to represent the same
+conception, or the moon; and in this connection the very close
+phonetic resemblance between the Hopi name for moon[136] and that for
+the mammal may be mentioned. In the decoration last described the same
+crescentic figure is elaborated into its zooemorphic equivalent.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXIX
+
+DESIGNS ON FOOD BOWLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+An enumeration of the pictographic representations of mammalia
+includes the beautiful food bowl shown in plate CXXX, _e_, which is
+made of fine clay spattered with brown pigment. This design
+(reproduced in figure 264) represents probably some ruminant, as the
+mountain sheep or possibly the antelope, both of which gave names to
+clans said to have resided at Sikyatki. The hoofs are characteristic,
+and the markings on the back suggest a fawn or spotted deer. There is
+a close similarity between the design below this animal and that of
+the exterior decorations of certain vases and square medicine bowls.
+
+Among the pictures of quadrupedal animals depicted on ancient food
+bowls there is none more striking than that illustrated in plate CXXX,
+_f_, which has been identified as the mountain lion. While this
+identification is more or less problematical, it is highly possible.
+The claws of the forelegs (figure 265) are evidently those of one of
+the carnivora of the cat family, of which the mountain lion is the
+most prominent in Tusayan. The anterior part of the body is spotted;
+the posterior and the hind legs are black. The snout bears little
+resemblance to that of the puma.
+
+The entire inner surface of the bowl, save a central circle in which
+the head, fore-limbs, and anterior part of the body are represented,
+is decorated by spattering. Within this spattered area there are
+highly interesting figures, prominent among which is a squatting
+figure of a man, with the hand raised to the mouth and holding a
+ceremonial cigarette, as if engaged in smoking. The seven patches in
+black might well be regarded as either footprints or leaves, four of
+which appear to be attached to the band inclosing the central area. In
+the intervals between three of these there are branched bodies
+representing plants or bushes.
+
+
+REPTILES
+
+Snakes and other reptilian forms were represented by the ancient
+potters in the decoration of food bowls, and it is remarkable how
+closely some of these correspond in symbolism with conceptions still
+current in Tusayan. Of all reptilian monsters the worship of which
+forms a prominent element in Hopi ritual, that of the Great Plumed
+Snake is perhaps the most important. Effigies of this monster exist in
+all the larger Hopi villages, and they are used in at least two great
+rites--the _Soyaluna_ in December and the _Palueluekonti_ in March, as I
+have already described. The symbolic markings and appendages of the
+Plumed Snake effigy are distinctive, and are found in all modern
+representations of this mystic being. While several pictographs of
+snakes are found on Sikyatki pottery, there is not a single instance
+in which these modern markings appear; consequently there is
+considerable doubt in regard to the identification of many of the
+Sikyatki serpents with modern mythologic representatives.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 266--Plumed serpent]
+
+In questioning the priests in regard to the derivation of the Plumed
+Serpent cult in Tusayan, I have found that they declare that this
+cultus was brought into Tusayan from a mythic land in the south,
+called Palatkwabi, and that the effigies and fetiches pertaining to it
+were introduced by the Patki or Water-house people. From good
+evidence, I suspect that the arrival of this phratry was comparatively
+late in Tusayan history, and it is possible that Sikyatki was
+destroyed before their advent, for in all the legends which I have
+been able to gather no one ascribes to Sikyatki any clan belonging to
+the phratries which are said to have migrated from the far south. I
+believe we must look toward the east, whence the ancestors of the
+Kokop or Firewood people are reputed to have come, for the origin of
+the symbolic markings of the snakes represented on Sikyatki ceramics.
+Figures of apodal reptiles, with feathers represented on their heads,
+occur in Sikyatki pictography, although there is no resemblance in the
+markings of their bodies to those of modern pictures. One of the most
+striking of these occurs on the inside of the food basin shown in
+plate CXXXII, _a_. It represents a serpent with curved body, the tail
+being connected with the head, like an ancient symbol of eternity. The
+body (figure 266) is destitute of any distinctive markings, but is
+covered with a crosshatching of black lines. The head bears two
+triangular markings, which are regarded as feather symbols. The
+position of the eyes would seem to indicate that the top of the head
+is represented, but this conclusion is not borne out by comparative
+studies, for it was often the custom of ancient Tusayan potters, like
+other primitive artists, to represent both eyes on one side of the
+head.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXX
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF QUADRUPEDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The zigzag line occupying the position of the tongue and terminating
+in a triangle is a lightning symbol, with which the serpent is still
+associated. While striving not to strain the symbolism of this figure,
+it is suggested that the three curved marks on the lower and upper
+jaws represent fangs. It is highly probable that conceptions not
+greatly unlike those which cluster about the Great Plumed Serpent were
+associated with this mythic snake, the figure of which is devoid of
+some of the most essential elements of modern symbolism.
+
+While from the worn character of the middle of the food bowl
+illustrated in plate CXXXII, _b_, it is not possible to discover
+whether the animal was apodal or not from the crosshatching of the
+body and the resemblance of the appendages of the head to those of the
+figure last considered, it appears probable that this pictograph
+likewise was intended to represent a snake of mystic character. Like
+the previous figure, this also is coiled, with the tail near the head,
+its body crosshatched, and with two triangular appendages to the head.
+There is, however, but one eye, and the two jaws are elongated and
+provided with teeth,[137] as in the case of certain reptiles.
+
+The similarity of the head and its appendages to the snake figure last
+described would lead me to regard the figure shown in plate CXXXII,
+_c_, as representing a like animal, but the latter picture is more
+elaborately worked out in details, and one of the legs is well
+represented. I have shown in the discussion of a former figure how the
+decorator, recognizing the existence of two eyes, represented them
+both on one side of the head of a profile figure, although only one is
+visible, and we see in this picture (figure 267) a somewhat similar
+tendency, which is very common in modern Tusayan figures of animals.
+The breath line is drawn from the extremity of the snout halfway down
+the length of the body. In modern pictography a representation of the
+heart is often depicted at the blind extremity of this line, as if, in
+fact, there was a connection with this organ and the tubes through
+which the breath passes. In the Sikyatki pottery, however, I find only
+this one specimen of drawing in which an attempt to represent internal
+organs is made.
+
+The tail of this singular picture of a reptile is highly
+conventionalized, bearing appendages of unknown import, but recalling
+feathers, while on the back are other appendages which might be
+compared with wings. Both of these we might expect, considering the
+association of bird and serpent in the Hopi conception of the Plumed
+Snake.
+
+Exact identifications of these pictures with the animals by which the
+Hopi are or were surrounded, is, of course, impossible, for they are
+not realistic representations, but symbolic figures of mythic beings
+unknown save to the imagination of the primitive mythologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 267--Unknown reptile]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXI
+
+ORNAMENTED LADLES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 268--Unknown reptile]
+
+A similar reptile is pictured on the food bowl shown in plate CXXXII,
+_d_, in which design, however, there are important modifications, the
+most striking of which are: (1) The animal (figure 268) has both fore
+and hind legs represented; (2) the head is round; (3) the mouth is
+provided with teeth; and (4) there are four instead of two feather
+appendages on the head, two of which are much longer than the others.
+Were it not that ears are not represented in reptiles, one would be
+tempted to regard the smaller appendages as representations of these
+organs. Their similarity to the row of spines on the back and the
+existence of spines on the head of the "horned toad" suggests this
+reptile, with which both ancient and modern Hopi are very familiar. On
+a fragment of a vessel found at Awatobi there is depicted the head of
+a reptile evidently identical with this, since the drawing is an
+almost perfect reproduction. There is a like figure, also from
+Sikyatki, in the collection of pottery made at that ruin by Dr
+Miller, of Prescott, the year following my work there. The most
+elaborate of all the pictures of reptiles found on ancient Tusayan
+pottery is shown in plate CXXXII, _e_, in which the symbolism is
+complicated and the details carefully worked out. A few of these
+symbols I am able to decipher; others elude present analysis. There is
+no doubt as to the meaning of the appendage to the head (figure 269),
+for it well portrays an elaborate feathered headdress on which the
+markings that distinguish tail-feathers, three in number, are
+prominent. The extension of the snout is without homologue elsewhere
+in Hopi pictography, and, while decorative in part, is likewise highly
+conventionalized. On the body semicircular rain cloud symbols and
+markings similar to those of the bodies of certain birds are
+distinguishable. The feet likewise are more avian than reptilian, but
+of a form quite unusual in structure. It is interesting to note the
+similarity in the carved line with six sets of parallel bars to the
+band surrounding the figure of the human hand shown in plate CXXXVII,
+_c_. In attempting to identify the pictograph on the bowl reproduced
+in plate CXXXIV, _a_, there is little to guide me, and the nearest I
+can come to its significance is to ascribe it to a reptile of some
+kind. Highly symbolic, greatly conventionalized as this figure is,
+there is practically nothing on which to base the absolute
+identification of the figure save the serrated appendage to the body
+and the leg, which resembles that of the lizard as it is sometimes
+drawn. The two eyes indicate that the enlargement in which these were
+placed is the head, and the extended curved snout a beak. All else is
+incomprehensible to me, and my identification is therefore provisional
+and largely speculative.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 269--Unknown reptile]
+
+I wish, however, in leaving the description of this beautiful bowl, to
+invite attention to the brilliancy and the characteristics of the
+coloring, which differ from the majority of the decorated ware from
+Sikyatki.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF REPTILES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIII
+
+BOWLS AND DIPPERS WITH FIGURES OF TADPOLES, BIRDS, ETC. FROM
+SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN, BUTTERFLY, AND FLOWER FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Among the fragments of pottery found in the Sikyatki graves there was
+one which, had it been entire, would doubtless have thrown
+considerable light on ancient pictography. This fragment has depicted
+upon it portions of the body and the whole head and neck of a
+reptilian animal. We find on that part of the body which is
+represented, three parallel marks which recall those on the modern
+pictures of the Great Plumed Serpent. On the back there were
+apparently the representations of wings, a feather of which is shown
+above the head. The head likewise bears a crest of three feathers, and
+there are three reptilian like toes. Whether this represents a reptile
+or a bird it is impossible for me to say, but enough has already been
+recorded to indicate how close the symbolism of these two groups
+sometimes is in ancient pictography. It would almost appear as if the
+profound anatomical discovery of the close kinship of birds and
+reptiles was unconsciously recognized by a people destitute of the
+rudiments of the knowledge of morphology.
+
+
+TADPOLES
+
+Among the inhabitants of an arid region, where rain-making forms a
+dominant element in their ritual, water animals are eagerly adopted as
+symbols. Among these the tadpole occupies a foremost position. The
+figures of this batrachian are very simple, and are among the most
+common of those used on ceremonial paraphernalia in Tusayan at the
+present time. In none of these is anything more than a globular head
+and a zigzag tail represented, and, as in nature, these are colored
+black. The tadpole appears on several pieces of painted pottery from
+Sikyatki, one of the best of which is the food bowl illustrated in
+plate CXXXIII, _a_. The design represents a number of these aquatic
+animals drawn in line across the diameter of the inner surface of the
+bowl, while on each side there is a row of rectangular blocks
+representing rain clouds. These blocks are separated from the tadpole
+figures by crescentic lines, and above them are short parallel lines
+recalling the symbol of falling rain.
+
+One of the most beautiful forms of ladles from Sikyatki is figured in
+plate CXXXIII, _b_, a specimen in which the art of decoration by
+spattering is effectively displayed. The interior of the bowl of this
+dipper is divided by parallel lines into two zones, in each of which
+two tadpoles are represented. The handle is pointed at the end and is
+decorated. This specimen is considered one of the best from Sikyatki.
+
+The rudely drawn picture on the bowl figured in plate CXXXII, _f_,
+would be identified as a frog, save for the presence of a tail which
+would seem to refer it to the lizard kind. But in the evolution of the
+tadpole into the frog a tailed stage persists in the metamorphosis
+after the legs develop. In modern pictures[138] of the frog with which
+I am familiar, this batrachian is always represented dorsally or
+ventrally with the legs outstretched, while in the lizards, as we have
+seen, a lateral view is always adopted. As the sole picture found on
+ancient pottery where the former method is employed, this fact may be
+of value in the identification of this rude outline as a frog rather
+than as a true reptile.
+
+
+BUTTERFLIES OR MOTHS
+
+One of the most characteristic modern decorations employed by the
+Hopi, especially as a symbol of fecundity, is the butterfly or moth.
+It is a constant device on the beautiful white or cotton blankets
+woven by the men as wedding gifts, where it is embroidered on the
+margin in the forms of triangles or even in more realistic patterns.
+This symbol is a simple triangle, which becomes quite realistic when a
+line is drawn bisecting one of the angles. This double triangle is not
+only a constant symbol on wedding blankets, but also is found on the
+dadoes of houses, resembling in design the arrangement of tiles in the
+Alhambra and other Moorish buildings. This custom of decorating the
+walls of a building with triangles placed at intervals on the upper
+edge of a dado is a feature of cliff-house kivas, as shown in
+Nordenskioeld's beautiful memoir on the cliff villages of Mesa Verde.
+While an isosceles triangle represents the simplest form of the
+butterfly symbol, and is common on ancient pottery, a few vessels from
+Sikyatki show a much more realistic figure. In plate CXXXIV, _f_, is
+shown a moth with extended proboscis and articulated antennae, and in
+_d_ of the same plate another form, with the proboscis inserted in a
+flower, is given. As an associate with summer, the butterfly is
+regarded as a beneficent being aside from its fecundity, and one of
+the ancient Hopi clans regarded it as their totem. Perhaps the most
+striking, and I may say the most inexplicable, use of the symbol of
+the butterfly is the so-called _Hokona_ or Butterfly virgin slab used
+in the Antelope ceremonies of the Snake dance at Walpi, where it is
+associated with the tadpole water symbol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 270--Outline of plate CXXXV, _b_]
+
+The most beautiful of all the butterfly designs are the six figures on
+the vase reproduced in plate CXXXV, _b_. From the number of these
+pictures it would seem that they bore some relationship to the six
+world-quarters--north, west, south, east, zenith, and nadir. The vase
+has a flattened shoulder, and the six butterfly figures are
+represented as flying toward the orifice. These insect figures closely
+resemble one another, and are divided into two groups readily
+distinguished by the symbolism of the heads. Three have each a cross
+with a single dot in each quadrant, and each of the other three has a
+dotted head without the cross. These two kinds alternate with each
+other, and the former probably indicate females, since the same
+symbols on the heads of the snakes in the sand picture of the Antelope
+altar in the Snake dance are used to designate the female.[139]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXV
+
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BUTTERFLIES FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVI
+
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Two antennae and a double curved proboscis are indicated in all the
+figures of butterflies on the vase under consideration. The zones
+above and below are both cut by a "line of life," the opening through
+which is situated on opposite equatorial poles in the upper and under
+rim.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 271--Butterfly design on upper surface of plate
+CXXXV, _b_]
+
+The rectangular figures associated with the butterflies on this
+elaborately decorated vase are of two patterns alternating with each
+other. The rectangles forming one of these patterns incloses three
+vertical feathers, with a triangle on the right side and a crook on
+the left. The remaining three rectangles also have three feathers, but
+they are arranged longitudinally on the surface of the vase.
+
+The elaborate decoration of the zone outside the six butterflies is
+made up of feathers arranged in three clusters of three each,
+alternating with key patterns, crosshatched crooks, triangles, and
+frets. The wealth of ornament on this part of the vase is noteworthy,
+and its interpretation very baffling. This vase may well be considered
+the most elaborately decorated in the whole collection from Sikyatki.
+
+There are several figures of butterflies, like those shown in plate
+CXXXI, _a_, in which the modifications of wings and body have
+proceeded still further, and the only features which refer them to
+insects are the jointed antennae. The passage from this highly
+conventionalized design into a triangular figure is not very great.
+There are still others where the head, with attached appendages,
+arises not from an angle of a triangle, but from the middle of one
+side. This gives us a very common form of butterfly symbol, which is
+found, variously modified, on many ancient vessels. In such designs
+there is commonly a row of dots on each side, which may be represented
+by a sinuous line, a series of triangles, bars, or parallel bars.
+
+The design reproduced in plate CXXXIV, _d_, represents a moth or
+butterfly associated with a flower, and several star symbols. It is
+evidently similar to that figured in _a_ of the same plate, and has
+representations of antennae and extended proboscis, the latter organ
+placed as if extracting honey from the flower. The conventional flower
+is likewise shown in _e_ of this plate. The two crescentic designs in
+plate CXXXV, _a_, are regarded as butterflies.
+
+The jar illustrated in plate CXLV, _b_, is ornamented with highly
+conventionalized figures on four sides, and is the only one taken from
+the Sikyatki cemeteries in which the designs are limited to the
+equatorial surface. The most striking figure, which is likewise found
+on the base of the paint saucer shown in plate CXLVI, _f_, is a
+diamond-shape design with a triangle at each corner (figure 276). The
+pictures drawn on alternating quadrants have very different forms,
+which are difficult to classify, and I have therefore provisionally
+associated this beautiful vessel with those bearing the butterfly and
+the triangle. The form of this vessel closely approaches that of the
+graceful cooking pots made of coiled and coarse indented ware, but the
+vessel was evidently not used for cooking purposes, as it bears no
+marks of soot.[140]
+
+
+DRAGON-FLIES
+
+Among the most constant designs used in the decoration of Sikyatki
+pottery are figures of the dragon-fly. These decorations consist of a
+line, sometimes enlarged into a bulb at one end, with two parallel
+bars drawn at right angles across the end, below the enlargement. Like
+the tadpole, the dragon-fly is a symbol of water, and with it are
+associated many legends connected with the miraculous sprouting of
+corn in early times. It is a constant symbol on modern ceremonial
+paraphernalia, as masks, tablets, and pahos, and it occurs also on
+several ancient vessels (plates CXL, _b_; CLXIII, _a_), where it
+always has the same simple linear form, with few essential
+modifications.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVII
+
+VESSELS WITH FIGURES OF HUMAN HAND, BIRDS, TURTLE, ETC. FROM
+SIKYATKI]
+
+The symbols of four dragon-flies are well shown on the rim of the
+square box represented in plate CXXVIII, _a_. This box, which was
+probably for charm liquid, or possibly for feathers used in
+ceremonials, is unique in form and is one of the most beautiful
+specimens from the Sikyatki cemeteries. It is elaborately decorated on
+the four sides with rain-cloud and other symbols, and is painted in
+colors which retain their original brilliancy. The interior is not
+decorated.
+
+The four dragon-flies on the rim of this object are placed in such a
+way as to represent insects flying about the box in a dextral circuit,
+or with the heads turned to the right. This position indicates a
+ceremonial circuit, which is exceptional among the Tusayan people,
+although common in Navaho ceremonies. In the sand picture of the Snake
+society, for instance, where four snakes are represented in a border
+surrounding a mountain lion, these reptiles are represented as
+crawling about the picture from right to left. This sequence is
+prescribed in Tusayan ceremonials, and has elsewhere been designated
+by me as the sinistral circuit, or a circuit with the center on the
+left hand. The circuit used by the decorator of this box is dextral or
+sunwise.
+
+Several rectangular receptacles of earthenware, some with handles and
+others without them, were obtained in the excavations at Sikyatki. The
+variations in their forms may be seen in plates CXXVIII, _a, c,_ and
+CXXV, _f_. These are regarded as medicine bowls, and are supposed to
+have been used in ancient ceremonials where asperging was performed.
+In many Tusayan ceremonials square medicine bowls, some of them
+without handles, are still used,[141] but a more common and evidently
+more modern variety are round and have handles. The rim of these
+modern sacred vessels commonly bears, in its four quadrants, terraced
+elevations representing rain-clouds of the cardinal points, and the
+outer surface of the bowl is decorated with the same symbols,
+accompanied with tadpole or dragon-fly designs.
+
+One of the best figures of the dragon-fly is seen on the saucer shown
+in plate CXX, _f_. The exterior of this vessel is decorated with four
+rectangular terraced rain-cloud symbols, one in each quadrant, and
+within each there are three well-drawn figures of the dragon-fly. The
+curved line below represents a rainbow. The terrace form of rain-cloud
+symbol is very ancient in Tusayan and antedates the well-known
+semicircular symbol which was introduced into the country by the Patki
+people. It is still preserved in the form of tablets[142] worn on the
+head and in sand paintings and various other decorations on altars and
+religious paraphernalia.
+
+
+BIRDS
+
+The bird and the feather far exceed all other motives in the
+decoration of ancient Tusayan pottery, and the former design was
+probably the first animal figure employed for that purpose when the
+art passed out of the stage where simple geometric designs were used
+exclusively. A somewhat similar predominance is found in the part
+which the bird and the feather play in the modern Hopi ceremonial
+system. As one of the oldest elements in the decoration of Tusayan
+ceramics, figures of birds have in many instances become highly
+conventionalized; so much so, in fact, that their avian form has been
+lost, and it is one of the most instructive problems in the study of
+Hopi decoration to trace the modifications of these designs from the
+realistic to the more conventionalized. The large series of food bowls
+from Sikyatki afford abundant material for that purpose, and it may
+incidentally be said that by this study I have been able to interpret
+the meaning of certain decorations on Sikyatki bowls of which the best
+Hopi traditionalists are ignorant.[143] In order to show the method of
+reasoning in this case I have taken a series illustrating the general
+form of an unknown bird.
+
+There can be no reasonable doubt that the decoration of the food basin
+shown in plate CXXXVII, _a_, represents a bird, and analogy would
+indicate that it is the picture of some mythologic personage. It has a
+round head (figure 272), to which is attached a headdress, which we
+shall later show is a highly modified feather ornament. On each side
+of the body from the region of the neck there arise organs which are
+undoubtedly wings, with feathers continued into arrowpoints. The
+details of these wings are very carefully and, I may add,
+prescriptively worked out, so that almost every line, curve, or zigzag
+is important. The tail is composed of three large feathers, which
+project beyond two triangular extensions, marking the end of the body.
+
+The technic of this figure is exceedingly complicated and the colors
+very beautiful. Although this bowl was quite badly broken when
+exhumed, it has been so cleverly mended by Mr Henry Walther that no
+part of the symbolism is lost.
+
+While it is quite apparent that this figure represents a bird, and
+while this identification is confirmed by Hopi testimony, it is far
+from a realistic picture of any known bird with which the ancients
+could have been familiar. It is highly conventionalized and idealized
+with significant symbolism, which is highly suggestive.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXVIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Bearing in mind the picture of this bird, we pass to a second form
+(plate CXXXVIII, _a_), in which we can trace the same parts without
+difficulty. On a round head is placed a feathered headdress. The
+different parts of the outstretched wings are readily homologized even
+in details in the two figures. There are, for instance, two terminal
+wing feathers in each wing; the appendages to the shoulder exist in
+both, and the lateral spurs, exteriorly and interiorly, are
+represented with slight modifications.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 272--Man-eagle]
+
+The body is ornamented in the same way in both figures. It is
+continued posteriorly on each side into triangular extensions, and the
+same is true of its anterior, which in one figure has three curved
+lines, and in the other a simple crook. There are three tail-feathers
+in each figure. I believe there can be no doubt that both these
+designs represent the same idea, and that a mythologic bird was
+intended in each instance.
+
+The step in conventionalism from the last-mentioned figure of a bird
+to the next (plate CXLVII, _a_) is even greater than in the former.
+The head in this picture is square or rectangular, and the wings
+likewise simple, ending in three incurved triangles without
+appendages. The tail has five feathers instead of three, in which,
+however, the same symbolic markings which distinguish tail-feathers
+are indicated.
+
+The conventionalized wings of this figure are repeated again and again
+in ancient Tusayan pottery decorations, as one may see by an
+examination of the various birds shown in the plates. In many
+instances, however, all the other parts of the bird are lost and
+nothing but the triangular feathers remain; but as these have the same
+form, whatever organs are missing, the presumption is that their
+meaning has not changed.
+
+In passing to the figure of the bird shown in plate CXXXVIII, _b_, we
+find features homologous with those already considered, but also
+detect considerable modification. The head is elongated, tipped with
+three parallel lines, but decorated with markings similar to those of
+the preceding figure. The outstretched wings have a crescentic form,
+on the anterior horn of which are round spots with parallel lines
+arising from them. This is a favorite figure in pottery decoration,
+and is found very abundantly on the exterior of food bowls; it
+represents highly conventionalized feathers, and should be so
+interpreted wherever found. The figure of the body of the bird
+depicted is simple, and the tail is continued into three
+tail-feathers, as is ordinarily the case in highly conventionalized
+bird figures.
+
+The most instructive of all the appendages to the body are the
+club-shape bodies, one on each side, rising from the point of union of
+the wings and the breast. These are spatulate in form, with a terraced
+terminal marking. They, like other appendages, represent feathers, but
+that peculiar kind which is found under the wing is called the breath
+feather.[144] This feather is still used in certain ceremonials, and
+is tied to certain prayer offerings. Its ancient symbolism is very
+clearly indicated in this picture, and is markedly different from that
+of either the wing or tail feathers, which have a totally different
+ceremonial use at the present time.
+
+For convenience of comparison, a number of pictures which undoubtedly
+refer to different birds in ancient interpretations will be grouped in
+a single series.
+
+Plate CXXXVIII, _d_, represents a figure of a bird showing great
+relative modification of organs when compared with those previously
+discussed. The head is very much broadened, but the semicircular
+markings, which occur also on the heads of previously described bird
+figures, are well drawn. The wings are mere curved appendages,
+destitute of feather symbols, but are provided with lateral spurs and
+have knobs at their bases. The body is rectangular; the tail-feathers
+are numerous, with well-marked symbolism. Perhaps the most striking
+appendages to the body are the two well-defined extensions of parts of
+the body itself, which, although represented in other pictures of
+birds, nowhere reach such relatively large size.
+
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXXXIX
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The figure of a bird shown in plate CXXXVIII, _c_, is similar in many
+respects to that last described. The semicircular markings on the head
+of the former are here replaced by triangles, but both are symbolic of
+rain-clouds. The wings are curved projections, without any suggestion
+of feathers or basal spurs and knobs. The tail-feathers show nothing
+exceptional, and the body is bounded posteriorly by triangular
+extensions, as in figures of birds already described.
+
+The representation of the bird in plate CXXXVIII, _e_, has a
+triangular body continued into two points on the posterior end,
+between which the tail-feathers are situated. The body is covered with
+terraced and triangular designs, and the head is rectangular in form.
+On each side of the bird figure there is a symbol of a flower,
+possibly the sunflower or an aster.
+
+In the figures of birds already considered the relative sizes of the
+heads and bodies are not overdrawn, but in the picture of a bird on
+the food bowl shown in plate CXXXVIII, _f_, the head is very much
+enlarged. It bears a well-marked terraced rain-cloud symbol above
+triangles of the same meaning. The wings are represented as diminutive
+appendages, each consisting of two feathers. The body has a triangular
+extension on each side, and the tail is composed of two comparatively
+short rectangular feathers. The figure itself could hardly be
+identified as a representation of a bird were it not for the
+correspondence, part for part, with figures which are undoubtedly
+those of birds or flying animals.
+
+A more highly conventionalized figure of a bird than any thus far
+described is painted on the food bowl reproduced in plate CXL, _b_.
+The head is represented by a terraced figure similar to those which
+appear as decorations on some of the other vessels; the wings are
+simply extended crescents, the tips of which are connected by a band
+which encircles the body and tail; the body is continued at the
+posterior end into two triangular appendages, between which is a tail,
+the feathers of which are not differentiated. On each side of the
+body, in the space inclosed by the band connecting the tips of the
+wings, a figure of a dragon-fly appears.
+
+The figure on the food bowl illustrated in plate CXXXIX, _c_, may also
+be reduced to a conventionalized bird symbol. The two pointed objects
+on the lower rim represent tail-feathers, and the triangular
+appendages, one on each side above them, the body, as in the designs
+which have already been described. Above the triangles is a
+rectangular figure with terraced rain-cloud emblems, a constant
+feature on the body and head of the bird, and on each side, near the
+rim of the bowl, occur the primary feathers of the wings. The cross,
+so frequently associated with designs representing birds, is replaced
+by the triple intersecting lines in the remaining area. The
+resemblance of this figure to those already considered is clearly
+evident after a little study.
+
+The decoration on the food basin presented in plate CXXXIX, _a_, is
+interesting in the study of the evolution of bird designs into
+conventional forms. In this figure those parts which are identified as
+homologues of the wings extend wholly across the interior of the food
+bowl, and have the forms of triangles with smaller triangular spurs at
+their bases. The wings are extended at right angles to the axis of the
+body, and taper uniformly to the rim of the bowl. The smaller spurs
+near the union of the wings and body represent the posterior part of
+the latter, and between them are the tail-feathers, their number being
+indicated by three triangles.
+
+There is no representation of a head, although the terraced rain-cloud
+figure is drawn on the anterior of the body between the wings.
+
+The reduction of the triangular wings of the last figure to a simple
+band drawn diametrically across the inner surface of the bowl is
+accomplished in the design shown in plate CXXXIX, _b_. At intervals
+along this line there are arranged groups of blocks, three in each
+group, representing stars, as will later be shown. The semicircular
+head has lost all appendages and is reduced to a rain-cloud symbol.
+The posterior angles of the body are much prolonged, and the tail
+still bears the markings representing three tail-feathers.
+
+The association of a cross with the bird figure is both appropriate
+and common; its modified form in this decoration is not exceptional,
+but why it is appended to the wings is not wholly clear. We shall see
+its reappearance on other bowls decorated with more highly
+conventionalized bird figures.
+
+In the peculiar decoration used in the treatment of the food bowl
+shown in plate CXXXIX, _c_, we have almost a return to geometric
+figures in a conventional representation of a bird. In this case the
+semblance to wings is wholly lost in the line drawn diametrically
+across the interior of the bowl. On one side of it there are many
+crosses representing stars, and on the other the body and tail of a
+bird. The posterior triangular extensions of the former are continued
+to a bounding line of the bowl, and no attempt is made to represent
+feathers in the tail. The rectangular figure, with serrated lower edge
+and inclosed terraced figures, finds, however, a homologue in the
+heads and bodies of most of the representations of birds which have
+been described.
+
+This gradual reduction in semblance to a bird has gone still further
+in the figure represented in plate CXXXIX, _d_, where the posterior
+end of the body is represented by two spurs, and the tail by three
+feathers, the triangular rain-clouds still persisting in the
+rectangular body. In fact, it can hardly be seen how a more
+conventionalized figure of a bird were possible did we not find in _e_
+of the same plate this reduction still greater. Here the tail is
+represented by three parallel lines, the posterior of the body by two
+dentate appendages, and the body itself by a square.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXL
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In plate CXL, _c_, we have a similar conventional bird symbol where
+two birds, instead of one, are represented. In both these instances it
+would appear that the diametric band, originally homologous to wings,
+had lost its former significance.
+
+It must also be pointed out that there is a close likeness between
+some of these so-called conventionalized figures of birds and those of
+moths or butterflies. If, for instance, they are compared with the
+figures of the six designs of the upper surface of the vase shown in
+plate CXXXV, _b_, we note especially this resemblance. While,
+therefore, it can hardly be said there is absolute proof that these
+highly conventionalized figures always represent birds, we may, I
+think, be sure that either the bird or the moth or butterfly is
+generally intended.
+
+There are several modifications of these highly conventionalized
+figures of birds which may be mentioned, one of the most interesting
+of which is figured in plate CXXXIX, _f_. In this representation the
+two posterior triangular extensions of the body are modified into
+graceful curves, and the tail-feathers are simply parallel lines. The
+figure in this instance is little more than a trifid appendage to a
+broad band across the inner surface of the food bowl. In addition to
+this highly conventionalized bird figure, however, there are two
+crosses which represent stars. In this decoration all resemblance to a
+bird is lost, and it is only by following the reduction of parts that
+one is able to identify this geometric design with the more elaborate
+pictures of mythic birds. When questioned in regard to the meaning of
+this symbol, the best informed Hopi priests had no suggestion to
+offer.
+
+In all the figures of birds thus far considered, the head, with one or
+two exceptions, is represented or indicated by symbolic markings. In
+that which decorates the vessel shown in plate CXL, _a_, we find a new
+modification; the wings, instead of being attenuated into a diametric
+line or band, are in this case curved to form a loose spiral. Between
+them is the figure of a body and the three tail-feathers, while the
+triangular extensions which generally indicate the posterior of the
+body are simply two rounded knobs at the point of union of the wings
+and tail. There is no indication of a head.
+
+The modifications in the figure of the bird shown in the last
+mentioned pictograph, and the highly conventionalized forms which the
+wings and other parts assume, give me confidence to venture an
+interpretation of a strange figure shown in plate CXLI, _a_. This
+picture I regard as a representation of a bird, and I do so for the
+following resemblances to figures already studied. The head of the
+bird, as has been shown, is often replaced by a terraced rain-cloud
+symbol. Such a figure occurs in the pictograph under consideration,
+where it occupies the position of the head. On either side of what
+might be regarded as a body we find, at the anterior end, two curved
+appendages which so closely resemble similarly placed bodies in the
+pictograph last discussed that they are regarded as representations of
+wings. These extensions at the posterior end of the body are readily
+comparable with prolongations in that part on which we have already
+commented. The tail, although different from that in figures of birds
+thus far discussed, has many points of resemblance to them. The two
+circles, one on each side of the bird figure, are important additions
+which are treated in following pages.[145]
+
+From the study of the conventionalized forms of birds which I have
+outlined above it is possible to venture the suggestion that the
+star-shape figure shown in plate CLXVII, _b_, may be referred to the
+same group, but in this specimen we appear to have duplication, or a
+representation of the bird symbol repeated in both semicircles of the
+interior of the bowl. Examining one of these we readily detect the two
+tail-feathers in the middle, with the triangular end of the body on
+each side. The lateral appendages duplicated on each side correspond
+with the band across the middle of the bowl in other specimens, and
+represent highly conventionalized wings. The middle of this compound
+figure is decorated with a cross, and in each quadrant there is a row
+of the same emblems, equidistant from one another.
+
+It would be but a short step from this figure to the ancient sun
+symbol with which the eagle and other raptorial birds are intimately
+associated. The figure represented in plate CXXXIII, _c_, is a
+symbolic bird in which the different parts are directly comparable
+with the other bird pictographs already described. One may easily
+detect in it the two wings, the semicircular rain-cloud figures, and
+the three tail-feathers. As in the picture last considered, we see the
+two circles, each with a concentric smaller circle, one on each side
+of the mythic bird represented. Similar circular figures are likewise
+found in the zone surrounding the centrally placed bird picture.
+
+In the food bowl illustrated in plate CXLI, _b_, we find the two
+circles shown, and between them a rectangular pictograph the meaning
+of which is not clear. The only suggestion which I have in regard to
+the significance of this object is that it is an example of
+substitution--the substitution of a prayer offering to the mythic bird
+represented in the other bowls for a figure of the bird itself. This
+interpretation, however, is highly speculative, and should be accepted
+only with limitations. I have sometimes thought that the prayer-stick
+or paho may originally have represented a bird, and the use of it is
+an instance of the substitution[146] of a symbolic effigy of a bird, a
+direct survival of the time when a bird was sacrificed to the deity
+addressed.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLI
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLII
+
+VASES, BOWLS, AND LADLE, WITH FIGURES OF FEATHERS, FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The studies of the conventional bird figures which are developed in
+the preceding pages make it possible to interpret one of the two
+pictures on the food bowl represented in plate CLII, while the
+realistic character of the smaller figure leaves no question that we
+can rightly identify this also as a bird. In the larger figure the
+wings are of unequal size and are tipped with appendages of a more or
+less decorative nature. The posterior part of the body is formed of
+two triangular extensions, to which feathers are suspended, and the
+tail is composed of three large pointed feathers. The head bears the
+terraced rain-cloud designs almost universal in pictographs of birds.
+
+It is hardly necessary for me to indicate the head, body, wings, and
+legs of the smaller figure, for they are evidently avian, while the
+character of the beak would indicate that a parrot or raptorial genus
+was intended. The same beak is found in the decoration of a vase with
+a bird design, which will later be considered.
+
+From an examination of the various figures of birds on the Sikyatki
+pottery, and an analysis of the appendages to the wings, body, and
+legs, it is possible to determine the symbolic markings characteristic
+of two different kinds of feathers, the large wing or tail feathers
+and the so-called breath or body feathers. There is therefore no
+hesitation, when we find an object of pottery ornamented with these
+symbols, in interpreting them as feathers. Such a bowl is that shown
+in plate CXLI, _c_, in which we find a curved line to which are
+appended three breast feathers. This curved band from which they hang
+may take the form of a circle with two pendent feathers as in plate
+CXLI, _d_.
+
+In the design on the bowl figured in plate CXLI, _e_, tail-feathers
+hang from a curved band, at each extremity of which is a square design
+in which the cross is represented. It has been suggested that this
+represents the feathered rainbow, a peculiar conception of both the
+Pueblo and the Navaho Indians. The design appearing on the small food
+bowl represented in plate CXLI, _f_, is no doubt connected in some way
+with that last mentioned, although the likeness between the appendages
+to the ring and feathers is remote. It is one of those
+conventionalized pictures, the interpretation of which, with the
+scanty data at hand, must be largely theoretical.
+
+Figures of feathers are most important features in the decoration of
+ancient Sikyatki pottery, and their many modifications may readily be
+seen by an examination of the plates. In modern Tusayan ceremonials
+the feather is appended to almost all the different objects used in
+worship; it is essential in the structure of the _tiponi_ or badge of
+the chief, without which no elaborate ceremony can be performed or
+altar erected; it adorns the images on the altars, decorates the heads
+of participants, is prescribed for the prayer-sticks, and is always
+appended to aspergills, rattles, and whistles.
+
+In the performance of certain ceremonials water from sacred springs is
+used, and this water, sometimes brought from great distances, is kept
+in small gourd or clay vases, around the necks of which a string with
+attached feathers is tied. Such a vase is the so-called _patne_ which
+has been described in a memoir on the Snake ceremonies at Walpi.[147]
+The artistic tendency of the ancient people of Sikyatki apparently
+exhibited itself in painting these feathers on the outside of similar
+small vases. Plate CXLII, _a_, shows one of these vessels, decorated
+with an elaborate design with four breath-feathers suspended from the
+equator. (See also figure 273.) On the vases shown in plate CXLII,
+_b_, _c_, are found figures of tail-feathers arranged in two groups on
+opposite sides of the rim or orifice. One of these groups has eight,
+the other seven, figures of these feathers, and on the two remaining
+quadrants are the star emblems so constantly seen in pottery decorated
+with bird figures. The upper surface of the vase (figure 274) shows a
+similar arrangement, although the feathers here are conventionalized
+into triangular dentations, seven on one side and three on the other,
+individual dentations alternating with rectangular designs which
+suggest rain-clouds. This vase (plate CXLIII, _a_, _b_) is also
+striking in having a well-drawn figure of a bird in profile, the head,
+wings, tail, and legs suggesting a parrot. The zone of decoration of
+this vessel, which surrounds the rows of feathers, is strikingly
+complicated, and comprises rain-cloud, feather, and other designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 273--Pendent feather ornaments on a vase.]
+
+In a discussion of the significance of the design on the food bowl
+represented in plate CXXXIX, _a_, _b_, I have shown ample reason for
+regarding it a figure of a highly conventionalized bird. On the upper
+surface of the vase (plate CXLIV, _a_, _b_) are four similar designs,
+representing birds of the four cardinal points, one on each quadrant.
+The wings are represented by triangular extensions, destitute of
+appendages but with a rounded body at their point of juncture with the
+trunk. Each bird has four tail-feathers and rain-cloud symbols on the
+anterior end of the body. As is the case with the figures on the food
+basins, there are crosses representing stars near the extended wings.
+A broad band connects all these birds, and terraced rain-cloud
+symbols, six in number and arranged in pairs, fill the peripheral
+sections between them. This vase, although broken, is one of the most
+beautiful and instructive in the rich collection of Sikyatki
+ceramics.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIII
+
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIV
+
+VASE WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLV
+
+VASES WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 274--Upper surface of vase with bird decoration]
+
+I have not ventured, in the consideration of the manifold pictures of
+birds on ancient pottery, to offer an interpretation of their probable
+generic identification. There is no doubt, however, that they
+represent mythic conceptions, and are emblematic of birds which
+figured conspicuously in the ancient Hopi Olympus. The modern legends
+of Tusayan are replete with references to such bird-like beings which
+play important roles and which bear evidence of archaic origins. There
+is, however, one fragment of a food bowl which is adorned with a
+pictograph so realistic and so true to modern legends of a harpy that
+I have not hesitated to affix to it the name current in modern Tusayan
+folklore. This fragment is shown in figure 275.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 275--Kwataka eating an animal]
+
+According to modern folklore there once lived in the sky a winged
+being called Kwataka, or Man-eagle, who sorely troubled the ancients.
+He was ultimately slain by their War god, the legends of which have
+elsewhere been published. There is a pictograph of this monster near
+Walpi,[148] and pictures of him, as he exists in modern conceptions,
+have been drawn for me by the priests. These agree so closely with the
+pictograph and with the representation on the potsherd from Sikyatki,
+that I regard it well-nigh proven that they represent the same
+personage. The head is round and bears two feathers, while the star
+emblem appears in the eye. The wing and the stump of a tail are well
+represented, while the leg has three talons, which can only be those
+of this monster. He holds in his grasp some animal form which he is
+represented as eating. Across the body is a kilt, or ancient blanket,
+with four diagonal figures which are said to represent flint
+arrowheads. It is a remarkable fact that these latter symbols are
+practically the same as those used by Nahuatl people for obsidian
+arrow- or spearpoints. In Hopi lore Kwataka wore a garment of
+arrowpoints, or, according to some legends, a flint garment, and his
+wings are said to have been composed of feathers of the same
+material.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVI
+
+BOWLS AND POTSHERD WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS, FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+From the pose of the figure and the various details of its symbolism
+there can be little doubt that the ancient Sikyatki artists intended
+to represent this monster, of which the modern Hopi rarely speak, and
+then only in awe. Probably several other bird figures likewise
+represent Kwataka, but in none of these do the symbols conform so
+closely to legends of this monster which are still repeated in the
+Tusayan villages. The home of Kwataka is reputed to be in the sky, and
+consequently figures of him are commonly associated with star and
+cloud emblems; he is a god of luck or chance, hence it is not
+exceptional to find figures of gaming implements[149] in certain
+elaborate figures of this monster.
+
+By far the most beautiful of the many food bowls from Sikyatki, and, I
+believe, the finest piece of prehistoric aboriginal pottery from the
+United States, is that figured in plate CXLVI, _d_. This remarkable
+object, found with others in the sands of the necropolis of this
+pueblo, several feet below the surface, is decorated with a highly
+conventional figure of a bird in profile, but so modified that it is
+difficult to determine the different parts. The four appendages to the
+left represent the tail; the two knobs at the right the head, but the
+remaining parts are not comprehensible. The delicacy of the detailed
+crosshatching on the body is astonishing, considering that it was
+drawn freehand and without pattern. The coloring is bright and the
+surface glossy.
+
+The curved band from which this strange figure hangs is divided into
+sections by perpendicular incised lines, which are connected by zigzag
+diagonals. The signification of the figure in the upper part of the
+bowl is unknown. While this vessel is unique in the character of its
+decoration, there are others of equal fineness but less perfect in
+design. Competent students of ceramics have greatly admired this
+specimen, and so fresh are the colors that some have found it
+difficult to believe it of ancient aboriginal manufacture. The
+specimen itself, now on exhibition in the National Museum, gives a
+better idea of its excellence than any figure which could be made.
+This specimen, like all the others, is in exactly the same condition
+as when exhumed, save that it has been wiped with a moist cloth to
+clean the traces of food from its inner surface. All the pottery found
+in the same grave is of the finest character, and although no two
+specimens are alike in decoration, their general resemblances point to
+the same maker. This fact has been noticed in several instances,
+although there were many exceptional cases where the coarsest and most
+rudely painted vessels were associated with the finest and most
+elaborately decorated ware.
+
+The ladle illustrated in plate CXLII, _e_, is one of the most
+beautiful in the collection. It is decorated with a picture of an
+unknown animal with a single feather on the head. The eyes are double
+and the snout continued into a long stick or tube, on which the animal
+stands. While the appendage to the head is undoubtedly a feather and
+the animal recalls a bird, I am in doubt as to its true
+identification. The star emblems on the handle of the ladle are in
+harmony with known pictures of birds.
+
+The feather decoration on the broken ladle shown in plate CXXXI, _f_,
+is of more than usual interest, although it is not wholly
+comprehensible. The representations include rain-cloud symbols, birds,
+feathers, and falling rain. The medially placed design, with four
+parallel lines arising from a round spot, is interpreted as a feather
+design, and the two triangular figures, one on each side, are believed
+to represent birds.
+
+The design on the food bowl depicted in plate CXXXI, _e_, is obscure,
+but in it feather and star symbols predominate. On the inside of the
+ladle shown in plate CXXXI, _c_, there is a rectangular design with a
+conventionalized bird at each angle. The reduction of the figure of a
+bird to head, body, and two or more tail-feathers occurs very
+constantly in decorations, and in many instances nothing remains save
+a crook with appended parallel lines representing feathers. Examples
+of this kind occur on several vessels, of which that shown in plate
+CXLV, _a_, is an example.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 276--Decoration on the bottom of plate CXLVI, _f_]
+
+There are many pictures of birds and feathers where the design has
+become so conventionalized that it is very difficult to recognize the
+intention of the decorator. Plate CXLVII, _f_, shows one of these in
+which the feather motive is prominent and an approximation to a bird
+form evident. The wings are shown with a symmetric arrangement on the
+sides of the tail, while the latter member has the three feathers
+which form so constant a feature in many bird symbols. In _b_ of the
+same plate there is shown a more elaborated bird figure, also highly
+modified, yet preserving many of the parts which have been identified
+in the design last described.
+
+The beautiful design shown in plate CXLVI, _e_, represents a large
+breath feather with triangular appendages on the sides, recalling the
+posterior end of the body of the bird figures above discussed.
+
+The interior of the saucer illustrated in plate CLXVI, _f_, is
+decorated with feather symbols and four triangles. The remaining
+figures of this plate have already been considered.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLVIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CXLIX
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH SYMBOLS OF FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+The figures on the vessel shown in plate CLXVII are so arranged that
+there can be little question of their homologies, and from comparisons
+it is clear that they should all be regarded as representations of
+birds. There appears no necessity of discussing figures _a_ and
+_b_ of the plate in this interpretation. In figure _c_ the center of
+the design becomes circular, recalling certain sun symbols, and the
+tail-feathers are readily recognized on one side. I am by no means
+sure, however, that the lateral terraced appendages at the opposite
+pole are representations of wings, but such an interpretation can not
+be regarded as a forced one. Figure _d_ shows the three tail-feathers,
+lateral appendages suggestive of wings, and a square body with the
+usual decorations of the body and head of a bird. The design shown in
+figure _f_ suggests in many ways a sun-bird, and is comparable with
+those previously studied and illustrated. There is no question of the
+homologues of tail, head, and wings. The meridional band across the
+bowl is similar to those already discussed, and its relationship to
+the head and tail of the bird identical. This design is interpreted as
+that of one of the numerous birds associated with the sun. The
+crescentic extension above what is apparently the head occurs in many
+bird figures and may represent a beak.
+
+Many food bowls from Sikyatki are ornamented on their interior with
+highly conventionalized figures, generally of curved form, in which
+the feather is predominant. Many of these are shown in plates CXLVIII
+to CLVII, inclusive, and in studying them I have found it very
+difficult to interpret the symbolism, although the figures of feathers
+are easy to find in many of them. While my attempt at decipherment is
+not regarded as final, it is hoped that it may at least reveal the
+important place which the feather plays in Tusayan ceramic decoration.
+
+Plate CXLVIII, _a_, shows the spiral ornament worn down to its lowest
+terms, with no hint of the feather appendage, but its likeness in
+outline to those designs where the feather occurs leads me to
+introduce it in connection with those in which the feather is more
+prominent. Figure _b_ of the same plate represents a spiral figure
+with a bird form at the inner end, and a bundle of tail-feathers at
+the outer extremity. On this design there is likewise a figure of the
+dragon-fly and several unknown emblems. Figure _c_ has at one
+extremity a trifid appendage, recalling a feather ornament on the head
+of a bird shown in plate CXXXVIII, _a_. Figure _d_ has no
+conventionalized feather decoration, but the curved line terminates
+with a triangle. Its signification is unknown to me. For several
+reasons the design in _e_ reminds me of a bird; it is accompanied by
+three crosses, which are almost invariably found in connection with
+bird figures, and at the inner end there is attached a breath feather.
+This end of the figure is supposed to be the head, as will appear by
+later comparative studies. The bird form is masked in _f_, but the
+feather designs are prominent. This bowl is exceptional in having an
+encircling band broken at two points, one of the components of which
+is red, the other black.
+
+Feather designs are conspicuous in plate CXLIX, _a_, _b_, in the
+former of which curved incised lines are successfully used. In _c_,
+however, is found the best example of the use of incised work as an
+aid in pottery decoration, for in this specimen there are semicircles,
+and rings with four triangles, straight lines, and circles. The
+symbolism of the whole figure has eluded analysis. Figure _d_ has no
+feather symbols, but _e_ may later be reduced to a circle with
+feathers. The only symbols in the design shown in _f_ which are at all
+recognizable are the two zigzag figures which may have been intended
+to represent snakes, lightning, or tadpoles.
+
+When the design in plate CL, _a_, is compared with the beautiful bowl
+shown in plate CXLVI, _d_, a treatment of somewhat similar nature is
+found. It is believed that both represent birds drawn in profile; the
+four bands (_a_) are tail-feathers, while the rectangle represents the
+body and the curved appendage a part of the head. From a similarity to
+modern figures of a turkey feather, it is possible that the triangle
+at the end of the curved appendage is the feather of this bird. An
+examination of _b_ leads to the conclusion that the inner end of the
+spiral represents a bird's head. Two eyes are represented therein, and
+from it feathers are appended. The parallel marks on the body are
+suggestive of similar decorations on the figure of the Plumed Snake
+painted on the kilts of the Snake priests of Walpi. The star emblems
+are constant accompaniments of bird designs. Figure _c_ has, in
+addition to the spiral, the star symbols and what appears to be a
+flower. The design shown in _d_ is so exceptional that it is here
+represented with the circular forms. It will be seen that there are
+well-marked feathers in its composition. Figure _f_ is made up of
+several bird forms, feathers, rectangles, and triangles, combined in a
+complicated design, the parts of which may readily be interpreted in
+the light of what has already been recorded.
+
+The significance of the spiral in the design on plate CLI, _a_, is
+unknown. It is found in several pictures, in some of which it appears
+to have avian relationship. Figure _b_ of the same plate is a square
+terraced design appended to the median line, on which symbolic stars
+are depicted. As in many bird figures, a star is found on the opposite
+semicircle. There is a remote likeness between this figure and that of
+the head of the bird shown in plate CXLV, _d_. Plate CLI, _c_, is a
+compound figure, with four feathers arranged in two pairs at right
+angles to a median band. The triangular figure associated with them is
+sometimes found in symbols of the sun. Figure _d_ is undoubtedly a
+bird symbol, as may be seen by a comparison of it with the bird
+figures shown in plate CXXXVIII, _a-f_. There are two tail-feathers,
+two outstretched wings, and a head which is rectangular, with terraced
+designs. The cross is triple, and occupies the opposite segment, which
+is finely spattered with pigment. This trifid cross represents a game
+played by the Hopi with reeds and is depicted on many objects of
+pottery. As representations of it sometimes accompany those of birds I
+am led to interpret the figure (plate CLVII, _c_) as that of a bird,
+which it somewhat resembles. The two designs shown in plate CLI, _e_,
+_f_, are believed to be decorative, or, if symbolic, they have been so
+worn by the constant use of the vessel that it is impossible to
+determine their meaning by comparative methods. Both of these figures
+show the "line of life" in a somewhat better way than any yet
+considered.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CL
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLI
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In plate CLII, _a_, is shown a compound figure of doubtful
+significance, made up of a series of crescents, triangles, and
+spirals, which, in _c_, are more compactly joined together, and
+accompanied by three parallel lines crossing three other lines. The
+curved figure shown in _b_ represents three feathers; a large one on
+each side, inclosing a medially smaller member. In _d_ is shown the
+spiral bird form with appended feathers, triangles, and terraced
+figures. Figure _f_ of this plate is decorated with a design which
+bears many resemblances to a flower, the peripheral appendages
+resembling bracts of a sunflower. A somewhat similar design is painted
+on the side of the helmets of some _katcina_ dancers, where the bracts
+or petals are colored in sequence, with the pigments corresponding to
+the six directions--north, west, south, east, above, and below. In the
+decoration on the ancient Sikyatki bowl we find seven peripheral
+bracts, one of which is speckled. The six groups of stamens(?) are
+represented between the triangular bracts.
+
+The designs shown in plates CLIII to CLV, inclusive, still preserve
+the spiral form with attached feathers, some of them being greatly
+conventionalized or differentiated. In the first of these plates
+(figure _b_) is represented a bird form with triangular head with four
+feathers arranged in fan shape. These feathers are different from any
+which I have been able to find attached to the bodies of birds, and
+are thus identified from morphological rather than from other reasons.
+
+The body of the conventionalized bird is decorated with terraced
+figures, spirals, flowers, and other designs arranged in a highly
+complicated manner. From a bar connecting the spiral with the
+encircling line there arises a tuft of feathers. Figure _a_ of the
+same plate is characterized by a medially placed triangle and a
+graceful pendant from which hangs seven feathers. In this instance
+these structures take the form of triangles and pairs of lines. The
+relation of these structures to feathers would appear highly
+speculative, but they have been so interpreted for the following
+reason: If we compare them with the appendages represented in the
+design on the vase shown in CXLIII, _b_, we find them the same in
+number, form, and arrangement; the triangles in the design on this
+vase are directly comparable with the figures in plate CXLIII, _b_, in
+the same position, which are undoubtedly feathers, as has been shown
+in the discussion of this figure. Consequently, although the triangles
+on the pendant in plate CLIII, _a_, appear at first glance to have no
+relation to the prescribed feather symbol, morphology shows their true
+interpretation. The reduction of the wing feather to a simple
+triangular figure is likewise shown in several other pictures on food
+vessels, notably in the figure, undoubtedly of a bird, represented in
+plate CXLVI, _a_.
+
+In the two figures forming plate CLIV are found simple bird symbols
+and feather designs very much conventionalized. The same is true of
+the two figures given in plate CLV.
+
+The vessels illustrated in plate CLVI, _a_, _b_, are decorated with
+designs of unknown meaning, save that the latter recalls the
+modification of the feather into long triangular forms. On the outer
+surface this bowl has a row of tadpoles encircling it in a sinistral
+direction, or with the center of the bowl on the left. The design of
+figure _c_ shows a bird's head in profile, with a crest of feathers
+and with the two eyes on one side of the head and a necklace. The
+triangular figure bears the symbolism of the turkey feather, as at
+present designated in Tusayan altar paraphernalia. As with other bird
+figures, there is a representation in red of the triple star.
+
+Figure _d_ is the only specimen of a vessel in the conventional form
+of a bird which was found at Sikyatki; it evidently formerly had a
+handle. The vessel itself is globular, and the form of the bird is
+intensified by the designs on its surface. The bird's head is turned
+to the observer, and the row of triangles represent wing feathers. The
+signification of the designs on _e_ and _f_ is unknown to me.
+
+Figures _e_ and _f_ of plate CLVI are avian decorations, reduced in
+the case of the former to geometric forms. The triangular figure is a
+marked feature in the latter design.
+
+The designs represented in plate CLVII are aberrant bird forms. Of
+these _a_ and _b_ are the simplest and _c_ one of the most
+complicated. Figure _d_ is interpreted as a double bird, or twins with
+a common head and tails pointing in opposite directions. Figure _e_
+shows a bird in profile with one wing, furnished with triangular
+feathers, extended. There is some doubt about the identification of
+_f_ as a bird, but there is no question that the wing, tail, and
+breath feathers are represented in it. Of the last mentioned there are
+three, shown by the notch, colored black at their extremities.
+
+
+VEGETAL DESIGNS
+
+Inasmuch as they so readily lend themselves as a motive of decoration,
+it is remarkable that the ancient Hopi seem to have used plants and
+their various organs so sparingly in their pottery painting.
+Elsewhere, especially among modern Pueblos, this is not the case, and
+while plants, flowers, and leaves are not among the common designs on
+modern Tusayan ware, they are often employed. It would appear that the
+corn plant or fruit would be found among other designs, especially as
+corn plays a highly symbolic part in mythic conceptions, but we fail
+to find it used as a decoration on any ancient vessel.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH BIRD, FEATHER, AND FLOWER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In a figure previously described, a flower, evidently an aster or
+sunflower, appears with a butterfly, and in the bowl shown in
+plate CXXXIV, _e_, we have a similar design. This figure
+evidently represents the sunflower, the seeds of which were ground and
+eaten in ancient times. The plant apparently is represented as growing
+from the earth and is surrounded by a broad band of red in rudely
+circular form. The totem of the earth today among the Hopi is a
+circle; possibly it was the same among the ancients, in which case the
+horizon may have been represented by the red encircling band, which is
+accompanied by the crook and the emblem of rain. The petals are
+represented by a row of dots and no leaves are shown. From the kinship
+of the ancient accolents of Sikyatki with the Flute people, it is to
+be expected that in their designs figures of asters or sunflowers
+would appear, for these plants play a not inconspicuous role in the
+ritual of this society which has survived to modern times.
+
+
+THE SUN
+
+Sun worship plays a most important part in modern Tusayan ritual, and
+the symbol of the sun in modern pictography can not be mistaken for
+any other. It is a circle with radiating feathers on the periphery and
+ordinarily with four lines arranged in quaternary groups. The face of
+the sun is indicated by triangles on the forehead, two slits for eyes,
+and a double triangle for the mouth. This symbol, however, is not
+always used as that of the sun, for in the Oraibi _Powalawu_ there is
+an altar in which a sand picture of the sun has the form of a
+four-pointed star. The former of these sun symbols is not found on
+Sikyatki pottery, but there is one picture which closely resembles the
+latter. This occurs on the bowl illustrated in plate CLXI, _c_. The
+main design is a four-pointed star, alternating with crosses and
+surrounded by a zone in which are rectangular blocks. While the
+identification may be fanciful, its resemblances are highly
+suggestive. The existence of a double triangle adjacent to this figure
+on the same bowl, and its likeness to the modern mouth-design of sun
+pictures, appears to be more than a coincidence, and is so regarded in
+this identification.
+
+In the design shown in plate CLVIII, _a_, one of the elaborate ancient
+sun figures is represented. As in modern symbols, the tail-feathers of
+the periphery of the disk are arranged in the four quadrants, and in
+addition there are appended to the same points curved figures which
+recall the objects, identified as stringed feathers, attached to the
+blanket of the maid (plate CXXIX, _a_). The design on the disk is
+different from that of any sun emblem known to me, and escapes my
+interpretation. I have used the distribution of the feathers on the
+four quadrants as an indication that this figure is a sun symbol,
+although it must be confessed this evidence is not so strong as might
+be wished. The triangles at the sides of two feathers indicate that a
+tail-feather is intended, and for the correlated facts supporting this
+conclusion the reader is referred to the description of the vessels
+shown in plate CXXXVIII.
+
+It would appear that there is even more probability that the picture
+on the bowl illustrated in plate CLVIII, _b_, is a sun symbol. It
+represents a disk with tail and wing feathers arranged on the
+periphery in four groups. This recalls the sun emblems used in Tusayan
+at the present time, although the face of the sun is not represented
+on this specimen. There is a still closer approximation to the modern
+symbol of the sun on a bowl in a private collection from Sikyatki.
+
+In plate CLVIII, _c_, the sun's disk is represented with the four
+clusters of feathers replaced by the extremities of the bodies of four
+birds, the tail-feathers, for some unknown reason, being omitted. The
+design on the disk is highly symbolic, and the only modern sun symbol
+found in it are the triangles, which form the mouth of the face of the
+sun in modern Hopi symbolism.
+
+One of the most aberrant pictures of the sun, which I think can be
+identified with probability, is shown in the design on the specimen
+illustrated in plate CXXXIV, _b_. The reasons which have led me to
+this identification may briefly be stated as follows:
+
+Among the many supernaturals with which modern Hopi mythology is
+replete is one called Calako-taka, or the male Calako. In legends he
+is the husband of the two Corn-maids of like name. The ceremonials
+connected with this being occur in Sichomovi in July, when four giant
+personifications enter the village as have been described in a former
+memoir. The heads of these giants are provided with two curved horns,
+between which is a crest of eagle tail-feathers.
+
+Two of these giants, under another name, but with the same symbolism,
+are depicted on the altars of the _katcinas_ at Walpi and Mishoninovi,
+where they represent the sun. A chief personifying the same
+supernatural flogs children when they are initiated into the knowledge
+of the _katcinas_.
+
+The figure on the bowl under discussion has many points of resemblance
+to the symbolism of this personage as depicted on the altars
+mentioned. The head has two horns, one on each side, with a crest,
+apparently of feathers, between them. The eyes and mouth are
+represented, and on the body there is a four-pointed cross. The
+meaning of the remaining appendages is unknown, but the likenesses to
+Calako-taka[150] symbolism are noteworthy and important. The figure on
+the food bowl illustrated in plate CXXXIV, _c_, is likewise regarded
+as a sun emblem. The disk is represented by a ring in the center, to
+which feathers are appended. The triangle, which is still a sun
+symbol, is shown below a band across the bowl. This band is decorated
+with highly conventionalized feathers.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVI
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+It may be added that in this figure we have probably the most aberrant
+sun-symbol yet recognized, and on that account there is a possibility
+that the validity of my identification is more or less doubtful.
+
+The three designs shown in plate CLVIII, _c_, _d_, _e_, evidently
+belong in association with sun or star symbols, but it is hardly
+legitimate to definitely declare that such an interpretation can be
+demonstrated. The modern Tusayan Indians declare that the equal-arm
+cross is a symbol of the "Heart of the Sky" god, which, from my
+studies of the effigies of this personage on various altars, I have
+good reason to identify with the lightning.
+
+
+GEOMETRIC FIGURES
+
+INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURES
+
+Most of the pottery from Sikyatki is ornamented with geometric designs
+and linear figures, the import of many of which are unknown.
+
+Two extreme views are current in regard to the significance of these
+designs. To one school everything is symbolic of something or some
+religious conception; to the other the majority are meaningless save
+as decorations. I find the middle path the more conservative, and
+while regarding many of the designs as highly conventionalized
+symbols, believe that there are also many where the decorator had no
+thought of symbolism. I have ventured an explanation of a few of the
+former.
+
+Terraced figures are among the most common rectangular elements in
+Pueblo ceramic decorations. These designs bear so close a likeness to
+the modern rain-cloud symbol that they probably may all be referred to
+this category. Their arrangement on a bowl or jar is often of such a
+nature as to impart very different patterns. Thus terraced figures
+placed in opposition to each other may leave zigzag spaces suggesting
+lightning, but such forms can hardly be regarded as designed for
+symbols.
+
+Rectangular patterns (plates CLXII-CLXV) are more ancient in the
+evolution of designs on Tusayan pottery than curved geometric figures,
+and far outnumber them in the most ancient specimens; but there has
+been no epoch in the development reaching to modern times when they
+have been superseded. While there are many specimens of Sikyatki
+pottery of the type decorated with geometric figures, which bear
+ornamentations of simple and complex terraced forms, the majority
+placed in this type are not reducible to stepped or terraced designs,
+but are modified straight lines, bars, crosshatching, and the like. In
+older Pueblo pottery the relative proportion of terraced figures is
+even less, which would appear to indicate that basket-ware patterns
+were secondary rather than primary decorative forms.
+
+By far the largest element in ancient Tusayan pottery decoration must
+be regarded as simple geometric lines, triangles, spirals, curves,
+crosshatching, and the like, some of which are no doubt symbolic,
+others purely decorative (plate CLXVI). In the evolution of design I
+am inclined to believe that this was the simplest form, and I find it
+the most constant in the oldest ware. Rectangular figures are regarded
+as older than circular figures, and they possibly preceded the latter
+in evolution, but in many instances both are forms of reversion,
+highly conventionalized representations of more elaborate figures.
+Circles and crosses are sometimes combined, the former modified into a
+wavy line surrounding the latter, as in plate CLIX, _c_, _d_, where
+there is a suggestion (_d_) of a sun emblem.
+
+
+CROSSES
+
+A large number of food bowls are decorated with simple or elaborate
+crosses, stars, and like patterns. Simple crosses with arms of equal
+length appear on the vessels shown in plate CLIX, _c_, _d_. There are
+many similar crosses, subordinate to the main design, in various
+bowls, especially those decorated with figures of birds and sky
+deities.
+
+Plate CLX, _a_, exhibits a cruciform design, to the extremities of
+three arms of which bird figures are attached. In this design there
+are likewise two sunflower symbols. The modified cross figure in _b_
+of the same plate, like that just mentioned, suggests a swastica, but
+fails to be one, and unless the complicated design in figure _c_ may
+be so interpreted, no swastica was found at Sikyatki or Awatobi. Plate
+CLX, _d_, shows another form of cross, two arms of which are modified
+into triangles.
+
+On the opening of the great ceremony called _Powamu_ or
+"Bean-planting," which occurs in February in the modern Tusayan
+villages, there occurs a ceremony about a sand picture of the sun
+which is called _Powalawu_. The object of this rite is the
+fructification of all seeds known to the Hopi. The sand picture of the
+sun which is made at that time is in its essentials identical with the
+design on the food bowl illustrated in plate CLXI, _c_; consequently
+it is possible that this star emblem represents the sun, and the
+occurrence of the eight triangles in the rim, replaced in the modern
+altar by four concentric bands of differently colored sands, adds
+weight to this conclusion. The twin triangles outside the main figure
+are identical with those in the mouth of modern sun emblems. These
+same twin triangles are arranged in lines which cross at right angles
+in plate CLXI, _d_, but from their resemblance to figure _b_ they
+possibly have a different meaning.
+
+The most complicated of all the star-shape figures, like the simplest,
+takes us to sun emblems, and it seems probable that there is a
+relationship between the two. Plate CLXI, _f_, represents four bundles
+of feathers arranged in quadrants about a rectangular center. These
+feathers vary in form and arrangement, and the angles between them are
+occupied by horn-shape bodies, two of which have highly complicated
+extremities recalling conventionalized birds.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU Of AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVII
+
+FIGURES OF BIRDS AND FEATHERS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLVIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH FIGURES OF SUN AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+A large number of crosses are represented in plate CLXII, _d_, in
+which the remaining semicircle is filled with a tessellated pattern. A
+spiral line with round spots at intervals adorns the specimen
+shown in plate CLXI, _a_. Parallel lines with similar spots appear on
+the vessel illustrated in plate CLXII, _e_, and a network of the same
+is shown in _f_ of the same plate. Plate CLXVII, _b_, represents a
+compound star.
+
+While simple swasticas are not found on any of the Sikyatki pottery,
+modified and compound forms are well represented. There are several
+specimens of figures of the Maltese cross, and one closely
+approximating the Saint Andrew's cross. It is scarcely necessary to
+say that the presence of the various kinds of crosses do not
+necessarily indicate the influence of Semitic or Aryan races, for I
+have already shown[151] that even cross-shape prayer-sticks were in
+use among the Pueblos when Coronado first visited them.
+
+
+TERRACED FIGURES
+
+Among the most common of all geometric designs on ancient Tusayan
+pottery none excel in variety or number those which I place in the
+above group. They form the major part of all decoration, and there is
+hardly a score of ornamented vessels in which they can not be
+detected. In a typical form they appear as stepped designs,
+rectangular figures with diagonals continuous, or as triangular
+designs with steps represented along their sides.
+
+While it is probable that in some instances these figures are simply
+decorative, with no attempt at symbolism, in other cases without doubt
+they symbolize rain-clouds, and the same figures are still used with
+similar intent in modern ceremonial paraphernalia--altars,
+mask-tablets, and the like. Decorative modifications of this figure
+were no doubt adopted by artistic potters, thus giving varieties where
+the essential meaning has been much obscured or lost.
+
+
+THE CROOK
+
+Among the forms of geometric designs on ancient Tusayan pottery there
+are many jars, bowls, and other objects on which a crook, variously
+modified, is the essential type. This figure is so constant that it
+must have had a symbolic as well as a decorative meaning. The crook
+plays an important part in the modern ritual, and is prominent on many
+Tusayan altars. Around the sand picture of the rain-cloud, for
+example, we find a row of wooden rods with curved ends, and in the
+public Snake dance these are carried by participants called the
+Antelopes. A crook in the form of a staff to which an ear of corn and
+several feathers are attached is borne by _katcinas_ or masked
+participants in certain rain dances. It is held in the hand by a
+personage who flogs the children when they are initiated into certain
+religious societies. Many other instances might be mentioned in which
+this crozier-like object is carried by important personages. While it
+is not entirely clear to me that in all instances this crook is a
+badge of authority, in some cases it undoubtedly represents the
+standing of the bearer. There are, likewise, prayer offerings in the
+form of crooks, and even common forms of prayer-sticks have miniature
+curved sticks attached to them.
+
+Some of the warrior societies are said to make offerings in the form
+of a crook, and a stick of similar form is associated with the gods of
+war. There is little doubt that some of the crook-form decorations on
+ancient vessels may have been used as symbols with the same intent as
+the sticks referred to above. The majority of the figures of this
+shape elude interpretation. Many of them have probably no definite
+meaning, but are simply an effective motive of decoration.
+
+In some instances the figure of the crook on old pottery is a symbol
+of a prayer offering of a warrior society, made in the form of an
+ancient weapon, allied to a bow.
+
+
+THE GERMINATIVE SYMBOL
+
+The ordinary symbol of germination, a median projection with lateral
+extensions at the base (plate CXLIX, _e_), occurs among the figures on
+this ancient pottery. In its simplest form, a median line with a
+triangle on each side attached to one end, it is a phallic emblem.
+When this median line becomes oval, and the triangles elongated and
+curved at the ends, it represents the ordinary squash symbol,[152]
+also used as an emblem of fertility.
+
+The triangle is also an emblem of germination and of fecundity--the
+female, as the previously mentioned principle represents the male. The
+geometric designs on the ancient Sikyatki ware abundantly illustrate
+both these forms.
+
+
+BROKEN LINES
+
+In examining the simple encircling bands of many of the food bowls,
+jars, and other ceramic objects, it will be noticed that they are not
+continuous, but that there is a break at one point, and this break is
+usually limited to one point in all the specimens. Various
+explanations of the meaning of this failure to complete the band have
+been suggested, and it is a remarkable fact that it is one of the most
+widely extended characteristics of ancient pottery decoration in the
+whole Pueblo area, including the Salado and Gila basins. While in the
+specimens from Sikyatki the break is simple and confined to one point,
+in those from other regions we find two or three similar failures in
+the continuity of encircling lines, and in some instances the lines at
+the point of separation are modified into spirals, terraces, and other
+forms of geometric figures. In the more complex figures we find the
+most intricate variations, which depart so widely from the simple
+forms that their resemblances are somewhat difficult to follow. A
+brief consideration of these modifications may aid toward an
+understanding of the character of certain geometric ornamental
+motives.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLIX
+
+CROSS AND RELATED DESIGNS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLX
+
+CROSS AND OTHER SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXI
+
+STAR, SUN, AND RELATED SYMBOLS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+If any of the interlocking spirals on bowls or vases are traced, it is
+found that they do not join at the center of the figure. The same is
+true when these spirals become frets. There is always a break in the
+network which they form. This break is comparable with the hiatus on
+encircling bands and probably admits of the same interpretation. In a
+simple form this motive appears as two crescents or two key patterns
+with the ends overlapping. This simple ornament, called the friendship
+sign, is commonly used in the decoration of the bodies of _katcinas_,
+and has been likened to the interlocking of fingers or hands of the
+participants in certain dances, the fingers half retracted with inner
+surfaces approximated, the palms of the hands facing in opposite
+directions and the wrists at opposite points. If the points be
+extended into an elaborate key pattern or curved into extended
+spirals, a complicated figure is produced in which the separation is
+less conspicuous although always present.
+
+The same points may be modified into terraced figures, the separation
+then appearing as a zigzag line drawn across the figure, or they may
+have interlocking dentate or serrate prolongations imparting a variety
+of forms to the interval between them.[153] In order to trace out
+these modifications it would be necessary to specify each individual
+case, but I think that is unnecessary. In other words, the broken line
+appears to be a characteristic not only of simple encircling bands,
+but also of all geometric figures in which highly complicated designs
+extend about the periphery of a utensil.
+
+
+DECORATIONS ON THE EXTERIOR OF FOOD BOWLS
+
+The decorations on the exterior of the ancient food bowls are in most
+instances very characteristic and sometimes artistic. Generally they
+reproduce patterns which are found on the outside of vases and jars
+and sometimes have a distant relationship to the designs in the
+interior of the bowl upon which they occur. Usually these external
+decorations are found only on one side, and in that respect they
+differ from the modern food bowls, in which nothing similar to them
+appears.
+
+The characteristics of the external decorations of food bowls are
+symbolic, mostly geometric, square or rectangular, triangular or
+stepped figures; curved lines and spirals rarely if ever occur, and
+human or animal figures are unknown in this position in Sikyatki
+pottery; the geometric figures can be reduced to a few patterns of
+marked simplicity.
+
+It is apparent that I can best discuss the variety of geometric
+designs by considering these external decorations of food vessels at
+length. From the fact that they are limited to one side, the design is
+less complicated by repetition and seems practically the same as the
+more typical forms. It is rarely that two of these designs are found
+to be exactly the same, and as there appears to be no duplication a
+classification of them is difficult. Each potter seems to have
+decorated her ware without regard to the work of her contemporaries,
+using simple designs but combining them in original ways. Hence the
+great variety found even in the grave of the same woman, whose
+handiwork was buried with her. As, however, the art of the potter
+degenerated, as it has in later times, the patterns became more alike,
+so that modern Tusayan decorated earthenware has little variety in
+ornamentation and no originality in design. Every potter uses the same
+figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 277--Oblique parallel line decoration]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 278--Parallel lines fused at one point]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 279--Parallel lines with zigzag arrangement]
+
+The simplest form of decoration on the exterior of a food bowl is a
+band encircling it. This line may be complete or it may be broken at
+one point. The next more complicated geometric decoration is a double
+or multiple band, which, however, does not occur in any of the
+specimens from Sikyatki. The breaking up of this multiple band into
+parallel bars is shown in figure 277. These bars generally have a
+quadruple arrangement, and are horizontal, vertical, or, as in the
+illustration, inclined at an angle. They are often found on the lips
+of the bowls and in a similar position on jars, dippers, and vases.
+The parallel lines shown in figure 278 are seven in number, and do not
+encircle the bowl. They are joined by a broad connecting band near one
+extremity. The number of parallel bands in this decoration is highly
+suggestive.
+
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+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXII
+
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+Four parallel bands encircle the bowl shown in figure 279, but they
+are so modified in their course as to form a number of trapezoidal
+figures placed with alternating sides parallel. This interesting
+pattern is found only on one vessel.
+
+The use of simple parallel bars, arranged at equal intervals on the
+outside of food bowls, is not confined to these vessels, for they
+occur on the margin of vases, cups, and dippers. They likewise occur
+on ladle handles, where they are arranged in alternate transverse and
+longitudinal clusters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 280--Parallel lines connected by middle bar.]
+
+The combination of two vertical bands connected by a horizontal band,
+forming the letter H, is an ornamental design frequently occurring on
+the finest Hopi ware. Figure 280 shows such an H form, which is
+ordinarily repeated four times about the bowl.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 281--Parallel lines of different width; serrate
+margin]
+
+The interval between the parallel bands around the vessel may be very
+much reduced in size, and some of the bands may be of different width,
+or otherwise modified. Such a deviation is seen in figure 281, which
+has three bands, one of which is broad with straight edges, the other
+with serrate margin and hook-like appendages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 282--Parallel lines of different width; median
+serrate]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 283--Parallel lines of different width; marginal
+serrate]
+
+In figure 282 eight bands are shown, the marginal broad with edges
+entire, and the median pair serrated, the long teeth fitting each
+other in such a way as to impart a zigzag effect to the space which
+separates them. The remaining four lines, two on each side, appear as
+black bands on a white ground. It will be noticed that an attempt was
+made to relieve the monotony of the middle band of figure 282 by the
+introduction of a white line in zigzag form. A similar result was
+accomplished in the design shown in figure 283 by rectangles and
+dots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 284--Parallel lines and triangles]
+
+The modification of the multiple bands in figure 283 has produced a
+very different decorative form. This design is composed of five bands,
+the marginal on each side serrate, and the middle band relatively very
+broad, with diagonals, each containing four round dots regularly
+arranged. In figure 284 there are many parallel, noncontinuous bands
+of different breadth, arranged in groups separated by triangles with
+sides parallel, and the whole united by bounding lines. This is the
+most complicated form of design where straight lines only are used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 285--Line with alternate triangles]
+
+We have thus far considered modifications brought about by fusion and
+other changes in simple parallel lines. They may be confined to one
+side of the food bowl, may repeat each other at intervals, or surround
+the whole vessel. Ordinarily, however, they are confined to one side
+of the bowls from Sikyatki.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 286--Single line with alternate spurs]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 287--Single line with hourglass figures]
+
+Returning to the single encircling band, it is found, in figure 285,
+broken up into alternating equilateral triangles, each pair united at
+their right angles. This modification is carried still further in
+figure 286, where the triangles on each side of the single line are
+prolonged into oblique spurs, the pairs separated a short distance
+from each other. In figure 287 there is shown still another
+arrangement of these triangular decorations, the pairs forming
+hourglass-shape figures connected by an encircling line passing
+through their points of junction.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIII
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 288--Single line with triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 289--Single line with alternate triangles and
+ovals]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 290--Triangles and quadrilaterals]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 291--Triangle with spurs]
+
+In figure 288 the double triangles, one on each side of the encircling
+band, are so placed that their line of separation is lost, and a
+single triangle replaces the pair. These are connected by the line
+surrounding the bowl and there is a dot at the smallest angle. In
+figure 289 there is a similar design, except that alternating with
+each triangle, which bears more decoration than that shown in figure
+288, there are hourglass figures composed of ovals and triangles. The
+dots at the apex of that design are replaced by short parallel lines
+of varying width. The triangles and ovals last considered are arranged
+symmetrically in relation to a simple band. By a reduction in the
+intervening spaces these triangles may be brought together and the
+line disappears. I have found no specimen of design illustrating the
+simplest form of the resultant motive, but that shown in figure 290 is
+a new combination comparable with it.
+
+The simple triangular decorative design reaches a high degree of
+complication in figure 290, where a connecting line is absent, and two
+triangles having their smallest angles facing each other are
+separated by a lozenge shape figure made up of many parallel lines
+placed obliquely to the axis of the design. The central part is
+composed of seven parallel lines, the marginal of which, on two
+opposite sides, is minutely dentate. The median band is very broad and
+is relieved by two wavy white lines. The axis of the design on each
+side is continued into two triangular spurs, rising from a rectangle
+in the middle of each triangle. This complicated design is the highest
+development reached by the use of simple triangles. In figure 291,
+however, we have a simpler form of triangular decoration, in which no
+element other than the rectangle is employed. In the chaste decoration
+seen in figure 292 the use of the rectangle is shown combined with the
+triangle on a simple encircling band. This design is reducible to that
+shown in figure 290, but is simpler, yet not less effective. In figure
+293 there is an aberrant form of design in which the triangle is used
+in combination with parallel and oblique bands. This form, while one
+of the simplest in its elements, is effective and characteristic. The
+triangle predominates in figure 294, but the details are worked out in
+rectangular patterns, producing the terraced designs so common in all
+Pueblo decorations. Rectangular figures are more commonly used than
+the triangular in the decoration of the exterior of the bowls, and
+their many combinations are often very perplexing to analyze.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 292--Rectangle with single line]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 293--Double triangle; multiple lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 294--Double triangle; terraced edges]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 295--Single line; closed fret]
+
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+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 296--Single line; open fret]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 297--Single line; broken fret]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 298--Single line; parts displaced]
+
+In figure 295, starting with the simple encircling band, it is found
+divided into alternating rectangles. The line is continuous, and hence
+one side of each rectangle is not complete. Both this design and its
+modification in figure 296 consist of an unbroken line of equal
+breadth throughout. In the latter figure, however, the openings in the
+sides are larger or the approach to a straight line closer. The forms
+are strictly rectangular, with no additional elements. Figure 297
+introduces an important modification of the rectangular motive,
+consisting of a succession of lines broken at intervals, but when
+joined are always arranged at right angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 299--Open fret; attachment displaced]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 300--Simple rectangular design]
+
+Possibly the least complex form of rectangular ornamentation, next to
+a simple bar or square, is the combination shown in figure 298, a type
+in which many changes are made in interior as well as in exterior
+decorations of Pueblo ware. One of these is shown in figure 299, where
+the figure about the vessel is continuous. An analysis of the elements
+in figure 300 shows squares united at their angles, like the last, but
+that in addition to parallel bands connecting adjacent figures there
+are two marginal lines uniting the series. Each of the inner parallel
+lines is bound to a marginal on the opposite side by a band at right
+angles to it. The marginal lines are unbroken through the length of
+the figure. Like the last, this motive also may be regarded as
+developed from a single line.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 301--Rectangular reversed S-form]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 302--Rectangular S-form with crooks]
+
+Figures 301 and 302 are even simpler than the design shown in figure
+300, with appended square key patterns, all preserving rectangular
+forms and destitute of all others. They are of S-form, and differ more
+especially in the character of their appendages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 303--Rectangular S-form with triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 304--Rectangular S-form with terraced triangles]
+
+While the same rectangular idea predominates in figure 303, it is
+worked out with the introduction of triangles and quadrilateral
+designs. This fairly compound pattern, however, is still classified
+among rectangular forms. A combination of rectangular and triangular
+geometric designs, in which, however, the former predominate, is shown
+in figure 304, which can readily be reduced to certain of those forms
+already mentioned. The triangles appear to be subordinated to the
+rectangles, and even they are fringed on their longer sides with
+terraced forms. It may be said that there are but two elements
+involved, the rectangle and the triangle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 305--S-form with interdigitating spurs]
+
+The decoration in figure 305 consists of rectangular and triangular
+figures, the latter so closely approximated as to leave zigzag lines
+in white. These lines are simply highly modified breaks in bands which
+join in other designs, and lead by comparison to the so-called "line
+of life" which many of these figures illustrate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 306--Square with rectangles and parallel lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 307--Rectangles, triangles, stars, and feathers]
+
+The distinctive feature of figure 306 is the square, with rectangular
+designs appended to diagonally opposite angles and small triangles at
+intermediate corners. These designs have a distant resemblance to
+figures later referred to as highly conventionalized birds, although
+they may be merely simple geometrical patterns which have lost their
+symbolic meaning.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 308--Crook, feathers, and parallel lines]
+
+Figure 307 shows a complicated design, introducing at least two
+elements in addition to rectangles and triangles. One of these is a
+curved crook etched on a black ground. In no other exterior decoration
+have curved lines been found except in the form of circles, and it is
+worthy of note how large a proportion of the figures are drawn in
+straight lines. The circular figures with three parallel lines
+extending from them are found so constantly in exterior decorations,
+and are so strikingly like some of the figures elsewhere discussed,
+that I have ventured a suggestion in regard to their meaning. I
+believe they represent feathers, because the tail-feathers of certain
+birds are symbolized in that manner, and their number corresponds with
+those generally depicted in the highly conventionalized tails of
+birds. With this thought in mind, it may be interesting to compare the
+two projections, one on each side of the three tail-feathers of this
+figure, with the extremity of the body of a bird shown in plate CXLI,
+_e_. On the supposition that a bird figure was intended in this
+design, it is interesting also to note the rectangular decorations of
+the body and the association with stars made of three blocks in
+several bird figures, as already described. It is instructive also to
+note the fact that the figure of a maid represented in plate CXXIX,
+_a_, has two of the round designs with appended parallel lines hanging
+to her garment, and four parallel marks drawn from her blanket. It is
+still customary in Hopi ceremonials to tie feathers to the garments of
+those who personate certain mythic beings, and it is possible that
+such was also the custom at Sikyatki. If so, it affords additional
+evidence that the parallel lines are representations of feathers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 309--Crooks and feathers]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 310--Rectangle, triangles, and feathers]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 311--Terraced crook, triangle, and feathers]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXV
+
+FOOD BOWLS WITH GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In figure 308 a number of these parallel lines are represented, and
+the general character of the design is rectangular. In figure 309 is
+shown a combination of rectangular and triangular figures with three
+tapering points and circles with lines at their tips radiating instead
+of parallel. Another modification is shown in figure 310 in which the
+triangle predominates, and figure 311 evidently represents one-half of
+a similar device with modifications.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 312--Double key]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 313--Triangular terrace]
+
+One of the most common designs on ancient pottery is the stepped
+figure, a rectangular ornamentation, modifications of which are shown
+in figures 312-314. This is a very common design on the interior of
+food vessels, where it is commonly interpreted as a rain-cloud symbol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 314--Crook, serrate end]
+
+Of all patterns on ancient Tusayan ware, that of the terrace figures
+most closely resemble the geometrical ornamentation of cliff-house
+pottery, and there seems every reason to suppose that this form of
+design admits of a like interpretation. The evolution of this pattern
+from plaited basketry has been ably discussed by Holmes and
+Nordenskioeld, whose works have already been quoted in this memoir.
+The terraced forms from the exterior of food bowls here considered are
+highly aberrent; they may be forms of survivals, motives of decoration
+which have persisted from very early times. Whatever the origin of the
+stepped figure in Pueblo art was, it is well to remember, as shown by
+Holmes, that it is "impossible to show that any particular design of
+the highly constituted kind was desired through a certain identifiable
+series of progressive steps."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 315--Key pattern; rectangle and triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 316--Rectangle and crook]
+
+For some unknown reason the majority of the simple designs on the
+exterior of food bowls from Tusayan are rectangular, triangular, or
+linear in their character. Many can be reduced to simple or multiple
+lines. Others were suggested by plaited ware.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 317--Crook and tail feathers]
+
+In figure 312 is found one of the simplest of rectangular designs, a
+simple band, key pattern in form, at one end, with a reentrant square
+depression at the opposite extremity. In figure 313 is an equally
+simple terrace pattern with stepped figures at the ends and in the
+middle. These forms are common decorative elements on the exterior of
+jars and vases, where they occur in many combinations, all of which
+are reducible to these types. The simplest form of the key pattern is
+shown in figure 314, and in figure 315 there is a second modification
+of the same design a little more complicated. This becomes somewhat
+changed in figure 316, not only by the modifications of the two
+extremities, but also by the addition of a median geometric figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 318--Rectangle, triangle, and serrate spurs]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 319--W-pattern; terminal crooks]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 320--W-pattern; terminal rectangles]
+
+The design in figure 317 is rectangular, showing a key pattern at one
+end, with two long feathers at the opposite extremity. The five bodies
+on the same end of the figure are unique and comparable with
+conventionalized star emblems. The series of designs in the upper
+left-hand end of this figure are unlike any which have yet been found
+on the exterior of food bowls, but are similar to designs which have
+elsewhere been interpreted as feathers. On the hypothesis that these
+two parts of the figure are tail-feathers, we find in the crook the
+analogue of the head of a bird. Thus the designs on the equator of the
+vase (plate CXLV, _a_), which are birds, have the same crook for the
+head, and two simple tail-feathers, rudely drawn but comparable with
+the two in figure 317. The five dentate bodies on the lower left-hand
+end of the figure also tell in favor of the avian character of the
+design, for the following reason: These bodies are often found
+accompanying figures of conventionalized birds (plates CXLIV, CLIV,
+and others). They are regarded as modified crosses of equal arms,
+which are all but universally present in combinations with birds and
+feathers (plates CXLIV, _a_, _b_; CLIV, _a_), from the fact that in a
+line of crosses depicted on a bowl one of the crosses is replaced by a
+design of similar character. The arms of the cross are represented;
+their intersection is left in white. The interpretation of figure 317
+as a highly conventionalized bird design is also in accord with the
+same interpretation of a number of similar, although less complicated,
+figures which appear with crosses. Thus the three arms of plate CLX,
+_a_, have highly conventionalized bird symbols attached to their
+extremities. In the cross figure shown in plate CLVIII, _d_, we find
+four bird figures with short, stumpy tail-feathers. These highly
+conventionalized birds, with the head in the form of a crook and the
+tail-feathers as parallel lines, are illustrated on many pottery
+objects, nowhere better, however, than in those shown in plates CXXVI,
+_a_, and CLX, _e_. Figure 318 may be compared with figure 317.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 321--W-pattern; terminal terraces and crooks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 322--W-pattern; terminal spurs]
+
+Numerous modifications of a key pattern, often assuming a double
+triangular form, but with rectangular elements, are found on the
+exterior of many food bowls. These are variations of a pattern the
+simplest form of which is shown in figure 319. Resolving this figure
+into two parts by drawing a median line, we find the arrangement is
+bilaterally symmetrical, the two sides exactly corresponding. Each
+side consists of a simple key pattern with the shank inclined to the
+rim of the bowl and a bird emblem at its junction with the other
+member.
+
+In figure 320 there is a greater development of this pattern by an
+elaboration of the key, which is continued in a line resembling a
+square spiral. There are also dentations on a section of the edge of
+the lines.
+
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+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVI
+
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+
+In figure 321 there is a still further development of the same design
+and a lack of symmetry on the two sides. The square spirals are
+replaced on the left by three stepped figures, and white spaces with
+parallel lines are introduced in the arms of a W-shape figure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 323--W-pattern; bird form]
+
+In figure 322 the same design is again somewhat changed by
+modification of the spirals into three triangles rimmed on one side
+with a row of dots, which are also found on the outer lines
+surrounding the lower part of the design.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 324--W-pattern; median triangle]
+
+In figure 323 the same W shape design is preserved, but the space in
+the lower reentrant angle is occupied by a symmetrical figure
+resembling two tail-feathers and the extremity of the body of a bird.
+When this figure is compared with the design on plate CXLVI, _a_,
+resemblances are found in the two lateral appendages or wings. The
+star emblem is also present in the design. The median figure in that
+design which I have compared to the tail of a bird is replaced in
+figure 324 by a triangular ornament. The two wings are not
+symmetrical, but no new decorative element is introduced. It, however,
+will be noticed that there is a want of symmetry on the two sides of a
+vertical line in the figure last mentioned. The right-hand upper side
+is continued into five pointed projections, which fail on the
+left-hand side. There is likewise a difference in the arrangement of
+the terraced figures in the two parts. The sides of the median
+triangles are formed of alternating black and white blocks, and the
+quadrate figure which it incloses is etched with a diagonal and cross.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 325--Double triangle; two breath feathers]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 326--Double triangle; median trapezoid]
+
+The decoration in figure 325 consists of two triangles side by side,
+each having marginal serrations, and a median square key pattern. One
+side of these triangles is continued into a line from which hang two
+breath feathers, while the other end of the same line ends in a round
+dot with four radiating, straight lines. The triangles recall the
+butterfly symbol, the key pattern representing the head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 327--Double triangle; median rectangle]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 328--Double compound triangle; median rectangle]
+
+In figure 326 there is a still more aberrant form of the W-shape
+design. The wings are folded, ending in triangles, and prolonged at
+their angles into projections to which are appended round dots with
+three parallel lines. The median portion, or that in the reentrant
+angle of the W, is a four-sided figure in which the triangle
+predominates with notched edges. Figure 327 shows the same design with
+the median portion replaced by a rectangle, and in which the key
+pattern has wholly disappeared from the wings. In figure 328 there are
+still greater modifications, but the symmetry about a median axis
+remains. The ends of the wings instead of being folded are expanded,
+and the three triangles formerly inclosed are now free and extended.
+The simple median rectangle is ornamented with a terrace pattern on
+its lower angles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 329--Double triangle; median triangle]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 330--Double compound triangle]
+
+Figure 329 shows a design in which the extended triangles are even
+more regular and simple, with triangular terraced figures on their
+inner edge. The median figure is a triangle instead of a rectangle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 331--Double rectangle; median rectangle]
+
+Figure 330 shows the same design with modification in the position of
+the median figure, and a slight curvature in two of its sides.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 332--Double rectangle; median triangle]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 333--Double triangle with crooks]
+
+Somewhat similar designs, readily reduced to the same type as the last
+three or four which have been mentioned, are shown in figures 331 and
+332. The resemblances are so close that I need not refer to them in
+detail. The W form is wholly lost, and there is no resemblance to a
+bird, even in its most highly conventionalized forms. The median
+design in figure 331 consists of a rectangle and two triangles so
+arranged as to leave a rectangular white space between them. In figure
+332 the median triangle is crossed by parallel and vertical zigzag
+lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 334--W-shape figure; single line with feathers]
+
+In the design represented in figure 333 there are two triangular
+figures, one on each side of a median line, in relation to which they
+are symmetrical. Each triangle has a simple key pattern in the middle,
+and the line from which they appear to hang is blocked off with
+alternating black and white rectangles. At either extremity of this
+line there is a circular dot from which extend four parallel lines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 335--Compound rectangle, triangles, and feathers]
+
+A somewhat simpler form of the same design is found in figure 334,
+showing a straight line above terminating with dots, from which extend
+parallel lines, and two triangular figures below, symmetrically placed
+in reference to an hypothetical upright line between them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 336--Double triangle]
+
+Figure 335 bears a similarity to the last mentioned only so far as the
+lower half of the design is concerned. The upper part is not
+symmetrical, but no new decorative element is introduced. Triangles,
+frets, and terraced figures are inserted between two parallel lines
+which terminate in round dots with parallel lines.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVII
+
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+
+[Illustration: FIG. 337--Double triangle and feathers]
+
+The design in figure 336 is likewise unsymmetrical, but it has two
+lateral triangles with incurved terrace and dentate patterns. The same
+general form is exhibited in figure 337, with the introduction of two
+pointed appendages facing the hypothetical middle line. From the
+general form of these pointed designs, each of which is double, they
+have been interpreted as feathers. They closely resemble the
+tail-feathers of bird figures on several bowls in the collection, as
+will be seen in several of the illustrations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 338--Twin triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 339--Triangle with terraced appendages]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 340--Mosaic pattern]
+
+Figure 338 is composed of two triangular designs fused at the greatest
+angles. The regularity of these triangles is broken by a square space
+at the fusion. At each of the acute angles of the two triangles there
+are circular designs with radiating lines, a common motive on the
+exterior of food bowls. Although no new elements appear in figure 338,
+with the exception of bracket marks, one on each side of a circle, the
+arrangement of the two parts symmetrically about a line parallel with
+the rim of the bowl imparts to the design a unique form. The motive in
+figure 339 is reducible to triangular and rectangular forms, and while
+exceptional as to their arrangement, no new decorative feature is
+introduced.
+
+The specimen represented in figure 340 has as its decorative elements,
+rectangles, triangles, parallel lines, and birds' tails, to which may
+be added star and crosshatch motives. It is therefore the most
+complicated of all the exterior decorations which have thus far been
+considered. There is no symmetry in the arrangement of figures about a
+central axis, but rather a repetition of similar designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 341--Rectangles, stars, crooks, and parallel
+lines]
+
+The use of crosshatching is very common on the most ancient Pueblo
+ware, and is very common in designs on cliff-house pottery. This style
+of decoration is only sparingly used on Sikyatki ware. The
+crosshatching is provisionally interpreted as a mosaic pattern, and
+reminds one of those beautiful forms of turquois mosaic on shell,
+bone, or wood found in ancient pueblos, and best known in modern times
+in the square ear pendants of Hopi women. Figure 340 is one of the few
+designs having terraced figures with short parallel lines depending
+from them. These figures vividly recall the rain-cloud symbol with
+falling rain represented by the parallel lines. Figure 341 is a
+perfectly symmetrical design with figures of stars, rectangles, and
+parallel lines. It may be compared with that shown in figure 340 in
+order to demonstrate how wide the difference in design may become by
+the absence of symmetrical relationship. It has been shown in some of
+the previous motives that the crook sometimes represents a bird's
+head, and parallel lines appended to it the tail-feathers. Possibly
+the same interpretation may be given to these designs in the following
+figures, and the presence of stars adjacent to them lends weight to
+this hypothesis.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 342--Continuous crooks]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 343--Rectangular terrace pattern]
+
+An indefinite repetition of the same pattern of rectangular design is
+shown in figure 342. This highly decorative motive may be varied
+indefinitely by extension or concentration, and while it is modified
+in that manner in many of the decorations of vases, it is not so
+changed on the exterior of food bowls.
+
+There are a number of forms which I am unable to classify with the
+foregoing, none of which show any new decorative design. All possible
+changes have been made in them without abandoning the elemental
+ornamental motives already considered. The tendency to step or terrace
+patterns predominates, as exemplified in simple form in figure 343. In
+figure 344 there is a different arrangement of the same terrace
+pattern, and the design is helped out with parallel bands of different
+length at the ends of a rectangular figure. A variation in the depth
+of color of these lines adds to the effectiveness of the design. This
+style of ornamentation is successfully used in the designs represented
+in figures 345 and 346, in the body of which a crescentic figure in
+the black serves to add variety to a design otherwise monotonous. The
+two appendages to the right of figure 346 are interpreted as feathers,
+although their depart forms widely from that usually assumed by these
+designs. The terraced patterns are replaced by dentate margins in this
+figure, and there is a successful use of most of the rectangular and
+triangular designs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 344--Terrace pattern with parallel lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 345--Terrace pattern]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 346--Triangular pattern with feathers]
+
+In the specimens represented in figures 347 and 348 marginal
+dentations are used. I have called the design referred to an S-form,
+which, however, owing to its elongation is somewhat masked. The
+oblique bar in the middle of the figure represents the body of the
+letter, the two extremities taking the forms of triangles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 347--S-pattern]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 348--Triangular and terrace figures]
+
+So far as decorative elements are concerned the design in figure 349
+can be compared with some of those preceding, but it differs from them
+in combination. The motive in figure 350 is not unlike the
+ornamentation of certain oriental vases, except from the presence of
+the terraced figures. In figure 351 there are two designs separated by
+an inclined break the edge of which is dentate. This figure is
+introduced to show the method of treatment of alternating triangles of
+varying depth of color and the breaks in the marginal bands or "lines
+of life." One of the simplest combinations of triangular and
+rectangular figures is shown in figure 353, proving how effectually
+the original design may be obscured by concentration.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 349--Crook, terrace, and parallel lines]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 350--Triangles, squares, and terraces]
+
+In the foregoing descriptions I have endeavored to demonstrate that,
+notwithstanding the great variety of designs considered, the types
+used are very limited in number. The geometrical forms are rarely
+curved lines, and it may be said that spirals, which appear so
+constantly on pottery from other (and possibly equally ancient or
+older) pueblos than Sikyatki, are absent in the external decorations
+of specimens found in the ruins of the latter village.
+
+Every student of ancient and modern Pueblo pottery has been impressed
+by the predominance of terraced figures in its ornamentation, and the
+meaning of these terraces has elsewhere been spoken of at some length.
+It would, I believe, be going too far to say that these step designs
+always represent clouds, as in some instances they are produced by
+such an arrangement of rectangular figures that no other forms could
+result.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXVIII
+
+GEOMETRIC ORNAMENTATION FROM AWATOBI]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 351--Bifurcated rectangular design]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 352--Lines of life and triangles]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 353--Infolded triangles]
+
+The material at hand adds nothing new to the theory of the evolution
+of the terraced ornament from basketry or textile productions, so ably
+discussed by Holmes, Nordenskioeld, and others. When the Sikyatki
+potters decorated their ware the ornamentation of pottery had reached
+a high development, and figures both simple and complicated were used
+contemporaneously. While, therefore, we can so arrange them as to make
+a series, tracing modifications from simple to complex designs, thus
+forming a supposed line of evolution, it is evident that there is no
+proof that the simplest figures are the oldest. The great number of
+terraced figures and their use in the representation of animals seem
+to me to indicate that they antedate all others, and I see no reason
+why they should not have been derived from basketry patterns. We must,
+however, look to pottery with decorations less highly developed for
+evidence bearing on this point. The Sikyatki artists had advanced
+beyond simple geometric figures, and had so highly modified these that
+it is impossible to determine the primitive form.
+
+As I have shown elsewhere, the human hand is used as a decorative
+element in the ornamentation of the interior of several food bowls. It
+is likewise in one instance chosen to adorn the exterior. It is the
+only part of the human limbs thus used. Figure 354 shows the hand with
+marks on the palm probably intended to represent the lines which are
+used in the measurement of the length of pahos or prayer-sticks. From
+between the index and the middle finger rises a line which recalls
+that spoken of in the account of the hand on the interior of the food
+bowl shown in plate CXXXVII.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 354--Human hand]
+
+The limb of an animal with a paw, or possibly a human arm and hand,
+appears as a decoration on the outside of another food bowl, where it
+is combined with the ever-constant stepped figure, as shown in figure
+355.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 355--Animal paw, limb, and triangle]
+
+
+PIGMENTS
+
+The ancient Sikyatki people were accustomed to deposit in their
+mortuary vessels fragments of minerals or ground oxides and
+carbonates, of different colors, used as paints. It thus appears
+evident that these substances were highly prized in ancient as in
+modern times, and it may be mentioned that the present native priests
+regard the pigments found in the graves as so particularly efficacious
+in coloring their ceremonial paraphernalia that they begged me to give
+them fragments for that purpose. The green color, which was the most
+common, is an impure carbonate of copper, the same as that with which
+pahos are painted for ceremonial use today. Several shallow,
+saucer-like vessels contained yellow ocher, and others sesquioxide of
+iron, which afforded both the ancients and the moderns the red pigment
+called _cuta_, an especial favorite of the warrior societies. The
+inner surface of some of the bowls is stained with the pigments which
+they had formerly contained, and it was not uncommon to find several
+small paint pots deposited in a single grave. The white used was an
+impure kaolin, which was found both in masses and in powdered form,
+and there were unearthed several disks of this material which had been
+cut into definite shape as if for a special purpose.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXIX
+
+ARROWSHAFT SMOOTHERS, SELENITE, AND SYMBOLIC CORN FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+One of these disks or circular plates (figure 356) was found on the
+head of a skeleton. The rim is rounded, and the opposite faces are
+concave, with a perforation in the middle. Other forms of this worked
+kaolin are spherical, oblong, or lamellar, sometimes more or less
+decorated on the outer surface, as shown in plate CLXXII, _e_.
+Another, shown in _f_, of the same plate, is cylindrical, and other
+fragments of irregular shapes were found. A pigment made of micaceous
+hematite was found in one of the Sikyatki paint jars. This material is
+still used as coloring matter by the Tusayan Indians, by whom it is
+called _yayala_, and is highly prized by the members of the warrior
+societies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 356--Kaolin disk (natural size)]
+
+
+STONE OBJECTS
+
+Almost every grave at Sikyatki contained stone objects which were
+found either in the bowls or in the soil in the immediate neighborhood
+of the skeletons. Some of these implements are pecked or chipped,
+others are smooth--pebbles apparently chosen for their botryoidal
+shape, polished surface, or fancied resemblance to some animal or
+other form.
+
+Many of the smooth stones were probably simply polishing stones, used
+by the women in rubbing pottery to a gloss before it was fired. Others
+were charm stones such as are still employed in making medicine, as
+elsewhere described. There were still other stones which, from their
+resemblance to animals, may have been personal fetishes. Among the
+unusual forms of stones found in this association is a quartz crystal.
+As I have shown in describing several ceremonies still observed, a
+quartz crystal is used to deflect a ray of sunlight into the medicine
+bowl, and is placed in the center of a sand picture of the sun in
+certain rites called _Powalawu_; the crystal is also used in divining,
+and for other purposes, and is highly prized by modern Tusayan
+priests.
+
+A botryoidal fragment of hematite found in a grave reminds me that in
+the so-called Antelope rock[154] at Walpi, around which the Snake
+dancers biennially carry reptiles in their mouths, there is in one
+side a niche in which is placed a much larger mass of that material,
+to which prayers are addressed on certain ceremonial occasions, and
+upon which sacred meal and prayer emblems are placed.
+
+One or two mortuary bowls contained fragments of stalactites
+apparently from the Grand canyon of the Colorado or from some other
+locality where water is or has been abundant.
+
+The loose shaly deposit which underlies the Tusayan mesas contains
+many cephalopod fossils, a collection of which was made in former
+years and deposited in the National Museum. Among these the most
+beautiful are small cephalopods called by the Hopi, _koaitcoko_. Among
+the many sacred objects in the _tiponi_ baskets of the Lalakonti
+society, as described in my account[155] of the unwrapping of that
+fetish, there was a specimen of this ammonite; that the shell was
+preserved in this sacred bundle is sufficient proof that it is highly
+venerated. As a natural object with a definite form it is regarded as
+a fetish which is looked upon with reverence by the knowing ones and
+pronounced bad by the uninitiated. The occurrence of this fossil in
+one of the mortuary bowls is in harmony with the same idea and shows
+that it was regarded in a similar light by the ancient occupants of
+Sikyatki.
+
+But the resemblance of these and other stones to animal fossils[156]
+is not always so remote as in the instances above mentioned. There was
+in one grave a single large fetish of a mountain lion, made of
+sandstone (plate CLXXII, _b_, _c_), in which legs, ears, tail, and
+eyes are represented, and the mouth still retains the red pigment with
+which it was colored, although there was no sign of paint on other
+parts of the body. This fetish is very similar to the one found at
+Awatobi, and is identical in form with those made by the Hopi at the
+present time.
+
+It was customary to bury in Sikyatki graves plates or fragments of
+selenite or mica, some of which are perforated as if for suspension,
+while others are in plain sheets (plate CLXIX, _c_).
+
+Among the stone implements used as mortuary offerings which were found
+in the cemeteries, was one made of the same fine lithographic
+limestone as the so-called _tcamahia_ (plate CLXXI, _g_) which occur
+on the Antelope altar in the Snake ceremonies. The exceptional
+character of this fragment is instructive, and its resemblance to the
+finely polished stone hoes found in other ruins is very suggestive.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXX
+
+CORN GRINDER FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+There were found many disk-shape stones, pecked on the periphery as if
+used in grinding pigment or in bruising seeds, and spheroidal stones
+with a facet worn at one pole as if used for the same or a similar
+purpose (plate CLXXI, _b_, _c_). A few stone axes and hatchets were
+also taken from the graves; most of these are rude specimens of stone
+working, although one of them can hardly be excelled in any other
+collection. Many arrowpoints were found, but these are in no respect
+peculiar. They are made of many different kinds of stone, but those of
+obsidian are the most numerous. They were generally found in numbers,
+sometimes in bowls. Evidently they had not been attached to shafts
+when buried, for no sign of the reeds remained. Arrowheads sewed into
+a bandoleer are still worn as insignia of rank by warriors, and it is
+probable that such was also true in the past, so that on interment
+these arrowpoints might have been placed in the mortuary basin
+deposited by the side of the warrior, as indicative of his standing or
+rank, and the bandoleer or leather strap to which they were attached
+decayed during its long burial in the earth. Spearpoints of much
+coarser make and larger in size than the arrowheads were also found in
+the graves, and a rare knife, made of chalcedony, showed that the
+ancient, like the modern Hopi, prized a sharp cutting instrument.
+
+Among the many large stones picked up on the mounds of Sikyatki there
+was one the use of which has long puzzled me. This is a rough stone,
+not worked save in an equatorial groove. The object is too heavy to
+have been carried about, except with the utmost difficulty, and the
+probability of the former existence of a handle is out of the
+question. It has been suggested that this and similar but larger
+grooved stones might have been used as tethers for some domesticated
+animal, as the eagle or the turkey, which is about the only
+explanation I can suggest. Both of these creatures, and (if we may
+trust early accounts) a quadruped about the size of a dog, were
+domesticated by the ancient Pueblo people, but I have found no
+survival of tethering in use today. Eagles, however, are tied by the
+legs and not confined in corrals as at Zuni, while sheep are kept in
+stone inclosures. It is probable that this latter custom came with the
+introduction of sheep, and that these stones were weights to which the
+Sikyatki people tied by the legs the eagles and turkeys, the feathers
+of which play an important part in their sacred observances.
+
+Certain small rectangular slabs of stone have been found, with a
+groove extending across one surface diagonally from one angle to
+another (plate CLXIX, _a_, _b_.) These are generally called arrowshaft
+polishers, and were used to rub down the surface of arrowshafts or
+prayer-sticks. Several of these polishers were taken from Sikyatki
+graves, and one or two were of such regular form that considerable
+care must have been used in their manufacture. A specimen from Awatobi
+is decorated with a bow and an arrow scratched on one side, and one of
+dark basaltic rock evidently came from a distance. A number of metates
+and mullers were found in the graves at Sikyatki. One of the best of
+the latter is shown in plate CLXX. These stones are of different
+degrees of fineness, and vary from simple triangular slabs of fine
+sandstone to very coarse lava. The specimen figured has depressions on
+the sides to facilitate handling.[157]
+
+Perhaps the most significant of all the worked stones found in the
+Sikyatki cemeteries were the flat slabs the edges of which near the
+surface of the soil marked the presence of the graves. These slabs may
+be termed headstones, but they have a far different meaning from those
+that bear the name of the deceased with which we are most familiar,
+for when they have any marking on their faces, it is not a totem of
+the dead, but a symbol of the rain-cloud, which is connected with
+ancestor worship.
+
+One of the best of these mortuary slabs has its edge cut in such a way
+as to give it a terraced outline, and on one face a similar terrace is
+drawn in black pigment. These figures are symbols of rain-clouds, and
+the interpretation of the use of this design in graves is as follows:
+
+The dead, according to current Tusayan thought, become rain-cloud
+gods, or powerful intercessors with those deities which cause or send
+the rains. Hence, the religious society to which the deceased
+belonged, and the members of the clan who survive, place in the
+mortuary bowls, or in the left hand of their friend, the paho or
+prayer emblem for rain; hence, also, in prayers at interment they
+address the breath body of the dead as a _katcina_, or rain god. These
+_katcinas_, as divinized ancestors, are supposed to return to the
+villages and receive prayers for rain. In strict accord with this
+conception the rain-cloud symbol is placed, in some instances, on the
+slab of rock in the graves of the dead at Sikyatki. It proves to me
+that the cult of ancestor worship, and the conception that the dead
+have power to bring needed rain, were recognized in Sikyatki when the
+pueblo was in its prime. One of these slabs is perforated by a small
+hole, an important fact, but one for which I have only a fanciful
+explanation, namely, to allow the escape of the breath body. Elsewhere
+I have found many instances of perforated mortuary stone slabs, which
+will be considered in a report of my excavations in 1896.
+
+
+OBSIDIAN
+
+Many fragments of obsidian, varying in size, are found strewn over the
+surface of the majority of ancient ruins in Tusayan, and the quantity
+of this material on some mounds indicates its abundance in those early
+habitations. This material must have been highly prized for knives,
+arrowpoints, and weapons of various kinds, as several of the graves
+contained large fragments of it, some more or less chipped, others in
+natural forms. The fact of its being deemed worthy of deposit in the
+graves of the Sikyatkians would indicate that it was greatly esteemed.
+I know of no natural deposit of obsidian near Sikyatki or in the
+province of Tusayan, so that the probability is that these fragments
+had been brought a considerable distance before they were buried in
+the earth that now covers the dead of the ancient pueblos.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXI
+
+STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM PALATKI, AWATOBI, AND SIKYATKI]
+
+
+NECKLACES, GORGETS, AND OTHER ORNAMENTS
+
+The Sikyatki people buried their dead adorned with necklaces and other
+ornaments as when living. The materials most highly prized for
+necklaces were turquois and shell which were fashioned into beads,
+some of which were finely made. These necklaces did not differ from
+those now worn, and the shells employed were mostly marine varieties
+of the genus _Pectunculus_. The turquois beads are often as finely cut
+as any now worn, and their presence in the graves led to the only
+serious trouble which I had with my native workmen, as they
+undoubtedly appropriated many which were found. Some of these turquois
+beads are simply flat fragments, perforated at one end, others are
+well formed. Many skeletons had a single turquois near the mastoid
+process of the skull, showing that they had been worn as ear pendants.
+On the neck of one skeleton we found a necklace of many strands,
+composed of segments of the leg bones of the turkey, stained green.
+There were other specimens of necklaces made of turkey bones, which
+were smoothly finished and apparently had not been stained.
+
+Necklaces of perforated cedar berries were likewise found, some of
+them still hanging about the necks of the dead, and in one instance, a
+small saucer like vessel (plate CXX, _d_) was filled with beads of
+this kind, as if the necklace had thus been deposited in the grave as
+a votive offering.
+
+For gorgets the Sikyatki people apparently prized slabs of lignite
+(plate CLXXII, _d_) and plates of selenite. It was likewise customary
+to make small clay imitations of birds and shells for this and for
+other ornamental purposes; these, for the most part, however, were not
+found in the graves, but were picked up on the surface or in the
+debris within the rooms.
+
+The three forms imitating birds shown in plate CLXXIII, _g_, _h_, _i_,
+are rude in character, and one of them is crossed by a black line from
+which depend parallel lines, representing falling rain; all of these
+specimens have a perforated knot on the under side for suspension, as
+shown in the figure between them.
+
+The forms of imitations of shells, in clay, of which examples are
+shown in plate CLXXIII, _j_, _k_, _l_, are rude in character; they are
+often painted with longitudinal or vertical black lines, and have a
+single or double perforation for suspension. The shell imitated is
+probably the young _Pectunculus_, a Pacific-coast mollusk, with which
+the ancient Hopi were familiar.
+
+
+TOBACCO PIPES
+
+I have elsewhere mentioned that every modern Tusayan ceremony opens
+and closes with a ceremonial smoke, and it is apparent that pipes were
+highly prized by the ancient Sikyatkians.
+
+The form of pipe used in most ceremonials today has a bowl with its
+axis at right angles to the stem, but so far as I have studied ancient
+Pueblo pipes this form appears to be a modern innovation.[158] To
+determine the probable ancient form of pipe, as indicated by the
+ritual, I will invite attention to one of the most archaic portions of
+the ceremonies about the altar of the Antelope priesthood, at the time
+of the Snake dance at Walpi:[159]
+
+"The songs then ceased, and Wi-ki sent Ka-tci to bring him a light.
+Ka-tci went out, and soon returned with a burning corncob, while all
+sat silently awaiting Wi-ki's preparation for the great _O-mow-uh_
+smoke, which was one of the most sacred acts performed by the Antelope
+priests in these ceremonials.
+
+"The _wu-ko-tco-no_ is a huge, stemless pipe, which has a large
+opening in the blunt end, and a smaller one in the pointed. It is five
+inches long, one inch in diameter at the large aperture, and its
+greatest circumference is seven and a half inches. The pipe is made of
+some black material, possibly stone, and as far as could be seen was
+not ornamented. The bowl had previously been filled with leaves
+carefully gathered from such places as are designated by tradition. In
+the subsequent smokes the ashes, "dottle," were saved, being placed in
+a small depression in the floor, but were not again put in the pipe.
+
+"Wi-ki took the live ember from Ka-tci and placed it in the large
+opening of the pipe, on the leaves which filled its cavity. He then
+knelt down and placed the pipe between the two _ti-po-nis_, so that
+the pointed end rested on the head of the large fetish, between the
+ears. Every one remained silent, and Wi-ki blew several dense clouds
+of smoke upon the sand altar, one after another, so that the picture
+was concealed. The smoke was made by blowing through the pipe, the
+fire being placed in the bowl next the mouth, and the whole larger end
+of the pipe was taken into the mouth at each exhalation.
+
+"At the San Juan pueblo, near Santa Fe, where I stopped on my way to
+Tusayan, I purchased a ceremonial headdress upon which several spruce
+twigs were tied. Wi-ki received some fragments of these with
+gratitude, and they formed one of the ingredients which were smoked in
+the great _o-mow-uh_ pipe. The scent of the mixture was very fragrant,
+and filled the room, like incense. The production of this great
+smoke-cloud, which is supposed to rise to the sky, and later bring the
+rain, ended the first series of eight songs.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXII
+
+PAINT GRINDER, FETISH, KAOLIN DISKS, AND LIGNITE FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+"Immediately after this event, Ha-ha-we filled one of the
+small-stemmed pipes lying near the fireplace with native tobacco, and
+after lighting it puffed smoke on the altar. He passed the pipe to
+Wi-ki, holding it near the floor, bowl foremost, as he did so, and
+exchanging the customary terms of relationship. Wi-ki then blew dense
+clouds of smoke over the two _ti-po-nis_ and on the sand picture.
+Ha-ha-we, meanwhile, lit a second pipe, and passed it to Ko-pe-li, the
+Snake chief, who enjoyed it in silence, indiscriminately puffing smoke
+on the altar, to the cardinal points, and in other directions.
+Ko-pe-li later gave his pipe to Ka-kap-ti, who sat at his right, and
+Wi-ki passed his to Na-syun-'we-ve, who, after smoking, handed the
+pipe to Kwa-a, who in turn passed it to Ka-tci, by whom it was given
+to Ha-ha-we. Ka-tci, the last priest to receive it before it was
+returned to the pipe-lighter, smoked for a long time, and repeatedly
+puffed clouds of smoke upon the sand picture. Meanwhile Ka-kap-ti had
+handed his pipe to Ha-ha-we, both exchanging terms of relationship and
+carefully observing the accompanying ceremonial etiquette. Ha-ha-we,
+as was his unvarying custom, carefully cleaned the two pipes, and laid
+them on the floor by the side of the fireplace."
+
+The form of pipe used in the above ceremony is typical of ancient
+Pueblo pipes, several of which were found at Sikyatki. One of these,
+much smaller than the _o-mow-uh_ pipe, was made of lava, and bore
+evidence of use before burial. It is evident, however, that these
+straight pipes were not always smoked as above described. The most
+interesting pipes found at Sikyatki were more elongated than that
+above mentioned and were made of clay. Their forms are shown in plate
+CLXXIII, _b_, _c_, _d_, _f_. One of these (_b_) is very smooth, almost
+glazed, and enlarged into two lateral wings near the mouth end, which
+is perforated with a small hole. The cavity at the opposite end is
+large enough to hold sufficient for a good smoke, and shows evidence
+of former use. The whole median region of the exterior is formed by a
+collar incised with lines, as if formerly wrapped with fiber. In some
+of the modern ceremonials, as that of the Bear-Puma dramatization in
+the Snake dance, a reed cigarette is used, ancient forms of which have
+been found in sacrificial caves, and there seems no doubt that this
+pipe is simply a clay form of those reeds. The markings on the collar
+would by this interpretation indicate the former existence of a small
+fabric wrapped about it. The two pipes shown, in plate CLXXIII, _b_,
+_f_, are tubular in shape,[160] highly polished, and on one of them
+(_f_) we see scratches representing the same feature as the collar of
+_b_, and probably made with the same intent.
+
+The fragment of a pipe shown in plate CLXXIII, _d_, is interesting in
+the same connection. The end of this pipe is broken, but the stem is
+intact, and on two sides of the bowl there are elevations covered with
+crosshatching. The pipe is of clay and has a rough external surface.
+
+It is improbable that these pipes were always smoked as the
+_wu-ko-tco-no_ of the Snake ceremony, but the smaller end was placed
+to the mouth, and smoke taken into the mouth and exhaled. It is
+customary in ceremonials now practiced, to wind a wisp of yucca about
+the stem of a short pipe, that it may not become too hot to hold in
+the hand. This may be a possible explanation[161] of the scratches on
+the sides of the ancient tube pipes from Sikyatki.
+
+
+PRAYER-STICKS
+
+One of the most important objects made in the secret ceremonials of
+the modern Pueblos is sacrificial in nature, and is called a paho or
+"water wood," which is used as an offering to the gods (figure 357).
+These pahos are made of a prescribed wood, of length determined by
+tradition, and to them are tied appendages of symbolic meaning. They
+are consecrated by songs, about an altar, upon which they are laid,
+and afterward deposited in certain shrines by a special courier.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 357--Mortuary prayer-stick (natural size)]
+
+In modern times the forms of these pahos differ very greatly, the
+shape depending on the society which makes them, the god addressed,
+and the purpose for which they are used, as understood by the
+initiated. Among many other uses they are sometimes mortuary in
+character, and are deposited in the graves of chiefs, as offerings
+either to the God of Death, or to other deities, to whom they may be
+presented by the shade or breath body of the deceased. This use of
+pahos is of ancient origin in Tusayan, as shown by the excavations at
+Sikyatki, where they were found in mortuary bowls or vases deposited
+by the relatives or surviving members of the sacerdotal societies to
+which the deceased had belonged.
+
+This pre-Spanish custom in Tusayan was discovered in my excavations at
+Awatobi, but the prayer-sticks from that place were fragmentary as
+compared with the almost perfect pahos from Sikyatki. These pahos are
+of many forms;[162] some of them are of considerable size, and the
+majority are of distinctive forms (plates CLXXIV-CLXXV). There are
+also many fragments, the former shapes of which could not be
+determined. When it is considered that these wooden objects with their
+neat carvings were fashioned with stone implements, the high character
+of the work is very remarkable. They show, in several instances, the
+imprint of attached strings and feathers, portions of which still
+remain; also, in one instance, fragments of a pine needle. They are
+painted with green and black mineral pigments, the former of which had
+undoubtedly done much to preserve the soft wood of which they were
+manufactured. As at the present day, cottonwood and willow were the
+favorite prescribed woods for pahos, and some of the best were made of
+pine. The forms of these ancient prayer offerings, as mentioned
+hereafter, differ somewhat from those of modern make, although in
+certain instances there is a significant resemblance between the two
+kinds.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXIII
+
+PIPES, BELL, AND CLAY BIRDS AND SHELLS FROM AWATOBI AND SIKYATKI]
+
+One of the most striking instances of resemblance between the old and
+the new is the likeness of some of these ancient pahos to those now
+made by the Flute society, and if this resemblance is more than a
+coincidence, the conclusion that the present flute paho is a survival
+of the ancient form may be accepted. As adding weight to this theory
+it may be mentioned that traditionally the Flute people claim to be
+the ancient people of Tusayan, and possibly contemporaries, in that
+province, with the ancient inhabitants of Sikyatki. There is likewise
+a most suggestive resemblance between these pahos and certain similar
+sticks from cliff dwellings, and it is a belief, which I can not yet
+demonstrate as true, that kindred people, or the same sacerdotal
+societies represented in cliff houses and in Sikyatki, manufactured
+ceremonial prayer offerings which are identical in design. Plate
+CLXXIV, _a_, represents a double stick paho, which closely resembles
+the prayer offering of the modern Flute society. The two rods were
+found together and originally had been attached, as indicated by the
+arrangement of the impression of the string midway of their length.
+The stick of the left has a facet cut on one side, upon which
+originally three dots were depicted to represent the eyes and the
+mouth. This member of the paho was the female; the remaining stick was
+the male. There are two deep grooves, or ferules, cut midway of their
+length, a distinctive characteristic of the modern flute paho. Both
+components are painted green, as is still customary in prayer-sticks
+of this fraternity. The pahos shown in _b_, _c_, and _d_, are likewise
+ascribed to the same society, and differ from the first only in
+length. They represent female sticks of double flute pahos. The length
+of these prayer-sticks varies on different ceremonial days, and is
+determined by the distance of the shrines for which they are intended.
+The unit of measurement is the length of certain joints of the finger,
+and the space between the tip of longest digit to certain creases in
+the palm of the hand. The length of the ancient Sikyatki pahos,
+ascribed to the Flute society, follows the same rule.
+
+Plate CLXXIV, _e_, _f_, have the same ferules referred to in the
+description above, but are of greater diameter. They are unlike any
+modern paho except in this particular. In _g_ is depicted a still
+larger prayer-stick, with two serrate incisions on each side of the
+continuation of the flattened facet.
+
+Specimens _h_ to _m_ are forms of pahos which I can not identify. They
+are painted green, generally with black tips, round, flattened, and of
+small size. Figure _n_ is a part of a paho which closely resembles
+prayer-sticks found in the cliff houses of Mesa Verde and San Juan
+valley of northern New Mexico.
+
+Numerous specimens of a peculiar razor-shape paho were found, two of
+which are shown in plate CLXXV, _o_, _s_. The paho shown in figure _d_
+is flat on one side and rounded on the other, narrowing at one end,
+where it was probably continued in a shaft, and a hole is punctured at
+the opposite extremity, as if for suspension. It is barely possible
+that this may have been a whizzer or bull-roarer, such as are used at
+the present day to imitate the wind, and commonly carried by the
+performer in a public dance who personifies the warrior. Figure _t_
+differs from the ordinary flute paho in having five constrictions in
+the upper part, and in being continued into a very long shank.
+
+The best preserved of all the pahos from the Sikyatki graves are
+represented in _u_ and _v_, both of which were found in the same
+mortuary bowl. They are painted with a thick layer of green pigment,
+and have shafts, which are blackened and placed in opposite directions
+in the two figures. Their general form may be seen at a glance. The
+lower surface of the object shown in _u_ is perfectly flat, and the
+part represented at the upper end is evidently broken off. This is
+likewise true of both extremities of the object shown in _v_; it is
+also probable that it had originally a serrated end, comparable with
+that shown in _c_. A similar terraced extremity survives in the corn
+paho carried by the so-called Flute girls in the biennial celebrations
+of the Flute ceremonies in the modern Tusayan pueblos.
+
+I refer the paho to the second group of sacrifices mentioned by
+Tylor,[163] that of homage, "a doctrine that the gist of sacrifice is
+rather in the worshiper giving something precious to himself than in
+the deity receiving benefit. This may be called the abnegation theory,
+and its origin may be fairly explained by considering it as derived
+from the original gift theory."
+
+While it is probably true that the Hopi barters his paho with the idea
+of receiving in return some desired gift, the main element is probably
+homage, but there is involved in it the third and highest element of
+sacrifice, abnegation. It is a sacrifice by symbolism, a part for the
+whole.
+
+On this theory the query naturally is, what does a paho represent?
+While it is difficult to answer this question, I think a plausible
+suggestion can be made. It is a sacrifice by symbolic methods of that
+which the Hopi most prize, corn or its meal.
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXIV
+
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
+
+SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CLXXV
+
+PAHOS OR PRAYER-STICKS FROM SIKYATKI]
+
+In a simple prayer the sacrifice is a pinch of meal thrown on the
+fetish or toward it. This is an individual method of prayer, and the
+pinch of meal, his prayer bearer, the sacrifice.
+
+When a society made its prayers this meal, symbolic of a gift of corn,
+is tied in a packet and attached to two sticks, one male, the other
+female, with prescribed herbs and feathers. Here we have the ordinary
+prayer-stick, varying in details but essentially the same, a sacrifice
+to the gods appropriately designated by prescribed accessories.
+
+Frequently this packet of meal may be replaced by a picture of an ear
+of corn drawn on a flat slat, the so-called "corn paho" of the Flute
+maidens,[164] or we may have an ear of corn tied to the wooden slat.
+In the _Mamzrau_ ceremony the women carry these painted slats in their
+hands, as I have elsewhere described.[165] It appears as if, in all
+these instances, there exists a sacrificial object, a symbolic
+offering of corn or meal.
+
+The constant appearance of the feather on the paho has suggested an
+interpretation of the prayer-plumes as symbolic sacrifices of birds on
+the theory of a part for the whole; we know that among the Nahua
+sacrifices of birds were common in many ceremonials. The idea of
+animal sacrifice, and, if we judge from legends, of human sacrifice,
+was not an unknown conception among the Pueblos. While it is possible
+that the omnipresence of the feather on the prayer-sticks may admit of
+that interpretation, to which it must be confessed the male and the
+female components in double pahos lend some evidence,[166] I believe
+the main object was, as above stated, an offering of meal, which
+constituted the special wealth of an agricultural people.
+
+
+MARINE SHELLS AND OTHER OBJECTS
+
+The excavations at Sikyatki did not reveal a large number of marine
+shells, although some of the more common genera used in the ancient
+pueblos were found.
+
+There were several fragments of _Pectunculus_ cut into the form of
+wristlets, like those from the ruins on the Little Colorado which I
+have described. Two beautiful specimens of _Oliva angulata_, truncated
+at each pole, which occurred in one of the mortuary bowls, and a few
+conical rattles, made of the spires of _Conus_, were taken from the
+graves; there were also a few fragments of an unknown _Haliotis_. All
+of the above genera are common to the Pacific, and no doubt were
+obtained by barter or brought by migratory clans to Tusayan from the
+far south. One of the most interesting objects in Sikyatki food basins
+from the necropolis was a comparatively well preserved rattle of a
+rattlesnake. The Walpi Snake chief, who was employed by me when this
+was found and was present at the time it was removed from the earth,
+declared that, according to the legends, there were no Snake people
+living at Sikyatki when it was destroyed, but the discovery of the
+snake rattle shows that the rattler was not without reverence there,
+even if not in the house of his friends, and some other explanation
+may be suggested to account for this discovery. There are evidences
+that the ancient Hopi, like certain Yuman tribes, wore a snake's
+rattle as an ornament for the neck, in which case the rattle found in
+the Sikyatki food basin may have been simply a votive offering, and in
+no way connected with ceremonial symbolism.
+
+Among many other mortuary offerings was one which was particularly
+suggestive. This specimen represented in plate CLXIX, _e_, is made of
+unbaked clay, and has a reticulated surface, as if once incrusted with
+foreign objects. The Hopi who were at work for me declared that this
+incrustation had been composed of seeds, and that the pits over the
+surface of the clay cone were evidence of their former existence. They
+identified this object as a "corn mound," and reminded me that a
+similar object is now used in the _Powamu_, _Lalakonti_, and certain
+other ceremonies. I have elsewhere mentioned the clay corn mound
+incrusted with seeds of various kinds in a description of the altar of
+the last-mentioned ceremony. These corn mountains (_ka-ue-tue'-kwi_) are
+made in the November ceremony called the _N[=a]-ac-nai-ya_, as
+described in my account of those rites from which I quote[167]--
+
+     "The _Ta-tau-kya-mu_ were very busy in their kib-va. Every
+     member was shelling corn of the different colors as if on a
+     wager. Each man made a figure of moist clay, about four or
+     five inches across the base. Some of these were in the form
+     of two mammae, and there were also many wedge and cone forms,
+     in all of which were embedded corn kernels, forming the
+     cloud and other of the simpler conventional figures in
+     different colors, but the whole surface was studded as full
+     as possible with the kernels. Each man brought down his own
+     _po-o-tas_ (tray), on which he sprinkled prayer-meal, and
+     set his _ka-ue-tue'-kwi_ (corn mountain) upon it. He also
+     placed ears of corn on the tray."
+
+These corn mountains were carried by the _Ta-tau-kya-mu_ priesthood
+during an interesting ceremony which I have thus described:[168]
+
+     "The whole line then passed slowly along the front of the
+     village sideways, facing the north, and singing, and all the
+     women came out and helped themselves to the clay molds and
+     the ears of corn borne by the _Ta-tau-kya-mu_, bestowing
+     many thanks upon the priests."
+
+The fragment of polished stone shown in plate CLXIX, _d_, is
+perforated near the edge for suspension, and was found near the aural
+orifice of a skull, apparently indicating that it had been used as a
+pendant. With this object, many rude arrowpoints, concretions of
+stone, and the kaolin disk mentioned above were also found. Small
+round disks of pottery, with a median perforation, were not common,
+although sometimes present. They are identified as parts of primitive
+drills.
+
+No object made of metal was found at Sikyatki, nor is there any
+evidence that the ancient people of that pueblo ever saw the Spaniards
+or used any implement of their manufacture. While negative evidence
+can hardly be regarded as a safe guide to follow, so far as knowledge
+of copper is concerned, it is possible that the people of ancient
+Tusayan pueblos, in their trading expeditions to southern Arizona, may
+have met races who owned small copper bells and trinkets of metal. I
+can hardly believe, however, that the Tusayan Indians were familiar
+with the art of tempering copper, and even if objects showing this
+treatment shall be found hereafter in the ruins of this province it
+will have to be proved that they were made in that region, and not
+brought from the far south.
+
+No glazed pottery showing Spanish influence was found at Sikyatki, but
+there can hardly be a doubt that the art of glazing pottery was
+practiced by the ancestors of the Tusayan people. The modern potters
+of the East Mesa never glaze their pottery, and no fragment of glazed
+ware was obtained from the necropolis of Sikyatki.
+
+
+PERISHABLE CONTENTS OF MORTUARY FOOD BOWLS
+
+It is the habit of the modern Tusayan Indians to deposit food of
+various kinds on the graves of their dead. The basins used for that
+purpose are heaped up with paper-bread, stews, and various delicacies
+for the breath-body of the deceased. Naturally from its exposed
+position much of this food is devoured by animals or disappears in
+other ways. There appears excellent evidence, however, that the
+mortuary food offerings of the ancient Sikyatkians were deposited with
+the body and covered with soil and sometimes stones.
+
+The lapse of time since these burials took place has of course caused
+the destruction of the perishable food substances, which are found to
+be simple where any sign of their former presence remains. Thin films
+of interlacing rootlets often formed a delicate network over the whole
+inner surface of the bowl. Certain of the contents of these basins in
+the shape of seeds still remain; but these seeds have not germinated,
+possibly on account of previous high temperatures to which they have
+been submitted. A considerable quantity of these contents of mortuary
+bowls were collected and submitted to an expert, the result of whose
+examination is set forth in the accompanying letter:
+
+U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF BOTONY,
+_Washington, D. C., March 25, 1896._
+
+     DEAR DR FEWKES: Having made a cursory examination of the
+     samples of supposed vegetable material sent by you day
+     before yesterday, collected at Sikyatki, Arizona, in
+     supposed prehistoric burial places, I have the following
+     preliminary report to make:
+
+     No. 156247. A green resinous substance. I am unable to say
+     whether or not this is of vegetable origin.
+
+     No. 156248. A mass of fibrous material intermixed with sand,
+     the fibers consisting in part of slender roots, in part of
+     the hair of some animal.
+
+     No. 156249. This consists of a mixture of seed with a small
+     amount of sand present. The seeds are, in about the relative
+     order of their abundance, (_a_) a leguminous shiny seed of a
+     dirty olive color, possibly of the genus _Parosela_ (usually
+     known as _Dalea_); (_b_) the black seed shells, flat on one
+     side and almost invariably broken, of a plant apparently
+     belonging to the family _Malvaceae_; (_c_) large, flat,
+     nearly black achenia, possibly of a _Coreopsis_, bordered
+     with a narrow-toothed wing; (_d_) the thin lenticular
+     utricles of a _Carex_; (_e_) the minute black, bluntly
+     trihedral seeds of some plant of the family _Polygonaceae_,
+     probably an _Eriogonum_. The majority of these seeds have a
+     coating of fine sand, as if their surface had originally
+     been viscous; (_f_) a dried chrysalis bearing a slight
+     resemblance to a seed.
+
+     No. 156250. This bottle contains the same material as No.
+     156249, except that no larvae are found, but a large, plump,
+     brownish, lenticular seed 4 mm. in diameter, doubtless the
+     seed of a _Croton_.
+
+     No. 156251. A thin fragment of matter consisting of minute
+     roots of plants partially intermixed on one surface with
+     sand.
+
+     No. 156252. This consists almost wholly of plant rootlets
+     and contains a very slight amount of sand.
+
+     No. 156254. This consists of pieces of rotten wood through
+     which had grown the rootlets of plants. The wood, upon a
+     microscopical examination, is shown to be that of some
+     dicotyledonous tree of a very loose and light texture. The
+     plant rootlets in most cases followed the large ducts that
+     run lengthwise through the pieces of wood and take up the
+     greater part of the space.
+
+     No. 156255. The mass contained in this bottle is made up of
+     (_a_) grains, contained in their glumes or husks, of some
+     grass, probably _Oryzopsis membranacea_; (_b_) what appears
+     to be the minute spherical spore cases of some microscopical
+     fungus. The spore cases have a wall with a shiny brown
+     covering, or apparently with this covering worn off and
+     exhibiting an interior white shell. Within this is a very
+     large number of spherical spore-like bodies of a uniform
+     size; (_c_) a few plant rootlets.
+
+     No. 156256. The material in this bottle is similar to that
+     in 156255 except that the amount of rootlets is greater, the
+     grass seeds are of a darker color, seemingly somewhat more
+     disorganized, and somewhat more slender in form, and that
+     the spore cases seem to be entirely wanting.
+
+     No. 156257. The material in this bottle is similar to that
+     in No. 156249, containing the seeds numbered _a_, _b_, _c_,
+     and _d_ mentioned under that number, besides a greater
+     amount of plant rootlets and some fragments of corncob.
+
+     No. 156258. This consists almost entirely of plant rootlets
+     and sand.
+
+     No. 156259. This consists chiefly of the leaves of some
+     coniferous tree, either an _Abies_ or a _Pseudotsuga_.
+
+     All the seeds with the exception of those of the leguminous
+     plant are dead and their seed-coats rotten. The leguminous
+     seeds are still hard and will be subjected to a germination
+     test.[169]
+
+     For a specific and positive identification of these seeds it
+     will be necessary either for a botanist to visit the region
+     from which they came or to have at his disposal a complete
+     collection of the plants of the vicinity. Under such
+     conditions he could by process of exclusion identify the
+     seeds with an amount of labor almost infinitely less than
+     would be required in their identification by other means.
+
+Very sincerely yours,
+
+FREDERICK V. COVILLE, _Botanist._
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+
+[Footnote 1: See "The Prehistoric Culture of Tusayan," _American
+Anthropologist_, May, 1896. "Two Ruins Recently Discovered in the Red
+Rock Country, Arizona," ibid., August, 1896. "The Cliff Villages of
+the Red Rock Country, and the Tusayan Ruins, Sikyatki and Awatobi,
+Arizona," Smithsonian Report for 1895.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The reader's attention is called to the fact that this
+report is not intended to cover all the ruins in the section of
+Arizona through which the expedition passed; it is simply a
+description of those which were examined, with a brief mention of such
+others as would aid in a general comprehension of the subject. The
+ruins on the Little Colorado, near Winslow, Arizona, will be
+considered in a monograph to follow the present, which will be a
+report on the field work in 1896. If a series of monographs somewhat
+of this nature, but more comprehensive, recording explorations during
+many years in several different sections, were available, we would
+have sufficient material for a comprehensive treatment of southwestern
+archeology.]
+
+[Footnote 3: It may be borne in mind that several other clans besides
+the Patki claim to have lived long ago in the region southward from
+modern Tusayan. Among these may be mentioned the Patun (Squash) and
+the Tawa (Sun) people who played an important part in the early
+colonization of Middle Mesa.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Report upon the Indian Tribes, Pacific Railroad Survey,
+vol. III, pt. iii, p. 14, Washington, 1856. The cavate dwellings of
+the Rio Verde were first described by Dr E. A. Mearns. Although it has
+sometimes been supposed that Coronado followed the trail along Verde
+valley, and then over the Mogollones to Rio Colorado Chiquito,
+Bandelier has conclusively shown a more easterly route.]
+
+[Footnote 5: See mention of cliff houses in Walnut canyon in the Fifth
+Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The kinship of Cliff dwellers and Pueblos was long ago
+recognized by ethnologists, both from resemblances of skulls, the
+character of architecture, and archeological objects found in each
+class of dwellings. It is only in later years, however, that the
+argument from similar ceremonial paraphernalia has been adduced, owing
+to an increase of our knowledge of this side of Pueblo life. See
+Bessels, Bull. U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the
+Territories, vol. II, 1876; Hoffman, Report on Chaco Cranium, ibid.,
+1877, p. 457. Holmes, in 1878, says: "The ancient peoples of the San
+Juan country were doubtless the ancestors of the present Pueblo tribes
+of New Mexico and Arizona." See, likewise, Cushing, Nordenskioeld, and
+later writers regarding the kinship of Cliff villagers and Pueblos.]
+
+[Footnote 7: Report of the Director of the Bureau of American
+Ethnology for the year ending June 30, 1894; Smithsonian Report,
+1894.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The ruins in Chaves Pass, 110 miles south of Oraibi, will
+be considered in the report of the expedition of 1896, when extensive
+excavations were made at this point. About midway between the Chaves
+Pass ruins and those of Beaver creek, in Verde valley, there are other
+ruins, as at Rattlesnake Tanks, and as a well-marked trail passes by
+these former habitations and connects the Verde series with those of
+Chaves Pass, it is possible that early migrations may have followed
+this course. There is also a trail from Homolobi and the Colorado
+Chiquito ruins through Chaves Pass into Tonto Basin.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Smithsonian Report, 1883; Report of Major Powell,
+Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 57 et seq. Explorations in the
+Southwest, ibid., 1886, p. 52 et seq.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Report of an Expedition down the Zuni and Colorado
+rivers; Washington, 1853.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Smithsonian Report, 1883, Report of the Director of the
+Bureau of Ethnology, p. 62: "Pending the arrival of goods at Moki, Mr
+Cushing returned across the country to Zuni for the purpose of
+observing more minutely than on former occasions the annual sun
+ceremonials. En route he discovered two ruins, apparently before
+unvisited. One of these was the outlying structure of K'n'-i-K'el,
+called by the Navajos Zinni-jin'ne and by the Zunis He'-sho'ta
+pathl-ta[)i]e, both, according to Zuni tradition, belonging to the
+Thle-e-ta-kwe, the name given to the traditional northwestern
+migration of the Bear, Crane, Frog, Deer, Yellow-wood, and other
+gentes of the ancestral pueblos."]
+
+[Footnote 12: The reduplicated syllable recalls Hopi methods of
+forming their plural, but is not characteristic of them, and the word
+Totonteac has a Hopi sound. The supposed derivation of Tonto from
+Spanish _tonto_, "fool," is mentioned, elsewhere. The so-called Tonto
+Apache was probably an intruder, the cause of the desertion of the
+"basin" by the housebuilders. The question whether Totonteac is the
+same as Tusayan or Tuchano is yet to be satisfactorily answered. The
+map makers of the sixteenth century regarded them as different places,
+and notwithstanding Totonteac was reported to be "a hotte lake" in the
+middle of the previous century, it held its place on maps into the
+seventeenth century. It is always on or near a river flowing into the
+Gulf of California.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Mr Mindeleff's descriptions deal with the same cluster
+of cavate ruins here described, but are more specially devoted to the
+more southern section of them, not considering, if I understand him,
+the northern row here described. I had also made extensive studies of
+the rooms figured by him previously to the publication of his article,
+but as my notes on these rooms are anticipated by his excellent memoir
+I have not considered the rooms described by him, but limited my
+account to brief mention of a neighboring row of chambers not
+described in his report.]
+
+[Footnote 15: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology_, vol. II,
+No. 1. All the Tusayan kivas with which I am familiar have this raised
+spectator's part at one end. The altars are always erected at the
+opposite end of the room, in which is likewise the hole in the floor
+called the _sipapu_, symbolic of the traditional opening through which
+races emerged to the earth's surface from an underworld. Banquettes
+exist in some Tusayan kivas; in others, however, they are wanting. The
+raised platform in dwelling rooms is commonly a sleeping place, above
+which blankets are hung and, in some instances, corn is stored. A
+small opening in the step often admits light to an otherwise dark
+granary below the floor. In no instance, however, are there more than
+one such platform, and that commonly partakes of the nature of another
+room, although seldom separated from the other chamber by a
+partition.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Counting from the point of the cliff shown in plate
+XCI_a_. The positions of the rooms are indicated by the row of
+entrances.]
+
+[Footnote 17: It was from this region that the individual chambers,
+described by Mindeleff, were chosen.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Mr Mindeleff, in his valuable memoir, has so completely
+described the cavate dwellings of the Rio Grande and San Juan regions
+that their discussion in this account would be superfluous.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See Mindeleff, Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,
+_American Anthropologist_, April, 1895. The suggestion that cliff
+outlooks were farming shelters in some instances is doubtless true,
+but I should hesitate giving this use a predominance over outlooks for
+security. In times of danger, naturally the agriculturist seeks a high
+or commanding position for a wide outlook; but to watch his crops he
+must camp among them.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Ancient Dwellings of the Rio Verde Valley, Dr E. A.
+Mearns; _Popular Science Monthly_, vol. XXVII. Mindeleff, Aboriginal
+Remains in Verde Valley; Thirteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of
+Ethnology.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Since the above lines were written Mr C. F. Lummis, who
+has made many well-known contributions to the ethnology and archeology
+of the Pueblo area, has published in _Land of Sunshine_ (Los Angeles,
+1895), a beautiful photographic illustration and an important
+description of this unique place.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Miscellaneous Ethnographic Observations on Indians
+inhabiting Nevada, California, and Arizona, Tenth Annual Report of the
+Hayden Survey, p. 478; Washington, 1878.]
+
+[Footnote 23: The cliff houses of Bloody Basin I have not examined,
+but I suspect they are of the same type as the so-called Montezuma
+Castle, or Casa Montezuma, on the right bank of Beaver creek. The
+latter is referred to the cliff-house class, but it differs
+considerably from the ruins of the Red-rocks, on account of the
+character of the cavern in which it is built (see figure 246).]
+
+[Footnote 24: Fortified hilltops occur in many places in Arizona and
+are likewise found in the Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua,
+where they are known as _trincheras_. They are regarded as places of
+refuge of former inhabitants of the country, contemporaneous with
+ancient pueblos and cliff houses.]
+
+[Footnote 25: This pinnacle is visible for miles, and is one of many
+prominences in the surrounding country. Unfortunately this region is
+so imperfectly surveyed that only approximations of distances are
+possible in this account, and the maps known to me are too meager in
+detail to fairly illustrate the distribution of these buttes.]
+
+[Footnote 26: In certain cavate houses on Oak creek we find these
+caverns in two tiers, one above the other, and the hill above is
+capped by a well-preserved building. In one of these we find the
+entrance to the cavern walled in, with the exception of a T-shape
+doorway and a small window. This chamber shows a connecting link
+between the type of true cavate dwellings and that of cliff-houses.]
+
+[Footnote 27: The absence of kivas in the ruins of the Verde has been
+commented on by Mindeleff, and has likewise been found to be
+characteristic of the cliff houses on the upper courses of the other
+tributaries of Gila and Salado rivers. The round kiva appears to be
+confined to the middle and eastern ruins of the pueblo area, and are
+very numerous in the ruins of San Juan valley.]
+
+[Footnote 28: See "Tusayan Totemic Signatures," _American
+Anthropologist_, Washington, January, 1897.]
+
+[Footnote 29: An exhaustive report on the ruins near Winslow, at the
+Sunset Crossing of the Little Colorado, will later be published. These
+ruins were the sites of my operations in the summer of 1896, and from
+them a very large collection of prehistoric objects was taken. The
+report will consider also the ruins at Chaves Pass, on the trail of
+migration used by the Hopi in prehistoric times in their visits, for
+barter and other purposes, to the Gila-Salado watershed.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Possibly the Shoshonean elements in Hopi linguistics are
+due to the Snake peoples, the early colonists who came from the north,
+where they may have been in contact with Paiute or other divisions of
+the Shoshonean stock. The consanguinity of this phratry may have been
+close to that of the Shoshonean tribes, as that of the Patki was to
+the Piman, or the Asa to the Tanoan. The present Hopi are a composite
+people, and it is yet to be demonstrated which stock predominates in
+them.]
+
+[Footnote 31: A Study of Pueblo Architecture: Tusayan and Cibola;
+Eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1886-87.]
+
+[Footnote 32: This account was copied from a copy made by the eminent
+scholar, A. F. Bandelier, for the archives of the Hemenway Expedition,
+now at the Peabody Museum, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Hano or "Tewa."]
+
+[Footnote 34: Sichomovi. In the manuscript report by Don Jose Cortez,
+who wrote of the northern provinces of Mexico, where he lived in 1799,
+Sichomovi is mentioned as a nameless village between Tanos (Hano) and
+Gualpi (Walpi), settled by colonists from the latter pueblo. One of
+the first references to this village by name was in a report by Indian
+Agent Calhoun (1850), where it is called Chemovi.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Mishoninovi.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Shipaulovi.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Shunopovi.]
+
+[Footnote 38: In 1896 I collected over a hundred beautiful specimens
+from this cemetery.]
+
+[Footnote 39: There lived in Walpi, years ago, an old woman, who
+related to a priest, who repeated the story to the writer, that when a
+little girl she remembered seeing the Payuepki people pass along the
+valley under Walpi when they returned to the Rio Grande. Her story is
+quite probable, for the lives of two aged persons could readily bridge
+the interval between that event and our own time.]
+
+[Footnote 40: "La Mission de N. Sra. de las Dolores de Zandia de
+Indios Teguas a Moqui."]
+
+[Footnote 41: See J. F. Meline, Two Thousand Miles on Horseback, 1867.
+Sandia, according to Bancroft, is not mentioned by Menchero in 1744,
+but Bonilla gave it a population of 400 Indians in 1749. In 1742 two
+friars visited Tusayan, and, it is said, brought out 441 apostate
+Tiguas, who were later settled in the old pueblo of Sandia.
+Considering, then, that Sandia was resettled in 1748, six years after
+this visit, and that the numbers so closely coincide, we have good
+evidence that Payuepki, in Tusayan, was abandoned about 1742. It is
+probable, from known evidence, that this pueblo was built somewhere
+between 1680 and 1690; so that the whole period of its occupancy was
+not far from fifty years.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Mindeleff mentions two other sites of Old Walpi--a mound
+near _Wala_, and one in the plain between Mishoninovi and Walpi; but
+neither of these is large, although claimed as former sites of the
+early clans which later built the town on the terrace of East Mesa
+below Walpi. I have regarded Kuechaptuevela as the ancient Walpi, but
+have no doubt that the Hopi emigrants had several temporary dwellings
+before they settled there.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Sometimes called Nuesaki, a corruption of "Missa ki,"
+Mass House, Mission. One of the beams of the old mission at Nuesaki or
+Kisakobi is in the roof of Pauwatiwa's house in the highest range of
+rooms of Walpi. This beam is nicely squared, and bears marks
+indicative of carving. There are also large planks in one of the kivas
+which were also probably from the church building, although no one has
+stated that they are. Pauwatiwa, however, declares that a legend has
+been handed down in his family that the above-mentioned rafter came
+from the mission.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,
+January 2, 1895, p. 441.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Thus in Castaneda's account we are told: "Farther off
+[near Cia?] was another large village where we found in the courtyards
+a great number of stone balls of the size of a leather bag, containing
+one arroba. They seem to have been cast with the aid of machines, and
+to have been employed in the destruction of the village." It is
+needless for me to say that I find no knowledge of such a machine in
+Tusayan!]
+
+[Footnote 46: The ceremonials attending to burial of the eagle, whose
+plumes are used in secret rites, have never been described, and
+nothing is known of the rites about the Eagle shrine at Tukinobi.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Recent Archeologic Find in Arizona, _American
+Anthropologist_, Washington, July, 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 48: For a previous description see the Preliminary Account,
+Smithsonian Report for 1895; also "Awatobi: An Archeological
+Verification of a Tusayan Legend," _American Anthropologist_,
+Washington, October, 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 49: This important ceremony celebrates the departure from
+the pueblos of ancestral gods called _katcinas_, and is one of the
+most popular in the ritual.]
+
+[Footnote 50: Pacheco-Cardenas, Colleccion de Documentos Ineditos, XV,
+122, 182.]
+
+[Footnote 51: Voyages, III, pp. 463, 470, 1600; reprint 1810.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Pacheco-Cardenas, Documentos Ineditos, op. cit., XVI,
+139.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Menologio Franciscano, 275; Teatro Mexicano, III, 321.]
+
+[Footnote 54: San Bernardino de Ahuatobi (Vetancurt, 1680); San
+Bernardo de Aguatuvi (Vargas, 1692). I find that the mission at Walpi
+was also mentioned by Vargas as dedicated to San Bernardino. The
+church at Oraibi was San Francisco de Oraybe and San Miguel. The
+mission at Shunopovi was called San Bartolome, San Bernardo, and San
+Bernabe.]
+
+[Footnote 55: This article was in type too early for a review of
+Dellenbaugh's identification of Cibola with a more southeasterly
+locality. His arguments bear some plausibility, but they are by no
+means decisive.]
+
+[Footnote 56: An exact translation by Winship of the copy of Castaneda
+in the Lenox Library was published in the Fourteenth Annual Report of
+the Bureau.]
+
+[Footnote 57: "At evening the chiefs asked that notices be written for
+them warning all white people to keep away from the mesa tomorrow, and
+these were set up by the night patrols in cleft wands on all the
+principal trails. At daybreak on the following morning the principal
+trails leading from the four cardinal points were 'closed' by
+sprinkling meal across them and laying on each a whitened elk horn.
+Anawita told the observer that in former times if any reckless person
+had the temerity to venture within this proscribed limit the Kwakwantu
+inevitably put him to death by decapitation and dismemberment."
+("Naacnaiya," _Journal of American Folk-lore_, vol. v, p. 201.) This
+appears to be the same way in which the Awatobians "closed" the trail
+to Tobar.]
+
+[Footnote 58: When the Flute people approach Walpi, as is biennially
+dramatized at the present time, "an assemblage of people there (at the
+entrance to the village) meet them, and just back of a line of meal
+drawn across the trail stood Winuta and Honyi," also two girls and a
+boy. After these Flute people are challenged and sing their songs the
+trail is opened, viz: "Alosaka drew the end of his _monkohu_ along the
+line of meal, and Winuta rubbed off the remainder from the trail with
+his foot." "Walpi Flute Observance," _Journal of American Folk-lore_,
+vol. VII, p. 19.]
+
+[Footnote 59: This custom of sprinkling the trail with sacred meal is
+one of the most common in the Tusayan ritual. The gods approach and
+leave the pueblos along such lines, and no doubt the Awatobians
+regarded the horses of Espejo as supernatural beings and threw meal on
+the trail before them with the same thought in mind that they now
+sprinkle the trails with meal in all the great ceremonials in which
+personators of the gods approach the villages.]
+
+[Footnote 60: According to the reprint of 1891. In the reprint of 1810
+it appears as "Ahuato." I would suggest that possibly the error in
+giving the name of a pueblo to a chief may have arisen not from the
+copyist or printer, but from inability of the Spaniards and Hopi to
+understand each other. If you ask a Hopi Indian his name, nine times
+out of ten he will not tell you, and an interlocutor for a party of
+natives will almost invariably name the pueblos from which his
+comrades came.]
+
+[Footnote 61: This was possibly the expedition which P. Fr. Antonio
+(Alonzo?) made among the Hopi in 1628; however that may be, there is
+good evidence that Porras, after many difficulties, baptized several
+chiefs in 1629.]
+
+[Footnote 62: _Segunda Relacion de la grandiosa conversion que ha
+avido en el Nuevo Mexico. Embiada por el Padre Estev[=a] de Perea_,
+etc., 1633.]
+
+[Footnote 63: An earlier rumor was that the horses were
+anthropophagous.]
+
+[Footnote 64: As Vargas appears not to have entered Oraibi at this
+time he may have found it too hostile. Whether Frasquillo had yet
+arrived with his Tanos people and their booty is doubtful. The story
+of the migration to Tusayan of the Tanos under Frasquillo, the
+assassin of Fray Simon de Jesus, and the establishment there of a
+"kingdom" over which he ruled as king for thirty years, is a most
+interesting episode in Tusayan history. Many Tanos people arrived in
+several bands among the Hopi about 1700, but which of them were led by
+Frasquillo is not known to me.]
+
+[Footnote 65: "El templo acabo en llamas." At this time Awatobi was
+said to have 800 inhabitants.]
+
+[Footnote 66: At the present time one of the most bitter complaints
+which the Hopi have against the Spaniards is that they forcibly
+baptized the children of their people during the detested occupancy by
+the conquerors.]
+
+[Footnote 67: _Naacnaiya_ and _Wuewuetcimti_ are the elaborate and
+abbreviated New-fire ceremonies now observed by four religious warrior
+societies, known as the _Tataukyamu_, _Wuewuetcimtu_, _Aaltu_ and
+_Kwakwantu_. Both of these ceremonials, as now observed at Walpi, have
+elsewhere been described.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Obiit 1892. Shimo was chief of the Flute Society and
+"Governor" of Walpi.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Oldest woman of the Snake clan; mother of Kopeli, the
+Snake chief of Walpi; chief priestess of the Mamzrauti ceremony.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Vetancurt, Chronica, says that Aguatobi (Awatobi) had
+800 inhabitants and was converted by Padre Francisco de Porras. In
+1630 Benavides speaks of the Mokis as being rapidly converted. It
+would appear, if we rely on Vetancurt's figures, that Awatobi was not
+one of the largest villages of Tusayan in early times, for he ascribes
+1,200 to Walpi and 14,000 to Oraibi. The estimate of the population of
+Awatobi was doubtless nearer the truth than that of the other pueblos,
+and I greatly doubt if Oraibi ever had 14,000 people. Probably 1,400
+would be more nearly correct.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Architecture of Cibola and Tusayan, p. 225.]
+
+[Footnote 72: There are two fragments, one of which is large enough to
+show the size of the bell, which was made either in Mexico or in
+Spain. The smaller fragment was used for many years as a paint-grinder
+by a Walpi Indian priest.]
+
+[Footnote 73: See his Final Report, p. 372.]
+
+[Footnote 74: The only Awatobi name I know is that of a chief, Tapolo,
+which is not borne by any Hopi of my acquaintance (see page 603).]
+
+[Footnote 75: This explains the fact that the ruins in Tusayan, as a
+rule, have no signs of kivas, and the same appears to be true of the
+ruins of the pueblos on the Little Colorado and the Verde, in Tonto
+Basin, and other more southerly regions.]
+
+[Footnote 76: See Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, vol.
+II.]
+
+[Footnote 77: "Las casas son de tres altos"--_Segunda Relacion_, p.
+580.]
+
+[Footnote 78: So far as our limited knowledge of the older ruins of
+Tusayan goes, we find that their inhabitants must have been as far
+removed from rude Shohonean nomads as their descendants are today. The
+settlement at the early site of Walpi is reported to have been made in
+very early times, some legends stating that it occurred at a period
+when the people were limited to one family--the Snake. The fragments
+of pottery which I have found in the mounds of that ancient habitation
+are as fine and as characteristic of Tusayan as that of Sikyatki or
+Awatobi. It is inferior to none in the whole pueblo area, and betrays
+long sedentary life of its makers before it was manufactured.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Journal of American Folk-lore, vol. v, No. xviii, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 80: There is a rude sketch of these two idols of _Alosaka_
+in the archives of the Hemenway Expedition. They represent figurines
+about 4 feet tall, with two horns on the head not unlike those of the
+Tewan clowns or gluttons called Paiakyamu. As so little is known of
+the Mishoninovi ritual, the rites in which they are used are at
+present inexplicable.]
+
+[Footnote 81: See the ear-ornament of the mask shown in plate CVIII,
+of the Fifteenth Annual Report.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Similar "spouts" were found by Mindeleff at Awatobi, and
+a like use of them is suggested in his valuable memoir.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The Keresan people are called by the same name, Kawaika,
+which, as hitherto explained, is specially applied to the modern
+pueblo of Laguna.]
+
+[Footnote 84: The Asa people who came to Tusayan from the Rio Grande
+claim to have lived for a few generations in Tubka or Tsegi (Chelly)
+canyon.]
+
+[Footnote 85: The pottery of ancient Cibola is practically identical
+with that of the ruined pueblos of the Colorado Chiquito, near
+Winslow, Arizona.]
+
+[Footnote 86: The specimens labeled "New Mexico" and "Arizona" are too
+vaguely classified to be of any service in this consideration. It is
+suggested that collectors carefully label their specimens with the
+exact locality in which they are found, giving care to their
+association and, when mortuary, to their position in the graves in
+relation to the skeletons.]
+
+[Footnote 87: I am informed by Mr F. W. Hodge that similar fragments
+were found by the Hemenway Expedition in 1888 in the prehistoric ruins
+of the Salado.]
+
+[Footnote 88: The head is round, with lateral appendages. The face is
+divided into two quadrants above, with chin blackened, and marked with
+zigzag lines, which are lacking in modern pictures. In the left hand
+the figure holds a rattle. The body is wanting, but the breast is
+decorated with rectangles.]
+
+[Footnote 89: A single metate of lava or malpais was excavated at
+Awatobi. This object must have had a long journey before it reached
+the village, since none of the material from which it was made is
+found within many miles of the ruin.]
+
+[Footnote 90: There are many fine pictographs, some of which are
+evidently ancient, on the cliffs of the Awatobi mesa. These are in no
+respect characteristic, and among them I have seen the _awata_ (bow),
+_honani_ (badger's paw), _tcuea_ (snake), and _omowuh_ (rain-cloud). On
+the side of the precipitous wall of the mesa south of the western
+mounds there is a row of small hemispherical depressions or pits, with
+a groove or line on one side. There is likewise, not far from this
+point, a realistic figure of a vulva, not very unlike the _asha_
+symbols on Thunder mountain, near Zuni.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology_, vol. II,
+No. 1, p. 77.]
+
+[Footnote 92: In the expedition of 1896 there were found a large
+number of shell ornaments, which will be described in a forthcoming
+report of the operations during that year. See the preliminary account
+in the article "Pacific Coast Shells in Tusayan Ruins," _American
+Anthropologist_, December, 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 93: One of these bells was found in a grave at Chaves Pass
+during the field work of 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Bells made of clay are not rare in modern Tusayan
+villages, and while their form is different from that of the Awatobi
+specimen, and the size larger, there seems no reason to doubt the
+antiquity of the specimen from the ruin of Antelope mesa.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Many of the specimens in the well-known Keam collection,
+now in the Tusayan room of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, are
+undoubtedly from Sikyatki, and still more are from Awatobi. Since the
+beginning of my excavations at Sikyatki it has come to be a custom for
+the Hopi potters to dispose of, as Sikyatki ware, to unsuspecting
+white visitors, some of their modern objects of pottery. These
+fraudulent pieces are often very cleverly made.]
+
+[Footnote 96: Architecture of Tusayan and Cibola, op. cit., pp. 20,
+21.]
+
+[Footnote 97: These rooms I failed to find. One of the rocky knolls
+may be that called by me the "acropolis." The second knoll I cannot
+identify, unless it is the elevation in continuation of the same side
+toward the east. Possibly he confounded the ruin of Kuekuechomo with
+that of Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 98: The legends of the origin of Oraibi are imperfectly
+known, but it has been stated that the pueblo was founded by people
+from Old Shunopovi. It seems much more likely, however, that our
+knowledge is too incomplete to accept this conclusion without more
+extended observations. The composition of the present inhabitants
+indicates amalgamation from several quarters, and neighboring ruins
+should be studied with this thought in mind.]
+
+[Footnote 99: It is distinctly stated that the Tanoan families whose
+descendants now inhabit Hano were not in Tusayan when Awatobi fell. To
+be sure they may have been sojourning in some valley east of the
+province, which, however, is not likely, since they were "invited" to
+East Mesa for the specific purpose of aiding the Hopi against northern
+nomads. Much probability attaches to a suggestion that they belonged
+to the emigrants mentioned by contemporary historians as leaving the
+Rio Grande on account of the unsettled condition of the country after
+the great rebellion of 1680.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The succession of priests is through the clan of the
+mother, so that commonly, as in the case of Katci, the nephew takes
+the place of the uncle at his death. Some instances, however, have
+come to my knowledge where, the clan having become extinct, a son has
+been elevated to the position made vacant by the death of a priest.
+The Kokop people at Walpi are vigorous, numbering 21 members if we
+include the Coyote and Wolf clans, the last mentioned of which may be
+descendants of the former inhabitants of Kuekuechomo, the twin ruins on
+the mesa above Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 101: In this census I have used also the apparently
+conservative statement of Vetancurt that there were 800 people in
+Awatobi at the end of the seventeenth century.]
+
+[Footnote 102: _Kanel_ = Spanish _carnero_, sheep; _ba_ = water,
+spring.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Wipo spring, a few miles northward from the eastern end
+of the mesa, would be an excellent site for a Government school. It is
+sufficiently convenient to the pueblos, has an abundant supply of
+potable water at all seasons, and cultivable fields in the
+neighborhood.]
+
+[Footnote 104: The boy who brought our drinking water from Kanelba
+could not be prevailed upon to visit it on the day of the snake hunt
+to the east in 1895, on the ground that no one not a member of the
+society should be seen there or take water from it at that time. This
+is probably a phase of the taboo of all work in the world-quarter in
+which the snake hunts occur, when the Snake priests are engaged in
+capturing these reptilian "elder brothers."]
+
+[Footnote 105: Tcino lives at Sichomovi, and in the Snake dance at
+Walpi formerly took the part of the old man who calls out the words,
+"_Awahaia_," etc. at the kisi, before the reptiles are carried about
+the plaza. These words are Keresan, and Tcino performed this part on
+account of his kinship. He owns the grove of peach trees because they
+are on land of his ancestors, a fact confirmatory of the belief that
+the people of Sikyatki came from the Rio Grande.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Nasyunweve, who died a few years ago, formerly made the
+prayer-stick to Masauwuh, the Fire or Death god. This he did as one of
+the senior members of the Kokop or Firewood people, otherwise known as
+the Fire people, because they made fire with the fire-drill. On his
+death his place in the kiva was taken by Katci. Nasyunweve was
+Intiwa's chief assistant in the Walpi _katcinas_, and wore the mask of
+Eototo in the ceremonials of the _Niman_. All this is significant, and
+coincides with the theory that _katcinas_ are incorporated in the
+Tusayan ritual, that Eototo is their form of Masauwuh, and that he is
+a god of fire, growth, and death, like his dreaded equivalent.]
+
+[Footnote 107: The Hano people call the Hopi _Koco_ or _Koso_; the
+Santa Clara (also Tewa) people call them _Khoso_, according to Hodge.]
+
+[Footnote 108: The replastering of kivas at Walpi takes place during
+the _Powamu_, an elaborate _katcina_ celebration. I have noticed that
+in this renovation of the kivas one corner, as a rule, is left
+unplastered, but have elicited no satisfactory explanation of this
+apparent oversight, which, no doubt, has significance. Someone,
+perhaps overimaginative, suggested to me that the unplastered corner
+was the same as the break in encircling lines on ancient pottery.]
+
+[Footnote 109: I was aided in making this plan by the late J. G.
+Owens, my former assistant in the field work of the Hemenway
+Expedition. It was prepared with a few simple instruments, and is not
+claimed to be accurate in all particulars.]
+
+[Footnote 110: The existence of these peach trees near Sikyatki
+suggests, of course, an abandonment of the neighboring pueblo in
+historic times, but I hardly think it outweighs other stronger proofs
+of antiquity.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The position of the cemeteries in ancient Tusayan ruins
+is by no means uniform. They are rarely situated far from the houses,
+and are sometimes just outside the walls. While the dead were seldom
+carried far from the village, a sandy locality was generally chosen
+and a grave excavated a few feet deep. Usually a few stones were
+placed on the surface of the ground over the burial place, evidently
+to protect the remains from prowling beasts.]
+
+[Footnote 112: The excavations at Homolobi in 1896 revealed two
+beautiful cups with braided handles and one where the clay strands are
+twisted.]
+
+[Footnote 113: The modern potters commonly adorn the ends of ladle
+handles with heads of different mythologic beings in their pantheon.
+The knob-head priest-clowns are favorite personages to represent,
+although even the Corn-maid and different _katcinas_ are also
+sometimes chosen for this purpose. The heads of various animals are
+likewise frequently found, some in artistic positions, others less
+so.]
+
+[Footnote 114: The clay ladles with perforated handles with which the
+modern Hopi sometimes drink are believed to be of late origin in
+Tusayan.]
+
+[Footnote 115: The oldest medicine bowls now in use ordinarily have
+handles and a terraced rim, but there are one or two important
+exceptions. In this connection it may be mentioned that, unlike the
+Zuni, the Hopi never use a clay bowl with a basket-like handle for
+sacred meal, but always carry the meal in basket trays. This the
+priests claim is a very old practice, and so far as my observations go
+is confirmed by archeological evidence. The bowl with a basket-form
+handle is not found either in ancient or modern Tusayan.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Symbolism rather than realism was the controlling
+element of archaic decoration. Thus, while objects of beauty, like
+flowers and leaves, were rarely depicted, and human forms are most
+absurd caricatures, most careful attention was given to minute details
+of symbolism, or idealized animals unknown to the naturalist.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Certainly no more appropriate design could be chosen
+for the decoration of the inside of a food vessel than the head of the
+Corn-maid, and from our ideas of taste none less so than that of a
+lizard or bird. The freshness and absence of wear of many of the
+specimens of Sikyatki mortuary pottery raises the question whether
+they were ever in domestic use. Many evidently were thus employed, as
+the evidences of wear plainly indicate, but possibly some of the
+vessels were made for mortuary purposes, either at the time of the
+decease of a relative or at an earlier period.]
+
+[Footnote 118: The figure shown in plate CXXIX, _a_, was probably
+intended to represent the Corn-maid, or an Earth goddess of the
+Sikyatki pantheon. Although it differs widely in drawing from figures
+of Calako-mana on modern bowls, it bears a startling resemblance to
+the figure of the Germ goddess which appears on certain Tusayan
+altars.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Hopi legends recount how certain clans, especially
+those of Tanoan origin, lived in Tsegi canyon and intermarried with
+the Navaho so extensively that it is said they temporarily forgot
+their own language. From this source may have sprung the numerous
+so-called Navaho _katcinas_, and the reciprocal influence on the
+Navaho cults was even greater.]
+
+[Footnote 120: These priests wear a close-fitting skullcap, with two
+long, banded horns made of leather, to the end of which corn husks are
+tied. For an extended description see _Journal of American Ethnology
+and Archaeology_, vol. II, No. 1, page 11.]
+
+[Footnote 121: The rarity of human figures on such kinds of pottery as
+are found in the oldest ruins would appear to indicate that
+decorations of this kind were a late development. No specimen of
+black-and-white ware on which pictures of human beings are present has
+yet been figured. The sequence of evolution in designs is believed to
+be (1) geometrical figures, (2) birds, (3) other animals, (4) human
+beings.]
+
+[Footnote 122: In some of the figurines used in connection with modern
+Hopi altars these whorls are represented by small wheels made of
+sticks radiating from a common juncture and connected by woolen yarn.]
+
+[Footnote 123: The natives of Cibola, according to Castaneda, "gather
+their hair over the two ears, making a frame which looks like an
+old-fashioned headdress." The Tusayan Pueblo maidens are the only
+Indians who now dress their hair in this way, although the custom is
+still kept up by men in certain sacred dances at Zuni. The country
+women in Salamanca, Spain, do their hair up in two flat coils, one on
+each side of the forehead, a custom which Castaneda may have had in
+mind when he compared the Pueblo coiffure to an "old-fashioned
+headdress."]
+
+[Footnote 124: _American Anthropologist_, April, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 125: Troano and Cortesiano codices.]
+
+[Footnote 126: A _nakwakwoci_ is an individual prayer-string, and
+consists of one or more prescribed feathers tied to a cotton string.
+These prayer emblems are made in great numbers in every Tusayan
+ceremony.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The evidence afforded by this bowl would seem to show
+that the cult of the Corn-maid was a part of the mythology and ritual
+of Sikyatki. The elaborate figures of the rain-cloud, which are so
+prominent in representations of the Corn-maid on modern plaques,
+bowls, and dolls, are not found in the Sikyatki picture.]
+
+[Footnote 128: The reason for my belief that this is a breath feather
+will be shown under the discussion of feather and bird pictures.]
+
+[Footnote 129: For the outline of this legend see _Journal of American
+Ethnology and Archaeology_, vol. IV. The maid is there called the
+Tcuea-mana or Snake-maid, a sacerdotal society name for the Germ
+goddess. The same personage is alluded to under many different names,
+depending on the society, but they are all believed to refer to the
+same mythic concept.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The attitude of the male and female here depicted was
+not regarded as obscene; on the contrary, to the ancient Sikyatki mind
+the picture had a deep religious meaning. In Hopi ideas the male is a
+symbol of active generative power, the female of passive reproduction,
+and representations of these two form essential elements of the
+ancient pictorial and graven art of that people.]
+
+[Footnote 131: The doll of Kokopeli has along, bird-like beak,
+generally a rosette on the side of the head, a hump on the back, and
+an enormous penis. It is a phallic deity, and appears in certain
+ceremonials which need not here be described. During the excavations
+at Sikyatki one of the Indians called my attention to a large Dipteran
+insect which he called "Kokopeli."]
+
+[Footnote 132: The practice still exists at Zuni, I am told, and there
+is no sign of its becoming extinct. It is said that old Naiutci, the
+chief of the Priesthood of the Bow, was permanently injured during one
+of these performances. (Since the above lines were written I have
+excavated from one of the ruins on the Little Colorado a specimen of
+one of these objects used by ancient stick-swallowers. It is made of
+bone, and its use was explained to me by a reliable informant familiar
+with the practices of Oraibi and other villagers. It is my intention
+to figure and describe this ancient object in the account of the
+explorations of 1896.)]
+
+[Footnote 133: "Tusayan Katcinas," Fifteenth Annual Report of the
+Bureau of Ethnology, 1893-94, Washington, 1897. Hewueqti is also called
+Soyokmana, a Keresan-Hopi name meaning the Natacka-maid. The Keresan
+(Sia) Skoyo are cannibal giants, according to Mrs Stevenson, an
+admirable definition of the Hopi Natackas.]
+
+[Footnote 134: The celebration occurs in the modern Tusayan pueblos in
+the _Powamu_ where the representative of Calako flogs the children.
+Calako's picture is found on the _Powamu_ altars of several of the
+villages of the Hopi.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Figures of the human hand have been found on the walls
+of cliff houses. These were apparently made in somewhat the same way
+as that on the above bowl, the hand being placed on the surface and
+pigment spattered about it. See "The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly,"
+by Cosmos Mindeleff; Sixteenth Annual Report, 1894-95.]
+
+[Footnote 136: Mu^{r}yi, mole or gopher; mu^{r}iyawu, moon. There
+maybe some Hopi legend connecting the gopher with the moon, but thus
+far it has eluded my studies, and I can at present do no more than
+call attention to what appears to be an interesting etymological
+coincidence.]
+
+[Footnote 137: This form of mouth I have found in pictures of
+quadrupeds, birds, and insects, and is believed to be
+conventionalized. Of a somewhat similar structure are the mouths of
+the _Natacka_ monsters which appear in the Walpi _Powamu_ ceremony.
+See the memoir on "Tusayan Katcinas," in the Fifteenth Annual Report.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Figures of the tadpole and frog are often found on
+modern medicine bowls in Tusayan. The snake, so common on Zuni
+ceremonial pottery, has not been seen by me on a single object of
+earthenware in use in modern Hopi ritual.]
+
+[Footnote 139: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology_, vol.
+IV.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Although made of beautiful yellow ware, it shows at one
+point marks of having been overheated in firing, as is often the case
+with larger vases and jars.]
+
+[Footnote 141: One of the best examples of the rectangular or ancient
+type of medicine bowl is used in the celebration of the Snake dance at
+Oraibi, where it stands on the rear margin of the altar of the
+Antelope priesthood of that pueblo.]
+
+[Footnote 142: One of the best of these is that of the Humis-katcina,
+but good examples occur on the dolls of the Calakomanas. The Lakone
+maid, however, wears a coronet of circular rain-cloud symbols, which
+corresponds with traditions which recount that this form was
+introduced by the southern clans or the Patki people.]
+
+[Footnote 143: In the evolution of ornament among the Hopi, as among
+most primitive peoples where new designs have replaced the old, the
+meaning of the ancient symbols has been lost. Consequently we are
+forced to adopt comparative methods to decipher them. If, for
+instance, on a fragment of ancient pottery we find the figure of a
+bird in which the wing or tail feathers have a certain characteristic
+symbol form, we are justified, when we find the same symbolic design
+on another fragment where the rest of the bird is wanting, in
+considering the figure that of a wing or tail feather. So when the
+prescribed figure of the feather has been replaced by another form it
+is not surprising to find it incomprehensible to modern shamans. The
+comparative ethnologist may in this way learn the meanings of symbols
+to which the modern Hopi priest can furnish no clue.]
+
+[Footnote 144: In an examination of many figures of ancient vessels
+where this peculiar design occurs it will be found that in all
+instances they represent feathers, although the remainder of the bird
+is not to be found. The same may also be said of the design which
+represents the tail-feathers. This way of representing feathers is not
+without modern survival, for it may still be seen in many dolls of
+mystic personages who are reputed to have worn feathered garments.]
+
+[Footnote 145: At the present time the circle is the totemic signature
+of the Earth people, representing the horizon, but it has likewise
+various other meanings. With certain appendages it is the disk of the
+sun--and there are ceremonial paraphernalia, as amulets, placed on
+sand pictures or tied to helmets, which may be represented by a simple
+ring. The meaning of these circles in the bowl referred to above is
+not clear to me, nor is my series of pictographs sufficiently
+extensive to enable a discovery of its significance by comparative
+methods. A ring of meal sometimes drawn on the floor of a kiva is
+called a "house," and a little imagination would easily identify these
+with the mythic houses of the sky-bird, but this interpretation is at
+present only fanciful.]
+
+[Footnote 146: The _paho_ is probably a substitution of a sacrifice of
+corn or meal given as homage to the god addressed.]
+
+[Footnote 147: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology_, vol.
+IV. These water gourds figure conspicuously in many ceremonies of the
+Tusayan ritual. The two girls personating the Corn-maids carry them in
+the Flute observance, and each of the Antelope priests at Oraibi bears
+one of these in the Antelope or Corn dance.]
+
+[Footnote 148: "A few Tusayan Pictographs;" _American Anthropologist_,
+Washington, January, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 149: A beautiful example of this kind was found at Homolobi
+in the summer of 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 150: In this connection the reader is referred to the story,
+already told in former pages of this memoir, concerning the flogging
+of the youth by the husband of the two women who brought the Hopi the
+seeds of corn. It may be mentioned as corroboratory evidence that
+Calako-taka represents a supernatural sun-bird, that the Tataukyamu
+priests carry a shield with Tunwup (Calako-taka) upon it in the
+Soyaluna. These priests, as shown by the etymology of their name, are
+associated with the sun. In the Sun drama, or Calako ceremony, in
+July, Calako-takas are personated, and at Zuni the Shalako is a great
+winter sun ceremony.]
+
+[Footnote 151: _American Anthropologist_, April, 1895, p. 133. As
+these cross-shape pahos which are now made in Tusayan are attributed
+to the Kawaika or Keres group of Indians, and as they were seen at the
+Keresan pueblo of Acoma in 1540, it is probable that they are
+derivative among the Hopi; but simple cross decorations on ancient
+pottery were probably autochthonous.]
+
+[Footnote 152: In dolls of the Corn-maids this germinative symbol is
+often found made of wood and mounted on an elaborate tablet
+representing rain-clouds.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Many similarities might be mentioned between the
+terraced figures used in decoration in Old Mexico and in ancient
+Tusayan pottery, but I will refer to but a single instance, that of
+the stuccoed walls of Mitla, Oaxaca, and Teotitlan del Valle. Many
+designs from these ruins are gathered together for comparative
+purposes by that eminent Mexicanist, Dr E. Seler, in his beautiful
+memoir on Mitla (_Wandmalereien von Mitla_, plate X). In this plate
+exact counterparts of many geometric patterns on Sikyatki pottery
+appear, and even the broken spiral is beautifully represented. There
+are key patterns and terraced figures in stucco on monuments of
+Central America identical with the figures on pottery from Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 154: This pillar, so conspicuous in all photographs of
+Walpi, is commonly called the Snake rock.]
+
+[Footnote 155: _American Anthropologist_, April, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 156: I failed to find out how the Hopi regard fossils.]
+
+[Footnote 157: These objects were eagerly sought by the Hopi women who
+visited the camps at Awatobi and Sikyatki.]
+
+[Footnote 158: The tubular form of pipe was almost universal in the
+pueblo area, and I have deposited in the National Museum pipes of this
+kind from several ruins in the Rio Grande valley.]
+
+[Footnote 159: _Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology_, vol.
+IV, pp. 31, 32, 33.]
+
+[Footnote 160: This form of pipe occurs over the whole pueblo area.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Ancient cigarette reeds, found in sacrificial caves,
+have a small fragment of woven fabric tied about them.]
+
+[Footnote 162: The so-called "implements of wood" figured by
+Nordenskioeld ("The Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde," plate XLII) are
+identical with some of the pahos from Sikyatki, and are undoubtedly
+prayer-sticks.]
+
+[Footnote 163: Primitive Culture, vol. ii, p. 396.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, Vol.
+_ii_, p. 131.]
+
+[Footnote 165: _American Anthropologist_, July, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 166: As stated in former pages, there is some paleographic
+evidence looking in that direction.]
+
+[Footnote 167: _Journal of American Folk-Lore_, vol. V, no. xviii, p.
+213.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Op. cit., p. 214.]
+
+[Footnote 169: They failed to germinate.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+The following list introduces the numbers by which the specimens
+illustrated in this memoir are designated in the catalog of the United
+States National Museum. Each specimen is also marked with a field
+catalog number, the locality in which it was found, and the name of
+the collector:
+
+    PLATE
+     CXI. _a_, 155895; _b_, 155897; _c_, 155898; _d_, 155896; _e_, 155900;
+          _f_, 155916.
+
+    CXII. _a_, 155875; _b_, 155996; _c_, 155902; _d_, 155996; _e_, 155997.
+
+   CXIII. _a_, 155992; _b_, 155913; _c_, 155991; _d_, 155994; _e_, 155993.
+
+    CXIV. _a_-_g_, 156018; _h_, 156131; _i_, 156091; _j_, 156018.
+
+    CXIX. _a_, 155806; _b_, 155841; _c_, 155832; _d_, 155678; _e_, 155820;
+          _f_, 155838.
+
+     CXX. _a_, 155867; _b_, 155866; _c_, 155871; _d_, 155856; _e_, 155861;
+          _f_, 155460.
+
+    CXXI. _a_, 155694; _b_, 155698; _c_, 155719.
+
+   CXXII. _a_, 155702; _b_, 155684; _c_, 155688.
+
+  CXXIII. _a_, 155711; _b_, 155703; _c_, 155707; _d_, 155673.
+
+   CXXIV. _a_, 155674; _b_, 155683.
+
+    CXXV. _a_, 155750; _b_, 155753; _c_, 155751; _d_, 155752; _e_, 155749;
+          _f_, 155747.
+
+   CXXVI. _a_, 155700; _b_, 155682.
+
+  CXXVII. _a_, 155718; _b_, 155714; _c_, 155723; _d_, 155691.
+
+ CXXVIII. _a_, 155745; _b_, 155744; _c_, 155746; _d_, 155735; _e_, 155734;
+          _f_, 155733; _g_, 155736.
+
+   CXXIX. _a_, 155467; _b_, 155462; _c_, 155463; _d_, 155464; _e_, 155466;
+          _f_, 155465.
+
+    CXXX. _a_, 155474; _b_, 155475; _c_, 155477; _d_, 155484; _e_, 155473;
+          _f_, 155476.
+
+   CXXXI. _a_, 155758; _b_, 155773; _c_, 155768; _d_, 155771; _e_, 155546;
+          _f_ 155764.
+
+  CXXXII. _a_, 155482; _b_, 155483; _c_, 155481; _d_, 155480; _e_, 155479;
+          _f_, 155485.
+
+ CXXXIII. _a_, 155614; _b_, 155757; _c_, 155502; _d_, 155772; _e_, 155758;
+          _f_, 155781.
+
+  CXXXIV. _a_, 155570; _b_, 155597; _c_, 155567; _d_, 155507; _e_, 155575;
+          _f_, 155505.
+
+   CXXXV. _a_, 155692; _b_, 155681.
+
+  CXXXVI. _a_, 155687; _b_, 155737; _c_, 155695.
+
+ CXXXVII. _a_, 155488; _b_, 155450; _c_, 155468; _d_, 155732; _e_, 155776;
+          _f_, 155740.
+
+CXXXVIII. _a_, 155498; _b_, 155490; _c_, 155492; _d_, 155500; _e_, 155499;
+          _f_, 155494.
+
+  CXXXIX. _a_, 155524; _b_, 155528; _c_, 155491; _d_, 155523; _e_, 155527;
+          _f_, 155522.
+
+     CXL. _a_, 155529; _b_, 155489; _c_, 155540; _d_, 155541; _e_, 155606;
+          _f_, 155410.
+
+    CXLI. _a_, 155501; _b_, 155503; _c_, 155509; _d_, 155511; _e_, 155510;
+          _f_, 155512.
+
+   CXLII. _a_, 155712; _b_, 155693; _c_, 155756; _d_, 155636; _e_, 155697.
+
+  CXLIII. _a_, _b_, 155690.
+
+   CXLIV. _a_, _b_, 155689.
+
+    CXLV. _a_, 155717; _b_, 155696.
+
+   CXLVI. _a_, 155538; _b_, 155508; _c_, 155802; _d_, 155537; _e_, 155487;
+          _f_, 155653.
+
+  CXLVII. _a_, 155493; _b_, 155497; _c_, 155602; _d_, 155504; _e_, 155608;
+          _f_, 155495.
+
+ CXLVIII. _a_, 155556; _b_, 155408; _c_, 155545; _d_, 155548; _e_, 155544;
+          _f_, 155542.
+
+   CXLIX. _a_, 155554; _b_, 155549; _c_, 155573; _d_, 155607; _e_, 155572;
+          _f_, 155581.
+
+      CL. _a_, 155565; _b_, 155519; _c_, 155518; _d_, 155569; _e_, 155551;
+          _f_, 155574.
+
+     CLI. _a_, 155535; _b_, 155532; _c_, 155539; _d_, 155526; _e_, 155613;
+          _f_, 155615.
+
+    CLII. _a_, 155555; _b_, 155547; _c_, 155571; _d_, 155553; _e_, 155536;
+          _f_, 155521.
+
+   CLIII. _a_, 155558; _b_, 155564.
+
+    CLIV. _a_, 155560; _b_, 155568.
+
+     CLV. _a_, 155543; _b_, 155557.
+
+    CLVI. _a_, 155562; _b_, 155561; _c_, 155562; _d_, 155796; _e_, 155601;
+          _f_, 155588.
+
+   CLVII. _a_, 155531; _b_, 155530; _c_, 155525; _d_, 155585; _e_, 155563;
+          _f_, 155552.
+
+  CLVIII. _a_, 155628; _b_, 155742; _c_, 155632; _d_, 155633; _e_, 155587;
+          _f_, 155634.
+
+    CLIX. _a_, 155583; _b_, 155598; _c_, 155516; _d_, 155629; _e_, 155590;
+          _f_, 155520.
+
+     CLX. _a_, 155577; _b_, 155576; _c_, 155622; _d_, 155594; _e_, 155647;
+          _f_, 155654.
+
+    CLXI. _a_, 155642; _b_, 155506; _c_, 155517; _d_, 155472; _e_, 155589;
+          _f_, 155600.
+
+   CLXII. _a_, 155637; _b_, 155618; _c_, 155643; _d_, 155621; _e_, 155534;
+          _f_, 155533.
+
+  CLXIII. _a_, 155611; _b_, 155612.
+
+   CLXIV. _a_, 155610; _b_, 155609.
+
+    CLXV. _a_, 155593; _b_, 155592.
+
+   CLXVI. _a_, 155641; _b_, 155616; _c_, 155617; _d_, 155619; _e_, 155584;
+          _f_, 155640.
+
+  CLXVII. _a_, 155877; _b_, 155878; _c_, 155892; _d_, 155882; _e_, 155890;
+          _f_, 155881.
+
+ CLXVIII. _a_, 155876; _b_, 155891; _c_, 155884; _d_, 155914; _e_, 155940;
+          _f_, 155880.
+
+   CLXIX. _a_, 156095; _b_, 156098; _c_, 156175; _d_, 156174; _e_, 156154;
+          _f_, 156065.
+
+    CLXX. _a_, _b_, 156227.
+
+   CLXXI. _a_, 156270; _b_, _c_, 156303; _e_, 156199; _f_, 156043.
+
+  CLXXII. _a_, 156042; _b_, 156169; _c_, 156169; _d_, 156170; _e_, 156184;
+          _f_, 156164.
+
+ CLXXIII. _a_, 155999; _b_, 155154; _c_, 156128; _d_, 156131;
+          _e_, _f_, 1561?0; _g_, 156010; _h-l_, 156130.
+
+  CLXXIV. _a_, 156191; _b_, _c_, 156183; _d_, 156185; _e-g_, 156183;
+          _h-j_, 156194; _k_, 156180; _l_, _m_, 156191; _n_, 156182.
+
+   CLXXV. _o_, 156188; _p_, 156185; _q_, 156191; _r_, 156186; _s_, 156180;
+          _t_, 156188; _u_, 156181; _v_, 156179; _w_, 156187.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ACROPOLIS of Sikyatki 638, 640, 643-646
+ADOBE plastering in cavate houses 542
+  [ADOBE], _see_ MASONRY, PLASTERING.
+AGAVE fiber used in Tusayan 629, 630
+AGUATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATOBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATUVI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATUYA, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUATUYBA, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AGUITOBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATOBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATU, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AHUATUYBA, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AH-WAT-TENNA an Awatobi synonym 594
+ALOSAKA idols in Awatobi shrine 619
+ANAWITA, traditional information given by 595
+ANCESTOR worship at Sikyatki 732
+ANTELOPE VALLEY, _see_ JEDITOH VALLEY.
+APACHE depredation in Tusayan 585
+  [APACHE], late appearance of, at Tusayan 581
+  [APACHE] occupancy of Verde ruins 550, 565, 570
+  [APACHE] pictographs in Verde valley 550, 556, 567, 568
+AQUATASI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AQUATUBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ARCHEOLOGICAL expedition to Arizona, 1895 519-744
+ARIZONA, archeological expedition to, 1895 519-744
+  [ARIZONA], _see_ NAVAHO.
+ARROWHEAD KILT worn by man-eagle 692-693
+ARROWHEADS from Awatobi 618, 625
+  [ARROWHEADS] in Sikyatki graves 731, 740
+ARROWSHAFT POLISHERS from Awatobi 611, 731
+[  ARROWSHAFT POLISHERS] in Sikyatki graves 731
+ART REMAINS in Palatki and Honanki 569
+ASA PEOPLE join the Hopi 578
+  [ASA PEOPLE], migration of 622
+  [ASA PEOPLE] settle at Sichomovi 578
+ASH-HEAP PUEBLO, former site of Walpi 635
+ATABI-HOGANDI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AUA-TU-UI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+A-WA-TE-U, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AWATOBI and Sikyatki pottery compared 659
+  [AWATOBI], arrowshaft polishers from 611, 731
+  [AWATOBI], etymology of 594
+  [AWATOBI], legend of destruction of 602
+  [AWATOBI], population of 637
+  [AWATOBI], reasons for excavating 591
+  [AWATOBI] ruin discussed 592-631
+  [AWATOBI] ruin examined 535
+  [AWATOBI], settlement of Sikyatki people at 634
+  [AWATOBI] settled by Kuekuechomo and Sikyatki people 589
+  [AWATOBI] visited in 1540 596
+AWATUBI, an Awatobi synonym 594
+A-WAT-U-I, an Awatobi synonym 594
+AWLS, bone, from Awatobi 627
+AXES, stone, in Sikyatki graves 730, 731
+  [AXES] from Awatobi 625
+
+BADGER PEOPLE settle Sichomovi 578
+BAER, ERWIN, with archeological expedition in 1895 527
+BANCROFT, H. H., on destruction of Awatobi 601
+BANDELIER, A. F., Cibola identified by 595
+  [BANDELIER, A. F.], on record of Awatobi destruction 610
+BAPTISM opposed by the Hopi 601
+BASINS, _see_ POTTERY.
+BASKETRY found in Honanki 572
+  [BASKETRY] not found at Sikyatki 649
+BAT-HOUSE, ruin of the 590
+BEADS from Awatobi 628
+  [BEADS] in Sikyatki graves 733
+BEAMS of mission in Walpi houses 586
+  [BEAMS] of Palatki ruin 557
+BEAN-PLANTING ceremony of the Hopi 702
+BEAR CLANS, early arrival of, at Tusayan 582
+BELL, clay, from Awatobi 628
+  [BELL], copper fragments of, from Awatobi 609, 631
+  [BELL] used in Hopi ceremony 628
+BERRIES in Sikyatki graves 733
+BESSELS, EMIL, on affinity of cliff-dwellers and pueblos 532
+BICKFORD, F. D., on cliff houses in Walnut canyon 532
+BIRD figures on Hopi pottery 660
+  [BIRD] figures on Sikyatki pottery 658, 682-698, 714
+  [BIRD] ornaments from Awatobi 628
+  [BIRD] ornaments in Sikyatki graves 733
+  [BIRD] vessels from Awatobi 624
+BLOODY BASIN, cliff houses of 549
+BODKINS, bone, from Awatobi 627
+BONE BEADS from Honanki 573
+  [BONE BEADS] in Sikyatki graves 733
+BONE OBJECTS from Awatobi 627, 628
+  [BONE OBJECTS], from Honanki 572
+BONILLA, --, on Sandia population in 1749 584
+BOURKE, J. G., identifies Tally-hogan with Awatobi 602
+BOWLS, Sikyatki, decorations on 705
+  [BOWLS], _see_ POTTERY.
+BOXES, earthenware, from Sikyatki 655
+BRACELETS from Awatobi 628
+BUTTERFLY figures on Sikyatki pottery. 678-680, 698
+  [BUTTERFLY] symbol on Hopi pottery 687
+
+CALAKO in Hopi mythology 700
+  [CALAKO] katcina, origin of 666
+CAMPBELL, GEO., cliff houses discovered by 533
+CAMP VERDE, ruins near 534
+CARDENAS, G. L., visits Tusayan in 1540 595
+CARDINAL POINTS in Hopi ceremony 613, 628, 678
+CASA GRANDE ascribed to the Hopi 531
+CASA MONTEZUMA, _see_ MONTEZUMA CASTLE.
+CASAS GRANDES, pottery from 624
+CASTENEDA, P. DE, account of Tusayan 596
+  [CASTENEDA, P. DE] on Cibola hair-dressing 661
+  [CASTENEDA, P. DE] on early pueblo warfare 588
+  [CASTENEDA, P. DE] on Hopi fabrics 629
+  [CASTENEDA, P. DE] on pueblo kivas in 1540 575
+  [CASTENEDA, P. DE] on visit to Tusayan in 1540 596, 597
+CAVATE DWELLINGS, function of 544
+  [CAVATE DWELLINGS] in Verde valley discussed 536, 537-545
+CEMETERIES of Sikyatki 646-649
+CEMETERY of Awatobi 593, 618
+CEREMONIAL CIRCUIT of the Hopi 681
+CHAIRS tabooed in Hopi kivas 626
+CHARM STONES from Sikyatki 729
+CHAVERO, A., on Nahuatl water symbol 569
+CHAVES PASS, ruins at 532, 573
+CHELLY CANYON, cliff houses in 578
+  [CHELLY CANYON], _see_ TSEGI.
+CHIMNEYS, absence of, at Sikyatki 646
+CHUKUBI, ruin of, discussed 583
+CIBOLA, identification of 595
+  [CIBOLA], _see_ ZUNI.
+CIGARETTES of reeds in sacrificial caves 736
+  [CIGARETTES] in Hopi ceremony 735
+CINDER CONES, ruins in 532
+CIRCULAR RUINS absent in southern pueblo area 576
+CIST in Awatobi kiva 612
+  [CIST] in cavate lodges 542
+  [CIST] near cavate houses 543
+CLANS formerly occupying Sikyatki 636
+  [CLANS] of Awatobi 610
+  [CLANS] of Kuekuechomo and Sikyatki 587, 588
+CLIFF DWELLERS defined 531
+CLIFF HOUSES, age of, in Red-rocks 545
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] and pueblos similar 537
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] formerly occupied by Hopi 578
+  [CLIFF HOUSES], human hand figures on 668
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] in Walnut canyon 532
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] of the Red-rocks 548, 549
+  [CLIFF HOUSES] of Verde valley classified 536
+CLIFF PALACE and Honanki compared 552
+CLIFF'S RANCH, pictographs near 548
+CLOUD, _see_ RAINCLOUD.
+CLOWN-PRIEST figures on Hopi pottery 659
+COLANDER fragments from Tusayan ruins 624
+COMUPAVI identified with Shunopovi 599
+CONCEPCION, CRISTOVAL DE LA, at founding of Awatobi mission 599
+COPPER found in Awatobi 608, 609, 631
+  [COPPER] bells in Arizona ruins 628, 629
+  [COPPER] unknown to ancient Tusayan 741
+CORN attached to prayer-sticks 739
+  [CORN] found in Awatobi 606, 619
+  [CORN] found in Honanki 572
+  [CORN], Hopi symbolism of 662
+  [CORN] in Hopi ceremony 628
+  [CORN], sweet, introduced in Mishoninovi 604
+CORN-MAID dolls of the Hopi 704
+  [CORN-MAID] figures of the Hopi 661
+  [CORN-MAID] figures on Hopi pottery 657, 658, 662
+CORN MOUND, symbolic 740
+CORN POLLEN in Hopi ceremony 628
+CORNADO, F. V. DE, route of 530
+COSMOGONY of the Hopi 647, 666, 732
+COTTON cultivated by the Hopi 596, 629
+  [COTTON] fabrics in Verde ruins 573
+  [COTTON] garments of the Hopi 599
+COVILLE, F. V., on identification of ancient food remains 741-742
+CREMATION not practiced at Sikyatki 649
+CROOKS in Tusayan ritual 703
+  [CROOKS] on Sikyatki pottery 703-704, 714, 724
+CROSS figure allied to sun symbol 623
+  [CROSS] on Sikyatki pottery 702
+CRYSTAL, _see_ QUARTZ CRYSTAL.
+CUANRABI mentioned by Onate 599
+CUPS from Sikyatki described 654
+  [CUPS], _see_ POTTERY.
+CUSHING, F. H., on affinity of cliff dwellers and pueblos 532
+  [CUSHING, F. H.], on southern origin of Zuni clans 574
+  [CUSHING, F. H.], ruins visited by 534
+
+DECORATION of Awatobi pottery 623, 624-625
+  [DECORATION] of Honanki pottery 570, 571
+  [DECORATION] of ladle handles 624
+  [DECORATION] of pottery by spattering 650, 668, 671, 677
+  [DECORATION] of Sikyatki pottery 650, 652, 655, 657-728
+DELLENBAUGH, F. S., on identification of Cibola 595
+DIPPERS from Awatobi described 624
+  [DIPPERS], _see_ POTTERY.
+DOLLS, Corn-maid, of the Hopi 704
+DOMESTIC ANIMALS of the Hopi 731
+DOORWAYS of cavate houses 543, 552
+DRAGONFLY symbolic of rain 630
+  [DRAGONFLY] symbol on pottery 669, 680-682
+DRILL balances from Sikyatki graves 740
+
+EAGLE PLUMES in Hopi rites 589
+EAGLE SHRINE at Tukinobi 589
+EAGLES kept by the Hopi 731
+EAST MESA, ruins at 581, 585
+ESPEJO, ANTONIO, Awatobi referred to by 596, 599
+  [ESPEJO, ANTONIO], Awatobi visited by 594
+  [ESPEJO, ANTONIO], on Hopi fabrics 629
+  [ESPEJO, ANTONIO], visits Tusayan in 1583 598
+ESPELETA, an Oraibi chief 601
+  [ESPELETA], visits Santa Fe 601, 602
+ESPELETA, JOSE, killed at Oraibi 600
+ESPERIEZ mentioned by Onate 599
+ESTUFA, _see_ KIVA.
+
+FABRICS, _see_ TEXTILE.
+FEATHER fabrics from Sikyatki 629
+  [FEATHER] symbols on Hopi pottery 663
+  [FEATHER] symbols on Sikyatki pottery 658, 682-698, 714, 723, 724
+FEATHERED STRINGS represented on pottery 662
+FEATHERS on prayer-sticks 739
+FETISH, mountain lion, from Awatobi 618
+  [FETISH], mountain lion, from Sikyatki 730
+  [FETISH], personal, from Sikyatki 729
+FEWKES, J. W., on archeological expedition to Arizona, 1895 519-744
+FIGUEROA, JOSE, killed at Awatobi 600
+FIRE, Hopi purification by 647
+  [FIRE], _see_ NEW-FIRE CEREMONY.
+FIRE-HOUSE, ancient occupancy of 633
+  [FIRE-HOUSE] ruin of Tusayan 590, 633
+FIREPLACES in cavate dwellings 641
+FIREWOOD PEOPLE at Sikyatki 632, 633, 640, 646
+  [FIREWOOD PEOPLE] of Tusayan 672
+FLAGSTAFF, cliff houses near 533
+FLOWER FIGURE on Hopi pottery 697
+  [FLOWER FIGURE] on Sikyatki pottery 658, 680
+FLOWERS, _see_ VEGETAL DESIGNS.
+FLUTE CEREMONY not performed in kiva 575, 612
+  [FLUTE CEREMONY], trails closed during 597
+FLUTE-LIKE OBJECTS from Awatobi 624
+  [FLUTE-LIKE OBJECTS] from Sikyatki 656
+FLUTE SOCIETY, prayer-sticks of the 737
+FOOD REMAINS in mortuary vessels 741
+FOSSILS used in Hopi ceremony 730
+FRASQUILLO, flight of Tanoan refugees under 578, 600
+FROG figures on Sikyatki pottery 658
+  [FROG] figures on Tusayan bowls 677
+
+GARAYCOECHEA, JUAN, Awatobi visited by 600
+  [GARAYCOECHEA, JUAN], missionary labors of 601
+GARDENS, modern, at Sikyatki 646
+GENESIS, _see_ COSMOGONY.
+GEOMETRIC figures on Sikyatki pottery 701-705
+GERMINATIVE symbol on Sikyatki pottery 704
+GODDARD, S., with archeological expedition in 1895 527
+GOD OF DEATH of the Hopi 641
+GOODE, G. BROWN, acknowledgments to 528
+GORGETS in Sikyatki graves 733
+GUTIERREZ, ANDRES, at founding of Awatobi mission 599
+
+HAIR, human, woven by the Hopi 630
+HAIRDRESSING of the Hopi 661, 663
+HANCE'S RANCH, pictograph bowlder near 545
+HAND figures on Sikyatki pottery 666-668, 728
+HANO compared with Walpi 642
+  [HANO] in 1782 579
+  [HANO], when established 636
+HAVASUPAI, cliff dwellings occupied by 533
+HEART represented in animal figures 673
+HEMATITE fetish from Sikyatki 730
+HEMENWAY, MARY, Kawaika pottery purchased by 590
+HE-SHOTA-PATHL-TA[)I]E, Zuni name of Kintiel 534
+HODGE, F. W., acknowledgments to 527
+  [HODGE, F. W.] on colander fragments from Salado ruins 624
+  [HODGE, F. W.] on recent advent of the Navaho 658
+  [HODGE, F. W.], Sikyatki excavation aided by 648
+HODGE, _Mrs_ M. W., acknowledgments to 527
+HOFFMAN, W. J., on ruins at Montezuma Well 546
+HOLBROOK, ruins near 533
+HOLGUIN, _Capt_., Payuepki attacked by 583
+HOLMES, W. H., on evolution of pottery designs 715, 716, 727
+HOMOLOBI, location of 532
+HONANKI, art remains found at 569
+  [HONANKI], origin of name 553, 559
+  [HONANKI], discovery of ruin of 534, 551
+  [HONANKI] ruin discussed 558-569
+HOPI, abandonment of villages by 580
+  [HOPI] and Verde ruins compared 573
+  [HOPI], early migrations of clans of 574
+  [HOPI] knowledge of Montezuma Well 547
+  [HOPI] pictographic score 568
+  [HOPI] pueblos in 1782 579
+  [HOPI] request removal to Tonto basin 534
+  [HOPI] ruins, distribution of 581
+  [HOPI], southern origin of part of 568
+HORN CLANS at Sikyatki 669
+HORN-HOUSE, ruin of 590
+HORSES, how regarded by ancient Hopi 598, 599
+HOUGH, W., pottery figure interpreted by 664
+HOWELL, E., cliff houses discovered by 533
+HUMAN FIGURES on Sikyatki pottery 660
+HUMAN REMAINS in Awatobi ruins 610, 612, 618
+  [HUMAN REMAINS], _see_ CEMETERIES.
+
+IDOL, _see_ ALOSAKA, DOLL, FETISH.
+INSECT figures on Sikyatki pottery 658
+IRRIGATION represented in pictography 545
+  [IRRIGATION] ditches in Verde valley 538
+
+JACOB'S WELL described 546
+JAKWAINA, farm of, at Sikyatki 640
+JARAMILLO, JUAN, on "Tucayan" 595
+JARS, _see_ POTTERY.
+JEDITOH VALLEY, ruins in 581, 589, 592
+JUDD, JAMES S., acknowledgments to 527
+
+KACHINBA ruin described 589
+KATCI, a Hopi folklorist 637
+  [KATCI], farm of, at Sikyatki 641
+KATCINA cult in Tusayan 625, 633
+  [KATCINA] defined 661, 732
+  [KATCINA] figures on Hopi pottery 624, 658, 665
+KAWAIKA, application of name 622
+  [KAWAIKA], pottery from 622
+  [KAWAIKA], ruins at 590
+KEAM, T. V., excavations by, at Kawaika 622
+  [KEAM, T. V.], idols removed and returned by 619
+KEAM'S CANYON, ruins in 581
+KINNAZINDE, ruin of 534
+KINTIEL ascribed to the Zuni 534, 591
+  [KINTIEL], location of 533
+KISAKOBI, former site of Walpi 578
+  [KISAKOBI] ruins described 585
+  [KISAKOBI], settlement of 635
+KISHYUBA, a Hopi ruin 591
+KISI and cavate house compared 544
+KIVA-LIKE remains at Honanki 560
+KIVAS, absence of, in Sikyatki 642
+  [KIVAS], absence of, in southern cliff houses 574
+  [KIVAS], ceremonial replastering of 645
+  [KIVAS], distribution of 561, 574
+  [KIVAS] of Awatobi 611
+  [KIVAS], platforms characteristic of 541
+  [KIVAS], round, evolution of 575
+K'N'-I-K'EL, _see_ KINTIEL.
+KOKOPELI, a Hopi deity 663
+KOPELI, services of, at Sikyatki 641, 643
+KOYIMSE of the Hopi 659
+KUeCHAPTUeVELA, former site of Walpi 578
+  [KUeCHAPTUeVELA] ruin described 585
+KUeKUeCHOMO ruins described 586
+KWATAKA, a Hopi monster 691
+
+LADLES from Awatobi described 624
+  [LADLES] from Sikyatki described 655
+  [LADLES], _see_ POTTERY.
+LANGLEY, S. P., acknowledgments to 528
+LELO, farm of, at Sikyatki 640
+LEROUX, A., Verde ruins discovered by 530
+LIGHTNING symbol on Hopi pottery 673
+LIGNITE deposits near Sikyatki 643
+  [LIGNITE] gorgets in Sikyatki graves 733
+LINES, broken, on Sikyatki pottery 704
+LUMMIS, C. F., on Montezuma Well ruins 546
+
+MAMZRAUTI ceremony introduced at Walpi 604
+MAN-EAGLE, a Hopi monster 691
+  [MAN-EAGLE] on Sikyatki pottery 683
+MARIE, AUG. STA., an Awatobi missionary 600
+MASAUWUH in Hopi mythology 666
+  [MASAUWUH], _see_ GOD OF DEATH.
+MASIUMPTIWA, Awatobi legend repeated by 603
+MASONRY of Awatobi 616
+  [MASONRY] of Honanki 563
+  [MASONRY] of Palatki 554-555
+  [MASONRY] of Sikyatki 644
+MEAL, sacred, trail closed with 596, 597
+  [MEAL] sacrifice by the Hopi 739
+MEARNS, E. A., on Verde valley ruins 535, 544, 546
+MEDICINE BOWLS of the Hopi 681
+  [MEDICINE BOWLS] of the Zuni and Hopi 655
+MELINE, J. F., on settlement of Sandia 584
+MESCAL in Verde valley caves 550
+METAL not found at Honanki 571
+  [METAL] not found at Sikyatki 649, 741
+METATES found in Awatobi 625, 626
+  [METATES] found in Honanki 571
+  [METATES] found in Sikyatki graves 731
+MICA, _see_ SELENITE.
+MIDDLE MESA, ruins at 581, 582
+MIGRATION of Hopi clans 577
+MILLER, _Dr_, pottery collected by 675
+MINDELEFF, COSMOS, Homolobi ruins examined by 532
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on absence of kivas in Verde ruins 561
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on cavate houses 543
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on function of cavate lodges 544
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on origin of circular kivas 576
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on similarity of cliff dwellings and pueblos 537
+  [MINDELEFF, COSMOS], on Verde valley ruins 535
+MINDELEFF, VICTOR, Awatobi described by 602
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], groundplan of Chukubi by 583
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], groundplan of Mishiptonga by 590
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on Awatobi kivas 612
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on distribution of Tusayan ruins 577
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on former sites of Walpi 585
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on Horn-house and Bat-house 590
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], on origin of circular kivas 576
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], Shitaimovi mentioned by 582
+  [MINDELEFF, VICTOR], Sikyatki described by 632
+MISHIPTONGA, ruin of 590
+MISHONINOVI in 1782 579
+MISHONINOVI, OLD, discussed 582
+MISSION, ruins of, at Awatobi 606
+  [MISSION], when established at Awatobi 599
+MISSIONS among the Hopi 595
+MOKI, _see_ HOPI.
+MONTEZUMA CASTLE and Honanki compared 563
+  [MONTEZUMA CASTLE] on Beaver creek 549
+MONTEZUMA WELL, ruins at 534, 546-548
+MOONEY, JAMES, cited on Kawaika pottery 590
+MORFI, JUAN A., on Hopi pueblos in 1782 579
+  [MORFI, JUAN A.], on settlement of Sandia 584
+MORTARS found in Awatobi 626
+MORTUARY CUSTOMS of the Hopi 648, 656
+MORTUARY OBJECTS in Sikyatki graves 650, 656
+MORTUARY REMAINS in Awatobi 617
+MORTUARY SLABS from Sikyatki 732
+MORTUARY VESSELS, food remains in 741
+MOTH FIGURES on Sikyatki pottery 678-680
+MOUNTAIN-LION fetish from Sikyatki 730
+  [MOUNTAIN-LION] figure on pottery 671
+  [MOUNTAIN-LION] in Hopi mythology 545
+MOUNTAIN-SHEEP figure on pottery 669, 671
+MUeYINWU, a Hopi deity 647, 667
+MYTH, _see_ COSMOGONY; GENESIS.
+MYTHIC origin of Kanelba 638-639
+  [MYTHIC] personages on pottery 665
+
+NAHUATL and Hopi pictographs compared 569
+NAIUTCI injured by stick swallowing 664
+NAKWAKWOCI defined 662
+NAMPEO, a Hopi potter 660
+NASYUNWEVE, a Hopi folklorist 637, 640
+NAVAHO and Hopi intermarriage 658
+  [NAVAHO] ceremonial circuit 681
+  [NAVAHO] depredations in Tusayan 585
+  [NAVAHO] in Antelope valley 592, 593
+  [NAVAHO] katcinas on Hopi pottery 658
+  [NAVAHO], late appearance of, in Tusayan 581
+  [NAVAHO] name of Awatobi 594
+  [NAVAHO], recent advent of, in New Mexico 658
+  [NAVAHO], shrine robbed by 612
+NAYBI identified with Oraibi 599
+NECKLACES in Sikyatki graves 733
+NEEDLES, bone, from Awatobi 627
+NEW-FIRE CEREMONIES of the Hopi 586, 602
+NEW MEXICO, _see_ NAVAHO.
+NIEL, J. A., on Tanoan migration to Tusayan 578, 584
+NIMANKATCINA of the Hopi 593
+NIZA, MARCOS DE, on Totonteac fabrics 629
+NOMENCLATURE of Awatobi 594
+  [NOMENCLATURE] of Sikyatki 636
+NORDENSKIOeLD, G., on affinity of cliff dwellers and pueblos 532
+  [NORDENSKIOeLD, G.], on evolution of pottery design 716, 727
+  [NORDENSKIOeLD, G.], cited on Mesa Verde villages 555, 563, 678
+  [NORDENSKIOeLD, G.], on origin of round kivas 575
+  [NORDENSKIOeLD, G.], on platforms in Mesa Verde kivas 541
+  [NORDENSKIOeLD, G.], prayer-sticks found by 736
+NUeSHAKI, etymology of 578, 586
+
+OAK CREEK, ruins on 533, 550
+OBSIDIAN objects from Sikyatki 732
+OFFERINGS by Indian excavators 641
+ONATE, JUAN DE, Awatobi visited by 594, 599
+OPENINGS in Honanki walls 565
+  [OPENINGS], _see_ DOORWAY.
+ORAIBI, age of 607
+  [ORAIBI] in 1782 580
+  [ORAIBI] legendary origin of 634
+  [ORAIBI], site of 578
+ORIENTATION of Awatobi mission 609
+ORNAMENTS in Sikyatki graves 733
+OTERMIN, ANT., attempted reconquest by 584
+OWENS, J. G., acknowledgments to 646
+
+PADILLA, JUAN, visits Tusayan in 1540 596
+PAHO, _see_ PRAYER-STICK.
+PAIAKYAMU figures on Hopi pottery 659
+PAINT, _see_ PIGMENT.
+PALATKI, art remains found at 569
+  [PALATKI], population of 567
+  [PALATKI] ruins discovered 534, 551
+  [PALATKI] ruins described 553-558
+PALATKWABI, a traditional land of the Hopi 529, 531, 568, 672
+PALEOGRAPHY, _see_ DECORATION.
+PASSAGEWAYS in cavate dwellings 542
+  [PASSAGEWAYS] in Honanki 565
+PATKI PEOPLE, early migrations of the 574
+  [PATKI PEOPLE], southern origin of the 529, 568
+PATUN PHRATRY, southern origin of 529
+PAYUePKI, a ruin in Tusayan 578, 583
+  [PAYUePKI], possible origin of 584
+PEACHES cultivated near Sikyatki 646
+  [PEACHES] introduced in Oraibi 604
+  [PEACHES] of the Hopi 639
+PHALLIC representations among the Hopi 663
+PICTOGRAPHS at Honanki 567, 568
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] at Palatki ruin 556
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] in Verde valley 545
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] near Montezuma Well 548
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] near Schuermann's ranch 550
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] of Awatobi totems 610
+  [PICTOGRAPHS] on Awatobi cliffs 626
+  [PICTOGRAPHS], _see_ DECORATION.
+PIGMENT found at Awatobi 618
+  [PIGMENT] found at Sikyatki 728, 729
+  [PIGMENT] how applied by the Hopi 650
+  [PIGMENT] used on prayer-sticks 630
+PIPES in Sikyatki graves 733
+PLASTERING on Awatobi walls 616
+  [PLASTERING] of Honanki ruin 563
+  [PLASTERING] of Palatki ruin 555
+  [PLASTERING] of Sikyatki rooms 645, 646
+PLATFORMS in cavate dwellings 541
+  [PLATFORMS] in Honanki 566
+PLUMED SNAKE cult in Tusayan 671, 672
+  [PLUMED SNAKE] figures on Hopi kilts 696
+  [PLUMED SNAKE] figure on pottery 658, 671
+  [PLUMED SNAKE] in Hopi mythology 668
+POLISHING STONES from Sikyatki 729
+POPULATION of Awatobi 605
+  [POPULATION] of Honanki 567
+PORCUPINE figure on pottery 669
+PORRAS, _Padre_, missionary labors of 595, 599, 600, 605
+POTTERY decoration of the Hopi 569
+  [POTTERY] from ancient Walpi 585
+  [POTTERY] from Awatobi 621-625
+  [POTTERY] from Honanki classified 570
+  [POTTERY] from Payuepki 584
+  [POTTERY] from Shunopovi and Mishoninovi 582
+  [POTTERY] from Sikyatki discussed 650-728
+  [POTTERY] from Verde and Colorado Chiquito compared 573
+  [POTTERY], mortuary, from Awatobi 617
+  [POTTERY], mortuary, from Kawaika 590
+  [POTTERY], mortuary, from Sikyatki 649
+  [POTTERY] of ancient Tusayan 617
+POWAMU ceremony of the Hopi 702
+POWELL, J. W., ruins found by 532
+PRAYER-STICKS, cross-shape, of Keres origin 703
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] from Awatobi 613, 618, 630-631
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] from Honanki 573
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] from Sikyatki 649, 736-739
+  [PRAYER-STICKS] in Hopi ceremony 628
+  [PRAYER-STICKS], prescribed length of 668
+  [PRAYER-STICKS], significance of 688, 738
+PRAYER-STRINGS of the Hopi 662
+PRIESTS, Hopi, succession of 637
+PUEBLO GRANDE, _see_ KINTIEL.
+PUEBLO INDIANS descended from cliff dwellers 531, 532
+  [PUEBLO INDIANS] RUINS, of Verde valley classified 536
+  [PUEBLO INDIANS] and cliff dwellings similar 537
+
+QUADRUPED figures on Sikyatki pottery 668-671
+QUARTZ CRYSTAL from Sikyatki 729
+
+RABBIT figure on Sikyatki pottery 669, 670
+RABBIT-SKIN robes of Tusayan 629
+RAIN symbol on bird ornaments 733
+RAINBOW symbols on Sikyatki pottery 681
+RAINCLOUD SYMBOL of the Hopi 681
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on Awatobi cist 613
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on gravestones 732
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on Hopi pottery 694
+  [RAINCLOUD SYMBOL] on Sikyatki pottery 689, 690
+RATTLESNAKE TANKS, ruins at 532
+RED ROCKS, cliff houses of the 548-549
+REPTILE figures on pottery 658, 671-677
+RUINS of East Mesa discussed 585
+  [RUINS] of Tusayan 577
+  [RUINS], _see_ AWATOBI, HONANKI, PALATKI, SIKYATKI, _etc._
+
+SACRIFICE among the Hopi 738
+  [SACRIFICE], _see_ OFFERING.
+SAINT JOHNS, ruins near 533
+SALIKO, Awatobi legend repeated by 603
+  [SALIKO] on the Awatobi Mamzrautu 611
+SAN BERNABE, mission name of Shunopovi 607
+SAN BERNARDO, mission name of Awatobi 594, 595, 599
+SANDALS found in Honanki 573
+SANDIA, Hopi name for 584
+  [SANDIA] settled by Tanoan people from Tusayan 584
+SAN JUAN, headdress from 734
+SCHUeRMANN, --, acknowledgments to 559
+  [SCHUeRMANN], ruins near ranch of 550-553
+SEATS, stone, in Awatobi ruins 626
+SEEDS in mortuary vessels 741
+SELENITE deposits near Sikyatki 643
+  [SELENITE] in Sikyatki graves 730, 733
+SELER, E., Mexican designs gathered by 705
+SERPENT, plumed, of the Hopi 547, 548
+SHALAKO, _see_ CALAKO.
+SHELL beads from Honanki 573
+  [SHELL] bracelet from Honanki 572
+  [SHELL] from Sikyatki graves 739
+  [SHELL] ornaments from Awatobi 628
+  [SHELL] ornaments in Sikyatki graves 733
+SHIMO, Awatobi legend repeated by 602
+SHIPAULOVI in 1782 579
+SHITAIMOVI, ruin of 582
+SHRINES at Awatobi described 619-621
+  [SHRINES] at Walpi 586
+  [SHRINES] near Tukinobi 589
+  [SHRINES] robbed by Navaho 612
+  [SHRINES] unearthed at Awatobi 613
+  [SHRINES] of the Hopi 613
+SHUNOPOVI in 1782 579
+  [SHUNOPOVI], OLD, discussed 582
+SICHOMOVI compared with Walpi 642
+  [SICHOMOVI], Tewa name for 642
+  [SICHOMOVI], when established 578, 636
+SIKYATKI and Awatobi pottery compared 623, 659
+  [SIKYATKI] and modern Hopi pottery compared 649
+  [SIKYATKI], destruction of 633
+  [SIKYATKI], etymology of 636
+  [SIKYATKI] inhabitants settle at Awatobi 596
+  [SIKYATKI] people harrassed by Walpians 588
+  [SIKYATKI], prehistoric character of 592, 632
+  [SIKYATKI] ruins described 631-742
+  [SIKYATKI], reasons for excavating 591
+  [SIKYATKI] ruins examined 535
+SITES of Tusayan pueblos 578
+SITGREAVES, L., on ruins near San Francisco mountains 532, 533
+  [SITGREAVES, L.], cited on selenite deposits 643
+SLIPPER-FORM VESSELS from Sikyatki 652
+SMOKING in Hopi ceremony 734
+SNAKE represented on pottery 671, 677
+  [SNAKE], _see_ PLUMED SNAKE.
+SNAKE HUNT, taboo of work during 639
+SNAKE PEOPLE, absence of, at Sikyatki 740
+  [SNAKE PEOPLE], early arrival of, at Tusayan 582
+  [SNAKE PEOPLE], northern origin of 575
+  [SNAKE PEOPLE] settle at Walpi 617
+SNAKE-RATTLE in Sikyatki grave 740
+  [SNAKE-RATTLE] used for ornament 740
+SORCERY, Awatobi men accused of 603
+SPANISH OBJECTS found at Awatobi 606, 623, 631
+  [SPANISH OBJECTS] unknown to early Tusayan 741
+SPATTERING, pottery decorated by 650, 668, 671, 677
+SPOONS from Sikyatki described 655
+  [SPOONS], _see_ POTTERY.
+SQUASH indigenous to the southwest 621
+  [SQUASH] flower, symbolism of the 661
+SQUAW MOUNTAIN, cavate dwellings near 534
+STALACTITES in Sikyatki graves 730
+STAR figures on Sikyatki pottery 702, 724
+  [STAR] symbol on Hopi pottery 696
+  [STAR] symbols on Sikyatki pottery 680, 690
+STEPHEN, A. M., on Awatobi kivas 612
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on Horn-house and Bat-house 590
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on Mishiptonga ruin 590
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on occupancy of Kuekuechomo 587
+  [STEPHEN, A. M.], on origin of certain katcina 666
+STEVENSON, JAMES, ruins discovered by 532
+STEVENSON, M. C., on Keresan cannibal giants 665
+STICK SWALLOWING by the Hopi 664
+STONE IMPLEMENTS from Awatobi 625-626
+  [STONE IMPLEMENTS] from Honanki 571
+  [STONE IMPLEMENTS] from Sikyatki 729
+SUN FIGURE in Powamu ceremony 702
+SUNFLOWER symbols on Sikyatki pottery 702
+SUN SYMBOL, cross allied to 623
+  [SUN SYMBOL] on Sikyatki pottery 699-701
+SUN WORSHIP of the Hopi 699
+SUPELA, Awatobi legend repeated by 603
+SWASTIKA figures on Sikyatki pottery 703
+
+TABOO of work during snake hunt 639
+TADPOLE figures on Sikyatki pottery 658, 677
+TALLA-HOGAN, meaning of 594
+  [TALLA-HOGAN], Navaho name of Awatobi 594
+TANOAN migration to Tusayan 578, 600, 636
+TAPOLO, an Awatobi chief 603, 611
+TATAUKYAMU, a Hopi priesthood 611
+TATCUKTI, a Hopi clown-priest 659
+TAWA (SUN) PHRATRY, southern origin of 529
+TCINO, garden of, at Sikyatki 638, 640, 646
+TERRACED FIGURES of Mexico and Tusayan 705
+  [TERRACED FIGURES] on Sikyatki pottery 701, 703
+TEWA PEOPLE occupy Payuepki 584
+  [TEWA PEOPLE], progressiveness of, in Tusayan 580
+TEXTILE FABRICS from Awatobi 629-630
+  [TEXTILE FABRICS], absence of, at Sikyatki 649
+  [TEXTILE FABRICS] found in Honanki 572, 573
+  [TEXTILE FABRICS], Sikyatki dead wrapped with 656
+TINDER TUBE from Honanki 572, 573
+TOBACCO, _see_ SMOKING.
+TOBACCO PHRATRY in Awatobi 611
+TOBAR, PEDRO, visits Tusayan in 1540 578, 595, 596, 631
+TONTO, origin of term 534
+TONTO BASIN, ruins in 534
+TOTONAKA, a Hopi deity 647
+TOTONTEAC identified with Tusayan 534
+  [TOTONTEAC], suggested origin of 534
+TOYS of pottery from Sikyatki 656
+TRAILS ceremonially closed 596-597
+TRINCHERAS defined 550
+  [TRINCHERAS] in Red-rock country 549, 550
+TRUJILLO, JOSE, probably killed at Shunopovi 600
+TSEGI CANYON and Tusayan pottery compared 623
+  [TSEGI CANYON] formerly occupied by Hopi clans 658
+  [TSEGI CANYON], _see_ CHELLY CANYON.
+TUBES, bone, from Awatobi 627
+TUCANO, name applied to Tusayan 595
+TUCAYAN, name applied to Tusayan 595
+TUKINOBI, ruin of, described 589
+TURQUOIS beads found at Honanki 573
+  [TURQUOIS] mosaics of the Hopi 662
+  [TURQUOIS] objects in Sikyatki graves 641, 733
+TUSAYAN, application of term 577
+  [TUSAYAN] identified with Hopi villages 595
+  [TUSAYAN] ruins discussed 577-742
+  [TUSAYAN] towns in 1540 606
+  [TUSAYAN], _see_ HOPI.
+TUZAN, name applied to Tusayan 595
+TYLOR, E. B., cited on primitive sacrifice 738
+
+UTE depredations in Tusayan 585
+  [UTE], late appearance of, at Tusayan 581
+
+VARGAS, DIEGO DE, Awatobi visited by 594
+  [VARGAS, DIEGO DE], Tusayan conquered by 600
+VASES, _see_ POTTERY.
+VEGETAL DESIGNS on Hopi pottery 698-699
+VERDE VALLEY and Tusayan ruins compared 573
+  [VERDE VALLEY], archeology of 530
+  [VERDE VALLEY] ruins discussed 536, 576
+VETANCURT, A. DE, Awatobi mentioned by 594
+  [VETANCURT, A. DE], on destruction of Awatobi mission 600
+VOTH, H. R., decorated bowl collected by 665
+  [VOTH, H. R.], on ancient pottery found at Oraibi 607
+
+WALLS of Honanki described 559
+  [WALLS] of Palatki ruin 557
+  [WALLS], _see_ MASONRY.
+WALNUT CANYON, cliff houses in 532
+WALPI, ancient, pottery of 660
+  [WALPI] compared with other villages 642
+  [WALPI], former sites of 585, 635
+  [WALPI], gradual desertion of 586
+  [WALPI] in 1540 578
+  [WALPI] in 1782 579
+  [WALPI], origin of name 585
+  [WALPI], southern origin of clans of 529
+WALTHER, HENRY, pottery repaired by 682
+WAR GOD symbolism on Hopi pottery 664
+WATER used in Hopi ceremony 689
+WATER-HOUSE PEOPLE of Tusayan 672
+  [WATER-HOUSE PEOPLE], _see_ PATKI.
+WATER SUPPLY of Sikyatki 638, 646
+WEAPONS of ancient Tusayan 596, 598
+WHISTLES, bone, from Awatobi 627
+  [WHISTLES] used in Hopi ceremonies 628
+WINSHIP, G. P., acknowledgments to 527
+  [WINSHIP, G. P.], Castaneda's narrative translated by 596
+WIPO SPRING in Tusayan 639
+WOOD in Palatki ruin 555
+  [WOOD], method of working, at Honanki 571
+  [WOOD], remains of, at Honanki 562, 566
+  [WOOD], objects of, from Honanki 572
+WOOD'S RANCH, pictograph bowlder near 545
+
+XUMUPAMI identified with Shunopovi 599
+
+YUCCA fiber anciently used 572
+
+ZAGNATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ZAGUATE, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ZAGUATO, an Awatobi synonym 594
+ZINNI-JINNE, _see_ KINNAZINDE.
+ZUNI and other pottery compared 623
+  [ZUNI] origin of Kintiel 534, 591
+  [ZUNI], Shalako ceremony of 700
+  [ZUNI], snake figures on pottery of 677
+  [ZUNI], southern origin of clans of 574
+  [ZUNI], stick-swallowing at 664
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Some illustrations have been repositioned to avoid breaking up the
+text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations refer to the original
+printed report. The Index has been edited to list only the topics
+contained in this report.
+
+The original book contains some diacriticals that are represented in
+this e-text as follows:
+
+  The [)i] represents a breve (u-shaped) above the i.
+    (He'-sho'ta pathl-ta[)i]e,)
+
+  The [=a] represents a macron (straight-line) above the a.
+    (_N[=a]-ac-nai-ya_, and Estev[=a])
+
+Page 522, Table of Contents: Ornaments, necklaces, and gorgets (page
+733) in original report changed to Necklaces, gorgets, and other
+ornaments to match the actual section heading.
+
+Page 525, List of Illustrations: CXXXV, _a_ in original report changed
+to CXXXV, _b_ to match the actual caption.
+  (Fig. 270. Outline of plate CXXXV, _a_)
+
+Page 526, List of Illustrations: triangles in original report changed
+to triangle to match the actual captions.
+  (Fig. 336. Double triangles) and
+  (Fig. 337. Double triangles and feathers)
+
+Page 652: attemps in original report changed to attempts.
+  (The first attemps at ornamentation)
+
+Page 688, Footnote 1 in original report, now Footnote 145:
+annulets in original report changed to amulets.
+  (ceremonial paraphernalia, as annulets, placed on sand pictures)
+
+Page 702: respresented in original report changed to represented.
+  (A large number of crosses are respresented in plate)
+
+Page 706: Sityatki in original report changed to Sikyatki.
+  (animal figures are unknown in this position in Sityatki pottery;)
+
+Page 709 in original report, now page 708: lines in original report changed to line.
+  (FIG. 288--Single lines with triangles)
+
+Page 731: to-day in original report changed to today for consistency.
+  (tethering in use today.)
+
+Page 737: offerigs in original report changed to offerings.
+  (ancient prayer offerigs)
+
+Page 741: accompaning in original report changed to accompanying.
+  (is set forth in the accompaning letter)
+
+Page 744: In Appendix, Plate CLXXIII, _f_, the 5th digit of number
+is missing in original report; represented by a question mark.
+  (_f_, 1561 0;)
+
+Plate CXL: SITYATKI in original report changed to SIKYATKI.
+  (FIGURES OF BIRDS FROM SITYATKI)
+
+All other spelling and accent variations and inconsistencies have not
+been changed from the original document, except for minor punctuation
+corrections.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Archeological Expedition to Arizona in
+1895, by Jesse Walter Fewkes
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPEDITION TO ARIZONA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 23691.txt or 23691.zip *****
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