diff options
Diffstat (limited to '23682-8.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 23682-8.txt | 6318 |
1 files changed, 6318 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/23682-8.txt b/23682-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..05162a2 --- /dev/null +++ b/23682-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6318 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement, by Alva Agee + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement + +Author: Alva Agee + +Release Date: December 2, 2007 [EBook #23682] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CROPS AND METHODS FOR SOIL *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature +in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +Transcriber's Note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected +without note. Dialect spellings, contractions and discrepancies have +been retained. + + + +CROPS AND METHODS FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO +DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO + +MACMILLAN & CO., Limited +LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA +MELBOURNE + +THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. +TORONTO + + +[Illustration: Alfalfa and Corn in Indiana.] + + + + +CROPS AND METHODS +FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT + + +By + +ALVA AGEE, M.S. + +HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION +ACTING DEAN AND DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF +AGRICULTURE AND EXPERIMENT STATION OF +THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE + + +_ILLUSTRATED_ + +New York +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +1912 + +_All rights reserved_ + +Copyright, 1912, +By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + +Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1912. + +Norwood Press +J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. +Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I + + PAGES + +INTRODUCTION 1-11 + In lieu of preface 1 + Natural strength of land 2 + Plant constituents 2 + Organic matter 4 + Drainage 6 + Lime 7 + Crop-rotation 8 + Fertilizers 9 + Tillage 10 + Control of soil moisture 11 + +CHAPTER II + +THE NEED OF LIME 12-22 + The unproductive farm 12 + Soil acidity 13 + The rational use of lime 14 + Where clover is not wanted 16 + Determining lime requirement 17 + The litmus-paper test 19 + A practical test 20 + Duration of effect 21 + + +CHAPTER III + +APPLYING LIME 23-35 + Forms of lime 23 + Definitions 24 + The kind to apply 26 + The fineness of limestone 27 + Hydrated lime 27 + Stone-lime 28 + Ashes 30 + Marl 31 + Magnesian lime 31 + Amount per acre 32 + Time of application 34 + + +CHAPTER IV + +ORGANIC MATTER 36-45 + Office of organic matter 36 + The legumes 38 + Storing nitrogen 39 + The right bacteria 41 + Soil inoculation 42 + Method of inoculation 43 + + +CHAPTER V + +THE CLOVERS 46-58 + Red clover 46 + Clover and acid soils 47 + Methods of seeding 48 + Fertility value 49 + Taking the crops off the land 51 + Physical benefit of the roots 52 + Used as a green manure 52 + When to turn down 53 + Mammoth clover 54 + Alsike clover 55 + Crimson clover 56 + + +CHAPTER VI + +ALFALFA 59-70 + Adaptation to eastern needs 59 + Fertility and feeding value 60 + Climate and soil 61 + Free use of lime 62 + Inoculation 62 + Fertilization 63 + A clean seed-bed 64 + Varieties 65 + Clean seed 65 + The seeding 66 + Seeding in August 67 + Subsequent treatment 68 + + +CHAPTER VII + +GRASS SODS 71-79 + Value of sods 71 + Prejudice against timothy 72 + Object of sods 74 + Seeding with small grain 75 + Seeding in rye 76 + Good soil conditions 77 + + +CHAPTER VIII + +GRASS SODS (_Continued_) 80-89 + Seeding in late summer 80 + Crops that may precede 81 + Preparation 83 + The weed seed 84 + Summer grasses 85 + Sowing the seed 85 + Deep covering 86 + Seed-mixtures 88 + + +CHAPTER IX + +SODS FOR PASTURES 90-97 + Permanent pastures 90 + Seed-mixtures 91 + Blue-grass 91 + Timothy 92 + Red-top 92 + Orchard grass 93 + Other seeds 93 + Yields and composition of grasses 93 + Suggested mixtures for pastures 94 + Renewal of permanent pastures 96 + Destroying bushes 96 + Close grazing 97 + + +CHAPTER X + +THE COWPEA 98-107 + A southern legume 98 + Characteristics 99 + Varieties 99 + Fertilizing value 100 + Affecting physical condition 101 + Planting 101 + Inoculation 103 + Fertilizers 103 + Harvesting with livestock 104 + The cowpea for hay 104 + As a catch crop 106 + +CHAPTER XI + +OTHER LEGUMES AND CEREAL CATCH CROPS 108-119 + The soybean 108 + Fertility value 109 + Feeding value 109 + Varieties 110 + The planting 111 + Harvesting 112 + The Canada pea 113 + Vetch 113 + Sweet clover 115 + Rye as a cover crop 116 + When to plow down 117 + Buckwheat 118 + Oats 119 + + +CHAPTER XII + +STABLE MANURE 120-128 + Livestock farming 120 + The place for cattle 121 + Sales off the farm 122 + The value of manure 124 + The content of manure 125 + Relative values 126 + Amount of manure 127 + Analysis of manure 128 + + +CHAPTER XIII + +CARE OF STABLE MANURE 129-138 + Common source of losses 129 + Caring for liquid manure 130 + Use of preservatives 131 + Spreading as made 132 + The covered yard 133 + Harmless fermentation 135 + Rotted manure 135 + Composts 136 + Poultry manure 137 + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE USE OF STABLE MANURE 139-148 + Controlling factors 139 + Direct use for corn 140 + Effect upon moisture 141 + Manure on grass 142 + Manure on potatoes 143 + When to plow down 144 + Heavy applications 144 + Reënforcement with minerals 145 + Durability of manure 147 + + +CHAPTER XV + +CROP-ROTATIONS 149-158 + The farm scheme 149 + Value of rotation 150 + Selection of crops 151 + An old succession of crops 152 + Corn two years 153 + The oat crop 154 + Two crops of wheat 154 + The clover and timothy 154 + Two legumes in the rotation 155 + Potatoes after corn 156 + A three-years' rotation 157 + Grain and clover 158 + Potatoes and crimson clover 158 + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE NEED OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 159-170 + Loss of plant-food 159 + Prejudice against commercial fertilizers 160 + Are fertilizers stimulants? 161 + Soil analysis 162 + Physical analysis 163 + The use of nitrogen 164 + Phosphoric-acid requirements 165 + The need of potash 166 + Fertilizer tests 167 + Variation in soil 168 + + +CHAPTER XVII + +COMMERCIAL SOURCES OF PLANT-FOOD 171-187 + Acquaintance with terms 171 + Nitrate of soda 171 + Sulphate of ammonia 178 + Dried blood 173 + Tankage 174 + Fish 175 + Animal bone 175 + Raw bone 177 + Steamed bone 178 + Rock-phosphate 178 + Acid phosphate 180 + Basic slag 183 + Muriate of potash 184 + Sulphate of potash 185 + Kainit 185 + Wood-ashes 185 + Other fertilizers 186 + Salt 186 + Coal-ashes 187 + Muck 187 + Sawdust 187 + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +PURCHASING PLANT-FOOD 188-197 + Necessity of purchase 188 + Fertilizer control 189 + Brand names 191 + Statement of analysis 191 + Valuation of fertilizers 193 + A bit of arithmetic 194 + High-grade fertilizers 196 + + +CHAPTER XIX + +HOME-MIXING OF FERTILIZERS 198-208 + The practice of home-mixing 198 + Effectiveness of home-mixing 198 + Criticisms of home-mixing 199 + The filler 202 + Ingredients in the mixture 203 + Materials that should not be combined 207 + Making a good mixture 207 + Buying unmixed materials 208 + + +CHAPTER XX + +MIXTURES FOR CROPS 209-219 + Composition of plant not a guide 209 + The multiplication of formulas 209 + A few combinations are safest 210 + Amount of application 211 + Similarity of requirements 213 + Maintaining fertility 215 + Fertilizer for grass 216 + All the nitrogen from clover 218 + Method of applying fertilizers 218 + An excess of nitrogen 219 + + +CHAPTER XXI + +TILLAGE 220-229 + Desirable physical condition of the soil 220 + The breaking-plow 221 + Types of plows 221 + Subsoiling 223 + Time of plowing 223 + Method of plowing 224 + The disk harrow 225 + Cultivation of plants 227 + Controlling root-growth 227 + Elimination of competition 228 + Length of cultivation 229 + + +CHAPTER XXII + +CONTROL OF SOIL MOISTURE 230-236 + Value of water in the soil 230 + The soil a reservoir 231 + The land-roller 232 + The plank-drag 233 + The mulch 233 + Mulches of foreign material 234 + Plowing straw down 235 + The summer-fallow 235 + The modern fallow 236 + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +DRAINAGE 237-246 + Underdrainage 237 + Counting the cost 238 + Where returns are largest 239 + Material for the drains 239 + The outlet 240 + Locating main and branches 240 + The laterals 241 + Size of tile 241 + Kind of tile 242 + The grade 243 + Establishing a grade 243 + Cutting the trenches 244 + Depth of trenches 245 + Connections 245 + Permanency desired 246 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + +Alfalfa and Corn in Indiana _Frontispiece_ + + Facing Page + +A Good Crop for a Poor Soil 4 + +Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land 20 + +Turning down Organic Matter with a Gang Plow 36 + +Red Clover on the Farm of P. S. Lewis & Son, + Pt. Pleasant, W. Va. 51 + +Alfalfa on the Ohio State University Farm 61 + +Curing Alfalfa at the Pennsylvania + Experiment Station 68 + +A Heavy Grass Sod in New York 73 + +Good Pasture Land in Chester County, Pa. 90 + +Sheep on a New York Farm 96 + +The Cowpea Seeded at the Last Cultivation of Corn + in the Great Kanawha Valley, W. Va. 106 + +Texas Calves on an Ohio Farm 121 + +In the Fertile Miami Valley, Ohio 126 + +Concrete Stable Floors 131 + +Corn in the Ohio Valley 140 + +Penn's Valley, Pennsylvania 151 + +In the Shenandoah Valley 155 + +Plat Experiments 167 + +In the Lebanon Valley, Pennsylvania 189 + +On the Productive Farm of Dr. W. I. Chamberlain + in Northwestern Ohio 210 + +Deep Tillage 222 + +Making an Earth Mulch in a New York Orchard 233 + +Drain Tile 239 + +The Lure of the Country 246 + + + + +CROPS AND METHODS FOR SOIL IMPROVEMENT + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTION + + +In Lieu of Preface.--This book is not a technical treatise and is +designed only to point out the plain, every-day facts in the natural +scheme of making and keeping soils productive. It is concerned with the +crops, methods, and fertilizers that favor the soil. The viewpoint, all +the time, is that of the practical man who wants cash compensation for +the intelligent care he gives to his land. The farming that leads into +debt, and not in the opposite direction, is poor farming, no matter how +well the soil may prosper under such treatment. The maintenance and +increase of soil fertility go hand in hand with permanent income for +the owner when the science that relates to farming is rightly used. +Experiment stations and practical farmers have developed a dependable +science within recent years, and there is no jarring of observed facts +when we get hold of the simple philosophy of it all. + +Natural Strength of Land.--Nearly all profitable farming in this +country is based upon the fundamental fact that our lands are +storehouses of fertility, and that this reserve of power is essential +to a successful agriculture. Most soils, no matter how unproductive +their condition to-day, have natural strength that we take into +account, either consciously or unconsciously. Some good farm methods +came into use thousands of years ago. Experience led to their +acceptance. They were adequate only because there was natural strength +in the land. Nature stored plant-food in more or less inert form and, +as availability has been gained, plants have grown. Our dependence +continues. + +Plant Constituents.--There are a few technical terms whose use cannot +be evaded in the few chapters on the use of lime and fertilizers. A +plant will not come to maturity unless it can obtain for its use +combinations of ten chemical elements. Agricultural land and the air +provide all these elements. If they were in abundance in available +forms, there would be no serious soil fertility problem. Some of their +names may not interest us. Six or seven of these elements are in such +abundance that we do not consider them. A farmer may say that when a +dairy cow has luxuriant blue-grass in June, and an abundance of pure +water, her wants are fully met. He omits mention of the air because it +is never lacking in the field. In the same way the land-owner may +forget the necessity of any kind of plant-food in the soil except +nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. Probably the lime is very +rarely deficient as a food for plants, and will be considered later +only as a means of making soils friendly to plant life. + +Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the three substances that may +not be in available form in sufficient amount for a growing crop. The +lack may be in all three, or in any two, or in any one, of these plant +constituents. The natural strength of the soil includes the small +percentage of these materials that may be available, and the relatively +large stores that nature has placed in the land in inert form as a +provision against waste. + +The thin covering of the earth that is known as the soil is +disintegrated rock, combined with organic matter. The original rock +"weathered," undergoing physical and chemical change. A long period of +time was required for this work, and for the mixing and shifting from +place to place that have occurred. Organic matter has been a factor in +the making of soils, and is in high degree a controlling one in their +production of food. + +Organic Matter.--Nature is resourceful and is constantly alert to +repair the wastes and mistakes of man. We may gain fundamental truth +about soil fertility through observance of her methods in restoring +land to a fertile condition. Our best success comes only when we work +with her. When a soil has been robbed by man, and has been abandoned on +account of inability to produce a profitable crop, the first thing +nature does is to produce a growth of weeds, bushes, briers, or aught +else of which the soil chances to have the seeds. It is nature's effort +to restore some organic matter--some humus-making material--to the +nearly helpless land. Vegetable matter, rotting on and in the soil, is +the life-giving principle. It unlocks a bit of the great store of inert +mineral plant-food during its growth and its decay. It is a solvent. +The mulch it provides favors the holding of moisture in the soil, and +it promotes friendly bacterial action. The productive power of most +farming land is proportionate to the amount of organic matter in it. +The casual observer, passing by farms, notes the presence or absence of +humus-making material by the color and structure of the soil, and +safely infers corresponding fertility or poverty. Organic matter is the +life of the soil. + +[Illustration: A good crop for a poor soil.] + +A great percentage of the food consumed by Europe and the Americas +continues to come out of nature's own stores in the soil, organic and +inorganic, without any assistance by man except in respect to selection +of seeds, planting, and tillage. The percentage grows less as the store +of original supplies grows less and population increases. Our science +has broadened as the need has grown greater. We have relatively few +acres remaining in the United States that do not require intelligent +treatment to insure an adequate supply of available plant-food. The +total area that has fallen below the line of profitable productiveness +is large. Other areas that never were highly productive must supplement +the lands originally fertile in order that human needs may be met. + +When soils have been robbed through the greed of man, nature is +handicapped in her effort to restore fertility by the absence of the +best seeds. Man's intelligent assistance is a necessity. Successful +farming involves such assistance of nature that the percentage of +vegetable matter in the soil shall be made high and kept high. There +must be such selection of plants for this purpose that the organic +matter will be rich in fertility, and at the same time their growth +must fit into a scheme of crop production that can yield profit to the +farmer. Soils produce plants primarily for their own needs. It is a +provision of nature to maintain and increase their productive power. +The land's share of its products is that part which is necessary to +this purpose. Skill in farming provides for this demand of the soil +while permitting the removal of a large amount of animal food within +the crop-rotation. Lack of skill is responsible for the depleted +condition of soils on a majority of our farms. The land's share of the +vegetation it has produced has been taken from it in large measure, and +no other organic matter has been given it in return. Its mineral store +is left inert, and the moisture supply is left uncontrolled. +Helplessness results. + +Drainage.--Productive soils are in a condition to admit air freely. The +presence of air in the soil is as necessary to the changes producing +availability of plant-food as it is to the changes essential to life in +the human body. A water-logged soil is a worthless one in respect to +the production of most valuable plants. The well-being of soil and +plants requires that the level of dead water be a considerable distance +below the surface. + +When a soil has recently grown trees, the rotting stump roots leave +cavities in the subsoil that permit the removal of some surplus water, +and the rotted wood and leaves that give distinctive character to new +land are absorbents of such water. As land becomes older, losing +natural means of drainage and the excellent physical condition due to +vegetable matter in it, the need of drainage grows greater. The +tramping of horses in the bottoms of furrows made by breaking-plows +often makes matters worse. The prompt removal of excessive moisture by +drains, and preferably by underdrains, is essential to profitable +farming in the case of most wet lands. The only exception is the land +on which may be grown the grasses that thrive fairly well under moist +conditions. + +Lime.--The stores of lime in the soil are not stable. The tendency of +lime in most of the states between the Missouri River and the Atlantic +seaboard is to get out of the soil. There is no evidence that lime is +not in sufficient quantity in most soils to feed crops adequately, but +within recent years we have learned that vast areas do not contain +enough lime in available form to keep the soil from becoming acid. Some +soils never were rich in lime, and these are the first to show evidence +of acidity. In our limestone areas, however, acid soil conditions are +developing year by year, limiting the growth of clover and affecting +the yields of other crops. + +The situation is a serious one just in so far as men refuse to +recognize the facts as they exist, and permit the limiting of crop +yields, and consequently of incomes, through the presence of harmful +acids. The natural corrective is lime, which combines with the acid and +leaves the soil friendly to all plant life and especially to the +clovers and other legumes that are necessary to profitable farming. +Nature is largely dependent upon man's assistance in the correction of +soil acidity. + +Crop-rotation.--A good crop-rotation favors high productiveness. One +kind of crop paves the way nicely for some other one. The land can be +occupied by living plants without any long intermissions. Organic +matter can be supplied without the use of an undue portion of the time. +The stores of plant-food throughout all the soil are more surely +reached by a variety of plants, differing in their habits of +root-growth. The injury from disease and insects is kept down to a +minimum. There is better distribution of the labor required by the +farm, and neglect of crops at critical times is escaped. The +maintenance of fertility is dependent much upon the use of a legume +that will furnish nitrogen from the air. A permanently successful +agriculture in our country must be based upon the use of legumes, and +crop-rotations would be demanded for this reason alone if none other +existed. + +Fertilizers.--When a crop is fed to livestock, and all the manure is +returned to the land that produced the crop without loss by leaching or +fermentation, there is a return to the land of four fifths of the +fertility, and a good form of organic matter is supplied. A portion of +the crops cannot be fed upon the farm, or otherwise the human race +would have only animal products for food. The welfare of the people +demands that a vast amount of the soil's crops be sold from the farms +producing them. This brings about a dependence upon the natural stores +of plant-food in the soil, which become available slowly, and upon +commercial fertilizers. + +There has been a disposition on the part of many farmers to regard +fertilizers only as stimulants, due to the irrational use of certain +materials, but a good commercial fertilizer is a carrier of some or all +of the necessary elements that we find in stable manures. They may +carry nitrogen, phosphoric acid, or potash,--any one or two or the +three,--and the three are the constituents that usually are lacking in +available forms in our soils. Examples of the best modern skill in +farming may be found in the rational selection and use of commercial +fertilizers. + +Tillage.--Man's ability to assist nature in the work of production +finds a notable illustration in the matter of tillage. Its purpose is +to provide right physical condition of the soil for the particular +class of plants that should be produced, while destroying the +competition of other plants that are for the time only weeds. Most +soils become too compact when left unstirred. The air cannot enter +freely, plant-roots cannot extend in every direction for food, the +water from rains cannot enter easily, there is escape of the moisture +in the ground, and weathering of the soil proceeds too slowly. The +methods used in plowing, harrowing, and later cultivations fix the +productive power of a soil for the season in large measure. + +Control of Soil Moisture.--The water in the soil is a consideration +that has priority over plant-food in the case of agricultural land. The +natural strength of the soil is sufficient to give some return to the +farmer in crops if the moisture content is right throughout the season. +The plant cannot feed unless water is present; the process of growth +ceases in the absence of moisture. One purpose of plowing is to +separate the particles of soil to a good depth so that water-holding +capacity may be increased. When the soil is compact, it will absorb and +hold only a very limited amount of moisture. We harrow deeply to +complete the work of the plow, and the roller is used to destroy all +cavities of undue size that would admit air too freely and thus rob the +land of its water. Later cultivations may be given to continue the +effect of the plow in preventing the soil from becoming too compact, +but usually should be required only to make a loose mulch that will +hold moisture in the ground, and to destroy the weeds that would +compete with the planted crop for water, food, and sunshine. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE NEED OF LIME + + +The Unproductive Farm.--When a soil expert visits an unproductive farm +to determine its needs, he gives his chief attention to four possible +factors in his problem: lack of drainage, of lime, of organic matter, +and of available plant-food. His first concern regards drainage. If the +water from rains is held in the surface by an impervious stratum +beneath, it is idle to spend money in other amendments until the +difficulty respecting drainage has been overcome. A water-logged soil +is helpless. It cannot provide available plant-food, air, and warmth to +plants. Under-drainage is urgently demanded when the level of dead +water in the soil is near the surface. The area needing drainage is +larger than most land-owners believe, and it increases as soils become +older. On the other hand, the requirements of lime, organic matter, and +available plant-food are so nearly universal, in the case of +unproductive land in the eastern half of the United States, that they +are here given prior consideration, and drainage is discussed in +another place when methods of controlling soil moisture are described. +The production of organic matter is so important to depleted soils, and +is so dependent upon the absence of soil acidity, that the right use of +lime on land claims our first interest. + +Soil Acidity.--Lime performs various offices in the soil, but farmers +should be concerned chiefly about only one, and that is the destruction +of acids and poisons that make the soil unfriendly to most forms of +plant life, including the clovers, alfalfa, and other legumes. Lime was +put into all soils by nature. Large areas were originally very rich in +lime, while other areas of the eastern half of the United States never +were well supplied. Within the last ten years it has been definitely +determined that a large part of this vast territory has an actual lime +deficiency, as measured by its inability to remain alkaline or "sweet." +Many of the noted limestone valleys show marked soil acidity. There has +been exhaustion of the lime that was in a state available for union +with the acids that constantly form in various ways. The area of soil +thus deficient grows greater year by year, and it can be only a matter +of time when nearly all of the eastern half of this country will have +production limited by this deficiency unless applications of lime in +some form are made. When owners of soil that remains rich in lime do +not accept this statement, no harm results, as their land does not need +lime. On the other hand are tens of thousands of land-owners who do not +recognize the need of lime that now exists in their soils, and suffer a +loss of income which they would attribute to other causes. + +Irrational Use of Lime.--Some refusal to accept the facts respecting +soil acidity and its means of correction is due to a prejudice that was +created by an unwise use of lime in the past. Owners of stiff limestone +soils learned in an early day that a heavy application of caustic lime +would increase crop production. It caused such flocculation of the fine +particles in their stiff soils that physical condition was improved, +and it made the organic matter in the soil quickly available as +plant-food. The immediate result was greater crop-producing power in +the soil, and dependence upon lime as a fertilizer resulted. The +vegetable matter was used up, some of the more available mineral +plant-food was changed into soluble forms, and in the course of years +partial soil exhaustion resulted. The heavy applications of lime, +unattended by additions of organic matter in the form of clover sods +and stable manure, produced a natural result, but one that was not +anticipated by the farmers. The prejudice against the use of lime on +land was based on the effects of this irrational practice. + +There are land-owners who are not concerned with present-day knowledge +regarding soil acidity because they cannot believe that it has any +bearing upon the state of their soils. They know that clover sods were +easily produced on their land within their remembrance, and that their +soils are of limestone origin. As the clovers demand lime, these two +facts appear to them final. The failures of the clovers in the last ten +or twenty years they incline to attribute to adverse seasons, poor +seed, or the prevalence of weed pests. They do not realize that much +land passes out of the alkaline class into the acid one every year. The +loss of lime is continuous. Exhaustion of the supply capable of +combining with the harmful acids finally results, and with the +accumulation of acid comes partial clover failure, a deficiency in rich +organic matter, a limiting of all crop yields, and an inability to +remain in a state of profitable production. + +Lime deficiency and its resulting ills would not exist as generally as +is now the case if the application of lime to land were not expensive +and disagreeable. These are deterrent features of wide influence. There +continues hope that the clover will grow successfully, as occasionally +occurs in a favorable season, despite the presence of some acid. The +limitation of yields of other staple crops is not attributed to the +lack of lime, and the proper soil amendment is not given to the land. + +Where Clover is not Wanted.--The ability to grow heavy red clover is a +practical assurance that the soil's content of lime is sufficiently +high. When clover fails on account of a lime deficiency, the work of +applying lime may not be escaped by a shift in the farm scheme that +permits the elimination of clover. The clover failure is an index of a +condition that limits the yields of all staple crops. The lack of lime +checks the activity of bacteria whose office it is to prepare +plant-food for use. The stable manure or sods decompose less readily +and give smaller results. Soil poisons accumulate. Mineral plant-food +in the soils becomes available more slowly. Physical condition grows +worse. + +The limitations of the value of manure and commercial fertilizers +applied to land that has a lime deficiency have illustration in an +experiment reported by the Cornell station: + +The soil was once a fertile loam that had become very poor. A part was +given an application of lime, and similar land at its side was left +unlimed. The land without lime and fertilizer of any kind made a yield +of 1824 pounds of clover hay per acre. A complete fertilizer on the +unlimed land made the yield 2235 pounds, and 15 tons of manure on the +unlimed land made the yield 2091 pounds. + +Where lime had been applied, the unfertilized land yielded 3852 pounds +per acre, the fertilized, 4085 pounds, and the manured, 4976 pounds. +The manure and fertilizer were nearly inactive in the acid soil. The +lime enabled the plants to obtain benefit from the plant-food. + +Determining Lime Requirement.--It is wasteful to apply lime on land +that does not need it. As has been said, the man who can grow heavy +clover sods has assurance that the lime content of his soil is +satisfactory. This is a test that has as much practical value as the +analysis of a skillful chemist. The owner of such land may dismiss the +matter of liming from his attention so far as acidity is concerned, +though it is a reasonable expectation that a deficiency will appear at +some time in the future. Experience is the basis of such a forecast. +Just as coal was stored for the benefit of human beings, so was lime +placed in store as a supply for soils when their unstable content would +be gone. + +The only ones that need be concerned with the question of lime for +soils are those who cannot secure good growths of the clovers and other +legumes. Putting aside past experience, they should learn whether their +soils are now acid. Practical farmers may judge by the character of the +vegetation and not fail to be right nine times out of ten. Where land +has drainage, and a fairly good amount of available fertility, as +evidenced by growths of grass, a failure of red clover leads +immediately to a strong suspicion that lime is lacking. If alsike +clover grows more readily than the red clover, the probability of +acidity grows stronger because the alsike can thrive under more acid +soil conditions than can the red. Acid soils favor red-top grass rather +than timothy. Sorrel is a weed that thrives in both alkaline and acid +soils, and its presence would not be an index if it could stand +competition with clover in an alkaline soil. The clover can crowd it +out if the ground is not too badly infested with seed, and even then +the sorrel must finally give way. Where sorrel and plantain cover the +ground that has been seeded to clover and grass, the evidence is strong +that the soil conditions are unfriendly to the better plants on account +of a lime deficiency. The experienced farmer who notes the inclination +of his soil to favor alsike clover, red-top, sorrel, and plantain +should infer that lime is lacking. If doubt continues, he should make a +test. + +The Litmus-paper Test.--A test of fair reliability may be made with +litmus paper. A package of blue litmus paper can be bought for a few +cents at any drug store. This paper will turn pink when brought into +contact with an acid, and will return to a blue if placed in +lime-water. A drop of vinegar on a sheet of the paper will bring an +immediate change to pink. If the pink sheet be placed in lime-water, +the effect of the lime in correcting the acidity will be evidenced by +the return in color to blue. + +To test the soil, a sample of it may be put into a basin and moistened +with rain-water. Several sheets of the blue litmus paper should be +buried in the mud, care being used that the hands are clean and dry. +When one sheet is removed within a few seconds and rinsed with +rain-water, if any pink shows, there is free acid present. Another +sheet should be taken out in five minutes. The rapidity with which the +color changes, and the intensity of the color, are indicative of the +degree of acidity, and aid the judgment in determining how much lime +should be used. If a sheet of the paper retains its blue color in the +soil for twenty minutes, there probably is no lime deficiency. The test +should be made with samples of soil from various parts of the field, +and they should be taken beneath the surface. One just criticism of +this test is that while no acidity may be shown, the lime content may +be too low for safety. + +[Illustration: Red clover on limed and unlimed land.] + +A Practical Test.--The importance of alkalinity in soils is so great, +and the prevalence of acidity has such wide-spread influence to-day, +limiting the value of the clovers on a majority of our farms, that a +simple and more convincing test is suggested here. Every owner of land +that is not satisfactorily productive may learn the state of his soil +respecting lime requirement at small expense. When a field is being +prepared for seeding to the grain crop with which clover will be sown, +a plat containing four square rods should be measured off, and +preferably this should be away from the border to insure even soil +conditions. A bushel of lump-lime, weighing eighty pounds, should be +slaked and evenly distributed over the surface of the plat of ground. +It can be broadcasted by hand if a spreader is not available, and mixed +with the surface soil while in a powdered state. The plat of ground +should be left as firm as the remainder of the field, so that all +conditions may be even for the test. The appearance of the clover the +following year will determine whether lime was needed or not. There is +no reason why any one should remain in doubt regarding the lime +requirement of his fields. If income is limited by such a cause, the +fact should be known as soon as possible. + +Duration of Effect.--Soil acidity is not permanently corrected by a +lime application. The original supply failed to prove lasting, and the +relatively small amount given the land in an application will become +exhausted. The duration depends upon the degree of acidity, the nature +of the soil and its crops, and the size of the application. Experiments +at the Pennsylvania experiment station have shown that an application +only in sufficient amount to correct the existing acidity at the time +of application will not maintain an alkaline condition in the soil, +even for a few months. There must be some excess at hand to unite with +acids as formed later in the crop-rotation, or limings must be given at +short intervals of time to maintain alkaline conditions. + +Experience causes us to assume that enough lime should be applied at +one time to meet all requirements for a single crop-rotation of four, +five, or six years, and, wherever lime is cheap, the unpleasant +character of the labor inclines one to make the application in +sufficient amount to last through two such rotations. It is a +reasonable assumption, however, that more waste results from the +heavier applications at long intervals than from light applications at +short intervals. In any event need will return, and soil acidity will +again limit income if applications do not continue to be made. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +APPLYING LIME + + +Forms of Lime.--There is unnecessary confusion in the mind of the +public regarding the forms of lime that should be used. If amounts +greatly in excess of needs were being applied, the form would be a +matter of concern. There would arise the question of soil injury that +might result from the use of the lime in caustic form. Again, if +pulverized limestone were used, a very heavy application would bring up +the question of coarseness in order that waste by leaching might be +escaped. Most farms needing lime do not have cheap supplies, and the +consideration is to secure soil alkalinity at a cost that will not be +excessive. Freight rates and the cost of hauling to the fields, added +to first cost of the lime, limit applications on most farms to the +necessities of a single crop-rotation which includes clover, or, at the +most, to two crop-rotations. Under these circumstances it is best to +let cost of correction of soil acidity determine the form of lime to be +used. + +The material that will render the soil friendly to clover for the least +money is the right one to select. We need to be concerned only with the +relative efficiencies of the various forms of lime, as measured in +terms of money. That which will most cheaply restore heavy clover +growths to the land is the form of lime to be desired. The contentions +of salesmen may well be disregarded as they produce confusion and delay +a work that is important to the farmer. + +Definitions.--The use of the various forms of lime will become general, +and the terms employed to designate them should be understood. They +vary in their content of acid-correcting material, and their correct +names should be used with accuracy. + +_Stone-lime_, often called lump-lime or unslaked lime, or calcium oxide +or CaO, is a form widely known, and may be taken as a standard. It is +the ordinary lime of commerce, and is obtained by the burning of +limestone. One hundred pounds of pure limestone will produce 56 pounds +of stone-lime (CaO). + +_Pulverized lime_, often called ground lime, is stone-lime after being +pulverized to permit even distribution. When it is fully exposed to the +air or moisture, it slakes and doubles in volume. + +_Hydrated lime_, often called slaked lime, is a combination of +stone-lime and water. The water causes an increase in weight of 32 per +cent, 56 pounds of stone-lime becoming 74 pounds of the hydrate. + +_Pulverized limestone_, often called carbonate of lime, is the unburned +limestone made fine so that good distribution may be possible. + +_Air-slaked lime_, often called carbonate of lime, is stone-lime or +hydrated lime combined with carbonic acid from the air, and thereby +increased in weight. Fifty-six pounds of stone-lime, or 74 pounds of +hydrated lime, become 100 pounds of air-slaked lime. + +_Agricultural lime_, or land-lime, may embrace anything that the +manufacturer of lime chooses to market. It may be reasonably pure +unslaked lime, or it may have less value than a finely pulverized pure +limestone. There is a custom of grinding the core, or partially burned +limestone of the kiln, together with impurities removed from builders' +lime, and with this may be put some air-slaked lime. Some manufacturers +market under this name a lime of excellent value. There is no standard, +and one should not pay more than a finely pulverized pure limestone +would cost unless he knows that the content of fresh burned lime is +high. + +The element with which we are concerned in any of these forms of lime +is calcium. It is the base whose union with the acids destroys the +latter. It should be obvious that the addition of water to stone-lime, +which adds weight and causes 56 pounds of the stone-lime to become 74 +pounds of hydrated lime, adds no calcium. Likewise the change to the +air-slaked condition adds no calcium, but again adds weight. + +The Kind to Apply.--If a soil contains free acid, the amount of calcium +needed is definite. The form of lime that can supply the need in that +particular field at least expenditure of money and trouble is the one +to be selected. A ton of stone-lime, or pulverized lime, can correct as +much acid as 2640 pounds of hydrated lime or 3570 pounds of pulverized +limestone, if all the original material was pure. + +In other words, if the value of a given weight of pulverized limestone +is placed at 100, the value of the same weight of hydrated lime would +be 132 and the value of stone-lime would be 180, when each was finely +divided and distributed throughout the surface soil. + +The Fineness of Limestone.--Experiments at the Pennsylvania experiment +station have shown that limestone has practically immediate +availability in an acid soil if all of it has ability to pass through a +screen having 60 meshes to the linear inch. Much of the limestone +meeting this test doubtless is fine enough to pass through an 100-mesh +screen. The requirement that a 60-mesh screen be used in testing is a +satisfactory one to the buyer that wants immediate results in the +field. A coarser product must be used in larger amount per acre, as +only the fine particles are available at once, and the object of the +application is to correct all the acidity. Where a coarse product, +containing some fine particles, can be used at such a low price per ton +that the application may consist of a large number of tons per acre, +the practice may be commended, but the essential thing is immediate +results, and only finely divided limestone can give them. Any long +railway or wagon haul makes a heavy application of coarsely pulverized +limestone inexpedient. + +Hydrated Lime.--Many salesmen are too enthusiastic in their claims for +hydrated lime. It has advantages over pulverized limestone, stone-lime, +and pulverized lime, and there are disadvantages. The buyer of +pulverized limestone pays for the haul on 100 pounds of material to get +the 56 pounds of lime carried, while 74 pounds of the hydrate furnish +the same amount of actual lime, if all of it is a hydrate. While the +hydrate contains less strength than the stone-lime, it is in good +physical condition for distribution, and the stone-lime must be slaked. +The buyer will bear in mind, moreover, that much of the stone-lime +which is burned on farms comes from limestone that is not very pure, +and all impurity is waste. Most manufacturers of the hydrate locate +their costly plants where the limestone is relatively pure. Prudent +business reasons dictate such a course. A careful manufacturer of +hydrated lime takes out imperfectly burned and other faulty material +with screens. These advantages have some weight, but the fact remains +that a ton of pure stone-lime has considerably more acid-correcting +power than a ton of the hydrate. + +Stone-lime.--Stone or lump-lime is composed of the 56 per cent of a +pure limestone that gives value to the limestone. Forty-four pounds of +waste material were driven off in the burning. Where railway or wagon +hauls are costly, the purchase of stone-lime is indicated. There is +advantage in getting this lime in pulverized form, provided it can be +distributed in the soil before moisture from the air induces slaking +and consequent bursting of the packages. The necessity of rapid +handling has limited the popularity of pulverized unslaked lime, but no +other form is equal to it when it is wholly unslaked. Some +manufacturers grind the partially burned limestone often found in +kilns, and furnish goods little better than pulverized limestone. + +The slaking of stone-lime should be done in a large pile, and the +distribution may be made with lime-spreaders. When the application is +fairly heavy, a manure-spreader does satisfactory work. A good +lime-spreader is to be desired, but care must be used to remove any +stones or similar impurities in the slaked lime when filling it. Such +spreaders are on the market. + +The practice of slaking lime in small piles in the field is wasteful. +It is difficult to reduce all the lime to a fine powder and to make +even distribution over the surface. Any excess of water from rains +puddles some of the lime, destroying practically all its immediate +effectiveness. Distribution with shovels is necessarily imperfect. + +The labor of slaking stone-lime and the difficulty in distribution are +two factors to be considered when selecting the form of lime to be +used. They may counter-balance in some instances the higher percentage +of actual lime when comparison is made with the hydrate. That is a +question to be decided by the buyer. He must be willing to use methods +that will secure even distribution. The prevailing practice, however, +of marketing the hydrate at a much higher price per ton than the +stone-lime should prevent sales to farmers. The price paid for ease of +handling is too great when purchase of the hydrate is made under such +circumstances. It is better to do the slaking at home, furnishing the +added weight of 32 per cent in water on the farm. + +Ashes.--Hard-wood ashes have ceased to have much importance as a source +of lime for land, but their use is held in high esteem even by those +who regard fertilizers as mere stimulants and doubt the efficiency of +lime. Hard-wood ashes, unleached, clean and dry, are valuable for acid +soils. Their content of potash, which is variable and averages about 4 +per cent, formerly was given all the credit for the soil improvement +and increased clover growth that resulted from their use. Tests with +other carriers of potash have shown that the potash probably produced +only a small part of the effect noted, and the benefit is attributable +to the lime in the ashes which exists in an effective form. The content +of lime is variable, and largely so on account of the percentage of +moisture and dirt that may be found in most ashes, and when no analysis +has been made, the estimate of value should not be based on more than +30 to 40 per cent of carbonate of lime. The price of ashes runs so +high, as a result of prejudice in favor of this well-known kind of soil +amendment, that it rarely is advisable to buy them. Pure lime is a +cheaper means of correcting the soil acidity, and the sulphate or the +muriate of potash is by far the cheaper source of potash. + +Marl.--Marls vary widely in composition. When quite pure, they contain +90 or more per cent of carbonate of lime, and have a value per ton +about equal to finely pulverized limestone, and near half the value per +ton of stone-lime. There are marls that are carriers of potash and +phosphoric acid, and are to be valued accordingly as fertilizers. + +Magnesian Lime.--Some limestone is a nearly pure calcium compound, and +yields a pure lime, while much limestone contains a high percentage of +magnesia. The latter is preferred by manufacturers who furnish +pulverized lime because it does not slake readily, and is less liable +to burst the packages before required for use. A pound of magnesian +lime will correct a little more acid than a pound of pure lime, and no +preference may be shown the latter on that score. There are soils in +which the proportion of magnesia to pure lime is too great for best +results with some plants, as plant biologists assure us, but there is +too little definite information respecting these soils to justify one +in paying more for a high calcium lime than for a magnesian lime when +it is to be used on acid land. The day may come when more will be +known, but the rational selection to-day is the material that will do +the required work in the soil for the least money. + +Amount per Acre.--The amount of lime that should be applied to an acre +of land depends upon the degree of its acidity, the nature of the soil, +the cheapness of the lime, and the character of the crops to be grown. +The actual requirement for the moment could be determined by a chemical +test, but the application should carry to the soil an amount in excess +of immediate requirement. When clover has ceased to grow within recent +years, it is a fair inference that the deficiency, if it exists, has +not become great. When sorrel and plantain have gained a strong +foothold, indicating that good grasses are unable to replace clover, +the degree of acidity probably is higher. The results of tests at +experiment stations and on farms show that 1000 pounds of pulverized +lime, or one ton of pulverized limestone, evenly distributed throughout +the surface soil, can restore clover to the crop-rotation on much land. +This is an application so light that a state of alkalinity cannot be +long retained. It is better to apply the equivalent of a ton of +stone-lime in the case of all heavy soils that have shown any acidity. +Where lime is low in price, 3000 pounds of stone-lime, or its +equivalent in any other form of lime, is advised, the belief being that +such an application will maintain good soil conditions through two +crop-rotations, or eight to ten years. This amount can be applied quite +successfully with a manure-spreader, and meets the convenience of the +man who burns his own lime and does not want to screen it for use in a +lime-spreader. The man who must buy his lime, and pay a freight charge +upon it, will find it better to use only a ton per acre. This advice +applies to heavy soils. A light, sandy soil should be given only a +small application, as otherwise physical condition may be injured. The +lime, used in excess, has an undue binding effect upon the sand. An +application of 1000 pounds of stone-lime per acre can be made with +safety. + +Time of Application.--The use of lime on land should be associated in +the land-owner's thoughts with the growing of clover. It does help soil +conditions so that more grain can be produced, but if it is permitted +to displace the use of fertilizers, and does not lead to the growth of +organic matter, harm will result in the end. Lime should be applied to +secure clover, and therefore it should be mixed with the soil before +the clover is sown. The application may be made when fitting the +seed-bed for the grain with which clover usually is seeded, or may be +given a year or two years previous to that time. The important point is +to have the soil friendly to plant life when a sod is to be made. + +Lime should be put on ground always after the plowing, and it should be +well mixed with the surface soil. Even distribution is just as +important in its case as in that of fertilizers. A good practice is to +break a sod for corn, harrowing and rolling once, and then to put on +the lime. A cut-away or disk harrow should be used to mix the lime with +the soil before any moisture causes it to cake. When large crumbs form, +immediate efficiency is lost. + +If the application is light, and may barely be equal to immediate +demand, it is better practice to put on the lime when preparing the +seed-bed for the wheat or other small grain in which the clover will be +sown. It should never be mixed with the fertilizer nor applied with the +seed. The lime should go into the soil a few days, or more, prior to +the seeding. The soil having been put into a condition favorable to +plant life, the seeding and the use of commercial fertilizers should +proceed as usual. + +Lime should never be mixed with manure in the open air, but it is good +practice to plow manure down, and then to use lime as indicated above, +if needed. If manure and lime must be used after the land has been +plowed, the lime should be disked well into the soil before the manure +is applied, and it is advisable that the interval between the two +applications be made as long as possible. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +ORGANIC MATTER + + +Office of Organic Matter.--The restoration of an impoverished soil to a +productive state usually is a simple matter so far as method is +concerned. It may be a difficult problem for the individual owner on +account of expense or time involved, but he has only a few factors in +his problem. Assuming that there is good drainage, and that the lime +requirement has been met, the most important consideration is organic +matter. A profitable agriculture is dependent upon a high percentage of +humus in the soil. Average yields of crops are low in this country +chiefly because the humus-content has been greatly reduced by bad +farming methods. + +[Illustration: Turning down organic matter with a gang plow.] + +Nature uses organic matter in the following ways: + + 1. To give good physical condition to the soil. The practical + farmer appreciates the importance of this quality in a soil. Clayey + soils are composed of fine particles that adhere to each other. + They are compact, excluding air and failing to absorb the water + that should be held in them. The excess of water finally is lost + by evaporation, and the sticky mass becomes dry and hard. The + incorporation of organic matter with clay or silt changes the + character of such land, breaking up the mass, and giving it the + porous condition so essential to productiveness. Improved physical + condition is likewise given to a sandy soil, the humus binding the + particles together. + + 2. To make the soil retentive of moisture. Yields of crops are + limited more by lack of a constant and adequate supply of moisture + throughout the growing season than by any other one factor. Decayed + organic matter has great capacity for holding moisture, and in some + measure should supply the water needed during periods of light + rainfall. + + 3. To serve, directly and indirectly, as a solvent of the inert + plant-food in the soil that is known as the "natural strength" of + the land. Its acids do this work directly, and by its presence it + makes possible the work of the friendly bacteria that are man's + chief allies in maintaining soil fertility. + + 4. To furnish plant-food directly to growing plants. Even when it + has been produced from the soil supplies alone, there is great gain + because the growing crop must have immediately available supplies. + Many of the plants used in providing humus for the soil are better + foragers for fertility than other plants that follow, sending their + roots deeper into the subsoil or using more inert forms of + fertility. + +The Legumes.--Any plant that grows and rots in the soil adds to the +productive power of the land if lime is present, but plants differ in +value as makers of humus. There are only ten essential constituents of +plant-food, and the soil contains only four that concern us because the +others are always present in abundance. If lime has been applied to +give to the soil a condition friendly to plant life, we are concerned +with three constituents only, viz. nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and +potash. The last two are minerals and cannot come from the air. They +must be drawn from original stores in the soil or be obtained from +outside sources in the form of fertilizers. The nitrogen is in the air +in abundance, but plants cannot draw directly from this store in any +appreciable amount. The soil supply is usually light because nitrogen +is unstable in character and has escaped from all agricultural land in +vast amounts during past ages. + +Profitable farming is based upon the great fact that we have one class +of plants which can use bacteria to work over the nitrogen of the air +into a form available for their use, and the store of nitrogen thus +gained can be added to the soil's supply for future crops. These +plants, known as legumes, embrace the clovers, alfalfa, the vetches, +peas, beans, and many others of less value. They provide not only the +organic matter so much needed by all thin soils, but at the same time +they are the means of adding to the soil large amounts of the one +element of plant-food that is most costly, most unstable, and most +deficient in poor soils. Their ability to secure nitrogen for their own +growth in poor land also is a prime consideration in their selection +for soil improvement, assuring a supply of organic matter where +otherwise partial failure would occur. + +Storing Nitrogen.--Man needs protection from his own greed, and +nature's checks are his salvation. An illustration is afforded in the +case of legumes grown for the maintenance of soil fertility. The +clovers and some other legumes are seeded primarily for the benefit of +the soil. The need of organic matter is recognized, and a cheap supply +of nitrogen is wanted for other crops in the rotation. The purpose of +the seeding is praiseworthy, but if all of the product were available +for use off the land, observation teaches that the soil producing the +crop probably would fare badly. The crops grown prior to the season +devoted to legumes proclaim their need of better soil conditions, more +organic matter, and more nitrogen, but the legumes, appropriating +nitrogen for themselves, give to the land a more prosperous appearance, +and the disposition to harvest everything that is in sight prevails. + +There is the excusing intention to return to the soil the residue from +feeding, which should be nearly as valuable as the original material, +while the fact usually is that faulty handling of the manure results in +heavy loss, and the distribution of the remainder is imperfect. There +is no happier provision of nature for the guarding of the soil's +interests than the unavailability for man's direct use of a +considerable part of most plants, thus saving to the land a portion of +its share of its products. The humus obtained from plant-roots, +stubble, and fallen leaves forms a large percentage of all the humus +obtained by land whose fertility is not well guarded by owners. This +proportion is large in some legumes, amounting to 30 or 40 per cent in +the case of red and mammoth clover. + +The Right Bacteria.--The word "bacteria" has had a grudging admission +to the vocabulary of practical farmers, and the reason is easily +stated. The knowledge of bacteria and their work is recent and limited. +They are many in kind, and scientists are only in the midst of their +discoveries. The practical farmer does well to let bacteriologists +monopolize interest in the whole subject except in so far as he can +provide some conditions that have been demonstrated to be profitable. +The work of bacteria must come more and more into consideration by the +farmer because nature uses them to produce a vast amount of the change +that is going on around us. + +In consideration of the value of legumes we must take into account the +bacteria which they have associated with them, and through which they +obtain the atmospheric nitrogen. This would be a negligible matter, it +may be, if all legumes made use of the same kind of bacteria. It is +true that the bacteria must have favorable soil conditions, but they +are the same favorable conditions that our plants require. A fact of +importance to the farmer is that the bacteria which thrive on the roots +of some legumes will not serve other legumes. This is a reason for many +failures of alfalfa, crimson clover, the soybean, the cowpea, hairy +vetch, and other legumes new to the region. + +Soil Inoculation.--The belief that the right kind of bacteria may be +absent from the soil when a new legume is seeded, and that they should +be supplied directly to the soil, has failed in ready acceptance +because examples of success without such inoculation are not uncommon. +Even if the explanation of such success is not easy, the fact remains +that legumes new to a region usually fail to find and develop a supply +of bacteria adequate for a full yield, and some of these legumes, of +which alfalfa is an example, make a nearly total failure when seeded +for the first time without soil inoculation. Experiment stations and +thousands of practical farmers have learned by field tests that the +difference between success and failure under otherwise similar +conditions often has been due to the introduction of the right bacteria +into the soil before the seeding was made. + +Explanations offered for any phenomenon may later become embarrassing +in the light of new knowledge. We do not really need to know why an +occasional soil is supplied with the bacteria of a legume new to it. We +have learned that the bacteria of sweet clover serve alfalfa, and this +accounts for the inoculation of some regions in the east. We believe +that some bacteria are carried in the dust on the seed, and produce +partial inoculation. Other causes are more obscure. The cowpea trails +on the ground, and carries its bacteria more successfully than the +soybean. Most legumes require a soil artificially inoculated when +brought into a new region, failing otherwise in some degree to make +full growth. + +Method of Inoculation.--The bacteria can be transferred to a new field +by spreading soil taken from a field that has been growing the legume +successfully. The surface soil is removed to a depth of three inches, +and the next layer of soil is taken, as it contains the highest +percentage of bacteria. They develop in the nodules found on the +feeding roots of the plants. The soil is pulverized and applied at the +rate of 200 pounds per acre broadcast. If the inoculated soil is near +at hand and inexpensive, 500 pounds should be used in order that the +chance of quick inoculation may be increased. The soil should be spread +when the sun's rays are not hot, and covered at once with a harrow, as +drying injures vitality. The soil may be broadcasted by hand or applied +with a fertilizer distributer. The work may be done at any time while +preparing the seed-bed. The bacteria will quickly begin to develop on +the roots of the young plants, and nodules may be seen in some +instances before the plants are four weeks old. + +Pure cultures may be used for inoculation. Some commercial concerns +made failures and brought the use of pure cultures into disrepute a few +years ago, but methods now are more nearly perfect, and it is possible +to buy the cultures of all the legumes and to use them with success. + +Prices continue too high to make the pure cultures attractive to those +who can obtain inoculated soil with ease. If land has been producing +vigorous plants, and if it contains no weeds or disease new to the land +to be seeded, its soil offers the most desirable means of transferring +the bacteria. + +The claim is made by some producers of pure cultures that their +bacteria are selected for virility, and should be used to displace +those found in the farmer's fields. The chances are that, if soil +conditions are good, the bacteria present in the soil are virile, and +if the conditions are bad, the pure cultures will not thrive. All +eastern land is supplied with red clover bacteria, just as some western +land possesses alfalfa bacteria, and partial clover failure has causes +wholly apart from the character of its bacteria. + +We do not have definite knowledge concerning duration of inoculation +nor the manner in which it is maintained when legumes are not growing, +but we do know that when a legume has once made vigorous growth in a +field, the soil will remain inoculated for a long term of years. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE CLOVERS + + +Red Clover.--Wherever red clover thrives there is no more valuable +plant than this legume for making and keeping soils productive under +ordinary crop-rotations. The tyro in farming finds his neighbors +conservative in thought and method, and may rightly see room for +improvement. He naturally turns to new crops that are receiving much +exploitation, but should bear in mind that the world nowhere has found +a superior to red clover as a combined fertilizing and forage crop for +use in short rotations. Farmers turn aside from it because it turns +aside from them. There has been increasing clover failure in our older +states for a long term of years. It has become the rule to seed to +timothy with the clover in the short crop-rotations as well as in the +longer ones, and chiefly for the reason that clover seeding has become +no longer dependable. In many regions the proportion of timothy seed +used per acre has been made large because the clover would not surely +grow. In the winter-wheat belt, where the custom has been to make such +seedings with wheat, timothy being sown in the fall and clover the next +spring, this increase in the timothy has made matters worse for the +clover, but it has helped to insure a sod and a hay crop. "Clover +sickness," supposedly resulting from close clover rotations, and the +prevalence of plantain and other weeds, have been assigned as a partial +cause of clover failure. It is only within recent years that the true +cause of much failure has been recognized. + +Clover and Acid Soils.--There are limited areas in which some clover +disease has flourished, and in some years insect attacks are serious. +Barring these factors which have relatively small importance when the +entire clover area is taken into account, the causes of clover failure +are under the farmer's control. The need of drainage increases, and the +deficiency in organic matter becomes more marked. The sale of hay and +straw, and especially the loss of liquid manures in stables, have +robbed many farms. These are adverse influences upon clover seedings, +but the most important handicap to clover is soil acidity. There is sad +waste when high-priced clover seed is put into land so sour that clover +bacteria cannot thrive, and there is ten-fold more waste in letting +land fail to obtain the organic matter and nitrogen clover should +supply. When land-owners refuse to let their soils remain deficient in +lime, clover will come into a prominence in our agriculture that it +never previously has known. + +Methods of Seeding.--It is a common practice to sow clover in the +spring, either with spring grain or with wheat or rye previously seeded +in the fall. This method has much to commend it. The cost of making the +seed-bed is transferred to the grain crop, and there is little outlay +other than the cost of seed. Wheat and rye offer better chances to the +young clover plants than do the oat crop which shades the soil densely +and ripens later in the summer. The amount of seed that should be used +depends upon the soil, the length of time the sod will stand, and the +purpose in growing the clover. When soil fertility is the one +consideration, 12 to 15 pounds of bright, plump medium red clover seed +per acre should be sown. A fuller discussion of the principles involved +in making a sod and of seed mixtures is given in Chapters VII and VIII. + +Fertility Value.--Attempts have been made to express the actual value +of a good clover crop to the soil in terms of money. The number of +pounds of matter in the roots and stubble has been determined, and +analyses show the percentage of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash +contained. The two crops harvested in the second year of its growth +likewise have their content of plant-food determined. If the total +amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash have their values +fixed by multiplying the number of pounds of each ingredient of +plant-food by their respective market values, as is the practice in the +case of commercial fertilizers, a total valuation may be placed upon +the clover, roots and top, as a fertilizer. Such valuation is so +misleading that it affords no true guidance to the farmer. In the first +place, the phosphoric acid and potash were taken out of the soil, and +while some part of these materials may have been without immediate +value to another crop until used by the clover, no one knows how much +value was given to them by the action of the clover. Again, no one +knows what percentage of the nitrogen in the clover came from the air, +and how much was drawn from the soil's stores. The proportion varies +with the fertility of the land, the percentage of nitrogen taken from +the air being greater in the case of badly depleted soils. + +A big factor of error is found in the valuations of the ingredients +found in the crop. All plant-food is worth to the farmer only what he +can get out of it. He may be able to use 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre +in the form of nitrate of soda, at 18 cents a pound, when growing a +certain crop, but could not afford to buy, at market price of organic +nitrogen, all the nitrogen found in the clover crop, and therefore it +does not have that value to him. + +On the other hand, these estimates do not embrace the great benefit to +the physical condition of the soil that results from the incorporation +of a large amount of vegetable matter. + +Discussion has been given to this phase of the question in the interest +of accuracy. Values are only relative. The practical farmer can +determine the estimate he should put upon clover only by noting its +effect upon yields in the crop-rotation upon his own farm. It is our +best means of getting nitrogen from the air, it provides a large amount +of organic matter, it feeds in subsoil as well as in top soil, bringing +up fertility and filling all the soil with roots that affect physical +condition favorably, and it provides a feed for livestock that gives a +rich manure. + +[Illustration: Red clover on the farm of P. S. Lewis and Sons, Point +Pleasant, W. Va.] + +Taking the Crops off the Land.--The feeding value of clover hay is so +great that the livestock farmer cannot afford to leave a crop of clover +on the ground as a fertilizer. The second crop of red clover produces +the seed, and, if the yield is good, is very profitable at the prices +for seed prevailing within recent years. The amount of plant-food taken +off in the hay and seed crops would have relatively small importance if +manure and haulm were returned without unnecessary waste. Van Slyke +states that about one third of the entire plant-food value is contained +in the roots, while 35 to 40 per cent of the nitrogen is found in the +roots and stubble. Hall instances one experiment at Rothamstead in +which the removal of 151 pounds of nitrogen in the clover hay in one +year left the soil enough richer than land by its side to produce 50 +per cent more grain the next year. He cites another experiment in which +the removal of three tons of clover hay left the soil so well supplied +with nitrogen that its crop of Swede turnips two years later was over +one third better than that of land which had not grown clover, the +application of phosphoric acid and potash being the same. When two tons +of well-cured clover hay are harvested in June, removing about 80 +pounds of nitrogen, 45 to 50 pounds are left for the soil. The amounts +of potash are about the same, while phosphoric acid is much less in +amount. + +Physical Benefit of the Roots.--While the roots and stubble contain +less than two fifths of the total plant-food in a clover crop, one may +not safely infer that the removal of the crop for hay reduces the +beneficial effect of the clover to the soil fully 60 per cent, or more. +The roots break up the soil in a way not possible to a mass of tops +plowed down. They improve the physical condition of the subsoil as well +as the top soil. The amount of the benefit depends in part upon the +nature of the land. Its value cannot be surely determined, but the +facts are called to mind as an aid to judgment in deciding upon the +method of handling the clover crop. + +Used as a Green Manure.--Where dependence must be placed upon clover as +a fertilizer, little or no manure being returned to the land, at least +one of the two clover crops within the year should be left on the land. +The maximum benefit from clover, when left on the land, can be obtained +by clipping it before it is sufficiently heavy to smother the plants, +leaving it as a mulch. When the cutter-bar of the mower is tilted +upward, the danger of smothering is reduced. Truckers, remote from +supplies of manure, have found it profitable to make two such clippings +just prior to blossoming stage, securing a third heavy growth. The +amount of humus thus obtained is large, and the benefit of the mulch is +an important item. + +Some growers clip the first crop for a mulch, and later secure a seed +crop. The early clipping and the mulch cause increase in yield of seed. + +A common practice is to take one crop off for hay, and to leave the +second for plowing down the following spring. Early harvesting of the +clover for hay favors the second crop. + +When to turn Down.--When the maximum benefit is desired for the soil +from a crop of clover, the first growth should not be plowed down. Its +office should be that of a mulch. In its decay all the mineral +plant-food and most of the nitrogen go into the soil. The second crop +should come to maturity, or near it. As a rule, there is gain, and not +loss, by letting the second crop lie on the ground until spring if a +spring-planted crop is to follow. Some fall growth, and the protection +from leaching, should equal any advantage arising from rotting the +bulky growth in the soil. In some regions it is not good practice to +plow down a heavy green crop on account of the excessive amount of acid +produced. When this has been done, the only corrective is a liberal +application of lime. + +Mammoth Clover.--When clover is grown with timothy for hay, some +farmers prefer to use mammoth clover in place of the medium red. It may +be known as sapling clover, and is accounted a perennial, though it is +little more so than the red. It is a strong grower and makes a coarse +stalk but, when grown with timothy, it has the advantage over the red +in that the period of ripening is more nearly that of the timothy. It +inclines to lodge badly, and should be seeded thinly with timothy when +wanted for hay. The roots run deep into the soil, and this variety of +clover compares favorably with the medium red in point of fertilizing +power, the total root-growth being heavier. While its yield of hay, +when seeded alone, is greater than the first crop of the red, its +inclination to lodge and its coarseness are offsets. It produces its +seed in the first crop, and the after-growth is small, while red clover +may make a heavy second crop. Its use should become more general on +thin soils, its strong root-growth enabling it to thrive better than +the red, and the lack of fertility preventing the stalks from becoming +unduly coarse for hay. The amount of seed used per acre, when grown by +itself, should be the same as that of red clover. + +Alsike Clover.--A variety of clover that may have gained more +popularity than its merit warrants is alsike clover. It is more nearly +perennial than the mammoth. The roots do not go deep into the subsoil +like those of the red or the mammoth, and therefore it is better +adapted to wet land. It remains several years in the ground when +grazed, and is usually found in seed mixtures for pastures. It is +decumbent, and difficult to harvest for hay when seeded alone. It is +credited with higher yields than the red by most authorities, but this +is not in accord with observation in some regions, and it is markedly +inferior to the red in the organic matter and the nitrogen supplied the +soil in the roots. + +The popularity of this clover is due to its ability to withstand some +soil acidity and bad physical conditions. In regions where red clover +is declining on account of lack of lime, one may see some alsike. The +rule is to mix alsike with the red at the rate of one or two bushels of +the former to six bushels of the latter. As the seed of the alsike is +hardly half as large as that of the red, the proportion in the mixture +is greater than some farmers realize. The practice is an excellent one +where the red will not grow, and the alsike adds fertility, but when +the soil has been made alkaline, the red clover should have nearly all +the room. Alsike is a heavy producer of seed. + +Crimson Clover.--Wherever crimson clover is sufficiently hardy to +withstand the winter, as in Delaware and New Jersey, it is a valuable +aid in maintaining and increasing soil fertility. It is a winter +annual, like winter wheat, and should be seeded in the latter half of +summer, according to latitude. It comes into bloom in late spring. The +plant has a tap-root of good length, but in total weight of roots is +much inferior to the red. This clover, however, compares favorably with +red clover in the total amount of nitrogen added to the soil by the +entire plant when grown under favorable conditions. It is peculiarly +fitted for a cover crop in orchards and wherever spring crops are +removed as early as August, or a seeding can be made in them, as is the +case with corn. Even when winter kills the plants, a successful fall +growth is highly profitable, adding more nitrogen before winter than +red clover seeded at the same time. Where the plants do not +winter-kill, they are plowed down for green manure when in bloom in +May, or earlier in the spring to save soil moisture and permit early +planting, although a good hay for livestock can be made, and the yield +is about the same as that of the first crop of red clover. + +In the northern states a large amount of money has been wasted in +experimental seedings with crimson clover, and it is only in +exceptional cases that it continues to be grown. There is reason to +believe that many of these failures were due to lack of soil +inoculation. The Pennsylvania experiment station is located in a +mountain valley where winters are severe. Crimson clover is under test +with other cover crops for an experimental orchard, and success with it +has increased as the soil has become fully inoculated. This view is +supported by the experience of various growers in the North, and while +crimson clover can never make the success in a cold climate that it +does in Delaware, there is a much wider field of usefulness for it than +is now occupied. Experiments should be made with it under favorable +conditions respecting moisture and soil tilth. Fifteen pounds of seed +should be used, and the seed should be well covered, as is the case +with all seeds sown in mid-summer. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +ALFALFA + + +Adaptation to Eastern Needs.--The introduction of alfalfa into the +eastern half of the United States will prove a boon to its depleted +soils, encouraging the feeding of livestock and adding to the value of +manures. It will affect soils directly, as does red clover, when +farmers appreciate the fact that its rightful place on their farms is +in rotation with grain. Under western conditions, where no other crop +can compete with it in value, as is the case in semi-arid belts, its +ability to produce crops for a long term of years adds much to its +value, but in eastern agriculture this characteristic is not needed. On +most soils of the east it will not remain productive for more than four +to six years, and that fact detracts little from its value. It should +fit into crop-rotations, adding fertility for grain crops. When grown +in a six-years rotation with corn and oats or other small grain, it +furnishes a rich sod for the corn, and the manure made from the hay +helps to solve the farmer's fertility problem. + +Fertility and Feeding Value.--Vivian says that "the problem of the +profitable maintenance of fertility is largely a question of an +economic method of supplying plants with nitrogen." The greatest value +of alfalfa to eastern farming lies in its ability to convert +atmospheric nitrogen into organic nitrogen. It has no equal in this +respect for relatively long crop-rotations, storing in its roots and +successive growths of top far more nitrogen within three or four years +than is possible to any other of our legumes. A good stand of alfalfa, +producing nine crops of hay in the three years following the season of +seeding, will produce from nine to twelve tons of hay. Good fields, +under the best conditions, have produced far more, but the amounts +named are within reach of most growers on land adapted to the plant. A +ton of hay, on the average, contains as much nitrogen as five or six +tons of fresh stable manure. Thus there comes to the farm a great +amount of plant-food, to be given the land in the manure, and in +addition the roots and stubble have stored in the ground enough +nitrogen to feed a successive corn crop, and a small grain crop which +may follow the corn. Moreover, the roots have filled the soil with +organic matter, improving the physical condition of the soil and +subsoil. + +[Illustration: Alfalfa on the Ohio State University Farm.] + +Another gain is found in the content of phosphoric acid and potash in +the manure, much of which was drawn from soil supplies out of reach of +the other farm crops. The profit from introduction of alfalfa into a +region's agriculture is very great. + +Alfalfa makes a nutritious and palatable feed for livestock. A ton +contains as much digestible protein as 1600 pounds of wheat bran. + +Climate and Soil.--The experimentation with alfalfa by farmers has been +wide-spread, and the percentage of failure has been so large that many +have believed this legume was unfitted to the climate and soil of the +country east of the Missouri River. Successful experience has shown +that it can be made to take a considerable place in eastern +crop-schemes. The climate is not unfavorable, as is evidenced by large +areas of good alfalfa sods on thousands of farms. The abundant rainfall +brings various weeds and grasses into competition with it, and that +will remain a serious drawback until growers learn to clean their +surface soils by good tillage before seeding. + +Any land that is sufficiently well drained to produce a good corn crop +in a wet summer can grow alfalfa if the seed-bed is rightly made. The +loose soils are more difficult to seed successfully than is the land +having enough clay to give itself body, although most experimenters +select their most porous soils. All farms having good tilth can bring +alfalfa into their crop-rotations. + +Free Use of Lime.--The conditions requisite to success in +alfalfa-growing are not numerous, but none can be neglected. Alfalfa +should be given a calcareous soil when possible, but an acid soil can +be made favorable to alfalfa by the free use of lime. There must remain +a liberal amount after the soil deficiency has been met, and when the +use of lime is on a liberal scale, the pulverized limestone makes the +safest carrier. However, 50 bushels of stone-lime per acre can be used +safely on any land that is not distinctly sandy, and that amount is +adequate in most instances. + +Inoculation.--The necessity of inoculation has been discussed in +Chapter IV. Eastern land would become inoculated for alfalfa if farmers +would adopt the practice of mixing a little alfalfa with red clover +whenever making seedings. Some alfalfa plants usually make growth, +securing the bacteria in the dust of the seed, presumably. The addition +of one pound of alfalfa seed per acre would assist materially in +securing a good stand when the day came that an alfalfa seeding was +desired. + +Fertilization.--The ability of alfalfa to add fertility to the farm, +and directly to the field producing it when all the crops are removed +as hay, does not preclude the necessity of having the soil fertile when +the seeding is made. The plants find competition with grass and other +weeds keen under eastern skies where moisture favors plant-life. In +their first season this is markedly true. There should be plenty of +available plant-food for the young plants. Stable manure that is free +from the seeds of pernicious weeds makes an excellent dressing. It is +good practice to plow down a heavy coat of manure for corn and then to +replow the land for alfalfa the next season. A top-dressing of manure +is good, affording excellent physical condition of the surface for +starting the plants. Eight tons per acre make a good dressing. + +If land is not naturally fertile, mineral fertilizers should be +applied. A mixture of 350 pounds of 14 per cent acid phosphate and 50 +pounds of muriate of potash is excellent for an acre of manured land. +In the absence of manure, 100 pounds of nitrate of soda and 50 pounds +of muriate of potash should be added to the mixture. If the materials +are wet, a drier must be used. The fertilizer should be drilled into +the ground prior to the seeding. + +A Clean Seed-bed.--Much failure with alfalfa is due to summer grasses +and other weeds. The moisture in our eastern states favors plant-life, +and most soils are thoroughly stocked with the seeds of a large number +of weeds. The value of blue-grass and timothy would be comparatively +small if they were not capable of monopolizing the ground when well +started and given fertility. Alfalfa plants are less capable of +crowding out other plants, and especially in their first season. Their +habit of growth is unlike that of grass. Rational treatment of alfalfa +demands that the surface soil be made fairly clean of weed seed, and +this applies with peculiar force to annual grasses, like fox-tail. If +attention were paid to this point, failures would be far less numerous. + +Old grass land should not be seeded until a cultivated crop has +followed the plowing. The land should be in good tilth, and capable of +producing a good crop of any sort. Alfalfa is not a plant for poor +land, although it does add organic matter and nitrogen. + +Varieties.--There is only one variety of alfalfa in common use in this +country, and the western-grown seed sold upon the market is known +simply as alfalfa. Bound up in this one so-called variety are many +strains differing in habit of growth, and their differentiation will +occur, just as it has in the case of wheat, and is now proceeding +slowly with timothy. The eastern grower at present should use the +variety of the west that is furnishing nearly all the seed produced in +this country. There is a variety known as Sand Lucerne that has shown +value for the light, sandy soils of Michigan. The Turkestan variety was +introduced for dry, cold regions, but does not produce much seed. + +Clean Seed.--Care should be exercised to secure seed free from +impurities. If one is not a competent judge, he should send a sample to +his state experiment station for examination. The practice of +adulteration is decreasing, but the seed may have been taken from land +infested with pernicious weeds. + +The impurity most to be feared is dodder. There are several varieties, +the seeds varying in size and color. The same pest may be found in +clover fields, but the injury is less because the clover stands only +two years. The dodder seed germinates in the soil, and the plant +attaches itself to the alfalfa, losing its connection with the soil and +forming a mass of very fine vines that reach out to other alfalfa +plants. In this way it spreads, feeding on the sap of the host plants +and killing them. + +When the infestation is in only a few spots in the field, the remedy is +to cover with straw, soak with kerosene oil, and burn. All the +infestation at the edges of these spots must be destroyed. + +When the dodder is too widely distributed throughout the field to +permit of this treatment, the only course is to plow the field at once, +and to grow cultivated crops for two or three years. It is believed +that no variety of dodder produces seed freely in the eastern states, +and that the hay made from the first crop of alfalfa or red clover will +not contain any seed of this pernicious plant. + +The Seeding.--When alfalfa has become established on eastern farms, the +difficulties in making new seedings will be smaller. The experience of +growers will save from mistakes in selection of soils and preparation +of the ground, and the thorough inoculation with the right bacteria +that can come only with time will do much to insure success. The +unwisdom of making seedings in ground filled with grass and other weed +seeds will be appreciated. It is quite probable that much successful +seeding will be made in wheat and oats, where the alfalfa is to stand +only one or two years. These practices are not for the beginner. His +land is not thoroughly supplied with bacteria, and every chance should +be given the alfalfa. + +If there are no annual grasses, such as appear so freely in some +regions in mid-summer, spring seeding is excellent. A cover crop is +then desirable, and nothing is better for this purpose than barley at +the rate of 4 pecks of seed per acre. In all experimental work 25 +pounds of bright, plump alfalfa seed per acre should be sown. The +seeding should be made as soon as spring comes, the barley being +drilled in, and the seed-spouts of the drill thrown forward so that the +alfalfa will fall ahead of the hoes and be covered by them. + +Seeding in August.--Much land is infested with annual grasses and other +weeds, and in such case seedings should be made in August, as described +in Chapter VIII. + +Subsequent Treatment.--If the alfalfa plants find the bacteria at hand, +they will begin to profit from them within the first month of their +lives. A large percentage of the plants may fail to obtain this aid in +land which has not previously grown alfalfa, and within a few months +they indicate the failure by their light color, while the plants +liberally supplied with nitrogen through bacteria become dark green. +Where there are no bacteria, the plants turn yellow and die. + +There are diseases that attack alfalfa, causing the leaves to turn +yellow, and when they appear, the only known treatment of value is to +clip the plants with a mower without delay. The next growth may not +show any mark of the diseases. + +[Illustration: Curing alfalfa at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station.] + +When alfalfa is seeded in the spring on rich land, a hay crop may be +taken off the same season. If the plants do not make a strong growth, +they should be clipped, and the tops should be left as a mulch. The +clipping and all future harvestings are made when the stalks start buds +from their sides near the ground. This ordinarily occurs about the time +some flowers show, and is the warning that the old top should be cut +off, no matter how small and unprofitable for harvesting it may be. The +exception to this rule is found only in the fall. An August seeding may +make such growth in a warm and late autumn that flowering will occur, +and lateral buds start, but the growth should not be clipped unless +there remains time to secure a new growth large enough to afford winter +protection. This is likewise true of a late growth in an old alfalfa +field. + +Owners of soils that are not well adapted to the alfalfa plant will +find top-dressing with manure helpful to alfalfa fields when made in +the fall. The severity of winters in a moist climate is responsible for +some failures. If the soil is not porous, heaving will occur. A +dressing of manure, given late in the fall, and preferably during the +first hard freeze, will prevent alternate thawings and freezings in +some degree. The manure should have been made from feed containing no +seeds of annual grasses or other weed pests. + +Rolling in the spring does not serve to settle heaved alfalfa plants. +The tap-roots are long, and when they have been lifted by action of +frost, they cannot be driven back into place. + +It is believed that the permanence of an alfalfa seeding may be +increased by the use of mineral fertilizers in the early spring. In the +case of one alfalfa field of fifteen years' standing in the east, the +fertilizers were applied immediately after the first hay crop of the +year was removed. Three hundred and fifty pounds of acid phosphate and +50 pounds of muriate of potash per acre is the mixture recommended. +When old alfalfa plants do not stand thickly enough on the ground, +grasses and other weeds come in readily. They can be kept under partial +control by use of a spring-tooth harrow, the points being made narrow +so that no ridging will occur. The harrow should be used immediately +after the harvest, and will not injure the alfalfa. + +It does not pay to use alfalfa for pasturage in our eastern states +because the practice shortens the life of the seeding. + +Alfalfa makes a seed crop in profitable amount only in our semi-arid +regions. No attempt to produce a seed crop in the east should be made. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +GRASS SODS + + +Value of Sods.--The character of the sods is a faithful index of the +condition of the soil in any region adapted to grass. The value of +heavy sods to a soil cannot be overestimated. They not only give to a +farm a prosperous appearance, but our country's agriculture would be on +a much safer basis if heavy coverings of grass were more universal. We +do not hold the legumes in too high esteem, but the emphasis placed +upon their ability to appropriate nitrogen from the air has caused some +land-owners to fail in appreciation of the aid to soil fertility that +may be rendered by the grasses. One often hears the statement that they +can add nothing to the soil, and this is serious error. They add all +that may be given in the clovers, excepting nitrogen only, and that is +only one element of plant-food, important though it be. A great part of +the value of clover lies in its ability to supply organic matter to the +soil and to improve physical condition by its net-work of roots. Heavy +grass sods furnish a vast amount of organic matter which not only +supplies available plant-food to succeeding crops, but in its decay +affects the availability of some part of the stores of potential +fertility in the land. + +[Illustration: A Heavy Grass Sod in New York.] + +Prejudice against Timothy.--Timothy, among the grasses, is especially +in disrepute as a soil-builder, and yet its value is great. The belief +that timothy is hard on land is based upon observation of bad treatment +of this grass. There is a common custom of seeding land down to timothy +when it ceases to have sufficient available plant-food for a profitable +tilled crop, and usually this is the third year after a sod has been +broken. The seeding is made with a grain crop that needs all the +commercial fertilizer that may chance to be used. Clover may be seeded +also, and on a majority of farms it fails to thrive when sown. If +clover does grow, the succeeding crop of timothy may be heavy. If +clover does not grow, the timothy is not so heavy. The seeding to grass +is made partly because a tilled crop would not pay, and partly because +a hay crop is needed. It comes in where other crops cannot come with +profit, and it produces fairly well, or very well, the first year it +occupies the ground by itself. With little or no aid from manure or +commercial fertilizer, it adds much to the supply of organic matter in +the soil, and it produces a hay crop that may be made into manure or +converted into cash. + +If the sod were broken the following spring, giving to the soil all the +after-math and the mass of roots, its reputation with us would be far +better than it is. This would be true even if it had received little +fertilizer when seeded or during its existence as a sod, not taking +into account any manure spread upon it during the winter previous to +its breaking for corn. But the rule is not to break a grass sod when it +is fairly heavy. The years of mowing are arranged in the crop-rotation +to provide for as many harvests as promise immediate profit. On some +land this is two years, and not infrequently it is three. Where farms +are difficult of tillage, it is a common practice to let timothy stand +until the sod is so thin that the yield of hay is hardly worth the cost +of harvesting. Then the thin remnant of sod is broken for corn or other +grain, and the poor physical condition of the soil and the low state of +available fertility lead to the assertion that timothy is hard on the +soil. This is a fair statement of the treatment of this plant on most +farms. + +Object of Sods.--The land's share of its products cannot be disregarded +without loss. The legumes and grasses come into the crop-rotation +primarily to raise the percentage of organic matter that the land may +appropriate to itself within the rotation. Some of the crops usually +are for sale from the farm. Most of the crops require tillage, and that +is exhaustive of the store of humus. A portion of the time within the +rotation belongs to a crop that increases the supply of vegetable +matter, unless manure is brought from an outside source. Sods lend +themselves well to this purpose because they afford some income, in +pasturage or hay, while filling the soil with vegetation. The tendency +is to forget the primary purpose of sods in the scheme, and to ignore +the requirement of land respecting a due share of what it produces. +Attention centers upon the product that may be removed. The portion of +the farm reduced in productive power for the moment goes to grass, +while the labor and fertilizers are concentrated upon the fields that +are broken for grain and vegetables. The removal of all the crop at +harvest, and probably the pasturing of after-math, are the only matters +of interest that the fields, depleted by cultivation and seeded down to +grass, have for the owner until the poor hay yield and the need of a +sod for corn draw attention again to them. + +Seeding with Small Grain.--The usual custom is to sow grasses with +small grain, and there is much to commend it. The cost of preparing the +seed-bed rests upon the grain crop, and the conditions are favorable to +fall growth and winter protection, if the seeding is made in the fall. +Wheat and rye are good crops with which to seed. In the case of fertile +land there is the danger that the timothy will establish itself too +well in a warm, moist autumn to permit clover to get a foothold the +following spring, and clover should always be seeded for the sake of +fertility. In northern latitudes clover cannot be seeded successfully +as late in the season as wheat should be sown, as it fails to become +well rooted for winter. The overcrowding of clover by timothy is met in +part by reduction in amount of timothy seed sown with the wheat. + +The oat crop is less satisfactory for seedings to grass and clover. The +leaves near the ground are too thick, shading the young plants unduly, +and the late harvest exposes the grass and clover when the season is +hot, and usually dry. Some reduction in the amount of seed oats used +per acre helps to save from injury. + +Seeding in Rye.--When thin land is desired for pasture, and available +fertility cannot well be applied, a sod may be formed more surely by +seeding with rye, using the rye for pasture and a mulch, than, +probably, in any other way. The ground should have good tillage and +then be seeded to rye in September at the rate of six pecks of seed per +acre. Timothy and red-top should be seeded with it, and in the spring +red and alsike clover should be added. Whenever the ground is dry +enough in the spring to permit the tramping of cattle without injury, +the rye should be pastured, and preferably by a sufficient number of +animals to hold the rye well in check. When the usual time for heading +comes, all stock should be removed, and when heads do appear, the +growth should be clipped with a mower and left as a mulch on the +surface. A second clipping will be required later, with cutter-bar +tilted well upward. When the usual summer drouth is past, livestock can +again be turned into the field. This method is suggested only for thin +fields that have failed to make catches of grass, and that for some +reason cannot well be given the fertility that all thin soils need. The +application of lime before seeding to the rye is an expense that +usually must be met in the case of such fields, and fertilizers should +be used. + +Good Soil Conditions.--When the grasses and clovers desired for a sod +are sown with small grain, there is competition between them and the +grain crop for fertility, moisture, and light. The grain crop is the +one that will produce the income the following summer, and naturally is +given right of way. The amount of seed is used that experience teaches +is best for a maximum yield of grain. Usually this gives a thicker +stand of plants than is best for the tiny grass and clover plants that +often are struggling for existence down under the taller grain. If the +farmer could see his way clear to cut down the quantity of seed wheat +or oats used on a fertile soil, the catch of grass would be better, but +the small-grain crop is not very profitable at the best, and the owner +does not like deliberately to limit it. + +A greater amount of failure is due to an inadequate supply of +fertility. The grass does not suffer so much from over-shading as it +does from starvation, both during the growth of the grain and after +harvest. The stronger grain plants appropriate the scanty stock of +available fertility, and leave the grass and clover nearly helpless. +This condition is especially noticeable in dry seasons when there is +less opportunity to obtain food in solution. Plants which are expected +in another season to fill the ground with vegetable matter are starved +in the beginning and die. Plant-food is needed, and should be mixed +with the soil when the seeding is made. The fertilizer needs are +discussed in another chapter. + +When manure is available, it should be spread on the plowed ground and +mixed with the surface soil. If a soil is thin, or heavy, or light, the +use of a ton of manure in this way can bring greater returns than under +any other circumstances in general farming. It supplies some fertility, +and it puts the surface soil into good physical condition for young +plants. Land deficient in humus forms a crust after a rain, and a tiny +plant suffers. A light dressing of manure, well mixed with the soil, +tends to prevent this hardening of the surface and loss of water. There +is no other form of fertility that can fully replace manure, for either +compact or leachy land. + +The probable need of lime has been discussed in other chapters. Clovers +and the grasses want an alkaline soil, and there is waste of money and +time in seeding acid land. The lime and the manure must not be mixed +together in the air, but both can be used when fitting land for +seeding, and both should be used if the need exists. One should be +applied early and be well disked into the soil, and then the other +application may be made and covered with the harrow. The soil is an +absorbent, and the contact of manure and lime within the soil only +leads to immediate availability, which is desirable in giving the grass +a start. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +GRASS SODS--(_Continued_) + + +Seeding in Late Summer.--The natural time of beginning life, in the +case of timothy, blue-grass, red-top, red clover, and alfalfa is in the +summer or autumn. The best conditions of growth are given where no +stronger plants take the plant-food and moisture. Wherever there is any +difficulty in getting heavy grass and clover sods after the lime +deficiency has been met, and wherever a hay crop has more value than a +small-grain crop, the method of seeding alone in August should be +employed. In warmer latitudes the date may be a little later, but in +the northern states it should be in the first half of August for best +results. Seeding alone offers opportunity to make conditions right for +the seeds which are to be used, and in view of the importance of heavy +sods to our agriculture, this reason alone is sufficient. In some +regions the ability to substitute a good hay crop for a cereal that +brings small net income is an item of value, adding to the proportion +of feeding-stuff produced in the rotation and to the resulting supply +of manure. The practice of making seedings to grass and clover alone is +growing, and it is based on sound reasoning. + +Crops that may Precede.--Farms that are under common crop-rotations may +adopt the practice of August seeding. The winter wheat comes off in +time for preparation, and this is true of an early variety of oats, and +of rye and barley. Early crops of vegetables get out of the way nicely. +There is a vast total area of thin soil that may be brought up to a +productive stage rapidly by the growth of a green-manuring crop to +precede the grass and clover. Rye may be sown in the fall and plowed +down in May, and cowpeas planted to be disked into the soil. Oats and +Canada peas add organic matter with nitrogen when plowed down. The +summer fallow, which deservedly has fallen into general disuse, may +well be employed when a soil is in an inert state, provided grass and +clover be permitted to appropriate the plant-food made soluble by the +fallowing. The catch crops add organic matter while cleansing the land +of weeds; the fallowing releases plant-food and is peculiarly efficient +in killing out weeds. + +Care must be exercised about preserving moisture in the ground, and +therefore a green crop should not be plowed under immediately before +seeding time. When a soil is thin, there may be no better preparatory +crop than the cowpea, which will not make too rank a growth in the +north to prevent its handling with a weighted disk harrow. By this +means the soil below is left firm, and the rich vines are mixed with +the surface soil, where most needed. It is always a mistake to bury +fertility in the bottom of the furrow when a soil is thin and small +seeds are to be sown. The infertile ground lying next the subsoil is +not what is needed at the surface when preparing for a sod. + +It is a good practice to use the early summer in making conditions +better for an August seeding, if the land has fallen below a profitable +state of productiveness. A growth may be plowed down in time for +firming the seed-bed, or it may be cut into the surface soil with a +harrow, or the time may be used in freeing inert plant-food and +destroying weed seed. On better soils, and in warm latitudes, a crop +for hay may be removed, especially in the case of the cowpea in the +south, and the stubble prepared for seeding by use of the cutaway or +disk harrow. + +Preparation.--A seed-bed for small seeds planted in mid-summer must be +able to retain moisture. Nothing robs a soil of water more surely than +a breaking-plow. Its use is a necessity in farming, but this effect of +plowing must be borne in mind when a seeding is planned for the driest +period of the year. It goes without saying that sods should not be +formed on land that is too solid for admission of air. A thorough +plowing is needed by most soils prior to making a sod that will prevent +further stirring of the ground for a long period of time. It is best +when this plowing can be given in the preceding spring. This enables +the ground to become firm enough to hold moisture. If there is time for +a tilled crop, the cultivation is helpful. When the land must be broken +in the summer, the plowing should be done several weeks before the +seeding to grass must be made. The roller should follow the plow +closely to destroy the spaces that lie open to the hot air, permitting +the land to dry out. All deep harrowings should be given soon after the +plowing, stirring and mixing the ground, and then leaving it to settle +so that moisture can be held. It is bad practice to continue deep +harrowing until the seeding time of any small grain or grass planted in +a dry part of the year. Firmness is wanted in the soil. + +The Weed Seed.--The seeds of tilled crops are planted in ground +containing much weed seed, and no harm may result. The cultivation +needed to keep the soil loose, or to prevent evaporation, destroys the +weeds. Grass, clover, alfalfa, and like seeds are put into the ground +to occupy it to the exclusion of other plants for several years, as a +rule, and no tillage can be given. The rule is to sow such seeds after +tilled crops have been grown, and some weed seed has been destroyed, +but there is evidence on every hand that the weed seed remains in +abundance. Summer preparation for grass gives opportunity to destroy a +great part of the seeds in the surface of the ground, and it is only +when they are near the surface that the seeds of most weeds will +germinate. Deep harrowings, continued up to time of planting, not only +rob land of water, but they bring to the surface new lots of seed that +had been safely buried, and become a part of the actual seeding when +the grass, clover, or alfalfa is sown. The obviously right method of +preparing for planting is to use only a surface harrow for a few weeks +previous to seeding time, stirring the ground after every rain to the +depth of three inches, or near that, and destroying the plants soon +after germination of the seed. The process which is right for holding +moisture is right for cleansing the ground. + +Summer Grasses.--One of the worst pests is the annual grasses, +springing up in June, July, and August. They are responsible for many +failures to obtain stands of alfalfa, clover, and the valuable grasses. +The delay in seeding until August is due largely to this pest. When +seedings are made in the spring, or in June, failure is invited where +these grasses have a fast hold. The only effective way of combating +them is to make the ground firm enough to encourage germination, and to +stir the surface whenever a growth starts. The late seeding is the one +means of escape, and if there is fertility and moisture, the newly +seeded crop becomes well rooted by winter and takes the ground so +completely that there is little room for weeds to start the next year. + +Sowing the Seed.--Partial failure with August seeding is due to faulty +methods. We are accustomed to broadcasting clover seed on top of the +wheat fields and obtaining a stand of plants. A majority of the seeds +do not become buried in the soil, or only very slightly, and yet +germinate. Moisture is necessary, but in the spring, when this method +is used, there is moisture at the surface of the ground under the wheat +plants much of the time. The conditions respecting moisture are not +unfavorable in most springs, and we come to think that a small seed +should not be buried much if any. In the autumn, again, we sow timothy +with the wheat, and while more prompt germination is secured by +covering the timothy seed with the hoes of the drill, we often have +seen a successful seeding made without any covering being given. The +work is done at a time when fall rains may continue for days and, when +the sun's heat does not continue long, the covering given by settling +the seed into the loose earth is sufficient. Moisture does not leave +rapidly because the air is not hot. + +Deep Covering.--In August the air is hot, and the surface of the ground +is dry nearly all the time. A shower may be followed by hot sunshine, +and the water at the surface evaporates quickly, leaving the ground +covered with a dry crust. There are two essential things to bear in +mind: the seeding should be made only when there is enough moisture in +the ground to insure quick germination, and preferably as soon as +feasible after a rain, and the seed should be put down where moisture +can be retained. It is poor practice to sow any kind of small seeds +before a rain that seems imminent. If it forms a crust, or causes +weed-seed germination along with that of the grass seeds, only harm +results. When seeds are put into a dry soil, and a light shower comes, +there may be germination without sufficient moisture to continue life +in the plants. + +The seeds should be well buried: the soil and air conditions are +different from those of the spring. It is best to wait for moisture, +and to save the seed if it does not come, but when enough water has +fallen to make the firm soil moist, the danger of failure is very small +if the seeds are buried one to two inches deep. A surface harrow will +stir the surface, and then the seeds should be sifted down into the +soil by another harrowing. A light plank float, mashing the little +clods and pressing the soil slightly together, finishes the work. The +plants will appear above ground within a few days, the only danger +being in a beating shower that may puddle the surface before the plants +are up. + +Seed-mixtures.--When grass is wanted for hay as well as fertility, the +clovers and timothy compose the greater part of a desirable mixture +wherever the clovers and timothy thrive. Probably this condition always +will continue. The clovers are needed to supply nitrogen to the soil +and to put protein into the hay for livestock. They give way, in large +part, or entirely, the second year. Alsike is more nearly perennial +than the red which practically lasts only through its second season, +when its seed crop has been made, and its function performed. The sod +is chiefly timothy in the second season. A little red-top is desirable, +and the percentage should be heaviest for quite wet land or very dry +land. When fertility is the first consideration, and the sod is left +only two or three years, the following mixture is good, and is for one +acre: + + Red clover 10 pounds + Alsike 2 pounds + Timothy 8 pounds + Red-top 2 pounds + +When a mixed hay is wanted the first year, the following mixture may be +found better for the purpose: + + Red clover 6 pounds + Alsike 2 pounds + Timothy 12 pounds + Red-top 2 pounds + +Mammoth clover seed may be substituted for the red without change in +number of pounds. + +The amount of timothy and red-top in the second mixture suggested calls +for a liberal supply of plant-food, and this is true of any heavy grass +mixture. If fertility is not present, the seeding of grass should be +lighter, but the clover should not be less in amount for a thin soil +than for a good one. The question of fertilizers is discussed in +Chapter XX. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +SODS FOR PASTURES + + +Permanent Pastures.--There is a large total area of land that can be +brought into profitable production of food only by means of pasture +grasses. A small part is too low and moist for tillage, but a larger +part is too rough or too infertile. It can be made to yield profit in +grasses that are harvested without expense by animals. The grasses +afford feed and at the same time protect the soil from waste. The +efficiency of much pasture land is kept low by poor stands of grass, +the encroachment of weeds, bushes, and briers, close grazing, and the +failure to supply fertility. When making a sod for mowing, the aim is +to select varieties of plants that mature near the same time. Pastures +need varieties maturing at different times, and this is a matter under +control when temporary pastures are used. Permanent pasture land soon +becomes occupied by the grasses best fitted to soil conditions or most +able to crowd other plants. + +[Illustration: Good Pasture Land in Chester County, Pa.] + +Seed-mixtures.--Several varieties of grasses should be used when making +a sod for grazing. They occupy all the surface more quickly and surely +than a single variety, and the pasturage is better. The character of +the soil determines the character of the mixture in large measure. When +land can be well fitted, a heavy seeding is best, but the cost is +nearly prohibitive for thin, rough lands. A brief description of the +leading pasture grasses east of the semi-arid region, and north of the +gulf states, is given: + +_Blue-grass._--No other pasture grass equals Kentucky blue-grass +wherever it thrives. It makes a close sod, preventing the growth of +weeds and withstanding tramping, and contains a high percentage of +protein. While it is best adapted to limestone soils, it is grown with +success on clay land outside of limestone areas. It is slow in making a +heavy sod, as a rule, and partly because the seeding is too light on +account of low germination. The rule is to seed with timothy and other +grasses which furnish the greater part of the pasturage for two or +three years. When seeded alone, 20 to 30 pounds of seed per acre should +be used. It may be seeded in the spring or fall, and preferably in +August or September. + +_Timothy._--In a mixture of pasture grasses timothy has a place +wherever it thrives. It is not naturally a pasture grass, standing +grazing rather poorly, but it makes a large amount of feed quickly. The +grass is one of the poorest in protein, and the pasturage gains much in +quality when the timothy gives way to blue-grass, as it will in two or +three years if the latter has favoring soil conditions. In most +mixtures it is given a leading place. It may be sown in the spring, but +preferably in the fall, and 15 pounds of seed will be found +satisfactory, when seeded alone. + +_Red-top._--If red-top were as palatable to livestock as blue-grass, it +would have one of the most prominent places among our pasture grasses. +It is valuable anyway, thriving where land is too acid for blue-grass +or timothy, or too thin. It is adapted to wet land, and yet is one of +our surest grasses for dry and poor land. It makes a sod that lasts +well, and yields better than most other grasses. Notwithstanding its +lack in palatability, it should be in all pasture mixtures for soils +not in the best tilth. When used alone, 15 pounds of seed per acre +should be sown. The seeding may be made in spring or fall. + +_Orchard Grass._--In most mixtures recommended for pasture orchard +grass has a place, but it should be a minor one. It makes early growth +in the spring, which is a point in its favor. It stands shade and also +drouth better than some other grasses, but is not at home in a poor or +wet soil. It grows in bunches, and becomes unpalatable if not promptly +grazed. It needs crowding with other grasses when grown for pasturage. +When seeded alone for hay, 30 pounds of seed per acre may be used. + +_Other Seeds._--There are other grasses often recommended, but they +have no wide acceptance. Meadow fescue is a palatable grass that would +be used more often in pasture mixtures if the seed were not high in +price. All land seeded for grazing should have some clover sown for +sake of soil fertility. The alsike remains longer than the red or +mammoth, and is better for undrained, thin, and acid soils. + +Yields and Composition of Grasses.--The Ohio station has compared the +yields of various grasses and their composition. The following table is +arranged from its data, as given in Bulletin 225: + + +-----------------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Name | Average | Pounds | Pounds | + | | Tons Hay | Protein | Protein | + | | per Acre | per | per Acre | + | | | Hundred | | + +-----------------+----------+---------+----------+ + | Timothy | 3.49 | 6.38 | 223 | + | Blue-grass | 2.18 | 10.12 | 221 | + | Red-top | 2.81 | 8.53 | 240 | + | Orchard grass | 2.19 | 7.81 | 171 | + | Meadow fescue | 2.10 | 8.97 | 188 | + +-----------------+----------+---------+----------+ + +Suggested Mixtures for Pastures.--For ordinary conditions, Williams +suggests the following mixture for an acre of land: + + Blue-grass 10 pounds + Timothy 6 pounds + Red-top 6 pounds + Orchard grass 4 pounds + Red clover 4 pounds + Alsike clover 2 pounds + +For use on rather wet lands, and especially off the limestone, he +suggests: + + Red-top 12 pounds + Blue-grass 8 pounds + Timothy 4 pounds + Alsike clover 4 pounds + +Hunt recommends the following as a basis, to be modified to suit +varying conditions: + + Timothy 15 pounds + Kentucky blue-grass 10 pounds + Meadow fescue 2 pounds + Red clover 4 pounds + Alsike clover 3 pounds + White clover 2 pounds + +The Cornell station recommends the following for good land: + + Timothy 8 to 12 pounds + Kentucky blue-grass 4 pounds + Meadow fescue 1 to 4 pounds + Orchard grass 1 to 4 pounds + Red clover 6 pounds + Alsike clover 3 pounds + White clover 1 to 2 pounds + +For poor lands it recommends this mixture: + + Timothy 8 to 12 pounds + Red-top 4 pounds + Canadian blue-grass 4 pounds + Red clover 6 pounds + Alsike clover 3 pounds + White clover 1 pound + +Zinn, of West Virginia, recommends the following mixture for permanent +pasture: + + Timothy 4 pounds + Red-top 4 pounds + Orchard grass 4 pounds + Kentucky blue-grass 7 pounds + Red clover 2 pounds + Alsike clover 2 pounds + White clover 1 pound + +Renewal of Permanent Pastures.--There is much pasture land that could +not be broken with profit for reseeding. There is neither time, nor +money, nor opportunity at the owner's hand for this purpose, and often +the loss of soil resulting from washing would be a bar if the labor +would cost nothing. The renewal of such grass lands can be made with +profit if pernicious weeds are not in the way. Plant-food, lime, and +grass seed are wanted. A disk or sharp spike-tooth harrow, used in +early spring or after an August rain, will give some fresh earth for +covering the seeds. A complete fertilizer always is needed. The clovers +should go into the seed-mixture used. + +[Illustration: Sheep on a New York farm.] + +Destroying Bushes.--The absence of sheep is evident in the appearance +of the greater area of permanent pasture in the mountainous regions of +the eastern states. Bushes, briers, and other weeds must be destroyed +if pasture land would be kept in a profitable state, and only the sheep +or the goat is the fully efficient aid of man in caring for such land. +The presence of dogs makes the tariff on wool, or lack of it, a minor +matter. The cost to the country, in indirect effect upon pastures only, +due to unrestrained dogs, is incalculable. The maintenance of good sods +without sheep is a problem without solution in some regions. + +Close Grazing.--Much harm results from turning livestock on pastures +too early in the spring. The ground is kept soft by spring rains, and +the hoofs cut the turf. The grass needs its first leaves to enable it +to make rapid growth, and the first grass of spring is not nutritious. + +Close grazing is harmful, exposing the soil to the sun and robbing it +of moisture. When winter comes, there should be sufficient grass to +serve as a mulch to the roots. It acts like a coat of manure, giving +new life to the plants the next spring. Good sods are not easily or +quickly made, and when they have been secured on land unfit for the +plow, their value measures the value of the land itself. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE COWPEA + + +A Southern Legume.--The soils of the cold north are protected from +leaching during the winter by the action of frost. The plant-food is +locked up safely for another year when nature ceases her work of +production for the year. Farther south, in the center of the corn belt, +there are leaching periods in fall and spring and oftentimes during the +winter, but winter wheat thrives and, in ordinary crop-rotations, +covers much of the land that might otherwise lose plant-food. As we +pass from the northern to the southern states, the preservation of soil +fertility grows more difficult and at the same time the restoration of +humus becomes easier. The heat makes easy the change of organic matter +to soluble forms, and the rains cause waste, but the climate favors +plants that replace rapidly what is lost. In the work of supplying land +with fertility, directly and indirectly, the southern cowpea has an +important place. It is to the south what red clover is to the north, +and it overlaps part of the red-clover belt, having a rightful place as +far north as the Ohio Valley, and portions of Pennsylvania. + +Characteristics.--The cowpea is closely related to the bean, and is +very unlike the Canada pea, which is a true pea, thriving only in a +cool climate. The cowpea has been grown in the southern states over one +hundred years, and the acreage is large, but it never has come into the +full use it deserves. Being a legume, it stores up nitrogen taken from +the air, and unlike red clover it makes its full growth within a short +period of time. It can grow on land too infertile for most kinds of +valuable plants, and on better land. The vines can crowd out nearly all +varieties of weeds. The roots go to a good depth and are thickly +covered with the nodules of nitrogen-gathering bacteria. + +Varieties.--There are many varieties of the cowpea, and confusion of +names prevails, although some stations have done good service in +identification of individuals carrying a number of names. The very +quick-maturing varieties adapted to northern conditions do not make as +much foliage as the rank-growing ones that require a relatively long +season, but some of them are heavy producers of seed. + +There are varieties requiring six months of southern heat to bring them +to maturity, and some failures attending the introduction of the cowpea +into more northern latitudes have been due to bad selection. A few +varieties reach maturity within two months of hot weather. + +The trailing habit is affected by the soil, the bunch varieties tending +to trail when grown on fertile land. When the crop is wanted for seed, +the peas that do not trail heavily will prove more satisfactory. The +selection of variety is a matter of latitude and purpose, exactly as it +is with corn. + +Fertilizing Value.--A heavy growth of the cowpea is worth as much to +the soil as a good crop of red clover. When the equivalent of two tons +of hay is produced, the roots and vines contain nearly as much +plant-food as the roots and first crop of medium red clover that makes +two tons of hay. Some analyses show a higher percentage of protein in +cowpea hay than in clover hay, and the experience of many stockmen +indicates that such is the case. The roots and stubble have somewhat +less fertilizing power than in the case of the clover, and all thin +soils should have the entire plant, or the manure from the hay, saved +without loss. + +Comparison is made on the basis of equal adaptability of soil and +climate to clover and the cowpea. Going southward, the cowpea has the +advantage, and northward the clover gains. It is in the overlapping +belt that both should be freely used. The cowpea has distinct advantage +over the clover in its ability to supply nitrogen and organic matter +within a few months, and in its adaptation to very poor soils where +clover would not make much growth. As a catch crop it has great value. + +Affecting Physical Condition.--The cowpea has marked influence upon the +physical condition of heavy soils, even when the vines are not plowed +down. This is due in some degree to the roots, and probably more to the +mulching effect of the vines during their growth. Heavy soils are made +much more mellow by the cowpea, and when the crop is removed for hay, +the stubble-land is easily prepared for a seeding to grass or small +grain. When the growth is plowed down, the soil may be made too loose +for seeding to small grain, but is put into prime condition for a +tilled crop. + +Planting.--The land should be fitted as it is for corn. Light, sandy +soils require little preparation, and too often the seeding is made in +a woefully careless manner, the chief dependence being placed upon +sufficiently deep covering to insure germination. The ground should be +fitted as well as it is for a cash crop, being made fine and smooth. A +grain drill makes the seeding in a satisfactory manner, and the seed +may be drilled solid or in rows for cultivation. When the crop is grown +as a fertilizer or for hay, solid drilling is good, and about five +pecks of seed gives a good stand of plants if peas are sound. Much +cowpea seed is low in germination power, and the buyer should exercise +caution. When a seed crop is wanted, two to three pecks of seed per +acre, placed in drills 28 to 32 inches apart, make an excellent +seeding, as cultivation can be given. The amount of seed varies with +the variety. In northern latitudes a warm soil is to be desired, and +cultivation gives better results when a seeding to wheat will be made +on the pea-stubble. + +There is evidence that the cowpea can make a heavy growth in soils too +deficient in lime for red clover, and it gained its first prominence in +southern Ohio on land that was failing to grow clover. It is the plant +of adversity as well as prosperity, adding rich organic matter to thin +soils, but making its full returns under better conditions. Lime +applications on acid soils give increase in yields. Its one absolute +requirement is heat, and in a cold summer its northern limit is +markedly depressed. + +Inoculation.--The inoculation of the soil with cowpea bacteria is +necessary to best results in most regions new to the plant. +Self-inoculation is quicker in the cowpea than in alfalfa because the +vines carry some soil on them, and thus the dust in the seed crop may +be rich in bacteria. However, most new seedings of the cowpea do not +show a large number of nodules on the plant roots, and inoculation +pays. In some cases it makes the difference between failure and +success. Two hundred pounds of soil from an old field should be well +harrowed into each acre of land when preparing for a cowpea seeding in +a new region. The soils of the southern states contain the bacteria +just as the states in the clover belt are supplied with clover +bacteria. + +Fertilizers.--The light soils of Maryland, New Jersey, and the southern +states are not naturally rich in phosphoric acid or potash. The cowpea +can draw its nitrogen from the air, but on all thin land it pays to use +200 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate and 50 pounds of muriate of potash +per acre for this crop which should have a luxuriant growth for the +soil's benefit. Such use of fertilizers is more profitable than their +use on the crop which follows. + +Harvesting with Livestock.--When the cowpea is made into hay, there is +always danger that the most of the plant-food contained in it never +will get back to the soil on account of a careless handling of the +manure. The practice of pasturing with cows and hogs is excellent. The +feed is rich, and the manure is left on the ground. There is a saving +of labor. + +If the full fertilizing value is wanted for the soil, the crop should +be plowed down. The trailing varieties form a tangled mass that cannot +be handled by an ordinary breaking-plow, but a stalk-cutter, run in the +direction the plow will follow, makes plowing possible. Pasturing with +cattle and hogs sufficiently to reduce the growth so that a plow can be +used is good practice. + +The Cowpea for Hay.--The hay is one of our most palatable +feeding-stuffs. Livestock may reject it the first time it is put into +the manger, but a taste for it is quickly acquired, and soon it is +eaten greedily. The high content of protein makes it exceptionally +valuable for young animals and milk cows, and the manure contains a +high percentage of nitrogen. The difficulty in making the hay is a +drawback, but this is over-rated. While rain discolors the vines and +makes them unattractive in appearance, the hay remains more palatable +and nutritious than good timothy, if the leaves are not lost in curing. +When the first pods turn yellow, the crop should be harvested. The +vines can be left in the swath until the top leaves begin to burn and +then be put into windrows with a sulky hay-rake. The windrows should be +small, the rake merely serving to invert half the vines upon the other +half, bringing new surface to the sun. After another day of curing, the +windrows should be broken up into bunches no larger than can be pitched +upon the wagon by a workman, thus saving the trouble of disentangling +the vines. If rain comes, the bunches should be inverted the following +day. In dry, hot weather the curing proceeds rapidly, while in cooler +latitudes or cloudy weather the curing may require a week. The chief +point is to prevent undue exposure of the leaves to the sun, and this +is accomplished by the turning. The hay will mold in the mow if not +thoroughly well cured, unless placed in a large body in a deep, close +mow that excludes the air. Some farmers use the latter method +successfully, but the experimenter with the cowpea usually will fail, +and should prefer thorough field curing, at the risk of some damage +from rain and sun. The leaves are the most nutritious part of the +plant, excepting the seed. + +As a Catch Crop.--A leading use of the cowpea is that of a catch crop, +either between other crops or in a growing crop, such as corn. Early +maturing varieties can be brought in between main crops of the rotation +in warm latitudes. The growth prevents the leaching of plant-food, +shades the ground, adds nitrogen to the soil, smothers weeds, and +produces material that is valuable as feed for livestock or an addition +of organic matter to the soil. When the time that can be devoted to the +crop is short, an early variety should be selected because its vines +are far more valuable to the soil than an equal volume of a +rank-growing variety that is not near maturity. + +[Illustration: The cowpea seeded at the last cultivation of corn in the +Great Kanawha Valley, W. Va.] + +If this legume were used whenever opportunity afforded along the +southern border of our northern states, and throughout the south, the +faded color of soils, resulting from leaching rains, would be replaced +by the darker colors that mark the presence of rich organic matter. It +is one of nature's best allies in the maintenance of soil fertility. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +OTHER LEGUMES AND CEREAL CATCH CROPS + + +The Soybean.--The soybean is gaining a place among the valuable legumes +of the United States, and the acreage is increasing as its merits +become known to all. Its northern limits of profitable production are +much farther north than those of the cowpea, and approach those of +corn. In the south it is gaining friends. Some of the advantages of the +soybean over the cowpea, as found by the Tennessee station, may be +stated as follows: + + 1. Greater seed production in case of fertile soils. + + 2. Less sensitiveness to cold in spring and fall. + + 3. Greater feeding value of the seed. + +On the other hand, a stand of cowpea plants is surer in the case of +soils that crust, and germination runs higher. Its climbing habit makes +it better suited for growing with corn for forage. A less amount of +leaves is lost in curing. + +Fertility Value.--There are so many varieties of the soybean and the +cowpea, and adaptation to soil and climate varies so widely, that a +fair comparison is difficult to make. In cool latitudes the soybean is +recognized as distinctly more profitable, making larger yields of vines +and of seed. Where adaptation is equal, the cowpea makes a slightly +larger growth of vines for hay, but the soybean gives a much richer lot +of seed for use as grain. + +When soil fertility is the chief consideration, the adaptation of +climate and soil should decide our choice between these two legumes. +There is no serious difference where conditions for each are equally +good. In cool latitudes the soybean should be chosen. In the Ohio +Valley it is usually to be preferred. The greater part of the organic +matter and the plant-food is stored in the vines and seed. + +Feeding Value.--The soybean makes a rich hay, surpassing clover, but it +is coarse, and its unattractive appearance has caused many farmers to +condemn it without trial. Livestock eat it greedily, and it is one of +our richest coarse feeds. The curing is more difficult than in the case +of the cowpea because the leaves drop early, and the plants must be +harvested before they approach maturity. + +Probably the large yield of rich seed is the most important feature of +the soybean crop. A ton of the seed contains as much protein as a ton +of old-process oil meal, and three fourths as much as a ton of +cottonseed meal. A good crop of the soybean will yield 18 to 20 bushels +of seed, and as the nitrogen may be obtained chiefly from the air, the +protein from this crop will come to be a leading substitute for +purchased protein feeds. + +Varieties.--There are many varieties of the soybean, and their +characteristics are modified by climatic conditions. Each region will +find the varieties best suited to its purposes by tests. When hay is +wanted, the variety should have fine stems and a leafy habit of growth. +It may not be a good producer of seed, or able to hold the seed +unshattered. The harvesting should be done when some lower leaves turn +brown and before the pods are half filled. This stage of maturity +should be reached early enough in the fall to insure some hot days for +making the hay, and to permit harvesting in time for seeding to wheat. +The preparation for wheat is made with the harrow and roller or plank +drag. + +When the soybean is grown for seed, the variety should hold the peas +without undue shattering, and an erect grower is more easily handled +without loss of the crop. Varieties for regions will vary, as do +varieties of corn, according to climate. + +The Planting.--Early varieties of the soybean in the south can be +planted as late as mid-summer, but farther north a profitable crop +requires nearly all of the summer heat. The planting may be made soon +after the usual time of planting corn, or whenever the ground has +become warm. The preparation of the soil should be more thorough than +that often given the cowpea. Solid drilling of five pecks of seed per +acre is satisfactory when the crop is for fertilizing purposes only, +and gives an excellent hay on land free of weeds. When the crop is +wanted for hay, however, wheat usually will follow, and it is much +better to plant in rows and to give two or three cultivations so that +the ground may be easily prepared for the wheat. + +A seed crop should be grown in rows. Three pecks of seed in rows 28 +inches apart is the usual amount. + +The soybean does not come up through a crusted surface as well as most +other plants, and planting should not be made immediately before a +rain. The plants are tender and easily injured by use of a weeder. + +The fertilizer requirement is like that of the cowpea. An application +of 200 pounds of acid phosphate per acre should be given, and the +addition of 50 pounds of muriate of potash often pays. + +Harvesting.--The soybean is not an easy crop to handle without loss. +When grown for seed, the tendency of the pods to split and to drop the +seed compels early cutting, and that makes curing more difficult. The +mower is the only practical harvester on most farms, and the swath must +be turned out of the way of the horses to save tramping. A +side-delivery attachment can do the work. This is the best practice +when cut for hay. When used for mixing with corn in a silo, the +self-binder is satisfactory. The hay and seed crop must have thorough +field-curing in windrow and bunches, and the harvest comes in a season +when cold rains may prevail. This disadvantage of one of our most +valuable crops is to be taken into account, but it will not prevent +rapid increase in acreage as the merit of the soybean becomes known. + +The Canada Pea.--Among field peas there are many varieties, but the one +chiefly grown in the United States under the general name of the Canada +pea is the Golden Vine. It makes a green forage or hay that is rich in +protein. Usually it is grown with oats, giving a hay nearly as +nutritious as that of clover. The crop is adapted to cold latitudes, +and the planting should be made as early in the spring as possible. +Fall-plowing of the land is to be advised on this account. A good +method of seeding is to drill in six pecks of the pea seed to a depth +of four inches, and then to drill in six pecks of oats. + +The crop should be cut for hay when the oats are in the milk stage. At +this time the peas are forming pods. The hay is not easily made, but is +specially valuable for dairy cows. + +There is no profitable place for the Canada pea in crop-rotations +farther south than the true oat-crop belt, except as a green-forage +crop. The soybean and red clover have greater usefulness in the center +of the corn belt. + +Vetch.--A variety of vetch known as winter, sand, or hairy vetch is +coming into great usefulness as a catch crop. It is a winter annual, +and being a legume, it has special value as a fertilizing crop. It is +more hardy than crimson clover, and is grown as far north as winter +wheat. The seeding is made in August in the north, and when grown for +hay or seed, it needs rye or wheat to hold it up. Rye and vetch make a +rich and early green forage crop, and the proportion in which they are +seeded varies widely in practice. Six pecks of rye and 15 pounds of +vetch make an excellent seeding per acre. + +When grown for seed, one to two pecks of rye and 20 to 30 pounds of +vetch may be used. The rye can be fairly well separated from the vetch +by use of a fanning-mill or an endless belt of felt so inclined that +the round vetch seed will roll down, while the rye sticks to the felt +and is carried over. + +Vetch is excellent as a fertilizing crop, adding a great amount of +nitrogen to the soil when plowed down in May. If the seed were cheap, +its use would become much more common. Thirty pounds should be used +when seeding alone after summer crops or in corn. Farmers should +produce the seed for their farms, and use it freely. When sown for +seed, September first is a good date for the north. The seed matures in +June. + +As vetch matures with wheat, it may easily become a weed on farms +devoted largely to small grain, but it is not to be feared where tilled +crops and sods are the chief consideration. Inoculation is needed for +best results, as in the case with other legumes new to a region. + +Sweet Clover.--Much interest has been aroused within recent years in +sweet clover, a legume that formerly was regarded as a more or less +pernicious weed. Its friends regard it as a promising forage crop, but +too little is definitely known to permit its advocacy here except as a +soil-builder in the case of poor land that is not too deficient in lime +to permit good growth. Experiments have shown that a taste for this +bitter plant can be acquired by livestock, and it is nearly as +nutritious as alfalfa when cut before it becomes coarse and woody. It +is a strong grower, sending its roots well down into the subsoil, and +its great ability to secure nitrogen from the air enables it to make a +very heavy growth of top. The yield in forage usually exceeds that of +the clovers. + +Its most peculiar characteristic is its ability to thrive in a poor, +compact soil that contains little humus. It may be seen in thrifty +condition on roadsides and in waste places that seemingly would not +support other plants. Laying aside all consideration of its +possibilities as a forage crop, it will come into greater popularity as +a soil-builder on thin land. It is found usually on land of limestone +formation, and shares with other legumes a liking for lime, but it has +been grown successfully in regions that are known to have a lime +deficiency. + +There are two biennial varieties and one annual. The biennial having +white blossoms is the one most commonly seen, but the smaller variety +with yellow blossoms is more leafy and palatable. The larger variety is +the better fertilizer. + +The seed does not germinate readily, and 20 to 30 pounds is used per +acre. The soil should be compact, and the seeding can be made in the +spring with a cover crop, or in August by itself. Inoculation is +necessary if the right bacteria are not present. Soil from an alfalfa +field will serve for inoculation. + +An effort should be made to grow sweet clover on all infertile +hillsides that are lying bare. It stops washing and paves the way for a +sod of nutritious grasses. + +Rye as a Cover Crop.--As has been stated elsewhere, the plant that +stores nitrogen in its organic matter is most desirable, but the +greater part of the soil's stock of humus did not come through legumes. +Among the good cover crops is rye, both on account of its ability to +grow under adverse conditions and because it produces a large amount of +material for the soil. When seeded in the early fall, its roots fill +the soil the following spring, and the tops furnish all the material +that can be plowed down with safety. In northern latitudes it is the +most dependable of all winter cover crops, making some growth in poorly +prepared seed-beds and on thin land. The most value is obtained from +early seedings, thus securing a good fall growth. Two bushels of seed +are sufficient in good ground seeded ten weeks before winter begins, +but two or three pecks should be added to this amount if the rye can be +given only a few weeks of growth before frost locks up the soil. Rye +can grow in warm spells of winter, and starts early in the spring. It +uses up some available fertility that might otherwise be lost, and +releases it when it rots in the ground. + +When to plow Down.--If rye has made a good growth before spring, the +roots run deeper than the plow goes, and holds the soil much like a +grass sod. In such a case the plowing may be made early in the spring +without regard to the rye, though organic matter increases rapidly day +by day if the rye is permitted to grow. As a rule, it is safest to plow +down before the plants are eighteen inches high. They dry land out +rapidly, and any mass of matter in the bottom of the furrow interferes +with the rise of water from the subsoil. When the land is wanted for +oats or corn, a jointer should be used on the plow to insure burying +all the crop. + +Buckwheat.--An excellent crop for green-manuring is buckwheat. It has +such unusual ability to grow in a poor soil that the farmer who makes +free use of it as a grain crop never boasts of acreage planted, +assuming that his land will not be highly regarded if known to be +devoted chiefly to buckwheat. It does not withstand heat well, +especially from period of blossoming to maturity, and therefore is +restricted to cool latitudes. When grown for grain, it usually is not +planted until July, and matures a crop in a shorter period than any +other grain. It is sensitive to frost, but may be planted as soon as +the ground is warm, and will give a good body of matter for plowing +down within eight weeks. The root growth is not extensive, but the crop +leaves naturally heavy soils more mellow, and it is an excellent +cleansing crop for weed-infested fields. It makes a less heavy growth +than rye, but can be used at a time of the year that rye would fail. +There is time in a single season to grow two crops of buckwheat for +green-manuring, turning the first crop down when the blossoms appear. + +Oats.--When a fall growth is wanted for the soil, and it is preferred +that the plants be dead in the spring, oats make a good catch crop. + +Thin land which is wanted for seeding to wheat and grass in the fall, +or for timothy and clover seeding in August, may use oats as a spring +cover crop. A large amount of humus-making material may be gained by +this means. The only danger lies in the effect upon soil moisture. The +oat crop uses up the water freely in its growth, and when permitted to +form heads before being plowed down, the mass of material in the bottom +of the furrow does not rot quickly enough to induce the rise of water +from the subsoil. The land should be plowed early enough to permit a +solid seed-bed to be made. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +STABLE MANURE + + +Livestock Farming.--The fertility of the soil is most safely guarded in +regions devoted to livestock farming. "Selling everything off the farm" +is a practice associated in the public mind with soil poverty. It is a +rule with few exceptions that the absence of livestock on the farm is +an index of gradual reduction in the productive power of the land. +Generally speaking, the farmers who feed the most of their crops on the +farm are maintaining fertility, and those who do not feed their crops +on the farm have been making drafts upon the soil's stores of available +plant-food that are evidenced in a reduction of yields. These +statements will have the assent of all careful observers. The inference +has been that the maintenance of fertility requires the return to the +land of all the manure that would result from feeding its crops on the +farm. We know that by such feeding we can return to the fields at least +four fifths of all the plant-food taken out by the crops, and we +loosely reason that such a scheme is demanded by nature. The +maintenance of fertility involves good arithmetic, and a plant must +have certain weights of mineral elements at command before it can grow, +but it is not true that the productive power of land is chiefly +dependent upon the return to it in manure of all the fertility removed +by its crops. If this were true, meat and other animal products would +be the sole food supply of the world's markets. + +[Illustration: Texas calves on an Ohio farm.] + +The Place for Cattle.--There are general trends in human practice that +cannot be changed by man. A change in human diet that makes the +percentage of meat lower will not come through propaganda, but there +are forces at work that will restrict the consumption of meat by the +individual. The increase in population makes heavier demand for food. +Armsby has shown that the fattening steer returns to man for food only +3 per cent of the energy value of the corn consumed by it, and in +pork-production this percentage scarcely rises to 16. This is the +reason meat-making animals give way before increase in population in +congested countries. Their office becomes, more and more, the +conversion of products inedible to man to edible products. In our +country their number will increase, doubtless, for a long period of +time, finding their places more surely on eastern farms rather than on +western ranches. They must find the cheaper land, and that is no longer +confined to the west. They must be where coarse materials, inedible to +man, are found, and that is on eastern as well as on western farms. +Their office will not be the conversion of crops into manure, but the +conversion of coarse materials into human food in the form of meat or +milk. This is the trend, and while the consummation may happily be far +in the future, its consideration helps us to an appreciation of the +facts regarding nature's provision for maintaining the productiveness +of the soil. + +Sales off the Farm.--The day is now here when the major portion of +human food must be provided in grain and vegetables and fruit, and the +demand for hay and grain for animals off the farm is very large. Fiber +products likewise must be supplied. The draft upon the soil is heavy, +but it must be good farm practice to supply bread and vegetables and +fruit to the 70 per cent of our population that is not on farms. The +great majority of farmers do not feed all their crops to livestock, and +the amount of food-stuffs, for human beings and animals, that is now +going off the farms is none too great. + +Many farmers who incline to believe that they are safely guarding +fertility by feeding the most of their crops are not returning to the +fields one third of the plant-food that their crops remove. There is no +virtue in feeding when the manure is permitted to waste away. The +losses in stable and barnyard, the wastes from bad distribution by +animals, and the sales from the farm of some crops, animals, and milk, +lead to the estimate that one half of the farms on which livestock is +kept do not give to the fields in the form of manure over 30 per cent +of the fertility taken out of them by crops. This estimate, for which +no accurate data is possible, probably is too high. The sales of food +for man and animal are a necessity, and the scheme of farming involving +such sales is right, provided the farmer makes use of other supplies of +fertility. The area devoted to such sales will grow greater because +human needs are imperative. Livestock will become more and more a means +of working over the material that man cannot eat--the grass, hay, +stalks, by-products in manufacture, and coarse grains. The demand for +meat and milk will lead to careful conversion of material into this +form of food, and the animals on eastern farms will increase in number +for a time, while sales of grain and vegetables grow greater. The draft +upon soil fertility through sales must increase because every pound of +material sold from the farm carries plant-food in it. + +The Value of Manure.--It is not possible to put a commercial valuation +upon farm manures that may be a sure guide to any farmer. The value +depends upon what the individual can get out of it in crops and +improved soil conditions. It is rather idle to say that the annual +product of a horse in the form of manure is $30, or more or less, even +when an analysis shows that the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash +contained in it are worth that sum when valued at the market prices of +those plant constituents. If the total amount of fertility found in the +voidings of all the animals of the farm were provided in a pile of +commercial fertilizer containing the same amount of each plant +constituent, its worth to the farmer would depend upon his ability to +convert all that fertility into crops at a profit. There are farmers so +situated in respect to soils, crops, and markets that they can make a +good profit from an investment of $30 in the total liquid and solid +voidings of a horse for a year. On the other hand, there are many who +would fail. The values usually given are relative and suggestive. They +are aids in forming judgment. Actual value on the farm depends much on +the man. + +The Content of Manure.--When the crops of a farm are fed, the manure +contains nearly all the plant-food that went originally into the crops. +In the case of idle work-horses on a maintenance ration, the manure +contains practically all the plant-food. Cows giving milk remove some +fertility, and a growing calf or colt may take out 30 per cent. There +is some waste beyond control, but when manure is made on tight floors +with good bedding, and is drawn to the field fast as made, on the +average it carries back to the soil fully four fifths of the plant-food +that existed in the feed. Disregarding all cash valuations for the +moment, here is an index of value that should be sufficient in itself +to encourage the feeding of crops on the farm and the careful saving of +the manure. When one can market his crops to animals on the farm at +their cash value, and at the same time retain for his fields four +fifths of all the fertility, he is like a manufacturer who can use much +of his raw material over and over again. The value is in the manure, +and full appreciation is lacking only because a majority of farms do +not provide for careful saving of its valuable constituents. + +Relative Values.--The plant-food content of manure is determined +chiefly by the feed. The animals add nothing: they subtract. The kind +of animals consuming the feed does not affect materially the value of +the manure made from it, if the animals are mature and not giving milk. +The manures from the various kinds of animals differ in value per ton +because the feeds differ in character and the manure varies in +percentage of water. On an average, however, the total annual product +of manure from farm animals, per 1000 pounds of live weight, does not +vary widely in value. The rich protein feeds given the cow, and the +heavy feeding, more than make amends for the fertility that goes into +the milk, and her annual product, per 1000 pounds of live weight, may +exceed in value that of the horse by 25 per cent. This is likewise true +of the pig, figured on the 1000-pound basis, while in the case of the +sheep the value, per 1000 pounds of live weight, is near that of the +horse. + +[Illustration: In the fertile Miami Valley, Ohio.] + +These variations are not wide enough to have great importance to the +livestock farmer. The manure represents to him four fifths of all the +fertility that was contained by the feed he gave the various animals. +They added no plant-food, and they took away only a fraction that was +not large. They converted the crops into a form of plant-food that +either is available or can become so quickly enough, and in addition to +the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash that would have a high +valuation in a commercial fertilizer, there is a body of organic matter +that affects the physical condition of the soil favorably. The manure +also promotes the multiplication of friendly soil bacteria. Its +possibilities are so great that the inference of many farmers that no +successful agriculture can be maintained without it is very natural. + +Amount of Manure.--Vivian states that the amount of manure that may be +made from feed can be determined by multiplying the total weight of dry +matter in the feed by 3. This assumes that bedding will be used in +sufficient amount to absorb the urine, and that will require material +containing one fourth as much dry matter as there is in the feed. When +the amount of hay and grain is known, and the dry matter in all +succulent feed is estimated, the total product of manure in tons can be +arrived at with fair accuracy. + +Analysis of Manure.--As has been stated, the content of the manure must +depend chiefly upon the character of the feed. We are accustomed to +combine feeding stuffs in differing proportions for horses, cows, pigs, +and sheep. Van Slyke names the following approximate percentages of +plant-food constituents in fresh excrements of farm animals, the solid +and liquid being mixed: + + +----------+----------+------------+----------+ + | Animal | Per Cent | Per Cent | Per Cent | + | | Nitrogen | Phosphoric | Potash | + | | | Acid | | + +----------+----------+------------+----------+ + | Horse | 0.70 | 0.25 | 0.55 | + | Cow | 0.60 | 0.15 | 0.45 | + | Pig | 0.50 | 0.35 | 0.40 | + | Sheep | 0.95 | 0.35 | 1.00 | + | Hen | 1.00 | 0.80 | 0.40 | + +----------+----------+------------+----------+ + +He estimates that one ton of average mixed stable manure, inclusive of +absorbents, contains approximately 10 pounds of nitrogen, 5 pounds of +phosphoric acid, and 10 pounds of potash. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +CARE OF STABLE MANURE + + +Common Source of Losses.--When we bear in mind that four fifths of all +the fertility removed from the land in the grains and coarse stuffs fed +on the farm may be recovered from the animals and returned to the soil, +we can appreciate the consideration that the care of manure should have +on every farm. The careless methods that prevail in most sections of +the country are an inheritance from the day when soils were new and +full of fertility. These methods continue partly through a lack of +confidence in the statements that the liquid portion of animal +excrements, in average mixed stable manure, has nearly as great value +as the solid portion. If this fact were accepted, many of the losses +would be stopped. Another reason for continuance of careless methods is +failure to appreciate that the soluble portion of manure is the highly +valuable part, and that leaching in the barnyard carries away value +more rapidly than decrease in volume of manure indicates. The widely +demonstrated facts do not have effective acceptance, and enormous loss +continues. + +Thorne found that manure placed in flat piles in the barnyard in +January, and allowed to lie until April, lost one third of its value. +Under the conditions prevailing on many farms the loss suffered by +exposure of manure is far greater. + +[Illustration: Concrete stable floors.] + +Caring for Liquid Manure.--If all manure were in solids, one great +difficulty in caring for it would not exist. The nitrogen is the most +valuable element in manure, and two fifths of all of it in horse manure +is found in the liquid. In the case of cow manure, over one half of the +nitrogen is found in the liquid. More than this, a pound of nitrogen in +the liquid has greater value than a pound in the solid because of its +nearly immediate availability. There is only one good way of caring for +the liquids, and that is by use of absorbents on tight floors or in +tight gutters. American farmers find cisterns and similar devices +nuisances. The first consideration is to make the floor water-tight, +and clay will not do this. The virtues of puddled clay have had many +advocates, but examination of clay floors after use will show that +valuable constituents of the manure have been escaping. The soils of +the country cannot afford the loss, and careful farm management +requires acceptance of the truth that a tight floor is as necessary to +the stable as to the granary. The difficulty in supplying a sufficient +amount of absorbents on tight floors only emphasizes the loss where +floors are not water-tight. + +Use of Preservatives.--The use of land-plaster in stables helps to +prevent loss of the nitrogen-content through fermentation. Its value +does not lie chiefly in physical action as an absorbent, but the +beneficial results come through chemical action. The volatile part of +the manure is changed into a more stable form. In recent years this +preservative has fallen somewhat into disuse, as acid phosphate +contains like material and also supplies phosphoric acid to the manure. +The phosphoric acid content of stable manure is too low for all soils, +and the reënforcement by means of acid phosphate would be good practice +even if there were no preservative effect. The use of fifty pounds of +acid phosphate to each ton of manure will assist materially in +preserving the nitrogen, and the gain in phosphoric acid will repay all +the cost. It should be used daily on the moist manure, as made in the +stable, and preferably just before bedding is added, so that the +phosphate will not come into direct contact with the feet of the +animals. Some stockmen prefer the use of acid phosphate and kainit +mixed half-and-half. The latter is a carrier of potash, and is a +preservative of nitrogen. + +The use of ground rock-phosphate in stables is coming into use in some +localities, chiefly through the recommendation that it be mixed with +manure to secure availability of its own plant-food. It is not a +preservative except in so far as it acts physically as an absorbent. It +should not displace acid phosphate in stables, the preservation of +nitrogen in the manure being the vital matter. + +Spreading as Made.--When farm conditions make it feasible to draw and +spread manure fast as made, the danger of heavy loss in storing is +escaped. There is evidence that no appreciable escape of fertility +occurs when manure is spread on land that is not covered with ice. The +phosphoric acid and potash are minerals, and leach into the soil. The +nitrogen does not change into a gas in any appreciable amount when +spread over the surface, and it likewise leaches into the soil. There +are soils in which the decay of the organic matter would have a more +beneficial effect than the rotting upon the surface, it may be, but the +mulching effect of the manure is valuable. There should be no doubt +that the loss from manure is kept to a minimum when it goes directly to +the soil. In some latitudes the snow and ice oftentimes prevent +spreading, or make it inadvisable, and in many farm schemes it is +desirable to hold manure for special fields and crops. Some means of +storing manure must be provided in these instances. + +The Covered Yard.--If the possible value of manure were realized, +provision for its care would be made as promptly and surely as +provision for the care of a harvested crop. There are only three +conditions that must be provided in order that manure may be preserved +without much loss. The manure must be protected from leaching rains, it +must be kept moist, and air must be excluded. The exposure of stable +manure to the processes of fermentation and leaching, produces a waste +that is believed to amount to several hundreds of millions of dollars +in the United States annually. The day will come when no farmer will be +willing to share heavily in a loss from this source, but will either +spread manure fast as made or provide a roof for the stored manure. An +absolutely tight floor is not so great a necessity as it is in the +stable, because the amount of moisture is under control, but many +farmers prefer to make concrete floors for the manure-shed and thus to +guard against any loss from leaching. The chief cost may be confined to +the roof. + +A better plan is to inclose three sides, making them so tight that all +drafts will be prevented, and to use the shed as a place of exercise +for cows or other livestock. We have learned within recent years that +such an inclosure is more healthful and comfortable for cattle than +stalls in an inclosed building, no matter how cold the weather may be. +The fresh air without any drafts, and the liberty of movement, are +needed. This shed should be connected with the stable, and on its floor +the manure from the stables may be spread daily. It should be scattered +evenly over the surface, and the mass can be kept firm by the tramping +of the animals. It may be necessary to add some water at intervals to +keep the mass sufficiently moist. The water excludes air and assists in +holding harmful fermentation in check. + +Harmless Fermentation.--There is a kind of fermentation in manure that +goes on in the absence of air. It is due to bacteria that break up the +organic matter, producing rotted manure. This is not attended by much +loss, and proceeds beneath the surface of the moist and packed mass. +Manure properly controlled under a roof goes into prime condition for +spreading later in the season. The only danger is neglect, and +especially when the livestock is removed to the pasture fields in the +spring. If no water is added from time to time, hot fermentation +replaces the harmless kind because air can penetrate through the bed of +manure. Compactness and moisture can save the plant-food with small +loss throughout the summer, and a body of good manure is available when +needed for top-dressing land in the summer. + +Rotted Manure.--Mixed stable manure contains in a ton as many pounds of +potash as it does of nitrogen, and yet we speak of it as a highly +nitrogenous fertilizer. When fresh manure has suffered no loss of the +liquid part, much of its nitrogen is almost immediately available. The +nitrogen in the urine is in soluble forms, and fermentation quickly +occurs. When manure is used on grass, it cannot be too fresh, as the +immediate action of the nitrogen is desirable. Vegetable growers often +prefer a slower and more continuous action, and the rotting of manure +under right conditions changes the liquid nitrogen into compounds that +act more slowly. + +The solid material in horse manure contains less water than that of the +cow, and this absence of water permits quick fermentation when air is +present. The use of large quantities of such manure per acre is not +liked by vegetable-growers. Rotting under control in a covered barnyard +has a beneficial effect for this reason when a hot manure is not +wanted. The covered shed costs some money, and there is a loss +estimated at 10 per cent under the best conditions, but when manure +cannot be drawn fast as made, there is compensation in improved +condition for certain soils and crops. + +Composts.--The compost, involving the handling of manure and soil, has +no rightful place on the average farm. The gardener or trucker using +great quantities of manure per acre must let some of the fermentation +occur before he incorporates it with the soil, or harm will result. He +wants reduction in volume, and such change in character that it will +add to the retentive character of the soil respecting moisture instead +of drying the soil out. He can afford all the labor of piling the +manure with layers of sods or other material, and the turning to secure +mixing. It is his business to watch it so that loss will not occur. + +The farmer uses manure in smaller quantities per acre. Probably all his +fields need the full action of the organic matter in its rotting. The +percentage of humus-making material is low. The place for fresh manure +is on the land, when this is feasible. The covered shed is a device for +holding manure with least possible loss when spreading cannot be done, +or a supply must be carried over for land in the summer. The gain in +condition is only incidental, and an advantage chiefly to vegetables. +The composting of manure by gardeners is not a practice to be copied on +most farms. + +Poultry Manure.--The value of poultry manure often is overestimated. +Its content of plant-food is one half greater than that of horse +manure, ton for ton. The availability of the nitrogen is so great that +returns from applications are immediate, and give the impression of +greater strength than is possessed. Its availability makes it excellent +for plants that need forcing. For such use it needs reënforcing only +with acid phosphate, but as a general manure it should have the +addition of potash. Acid phosphate should be used in the poultry-house +to prevent loss of nitrogen, which escapes quickly on account of rapid +fermentation, and to supply phosphoric acid. Thirty pounds of acid +phosphate to each 100 pounds of the manure gives a mixture containing +one pound of nitrogen, three pounds of phosphoric acid, and two fifths +of a pound of potash. The addition of four pounds of muriate of potash +makes the mixture a well-balanced and effective fertilizer when used at +the rate of 500 to 1000 pounds per acre. Dry muck or loam should be +mixed with it to serve as an absorbent and to give good physical +condition. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE USE OF STABLE MANURE + + +Controlling Factors.--The farm supply of stable manure is a carrier of +plant-food, returning to the soil four fifths of all the fertility +removed in the crops fed, but it is much more than this. Land which +receives only plant-food, as may be the case when fertility is supplied +in commercial fertilizers, loses good physical condition. Organic +matter is needed for maintenance of physical condition, the retention +of soil moisture, the freeing of inert minerals in the land, and the +promotion of bacterial life in the soil. No small share of the value of +a ton of manure is due to its organic matter. This is a factor in the +problem when deciding what disposition of the manure will pay best. One +field may be in condition to respond fully to the use of commercial +fertilizers, while another is too deficient in humus for best results. +Some crops are more insistent upon supplies of organic matter than +others. + +Again, the disposition of the manure depends upon the supply. If most +crops are fed on the farm, the manure is a leading source of fertility +for all fields and crops, and may be used once or twice in the +crop-rotation on every field. If the manure is in small amount, due to +a scheme of farming involving the growing of crops for market, the +function of the manure may be only to encourage the starting of sods, +in which legumes are a leading factor. + +Direct Use for Corn.--The practice of spreading manure on grass land +for corn is based upon much good experience. The custom is nearly +universal in regions where corn is an important part of a four, five, +or six years' rotation, and all of the corn and hay is fed on the farm. +This disposition of the manure permits the handling at times when other +work does not rush. The supply carried over from the spring is put on +in late summer, and the manure made in the early part of the winter can +be drawn to the field fast as made. Manure spread immediately before +the sod is broken is less effective, as no leaching of soluble elements +into the surface soil occurs before the coarse material is buried in +the bottom of the furrow. + +[Illustration: Corn in the Ohio Valley.] + +The use of fresh manures for corn is rational, because corn is a gross +feeder and requires much nitrogen. All plants having heavy foliage can +use nitrogen in large amounts. It is possible to apply manure in +excessive amount for this cereal, the growth of stalk becoming out of +proportion to the ear, but the instances are relatively few. Ordinarily +corn suffers from lack of nitrogen. When the farm manure is in large +amount, its direct use for corn is good practice. + +Effect upon Moisture.--Coarse manures should not be plowed down late in +the spring, as they increase the ill effects of drouth. Decayed +vegetation, well mixed with the soil, increases the soil's +water-holding capacity, but undecayed material in the bottom of the +furrow is harmful. Fresh, strawy manure, made immediately before the +time for breaking a sod, is preferably carried over in a covered shed +until a later season of the year. + +When manure has been spread upon a sod in the fall or early winter, it +decays quickly after the plowing, and aids in resistance to drouth. +When it is plowed down, the ground is kept more porous, and the +presence of plant-food and moisture at or near the depth of plowing +encourages deeper rooting of plants, and thus indirectly assists them +to withstand dry weather. If the plowing is good in character, leaving +the furrow-slice partly on edge, and permitting the harrow to mix part +of the turf and the manure with the remainder of the soil, the best +conditions respecting moisture are secured. + +Manure on Grass.--When the crop-rotation embraces two or more years of +grass, or one of clover followed by only one of grass, it is better +practice to use the manure to thicken the sod. The object in view is +the largest possible amount of crops, and the maximum amount of organic +matter for the soil. Grass is a heavy feeder, like corn, and makes good +use of nitrogen. Its roots fill the soil so that no loss attends the +use of manure. When the supply is given the grass, after the harvest of +the second crop of clover and during the winter, the timothy can make a +rank growth. The part of the plant above ground has corresponding +development below ground. Not only does a large increase in the hay +crop result, but the heavy mass of grass roots, the aftermath, and the +remains of the manure provide a great amount of fertility for the corn +which follows. The increase in hay permits a corresponding increase in +the manure supply the next year, if it is fed, and if it is sold on +account of a market price greater than its value for feed and manure, +it adds to income materially--and that is one reason for farming. + +Manure on Potatoes.--There are excellent cash crops that may get more +than their fair share of the farm supply of fertility, and against the +interest of fields in the farm not adapted to cash crops. The +justification is found in the farm ledger. In some regions potatoes are +the best crop in point of net income per acre, where the acreage is +kept restricted so that there may be plenty of organic matter to help +in conserving moisture. It is not good practice to use fresh manure, +and especially that from horse-stables, for potatoes. A heavy +application makes an excessive growth of vine, and the yield of tubers +suffers. A stronger deterrent is the effect that fresh manure has on +the development of the spores that produce the disease known as +potato-scab. Rotted manure is less dangerous, and few crops repay its +use in higher degree than the potato. Some growers prefer to make heavy +application of fresh manure to grass for corn, and follow with potatoes +so that they can profit by the rotted organic matter that remains. In +this way the physical condition is made excellent, moisture is well +held in a dry season, and commercial fertilizers can supplement the +plant-food left in the manure. + +When to plow Down.--Excellent farmers differ regarding the relative +efficiencies of manure plowed down and that mixed with the top soil. +Both classes may be right for their individual instances. The plowing +down of manure helps to deepen the soil, and that always is desirable. +It causes plants to root deeply, and that is a distinct benefit in a +drouthy season, and always desirable. When a soil is in such tilth that +the breaking-plow always brings fertile soil to the surface, the +plowing down of manure gives excellent results, though it should be +permitted to leach at the surface for a few weeks before being turned +under. When land is being prepared for a seeding to grass or clover, +the supply of manure should not be plowed down wherever the +breaking-plow brings soil to the surface that is deficient in humus. In +the latter case the manure always should be used as a top-dressing, and +should be evenly spread and well mixed with the surface soil. It is +needed there far more than it can be needed farther down. The surface +soil always should have a high content of organic matter. + +Heavy Applications.--When the farm supply of manure is small, +applications should be light. The manure should not be the dependence +for plant-food on a part of a field, or a single field of the farm, +under such circumstances. It is more profitable to give a light +dressing to a larger area. The manure is needed to make a fertilizing +crop grow, and a very few tons per acre can assist greatly, when +rightly used. The manure is needed to furnish bacteria to the soil, and +a small amount per acre is useful for this purpose. Always there is +temptation to use all the manure on a field convenient to the barn, and +to concentrate it on a sufficiently small area to make a good yield +sure. The loss to the farm in this method is heavy. The thin spots and +the thin fields have first right to the manure as a top-dressing, and +six tons per acre will bring larger returns per ton than twelve tons +per acre. At the Pennsylvania experiment station the land receiving ten +tons of manure per acre in the common four years' rotation of corn, +oats, wheat, and mixed clover and grass gives added returns of $1.63 a +ton, while an application of eight tons pays $1.85 a ton, and a six-ton +application brings the value per ton up to $2.41. These applications +are made twice in the four years. + +Reënforcement with Minerals.--A ton of mixed manure in the stable +contains about ten pounds of nitrogen, five pounds of phosphoric acid, +and ten pounds of potash. This makes the percentage of nitrogen and +potash the same, while the percentage of phosphoric acid is only half +as high. A commercial fertilizer of such percentages would be esteemed +a badly balanced one. Certainly the phosphoric acid should be +relatively high, as this constituent of plant-food runs low in the +soil. If 50 pounds of 14 per cent acid phosphate were added to each ton +of manure while it is being made in the stable, seven pounds of +phosphoric acid would be added, making the percentage in the manure a +little higher than that of the nitrogen and the potash. A better +balance is given to the fertility. There cannot be any loss in this +purchased plant-food, if the stable floor is tight. Fermentation cannot +drive it off, and when applied to the soil it is tightly held. +Practically no phosphoric acid is found in drainage waters. Eight tons +of manure thus reënforced would contain the same amount of plant-food +as a ton of fertilizer having 4 per cent nitrogen, 5 per cent +phosphoric acid, and 4 per cent potash. The addition of the 50 pounds +of acid phosphate per ton does not bring the phosphoric acid content up +as high relatively as in most commercial fertilizers, but it helps. The +total amount in the eight tons manure may be sufficient, and the +greater part of the total has sufficiently immediate availability, +while the manure must undergo decomposition, and some of the nitrogen +and potash does not become available within the year. + +Durability of Manure.--Tests of the durability of manure in the soil +involve some uncertain factors, but we are interested only in the +effects of applications. These effects may continue for a long term of +years, and an example will illustrate. Land may be too infertile to +make a good clover sod. If a good dressing of manure be given half the +land, affording proper conditions for making a sod, the result will be +a heavy growth of clover, while the seeding on the unmanured half will +be nearly a failure. If no manure or fertilizer be used in the +crop-rotation, the probability is the manured portion of the field will +again make a fairly good sod. How much this success may be due to the +remains of the manure, and how much is attributable to the effect of +the clover and to better bacterial life introduced and favored by the +manure, no one knows. Probably the greater part of the benefit comes +only indirectly from the manure applied three or four years previously. +Half of the field may thus be lifted out of a helpless state and remain +out of it for a long term of years, while the other half grows only +poorer. A probable illustration of this lasting indirect effect may be +seen in one of the plats in the soil fertility experiments on the +Pennsylvania experiment station farm. + +Experiments at the Rothamstead station, England, show some lasting +results from applications of manure. Director Hall cites the case of +one plat of grass land which was highly manured each year from 1856 to +1863, and has since been left unmanured. In 1864 this plat gave double +the yield of an adjoining plat which had been left unmanured during the +eight years. In 1865 the plat, last manured in 1863, gave over double +the yield of the unmanured. In the following ten years its yield was a +half more than that of the unmanured. In the next ten years the yield +was a quarter more. In the next ten years it fell to 6 per cent more +than the plat that had received no manure in the beginning of the +experiment. In the following ten years it rose to 15 per cent. Here is +a lasting effect of manure for over forty years where grass was grown +continuously. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +CROP-ROTATIONS + + +The Farm Scheme.--Notwithstanding some of the theorizing that does not +commend itself to the practical man, farm management is taking on the +form of a science. It involves the organization of a farm for best +results, and in the scheme that should be worked out for any particular +farm the most important feature is the crop-rotation. The selection of +crops is controlled by so many local considerations, including the +personal likes and dislikes of the farmer, that very rightly the kinds +of rotation are innumerable. The order in which crops may be grown with +most profit is less variable, and yet even here local conditions may +quickly derange the scheme of a theorist. There is, however, such right +relation of facts to each other that we are getting a working +philosophy, and the individual farmer can bend practice to his own +liking in considerable degree, and yet not compel plants to do their +part at a disadvantage. He has much liberty in the order of their +growing, without endangering profits materially. Theoretically, this is +not true, and the factors of production on any farm are such that the +largest return is obtainable in only one scheme of farming. Practically +there is rather wide liberty. + +Value of Rotation.--Experience has shown the benefit of variety in +crops grown on land. Among the advantages of crop-rotation are the +following: + + 1. It enables the farmer to maintain the supply of organic matter + in his soil. The roots and stubble of a grain crop are insufficient + for this purpose, and the introduction of a sod or cover crop is + helpful. + + 2. It permits the use of legumes to secure cheap supplies of + nitrogen. + + 3. Some plants feed near the surface of the ground, and the use of + other plants which send roots deeper adds to the production. + + 4. Some crops leave the soil in bad physical condition, and the use + of other crops in the rotation serves as a corrective. + + 5. The keeping of livestock is made more feasible and profitable, + and this leads to increase in farm manures. + + 6. In a proper succession of crops the soil is covered with living + plants nearly all the time, and thus is prevented from washing or + leaching. + + 7. In addition to these influences upon soil fertility, crop-rotation + assists in control of insect and fungous foes and of weeds; it + permits such distribution of labor on the farm that the largest + total production may be secured by its employment; and it saves the + farmer from sole dependence upon a single crop. + +[Illustration: Penn's Valley, Pennsylvania.] + +Selection of Crops.--The natural inclination of the farmer is a +consideration that cannot be ignored. If a man does not like certain +kinds of animals or crops, his farm or market must possess an unusual +advantage to counter-balance. Illustration of this truth may be seen in +every farming community. + +As a rule, the crops should be those that are well adapted to the +particular soils upon which they are grown. It is up-hill work to +compete with producers whose soils have far better adaptation, unless +the local markets equalize conditions. + +The crops should follow each other in such succession that each crop +naturally paves the way for the next one in the succession, or at least +does not place its successor at a disadvantage. + +When it is feasible, a rather large proportion of the entire produce of +the rotation should be feeding-stuff for livestock, as soil fertility +is most easily guarded by livestock farming. This is desirable when +consistent with profit, but, as we have seen, it is not an absolute +essential. + +An Old Succession of Crops.--In the corn belt of the northern states +some time-honored crop-rotations have been formed by corn, oats, wheat, +clover, and timothy. The number of years devoted to the grain and to +the sod has varied with the soil and the desire of its owner. A common +succession is corn one year, oats one year, wheat one year, clover and +timothy one year, timothy one year--a five years' rotation that has +much substantial success behind it. Such a rotation is wholly +reasonable and in accord with the nature of things. Every year +furnishes some organic matter for the soil in roots and stubble, and +all the produce of four years out of the five may be fed on the farm. +There is one cash crop, or two if the price of the clear timothy hay +justifies sale. + +The manure may be hauled upon the sod when other work does not press, +and it goes where the crop is one that prefers fresh manure, be that +the grass or the corn. There is plenty of time after the corn to +prepare for oats, and after the oats to prepare for wheat. The +preparation for the wheat is sufficient for the clover and timothy. The +seedings come only in the spring and the fall, when rainfall is more +abundant and effective than in mid-summer. The danger of failure in +case of this rotation is relatively small. + +Corn Two Years.--Hunt says that the prosperity of the east, as a whole, +would be greatly increased if the rotations of crops were so modified +as to increase the corn acreage. He suggests the four rotations given +in the table below, which is taken from Bulletin 116 of the +Pennsylvania experiment station. The fertilizers recommended should +maintain fertility. + + CORN IN CROP-ROTATIONS + ++-------+-------+-------+-------+-------------------------------------+ +| 3 Yr. | 4 Yr. | 5 Yr. | 7 Yr. | | +| ------+-------+-------+-------+-------------------------------------+ +| | | | 1 | Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25| +| | | | | pounds of phosphoric acid. | +| 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25| +| | | | | pounds of phosphoric acid. | +| | 2 | 2 | 3 | Oats: no fertilizer. | +| 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | Wheat: 50 pounds each of phosphoric | +| | | | | acid and potash. | +| 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | Clover and timothy: no fertilizer. | +| | | 5 | 6 | Timothy: 25 pounds each of nitrogen,| +| | | | | phosphoric acid, and potash. | +| | | | 7 | Timothy: 25 pounds each of nitrogen,| +| | | | | phosphoric acid, and potash. | ++-------+-------+-------+-------+-------------------------------------+ + +The Oat Crop.--In the northern part of the corn belt the oat crop is +profitable. In the southern half of Ohio and regions of like temperature +the oat crop rarely pays. The heat, when the oat is in the milk stage, +usually is too great. The tendency there is to eliminate this crop. +Where silage is wanted, the stubble-land can be seeded directly to +wheat with good results. A common practice is to seed to wheat between +the shocked corn, and the wheat does poorly unless the soil is quite +fertile. + +Two Crops of Wheat.--A common practice has been to grow two crops of +wheat, seeding first in the corn stubble-land, and plowing the ground +for the second wheat crop, making a smooth surface for mowing. This +method ceased to pay well when wheat became low in price. It has the +advantage of giving two cash crops to the rotation. + +Where winter wheat does not thrive in the north, it is dropped out, and +the seeding to clover and grass is with the oat crop. There is the +compensation of a large oat yield where the climate is too cold for a +good crop of wheat. + +[Illustration: In the Shenandoah Valley.] + +The Clover and Timothy.--The timothy and clover sod is made +inexpensively so far as labor is concerned. The first crop of hay is +chiefly clover, and the soil is enriched by the roots and stubble, +while the hay is converted into manure. + +The second year the hay is nearly clear timothy. The sod should not be +left until it becomes thin, but should be turned under while heavy, no +matter if this must be after one season's harvest, or two. A sod stands +three or four years for harvest on some farms, and without heavy +fertilization there is decrease in fertility. + +Two Legumes in the Rotation.--If all the crops of this five years' +rotation, excepting wheat, were fed on the farm, and if all the manure +were saved and rightly applied, there would be little or no difficulty +in maintaining fertility, provided the soil were friendly to clover. +The fact is that much such land has grown poorer, and it is known that +another legume is needed in the rotation. The substitution of the +soybean or cowpea for the oat crop gives excellent results. It makes a +large supply of rich hay, and it fits the soil nicely for winter grain. +The use of the breaking-plow is escaped. The surface of the land is in +good tilth, especially if the legume was planted in rows so that +cultivation could be given. A cutaway harrow, run shallow, and a roller +make the seed-bed. Near the southern edge of the oat belt this +substitution gives more value in the crop following corn, and at the +same time conserves soil fertility. + +Where land is thin, a four years' rotation of corn, soybeans or +cowpeas, wheat, and clover is one of the best, because it contains two +leguminous crops, and because one of them favors the wheat which +follows and the clover seeded in the wheat. + +Potatoes after Corn.--When potatoes are grown in the corn belt, a five +years' rotation of corn, potatoes, oats, wheat, and clover, or corn, +potatoes, wheat, clover, and timothy, is one of the best. When a late +potato crop is grown, there is not time for seeding to wheat in cool +latitudes, and the oat crop, or the soybean, fits in best. Farther +south, where the oat crop is less profitable, there usually is time to +go directly to wheat. + +The advantage in this rotation is that the fresh manure can be used on +the sod for the corn, and the potato thrives in the rotted remains of +the sod and manure. Corn leaves the soil in good physical condition for +the potato. Commercial fertilizer is used freely for the potato, which +repays fertilization in higher degree than most other staple crops. The +land can be prepared for seeding to wheat and grass with a minimum +amount of labor. The rotation is excellent where there is enough +fertility for the potato, which usually can be by far the most +profitable crop in the entire rotation. + +A Three Years' Rotation.--Farm conditions may require that certain +fields in the farm go under a crop-rotation covering three years. In +the winter wheat belt this may be clover, corn, and wheat, or clover, +potatoes, and wheat. It is an excellent rotation when early planted +potatoes or silage corn follows the sod, favoring the wheat in which +the clover again is seeded. The ground is plowed only once in three +years. The clover furnishes hay for the farm, and organic matter with +nitrogen for the land. There are two cash crops in the rotation when +potatoes are grown, and that makes a heavy draft upon fertility. +Experience has demonstrated that commercial fertilizers or manure +become necessary as a supplement to clover in a three years' rotation +embracing potatoes. This rotation gives good control of most weeds and +insect enemies. + +Where wheat is unprofitable, the oat crop is used in its stead. If +mixed hay is wanted, timothy is sown with the clover. This is poor +practice from the standpoint of soil fertility because the draft upon +humus is heavy in a close rotation embracing a tilled crop and small +grain. The sod should be chiefly clover, or manure should be used in +connection with commercial fertilizer. + +Grain and Clover.--In the case of some soils it is possible to grow a +wheat or corn crop each year, clover being grown as a catch crop. In +the long run, this practice will fail because the clover will cease to +make a thrifty growth when grown so nearly continuously. It succeeds +best on fertile land. + +Potatoes and Crimson Clover.--In some potato-producing sections in warm +latitudes it is a not uncommon practice to grow potatoes year after +year on the same land, seeding to crimson clover after the removal of +the crop in August, and plowing the clover down early in the spring. +Rye has been similarly used farther north. In each instance available +plant-food must be freely supplied. The practice is a temporary +expedient of value, but probably cannot be pursued indefinitely with +profit. This is likewise true of similar close rotations. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE NEED OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS + + +Loss of Plant-food.--The soil is composed chiefly of material that +never will enter into the structure of plants, but that serves us by +affording a congenial place for plant-roots. It anchors the plants, +holds moisture for them, and offers opportunity for all the processes +necessary to the preparation of plant-food and to its use. In this +material are the abundant supplies of such plant-food as silica, but, +as has been previously stated, their very abundance leads us rightly to +disregard them in our thinking. Our interest is only in the very small +percentage of material that is composed of the four constituents which +may be lacking in available form in the soil: nitrogen, phosphoric +acid, potash, and lime. We believe that the only consideration that now +need be given lime is as a soil-corrective and, when there is no +acidity, we may assume that there is plenty of lime present. When +yields of crops tend to decrease, the only plant-foods with which we +are concerned are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. + +The materials were stored in all agricultural land, and much of the +supply is in inert forms. They help to make what we call the natural +strength of the land. The rotting of organic matter, tillage, and many +other agencies bring about some availability. The removal of crops, +leaching, etc., reduce the supply. The right use of commercial +fertilizers involves the addition of some plant-food when the available +supply in a particular soil is inadequate. + +Prejudice against Commercial Fertilizers.--The owner of land that was +made very fertile by nature, and that has not been cropped long enough +to reduce the supply of available fertility to the danger-point, rarely +fails to entertain a prejudice against commercial fertilizers. It is +the rule that he refuses to consider their use until the decrease in +crop yields becomes so serious that necessity drives. If his land is +not contributing its fair share of grain, vegetables, etc., to the +markets, but has all its products converted into meat or milk, the +supply of available plant-food may remain sufficient for so long a time +that the matter cannot have any interest for him. If the land is +producing some crops for market, there is reduction in its mineral +store. It is the rule that the boundary of profitable use of commercial +fertilizers pushes westward from the older and naturally poorer +seaboard states about one generation after need shows in the crop +yields. Lack of knowledge, the association of the use of commercial +fertilizers with poor land, and some observation of the unwise use of +fertilizers, combine to create a lively prejudice. They are viewed as +stimulants only, and costly ones at that. + +Are Fertilizers Stimulants?--Some words carry with them their own +popular condemnation. We are accustomed to draw a sharp line between +foods and stimulants, and to condemn the latter. To stimulate is to +rouse to activity. Tillage does not add one pound of plant-food to the +soil, and its office is to enable plants to draw material out of the +soil. It makes activities possible that convert soil material into +crops. Fertilizers add plant-food directly to the soil, and it is also +to their credit that their judicious use favors increased availability +in some of the compounds already in the soil. The greater part of the +labor put on land is designed to make plant-food available, either by +providing moisture, or ease of penetration of plant-roots, or activity +of bacteria, or other means that will permit plants to remove what they +need for growth. Fertilizers supply fertility directly and indirectly, +but it is their direct service in meeting a deficiency in plant-food +that affords all needed justification for their use by practical +farmers. + +Referring to the thirty years' soil fertility experiments of the +Pennsylvania station, Hunt says that they "show that there is nothing +injurious about commercial fertilizers. For thirty years certain plats +in this experiment have received no stable manures. No organic matter +has been added to the soil except that which was furnished by the roots +and stubble of plants grown. These plats are not only as fertile as +they were thirty years ago, but they have yielded, and continue to +yield, as good crops as adjacent plats which have received yard manure +every two years in place of commercial fertilizer." + +Soil Analysis.--There is wide misconception regarding the value of +chemical analysis of the soil as an aid in making choice of a +fertilizer. Analysis has shown that some soil types are relatively +richer in plant-constituents than are others, and it has shown abnormal +deficiency in some types of limited area. It has given us more +knowledge of soils, but as a guide to fertilization in particular +instances it usually has no value. The samples used by an analyst are +so small that the inaccuracy in his determination may easily be greater +than the total amount of plant-food in a very heavy application of +commercial fertilizer. A field that has been reduced to temporarily low +productive power by heavy cropping or bad farming methods may show a +greater content of plant-food than another field that is in a highly +productive condition. This is a fact difficult of acceptance by some +who want the aid of science, but such are the present limitations. The +weight of a fertilizer application is so small in comparison with the +weight of the surface part of an acre of land that the use of a ton of +fertilizer may not be detected in the analyst's determinations, and +moreover his determinations of actual availability in the soil's +supplies are not serviceable in the selection of a fertilizer for any +particular field and crop. + +Physical Analysis.--Chemical analysis is costly and unsatisfactory as a +guide to fertilization. Physical analysis by a competent man may have +distinct value, and especially to one lacking experience with his soil. +The mapping of soils by national and state authorities has given pretty +accurate knowledge of hundreds of soil types, their location and +characteristics, and when a soil expert obtains a sample of soil and +the history of its past treatment, he can assign it to its type and +give to its owner dependable advice regarding its crop-adaptation and +probable fertilizer requirements. + +The Use of Nitrogen.--There is no fully satisfactory way of determining +the kind and amount of fertilizer that should be used at any particular +time for any one crop. Perfection in this respect is no easier in +attainment than in other matters. There are, however, means of arriving +at conclusions that are a valuable guide. + +In a general way, nitrogen is in scant supply in all worn soils. +Wherever the cropping has been hard, and manure has not gone back to +the land, the growth in stalk and leaves of the plant is deficient. The +color is light. Inability of a soil to produce a strong growth of corn, +a large amount of straw, or a heavy hay crop, is indicative of lack of +nitrogen in nearly every instance. + +The legumes, such as clover, and the stable manures are rich in +nitrogen, and when the scheme of farming involves their use on all the +land of the farm, no need of purchased nitrogen may arise in the +production of staple crops. In the black corn soils the nitrogen +content originally was high. + +Lands that naturally are not very fertile rarely have enough available +nitrogen. Where timothy is a leading crop, the demand for nitrogen is +heavy. A cold spring or summer, checking nature's processes in the +soil, may cause a temporary deficiency in available nitrogen in land +that usually has a sufficient supply. Associating a rank growth of +stalk and leaf with an abundance of nitrogen, the experienced man can +form a pretty safe opinion regarding the probable profitableness of an +investment in this element. It costs nearly four times as much per +pound as either of the two other constituents of a fertilizer, and so +far as is feasible it should be obtained through the legumes and stable +manure. + +Phosphoric-acid Requirements.--Soil analyses show that the content of +phosphoric acid in most soils of this country is relatively small. The +results of experiments with the various constituents of fertilizers are +in accord with this fact. Fertilizer experiments at the various +stations and on farms are nearly a unit in showing that if any need in +plant-food exists, phosphoric acid is deficient. When crop-producing +power decreases, and the farmer begins to seek a commercial fertilizer +to repair the loss, he finds that bone-dust or acid phosphate is +serviceable. The resulting increase in yield often leads to such sole +dependence upon this fertilizer that clover and manure are disregarded, +the percentage of humus is allowed to drop, and finally the fertilizer +is brought into disrepute. The need of phosphoric acid is so common +that it is the sole plant-food in much fertilizer, and the dominant +element in practically all the remainder on the market. + +[Illustration: Plat experiments.] + +The Need of Potash.--Land which is deficient in organic matter +ordinarily is lacking in available potash, and responds with profit to +applications, provided the nitrogen and phosphoric-acid requirements +have been met. Clay soils contain far more potash than sandy soils, and +in a farming scheme for them that permits the use of manure and clover, +it may not become necessary to buy much potash. The liberal use of +straw in the stables, and the saving of all the liquid manure, are +helps. Farms from which the hay and straw have been sold for a long +period of time develop an urgent need of potash. Much muck land is very +deficient in this constituent. + +Fertilizer Tests.--Every farmer should conduct some fertilizer tests +for himself. It is only the soil itself that can make an adequate reply +to a question regarding its needs. The test should be made under +conditions furnishing evenness in the soil, and it should be continued +for years. There is pleasure to an intelligent farmer in such +questioning of his soil, and only in this way can assurance be obtained +that the investment in fertilizers is the wisest that can be planned +for the farm. + +There are only three plant constituents to be tested, but they must be +used in combination as well as singly. A soil that is deficient in the +three may not give any return from potash alone, and usually does not, +although it may give a marked increase from use of phosphoric acid +alone. The plats may be eight rods long and one rod wide, containing +each one twentieth of an acre, and having strips two feet wide +separating them. The following chart suggests quantities of fertilizers +to be used on the one-twentieth acre plats, 10 in number: + + +---------------------------------------+ + | Nothing. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 5 pounds nitrate of soda. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 18 pounds 14 per cent acid phosphate. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 4 pounds muriate of potash. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | Nothing. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 5 pounds nitrate of soda. | + | 18 pounds 14 per cent acid phosphate. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 5 pounds nitrate of soda. | + | 4 pounds muriate of potash. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 18 pounds 14 per cent acid phosphate. | + | 4 pounds muriate of potash. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | 5 pounds nitrate of soda. | + | 18 pounds 14 per cent acid phosphate. | + | 4 pounds muriate of potash. | + +---------------------------------------+ + | Nothing. | + +---------------------------------------+ + +Variation in Soil.--The difficulty in determining the character of +fertilizer for a field, due to variation in the soil, is overestimated. +Very often a land-owner says, "I have a dozen kinds of soil in every +field." This is true in a way, it may be, but if all the field has had +the same treatment in the past, the probability is that the fertilizer +which is best for one part of the field will be quite good for the +other parts. The likeness in characteristics that permits the land to +be cropped as one field gives some assurance of likeness in plant-food +needs, even where the proportion of clay and sand varies and the color +is not the same. + +There may be wide variation in the productive power of the fields of a +farm, due to the treatments they have received. The land that grows +heavy clover in a close rotation, or receives all the stable manure, +may need neither nitrogen nor potash, while another field, hard-run by +timothy and corn, may need a complete fertilizer. When a careful +fertilizer test on land of only average productive power has been made, +the owner has some definite knowledge of his soil that enables him to +give more intelligent treatment to all his fields than was possible +before the test had been made. He observes the appearance and yield of +plants where the plant-food requirement was fully met, and makes +allowance in other fields for gains or losses in the soil due to +different treatment. It is out of the question to become discouraged +before a beginning has been made. If yields are limited by absence of +plant-food, fertilizers must be used. If money must be expended for +fertilizers, it is only good business to know that the money is +expended to the best advantage. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +COMMERCIAL SOURCES OF PLANT-FOOD + + +Acquaintance with Terms.--The hesitation of many users of commercial +fertilizer to master the few technical terms used in analyses of the +goods, for which over one hundred million dollars annually are expended +in this country, is to be deplored. The number of the materials +available for any large use as sources of plant-food in a commercial +fertilizer is small, and something of their characteristics should be +known. Every farmer should have a working knowledge of these +materials--their sources, the percentage of plant-food carried by them, +and their probable availability. He should know in a general way their +advantages and disadvantages in comparison with each other. + +Nitrate of Soda.--One of the best carriers of nitrogen is nitrate of +soda, which is imported from Chili, South America, where great beds +exist. The most of the impurities are removed, and the nitrate of soda +comes to us in bags holding 200 pounds, and looks much like discolored +salt. It is easily soluble in water, and usually contains a little over +15 per cent of nitrogen, which is in a very available form. Its +immediate availability brings it into use by gardeners and truckers, +and it is an excellent source of nitrogen for grass fertilizers to be +used in the early spring. It was formerly advised that nitrate of soda +should not form part of a fertilizer for use before plant-roots had +filled the ground, its high availability being supposed to lead to +heavy loss by leaching. The Pennsylvania experiment station uses it as +its sole source of nitrogen in fertilizers for staple crops on its 900 +acres of farm land. It is effective in fertilizers for corn, wheat, +potatoes, and grass, as well as for special crops. + +The warnings regarding loss by leaching should not be disregarded, +however. If the price of nitrogen in an organic form were as low as it +has been in nitrate of soda, and if the soils of the Pennsylvania +station farms were sandy, the use of nitrate of soda as the sole +carrier of nitrogen would be inadvisable. The only fact of consequence +is that the danger of loss has been over-stated, turning some farmers +away from the use of a good and relatively cheap carrier of nitrogen. + +Sulphate of Ammonia.--This is a by-product in the manufacture of coke +and also of illuminating gas. Hunt estimates that the amount of +nitrogen lost annually in Pennsylvania's coke industry would be +sufficient, if recovered by proper type of ovens, to furnish every acre +of land under cultivation in the state with four fifths of all the +nitrogen needed to keep it in a maximum state of fertility. + +Sulphate of ammonia contains about 20 per cent of nitrogen, which is in +a quite available form. It has a tendency to exhaust the lime in the +soil, producing an acid condition. Some plats in the fertilizer +experiment at the Pennsylvania station have received their nitrogen in +the form of sulphate of ammonia for 30 years, and are now in such acid +condition that no crops thrive upon them. The corrective, of course, is +lime, and if ammonium sulphate were somewhat lower in price, its use +would be profitable, justifying cost of correction of acidity if it +should occur. It is used by manufacturers of commercial fertilizers, +and is well adapted to mixtures on account of its physical condition. + +Dried Blood.--There is no more satisfactory source of organic nitrogen +than dried blood of high grade. The best blood, red in color, contains +nearly as much nitrogen as nitrate of soda, running from 13 to 15 per +cent. The nitrogen is not as quickly available as that in the nitrate, +but is more so than that in any other form of organic nitrogen. One +would rarely go amiss in the purchase of dried blood as a carrier of +nitrogen if the price were relatively as low as in the case of nitrate +of soda, but he should not let any prejudice in favor of animal origin +of fertilizers lead him to pay an excessive price per pound for the +nitrogen contained in it. Such a prejudice has caused the nitrogen in a +good red blood to sell for one half more per pound than in nitrate of +soda, and it is not a good purchase on that basis. + +The lower grades of dried blood on the market contain as low as 6 per +cent of nitrogen, and the animal refuse put into it gives it a content +of a few per cent of phosphoric acid. This black blood is very variable +in composition, and should always be accompanied by a guaranteed +analysis. + +Tankage.--The waste from the slaughter of animals goes into a product +called tankage. The refuse is cooked for removal of the fat, and then +ground. It may run high in nitrogen on account of the amount of meat in +the mixture, and it may be low in nitrogen and very high in phosphoric +acid by reason of the large amount of bone in the mixture. Only a +guarantee of analysis affords safety to the buyer. It is a relatively +slow and good fertilizer, and is used usually in connection with forms +of plant-food that are more quickly available. + +Fish.--Near the Atlantic coast a large quantity of ground fish, after +the extraction of oil, is used as a fertilizer, but the cost of the +nitrogen and phosphoric acid in this carrier is relatively too high to +justify its free use. Like dried blood, its organic character gains for +it a popularity that does not have full justification in fact. + +Animal Bone.--The original source of phosphoric acid as a fertilizer +was animal bone, just as hard-wood, unleached ashes were the source of +potash. The organic character of the animal bone made it appear more +truly a manure than could any rock or other inorganic substance. There +is no more satisfactory source of phosphoric acid than animal bone, and +if it were in full supply for the needs of soils, there would be little +occasion to discuss the merits of rock-phosphate and other similar +materials. The supply is a small fraction of the need. If all animal +bone were carefully saved and returned to the land that produced all of +our animals, it would return to the soil only what those animals +carried away in their bones, and that is indeed a small fraction of all +the draft our crops make upon the soil's supply of this one substance. +Some of the best animal bone goes into the manufacture of articles that +never contribute anything to the soil, and there are other sources of +loss. The supply of phosphoric acid from bone is too small, when +compared with the land's need, to deserve more than a small fraction of +the consideration it receives by users of commercial fertilizers. + +The peculiar situation respecting animal bone has come about through a +form of deceit. The demand for bone existed, and there was no legal +restraint in the matter of branding phosphatic rock as "bone," +"bone-phosphate," etc. In the past, nearly all forms of rock-phosphates +have carried the word "bone" on the bag to quiet the apprehension of +those who entertained a prejudice against anything other than animal +bone. Nearly all the phosphoric acid has come from rock, and its use +has been necessary and profitable, but the misrepresentation fostered +the old-time prejudice. Within recent years some manufacturers have +tired of the seeming deceit that served no purpose with many customers, +and have placed acid phosphate and mixed goods upon the market without +the intimation that the phosphoric acid was derived from animal bone. + +The demand for bone makes prices high for the very limited amount upon +the market, when availability is taken into account, and the advice +that such goods be used would be valueless if it had any general +acceptance. Prices would go higher, and the amount in the world would +remain wholly inadequate. + +Raw Bone.--Stable manure lasts several years in the soil because decay +is slow. Raw bone has appealed to many because its action is likewise +necessarily slow. The fat in it prevents fine grinding and protects the +coarse particles from decay. It is known as bone-meal or coarse +ground-bone. A good quality of raw bone may contain 4 per cent of +nitrogen, while the phosphoric-acid content is 20 to 25 per cent. The +bones of old animals is less rich in nitrogen. The age of the animals, +and the sorting for manufactures of various kinds, cause variation in +quality, and the purchase of raw bone should be made on guaranteed +analysis just as surely as the purchase of bone that has been treated +in any way for removal of various substances in it. + +Steamed Bone.--When animal bone is boiled or steamed under pressure for +removal of the fat and the cartilage, the content of nitrogen is +reduced, and the percentage of phosphoric acid is increased by this +removal of fat and nitrogenous substance. The nitrogen in steamed bone +may run as low as 1 per cent, and the phosphoric acid may go up to 30 +per cent. The composition of steamed bone is so widely variable that +the name means little, and purchase should be made only on guaranteed +analysis. Some grades run very low both in nitrogen and phosphoric +acid, due probably to adulteration. + +The boiling or steaming of bone makes fine grinding possible, and the +fineness and absence of fat permit quick decay in the soil. Steamed +bone is an excellent source of phosphoric acid. The availability is +less immediate than that of acid phosphate, but much greater than that +of raw bone. + +Rock-phosphate.--While the greater part of our soils contain relatively +scant stores of phosphoric acid, the deposits of this plant constituent +in combination with lime are immense. The rock now chiefly used in this +country is found in South Carolina, Tennessee, and Florida. It varies +greatly in content of phosphoric acid. When pulverized for direct use +on land, without treatment with sulphuric acid to make the plant-food +available, a grade running 28 per cent phosphoric acid, or less, +usually is selected, the higher grades being reserved for treatment +with acid or for export. This untreated rock, pulverized exceedingly +fine, often is known as floats. + +The value of a pound of phosphoric acid in floats, as compared with +that of a pound in the treated rock, known as acid phosphate, is a +matter upon which scientists differ widely. Only a small percentage of +the plant-food is immediately available, and the question of wise use +hinges upon the degree of availability gained later, and the time +required. The large amount of experimental work that has been done +affords data that causes the following opinion to be stated here: +Rock-phosphate, known as floats, is not a profitable source of +plant-food for soils deficient in organic matter, when compared with +acid phosphate. It is more nearly profitable in an acid soil than in +one that has no lime deficiency. It gives more satisfactory results +when mixed intimately with stable manure than when used upon land that +remains deficient in organic matter. Applications should be in large +amount per acre--500 to 1000 pounds--in order that the amount of +readily available phosphoric acid may meet the immediate need of +plants. Dependence should be placed upon the readily available acid +phosphate in all instances until experiment on the farm shows that the +rock-phosphate is a cheaper source of plant-food than the acid +phosphate. + +Acid Phosphate.--When animal bone is treated with sulphuric acid, the +result is an acid phosphate, but treated animal bone is so rare on the +market that it may be ignored. The acid phosphate on the market is +rock-phosphate treated with sulphuric acid to render its plant-food +available. The content of phosphoric acid varies because the original +rock-phosphate varies, but the most common grade on the market is +guaranteed to contain 14 per cent available phosphoric acid, and 1 to 2 +per cent insoluble. Some acid phosphate is guaranteed to contain 16 per +cent available phosphoric acid, and some runs down to 10 per cent +available. + +An acid phosphate contains quickly available plant-food. A prejudice +exists against it on account of its source, and it has been a common +practice to label the bags "bone-phosphate," or "dissolved bone," or +such other designation as would imply an organic source, but the acid +phosphate is made out of rock-phosphate, regardless of the name given. +The prejudice against the rock as a source of plant-food is giving way. +It is our chief and cheapest source of supply. The combination of +sulphuric acid with rock-phosphate in the production of acid phosphate +produces sulphate of lime, known as gypsum or land-plaster. The amount +of gypsum in a ton of acid phosphate varies, but may be roughly +estimated by the buyer as two thirds of the total weight of the acid +phosphate. + +The tendency of gypsum is, in the long run, to make a soil acid, and +its use necessarily hastens rather than retards the day when a lime +deficiency will occur. The influence in this direction is not great +enough to be a very material factor in deciding upon a carrier of +phosphoric acid. If a soil has little lime in it, a state of acidity +soon will come anyway, and the increase in amount of required lime will +be small. The cheapness of acid phosphate, as compared with animal +bone, is the decisive factor. + +The ill-effects usually attributed to acid phosphate are not due in any +great degree directly to the sulphuric acid used in its making, but to +the bad farming methods that so often attend its use. When the need of +commercial fertilizers is first recognized, acid phosphate seems to +meet the need. The soil's store of available phosphoric acid gives out +first, and this fertilizer brings a new supply. If the available potash +is in scant amount, the acid phosphate helps in this direction by +freeing some potash. The phosphoric acid has peculiar ability in giving +impetus to the growth of a young plant, and that enables it to send its +roots out and obtain more nitrogen than it otherwise would do. The +farmer thus may come to regard it as a means of securing a crop, and +there is neglect of manure and clover. If a field is thin and fails to +make a sod, there is no immediate compulsion to use manure or to grow a +catch crop to get organic matter, but the field is cropped again with +grain. Soon the supply of humus is exhausted, the soil lies lifeless, +and the stores of available nitrogen and potash are in a worse depleted +state than formerly. + +The fault lies with the method. The phosphoric acid in the acid +phosphate was needed. Profit from its use was legitimate, but the +necessity of supplying organic matter became even greater than it would +have been otherwise. Tens of thousands of our most successful farmers +use heavy applications of acid phosphate, but they keep their soils in +good physical condition by the use of manure or clover, and they apply +potash and nitrogen when needed. The clover is assured by using lime +wherever it is in too limited supply, and that is the case in most +instances, regardless of the use of any kind of commercial fertilizer. + +Basic Slag.--When iron ores contain much phosphorus, its extraction by +use of lime gives a by-product in the making of steel that has +agricultural value. The ores of the United States usually do not give a +slag sufficiently rich in phosphorus to be valuable. Nearly all the +basic slag used as a fertilizer is imported from Germany, and usually +contains 17 to 18 per cent of phosphoric acid. The availability of the +plant-food in this fertilizer has been the subject of much discussion. +The chemist's test which is fair for acid phosphate is admittedly not +fair when used for basic slag. Field tests, at experiment stations and +on farms, are our best sources of knowledge. When the soil is slightly +acid, each 1 per cent of phosphoric acid in the slag appears to be +about as valuable as each 1 per cent of the available phosphoric acid +in an acid phosphate. Some of the effectiveness may be due to the lime, +although very little of it is in forms regarded as valuable for the +correction of soil acidity. There is evidence that basic slag favors +clover. It has not been found feasible to ship this material many +hundreds of miles inland from the seaboard to compete with acid +phosphate, but it is an excellent source of phosphoric acid for soils +that are not rich in lime. + +Muriate of Potash.--The mines of Stassfurt, Germany, contain an +inexhaustible supply of potash in various compounds. Muriate of potash +is prepared from the crude salts, and the commercial product on our +markets has the appearance of a coarse and discolored salt. It is +handled in large bags, and inclines to become moist by absorption of +water from the air. It contains some common salt. The content of actual +potash is about 50 per cent. The potash is readily available, but the +loss from leaching out of the soil is very small. Muriate of potash is +our cheapest source of potash, and should be used for all staple crops +except tobacco, sugar beets, and, possibly, the potato. Tests even on +heavy soils fail to show any injury to the quality of the potato, and +on light soil the muriate may always be used. + +Sulphate of Potash.--Some sulphate of potash is imported into this +country. Its content of potash may vary 1 or 2 per cent below or above +50. Its physical condition favors mixing more than does the muriate. It +usually costs several dollars a ton more than the muriate, and the fact +that it is known to favor quality in tobacco, and is popularly supposed +to do so in the potato, creates demand at the higher price. It is +soluble in water, and quickly available. As a rule, it has no higher +agricultural value than the muriate. + +Kainit.--Unlike muriate and sulphate of potash, kainit is a crude +product of the German mines, having received no treatment to remove +impurities. It contains 12 to 13 per cent of potash, and is rated as a +sulphate, but one third of it is common salt, and in effect upon +quality it should be classed with muriate and not sulphate. Its low +content of plant-food should confine its use to regions relatively near +the seaboard. When shipped far inland, the price becomes too high to +give a reasonably cheap pound of potash. + +Wood-ashes.--Wood-ashes contain lime and potash, with a small +percentage of phosphoric acid. The market price is above agricultural +value, and any needed potash should be obtained from the German potash +salts. + +Other Fertilizers.--Manufacturers of commercial fertilizer make use of +other materials, some of which, like manufactured nitrogen, are +excellent, and others are low in quality and slow in action. The +sources of plant-food that have been described form the great bulk of +all fertilizers on the market, and from them may be selected all the +materials a farmer needs to use on his land, either singly or +home-mixed. In most instances the selection will embrace only four or +five of these fertilizing materials. + +Salt.--Salt is not a direct fertilizer, and its use is not to be +advised unless it can be secured at a very low price per ton. Some +soils have been made more productive by the application of 200 to 300 +pounds per acre, and chiefly in case the salt was mixed well with the +soil when the seed-bed was made. The practice of using salt as a +top-dressing on wheat in the spring gives less effectiveness it is +believed. Salt frees potash in the soil, and may have some practical +effect upon soil moisture. As a soil amendment, salt has had more +reputation than its performance justifies. If land is infertile, it is +better, as a rule, to apply actual plant-food. + +Coal-ashes.--There is no plant-food of value in coal-ashes. The +physical condition of heavy soils is improved by an application, and +their use may be quite profitable in this way if cost of application is +small. When used as a mulch, ashes conserve moisture. + +Muck.--The use of muck pays in stables, as it is a good absorbent and +contains some nitrogen which gains in availability by mixture with +manure. Its direct application to land as a fertilizer does not pay the +labor bill under ordinary circumstances. + +Sawdust.--As a fertilizer, sawdust does not have much value, but serves +as an excellent absorbent in stables. Its presence in manure need not +cause fear of injury to the soil. When fresh sawdust is applied in +large quantity to a sandy soil, the effect upon physical condition is +bad, increasing drouthiness. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +PURCHASING PLANT-FOOD + + +Necessity of Purchase.--The necessity of buying plant-food in the form +of commercial fertilizers is a mooted question in any naturally fertile +agricultural region just so long as crop yields do not drop to a +serious extent. The natural strength of the land and the skill that +enters into the farming are important factors in determining the +profitableness of recourse to purchased plant-food. The free use of +organic matter to maintain the supply of humus defers the time when +commercial fertilizers should be used. Good tillage frees the potential +plant-food of the soil, and delays the day of necessary purchase. The +farm so situated that it can have all its products fed upon it is +longer independent of outside help. The profitable use of +feeding-stuffs from other farms is a safe way of escaping the direct +purchase of fertilizers, although it is a transfer of fertility to the +farm as surely as the employment of fertilizers, and is not a method +that may have general adoption. + +[Illustration: In the Lebanon Valley, Pennsylvania.] + +The organic sources of fertility, such as slaughter-house refuse, are +containers of plant-food as surely as is stable manure. The inorganic +sources, such as acid phosphate and muriate of potash, are containers +of plant-food as surely as is animal bone or blood. There is no line +that may be drawn to debar any substance that supplies plant-food +profitably and contains no compound harmful to the soil. + +The purchase of plant-food should begin whenever profit is offered by +it, and in connection with its use there should be good tillage, +organic matter, and healthful plant conditions in every respect. The +use of a fertilizer pays best when the conditions are such that the +plants can avail themselves of it in the fullest degree. Good farming +and the heavy use of commercial fertilizers go consistently +hand-in-hand. + +Fertilizer Control.--The dreams of the patent-medicine vender never +pictured more favoring conditions for his activity than were found by +fertilizer manufacturers and agents before state laws provided for +inspection and control. Men who wanted to do a legitimate business +welcomed protection from the unscrupulous competition that dishonest +men employed. The memory of some of the frauds perpetrated lingers, and +causes a questioning to-day that is unnecessary. All fertilizer-control +laws afford a good degree of legal protection to the buyer, although in +most states they do not demand a clearness and fullness in statements +of analyses that would be helpful to many, and they fail to require +that sources of plant-food be given. Some fertilizers are sold for more +than they are worth, and some are bought for soils and crops that need +other kinds of plant-food, but this is due to lack of knowledge on the +part of the buyer that he can acquire. The law does its part in the +work of protection better than many buyers do their part. It has driven +fraudulent brands off the market, compelled carefulness in +factory-mixing, and given to the intelligent buyer a knowledge of the +kinds and amounts of plant-food in the bag or ton. The sampling is done +by disinterested men, and the analyses are made by competent chemists. +There need be little distrust of the analysis as printed on the bag, +unless a failure of the manufacturer to keep his goods up to the +standard has been made public in the state's fertilizer bulletin. + +Brand Names.--Notwithstanding all that has been done by the state to +acquaint the buying public with the composition of fertilizers, many +purchasers are guided in selection by the brand name, and that usually +is fanciful in character, no matter whether it be "Farmers' Friend" or +"Jones' Potato Fertilizer." In either case it may be far from friendly +to soil or pocket-book, and widely at variance with the needs of the +soil for which it is purchased. The pretense of making a fertilizer +peculiarly adapted to the potato, or to wheat, or to corn would not +attract a single buyer if the public would compare the analyses of +these special crop fertilizers offered by manufacturers and note their +dissimilarity of composition. Any kind of a mixture may be given any +kind of a name. It is the composition that counts. The farmer is in the +market for nitrogen and phosphoric acid and potash, singly or combined, +for a certain soil, and all he wants is to know the number of pounds he +is getting, its availability, and its price per pound. Any added detail +not required by law is an impertinence. + +Statement of Analysis.--It would be well if the law refused to the +manufacturer the privilege of printing unnecessary detail in the +statement of analysis that must be placed upon the fertilizer bag. It +is added to confuse the buyer and mislead him regarding actual value. +The following statement is an example of this practice: + + ANALYSIS + + Per Cent + Nitrogen 0.82 to 1.00 + Equal to ammonia 1.00 to 2.00 + Soluble phosphoric acid 6.00 to 7.00 + Reverted 2.00 to 3.00 + Available 8.00 to 10.00 + Insoluble 1.00 to 2.00 + Total 9.00 to 12.00 + Potash (actual) 1.00 to 2.00 + Equal to sulphate of potash 2.00 to 3.00 + +As the row of larger figures is not guaranteed percentages, it has no +value. + +The buyer is not concerned regarding the amount of ammonia to which the +nitrogen is equal, and so the second line is a needless repetition. + +The fifth line gives the sum of the third and fourth, the available +being the total of the soluble and reverted. Therefore the third and +fourth lines may be ignored. + +The sixth line gives the percentage of unavailable phosphoric acid in +the rock, and should be ignored by the purchaser who wants available +plant-food. + +The seventh gives the sum of the available and insoluble, and should be +ignored. + +The ninth is a restatement of the eighth line. + +There then remains the following guaranty: + + Per Cent + Nitrogen 0.82 + Available phosphoric acid 8.00 + Potash 1.00 + +This is a low-grade fertilizer whose cheap character becomes apparent +when the unnecessary statements and restatements are erased. A ton of +it contains only 16 pounds of nitrogen, 160 pounds of phosphoric acid, +and 20 pounds of potash. + +Valuation of Fertilizers.--The manufacturer of a mixed fertilizer must +make use of the unmixed materials he finds upon the market. The prices +of the various plant constituents in the different unmixed materials +can be determined by averaging quotations in leading markets for a +given length of time. The fair retail price is obtained by adding about +20 per cent to the wholesale cash price. The retail cash price per +pound of the plant constituents in leading markets is thus determined +for their various forms and carriers. A pound of nitrogen in dried +blood may have its valuation fixed at a figure 50 per cent higher than +that of a pound of nitrogen in nitrate of soda simply because the dried +blood sells at a price per ton that makes that difference. It is true +commercial value that is sought, and that may be very different from +agricultural value. + +The mixed fertilizer of the manufacturer has its content of plant-food +known by analysis. Its number of pounds of the various constituents in +a ton is known, and the retail price per pound of these substances has +been fixed. The commercial value per ton can then be determined, +provided proper allowance is made for cost of mixing and bagging. The +individual must pay in addition the freight, and usually a considerable +sum for unnecessarily costly methods of distribution and collection. + +A Bit of Arithmetic.--This paragraph is intended to serve the man who +is willing to be reasonably near right if he cannot be wholly so: A ton +is 2000 pounds, and one per cent is 20 pounds. In dealing with +fertilizers it is the practice to call 20 pounds, or one per cent of a +ton, a unit, and to base the price of the nitrogen, and phosphoric +acid, and potash, on the unit. This is done for convenience. If five +cents is a fair price for a pound of available phosphoric acid in one's +locality, as it would be if a ton of 14 per cent acid phosphate cost +$14, a unit of 20 pounds is worth $1. Each one per cent guaranteed is +thus worth a dollar, and the phosphoric acid in the fertilizer is +easily valued. If a pound of potash in a ton of muriate is worth five +cents in one's locality, as it would be if a ton of muriate cost $50, +the muriate being one half actual potash, a unit of 20 pounds of potash +is worth $1. Each one per cent of guaranteed potash is thus worth one +dollar, and the entire content of potash is easily valued. If a pound +of nitrogen in nitrate of soda is worth seventeen and one half cents a +pound in one's locality, as it would be if a ton of nitrate of soda +cost $54, a unit, or one per cent, is worth $3.50, and the content of +nitrogen is easily valued. + +The prices named would seem high to good cash buyers near the seaboard, +and they are too low for some other regions where freights are very +high. They are only illustrative. The consumer can get his own basis +for an estimate by obtaining the best possible cash quotations from +city dealers. Some interested critic may point out that nitrate of soda +should not be the sole source of nitrogen in a fertilizer on account of +its immediate availability. Manufacturers use some sulphate of ammonia, +and a pound of nitrogen in it has had practically the same market price +as that in nitrate of soda. Tankage may be used in part, and in it the +nitrogen costs very little more per pound. + +It may be said that the potash in the fertilizer is in form of +sulphate. Usually that profits the user nothing, and often the claim is +baseless, but if it is a sulphate, the cost of the potash should have +only 20 per cent added to the valuation of the potash, which usually +will not add one dollar to the total cost of the ton of mixed +fertilizer. Basing the valuations of the pounds of plant-food in the +mixed fertilizer on the value per pound in unmixed materials delivered +to one's own locality, there must be taken into account the added +expense of mixing. + +High-grade Fertilizers.--A high-grade fertilizer is not necessarily a +high-priced one. What we want in a fertilizer is a high content of the +plant-food needed, together with desirable availability. If only +phosphoric acid is wanted, a 14 per cent, or 16 per cent, acid +phosphate is high-grade because it contains as many pounds of available +phosphoric acid in a ton as the public can buy in a large way. A 10 per +cent acid phosphate is low-grade. The effort is to escape paying +freight, and other cost of handling, on waste material as far as +possible. Generally speaking, the higher the percentages of plant-food +in a fertilizer, the cheaper per pound is the plant-food. A low-grade +fertilizer rarely fails to be an expensive one because the expense of +handling adds unduly to the price per pound of the small content of +plant-food. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +HOME-MIXING OF FERTILIZERS + + +The Practice of Home-mixing.--The business of compounding fertilizers +has been involved in a great deal of unnecessary mystery. Many of our +best station scientists have labored to show that the home-mixing of +fertilizers is a simple and profitable piece of work, and the heaviest +users of fertilizers in the east now buy unmixed materials, but a +majority of farmers use the factory-mixed. Manufacturers are right in +their contention that many people do not know what materials are best +for their own fields, or what proportions are best, but the purchase of +mixed materials does not solve their problem and it does not help them +to a solution as quickly as home-mixing. The source of the plant-food +in the factory-mixed goods is not known, while it is known in the +home-mixed. + +Effectiveness of Home-mixing.--Van Slyke says ("Fertilizers and Crops," +p. 477): "Manufacturers of fertilizers and their agents have +persistently sought to discourage the practice of home-mixing, but +their statements cannot be accepted as the evidence of disinterested +parties. It has been represented to farmers that peculiar and +mysterious virtues are imparted to the plant-food constituents by +proper mixing, and that really proper mixing can be accomplished only +by means not at the command of farmers. Such statements are +misrepresentations, based either upon the ignorance of the person who +makes them or upon his determination to sell commercial mixed goods." + +Criticisms of Home-mixing.--The manufacturer's advocate formerly laid +much stress upon the danger attending the treatment of bones and rock +with sulphuric acid. That is a business of itself, and the home-mixer +has nothing to do with it. He buys on the market the acidulated bone or +rock, just as a manufacturer makes his purchase. + +It is claimed that the manufacturer renders a great public service by +using supplies of plant-food that the home-mixer would not use, and +thus conserves the world's total supply. Let us see the measure of +truth in the statement. The manufacturer gets his supply of phosphoric +acid from rock, bone, or tankage exactly as does the home-mixer. His +potash he buys from the syndicate owning the German beds, and the +farmer does the same. These sources must contribute all the phosphoric +acid and potash used on land, if we except trifling supplies of ashes, +marl, etc., and the only difference in the transaction is that in one +case the manufacturer buys the materials and mixes them, and in the +other case the farmer buys them direct and mixes them. The remaining +constituent is the nitrogen. If the manufacturer uses nitrate of soda, +sulphate of ammonia, bones, tankage, or manufactured nitrogen, he does +what the home-mixer may do. Most nitrogen must come from these sources. +If all came from these sources, the increased demand would not affect +the price. The beds of nitrate of soda will last for hundreds of years, +the present waste in ammonia from coal is immense, and the supply of +manufactured nitrogen can be without limit. The saving in use of inert +and low-grade forms of nitrogen is more profitable to the manufacturer +than to the farmer who buys and pays freight on low-grade materials. + +The rather remarkable argument is advanced that fertilizer +manufacturers do not make a large per cent on their investment, despite +the perfection of their equipment, and therefore the farmer cannot find +it profitable to mix his materials at home. By the same reasoning, +assuming for the moment that the profit in manufacturing does not pay a +heavy dividend on all the stock issued, if a great hotel does not find +its dining-room a source of profit, as many hotels do not, no private +home should hope to prepare meals for its own members in competition +with hotels. + +As has been stated, every user of commercial fertilizer should learn +what a pound of plant-food in unmixed material would cost him, +selecting the common materials that are the only chief sources. If he +can buy a pound of nitrogen in nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, +a pound of phosphoric acid in acid phosphate or steamed bone, and a +pound of potash in muriate or sulphate of potash for less than they +would cost in the factory-mixed goods offered him, allowing to himself +a dollar or so a ton for the labor of mixing, it is only good business +to buy the unmixed materials. The saving usually is from five to ten +dollars a ton, excepting only interest on money, as he would pay cash +for the unmixed material. + +The cost of bags always is mentioned. That is not to be considered by +the farmer, as he uses the bags in which the unmixed materials come to +him. + +The Filler.--There has been much misleading use of the word "filler," +as applied to fertilizers. We have seen that a pure grade of dried +blood contains about 13 per cent of nitrogen. The buyer of a ton of +dried blood thus gets about 260 pounds of plant-food. The remaining +1740 pounds constitute what may be called nature's "filler." The blood +is a good fertilizer. We do not buy nitrogen in a pure state. We buy a +ton of material to get the needed 260 pounds of nitrogen. Thus it is +with nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, acid phosphate, muriate and +sulphate of potash, and all other fertilizer materials. As freight must +be paid upon the entire ton, it usually pays best to select materials +that run high in percentage of plant-food. It is possible to get very +low-grade fertilizers that have not had any foreign material added by +the manufacturer. An acid phosphate may be poor in phosphoric acid +because low-grade rock was used in its manufacture. Kainit is a +low-grade potash because the impurities have not been taken out. Filler +may be used, however, for two reasons, and one is legitimate. When +limestone or similar material is used merely to add weight, reducing +the value per ton, the practice is reprehensible. The extent of this +practice is less than many suppose, preference being given to the use +of low-grade materials in making very low-priced fertilizers. + +A legitimate use of filler is to give good physical condition to a +fertilizer. Some materials, such as nitrate of soda and muriate of +potash, take up moisture and then become hard. The addition of peat or +limestone or other absorbent is necessary to keep the mass in condition +for drilling. The use of some steamed animal bone or high-grade tankage +in the mixture helps to prevent caking. The home-mixer can use a drier +without loss, as he does not pay freight upon it. Dry road dust will +serve his purpose. His need of a drier may be greater than that of the +manufacturer, as he probably will use only high-grade unmixed +materials. If the use of the home-mixture is immediate, no drier to +prevent caking is needed, but its presence facilitates drilling. +Storage of unmixed materials in a dry place is an aid in maintaining +good condition. + +Ingredients in the Mixture.--The matters of interest to the farmer are +the determination of the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and +potash that he should apply to a particular field, their availability, +and their cost. Let us assume that he has found 300 pounds of a +fertilizer containing 3 per cent nitrogen, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, +and 6 per cent potash to be an excellent application for wheat on a +thin soil that is to be seeded to clover and timothy. This fertilizer +contains 3 pounds of nitrogen to each 100 pounds. He applies 300 pounds +of the fertilizer per acre, or 9 pounds of nitrogen. The fertilizer +contains 10 pounds of phosphoric acid to the 100 pounds. He thus +applies 30 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre. The fertilizer contains +6 pounds of potash per 100 pounds, and he therefore applies 18 pounds +per acre. What he has really learned, then, is that an acre of this +land, when seeded to wheat, needs 9 pounds of nitrogen, 30 pounds of +phosphoric acid, and 18 pounds of potash. It is in these terms he +should do his thinking, and the matter of fertilization becomes simple. + +In the general farming of the Pennsylvania experiment station, it is +the practice to depend upon nitrate of soda as the source of a +fertilizer for wheat. Manufacturers claim that sulphate of ammonia and +tankage would be better. The farmer soon will learn what he prefers for +his soil, provided he practices home-mixing. + +Let us assume that he uses nitrate of soda, which never varies much +from 15 per cent in its content of nitrogen. If 100 pounds of nitrate +contain 15 pounds of nitrogen, the 9 pounds wanted for an acre will be +found in 9/15 of 100 pounds or 60 pounds. + +Thirty pounds of phosphoric acid are wanted for an acre. If the acid +phosphate contains 14 per cent of phosphoric acid, or 14 pounds to the +100, the required amount will be 30/14 of 100, or 214 pounds. + +Eighteen pounds of potash are wanted for an acre. The muriate of potash +on our markets never varies much from 50 per cent in its content of +potash. If 100 pounds of muriate contain 50 pounds of potash to the +100, the required amount wanted will be 18/50 of 100, or 36 pounds. + +Adding the 60, 214, and 36 pounds, we have 310 pounds for the acre of +land. If the field contains 20 acres, the order will call for 20 times +the 60 pounds of nitrate of soda, 20 times the 214 pounds of acid +phosphate, and 20 times the 36 pounds of potash. + +If the farmer prefers to use sulphate of ammonia, which varies little +from 20 per cent of nitrogen, or 20 pounds in the 100, he will get his +9 pounds of nitrogen for an acre by buying 9/20 of 100 pounds, or 45 +pounds, and the substitution of the 45 pounds of sulphate of ammonia +for the 60 pounds of nitrate of soda will reduce the total application +of fertilizer per acre from 310 pounds to 295 pounds. The important +fact is that in either case there is the required amount of nitrogen. + +Let us assume that the field contains enough nitrogen, but other needs +remain the same. In such case, the nitrogen is dropped out, and the +application becomes 250 pounds per acre. + +The home-mixer may substitute tankage of guaranteed analysis for part +of the nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Let us assume that the tankage +runs 9 per cent nitrogen and 20 per cent phosphoric acid. If half the +required nitrogen per acre, or 4-1/2 pounds, is wanted in tankage, 50 +pounds of the tankage will supply it. At the same time the 50 pounds of +tankage supplies 10 pounds of phosphoric acid, replacing one third of +the 214 pounds of acid phosphate. We thus have for the acre 30 pounds +of nitrate of soda, 50 pounds of tankage, 143 pounds of acid phosphate, +and 36 pounds of potash, or 259 pounds. The content of plant-food +remains the same, but one half of the nitrogen is only slowly +available. The farmer who buys unmixed materials will incline to use +only a few kinds, and at first he will confine himself chiefly to +materials whose composition varies little. In this way he quickly sees +in a ton of the material, not the whole bulk, but the definite number +of pounds of nitrogen and other constituents of plant-food contained in +it, and the calculations in home-mixing become simple. + +Materials that should not be Combined.--The advocate of factory-mixed +goods warns the farmer against the danger of making combinations of +materials that will cause loss by chemical action. The danger is wholly +imaginary if no form of lime, wood-ashes, or basic slag is used in the +home-mixtures. As has been said, some materials will harden, if +permitted to absorb moisture, and if the mixture must stand, a few +hundred pounds of muck or dry road dust should be added to each ton as +a drier, and a correspondingly larger amount per acre should be +applied. + +Making a Good Mixture.--The process of mixing is simple, and careful +station tests have shown that it is fully as effective as +factory-mixing. The unmixed materials should be kept in a dry place +until the mixing is done. If there are any coarse lumps, a wooden +tamper can crush them on the barn floor, and the material should be +passed through a sand-screen. The material of largest bulk should be +spread on the floor, and the other materials should be put on in +layers. Three careful turnings with a shovel will secure good mixing. +Scales should be used to secure accuracy in desired amounts of the +materials. + +Buying Unmixed Materials.--Acid phosphate, animal bone, and tankage can +be bought of any fertilizer agent, but when one pays cash, he does well +to get quotations from various leading manufacturers. The names of +dealers in nitrate of soda can be secured from the New York agency +which keeps its address before the public in agricultural papers. This +is likewise true in the case of the syndicate controlling all the +potash. When the addresses of leading distributors of all needed +materials have been secured, quotations should be obtained on a cash +basis. The best terms are obtained by groups of men combining their +orders. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +MIXTURES FOR CROPS + + +Composition of Plant not a Guide.--It has been pointed out that a +chemical analysis of a soil is not a dependable guide in the selection +of a fertilizer. Years ago the theory was advanced that the analysis of +the crops desired should be a guide, but it has proved nearly +worthless. This theory does not take into account the soil's supply of +plant-food. Moreover, a certain crop may demand a large supply of an +element at a time of the year when the soil's supply is inactive. The +need of nitrogen for grass in the early spring, before nitrification in +the soil is active, is an illustration. Let the causes be what they +may, the fertilizer formulas that call for plant-food in a fertilizer +in the same proportions that it is found in plants are disappointing in +their results. The analysis of the plant is not a dependable index. + +The Multiplication of Formulas.--Fertilizer manufacturers have made all +possible combinations of fertilizer materials, using them in various +quantities. Each manufacturer has given a mixture a brand of his own, +and confusion reigns. There is no formula for a soil or crop that will +remain absolutely the best, even for one particular field. It +represents one's judgment of the present need, and is employed subject +to change, just as is the prescription of a physician. It is usually +only an approach toward the most profitable amount and kind of +plant-food that may be supplied. The one important consideration is +that no manufacturer can know the need nearly so well as the +intelligent farmer who knows the history of his field and constantly +tests its ability. + +[Illustration: On the productive farm of Dr. W. I. Chamberlain, in +Northern Ohio.] + +A Few Combinations are Safest.--It is the best judgment of scientists +to-day that greater results would be obtained from the use of +commercial fertilizers if the number of formulas could be reduced to +ten, or even a less number. The satisfactory fertilizers fall into +three classes: + + 1. The phosphatic fertilizer, carrying phosphoric acid to land that + gets its nitrogen from clover or stable manure, and that continues + to supply its own potash. Such a fertilizer should have a high + content of phosphoric acid in order that the freight charge, per + pound of plant-food, may be as low as possible. Acid phosphate, + basic slag, and bone are chief in this group. + + 2. The combination of phosphoric acid and potash that is needed by + soils obtaining all required nitrogen from clover or manure. In + most instances the phosphoric acid should run higher than the + potash, but the percentage of potash should never run lower than 4. + A lower percentage of potash is not as profitable as a higher one, + provided any potash is needed. The potash content should be greater + than that of the phosphoric acid in case of some sandy soils and of + some crops of heavy leaf growth, including various garden crops. + + 3. The so-called "complete" fertilizer that supplies some nitrogen + with the two other plant-constituents. Such fertilizer should + furnish, with few exceptions, 3 per cent of nitrogen, if no more. + +Amount of Application.--In common practice fertilizers are not applied +freely enough when they are used at all. The exception to this rule may +be found in the case of small applications to cold and inert soils to +force growth in the first few weeks of a plant's life. It is difficult +to see how 80 or 100 pounds of fertilizer can affect an acre of land +one way or the other, but experience teaches that such an amount can do +so in respect to young plants. Phosphoric acid has peculiar power in +forcing some development of roots in a small plant, and a small +application in the drill or row may help the plants to gain ability to +forage for themselves. + +In early spring a small application of nitrate of soda has marked +effect, tiding the plants over a period of need until the soil is ready +to give up a part of its store. + +If a soil is not fertile, and fertilizers are needed as an important +source of plant-food throughout the season, the application should be +liberal. If it is necessary to plant a field that is deficient in +fertility, expending labor and money for tillage and seed, the only +rational course is to furnish all needed plant-food for a good yield. +There may be little net profit from the one crop, but there will be +more than could be obtained without the liberal fertilization, and the +soil will be better equipped for another crop. This applies, in a +notable degree, to fertilization of a wheat crop with which timothy and +clover will be seeded. The difference in cost of 350 pounds of a +high-grade fertilizer and 150 pounds of a low-grade one, when applied +to a poor soil under these circumstances, may be recovered in the grain +crop, and at the same time a good sod will be made possible for the +permanent improvement of the land. It is a safe business rule that land +should be left uncultivated unless enough plant-food can be provided in +some way for a good yield. The man who cannot incur a heavy fertilizer +bill, when necessary, should restrict acreage for his own sake. + +Similarity of Requirements.--Many of our staple crops are very similar +in their fertilizer requirements, and this simplifies fertilization. +Setting aside the impression gained from the dissimilarity in the +so-called corn, potato, wheat, and grass fertilizers on the market, the +farmer knows that the soil which is in a good state of fertility is +best for any of them, and if the soil is hard-run, it should have its +plant-food supply supplemented. The hard-run soil usually is lacking in +available supplies of all three plant-food constituents. If a +fertilizer containing 3 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent of phosphoric +acid, and 6 per cent of potash serves the wheat well, it will serve the +timothy that starts in the wheat. Likewise it will serve the corn, +although a heavier application will be needed because corn is a heavy +feeder. Experience has taught that it will serve the potato similarly, +and that the potato will repay the cost of free use of fertilizer. If +the soil is sandy and deficient in potash, the percentage of phosphoric +acid may be cut to 8, and the percentage of potash raised to 10, and +all these crops will profit thereby. If the nitrogen content in the +soil is high, none of these crops may need nitrogen in the fertilizer. +This is a general principle, and safe for guidance, though the best +profit will demand some modification that readily occurs to the farmer +as he studies his crops and their rotation. To illustrate: The corn is +given the clover sod or the manure partly because it requires more +plant-food than the wheat. It gets the best of the nitrogen, and may +need only a rock-and-potash fertilizer, while the wheat that follows +may need some available nitrogen to force growth in the fall. There is +no fixed formula for any field or crop, and the point to be made here +only is that the requirements of many standard crops do not have the +dissimilarity usually supposed, except in respect to quantity. A marked +exception is found in the oat crop, which does not bear the application +of much nitrogen, and often fares well on the remains of the manure +that fed the corn, if some phosphoric acid is added. + +Maintaining Fertility.--A heavy clover sod gives assurance that a good +crop of corn or potatoes can be grown. If the amount of plant-food in +the sod is not excessive, a heavy crop of wheat can be produced. The +condition of the soil favors many crops. The clover has placed it upon +a productive basis for the time being. + +The object that should be kept in view, when a scheme of soil +fertilization is worked out, is the maintenance of such a state of +fertility that the land can be depended upon for whatever crop comes +round in the rotation. When a 3-10-6 fertilizer, or a 3-8-10 +fertilizer, is used, the effect upon a thin soil is to restore it +temporarily to this good-cropping power, the size of the application +varying with the crop. A richer soil may want the phosphoric acid and +potash without the nitrogen. A manured soil may need only the +phosphoric acid. The purpose of the fertilizer in any case is +maintenance or increase of fertility, and when this object has been +secured, the crop may be whatever the rotation calls for. It is this +rational scheme that gives success to the Pennsylvania station's +methods on some of its test plats. A given amount of plant-food is put +upon the land, which is under a four-years' rotation. One half of it is +applied every second year. The corn gets one half because it can use it +to advantage. The oat crop that follows finds enough fertility because +the soil is good. Next in the rotation is the wheat, and the wheat and +timothy and clover plants can use fertilizer with profit. There is no +change in its character because it is the soil that is getting the +assistance, and not primarily just one crop in a rotation. The land in +this experiment that is well fertilized is more productive than it was +thirty years ago, although no manure has been applied, and it is the +general productive condition that assures good yields, and not chiefly +any one application of fertilizer. + +Fertilizer for Grass.--A fertile soil will make a good sod. A thinner +soil should have a liberal dressing of complete fertilizer at seeding +time, and the formula that has been suggested is excellent for this +purpose. If a succession of timothy hay crops is desired, the problem +of maintaining fertility is wholly changed. The nitrogen supplied by +the clover is soon exhausted, and the timothy sod must be kept thick +and heavy until broken, or the soil will not have its supply of organic +matter maintained. Nitrogen must be supplied freely, and phosphoric +acid and potash must likewise be given the soil. The draft upon the +soil is heavy, and at the same time the effort should be to have a sod +to be broken for corn that will produce a big crop without the use of +any fertilizer. The grass is the natural crop to receive the plant-food +because its roots fill the ground, and the corn should get its food +from the rotting sod, when broken. Station tests have shown that a sod +can be caused to increase in productiveness for several years by means +of annual applications of the right combinations of plant-food in the +early spring. A mixture of 150 pounds of nitrate of soda, 150 pounds of +acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of potash is excellent. This +gives nearly the same quantity each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and +potash, and is near a 7-7-7 fertilizer. The only material change in +relative amounts of plant-food constituents, when compared with a +3-10-6 and 3-8-10 fertilizer, is in the increase of nitrogen, due to +the heavy drafts made by continuous mowings of timothy. This fertilizer +should be used as soon as any green appears in the grass field in the +spring after the year of clover harvest. The large amount of nitrogen +makes this an unprofitable fertilizer for clover, and its use is not +advised until the spring of the year in which timothy will be +harvested. + +All the Nitrogen from Clover.--The Pennsylvania station has shown in a +test of thirty years that when good clover is grown in a four-years' +rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and clover, the fertility of the +naturally good clay loam soil may be maintained, and even slightly +increased, without the use of any manure or purchased nitrogen. +Phosphoric acid and potash have been applied, and the clover hay crop +has been taken off the land. This result has been possible only by +means of good clover sods. If there had been no applications of +phosphoric acid and potash, the clover would have failed to maintain +fertility, as is proved by other plats in this experiment. No one +should continue to depend upon such a scheme of keeping land fertile +whenever he finds that the clover is not thriving. + +Method of applying Fertilizers.--If a fertilizer is used in small +amount with the purpose of merely giving the plants a start, it should +be near the seed. If the application is heavy, and the roots of the +plants spread upon all sides, the fertilizer, as a rule, should be +applied to all the ground, and should be mixed with the surface soil. +This puts the plant-food where needed, and saves from danger of injury +to the seed through contact. A seeming exception may be found in the +case of the potato, but usually some close tillage confines its roots +to the row for a time. Experience indicates that when a potato +fertilizer does not exceed 500 pounds per acre, it may well be put into +the row, but a heavier application should be divided, one half being +broadcasted or drilled into the surface, and the other half of the +application being made in the row. + +An Excess of Nitrogen.--Too much nitrogen, due to heavy manuring or +other cause, produces an excessive growth of stalk or straw, at the +expense of grain production, in the case of corn, wheat, and other +cereals. It produces a rank growth of potato vines and partial failure +of the crop of tubers. It produces a tender growth of straw or vine +that invites injury from fungous diseases. It is the rule that soils +have a deficiency in nitrogen, but when there is an excess, the best +cure comes through use of such crops as timothy, cabbage, and ensilage +corn. Heavy applications of rock-and-potash fertilizers assist in +recovery of right conditions, but are not wholly effective until +exhaustive crops have removed some of the nitrogen. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +TILLAGE + + +Desirable Physical Condition of the Soil.--Successful cropping of land +is dependent upon favoring soil conditions. The plants to be grown must +have ease in root extension, so that their food may be found. There +must be moisture to hold the food in solution. There must be air. There +must be destruction of plants that would be competitors of the ones +desired. A soil rarely is in prime condition for the planting and +growth of any crop without some change in its structure by means of +tillage, and it does not remain in the best condition for any long +period of time. If the number of plants required per acre for a crop is +relatively small, tillage of the soil is continued after planting. If +the necessary number makes tillage impossible, there is some loss in +conditions most favorable to the plant. The particles of soil settle +together, and there is loss of water at the surface. Most plants want a +mellow soil, and tillage is in large part an effort to make and to keep +the condition of the soil friendly to plant life in this respect. The +wide variation in methods of tillage are due to the great differences +in the texture and structure of soils, and to the habits of plants, and +skill in selection of methods is a measure of the intelligence used in +farming. + +The Breaking-plow.--Land containing enough clay to give it an excellent +soil inclines to become firm. During the growth of a crop, when plant +roots fill the soil and prevent deep stirring, the particles pack +closely together, limiting the power of the land to make fertility +available. The presence of organic matter counteracts, in part, this +packing tendency, but there are few soils that remain permanently +mellow. The breaking-plow is used to loosen the soil, and to undo the +firming that has been taking place while plant roots prevented deep +tillage. At the same time the plow may be used to bury organic matter +below the surface, affording a clean seed-bed. In some soils it has +value in bringing inert soil to the surface, and in mixing the soil +constituents. + +Types of Plows.--The kind and condition of the soil, and the character +of the crop, determine the type of plow to be used. A plow with a short +and quite straight moldboard does not bury manure and turf in the +bottom of the furrow so completely as is the case with a long, curved +moldboard. The organic matter should be distributed throughout all the +soil. On the other hand, it is essential to some plants that they have +a fine seed-bed, and one whose surface is free from tufts of grass. The +long moldboard is preferred in breaking a sod for corn. Its use in +plowing for all crops is more general than it should be, the gain in +pulverization of the furrow-slice, due to the curve, and the neatness +in appearance of the plowed land, inducing its use. + +The disk plow has been used chiefly in soils not requiring deep +plowing. It pulverizes better than a moldboard plow, and buries trash +more easily. + +[Illustration: Deep tillage.] + +The device for using two disks to turn a single furrow-slice rests upon +a sound principle. This plow may be set to run deeper than moldboard +plows go, and it mixes well all the soil that it turns. The disks are +so hung that the mixing of all the soil to a depth of twelve or fifteen +inches is admirable. The deep-tilling plow does not bury the organic +matter in the bottom of the furrow, and thereby permits the deepening +of the soil without bringing an undue amount of subsoil to the surface. + +Subsoiling.--The theory of subsoiling always has been captivating. Most +soils are too shallow, inviting injury from drouth. Enthusiasm +regarding subsoiling comes to large numbers of farmers at some time in +their experience, and a great number of subsoil plows have been bought. +The check to enthusiasm is the fact that few men ever have seen such a +plow worn out. Some reasons are as follow: + + (_a_) The subsoil at time of spring-plowing rarely is dry enough + for good results, and there is danger of puddling; (_b_) the + subsoil often is too dry and hard in late summer, when rains permit + easy breaking of the top soil for fall grain; (_c_) the work + doubles the labor and time of plowing, and (_d_) the subsoil soon + settles together because it contains little organic matter. + Subsoiling is generally approved and little practiced. Land at + plow-depth becomes packed by the tramping of horses upon it and the + pressure of the plow, when the plowing is done at the same depth + year after year, and in some soils subsoiling has been found + distinctly valuable. + +Time of Plowing.--In great measure the time of plowing is determined by +the effect upon soil moisture, and is discussed in the next chapter. + +Method of Plowing.--The depth of plowing should be fixed largely by the +amount of organic matter in the soil. It is essential that a good +percentage of this material should be mixed throughout the soil, and +when it is in scant supply, the depth of plowing usually should not be +great. Fertile soils should be plowed deep for their own good, and thin +soils should be deepened gradually, as sods and manures afford a supply +of humus-making material. Even when manure is used liberally in a +single application on a poor soil, a large amount of inert subsoil +should not be thrown upon the surface. The manure goes out of reach of +the greatest need, which is in the surface soil where plant-life +starts. A gradual process of deepening the soil is to be preferred, but +such deepening should not be neglected. The subsoil is a store of inert +fertility that should not remain dormant. + +It may not do to say that the success of the best farmers is due to +thoroughness in plowing, but it is true that the more successful ones +are insistent that the plowing be absolutely thorough. Every inch of +the soil should be stirred to a certain depth, and that requires a plow +so set that it does not turn a furrow-slice much wider than the point +can cut. Evenness in depth and width of furrow is seen in good plowing. + +The Disk Harrow.--The purpose of the plow is to break up the soil so +that it will be crumbly and mellow. The frequency with which land +should be thoroughly stirred to full plow-depth depends upon the +condition of the soil and the character of the crops. Oftentimes a disk +or cutaway harrow may replace the plow. Its action is the same as that +of the plow, loosening and turning the soil over. When land has had a +good plowing within the year, and has not become compact, stirring to a +depth of four inches may give a better seed-bed for some crops than +could be made by use of a plow. This is true of land that has produced +a cultivated crop and is being prepared for a fall-seeding. The gain in +time of preparing ground for oats in the spring makes the use of the +disk or cutaway harrow profitable on mellow corn-stubble land. + +There is temptation to carry the substitution of the disk harrow for +the breaking-plow too far. Its use alone would have the same effect as +poor plowing, reducing the depth of the soil. The surface soil, down to +plow-depth, is the chief feeding-ground for plants because it is kept +in good tilth by organic matter and tillage. The depth of this soil +affects the amount of available plant-food and water. The duration of +time between deep plowings depends upon the soil and the crops. +Experience shows that when land has been broken for corn or potatoes or +beans or similar crop, the one plowing may be sufficient for a +succeeding crop. If grass is not seeded with the succeeding crop, it is +best to give another thorough plowing before seeding to grass in August +if the soil is heavy, but in naturally loose soils a disk harrow makes +a better seed-bed. + +Two influences favor such undue dependence upon a disk harrow that a +soil may become shallow: the cost of preparing the seed-bed is reduced, +and the saving in moisture may give a better stand of plants when the +harrow takes the place of the plow. The immediate productiveness of a +crop is not an assurance that the method is right: consideration for +the good of the land must be shown. Depth of soil is a requirement of a +good agriculture, and deep plowing is a means to that end. The +looseness of the soil and the character of the season may make +substitution right in one instance and wrong in another. Deep soils, +well filled with organic matter, will bear shallow preparation of a +seed-bed more frequently than thin soils, and yet it is the latter that +may profit most by having its best part kept near the surface at the +time a new sod must be made. The disk harrow has some place as a +substitute for a plow, but when its use results in making a soil more +shallow, the harm is a most serious one. + +Cultivation of Plants.--If a soil would remain mellow throughout the +season, there usually would be no reason to disturb the roots of plants +by any deep stirring, and all tillage would be only deep enough to make +a mulch of earth for the retention of moisture and to destroy all +weeds. Soils containing enough clay to make them retentive of moisture +become too compact when rains beat upon the ground, as usually happens +after the planting of spring crops. A deep and close cultivation of +corn and potato plants after they appear in the row helps to restore +the condition created by the plow and harrow, and often is the best +practice. There is some sacrifice of roots, but the gain far exceeds +the loss. It may be necessary to give a second such cultivation when a +clay soil is deficient in organic matter, but the root-pruning is a +handicap. + +Controlling Root-growth.--The exception to the rule that plant-roots +should not be pruned by deep cultivation is found in the case of a +close soil in a wet season. The plants extend their roots only in the +soil at the surface because the ground is soaked with water nearly all +the time. They cannot form far enough below the surface to withstand a +drouth that may follow the wet weather. Good tillage in such a case +demands the pruning of the roots and the airing of the soil when the +ground is dry enough to permit such stirring, and the plants then +extend their roots in the lower soil where they rightly belong. +Judgment is required to decide when such tillage is desirable, but +judgment is needed all the time in farming. When a continued period of +wet weather affects the position of the plant-roots, it rarely is +advisable not to risk deeper tillage than is given in a normal season. +Underdrainage helps to prevent such ill-effect of continued rains in +the early part of a plant's life-time. + +Elimination of Competition.--Weeds pump the water out of the soil, use +up available plant-food, and compete for the sunlight. Tillage is given +for several reasons, and one is the destruction of weeds. A weeder +which stirs the soil only an inch or two deep is an excellent destroyer +of weeds when they are starting, but after the weeds are well-rooted, +the weeder acts only as a cultivator for the plants that should be +destroyed. Modern cultivators have fine teeth that let the surface +remain nearly level, and they do their best work when the weeds are +small. The use of "sweeps" should be more general. The blades are so +placed that they slip under the surface, letting the soil fall back so +that a mulch is formed. + +Length of Cultivation.--Most tilled crops grow rapidly until they shade +and mulch the soil. Tillage should continue, if possible, until this +occurs. The exception is in the case of orchard trees and other plants +that should not have their period of growth extended late in the fall. +Good tillage tends to increase the lateness of a crop by encouraging +growth. The new wood of trees may not become hardy enough to withstand +the frost of winter if tillage is continued. Early maturity is hastened +by exhaustion of soil moisture and plant-food. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +CONTROL OF SOIL MOISTURE + + +Value of Water in the Soil.--The amount of water in the soil each day +of the growing season determines in large measure the possibility of +securing a profitable crop from land. Observant farmers have noticed +oftentimes that the differences in yields on the farms of a region are +less in a wholly favorable season than in one of deficient rainfall. +The skill of the farmer in conserving the moisture supply in a wet +season is less well repaid because it is less needed. The poverty of a +worn soil is less marked in a favorable season. The land is accounted +poor because the supply of plant-food is inadequate for a drouthy year +in which a considerable percentage of the time produces little growth, +but most agricultural land has enough plant-food for a fairly good crop +when water is present all the time to carry daily supplies into the +roots. It is the amount of moisture in the soil that is the limiting +factor in the case of most land that is not in a high state of +productiveness. + +The Soil a Reservoir.--The rains of the summer rarely are adequate to +the needs of growing plants. Some water runs off the surface, some +passes down through crevices beyond the effect of capillary attraction, +and much quickly evaporates. The part that becomes available is only a +supplement to the store of water made by the rains of the fall, winter, +and early spring. + +If the soil were viewed as a medium for the holding of water to meet +the daily needs of plants, and were given rational treatment on this +basis, a long step toward higher productiveness would have been taken. +As has been stated, rotted organic matter gives a soil more capacity +for holding water. It is an absorbent in itself, and it puts clays and +sands into better physical condition for the storage of moisture. An +unproductive soil may need organic matter for this one reason alone +more than it may need actual plant-food. + +Fall-plowing for a spring crop enables land to withstand summer's +drouth if it gains in physical condition by full exposure to the +winter's frost. It is in condition to take up more water from spring +rains than would be the case if it lay compact, and it does not lose +water by the airing in the spring that plowing gives. + +Early spring-plowing leaves land less subject to drouth than does later +plowing. As the air becomes heated, the open spaces left by the plowing +serve to hasten the escape of moisture. If a cover crop is plowed down +late in the spring, the material in the bottom of the furrow makes the +land less resistant to drouth because the union of the top soil with +the subsoil is less perfect, and capillary attraction is retarded. It +is usually good practice to sacrifice some of the growth of a cover +crop, even when organic matter is badly needed, and to plow fairly +early in the spring in order that the moisture supply may be conserved. + +The Land-roller.--The breaking-plow is a robber of soil water when used +in warm weather. The air carries the water away rapidly. The air-spaces +are large. The corrective of this condition is the land-roller. It +presses the soil together, driving out the excess of air. Large crumbs +are pressed down into the mass, and are kept from drying into hard +clods. The roller never should be used on land when fresh-plowed in a +moist condition, and it is not needed after fall-plowing, or early +spring-plowing in most instances, but land broken when the season is +advanced should be rolled before much water evaporates. + +[Illustration: Making an earth mulch in a New York orchard.] + +The Plank-drag.--An excellent implement on a farm is the plank-drag. It +is usually made of over-lapping heavy planks, and when floated over the +surface, it both pulverizes and packs the soil. The effectiveness is +controlled by the weight placed upon it, and oftentimes the drag is to +be preferred to the roller. + +The Mulch.--In conserving the supply of water in the soil the mulch +plays an important work. The dry air is constantly taking up the water +from the surface of land, and when the surface is drier than the soil +below, the moisture moves upward if there is no break in the structure +of the surface soil. The mulch is a covering of material that does not +readily permit the escape of water. + +The only available material for a mulch in most instances is the soil +itself. Experience has taught that when the top layer of soil, to a +depth of two or three inches, is made fine and loose, the water beneath +it cannot escape readily. It is partly for this reason that the +smoothing-harrow should follow the roller after land has been plowed. +The plow is used to break up the soil into crumbs that will permit air +to enter. The loosening is excessive when the planting must follow +soon, permitting rapid escape of water. The roller or plank-drag is +employed to compress the soil, and to crush crumbs of soil that are too +large for good soil conditions. The harrow follows to make a mulch of +fine, loose soil at the surface to assist in prevention of evaporation. + +A sandy soil will retain its mulch in effective condition for a longer +time than a fine clay, if no rain falls. When the air is laden with +moisture, clay particles absorb enough water to pack together and form +an avenue for the rise of water to the surface, where the dry air has +access to it. + +Mulches of Foreign Material.--The truth that moisture is a leading +factor in soil productiveness is evidenced by the value of straw and +similar material as a mulch. A covering of straw around trees in an +orchard, or bush fruits, or such plants as the potato, may give better +results than an application of fertilizer when no effort is made to +prevent the escape of water. People so situated that little attention +can well be given to the fruit and vegetable garden obtain good results +by replacing tillage with a substantial mulch that keeps the soil +mellow, prevents weed growth, and retains an abundant supply of water. + +In grain-producing districts where all the straw is not needed as an +absorbent in the stables its use as a mulch on thin grass lands, or +wheat-fields seeded to grass, is more profitable than conversion into +manure by rotting in a barnyard. The straw affords protection from the +sun, and aids in the conservation of soil water, when scattered evenly +in no larger amount than two tons per acre, and a less amount per acre +has value. The sod is helped, and as the straw rots, its plant-food +goes into the soil. + +Plowing Straw Down.--The practice of plowing straw under as a manure is +unsafe, when used in any large quantity per acre. It rots slowly, and +while lying in the bottom of the furrow it cuts off the rise of water +from the subsoil which is a reservoir of moisture for use during +drouth. + +The Summer-fallow.--Bare land loses in total plant-food, but may make a +temporary gain in available fertility. The practice of leaving a field +uncropped for an entire season has been abandoned in good farming +regions. Where moisture is in scant supply, and a soil is thin, there +continue instances of the summer-fallow. In a crop-rotation containing +corn and wheat, the corn-stubble land is left unbroken until May or +June, and then plowed. In August it is plowed again, and fitted for +seeding to wheat. The practice favors the killing of weeds, and the +soil at seeding time may contain more water than would have been the +case if a crop had been produced, because its mellow condition enables +the farmer to hold within it nearly all the moisture that a shower may +furnish after the second plowing. + +The Modern Fallow.--The modern method of making a grass seeding in +August partakes of the nature of the old-fashioned summer-fallow. The +desire is to eradicate weeds, secure availability in plant-food, and +fit the soil to profit by even a light rainfall. Thin soils lend +themselves well to this treatment, which is described in Chapter VIII, +and there is no better method for fertile land. The benefit of the +fallow is obtained without serious loss of time. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +DRAINAGE + + +Underdrainage.--There are great swamps, and small ones, whose water +should be carried off by open ditches. Our present interest is in the +wet fields of the farm,--the cold, wet soil of an entire field, the +swale lying between areas of well-drained land, the side of a field +kept wet by seepage from higher land,--and here the right solution of +the troubling problem lies in underdrainage. An excess of water in the +soil robs the land-owner of chance of profit. It excludes the air, +sealing up the plant-food so that crops cannot be secured. It keeps the +ground cold. It destroys the good physical condition of the soil that +may have been secured by much tillage, causing the soil particles to +pack together. It compels plant-roots to form at the surface of the +ground. It delays seeding and cultivation. An excess of water is more +disheartening than absolute soil poverty. The remedy is only in its +removal. The level of dead water in the soil must be below the +surface--three feet, two and one half feet, four feet,--some reasonable +distance that will make possible a friable, aërated, warm, friendly +feeding-ground for plant-roots. Only under drainage can do this. + +Counting the Cost.--Thorough underdrainage is costly, but it is less so +than the farming of fields whose productiveness is seriously limited by +an excess of water. The work means an added investment. Estimates of +cost can be made with fair accuracy, and estimates of resulting profit +can be made without any assurance of accuracy. The farmer with some wet +land does well to gain experimental knowledge, and base future work +upon such experience. He knows that he cannot afford to cultivate wet +land, and the problem before him is to leave it to produce what grass +it can produce, sell it, or find profit in drainage. He has the +experience of others that investment in drainage is more satisfactory +than most other investments, if land has any natural fertility. He has +assurance that debt incurred for drainage is the safest kind of debt an +owner of wet land can incur. He has a right to expect profit from the +undertaking, and he can begin the work in a small way, if an outlet is +at hand, and learn what return may be expected from further investment. +Almost without fail will he become an earnest advocate of +underdrainage. + +[Illustration: Drain tile.] + +Where Returns are Largest.--The total area of land needing drainage is +immense. Swamps form only a small part of this area. Yields of much old +farm land are limited by the excess of water during portions of the +year. As land becomes older, the area needing drainage increases. + +The owner of wet land does well to gain his first experience in a field +where a swale or other wet strip not only fails to produce a full crop, +but limits the yield of the remainder of the field by delaying planting +and cultivation. This double profit often is sufficient to repay cost +in a single year. + +Material for the Drains.--Doubtless there are places and times when +stone, or boards, or brush should be used in construction of +underdrains, but they are relatively few in number. Such underdrains +lack permanency, as a rule, though some stone drains are effective for +a long time. If drain tile can be obtained at a reasonable price, it +should be used even in fields that have an abundance of stone. Its use +requires less labor than that of stone, and when properly laid on a +good bottom, it continues effective. There is no known limit to the +durability of a drain made of good tile. + +The Outlet.--The value of any drainage system is dependent upon the +outlet. Its location is the first thing to be determined. If the land +is nearly flat, a telescope level should be used to determine +elevations of all low points in the land to be drained. The outlet +should permit a proper fall throughout the length of the system, and it +should not require attention after the work is completed. If it is in +the bank of a stream or ditch, it should be above the normal level of +the water in the stream. In times of heavy rainfall water may back up +into the main with no injury other than temporary failure to perform +its work, but continuous submersion will lead to deposits of silt that +may close the tile. + +Locating Main and Branches.--There are various systems of drainage. +Wherever a branch or lateral joins the main, the means of drainage is +duplicated within the area that the main can drain, and the system +should call for the least possible waste of this sort. It usually is +best that the main take the center line of the low land, laterals being +used to bring the water to the main from both sides, but there is less +duplication of work when the main can be at one side of the wet land. +Branches of the main may be needed to reach remote parts of the area. + +The Laterals.--Small lines of tile are used to bring the water to the +main when the wet land extends beyond the influence of the main. The +distance between these laterals depends upon their depth and the nature +of the land. A tight clay soil will not let water pass laterally more +than a rod or 20 feet, compelling the placing of the drains not over 40 +feet apart, while an open soil may permit a distance of 60 or more feet +between laterals. + +Size of Tile.--The size of the main depends upon the area that +eventually may be drained, the amount of overflow from higher land, the +nature of the soil, and the grade of the drain. It is a common mistake +to make the main too small because the drainage immediately +contemplated is less than that which will be desired when its value is +known. In the determination of the size the judgment of an expert is +needed, and if this cannot be had, the error should be on the side of +safety. If the main will not be required to carry overflow from other +land, and has a fall of 3 inches to 100 feet, one may assume that a +6-inch main will carry the surplus water from 12 to 20 acres of land, +and an 8-inch main will carry the water of twice that area. Some +drainage experts figure larger areas for such mains, but there is +danger of loss of crop when the rainfall is very heavy. + +The laterals need not be larger than 3 inches in diameter when laid on +a good bottom. + +Kind of Tile.--When clay tile is used, it should be well burned. Some +manufacturers offer soft tile for sale, as the loss from warping and +cracking is less in case of insufficient burning. The claim may be made +that the efficiency of soft tile is greater than that of the hard tile +whose porosity has been destroyed. This is an error, as the water +enters the drain at the joints, and not through the walls of the tile. +Underdrainage should be permanent in its character, and it is essential +that every piece of tile be sound and well-burned. + +Vitrified clay tile is good for drainage, but no better than common +clay hard-burned. + +Round or octagonal tile is the most desirable because it can be turned +in laying to secure the best joints. Collars are not needed in ordinary +drainage. + +Cement tile is coming into general use in regions having no good clay. +Its durability has not been tested, but there is no apparent reason +that it should not be a good substitute for clay. + +The Grade.--The outlet may fix the grade. If it does not, the main, +branches, and laterals should have a fall of 3 inches, or more, to the +100 feet. This grade insures against deposits of silt and gives good +capacity to the drains. If the outlet demands less fall in the system, +the main may be laid on a grade of only a half inch to the 100 feet +with satisfactory results. Such a small fall should be accepted only +when a lower outlet cannot be secured, and great care should be used in +grading the trench and laying the tile. + +Establishing a Grade.--If the grades are light, they should be +established by use of a telescope level. Most of the cheap levels are a +delusion. A stake driven flush with the surface of the ground at the +outlet becomes the starting point, and by its side should be driven a +witness stake. Every 100 feet along the line of the proposed drain and +laterals similar stakes should be driven. Their levels should then be +taken, and when the fall from the head of the system to the outlet is +known, the required cut at each 100-feet station is easily determined. +It may be necessary to reduce or increase the grade at some point to +get proper depth in a depression or to save cutting when passing +through a ridge. + +Cutting the Trenches.--There are ditching-machines that do efficient +work. The best are costly. Most of the work on farms will continue to +be done with ditching-spades. The ground should be moved when wet, so +that labor can be saved. + +A line should be used to secure a straight side to the trench. The +grade should be obtained by means of a system of strings. If two light +poles be pushed into the ground at each 100-feet station, one on either +side of the proposed trench, and a string be drawn across at a point +5-1/2 feet above the bottom of the proposed trench, these strings will +be in line on a grade 5-1/2 feet above the grade the drain will have. +As the cut at the station is known, the height of the string above the +top of the stake is easily determined. These strings will reveal any +inaccuracy in the survey. The workman can test every part of the bottom +of the trench by use of a rod 5-1/2 feet high, the top end being +exactly in line with the strings when the lower end is placed on the +correct grade of the trench. This device is better than running water +where grades are slight. + +A drain scoop should be used in bottom of the trench to make a resting +place for the tile that will prevent any displacement by the soil when +the trench is filled. + +Depth of Trenches.--Underdrains may be placed too deep in close soils +for best results. In an early day it was advised that the drains be put +down 4 feet deep. We now know that a tight clay soil may give best +results from a drain only 28 inches deep, or even a little less. In a +looser soil 3 feet is a better depth, and in porous swamp lands the +drain may well go 4 feet deep, thus permitting increase in distance +between drains. + +Connections.--The laterals should enter the branches and mains near the +top, so that the water will be drawn out rapidly. The tile should be +laid with close joints at the top, so that the water may enter more +freely from the sides than the top. No covering other than moist soil +is needed unless there is very fine sand, when paper over the joints +will serve a good purpose. After some moist soil from the sides of the +trench has been tramped upon the tile, the trench may be filled by use +of a breaking-plow or winged scraper. + +Permanency Desired.--The expense of underdrainage demands care in every +detail of the work. The grade of the trenches should be carefully +tested. Every piece of tile should be examined. The outlet should be +guarded against displacement or entrance by animals. A good plan is to +lay the last few pieces of tile in a close-fitting wooden box, and to +protect the end with iron rods placed 2 inches apart. + +If the drain is on a true grade, so that no silt will collect, there +need be no fear concerning its continued efficiency, provided water +does not run in it all the time. If it carries the water from springs +continuously, plant-roots may fill it, and tree roots are quite sure to +do so when opportunity offers. This is notably true in case of elms and +willows, but protection is afforded in such an instance by closing the +joints with cement. + +[Illustration: The lure of the country.] + + + + + _The following pages contain advertisements + of books on kindred subjects_ + + + + +NEW FARM AND GARDEN BOOKS + + +Injurious Insects: How to Recognize and Control Them + +By W. C. O'KANE + +Entomologist of the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, and +Professor of Economic Entomology in New Hampshire College + +_Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. $2.00 net._ + +Complete information on the characteristics, life histories and means +of control of the more common injurious insects, including those +infesting field crops, vegetables, fruits, the principal pests of +domestic animals, stored products and the household, is contained in +this book. A distinctive feature of the work is the illustrations with +which the text throughout is accompanied. These have been made +especially for Dr. O'Kane. With each insect treated he shows in an +original photograph the characteristic injurious stage or the typical +work of the insect where that is characteristic. By this means the +author hopes that the layman will be able to recognize an insect that +threatens by the picture aside from any description in the text. + + +Principles of Fruit Growing + +By Professor L. H. BAILEY + +_New edition. Cloth, 12mo. $1.50 net._ + +Since the original publication of this book, in 1897, it has gone +through many editions. The progress of fruit growing in the meantime +has been very marked and it has been necessary to completely rewrite +the work. The present issue of it brings the accounts of the new +practices and discoveries as they relate to fruit growing up to date. +All of the text and practically all of the illustrations are new. + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +NEW FARM AND GARDEN BOOKS + + +Sheep Farming + +By JOHN A. CRAIG and F. R. MARSHALL + +_Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. $1.50 net._ + +This book deals with sheep husbandry as a phase of intensive farming. +Recognizing that it is likely to be used by persons unfamiliar with +sheep, the authors have worked from the standpoint of the producer of +market stock, rather than from the standpoint of the professional +breeder. The various breeds are discussed in such a way as to enable +the reader to select the kind that is most likely to do well under his +conditions and to acquaint him with the care it is accustomed to and +needs. The management of the flock in the fall, winter, spring and +summer seasons, the formation of the flock, the selection of foundation +stock, and the means of maintaining a high standard of flock +efficiency, are all discussed in subsequent chapters. + + +Forage Crops for the South + +By S. M. TRACY + +_Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. Preparing._ + +Professor Tracy has had long experience in Southern agriculture, both +in application and in teaching. He was formerly Professor of +Agriculture in the Mississippi Agricultural College, and now conducts a +branch station or farm for the United States Department of Agriculture. +He is a botanist of note and has traveled extensively in the South as a +collector. His book is not only authentic, but practical. In it is +contained a discussion of all kinds of plants and crops adapted to the +Southern States for fodder, soiling, pasturing and hay. The text is +abundantly illustrated. + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +THE RURAL MANUALS + +Edited by L. H. BAILEY + + +Manual of Farm Animals + +A Practical Guide to the Choosing, Breeding and Keep of Horses, Cattle, +Sheep and Swine. + +By MERRITT W. HARPER + +Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College +of Agriculture at Cornell University + +_Illustrated, decorated cloth, 12mo, 545 pages, index, $2.00 net; by +mail, $2.18_ + +"The work is invaluable as a practical guide in raising farm +animals."--_Morning Telegram._ + +"A book deserving of close study as well as being handy for reference, +and should be in the possession of every farmer interested in +stock."--_Rural World._ + + +Manual of Gardening + +A Practical Guide to the Making of Home Grounds and the Growing of +Flowers, Fruits and Vegetables for Home Use. + +By L. H. BAILEY + +_Illustrated, cloth, 12mo, 544 pages, $2.00 net; by mail, $2.17_ + +This new work is a combination and revision of the main parts of two +other books by the same author, "Garden Making" and "Practical Garden +Book," together with much new material and the result of the experience +of ten added years. Among the persons who collaborated in the +preparation of the other two books, and whose contributions have been +freely used in this one, are C. E. Hunn, a gardener of long experience; +Professor Ernest Walker, reared as a commercial florist; Professor L. +R. Taft, and Professor F. A. Waugh, well known for their studies and +writings on horticultural subjects. + + +A STANDARD WORK REVISED AND ENLARGED + +The Farm and Garden Rule Book + +By LIBERTY H. BAILEY + +_Illustrated, cloth, 12mo, $2.00 net_ + +When Professor Bailey's "Horticulturist's Rule Book" was published +nearly twenty-five years ago, the volume became a standard agricultural +work running through sixteen editions. Taking this book as a basis the +author has now made a wholly new book, extending it to cover the field +of general farming, stock-raising, dairying, poultry-rearing, +horticulture, gardening, forestry, and the like. It is essentially a +small cyclopedia Of ready rules and references packed full from coyer +to cover of condensed, meaty information and precepts on almost every +leading subject connected with country life. + + +IN PREPARATION + +Manual of Home-Making. Manual of Cultivated Plants + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +THE RURAL OUTLOOK SET + +By Professor L. H. BAILEY + +Director of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell +University + +_Four Volumes. Each, cloth, 12mo. Uniform binding, attractively boxed. +$5.00 net per set; carriage extra. Each volume also sold separately._ + +In this set are included three of Professor Bailey's most popular books +as well as a hitherto unpublished one,--"The Country-Life Movement." +The long and persistent demand for a uniform edition of these little +classics is answered with the publication of this attractive series. + + +The Country-Life Movement + +_Cloth, 12mo, 220 pages, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34_ + +This hitherto unpublished volume deals with the present movement for +the redirection of rural civilization, discussing the real country-life +problem as distinguished from the city problem, known as the +back-to-the-land movement. + + +The Outlook to Nature (New and Revised Edition) + +_Cloth, 12mo, 195 pages, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34_ + +In this alive and bracing book, full of suggestion and encouragement, +Professor Bailey argues the importance of contact with nature, a +sympathetic attitude toward which "means greater efficiency, +hopefulness, and repose." + + +The State and the Farmer (New Edition) + +_Cloth, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34_ + +It is the relation of the farmer to the government that Professor +Bailey here discusses in its varying aspects. He deals specifically +with the change in agricultural methods, in the shifting of the +geographical centers of farming in the United States, and in the growth +of agricultural institutions. + + +The Nature Study Idea (New Edition) + +_Cloth, 12mo, $1.25 net; by mail, $1.34_ + +"It would be well," the critic of _The Tribune Farmer_ once wrote, +"if 'The Nature Study Idea' were in the hands of every person who +favors nature study in the public schools, of every one who is opposed +to it, and, most important, of every one who teaches it or thinks he +does." It has been Professor Bailey's purpose to interpret the new +school movement to put the young into relation and sympathy with +nature,--a purpose which he has admirably accomplished. + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +How to Keep Hens for Profit + +By C. S. VALENTINE + +_Cloth, illustrated, 12mo, $1,50 net; postpaid, $1.63_ + +"The Plymouth Rock, Java, Dominique, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and +Buckeye breeds are discussed in the first few chapters. Considerable +attention is given to other breeds later on. Eighteen beautiful +half-tone engravings adorn the book. From the standpoint of the +practical farmer and poultry-grower, we consider this book as one of +the very best of its kind. The author is evidently an experienced +poultry-man. It is a book that should be of special help to beginners +in poultry, while at the same time it contains much information for the +expert." + +--_Farmers' Tribune._ + + +The Beginner in Poultry + +By C. S. VALENTINE + +_Decorated Cloth, profusely illustrated, 12mo, $1.50 net; postpaid, +$1.68_ + +It has been estimated that of the five million people who are raising +poultry in this country today half have gone at it blindly. And it is +just as impossible to make a success of the poultry business without +preparation as it is impossible to succeed in any other business +without an acquaintance with the fundamentals. The difficulty which +the novice has experienced in going at the raising of chickens +systematically in the past has been that he could find no book in which +the essentials--only the essentials and all of them--of poultry-raising +are given. To write such a book has been Mr. Valentine's purpose In +"The Beginner in Poultry" he discusses the different breeds of fowls, +the types of houses, feeding and the kinds of food, raising chickens +for the market and for their eggs, diseases and their cures and +everything else which will be of value for the one who is starting +out--and much for the seasoned poultry-raiser as well. + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +RURAL SCIENCE SERIES + +Edited by L. H. BAILEY + + +On Selection of Land, etc. + Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead $1 50 + +On Tillage, etc. + F. H. King's The Soil 1 50 + Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land 1 50 + F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage 1 50 + Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers 1 25 + Edward B. Voorhees' Forage Crops 1 50 + J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming 1 50 + L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture 1 25 + +On Plant Diseases, etc. + E. C. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants 1 25 + +On Garden-Making + L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making 1 50 + L. H. Bailey's Vegetable-Gardening 1 50 + L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book 1 25 + +On Fruit-Growing, etc. + L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book 1 50 + L. H. Bailey's Fruit-Growing 1 50 + L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book 1 50 + F. W. Card's Bush Fruits 1 50 + +On the Care of Live-stock + Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1 50 + W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1 50 + I. P. Roberts' The Horse 1 25 + M. W. Harper's Breaking and Training of Horses 1 50 + George C. Watson's Farm Poultry 1 25 + +On Dairy Work, Farm Chemistry, etc. + Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products 1 50 + J. G. Lipman's Bacteria and Country Life 1 50 + +On Economics and Organization + I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook 1 25 + George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare 1 25 + H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene 1 50 + J. Green's Law for the American Farmer 1 50 + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + +Cyclopedia of American Agriculture + +Edited by L. H. BAILEY + +Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Rural Economy, +Cornell University. + +_With 100 full-page plates and more than 2,000 illustrations in the +text; four volumes; the set, $20.00 net; half morocco, $32.00 net; +carriage extra_ + + Volume I--Farms + Volume II--Crops + Volume III--Animals + Volume IV--The Farm and the Community + +"Indispensable to public and reference libraries ... readily +comprehensible to any person of average education."--_The Nation._ + +"The completest existing thesaurus of up-to-date facts and opinions on +modern agricultural methods. It is safe to say that many years must +pass before it can be surpassed in comprehensiveness, accuracy, +practical value, and mechanical excellence. It ought to be in every +library in the country."--_Record-Herald, Chicago._ + + +Cyclopedia of American Horticulture + +Edited by L. H. BAILEY + +_With over 2,800 original engravings; four volumes; the set, $20.00 +net; half morocco, $32.00 net; carriage extra_ + +"This really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in its +class. Illustrations and text are admirable.... Our own conviction is +that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the work, +it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing its importance, the +publishers have given it faultless form. The typography leaves nothing +to be desired, the paper is calculated to stand wear and tear, and the +work is at once handsomely and attractively bound."--_New York Daily +Tribune._ + + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +PUBLISHERS 64-66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement, by +Alva Agee + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CROPS AND METHODS FOR SOIL *** + +***** This file should be named 23682-8.txt or 23682-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/6/8/23682/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature +in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |