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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Problems of Psychical Research, by 
+Hereward Carrington
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Problems of Psychical Research
+       Experiments and Theories in the Realm of the Supernormal
+
+Author: Hereward Carrington
+
+Release Date: November 29, 2007 [EBook #23660]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROBLEMS OF PSYCHICAL RESEARCH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Stacy Brown, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The "Will Board"]
+
+
+
+
+  THE PROBLEMS OF
+  PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
+
+  EXPERIMENTS AND THEORIES IN
+  THE REALM OF THE SUPERNORMAL
+
+  BY
+
+  HEREWARD CARRINGTON, Ph.D.
+
+  AUTHOR OF
+
+  "The Coming Science," "The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism,"
+  "Death: Its Causes and Phenomena," "Modern Psychical Phenomena,"
+  "Your Psychic Powers: and How to Develop Them," "Higher Psychical
+  Development," "True Ghost Stories," Etc.
+
+  NEW YORK
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
+  1921
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1921,
+  By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc.
+
+
+  VAIL-BALLOU COMPANY
+  BINGHAMTON AND NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the following pages I have dealt chiefly with the _mental_ or
+psychological phenomena of psychical research, and have not touched upon
+the "physical" manifestations to any extent. The book is mostly
+theoretical and constructive in tone; and, because of its speculative
+character, it may, perhaps, prove of value to future psychical
+investigators. It represents the author's conclusions after several
+years' experimentation; and, in a field so new as this, scientific
+hypotheses and speculations are assuredly helpful--indicating the road
+we must travel, and the possible interpretation of certain facts, which
+have been accumulated in the past, as the result of years of laborious
+research. I believe that practically _all_ the phenomena of spiritualism
+are true; that is, that they have occurred in a genuine manner from time
+to time in the past; that they are supernormal in character, and are
+genuine phenomenal occurrences. But as to the further question: "What is
+the nature of the intelligence lying behind and controlling these
+phenomena?"--_that_, I think, is as yet unsolved, and is likely to
+remain so for some time to come. I do not believe that the simple
+spiritistic explanation--especially as at present held--is the correct
+one, nor one that explains all the facts; for I believe that the
+phenomena are more complicated than this. Nor are the ordinary
+psychological explanations at present in vogue adequate to cover them.
+The explanation is yet to seek; and the solution will only be found when
+a sufficient number of facts have been accumulated and the various
+explanatory theories have been tested,--to see which of them is really
+adequate. My hope is that the present book may help to accomplish this
+result by supplying a little in both directions!
+
+The present edition of this book is to some extent an abridgement of the
+first edition, which appeared some seven years ago. I have, for
+instance, omitted a number of "cases" which were originally included,
+and also my "sittings" with Mrs. Piper--which material will be published
+at a later date in another volume. I have also omitted the original
+First Chapter,--since much of this material was subsequently included in
+my _Modern Psychical Phenomena_. On the other hand, I have included a
+new chapter on Recent Experiments in Psychic Photography,--composed
+partly of original and hitherto unpublished material, and partly of the
+experiments undertaken, some years ago, by Dr. Baraduc,--in
+"photographing the soul." The account of his experiments was originally
+published in my book, _Death: its Causes and Phenomena_, but they are
+now included here as being more in line with other experiments recently
+undertaken in this field. I have also added a brief chapter on the
+Scientific Investigation of Psychic Phenomena by means of Laboratory
+Instruments.
+
+A word, finally, as to the necessarily slow progress which has been and
+is being made in the study of "psychics." As this objection is often
+raised, I cannot do better, perhaps, than to quote an admirable passage
+from Prof. William James (_Memories and Studies_, pp. 175-76), where he
+says:--
+
+     "For twenty-five years I have been in touch with the literature of
+     psychical research, and have had acquaintance with numerous
+     'researchers.' I have also spent a good many hours (though far
+     fewer than I should have spent) in witnessing (or trying to
+     witness) phenomena. Yet I am theoretically no 'further' than I was
+     at the beginning; and I confess that at times I have been tempted
+     to believe that the Creator has eternally intended this department
+     of nature to remain _baffling_,--to prompt our curiosities and
+     hopes and suspicions all in equal measure, so that, although ghosts
+     and clairvoyances, and raps and messages from spirits, are always
+     seeming to exist and can never be fully explained away, they also
+     can never be susceptible of full corroboration.... It is hard to
+     believe, however, that the Creator has really put any big array of
+     phenomena into the world merely to defy and mock our scientific
+     tendencies; so my deeper belief is that we psychical researchers
+     have been too precipitate in our hopes, and that we must expect to
+     mark progress not by quarter-centuries, but by half-centuries or
+     whole centuries."
+
+In the present book, I have endeavoured to show why this must
+necessarily be so; also to indicate the manner in which the subject may
+be studied in order to arrive at definite knowledge at an earlier date
+than might otherwise be possible.
+
+H. C.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                              PAGE
+
+        Preface                                           v
+
+     I  Is Psychical Research a Science?                  1
+
+    II  Investigating Psychical Phenomena with
+         Scientific Instruments                          82
+
+   III  Life: and Its Interpretation                     93
+
+    IV  The Human Will Is a Physical Energy (_An
+         Instrument which Proves It_)                   110
+
+     V  Modern Dissection of the Human Mind             138
+
+    VI  Psychic Photography (_New Experiments_)         157
+
+   VII  Hallucination and the Physical Phenomena
+         of Spiritualism                                188
+
+  VIII  The Problems of Telepathy                       210
+
+    IX  The Uses and Abuses of Mind Cure                237
+
+     X  The Psychology of the Ouija Board               247
+
+    XI  Witchcraft: Its Facts and Follies               261
+
+   XII  Scientific Truths Contained in Fairy Stories    277
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+      The "Will Board"             _Frontispiece_
+
+                                            PAGE
+                                           FACING
+  1.  "Psychic Photograph"                    158
+
+  2. "Psychic Photograph"                     158
+
+  3.  "Thought Photograph"                    170
+
+  4.  "Psychic Photograph"                    176
+
+  5.  "Psychic Photograph"                    176
+
+  6.  "Psychic Photograph"                    178
+
+  7.  "Psychic Photograph"                    178
+
+  8.  "Psychic Photograph"                    180
+
+  9.  "Psychic Photograph"                    180
+
+ 10.  "Psychic Photograph"                    182
+
+ 11.  "Psychic Photograph"                    182
+
+ 12.  "Psychic Photograph"                    182
+
+ 13.  "Photograph of the Soul"                184
+
+ 14.  "Photograph of the Soul"                184
+
+
+
+
+THE PROBLEMS OF PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+IS PSYCHICAL RESEARCH A SCIENCE?
+
+
+Is Psychical Research a Science?
+
+It seems to me that the answer to this question must be somewhat as
+follows: If the phenomena be true, Yes; if not, No!
+
+If _one_ single prophecy, clairvoyant vision, telepathic impulse, or
+mediumistic message be true--if veritable supernormal information be
+thereby conveyed--then psychical research is a science, and illimitable
+avenues are opened up for further research and speculation.
+
+More especially is this true in the case of mediumistic messages. If
+these prove to be delusory--the result of subliminal activity and so
+forth--if there be no spiritual world, then "psychics" may be said to be
+"founded upon the sand." It can hardly be called a "science." Only when
+the _fact_ of communication is proved, will the real study of the
+subject begin. Much of the work, up to the present, has been undertaken
+with a view to establishing the reality of the facts. But this is a
+question of evidence, not scientific research. When the facts themselves
+are established, then the real study--the work of the future--will
+begin. It will probably be the task of future generations to attack the
+problem from this standpoint.
+
+Let me illustrate what I mean by a somewhat striking example. Take the
+facts presented in the case of Mrs. Piper. Hitherto the question has
+resolved itself into that of the _evidence_ for survival. Have or have
+not the various personalities who have communicated through her
+entranced organism proved their personal identity? That is the problem;
+and, as we know, opinions differ! But, granting the reality of the
+facts, granting that "spirits" really do communicate, as alleged--then
+the study of the question, from the "scientific" point of view, will
+only have begun. _How_ do they communicate? Why are these communications
+so rare? Why such trouble with proper names? How do the "spirits"
+manipulate the nervous organism, and particularly the brain, of the
+medium? Upon what cells or centres do they operate? and how? Does the
+psychic constitution of the communicator affect the results--and if so,
+how? What is the condition of the communicator's mind while
+communicating? Is the medium's spirit entirely removed from the body
+during the process of communication? and if so, where is it, and what is
+it doing? How does the medium's mind affect the content of the
+communications--and to what extent? These, and a thousand other
+questions of a like nature, immediately present themselves, and call for
+solution, as soon as the reality of the facts be granted--as soon as
+spirit communication be accepted as a fact. This will constitute the
+work of the future--the detailed study of the facts--not merely
+regarding them from the point of view of evidence. Real, scientific
+psychical research will then begin. The subject will then, for the
+first time, become a legitimate branch of human study.
+
+Yet, even now, it may not be altogether unprofitable to adduce a few
+reflections which have been suggested by a study of the facts, up to the
+present time. If theories and speculations of this nature have in
+themselves no value, they often stimulate others to experiment or to
+reflect upon the same line--sometimes with strikingly important and
+interesting results. It is chiefly with this object in mind that I offer
+the following suggestions--the result of some years of thought and
+research in this particular field.
+
+(1) Before it is possible for any one to appreciate the importance and
+significance of psychical research, it is necessary for him to become
+"inoculated," as it were, with materialism! To one who admits, _a
+priori_, the reality of a spiritual world, and sees no difficulties in
+the way of accepting it, there is, of course, no need to convince him
+further. But once admit the position held by modern science
+(particularly biological science) that life is a function of the
+organism, and that thought is a function of the brain, and the phenomena
+assume a very different importance. To state the case in precise terms,
+I could not do better than to quote the words of Professor John Lewis
+March, when he says "Mind is not found to exist apart from matter" (_A
+Theory of Mind_, p. 11). And it must be admitted that--apart from the
+facts of psychical research--there is no evidence that it does so exist.
+So far as we can prove, life and consciousness become obliterated at the
+moment of bodily death. And the only way to prove the contrary is to
+produce evidence that consciousness does so persist; and this is only
+possible by the methods adopted in spiritism and psychical research. In
+no other way can the facts be established; by no other method can the
+persistence of human consciousness be scientifically proved.
+
+(2) It may be contended that consciousness, as such, may persist, but
+that individuality does not survive bodily death: the human is merged
+into the All. But such a view of the case seems to be directly opposed
+to evidence no less than to moral feeling. For, in the first place,
+persistence without memory and individuality would not be worth having
+at all; and secondly, this idea is, it seems to me, directly opposed to
+evolution, which tends more and more to accentuate individuality, and
+separate and perfect it.
+
+(3) On the other hand, it might possibly be that our persistence depends
+upon our _ability_ to persist. The theory of mind developed by modern
+researches in psycho-pathology is that the mind of man--instead of being
+a single "unit," as was formerly supposed--is composed of a number of
+threads or strands, so to speak, held together by our attention and our
+will. Once these are relaxed, the mind "unravels" and goes to pieces. A
+single, strongly-woven, and well-bound rope might stand a sudden wrench
+and shock, while a less perfectly-made one would tear and snap under the
+strain. Similarly, it might be urged, if the mind be sufficiently
+balanced, strengthened, and controlled, it might withstand the shock of
+death; otherwise it would not. Whether or not we persist would thus
+depend upon our ability to control and hold ourselves together, as it
+were; upon our strength of will; upon the degree of development of the
+central personality. When this is lacking, "psychical disintegration"
+takes place, and we fail to survive the last great Ordeal.
+
+While this theory may possibly be true, it seems to me that it is very
+probably untrue, for the reason that this is not a question of moral
+worth which we are considering, but of scientific law--of the
+Conservation of Energy, of the ability of life and consciousness of any
+sort--good or bad--to exist apart from brain-functioning. That is the
+question! Once grant that mind of any kind can persist by and of itself,
+independent of a physical organization, and you have so far broken down
+the barriers of materialism that there should not be the slightest
+objection to granting the persistence of consciousness of any sort--with
+the probability that it _would_ so persist. Cosmic Law could hardly act
+otherwise.
+
+(4) I know well enough that psychic investigation is, at present at
+least, in a chaotic and uncertain condition, and that little beyond
+uncertainty and discouragement has been attained in the past. As Mr. F.
+C. Constable remarked:
+
+     "Many of us who have devoted our lives to psychical research can
+     but have moments of profound depression. We _feel_ our labours
+     cannot be in vain, but we are faced by such a complexity of fraud,
+     deliberate and unconscious, mal-observation, denial of scientific
+     restrictions, and ignorance of what is trustworthy in evidence and
+     deduction, that at times our search for truth seems as futile as
+     the search of past alchemists for the philosopher's stone."
+
+And even more forcibly Count Aksakof states the objections which have
+occurred to him:
+
+     "As years went by, the weak points of spiritualism became more
+     evident and more numerous. The insignificance of the
+     communications, the poverty of their intellectual content, and
+     finally the fraud, etc.--in short, a host of doubts, objections,
+     and aberrations of every kind--greatly increased the difficulties
+     of the problem. Such impressions were well calculated to discourage
+     one, if, on the other hand, we had not at our disposal a series of
+     indisputable facts." (_Animism and Spiritism._)
+
+While this is doubtless true, it is nevertheless a fact that psychical
+research is, as yet, in its infancy; and it is in a sense unfair to
+judge the results by the few years of progress which have been possible
+in the past. For while other sciences--physics, chemistry, anatomy--are
+more than two thousand years old, psychical research is but forty years
+old--some of the original founders of the S.P.R. being still alive and
+actively engaged in the work! It is, then, somewhat premature to
+pronounce upon the ultimate outcome of the investigation, and we must
+wait for at least a hundred years or so before it will be possible to
+see whether or not the subject has proved its claims and justified
+itself in the eyes of the world. And this view of the case is further
+supported by the fact that, in so exact a science as cytology, but
+little definite can be said. Thus, Professor E. B. Wilson, on p. 434 of
+his work _The Cell_, says: "The study of the cell has, on the whole,
+seemed to widen rather than to narrow the enormous gap that separates
+even the lowest forms of life from the inorganic world." It will thus be
+seen that the uncertain and unsatisfactory condition of psychics is
+shared also by other branches of scientific investigation, and it is as
+yet too soon to say whether or not the ultimate verdict will swing in
+this direction or in that. We can only hope, and continue to experiment!
+
+5. Psychical research, therefore, may continue to progress, in spite of
+the innate difficulties and the obstacles with which the subject is
+surrounded. It is our duty to see that it does! For it is certain that
+the subject will receive serious set-backs, from time to time, in the
+shape of unjust misrepresentations or bitter attacks from the outsiders,
+determined to "prove a case," even if the cause of truth be abandoned in
+order to do so. Take, e.g., the recent volume of Dr. Tanner and Dr. G.
+Stanley Hall (_Studies in Spiritism_). They received certain "lying
+communications," in spite of Professor William James' warning that "the
+personalities are very suggestible" and that "every one is liable to get
+back from the trance very much what he puts into it." Even Deleuze could
+have told Drs. Tanner and Hall this fact--having ascertained it nearly a
+hundred years before (1813); for he wrote in his _Critical History of
+Animal Magnetism_ (pp. 134-5), in reply to those who would question the
+somnambulist upon points of practical advantage:
+
+     "You will gain nothing; you will even lose the advantages which you
+     might derive from his lucidity. It is very possible that you could
+     make him speak upon all the subjects of your indiscreet curiosity;
+     but in that case, as I have already warned you, you will make him
+     leave his own sphere and introduce him into yours. He will no
+     longer have any other resources than yourself. He will utter you
+     very eloquent discourses, but they will no more be dictated by the
+     internal inspirations. They will be the product of his
+     recollections or of his imagination; perhaps you will also rouse
+     his vanity, and then all is lost; he will not re-enter the circle
+     from which he has wandered.... The two states cannot be
+     confounded.... These somnambulists are evidently influenced by the
+     persons who surround them, by the circumstances in which they are
+     placed."
+
+And Dr. A. E. Fletcher, in _The Other World and This_, says:
+
+     "Trance mediums, more than any others, are the victims of the
+     embodied and the disembodied. If the medium is subject to the
+     influence of a spirit, how much more likely is he to be affected by
+     the character of those around him! Strong minds in the body may
+     take control of his brain, instead of spirit intelligences. Such
+     persons must be of a highly sensitive order, and cannot come under
+     the same line of human criticism and judgment as might be applied
+     to those in everyday life."
+
+Even Maudsley, in his _Pathology of Mind_ (p. 77), says:
+
+     "The main feature which the abnormal states (trance, etc.) present
+     in common are: first, that coincident with a partial mental
+     activity there is more or less inhibition, which may be complete,
+     of all other mental action; secondly, that the individual in such
+     condition of limited mental activity _is susceptible only to
+     impressions which are in relation with his character and are
+     consequently assimilated by it_...."[1]
+
+These passages illustrate, at least, the delicate and often-times
+suggestible nature of the trance; and how inconclusive, to say the
+least, are such experiments as those of Drs. Tanner and Hall!
+
+6. On the other hand, it may be asked: If the messages we receive at
+séances really _do_ come from the departed, why should they be so
+fleeting and so uncertain as they are? And why should not many more
+messages be received from the hundreds and thousands who die yearly, and
+who are doubtless longing to communicate?
+
+Answers to these questions are manifold. In the first place, it may be
+pointed out that the ability to communicate may be rare indeed, and not
+a universal possibility, as is generally supposed. As Dr. Hodgson
+expressed it (_Proceedings_, xiii., p. 362): "It may be a completely
+erroneous assumption that all persons, young or old, good or evil,
+vigorous or sickly, and whatever their lives or deaths may have been,
+are at all comparable with one another in their capacity to convey clear
+statements from the other world to this." Further, it must not be
+supposed that all "messages" received by mediums (even granting their
+complete honesty) really issue from the "Great Beyond." Many mediums
+simply tell their sitters the ideas, impressions, and "messages" which
+come into their minds, and which they believe to come from external
+sources, i.e., "spirits," but which, as a matter of fact, issue from
+their own subconsciousness. These scraps of information resemble
+"bubbles" breaking upon the surface of water--the finished product of
+latent incubation, and doubtless have every appearance and every feeling
+of external origin. Even if genuine spirit-messages are at times
+received, it is highly probable that the bulk of the messages are the
+product of the medium's subliminal, which catches up and amplifies the
+original external impetus received from without. Professor William James
+believed, e.g., the following: that "genuine messages have been given
+through Mrs. Piper's organism, but he also contended that every time an
+intelligence appeared, calling itself Hodgson, and beginning: 'Hello!
+Here I am again in the witness-box! How are you, old chap?' etc., this
+was not Hodgson at all, but Mrs. Piper's subliminal, and that genuine
+supernormal information only came in 'touches' or 'impulses,' as it
+were, as though the spirit could touch or come into contact with the
+medium's mind at a number of points, making a number of 'dips down,' ...
+as it were, imparting information at each dip which the medium's mind
+thereupon seized upon, elaborated, and gave out in its own dramatic form
+and setting." If this be true of Mrs. Piper (whose messages are shot at
+you from a cannon's mouth, as it were), how much truer must it be of
+other types of mediums, in which the communications are certainly far
+less direct and impressive? Mrs. Piper might be styled the "possession"
+type of medium--as opposed to the "subliminal" type--commonly seen; and,
+as before said, if the messages be so indirect in the case of Mrs.
+Piper, how much more fragmentary and indirect must they be in the case
+of all other mediums--less developed and less direct than she? It is
+hardly to be wondered at that the information given is of the vaguest,
+the most hazy and indistinct character, and that recognition and proof
+of identity is almost an impossibility.
+
+7. As to the theory that comparatively few (of those who die) make good
+communicators, I may be permitted to suggest, perhaps, a tentative
+explanation of the rarity of good communicators (and communications),
+based upon this principle. Certain it is that special adaptability and
+idiosyncrasy are necessary to the one on this side--this constituting,
+in fact, a "medium," as we understand it. It seems highly probable that
+a medium is born and not made, that the gift is hereditary, and that it
+depends but little, if at all, upon physical, mental, or moral
+characteristics, but rather upon a peculiar and innate make-up which is
+independent of all of these. A person is a good psychic or medium just
+as another is a good painter or sculptor or pianist. It can be
+cultivated by training, but the "germ" must be latent within the
+individual, in order that its development may be possible at all.
+
+Granting all this, it seems to me very natural to suppose that some
+similar characteristic might be essential to the one on the "other
+side," in order that _he_ might be a good communicator. Only a few might
+possess this special gift--without which communication would be
+impossible--no matter how gifted or clever the individual might be, in
+other respects, or how much he longed to communicate. Further, it might
+be that this deceased person could only get _en rapport_ with our world
+when some one on this side was also and simultaneously endeavouring to
+reach him. Neither alone could effect the communication, could bridge
+the chasm.
+
+Let me make the theory clearer by means of an analogy. One theory of
+consciousness contends that it depends for its existence altogether upon
+the touching or inter-connection of certain nervous fibres, without
+which consciousness would be impossible, and is, in fact, abolished--as
+in sleep. When these "dendrites" touch, communication is established;
+when this contact is broken, it is non-existent.
+
+To apply the analogy. When a medium goes into a trance, she throws out
+(symbolically) psychic "arms," or pseudopodia, much as an octopus might
+feel about him with his tentacled arms. On the other side, a
+communicator would also stretch out these mental arms, feeling about for
+something to grasp and cling to, something capable of receiving and
+transmitting the messages he desired to send. Only when these two
+groping arms find each other "in the dark," as it were, would
+communication become possible. If only _one_ thus sought, nothing would
+result. The rare combination of good sender and good recipient must be
+found before this communication is possible at all, and even then, they
+must both be striving to communicate at the same moment before any
+results follow. It is because of the rarity of this combination and this
+coincidence that mediumistic messages are so scarce. In addition to the
+earnest desire and longing on the other side, there must be a medium on
+this, capable of receiving the messages. And when this medium is lacking
+(as is usually the case) no communications are received. This fully
+explains to us, it seems to me, why it is that messages of this nature
+are so rarely received: the necessary conditions on this side are
+lacking.
+
+8. Such a theory would also enable us to understand one fact, very
+puzzling to most investigators in this field. It is that one's friends
+and relatives are almost invariably present immediately the medium goes
+into the trance! Sometimes there is a wait, it is true, and they have to
+be "sent for." But as a rule they are "on tap" at once--and, no matter
+where we may be, they are there _instanter_--ready to communicate!
+
+Of course such facts naturally lead one to suppose, _a priori_, that
+these personages are not present at all, in reality, but merely the
+medium's subliminal, personifying these various personages--no spirit
+being concerned, directly or indirectly, with their production. This, I
+say, is the natural view of the facts.
+
+But on the theory above outlined the genuine nature of these messages
+may readily be assumed. Suppose our friends and relatives are more or
+less _en rapport_ with us all the time (like "guardian angels"). Time
+and space need not be considered factors in the problem--since all
+spirits say that they do not exist in "their" world. Then, all we should
+have to do, in order to effect communication, would be to supply the
+necessary conditions on this side--when the chasm would at once be
+bridged, and communication established.
+
+(I wish it to be distinctly understood, however, that I consider the
+vast bulk of such messages the product of the medium's subliminal, and
+not at all coming from the source from which they claim to proceed. I am
+only arguing on general grounds for the _possibility_.)
+
+9. It will be seen that I have spoken throughout the above argument of
+the _trance_ as a necessary condition for communication, or at least
+assumed that it is invariably present. Why should the trance state have
+this effect? What is the nature of the trance, and what peculiarity
+within it renders these results possible?
+
+The sceptic might begin by questioning the fact itself; but I think it
+now so well established that argument on this score is unnecessary.
+Further, the deeper the trance, _ceteris paribus_, the better the
+phenomena. There is no denying that fact. While certain striking results
+are often obtained while the medium is in light trance, they are not
+nearly so striking as those which are obtained when the medium is in the
+deeper stage. And this applies, I believe, to mediums producing both
+mental and physical phenomena. The question therefore remains: What
+happens in this trance state to render such results possible? _Why_
+should the peculiar condition involved be instrumental in producing such
+striking results?
+
+It must be admitted at once that the innermost nature of this trance
+state is unknown. Certainly no purely physiological explanation suffices
+to explain the "medium-trance," even were it sufficient to account for
+similar conditions better known. No matter what the condition of the
+medium's nerve centres may be, this would not account for the
+supernormal information given during the trance state. No matter how
+much nervous or mental "instability" or "disintegration" were
+postulated, it would not at all explain or elucidate the primary
+question: _How is the supernormal information acquired?_
+
+It seems to me that the answer to this question can only be found by
+assuming some such theory of the facts as the following:
+
+When a person falls asleep, he loses consciousness when _en rapport_
+with _himself_.[2] When he is placed in the "mesmeric" trance, he
+remains _en rapport_ with the operator, and the deeper the trance, the
+more complete and effective this _rapport_ is. Explain it as you will,
+the facts remain. The writings of the early mesmerists are filled with
+records of cases of this _rapport_, in which "community of sensation"
+was present, and various supernormal phenomena, such as clairvoyance,
+etc., were manifested. No such phenomena are recorded in hypnotic
+séances, as a rule, which makes me suspect most strongly that mesmerism
+and hypnotism are not identical, in spite of the general belief that
+they are fundamentally one--all mesmeric phenomena being due to
+"suggestion." Of this, however, later. For the moment, I wish only to
+draw attention to the fact that, during these deep trance states,
+_rapport_ was noted, and supernormal information frequently given.
+
+Now, it seems plausible to suppose that, by way of analogy, the medium
+trance would represent a trance state induced by hypnotism _from the
+"other side."_ We know that telepathic hypnotism is a fact--the numerous
+cases recorded by Myers and Janet being good proof of this. Further, we
+know that dreams may be induced experimentally, by means of telepathic
+suggestion. (See Ermacora's paper, _Proceedings_, xi. 235-308.) Might we
+not assume, then, that the medium-trance represents a certain condition
+induced by influence from deceased minds--which would fully account for
+the supernormal information given (for the medium would be _en rapport_
+with these minds), and for the fact that the medium is not usually
+susceptible to suggestion, pain-tests, &c., on _this_ side. The deeper
+the trance, the more the medium is in touch with the other world, the
+less with this; and _vice versa_. The medium-trance is, therefore,
+probably a hypnotic or mesmeric trance, induced telepathically by
+operators out of the body.
+
+10. When the trance has been induced, however, how does the "spirit"
+succeed in imparting information to the medium's brain and organism?
+Inasmuch as the phenomena are usually of the motor type--speech or
+writing--the motor centres in the brain must somehow be employed; _how_
+they are employed, and whether other centres in addition to these are
+used is a question calling for solution--but one which will take
+probably years of patient research to solve.
+
+As we know, Dr. Hodgson was of the opinion that the ordinary centres
+were not used in the production of the automatic writing, for he said
+(_Proceedings_, xiii. pp. 398-9): "What the precise relation is between
+this consciousness and the movements of the hand I do not know. I do not
+know whether or not the motor centres of the brain ordinarily concerned
+in the movements of hand and arm are in operation or not. I incline to
+think not--certainly not in the ordinary way...." The statement of the
+"controls" is that they use the "empty corners" of Mrs. Piper's
+brain--which probably means that certain unused areas are pressed into
+service, as far as possible, in the production of the phenomena. Still,
+this is not very definite information! Another theory offered by the
+communicators is that they get into contact with the "light," think
+their thoughts, and these thoughts are then registered or expressed in
+motor phenomena--speech or writing. What the "light" may be, we have not
+the slightest means of knowing, but it is a very significant fact that a
+"light" of this nature is nearly always associated with spiritual
+phenomena. We hear of the "interior illumination" of the saints and
+martyrs, and of those who have experienced an influx of "cosmic
+consciousness"; of the "halo" which surrounds the heads of holy persons;
+of the "internal light" experienced by many who have had a special
+conversion or illumination; of the "aura" surrounding the bodies of
+certain individuals--always perceptible to clairvoyants, and lately (it
+is asserted) to any one who observes the subject through specially
+prepared chemical screens;[3] of the "light" diffusing itself over the
+region of the forehead, which certain mesmeric subjects have inwardly
+perceived,[4] and of the "aura" which may be produced experimentally by
+means of high-tension electric currents. We must not forget, also, that
+Christ Himself is called "the light of the world," and that He once made
+the very significant remark: "If thine eye be single, _thy whole body
+shall be full of light_." Lastly, it is somewhat significant, it seems
+to me, that Andrew Jackson Davis used to see the nervous system of the
+person he was studying, while in the "superior condition," as
+_light_--as though it were illuminated by some interior glow, or was
+more or less phosphorescent. (And we know that phosphorus is certainly
+connected with the activities of the nervous system--even though it be
+not so intimately as before supposed.) This string of coincidences is at
+least remarkable; and it will be observed that the "light" is usually
+associated with nervous centres and nervous activity--for the head,
+e.g., is certainly the part most highly illumined, as a rule; while it
+is certainly the seat of the most active self-consciousness.
+
+11. These facts throw an interesting side-light, also, upon another
+oft-observed phenomenon in psychical research. I refer to the fact that
+apparitions ("ghosts") are nearly always seen to be clear and distinct
+as to the head and upper portions of the body, while they taper off to
+vapour and "filmy nothingness" in the lower limbs, so that often the
+feet are not visible at all. While this may be due in part to the fact
+that the observer's attention is not directed to the lower limbs, but
+more or less centred upon the head and face, it appears to me that
+there may be another interpretation of the facts, more in accordance
+with the phenomena above mentioned, which is this:
+
+During life we are conscious of our body in varying degrees--of the head
+most of all, then of the arms and upper portions of the body; and
+finally, of the lower limbs and feet, we are, a large part of the time,
+hardly conscious at all. Now, if the light accompanies nervous activity,
+and is present in proportion to it, it is obvious that those portions of
+the organism would have most "light" which were most active
+mentally--i.e., the brain and those portions of the nervous system
+controlling the hands, face, and upper portions of the body--while those
+portions which had become entirely automatic and unconscious in their
+activity would have least light--being physiological to the point almost
+of being mechanical. If this "light" corresponded in any way to
+visibility, therefore, it would only be natural to suppose that the face
+and upper portions of the phantasmal figure should be more or less
+distinctly visible, to one at all sensitive to such impressions, while
+the lower portions of the figure would fade into practical
+invisibility,--owing to lack of "light." This explanation would
+certainly be in accord with the facts, as we know them, regarding
+phantasmal figures.
+
+12. We are still far from the answer to our question, however: How does
+spirit act upon matter, and in what way does the spirit manipulate the
+nervous mechanism of the medium, during the process of communication?
+Let us now consider this question further.
+
+Andrew Jackson Davis, in his _Great Harmonia_, vol. i. pp. 55-65,
+discussed this problem, and stated that "spirit acts upon the bodily
+organism anatomically, physiologically, mechanically, chemically,
+electrically, magnetically, and spiritually." The trouble with such a
+statement is that it explains nothing (even as elaborated by him), and
+that it is far easier to believe, e.g., that one part of the body acts
+chemically and mechanically, etc., upon another part than to suppose
+that "spirit" has anything to do with the affair whatever. To postulate
+its activity would be merely to multiply causes without necessity.
+
+Just here, it might be interesting to inquire what the modern conception
+is as to the relation of mind and brain--of soul and body; and
+particularly the question of the "seat" of the soul--that central point
+which was, until late years, always considered necessary as a fulcrum or
+point of contact upon which the soul might act.
+
+The older psychologists and philosophers always took such a "seat" for
+granted--Descartes, as we know, imagining that the pineal gland occupied
+that important function. But as the science of psychology progressed,
+this notion was more and more given up, until the prevailing opinion of
+late years seems to be that the _whole_ of the cortex is equally the
+seat of consciousness, and that its _total_ functioning is responsible
+for the psychical activities which we know under the head of personality
+or individuality or ego.
+
+It is interesting to note, however, that Dr. Frederick Peterson, of
+Columbia University, New York, has lately put forward the theory that
+there is, or may be, a seat of consciousness, after all! In a striking
+article in the _Journal of Abnormal Psychology_ (vol. iii. No. 5), he
+says:--
+
+     "I will say at once that the 'seat' of that power which produces
+     the manifestations of consciousness is in the basal ganglia
+     (probably the _corpora striata_), and that consciousness is a
+     peculiar summation of energy at that point, capable of being
+     directed, like the rays of a searchlight, into this or that portion
+     of the brain."
+
+Dr. Peterson then goes on to give some facts which seem to him to
+support this view. Among these are the phenomena of sleep (the reasons
+being too long to detail here); the fact that, although every
+individual brain is stored full of experiences, only a small area
+is illuminated by consciousness at any one moment; and the phenomena of
+epilepsy--concerning which Dr. Peterson speaks in the following terms:
+
+     "The one disorder which has led me to think much of this subject is
+     epilepsy, in which disease, loss of consciousness is the most
+     extraordinary and often the only symptom. I allude chiefly to such
+     remarkable conditions as the _tic de salaam_ and the other forms of
+     _petit mal_, in which the patient drops suddenly to the floor with
+     loss of consciousness, and quite as suddenly rises again in full
+     possession of his faculties. I have watched such cases for hours,
+     and always with increasing marvel. The loss of consciousness is
+     complete, and often lasts but a fraction of a second. How account
+     for such phenomenon! If consciousness were a diffused attribute of
+     the whole brain, what spasm of blood-vessels or other physical
+     process familiar to us could act and be adjusted with such speed?
+     If, however, the 'seat' of consciousness be limited to some very
+     small portion of the brain, some physical process such as is
+     suggested could easily account for the instantaneous loss and
+     regaining of consciousness."
+
+Other facts in support of this theory are given, and the statement of
+Dr. C. L. Dana that, in poisoning by illuminating gas, the chief symptom
+is loss of consciousness, and the only lesion discovered is softening of
+the _corpora striata_; then the following:
+
+     "Assuming now that it were proved that the power which creates
+     consciousness has some definite seat, and that it is a summation of
+     energies physiologically varying in sleep and waking, which may be
+     directed to any part of our store of experiences for purposes of
+     illumination, what portion of the brain is so constructed as to be
+     in apparently intimate connection with every other? The _corpora
+     striata_!... There is no portion of the brain we know so little
+     of.... Here we have a portion of the brain which must be of
+     enormous significance, otherwise it would not be always present,
+     from the fish up to man."
+
+It will be seen that Dr. Peterson is here opposed to the doctrine
+maintained by both Lotze[5] and MacDougall,[6] who both maintained that:
+"There are a number of separate points in the brain which form so many
+'seats' of the soul. Each of these would be of equal value with the
+rest; at each of them the soul would be present with equal
+completeness." But whether there be one or several "seats" of
+consciousness, it is obvious that there must be contact of _some_ sort,
+at one or several points (granting the correctness of the theory that
+spirit acts upon matter at all), and the question is: _How_ may this
+action be supposed to take place?
+
+In discussing this question in a former book[7] I said:
+
+     "It is more than probable, it seems to me, that there exists some
+     sort of etheric medium between mind and even organic nervous
+     tissue, upon which the mind must act first of all. Thus, we should
+     have the chain of connection: mind, vital or etheric medium,
+     nervous tissue, muscle, bone. So mind acts upon matter; and it will
+     be seen that there is an increasing density of structure, and that
+     just in proportion to this density is mind incapable of affecting
+     matter directly. We must, it seems to me, always postulate some
+     sort of etheric medium through which mind acts, in order to affect
+     and move matter--organic or inorganic. And without this vital
+     intermediary there can be no action, and consequently no
+     manifestation."
+
+Now, it would appear rational to suppose that some action of this sort
+takes place when mind acts upon, or influences, matter. Air is
+invisible, and practically imperceptible to our senses--_when
+stationary_. But set into motion, a current of air will close a door
+with a bang--will have the effect of definitely moving a heavy mass of
+inanimate matter, in the manner indicated. It may be that in somewhat
+the same way mind affects brain. Mind may reside in a sort of etheric
+vehicle, and be more or less stable or stationary, save at the times
+when volition or intense, active conscious operations are in
+progress--when, in short, _effort_ is exerted. At such times, it is
+surely conceivable that what was static becomes dynamic; something is
+set into motion which in turn brings into activity some more "physical"
+energy, and so on, until sufficient material momentum has been gained to
+affect that most unstable and mobile substance, nervous tissue. It is
+certainly quite conceivable that certain nervous centres in the brain
+(_which_ centres, we cannot say) might be set into actual operation by
+some such process; or at least that the impulse or energy supplied in
+this manner might be sufficient to release the nervous energy stored in
+the cell, much as the trigger of a rifle would, when pressed, release
+the energy contained within the cartridge. Such "hair trigger" action
+has been postulated by both William James and Bergson, and is certainly
+in line with modern speculations in this direction. There are also
+certain analogies to be drawn from physical science to guide us here.
+
+In electricity, e.g., what are known as "relays" are constantly
+employed, and beautifully illustrate the principle here outlined. In
+working over long lines, or where there are a number of instruments in
+one circuit, the currents are often not strong enough to work the
+recording instruments directly. In such a case there is interposed a
+"relay" or "repeater." This instrument consists of an electro-magnet
+round which the line current flows, and whose delicately-poised
+armature, when attracted, makes contact for a local circuit, in which a
+local battery and the receiving Morse instrument (sounder, writer, etc.)
+are included. The principle of the relay is, then, that a current too
+weak to do the work itself may get a strong local current to do its work
+for it.
+
+It may be the same in the case of mental action. Volition or thought may
+be too weak, _per se_, to influence nervous processes; but, when
+exceptionally active or potent, they may set into activity specific
+nerve energies which manifest in the manner known to us as motor and
+physical phenomena. Here is, it seems to me, a rational explanation of
+the facts, and one which is in accord, not only with ordinary
+psychological phenomena, but with those more puzzling and obscure
+manifestations witnessed from time to time in psychic research.
+
+13. It may be objected that such a conception of the facts supposes that
+will (and conscious thought) are physical energies--for however _slight_
+we make this energy, it is still energy none the less. The air which
+closed the door would not move it _of itself_--unless some pressure were
+exerted upon it from without. Could "life" act otherwise?
+
+One reply to this objection is that the distinguishing characteristic of
+life is this very power of original, spontaneous movement. It is life,
+and life alone, which possesses this power. Were this doctrine true, it
+would of course upset the present theory of the Conservation of Energy,
+for it would admit the constant infusion into the world of energy from
+without. Despite the theoretical difficulty thus presented, it seems
+probable that life is, in a certain sense, a physical energy, or at
+least its manifestation is. It is possible that the two states are
+similar to the difference between potential and kinetic energy; and we
+must remember that _energy is always noticed or experienced by us, as
+energy, in its expenditure, never in its accumulation_.[8]
+
+If life be a physical force, if vitality be a specific energy, then, it
+seems to me, many things fall into line--many phenomena, hitherto
+inexplicable, become at once intelligible.
+
+Let me illustrate this conclusion by mentioning a few such facts:
+
+Take, for instance, the phenomena manifested in the presence of Eusapia
+Palladino. I shall not now stop to discuss the reality of these
+manifestations, because I consider them just as certain as any
+other facts in life, and not at all open to discussion. Now,
+in these phenomena there is an intelligence _of some sort_
+at work producing them; that is certain. But as to the _nature_ of this
+intelligence--_what_ it is--that is altogether another matter, and a
+much more difficult question to answer. Whether this be a low order of
+deceiving and "lying spirits," as Professor Barrett and others are
+apparently inclined to believe, or whether it be a fraction of the
+medium's own mind (Flournoy, Morselli), or whether it be the spirit it
+claims to be, or whether it belongs to some other even more doubtful
+order of intelligence, such as postulated by the Theosophists and
+certain Mystics and Occultists, _that_ is a question which we cannot at
+present answer, and for which we may have to wait for several hundred
+years before one can be satisfactorily given.
+
+But, granting the reality of the phenomena, they themselves demand
+solution, solely from the point of view of physics and physiology, and
+quite aside from the nature of the intelligence with which they are at
+times associated. The facts themselves still need elucidation.
+
+Some years ago a gentleman of my acquaintance started out with the
+intention of constructing a telephone by means of which it would be
+possible to speak directly to the spirit world! He had in mind great
+delicacy of apparatus, a system of "relays," by means of which it would
+be possible to augment an initial stimulus, however slight, a magnifying
+apparatus which would greatly increase the volume of sound, on the lines
+of the ampliphone and the microphone, etc. I do not believe that very
+definite results were ever achieved, and he is still at work upon the
+problem. Needless to say, this idea of his was ridiculed in all
+quarters; but I myself do not see any valid reason why some such device
+should not succeed--provided, of course, that a spiritual world exists
+at all. If such a world exists, if the intelligences which reside
+therein can at times produce physical phenomena, then it is certainly
+conceivable that some energy may be set into operation which may produce
+the desired results--some energy which we, too, can utilize and which
+the spiritual entity can also manipulate; in other words, _an energy
+common to the two worlds_. Were such a common medium or mediator found,
+communication would certainly be established, and it only remains for us
+to discover the common energy. Personally, I believe that this
+intermediary is most probably _vitality_--the life-force, without the
+presence of which such manifestations would be impossible. A living,
+human being is necessary, upon whose presence these phenomena depend,
+and without whom they could not occur. It is thus obvious that there is
+a definite connection between these phenomena and _life_, which can
+hardly be due to chance; it must stand in some intimate and causal
+relation.[9]
+
+14. Many students of psychical phenomena believe that, in the case of
+Eusapia Palladino, e.g., this connection is clearly discernible, and
+that it is upon the externalization of her vital force that many of
+these phenomena depend. Even the materializations are thought to be due
+to this same cause--due to the moulding, in space, of this plastic
+intermediary projected beyond the limits of her bodily organism. Certain
+it is that such a projection does at times take place, and it seems
+rational to suppose that "raps" may be due to the explosive expulsion of
+this neural energy after it has reached a certain "tension." One quite
+striking incident which has been narrated to me by a physician of my
+acquaintance tends rather to confirm this view. It is that, when he was
+trying on various occasions to move a table, _à la_ Palladino, he failed
+to do so, but whenever he lifted his hands away from the table,
+"sparkling" took place between his hands and the table-top, closely
+resembling the electric spark which jumps from point to point when the
+tension has reached a certain limit.
+
+Another interesting fact, related to me by the same physician, serves to
+throw a light upon the connection of vital and physical energies. The
+doctor in question was treating a patient, who was apparently
+"obsessed," by means of electricity. The galvanometer needle showed what
+slight variations in the current there were during the course of the
+treatment. In the middle of the process, while the patient was
+conversing with the doctor, she was suddenly "obsessed." _Coincidental_
+with this obsession, the galvanometer showed a tremendous and permanent
+fluctuation, indicating that the resistance of the body to the current
+had suddenly and greatly changed!
+
+Whatever view we may take of the facts, here is, at least, a striking
+incident, which the current theories of the varying causes of bodily
+resistance (in these psycho-galvanic reflexes) hardly serve to explain.
+Can it be that the subject's "etheric body" was in some way disturbed by
+an invading intelligence, and that this disturbance was manifested in
+the fluctuations recorded? Is there a nervous fluid, after all, as the
+magnetizers and mesmerists contend so strongly, but which has been
+relegated to oblivion since the advent of suggestion and hypnotism?
+Personally, I believe that there _is_, and I shall indicate very briefly
+some of my reasons for thinking so.
+
+In the _first_ place, the modern hypnotist can very rarely succeed in
+cultivating clairvoyance in his subject, whereas the records of
+mesmerism teem with cases which were developed under the old _régime_.
+Surely the dissimilarity in the effect points to a dissimilarity of
+cause. It has always appeared to me highly probable that mesmerism and
+hypnotism are dependent upon entirely different causes, and were not at
+all the same in the last analysis.
+
+In the _second_ place, the exhaustion which "healers" sometimes
+experience when treating patients of a certain temperament can hardly be
+due altogether to suggestion. I have been informed by "magnetic" and
+"spiritual" healers that this feeling of exhaustion is very great when a
+self-centred, selfish person is being treated, and correspondingly less
+whenever a generous, large-souled individual is receiving the treatment.
+"Osteopaths" have told me the same thing. Those possessing an active
+mind and brain, and who are analytical and unsympathetic by nature, are
+far harder to treat, and leave a far greater exhaustion, than those who
+are not so. This bears a very striking resemblance to the "good" and
+"bad" sitters in the Piper case, and also the Palladino case; in fact,
+it is true of everyday life, to a certain extent. The more active the
+mind, the greater the _grasp_ over life and self which we possess, the
+less susceptible are we to external or internal influences. Let us call
+to mind in this connection the remark of Dr. Snow in his treatise on
+_Anaesthetics_, that "the more intelligent the patient, the more
+anaesthetic is required to put him under."
+
+_Thirdly_, the phenomena presented by Eusapia Palladino completely prove
+the reality of such a "fluid" to my mind, without any other proof being
+necessary.
+
+_Fourthly_, the impression said to be left in or upon objects or houses,
+and the phenomena of "psychometry" seem to indicate the same thing.
+
+_Fifthly_, the recent reinforcement of the evidence in favour of the
+human "aura" strongly supports the same view.
+
+_Sixthly_, the French experiments in "exteriorization of sensibility,"
+"thought-photography," "radiographs," etc., point to the same
+conclusion.
+
+_Seventhly_, the successful experiments conducted by Professor Alrutz
+and others with his instrument--which is thought to register "will
+power"--is a long step towards recognizing the existence of a nervous,
+vital energy, which can at times be externalized and made to pass into
+and "charge" an inanimate object.
+
+_Finally_, the facts of materialization and kindred phenomena, which
+find so ready and complete an explanation on this theory.
+
+For these and other reasons, therefore, it seems fairly certain that
+there is a nervous "fluid" which can at times be externalized beyond the
+normal bodily limits, which is operative in mesmeric "passes," and which
+plays so large and hitherto unsuspected a part in the production of many
+physical and psychical phenomena.
+
+15. As we know, it is this "fluid" which is drawn upon, so it is said,
+by materializing mediums for the production of their phantoms, and the
+following interesting experience seems to confirm this view. I quote
+_verbatim_:
+
+     "It was an autumn afternoon, about six o'clock. I had returned from
+     a stroll in the garden, and was in my own room, sitting on a
+     single-backed easy-chair, leisurely dipping into _Vanity Fair_.
+     While turning over the pages in search of some favourite passage, I
+     became aware of an abnormal and quite indescribable sensation. My
+     chest and breathing seemed inwardly oppressed by some ponderous
+     weight, while I became conscious of some presence behind me,
+     exerting a powerful influence on the forces within. On trying to
+     turn my head to see what this could be, I was powerless to do so,
+     neither could I lift a hand or move in any way. I was not a little
+     alarmed and began immediately to reason. Was it a fainting fit
+     coming on, epilepsy, paralysis--possibly even death? No, the mind
+     was too much alive, though physically I felt an absolutely passive
+     instrument, operated upon by some powerful external agent, as if
+     the current of nerve-force within seemed forcibly drawn together
+     and focussed on a spot in front of me. I gazed motionless, as
+     though fascinated, on what was no longer vacant space. There an
+     oval, misty light was forming, elongatory, widening--yes, actually
+     developing into a human face and form! Was this hallucination, or
+     some vision of the unseen, coming in so unexpected fashion? Before
+     me had arisen a remarkable figure, never seen before in picture or
+     life--dark-skinned, aged, with white beard, the expression
+     intensely earnest, the features small, the bald head finely
+     moulded, lofty over the forehead, the whole demeanour instinct with
+     solemn grace. The hands, too, how unlike any hands I knew, yet how
+     expressive! They were dark, long in fingers and narrow in palms,
+     the veins like sinews, standing out as they moved to and fro in
+     eager gesture. He was speaking to me in deep tones, as if in urgent
+     entreaty. What would I not give to hear words from such a figure!
+     But no effort availed me to distinguish one articulate sound. I
+     tried to speak, but could not. With desperate effort I shook out
+     the words, "Speak louder!" The face grew more intent, the voice
+     louder and more emphatic. Was there something amiss in my own
+     hearing, then, that I could distinguish no word amidst these deeply
+     emphasized tones? Slowly and deliberately the figure vanished,
+     through the same stages of indistinctness, back to the globular,
+     lamp-like whiteness, till it faded into nothingness. Before it had
+     quite faded away, the face of a woman arose, indistinct and calm.
+     The same emphatic hum, though in a subdued note, indistinct and
+     dim. The same paralysis of voice and muscle, the same strange
+     force, as if it were overshadowing me. With the disappearance of
+     this second and far less interesting figure, I recovered my power
+     of movement, and arose.
+
+     "My first impulse was to look round for the origin of this strange
+     force; my second was to rush to the looking-glass to make sure I
+     was myself. There could be no delusion! There I was, paler than
+     usual, and greatly agitated; I walked hurriedly to and fro. True,
+     there had been nothing alarming in the apparition itself, but the
+     sensation preceding had been vivid in the extreme. What was it? Was
+     it night, or had I been in some strange sleep? Certainly not! Was I
+     in my right mind? I believed so. Then, if so, and the conditions
+     being the same, would it be possible to bring back this strange
+     phenomenon that I might know it had really existed, whether
+     subjectively or objectively? Like an inspiration I determined that,
+     if this experience had a basis in objective or subjective fact, it
+     might certainly recur. I would sit down in the same position, try
+     to feel calm, open a book, and remain as still and passive as I
+     could. To my intense interest, and almost at once, the strange
+     sense of some power operating on the nerve-forces within, followed
+     by the same loss of muscular power, the same wide-awakeness of the
+     reason, the same drawing out and concentrating of the energies on
+     that spot in front, repeated itself, this time more deliberately,
+     leaving me freer to take mental notes of what was happening. Again
+     rose the same noble, earnest figure, gazing at me, the hands moving
+     in accompaniment to the deep tones of voice. The same painful
+     effort on my part to hear, with no result. The vision passed. Again
+     the woman's face, insignificant and meaningless, succeeded it as
+     before. She spoke, but in less emphatic tones. It flashed upon me
+     I _would_ hear. After a frantic effort, I caught two words--"land,"
+     "America"--with positively no clue to their meaning.
+
+     "I was wide awake when the first apparition appeared, and in a
+     highly excited state of mind on its reappearance."
+
+This case strikes me as particularly interesting, for the reason that it
+illustrates the possible manner of the externalization of forces, and
+the possible manner of their guidance and manipulation by outside
+intelligences, as postulated in _Eusapia Palladino_, p. 300. Here we see
+the process actually at work, as it were, described by a careful
+observer, who was perfectly conscious all the time of the phenomena
+going on within him. This is, to my mind, a human document of no little
+importance.
+
+It appears quite credible, therefore, that a "fluid" of some sort does
+exist, and that its liberation, under certain peculiar conditions,
+should produce odd physical phenomena; and this conviction has been
+rendered almost a certainty by the unique experiments of Dr. Ochorowicz
+with his medium, Mlle. Tomczyk. A brief summary of that case will make
+this apparent.
+
+For many years experiments of the kind here recorded have been in
+progress, but the path has always been blocked by fraud and innumerable
+difficulties. Dr. Ochorowicz did, however, apparently succeed in
+obtaining photographs of human radiations, of thoughts, and even of
+materialized hands! What are they? Are they the hands of "spirits,"
+inhabitants of the "Great Beyond"? Are they astrals or elementals? Are
+they projections from the body of the medium? Of what can they consist?
+Who directs and guides them? And how can a thought be photographed?
+
+These newer researches into the fields of science have been undertaken,
+for the most part, by French investigators, who have progressed very far
+in their demonstrations and speculations in this direction--much
+further, it may be said, than either the English or American
+investigators have advanced--assuming, of course, the accuracy of their
+conclusions!
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz had been known for thirty years to all researchers as a
+careful investigator. Professor Charles Richet of the University of
+Paris spoke of him in the highest terms, and regarded him as "an
+exceptionally careful and cautious investigator." His book, _Mental
+Suggestion_, which was published early in the eighties, is considered an
+authority, and his general erudition and scientific attainments no one
+could question. For many years he was professor in the University of
+Lemberg.
+
+Several years ago a young girl, Mlle. Stanislaw Tomczyk, then about
+eighteen years old, was sent to Dr. Ochorowicz for medical treatment.
+She suffered greatly from nervousness. In order to bring about relief
+Dr. Ochorowicz hypnotized her, inducing somnambulism; and in this state
+she displayed, quite spontaneously, a number of "mediumistic" phenomena.
+This proved to be the beginning of her mediumship. She possessed a power
+unknown to herself; and it probably would have remained for ever unknown
+had she not fallen into the hands of a man such as Dr. Ochorowicz. By
+the average physician she would, most probably, have been treated as
+hysterical or insane; but careful analysis and training caused her to
+become, instead, one of the most remarkable psychics the world has ever
+known.
+
+Her early trials and tests were simple enough. A glass clock, possessing
+a pointer, was hung up in the centre of the room, and Mlle. Tomczyk was
+told to will that the pointer, when set revolving, should stop at a
+certain number. Generally she pointed with her finger at the indicator,
+keeping her hand a few centimetres distant. The indicator generally,
+though not invariably, stopped at the number desired--at any rate, a far
+greater number of times than Dr. Ochorowicz or any other person could
+cause it to stop when trying the experiments themselves. The clock
+belonged to Dr. Ochorowicz, and was innocent of trickery.
+
+The next experiments consisted in raising or "levitating" small objects
+from the table--by placing the medium's hands on either side of them.
+Sometimes the object would be raised from Dr. Ochorowicz's hand
+instead--while he was holding it. Of course the natural supposition is
+that a thread or hair of some sort was employed, but this possibility
+was eliminated in a number of ways.
+
+It must be remembered that all these manifestations took place when the
+medium was in a state of induced somnambulism. She remembered nothing
+when awakened of what had occurred. But now something curious and
+interesting demanded special attention. A distinct personality, calling
+itself "Little Stasia," began to develop. This personality asserted that
+she, and not the medium, was responsible for the physical
+manifestations we have recorded. She said (through the mouth of the
+entranced somnambule) that she was not an independent spirit, but a
+creation, an individuality, similar to the "alternating personalities"
+so well known to us. There would be no difficulty in accepting this
+estimate, were it not for the awkward fact that this little being was
+photographed on one occasion and seen to be a small, independent
+creature, existing apart from the medium! This is how it came about.
+
+Through the entranced medium instructions were given to focus a camera
+upon a certain chair--having first placed a shawl over the back. This
+was done. Dr. Ochorowicz and Mlle. Tomczyk then left the room together.
+At the end of a certain length of time they returned, developed the
+plate, and upon it was found the distinct imprint of a small child's
+face, apparently belonging to a body, seated in the chair, and swathed
+around with the shawl in question! The experiment was performed in the
+hotel where they happened to be stopping; the photographic camera and
+plates were Dr. Ochorowicz's own, and the medium was out of the room, in
+the doctor's company throughout. It has never been explained.
+
+Such is a brief account of the more interesting experiments conducted
+during the early years of this medium's development. In later years her
+powers, under the skilled guidance of (the late) Dr. Ochorowicz, took
+another turn and provided some of the most interesting and striking
+manifestations in the history of this subject, as, for example, his
+experiments in the photography of "fluidic" or "materialized" hands, and
+also in thought-photography.
+
+These photographs of fluidic hands Dr. Ochorowicz calls "radiographs,"
+because they can only be explained by supposing that the fluidic hand,
+which is placed upon the photographic plate, is in some way radio-active
+during the process. In no other way can the facts be explained. Even
+supposing, for the sake of argument, that the psychic could in some way
+have placed her own hands on the plates, they would not have produced
+the results obtained--as any one can prove to his own satisfaction.
+
+These impressions upon photographic plates were obtained
+"mediumistically"--that is, in more or less complete darkness, and
+without any apparatus. Not only were all known forms of radiation thus
+excluded, but the impression was direct, and obtained without camera,
+focussing, etc. The impressions of hands obtained were of various shapes
+and sizes, both larger and smaller than those of the medium (who, of
+course, was the only other person present), peculiarly deformed hands
+and partially formed hands, according to the degree of success of the
+experiment, and the desire of the medium.
+
+These hands can only be produced in the presence, and with the
+assistance, of a good "physical medium," in more or less darkness, and
+are taken by means of a peculiar light which the hands seem to create
+for themselves. Sometimes the hands were visible to both the medium and
+Dr. Ochorowicz, sometimes visible only to the medium, sometimes
+invisible to both. We are assured that in the series of tests under
+consideration the impressions were obtained only when the psychic was
+deeply entranced, and then only at certain times.
+
+On a number of occasions the psychic placed her hand upon the plate,
+and its impression was left upon it. The hands were photographed by
+means of a form of light radiating from the hands themselves. On one
+occasion, Dr. Ochorowicz held the plate against the medium's ear; the
+ear itself was not photographed, but the side of the head, the hair, and
+particularly the hairpins were. On two occasions a leaf was placed
+between the hands and the plate, and the outline of the leaf was left
+upon the latter. From these experiments it was concluded that the
+rays--whatever they might be--were emitted by the "etheric body" (the
+"astral" body, the "double") and not by the physical body, since their
+intensity did not seem to correspond in any way to the anatomical
+distribution of the nerves.
+
+These rays may be centred and concentrated by the action of the will of
+the subject. They radiate from the surface of the skin and reproduce a
+simulacrum, as it were, of the surface. They throw a shadow of any
+object placed between the subject and the photographic plate. They are
+more penetrating than the rays discovered by M. Darget, and brought to
+the attention of the French Academy several years ago. Interesting
+analogies may exist here between these rays and the so-called "Black
+Light" of M. Le Bon, which he describes at length in his work, _The
+Evolution of Forces_.
+
+It was now determined to attempt more interesting and startling
+experiments. The medium was requested to hold her right hand in the air,
+where it could be seen plainly, against the faint red light in the room.
+It was not moved throughout the experiment. In his own laboratory Dr.
+Ochorowicz then procured a fresh plate and held it in the air, at some
+distance from the hand of the medium. The latter then said: "Ah, I see
+another right hand detaching itself from my arm and approaching the
+plate. How it pains me! Yes, it is placing itself over the plate--it is
+done."
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz then took the plate with him at once to the dark room
+and, when it was developed, there was found the outline of an unformed
+hand--one apparently in the process of condensation. It was, as it were,
+a hand in embryo. It had apparently become detached, or had detached
+itself, from the medium, and remained sufficiently solid to leave an
+impression of itself upon the plate, held about half a metre from it. It
+was, in fact, a form of materialization, but of so shadowy a texture
+that it remained often quite invisible to the onlooker.
+
+A long series of experiments is then described, which might be condensed
+somewhat as follows:--
+
+     "The somnambule said that she did not see the double's hand leave
+     hers, but saw it placed upon the plate. It was placed upon it at an
+     angle of ninety degrees from the position taken by her own hand. At
+     my request the thumb was made particularly distinct, the whole hand
+     being quite different in contour from that of the medium.
+
+     "I take another plate, and hold it some distance from the medium's
+     hand. She makes an effort to impress it, with the result that an
+     immense finger, superhuman in size, is seen upon the plate when
+     developed. Upon the next plate, which I hold about twenty-five
+     centimetres from her hands, three fingers appear, non-luminous--the
+     light seeming to come from behind the hand, and shining through the
+     spaces between the fingers.
+
+     "I now hold a plate at a distance of one metre from her right
+     hand, which is held up in front of her. The red light is turned
+     slightly low. The somnambule sees a shadowy hand detach itself from
+     hers, which is at the same time, also, attached to a very long,
+     thin arm, and which approaches the plate. The hand is very large,
+     she says, and is a right hand. It places itself over the plate,
+     which I thereupon remove and develop. A large hand is distinctly
+     visible upon it. Finally, I hold a plate two and a half metres away
+     from the medium's hand. The somnambule shivers and feels cold in
+     her lower limbs, despite the fact that my laboratory is very warm.
+     She again holds out her right hand, and a left hand, attached to a
+     long, thin arm, is seen by her to detach itself and place itself
+     over the plate held in my hand. Upon being developed, the
+     impression of a very large left hand was found upon the plate--so
+     large that only a portion of the hand could be seen! The whole of
+     the medium's hand can easily be placed upon the plate. These are
+     very similar to the enormous hands frequently seen in the Palladino
+     séances, and said to be those of 'John King.'
+
+     "From the above facts I think we are justified in arriving at the
+     following tentative conclusions:
+
+     "1. That the hand of the double can be larger than that of the
+     medium.
+
+     "2. That a left hand can be projected from a right arm, drawing its
+     force from the entire body of the subject, this being accompanied
+     by a chilly feeling in the extremities and by congestion of the
+     head.
+
+     "3. That the arm of the double appears to shrink in size according
+     to its distance from the medium's body.
+
+     "4. That it is easier for the fluidic hand to imprint itself upon
+     the photographic plate (negative) in white than in black.
+
+     "5. That in the case of the large and shining thumb it is
+     surrounded by a clear halo of light.
+
+     "6. The etheric body of the medium, the 'double,' behaves as though
+     it were an independent spirit."
+
+In a second series of experiments very small hands were produced by
+request. These hands terminated abruptly at the wrist, but it was found
+by a series of independent experiments that any hand would appear to do
+so if the illumination came from a certain direction. In one case the
+photographic plate was placed on the sofa, three feet from the entranced
+somnambule. Dr. Ochorowicz took his seat by her side. A fluidic hand was
+seen to approach the plate, then retreat into the medium's body,
+avoiding the red light. Upon the plate being developed, the imprints of
+two small hands were seen, somewhat resembling the hands of the medium,
+though smaller. They were not typical children's hands. The medium had,
+in fact, made two distinct efforts to impress the plate and have the
+fluidic hand place itself upon it. These semi-materializations are very
+interesting, since they form the connecting link between true
+materialization, which is solid and substantial, and so-called thought
+photography.
+
+After this Dr. Ochorowicz wished to try another experiment. A pencil and
+a sheet of paper were placed on the floor under the bureau by Dr.
+Ochorowicz. The medium sat in her chair entranced. Soon the sound of
+writing was heard; then the fall of the pencil. Upon the sheet of paper
+being removed a word was found scratched across it--
+
+"STANISL--"
+
+The psychic then desired to obtain writing in full view of Dr.
+Ochorowicz, so he placed another piece of paper upon the floor, and upon
+it the pencil. The medium then exerted herself; the pencil stood on end,
+and attempted to write. In this, however, it failed, and fell to the
+floor. This was repeated several times, when the medium had to give up
+further attempts, owing to her extreme fatigue.
+
+The question now arises: Can these fluidic hands, which are thus
+exteriorized, move of their own volition, or must they remain
+stationary? To this question Dr. Ochorowicz addressed himself in a later
+series of experiments.
+
+In the first experiment, the somnambule saw a finger upon a plate, which
+was self-luminous, and seemed to be writing. A large "J" was seen to be
+traced upon it. In the second trial, neither the medium nor Dr.
+Ochorowicz saw anything, but the letters "J. O." were seen to be
+imprinted upon it when developed.
+
+This proved that the intelligence guiding the finger at least possessed
+memory and intelligence. The finger was to some extent self-luminous.
+From these experiments Dr. Ochorowicz concluded that:
+
+The actinic action of the emitted rays is feeble, comparatively
+speaking; and that the visible light of the fluidic hands is less
+actinic than the invisible light.
+
+The relation of these rays to ordinary light is thus an interesting
+question. It is well known that all mediums shun light, and there are
+sound physiological and psychological reasons for this. Daylight has
+been found to be more destructive to the success of phenomena than any
+form of artificial light; moonlight is far better than sunlight. It has
+lately been shown that light exerts a powerful physical pressure, and is
+a disruptive agency, destroying protoplasm and many of the lower forms
+of life. We only have to see the effect of sunlight upon a photographic
+plate to appreciate its power. The absurdity of assuming that light
+plays no part in such manifestations--where very delicate, subtle, and
+little understood forces are in operation--is thus manifest.
+
+Still, the fluidic hands emit a light of their own; and the question is,
+Can this emitted light penetrate solid substances--"matter," as we
+understand it? As the result of a number of experiments, Dr. Ochorowicz
+ascertained that, in the majority of cases, these rays, like
+ultra-violet light, did not penetrate solid substances, as do the
+X-rays; yet their actinic action was found to be far stronger! Here is a
+field for long-continued observation and experiment. In thought
+photography, on the other hand, it has been ascertained that the rays
+can pass easily through solid matter, like the X-rays.
+
+The next question of interest which presented itself for solution was
+this: To what extent can the fluidic hands change their form, size, and
+contour at will? Experiments were first tried in the reduction of the
+size of the hands, upon request.
+
+Three plates were prepared and laid in a series upon the table at some
+distance from the medium. Through the entranced somnambule the "double"
+was then informed of the experiment, and asked to place its hand upon
+the three plates in succession, willing on each occasion to make the
+fluidic hand smaller. This was done. An impression of the same hand was
+obtained on each plate, but it can be seen that, on each occasion, the
+hand is smaller in size. This was all accomplished within a few seconds.
+
+Of these experiments Dr. Ochorowicz says:
+
+     "We are therefore justified in arriving at the following
+     conclusions:
+
+     "1. At first, the double's hand is larger than that of the medium.
+
+     "2. It tends to decrease in length and general size.
+
+     "3. The palm of the hand, especially, tends to decrease.
+
+     "4. Only the little finger remains without appreciable change.
+
+     "5. The change is that of several millimetres, but not enormous.
+
+     "6. The fingers of the double tended to close nearer together, as
+     well as become smaller--just as an ordinary hand would probably
+     do."
+
+The light which supplied the necessary illumination for these
+photographs seemed to have been emitted from a sort of "egg," near the
+wrist of the hand, which was intensely luminous. This was not expected,
+and came as a surprise. Two suggestions as to its nature at once present
+themselves: (1) that it is a self-created mediumistic light; and (2)
+that it is a mass of matter from which the hand derives its material
+sustenance.
+
+In a further series of experiments, during which Dr. Ochorowicz was
+repeatedly touched by a cold hand, impressions of large left hands were
+left upon the plates--the medium's left hand being, meanwhile, a long
+way removed from the plate. The fingers were very large, the thumb
+enormous and abnormally shaped at the end.
+
+Summing up the conclusions which, he thought, could be drawn from his
+researches, Dr. Ochorowicz said:
+
+     "1. Fluidic hands are detached more or less rarely--according to
+     the condition of the subject's "forces." When these are strong,
+     hands may even be produced unknown to the medium.
+
+     "2. The direction and character of these hands are determined by
+     the subconscious mind of the medium; but also partially by the
+     conscious mind.
+
+     "3. The properties of the fluidic hands are not constant; they
+     change frequently.
+
+     "4. These changes represent transformations of energy--certain
+     forms of energy being transformed into other forms. When the
+     conditions are good, the forms of available energy are multiplied;
+     when weak, they are lessened. They alternate, but do not blend. The
+     mechanical effects are produced chiefly by the invisible hands,
+     while the visible hands are inactive.
+
+     "5. I have never seen more than two hands formed by one medium at
+     one time, and more usually only one. When there are two hands,
+     however, they may be quite dissimilar, one from the other.
+
+     "6. There are several degrees of materiality, which succeed each
+     other rapidly. The hands are so fugitive that it is almost
+     impossible to seize them. When the imperfectly formed hands are
+     grasped, however, they are cold, slippery, and unpleasant to the
+     touch. The better materialized hands, on the contrary, are warm
+     and life-like.
+
+     "7. The well-materialized hands can be photographed; even the
+     poorly-developed hands can give radiographs.
+
+     "8. The ultra-violet light necessary to produce these photographs
+     can be produced by the hand of the medium or by the double itself.
+
+     "9. Radiographs are difficult to obtain; a materialization
+     generally loses its luminosity.
+
+     "10. The hands are sometimes like, and sometimes unlike, those of
+     the medium.
+
+     "11. The fluidic hands can be moulded plastically, and altered as
+     to their dimensions."
+
+To resume the experiments: Dr. Ochorowicz desired to see whether the
+fluidic hand of the double could pass through a very small hole or
+space. He accordingly proposed placing a rolled-up film in a bottle,
+leaving only the small hole at the top, and see whether the hand could
+impress itself under these circumstances. Upon this being proposed to
+the medium, she exclaimed: "Make it more difficult than that; you will
+make the double lazy! Cork up the bottle!"
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz accordingly cut a film, rolled it into a small roll,
+placed it in the bottle, and held the latter between his two hands, the
+right-hand palm acting as a cork, the left supporting the bottle; the
+medium placed her hands on either side of the bottle, on the outside.
+She soon complained that her hands were paining her, seeming to swell
+and get larger. She was soon after seized with cramps, and the
+experiment was at this point discontinued.
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz tried to draw the film from the bottle, but failed; he
+was finally obliged to break the bottle to extract it. The film was then
+developed, and upon it was the imprint of a hand--larger even than his
+own, to say nothing of the medium's--clearly formed. Fraud was
+absolutely out of the question. There seems only the alternative choice
+of invoking the fourth dimension, or assuming that the fluidic hand
+could curve itself round and round the film after having entered the
+bottle in some manner! The facts seem incredible; but I give them as
+recorded.
+
+The question now arises: is the fluidic hand two-dimensioned? It could
+hardly have any thickness, to accomplish the last experiment. Dr.
+Ochorowicz determined to try a novel experiment, to test this theory.
+
+Two photographic plates were placed face to face, separated by small
+pieces of cardboard at the corners. The "double" was requested to insert
+its hand between the plates when the medium was entranced. Upon the
+plates being developed, the imprint of a hand (the same hand) was found
+on both plates; i.e. a photograph of the top, and of the under side of a
+hand. This was repeated again, under more stringent conditions. The hand
+again appeared.
+
+It was then decided to repeat the experiment with the rolled film in the
+bottle. The experiment was again made; the film was developed when the
+medium reclined on the couch on the opposite side of the room, and a
+very large hand was again found to have impressed itself upon the film.
+It had evidently succeeded in curling itself round the rolled film in
+the closed bottle!
+
+The question is: First, Do the facts occur? And if they do, what
+is the cause of them? What is the nature of these fluidic hands?
+To whom do they belong? Of what are they constituted? Are they
+the hands of a spirit, or mere exteriorizations from the body of the
+medium--materializations, only partially independent?
+
+Without attempting to answer these questions in this place, I will
+conclude by pointing out two facts, which seem to me of considerable
+importance. The first is that many nervous and mentally abnormal
+patients may be mediums were the pains taken to ascertain that fact. I
+know of one famous alienist who confided to me his belief that a very
+large percentage of mediumistic cases could be found in hospitals for
+hysterical patients or in wards for the mentally unbalanced. The trouble
+is that experiments tending to ascertain the truth of such a theory are
+never tried. Had not Dr. Ochorowicz been interested in things psychic,
+Mlle. Tomczyk would simply have been cured by him in the general routine
+manner and dismissed. The world would thus have been deprived of one of
+the most remarkable mediums on record!
+
+In the second place, these fluidic hands are almost identical in many
+ways with those presented by Eusapia Palladino at her best. The
+materialized hands, of varying degrees of density and formation,
+attached to long, shadowy arms, are exactly like the hands so often
+materialized at her séances--hands which are at times small, and at
+other times enormous. They no more resembled the hands of the medium
+than chalk resembles cheese.
+
+16. This brings me to a final reflection, which I should like to mention
+before leaving this branch of our discussion. It concerns the question
+of darkness and its effect upon genuine mediumistic phenomena. Whether
+this effect be primarily physical, physiological, or psychological, the
+_fact_ remains that it exists; and the researches of Dr. Ochorowicz have
+tended to confirm this very strongly. His work has shown us (or rather
+confirmed us more strongly in the belief) that the question of _light_
+is a highly important one, and that the greater the degree of darkness,
+_ceteris paribus_, the better and the more startling the phenomena.
+
+Now, there has always existed a sort of _a priori_ assumption that this
+should be so. Light, as we know, does bring about chemical reactions,
+and even exerts a definite physical force or pressure. Even so gross and
+so powerful a form of physical energy as wireless telegraphy is greatly
+interfered with by reason of the sun's rays (ultra-violet rays), and, of
+course, photographic plates are at once rendered useless by an instant's
+exposure to the sun. Again, it is known that sunlight has a more or less
+destructive influence upon all forms of animal and vegetable protoplasm,
+and it is very soon fatal to many of the lower forms of life. This being
+so, it has always appeared to me perfectly reasonable to suppose that
+the energy of the light-rays should interfere most seriously with the
+delicate and subtle forces and forms of energy which are liberated in
+the séance room. The old objection: "Why must these things always be
+done in the dark?" has appeared to me very short-sighted and
+inconsistent with all the facts above mentioned.
+
+But, further! It is highly probable that life of any kind can only
+originate in the dark. Certainly, conception invariably takes place in
+complete darkness, and the whole period of embryonic development is
+passed in that condition. Again, inter-stellar space is, of course,
+absolutely black and devoid of any form of light save the faint
+twinklings of the far-off stars. Without the surface of some globe to
+reflect the sun's rays, no light of any kind would be possible; so that
+if life were conveyed across space, from star to star, upon
+infinitesimal specks of dust, under the influence of light pressure, as
+postulated by Arrhenius (_Worlds in the Making_, pp. 212-30), this life
+must exist, and in a sense originate, in the blackness of inter-stellar
+space.[10] And, finally, if life on our globe originated, as many think,
+in the ocean's depths,[11] this must have been in the densest darkness,
+since light penetrates but a few fathoms below the surface of the ocean.
+Below that all is blackness, complete and eternal. No light penetrates
+to that depth--nor has it for millions of years! Yet it is in this
+region that life is thought to have originated! As G. W. Warder
+expressed it (_The Universe a Vast Electric Organism_, pp. 60-1):
+
+     "During this period of primeval 'darkness upon the face of the
+     waters' the resistless electric waves of the sun were beating upon
+     the cloud-enwrapped surface of the planet. It was the formative
+     period of elementary life, and the descendants and successors of
+     that mighty host of living beings have to this day to lay the
+     foundations of their being in similar conditions of darkness.
+     _Creative energy in its first stages of living form operates in
+     dense darkness_, and the first life upon the planet began and
+     perfected itself in the age when midnight gloom enveloped the
+     globe."
+
+This fact--that life originated in darkness, and that the power of life
+can only be exercised in darkness--is, it seems to me, a most
+significant one when viewed in the light of our studies, and seems to
+point to the conclusion that the "darkness" said to be essential at
+spiritistic circles is indeed necessary; and that, when delicate and
+subtle forms of life and energy are being manifested, they are likely to
+become disrupted by the sudden introjection of a coarse and powerful
+form of energy, such as light, so that this "condition," said to be
+necessary by all mediums, is probably in reality essential; and their
+claim, far from being absurd, is well founded, and in accordance with
+well-established scientific facts.
+
+17. So far as to the physical phenomena. We must now turn to the mental
+manifestations, and discuss one or two points in connection with them
+before concluding.
+
+Hitherto we have considered the process of communication (granting such
+to exist) solely from the physical and physiological sides, and not from
+the psychological. There is a great deal to be said in this latter
+connection, however, though I shall endeavour to be as brief as
+possible.
+
+Take, for instance, the question of _symbolism_.
+
+Our dreams, as we know, are largely symbolic, the work of Freud and
+others having proved this beyond all doubt. It is highly probable that
+the ravings of delirium are also of this nature, though no one, so far
+as I know, has yet devoted any serious attention to their study.
+Certainly it is true in mediumistic phenomena; for, in trance
+conditions, a larger number of messages, tests, and visions seen are of
+this nature and character--the symbolism often being so elaborate that
+the original thought is not perceived. As Mr. Coates remarked: "When a
+'psychometer' places a geological specimen to his forehead, and
+describes an 'antediluvian monster,' roaring and walking about, no one
+but a very shallow individual would imagine for a moment that the
+psychometer was actually seeing the original," but rather that he
+obtained a faint and dream-like impression of the world at that epoch,
+and his subconscious impression was symbolized in the creature seen. A
+better example is, perhaps, furnished by the following: a gentleman of
+my acquaintance visited a certain trance-medium, and, among other
+things, she described a large key. This meant nothing to him at first;
+but later, and after some apparent effort, the medium succeeded in
+catching (and conveying) the idea that the key was symbolic of
+success--unlocking the door of happiness, etc.--whereupon all she had
+said fell naturally into place.
+
+Why this symbolism? The probable answer to this question is that the
+"message" cannot be given _directly_, and that this symbolic method of
+presentation must be resorted to in order to get the message through at
+all. There is good evidence to show that a pictorial method is resorted
+to, very largely, by the _soi-disant_ spirits--mediums seeing what they
+describe, very often, when the more direct auditory method is not
+resorted to. The "spirit" presents somehow to the mind of the medium a
+picture, which is described and often interpreted by the medium. Often
+this interpretation is quite erroneous--resembling a defective analysis
+of a dream. Because of this the message is not recognized. Yet the
+source of the message may have been perfectly "veridical."
+
+Let me illustrate this a little more fully. Suppose you desired to tell
+a Chinaman, who spoke not a word of English, to fetch a certain object
+from the next room. It would be useless for you to say "watch," because
+he would not know what the word meant. Probably you would tap your
+waistcoat pocket, pretend to take out a watch, wind it, look at the
+hands, etc., in your endeavour to convey to him your meaning. If this
+was not recognized, for any reason, you would have the utmost difficulty
+in conveying your meaning to him--and equal difficulty in telling him to
+fetch the watch from the next room.
+
+Now, suppose these antics--or somewhat similar ones--were resorted to by
+a "spirit" in his attempt to convey the word watch--perhaps to remind
+the sitter of a particular watch he used to wear. The medium might well
+proceed as follows: "He taps his stomach, and looks at a spot over his
+left side.... He seems to wish to convey the impression that he suffered
+much from his bowels--perhaps a cancer on the left side. Yes, he seems
+to be taking something away from his body; evidently they removed some
+growth, and he wishes to convey the idea that something was taken from
+him.... Now he is examining his hands; he is looking intently. He is
+doing something with his fingers.... I can't see what it is ... a little
+movement. Was he connected with machinery in life? Now he is pointing to
+the door ..." etc.
+
+Such an interpretation of the facts, it will be observed, while
+describing all his actions, is wholly misleading in interpretation; the
+symbolism has been entirely perverted and misconstrued. And inasmuch as
+the subject probably never died of cancer, had no bowel trouble,
+underwent no operation, and was never connected with machinery, it is
+highly probable that the "message" would be put down wholly to the
+medium's subliminal, or even to guessing or conscious fraud. Yet, it
+will be observed, the message was, in its inception, wholly
+"veridical"--the fault lying in the erroneous symbolic interpretation of
+the medium.
+
+There is evidence to show that other forms of symbolism are adopted
+also--applying to the auditory as well as to the visual presentation of
+the messages. _Names_ afford some of the best evidence for this; e.g. in
+the sitting of Mrs. Verrall with Mrs. Thompson, November 2, 1899
+(_Proceedings_, xvii. pp. 240-41), "Nelly," the control, gave the names
+"Merrifield, Merriman, Merrythought, Merrifield," and later went on: "I
+am muddled. I will tell you how names come to us. It's like a picture; I
+see school-children enjoying themselves; you can't say Merrimans,
+because that's not a name, nor merry people...." (Mrs. Verrall's maiden
+name was Merrifield.) If I remember correctly, there was similar
+symbolism with regard to the name Greenfield at another sitting.
+
+18. Here, then, we see the full play of symbolism and its possible
+extension to cover proper names. But there is another and a very simple
+reason why names should be hard to recall and give clearly by "spirits."
+Names are proverbially hard to remember, even in this life--and we know
+that some persons naturally remember names far better than others. (This
+may account, to a certain extent, for the differences in the ability of
+communicators to give proper names.) But, with all of us, names are hard
+to recall. We all resort to "what's-his-names," and "thing-o'-my-jigs,"
+on occasion, in our efforts to discover within us the name in question.
+And there are good physiological reasons for this. We learn names only
+after many other parts of speech--which means that the brain-cells
+corresponding thereto are laid down or brought into conscious activity
+_last_; they are therefore more ephemeral and less fundamental than
+others--hence the first to "go." This accounts for the increasing
+difficulty in the aged for remembering names--theirs is a physiological
+rather than a psychological defect. By analogy, therefore, there is
+every reason to believe that proper names are hard to recall--every
+reason for thinking that they should be--by "spirits" after the shock
+and wrench of death. The necessary psychical mechanism would be so
+shaken and disturbed that it would be impossible to recall names and
+events, which seem quite straightforward and simple to the sitter. The
+possibly pictorial method of presentation of proper names would greatly
+add to the difficulty, as we have seen, and would be liable to lead to
+misrepresentation and error.
+
+19. Dr. Hyslop, in his second report on Mrs. Piper, (_Proceedings_,
+Amer. S.P.R., pp. 1-812), calls attention to certain analogies which may
+be drawn from everyday psychology, rendering the process of
+communication far more intelligible, and the difficulties within the
+process far clearer to our perception and appreciation. For example, he
+calls attention to certain analogies with aphasia, which are most
+instructive. He says, in part:
+
+     "The two traditional types of aphasia are motor and sensory.
+     Sensory aphasia is the inability to interpret the meaning of a
+     sensation ... motor aphasia is the inability to speak a word or
+     language, though the ideas and meaning of sensations may be as
+     clear as in normal life.... This latter difficulty is apparent in
+     several types of phenomena purporting to be associated with
+     communications from spirits. I have found them illustrated in four
+     different cases of mediumship, and they may be represented in three
+     types. They are: (_a_) The difficulties with proper names; (_b_)
+     The difficulties with unfamiliar words; and (_c_) The inability to
+     immediately answer a pertinent question....
+
+     "The analogies with aphasia, of which we are speaking, may comprise
+     various conditions affecting both medium and communicator. Thus the
+     abnormal physical and mental conditions involved in the trance may
+     affect the integrity of the normal motor action. Then the new
+     situation in which death places a communicator, in relation to any
+     nervous system, may establish conditions very much like aphasia.
+     Then there may be difficulties in the communicator's representing
+     his thoughts in the form necessary to transmit them to and through
+     a foreign organism."
+
+Dr. Hyslop then offers the following diagram as a possible solution of
+certain difficulties involved:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A B C represents the normal consciousness; A B D the subliminal
+consciousness. They intersect at E, which point represents the
+"equilibrium of the controls." "The area A E B shows the condition in
+which all sorts of confusion may occur, incidental to the infusion of
+controls, and this confusion will vary with the relation with the
+supraliminal and subliminal action of the mind." As one advances, the
+other recedes. As one gains a greater control over the organism, the
+other loses it, and _vice versa_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Extending this conception to cover the cases of spirit "possession," in
+which this varying and fluctuating control is also manifested, we might
+represent this by the above diagram, in which normal consciousness is
+left out of account, for the sake of clearness, and the trance condition
+(subliminal) only represented. The spirit control of the organism takes
+its place in the diagram.
+
+Here A B C represents the trance state--the subliminal consciousness. G
+D F represents the sphere of the spirit's control. It does not begin at
+all until the point F be reached. The space A E F represents the area in
+which all kinds of confusion is possible, and it is within this area
+that most of the mediumistic messages come. E is the "point of balance."
+A F H represents the amount of subliminal action accessible to the
+control, on the one hand, and related to the discarnate, on the other,
+in its _rapport_. A F represents the amount of the discarnate
+personality which is accessible to communication, so we have two fields
+which are wholly inaccessible to each other, and are respectively
+represented by B C H F and D G I A, the former a portion of the
+subliminal personality of the living and the latter a portion of the
+discarnate personality which cannot reveal itself.
+
+This intermediate area, in which the control is liable to vary, and be
+thrown on to one side or the other, also has an analogy in the
+_hypnoidal state_ of Boris Sidis--this being an intermediate state (so
+it is thought) which is convertible either into ordinary sleep, on the
+one hand, or into hypnotic sleep on the other. It all depends upon how
+this state is handled and controlled. It may be the same here; the
+medium may sink into internal reverie, or introspective trance; or she
+may be converted into a genuine "medium" by some influence exerted upon
+her from without.
+
+20. On this theory, the deeper the trance the greater the control by the
+"spirit," and this corresponds very well with what has been said before.
+There are always a number of obstacles to clear communication, and the
+degree to which these are overcome would represent the degree of
+clearness of the communications. The process of transferring a mental
+picture to the medium may be attended with all kinds of difficulties of
+which we know nothing. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that there is
+a sort of etheric body, or double, and that this is in any way involved
+in the process, we might have the following "difficulties" to encounter:
+The difficulty in picturing the event clearly in the communicator's
+mind; difficulty in transferring it to the light; difficulty in getting
+this transferred to the medium's physical body; the difficulty of
+manipulating the latter. We know that we often have great difficulty in
+manipulating our own bodies properly; and, in paralysis and kindred
+affections, we are unable to do so at all. Yet we are thoroughly
+familiar with our own bodies, and know how they work. How much more
+difficult would it be if we were suddenly transplanted in _another_
+person's body, and had to manipulate _that_? We should have to "learn
+the ropes," so to say; and all the little automatic tricks, and habits,
+and slips of speech, and what not, would be liable to slip out without
+our consent and before we knew it. We should "inherit," in fact, its
+whole psychological and physiological "setting." This being the case, we
+may readily see how difficult it would be for a discarnate spirit to
+manipulate another organism; and how likely it would be to allow certain
+tricks and habits of the medium herself to slip through, without being
+able to control them. As one communicator said, through Mrs. Chenoweth:
+"I do not like those 'don'ts'; they are hers, not mine." Here is a clear
+recognition of the difficulty involved in controlling the organism, and
+this is greatly accentuated when we remember that all such
+communications must be given when the _soi-disant_ communicator is in a
+constrained mental attitude--"gripping the light," "hanging on to the
+medium's body," while giving the communications. There is a double
+strain involved; and, as Dr. Hyslop said: "With what facility could I
+superintend the work of helping a drowning person and talk philosophy at
+the same time? How well could I hold a plough in stony ground and
+discuss protection and free-trade?" It is small wonder that the messages
+should be fragmentary and incomplete, were any such difficulties as
+these experienced!
+
+The three chief difficulties involved in mediumistic messages may be
+summed-up under three headings: (1) intra-mediumistic conditions; (2)
+intra-cosmic conditions; and (3) the mental conditions of the
+communicators.
+
+Under the first head may be placed all those difficulties which are
+liable to interfere between the communicator and the amanuensis. If the
+communicator is naturally a good visualizer this may help his visual
+communications, but impede the others; an audile might be better in some
+instances. Again, the impulse may come in some motor form, in which case
+neither of these types would be that best suited to control the organism
+of the medium. Whether the communicator is a good visualizer or not may
+affect the communications to a great extent. Whether or not he had a
+normally good memory would also have a great influence. In fact, the
+whole construction of the mind might have great influence upon the
+results. This is a subject which deserves to be studied very carefully
+one day, when the mere fact of communication is established.
+
+As is well known, both Drs. Hodgson and Hyslop wrote strongly in defence
+of the theory that the communicator, at the time of communicating, was
+in an abnormal mental condition, somewhat resembling trance or delirium
+or secondary personality. They were, at least, not in full control of
+their thoughts; and this was said to be established by the statements of
+the communicators themselves; and by a study of the messages
+communicated, wherein it was found that they became dreamy and vague;
+that they showed the same rapid change of imagery and subject which is
+manifested in dreams; an automatic tendency to capricious and confused
+association, a general indifference to personality, etc., as manifested
+in delirium. In dreams and sleep we have practically no control over the
+body at all, any more than if we were dead; and Dr. Hyslop contended
+that probably "somnambulism and hypnosis, dreaming, sleep, trance
+conditions, and death are all simply different degrees of the same
+state." Dr. Hyslop during his later years modified his views upon this
+question, and came to the conclusion that other conditions play a
+greater share in the results than the state of the communicator's mind.
+But there can be no doubt that this has its results.
+
+Then, too, the medium's subliminal has a great and very decided
+influence upon the content of the messages. This was very small before
+Dr. Hodgson's death, but increased very much after that time. In a
+letter to me, dated January 27, 1908, Mrs. Ledyard, an old Piper sitter,
+said:
+
+     "Dear Mr. Carrington,--... All sorts of false statements don't
+     necessarily tell against the spiritistic hypothesis. If you get
+     other evidences of personality, the false statements only confirm
+     R. H.'s belief that "they" are in a sort of dreamy, half-trance
+     state and _very suggestible_. My own opinion of the Piper trance is
+     that, since R. H.'s death, when Mrs. P. has been less carefully
+     guarded in many ways, and allowed to have so much voice in what she
+     would and would not do, that there is much more effect of Mrs.
+     Piper herself on the trance--and more _leaks through_ from Mrs.
+     Piper--though I have, so far, seen no special evidence that it
+     leaks the other way, and that what is told her by sitters during
+     the trance gets into the normal consciousness. But it does affect
+     her normal life, just as an hypnotic suggestion does, on which the
+     subject acts quite unconscious of its source...."
+
+But Rector's[12] business seems to be more far-reaching and more
+complicated than this. I quote from Dr. Hyslop's second Piper report (p.
+197) the following interesting passage:
+
+     "I may notice a remark Dr. Hodgson once made to me regarding the
+     office of Rector in the phenomena of Mrs. Piper. It was not only as
+     control that he exercised an influence over the results, but also
+     both as intermediary between the communicator and the sitter, and
+     as an inhibitor of the influence of the sitter's mind and the
+     subconsciousness of Mrs. Piper upon this same result.... His view
+     was that Rector inhibited the thought-transference from the sitter
+     to Mrs. Piper's subliminal, on the messages, so far as that was
+     possible...."
+
+From this it will, at all events, be seen that the relationship, and the
+whole system of inhibitions and influences at work in the Piper case is
+very complicated. It must be remembered that, on any theory, the
+"messages" must come _through_ the medium's subliminal, which acts as a
+sort of matrix in which the whole mould of the supernormal is cast; and,
+this being the case, it is only natural to suppose that the results
+would be most complicated and inextricably mixed in their relationships
+and influences. If spirit communications influence the subconscious, we
+have a right to suppose that the subliminal influences the
+communications in turn. And this is apparently proved by the facts.
+
+21. Now a few words as to the psychological processes of communicating,
+and the interplay of minds one with another, which figure in this
+process. Writing of this, Dr. Hyslop says:
+
+     "Psychology distinguishes between what it calls visuals, audiles,
+     and motiles. A visual is one in which visual experiences receive
+     such emphasis, and which prove to be of such predominant interest
+     to the subject that his habit of thinking about objects is
+     expressed mentally or mnemonically in visual terms--that is, in
+     the memory pictures of vision.... An audile is one in whom the
+     sense of hearing is predominant. [In motiles the impulse is towards
+     motor action.]
+
+     "Suppose the psychic is a visual and the communicator an audile,
+     might not that difference make a marked difficulty in the
+     adjustment necessary for communicating clearly?... A visual might
+     see apparitions more easily, and have more difficulty in automatic
+     writing; and an audile might easily hear voices and write with more
+     difficulty, etc.... A proper name is purely an auditory concept. It
+     has no visual equivalent whatever, except the letters which form
+     it. If, then, the process of communication at any time involves a
+     dominant dependence on visual functions of the mind, the sudden
+     attempt to interpose an auditory datum might meet with the
+     difficulty of prompt adjustment to auditory conditions for its
+     transmission, and it might even be that the psychic could not, from
+     habit in visual methods, adjust herself to all the needs of a
+     proper name, except by converting it readily into visual terms, as
+     the spelling of the name would express....
+
+     "In the lighter trance it is clear that visual phenomena play a
+     most important part in the communications. With Mrs. Piper the
+     phenomena seem to be more auditory. Mrs. Piper never sees
+     apparitions or phantasms in her normal state; none have been
+     reported of her as systematic experiences, as I have observed them
+     in Mrs. Chenoweth....
+
+     "What we gain in clearness of consciousness in the communications
+     when the message comes through the active subliminal of the medium,
+     we lose in the accuracy and specific value of the message, while
+     what we gain in the specific definiteness of the messages through
+     Mrs. Piper, where the subliminal, if intermediary at all, is
+     passive and automatic, we lose in the dream-like and disturbed
+     mental state of the communicator."
+
+22. Another difficulty must be referred to in this place; and that is
+the probable loss of control over the stream of thought by spirits, such
+as we exercise in this life. Here, the checks and inhibitions are easily
+accomplished, unless disease in some manner prevents them; but there are
+strong indications that a "spirit"--at least when communicating--cannot
+control his stream of thinking to the same extent; and that, if it is
+constantly interrupted--by questions, etc., as it usually is--it tends
+to break up and become automatic, echolalic, or useless. That even
+experienced and careful psychic researchers will interfere with the flow
+of consciousness in this manner I know to be a fact; I myself, though I
+had been especially warned against doing so, did the same thing in my
+Piper sittings! Some of these difficulties I endeavoured to make clear
+in a letter, which I wrote to the English _Journal S.P.R._, and which
+appeared in March, 1908. In it I said:
+
+     "For the sake of argument, let us assume that the intelligences
+     that communicate through the organism of Mrs. Piper--and perhaps of
+     some other mediums--are spirits of the departed, and that they
+     temporarily 'possess' the organism of the medium (at least in part)
+     during the process of communicating. That is the generally-held
+     theory, I believe, and the simplest one to account for the facts.
+     If this be true, it is to be supposed that the normal consciousness
+     of the medium is in some manner removed, superseded, or withdrawn,
+     and that only some "vegetable consciousness" remains, as it were,
+     sufficient to keep the organism going until the return of the
+     normal consciousness and normal control by the medium. Meanwhile,
+     the controlling intelligence is, by supposition, influencing the
+     nervous mechanism of the medium's body--directly or indirectly
+     through some etheric medium--and influencing it to write out
+     letters and words by the usual slow and laborious process. That
+     they _do_ find it slow and laborious is evidenced by the fact that
+     all possible abbreviations are adopted--'U.D.' being used for
+     'Understand'; 'M' is frequently written 'N,' and so on. Even in our
+     normal life we know that thoughts frequently flow faster than we
+     can put them on to paper, and this would almost certainly be the
+     case with spiritual intelligences who have no material brain to
+     hinder their flow of thought. It is probable that the brain is as
+     much an inhibitory organ as anything else; and when this inhibition
+     is removed, it is natural to suppose that the flow of thought would
+     be far less controllable and far more automatic than it is with us.
+     It would be impossible for spirits to check and go on with their
+     stream of thought at will, as we do on this hypothesis; they would
+     be far more automatic and less under the control of the will. If
+     this were true, it would account for much of the confusion present
+     in the communications. Suppose a spirit is trying to communicate
+     some fact or incident in its past life. It is endeavouring to force
+     this thought through, in the face of great difficulties, and while
+     trying to retain its grasp of the organism. Now, let us suppose
+     that this stream of thought is suddenly interrupted by the sitter
+     asking an abrupt question--referring to another incident
+     altogether, and perhaps related to another time in the
+     communicator's life. Is it not natural to suppose that, labouring
+     under these difficulties, and lacking the inhibitory action of the
+     brain, the communicator's mind should wander, and that he should
+     either think aloud to himself as it were (all this coming through
+     as confused writing, be it understood), or that the spirit should
+     lose its grasp of the organism altogether and drift away? The mind
+     cannot retain two vivid pictures at the same time; either one or
+     the other must grow fogged and dim; and this would certainly be so
+     in the case of any communicator, where we may suppose a certain
+     amount of mental energy--corresponding to a mental picture
+     perhaps--is necessitated in the very process of holding the control
+     of the organism. If communications take place at all in reality, we
+     may well suppose that the difficulties of communicating would be so
+     great that all clear, systematic thinking would be impossible.
+     People seem to imagine that the process of communication is as
+     simple as possible, instead of the most delicate and complicated
+     imaginable--the very difficulty being evinced by the rarity of the
+     intelligible communications coming through. If any one were to try
+     the simple subjective test of closing the eyes and attempting to
+     conceive his spirit controlling some _other_ person's organism, he
+     would very easily perceive the tremendous difficulties in the way
+     of controlling an organism other than his own!
+
+     "However, my object in writing this letter is not to point out
+     difficulties of this character, which are probably well understood
+     by the majority of the readers of the _Journal_. It is to draw
+     attention to another fact, and an analogy. Let us take a man in
+     good health, whose brain and mental functions are normal. Let this
+     man be all but killed in a railroad accident. In the jar and shock
+     of the collision this man was thrown (let us say) against an iron
+     post, and his head badly cut and bruised. He was knocked
+     insensible, and it was several hours before he returned to the
+     first dim consciousness of his surroundings. Gradually he would
+     revive. Objects would present themselves to his eyesight vaguely,
+     indistinctly; he would "see men as trees walking." Sounds would be
+     heard, but indistinctly; there would be a vague jumble of noises,
+     and no definite and articulate sounds would be recognized at first,
+     and until consciousness was more fully restored. Tactile
+     sensations, smell and touch, would probably come last, and be least
+     powerful of all; they would not be even distinguishable until
+     consciousness was almost completely normal. All intellectual
+     interests would be abolished, only the most loving and tender
+     thoughts would be entertained or tolerable, and these would be
+     swallowed up, very largely, in the great, central fact that the
+     body and head were in great pain; that the memory was impaired, and
+     that anything like normal thinking and a normal grasp of the
+     organism was impossible. Thoughts would be scattered, incoherent,
+     and only the strongest stimuli would focus the attention on any
+     definite object for longer than a few moments at a time, and
+     perhaps even these would fail. But if oxygen gas were administered
+     to such a person, in moderate doses, he would recover and rally
+     far more quickly and effectually than if no such stimulant were
+     employed. He would rally more quickly, and be enabled to think more
+     clearly and consistently--at least _pro tem._ In shocks to the
+     living consciousness this would almost certainly be the case.
+
+     "Now, when we come to die, the departure of the soul from the body
+     must be a great strain and stress upon the surviving consciousness,
+     and must shock it tremendously--just as the accident shocked it in
+     the case given above. Certainly this would be so in the case of all
+     _sudden_ deaths, and in those cases which 'die hard'; and it is
+     natural to suppose that it would be true also, more or less, in
+     every case of death, however natural--since the separation of
+     consciousness from its brain must be the greatest shock that any
+     given consciousness could receive in the course of its natural
+     existence. But after a time the spirit is supposed to outlive and
+     'get over' this initial shock, and to regain its normal functions
+     and faculties. In its normal life, it is then supposed to be once
+     more free and unhampered by any of the bodily conditions that
+     rendered its manifestations on earth defective. But when this
+     consciousness comes once more to communicate, it seems to again
+     take on the conditions of earth life, i.e. those conditions which
+     were present when the person died, and this would account for the
+     fact, often observed, that mediums 'take on' the conditions of
+     certain spirits who are communicating, i.e. they suffer _pro tem._
+     from heart or bowel trouble, pains in the head, etc. Further, this
+     seems to extend to the mental functions and conditions also. Idiocy
+     and insanity, e.g., are supposed to gradually wear off in the next
+     life, and a gradual return to normal conditions ensue. This is, at
+     least, the statement made through several mediums, and it is only
+     natural to suppose that such should be the case. The spirit
+     gradually returns to a normal mental condition; but when any
+     attempt is made to return to the 'earth plane,' and especially to
+     communicate, these conditions return with greater or lesser
+     force--varying with and depending upon the length of time such a
+     person had been dead, and other considerations. On any theory, the
+     consciousness must undergo some sort of temporary disintegration,
+     while communicating, and must be scattered over a wide field of
+     recollection, while at the same time attempting to 'hold on' to the
+     organism. It must also be remembered that the flow of thought is
+     far more automatic than with us. All this being so, we can readily
+     understand that any attempt at communication would be attended with
+     the greatest difficulties, and such a consciousness, if it were
+     constantly interrupted by questions, etc., would tend to go to
+     pieces--to lose its grasp of the organism, and to drift away--only
+     confusion and error coming through. This consciousness might be
+     strengthened and rendered clearer, perhaps, by the presentation of
+     some object belonging to the person when alive--as, no matter how
+     explained, this seems to clear the communications. Any means that
+     can be adopted to render clearer the mind of the communicator, on
+     the one hand, or improve the condition of the nervous mechanism of
+     the medium on the other, should therefore be of great utility and
+     should at least be tried. This being so, I now come to the heart of
+     the matter, and offer a suggestion which, if followed out, might
+     improve the physical body of the medium, and hence render the
+     conditions better from _this_ side--as the presentation of objects
+     might be supposed to render the conditions better from the other
+     side.
+
+     "I have pointed out before that, in certain cases, when it is
+     desirable to restore the consciousness and to render its renewal
+     more certain and clear (after an accident, e.g., that has knocked a
+     person senseless) a mixture of oxygen gas is sometimes administered
+     to the patient in order to produce these results. This being so, I
+     ask: why may it not be a good idea to administer a diluted mixture
+     of this gas to the medium when she is in a trance state--and when a
+     communicator is attempting to convey his thought to the sitter by
+     means of automatic writing? Might not such an experiment be tried,
+     since no _harm_ could come to the medium if the oxygen were diluted
+     and only sufficiently strong to effect the desired results? And
+     might not its administration tend to improve the tone of the
+     nervous system _pro tem._, and render clearer the consciousness
+     that is trying to use it and manifest through it--just as one's own
+     consciousness might be rendered clearer by the same device? Of
+     course such a process might have the effect (especially at first)
+     of breaking the trance altogether, and of reviving the medium. But
+     if the medium understood the experiment beforehand, and the process
+     were also explained to the controls, it is reasonable to suppose
+     that--after some trials at any rate--the trance would not be
+     broken, and that better, clearer results would follow. At all
+     events, when some of our physicians in America are experimenting
+     upon the effects of various electrical rays upon mediums in a
+     trance, might not this far simpler and better-understood method be
+     tried with more or less impunity? I at least suggest that it be so
+     tried."
+
+23. It must not be thought that this "possession" theory of the Piper
+and similar cases is the only one which has been held in the past. On
+the contrary, as we know, there have been several others--Mrs.
+Sidgwick's telepathic theory--from the discarnate; Mr. Andrew Lang's
+theory of telepathy _à trois_; Mr. Podmore's theory of simple telepathy;
+the theory held by Andrew Jackson Davis and other clairvoyants, that
+there exists a sort of mirror-like sphere, upon which all thoughts and
+acts are recorded, and which the medium is somehow enabled to "read"
+during the trance state; the theory that discarnate spirits somehow
+project their thoughts upon a wax-like surface of astral substance, and
+that the medium is enabled to reinterpret them in some mysterious
+manner; the Theosophical theory; the theory of the occultists and
+mystics; the Catholic theory--that these manifestations are all the
+result of evil, lying spirits--these are but a few of the hypotheses
+which have been advanced in the past by way of explanation of these
+phenomena. I may say that this latter theory has some respectable
+evidence in its support, by the way, a few very remarkable cases having
+come under my own observation, which I hope to detail at some future
+time; and Dr. J. Godfrey Raupert has cited some impressive cases in his
+_Dangers of Spiritualism_, _Modern Spiritism_, and _The Supreme
+Problem_. This is assuredly a side of psychic investigation which
+demands close study and prolonged investigation; and, in spite of the
+masterly analysis of some of these cases by Professor Flournoy in his
+_Spiritism and Psychology_ (chap. iii.), I cannot but feel that there is
+yet much to be learned as to the nature of the intelligence manifested
+in these cases. And this was, as we know, the opinion also of Professor
+William James, for he wrote (_Proceedings of S.P.R._, vol. xxiii. p.
+118): "The refusal of modern 'enlightenment' to treat 'possession' as a
+hypothesis to be spoken of as even possible, in spite of the massive
+human tradition based on concrete experience in its favour, has always
+seemed to me a curious example of the power of fashion in things
+scientific. That the demon theory (not necessarily a devil theory) will
+have its innings again is to my mind absolutely certain.... One must be
+blind and ignorant indeed to suspect no such possibility...." It must by
+no means be taken for granted, therefore, that the intelligences
+operating through Mrs. Piper and other mediums are all that they claim
+to be, even if their externality to the medium were proved.... We must
+be extremely cautious in accepting any messages coming through mediums
+until the most certain and convincing proofs of identity be
+forthcoming--and _then_ we should be cautious!
+
+The only plausible theory which in any way accounts for the Piper and
+similar phenomena--short of the spiritistic--is one based upon the
+existence of independently fluctuating strata of the medium's mind,
+acquiring their knowledge by means of telepathy, clairvoyance, and other
+supernormal means. This view of the case is held and defended with
+extreme ingenuity and persuasiveness by Professor Flournoy in his
+_Spiritism and Psychology_--a book which I myself think should be read
+by every one interested in psychics or inclined to "dabble in
+spiritualism." The complete isolation and individuality of the various
+personalities involved could only be explained, it seems to me, by
+postulating a series of subliminal strata, between which there would be
+no memory connection--very much like Mr. Gurney's strata obtained by him
+and described in his paper on "The Stages of Hypnotic Memory"
+(_Proceedings_, vol. iv. pp. 515-31). In this way alone could we account
+for the facts; but even so, are they explained?
+
+When psychical research becomes a recognized science there will be ample
+room for "specialization," and for many years of study in each branch of
+the work. Consider, for instance, the many ramifications and
+possibilities which would be thrown open to the researcher! A man might
+become a "specialist" in haunted houses, in the investigation of such
+cases, and in their "treatment" and "cure." He would then have to
+investigate the nature and character of the phenomena which occur in
+them, and of the intelligences which manifest themselves. The nature of
+the figures seen in such houses would form a special branch of research,
+and the degree of their objectivity or subjectivity in any particular
+case. Numerous experiments might be tried, such as crystal-gazing,
+automatic writing, séances, induced dreams, etc. Experiments should be
+tried in photographing the apparitions, and in getting them to register
+their presence upon delicate and sensitive instruments of all sorts.
+Phonographic records of the "footsteps" of the ghost (if such occur)
+should be made, and a record taken of all the sounds and noises which
+occur in the house. Clairvoyants should be sent on "trips" to ascertain
+the character of the haunting, if possible, in order to "check off"
+their descriptions against the experiences of those living in the house.
+Communication should be established with the "haunting spirits," if
+possible, by means of raps, table-tipping, etc. The character of the
+phenomena should be studied, and the _physical_ separated from the
+_mental_. The nature of the intelligence "haunting" the house should be
+investigated psychologically. The dreams of those who sleep in the house
+should be recorded and analysed. Animals should be taken to live in the
+house, to see whether or not they perceive anything unusual. The effect
+of suggestion, exorcism, etc., should be tried and noted. Experiments in
+hypnotism, "magnetism," etc., should be conducted in the house. Red
+lights and lights of other colours should be tried, to see whether they
+affect the phenomena in any manner. These are but a few of the many
+tests and experiments that might be made, and which would doubtless
+suggest themselves to the mind of the investigator as soon as the
+legitimacy of the subject were once granted.
+
+Again, in the case of telepathy. Once the facts were proved, the
+fascinating study of the laws and causes would begin. Under what mental,
+physical, and, possibly, spiritual conditions does telepathy operate?
+What is the best mental condition of the agent? of the percipient? What
+would be the effect of hypnotic trance? What of dreams? (These are not
+original ideas, but they have never been followed out as they should be,
+and might be, if the subject were pursued scientifically as other
+questions in science are.) Again, might not telepathy be facilitated if
+we chose individuals of the same general temperament? If we chose two
+individuals to whom the same chord on the piano appealed (say the common
+chord of G minor or C sharp), and this chord were struck repeatedly,
+might not telepathic transmission be facilitated under such conditions?
+If both subjects were hypnotized, and the agent were told to "will"
+certain figures, etc., might not the percipient receive them more
+easily? If both agent and percipient were placed in a strong magnetic or
+high-tension electric field, might not this in some way influence
+communication? Again, these are but a very few of the experiments which
+might be tried, once telepathy became an accepted fact.
+
+In the case of clairvoyance the field is even greater, but here more
+original work has been done, owing largely to the fact that many of the
+experiments have been conducted upon subjects in the hypnotic trance,
+and hence more fully resembled "laboratory experiments." Still, much
+remains to be done, particularly in the realm of the _explanation_ of
+clairvoyance, and in the investigation of the neural and general
+physiological concomitants of the condition.
+
+In the field of "thought-" and "spirit-photography," the possibilities
+of research and experimentation are obvious and almost unlimited. The
+recent researches of Dr. Ochorowicz in "radiographs," and of Commandant
+Darget in thought-photography and the so-called V-rays, are of extreme
+importance, if true. Here is a field which any one may invade; and, with
+the aid of a camera and specially sensitive plates, might accomplish
+really valuable and striking results. Very rarely have attempts been
+made to photograph apparitions (probably because they were too fleeting
+and unexpected), and the forms at séances have been photographed on only
+a few occasions. The human "aura"--granting it exists--should certainly
+be capable of being photographed, under certain conditions, as well as
+the radiation said to issue from magnets, crystals, etc., as explained
+by Reichenbach.
+
+The human "aura" itself should be made the subject of special study.
+Here is a perfectly tangible thing, so to speak, which physicists can
+work on to their hearts' content, without becoming "contaminated" by the
+general run of psychic manifestations! Is the aura a form of physical
+radiation? Does it affect the atmosphere? Can it be photographed? Is it
+connected with the phenomena of exteriorization of sensitivity or
+motivity? Will it affect the galvanometer needle, or other delicate
+electrical or physical instruments? Is it connected with the "astral" or
+"etheric body"? What is its condition when the subject is asleep? Can it
+be altered at will? Is it affected by passing a high-tension current
+through the body of the subject? (We know that these high-tension
+currents will themselves create an electric aura around the body.) What
+becomes of the aura after death; and what changes, if any, does it
+undergo at the moment of death? Such are a few of the questions which
+the psychic student might ask himself, and which certainly call for
+solution.
+
+Once more: is "psychometry" a fact? If objects can retain certain
+"influences" within them, what is their nature, and how are they
+retained? How does the sensitive perceive these impressions? Is there
+not a connection between these phenomena and haunted houses? or between
+the "charging-up" of a table or planchette board before it proceeds to
+answer questions and behave in the manner it is often reported to do?
+
+What is the nature of the "cold breeze" which is so often experienced,
+not only at séances, but during very many psychic phenomena, both of the
+experimental and spontaneous types, in all parts of the world? Is it a
+physical breeze, or is it purely "psychical"? Could it be collected and
+analysed, as was suggested in the case of the cold breeze issuing from
+the scar on Eusapia Palladino's forehead? What is its source? And what
+is its object? On this subject alone much suggestive and valuable
+research might be undertaken.
+
+Take the simple phenomena of _raps_. What produces them? What is the
+bond between the hand of the medium which makes a gesture in the
+direction of the table, and the table itself? What is the nature of the
+physical impact upon the table? Are these raps due to exteriorized vital
+force? If so, does this energy exude from the nerve termini, or is it
+connected only with the etheric body or double? Can these raps be
+controlled at will, or directed and controlled when the subject is under
+hypnosis? Can this energy be directed at will? Could it not impress
+delicate physical instruments? Might not a connection be thus
+established between these phenomena and the impressions of hands and
+faces, etc., occasionally seen in the presence of Eusapia and other
+mediums?
+
+Then the phenomena of materialization! Here is a wide field for study
+indeed! How can such an organism be built up? Out of what materials is
+it constructed? What degree of density can be attained? What is the
+power which manipulates this matter? and what is the structure of the
+matter itself? How can _will_ plastically mould matter in space? On what
+framework, so to speak, is the body constructed? What is the nature of
+the vital drain upon the medium and the sitters? What is the nature of
+the intelligence animating the materialized figure? What is the
+connection between so-called "thought-forms" and materialized phantoms?
+
+These are but some of the questions which would suggest themselves, and
+call for solution when "psychics" is recognized as a legitimate science,
+as it surely will be one day. These are problems mostly on the physical
+plane; but the psychological problems are just as many and just as
+alluring! I have referred to some of these elsewhere; and would content
+myself with again saying, that only when the _facts_ of psychical
+research are recognized will their real, scientific study begin.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The copy of this book in my possession is the copy once owned by Dr.
+Hodgson--having his name in the front, and the date, April 1881. This
+passage is marked with a thick red pencil stroke, showing the importance
+which Dr. Hodgson attached to the point here made.
+
+[2] Might not this account for the fact that trance or "spirit control"
+practically never occurs during the hours of sleep? Even "obsessed"
+patients find peace and rest during their sleeping hours. Is this not,
+in all probability, due to the fact that the mind is, at such times,
+forced in upon itself; as it were--instead of being directed
+outwards--away from the centre of being, as it is daily, during
+conscious life? It is probably nature's protective device--ensuring the
+stability and integrity of the psychic "self."
+
+[3] Kilner, _The Human Atmosphere_. I myself have conducted a number of
+interesting experiments in this direction, which I hope to make public
+at a later date.
+
+[4] Townsend, _Facts in Mesmerism_, p. 215.
+
+[5] _Metaphysick_, bk. iii. ch. v.
+
+[6] _Body and Mind_, pp. 299-300.
+
+[7] _Eusapia Palladino and her Phenomena_, pp. 293-301.
+
+[8] _Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition_, p. 41. For discussions of this
+question from a variety of different points of view, see _Life and
+Matter_, by Lodge; _The Riddle of the Universe_, Haeckel; _The
+Correlation of Spiritual Forces_, by Hartmann; "Consciousness and
+Force," _Met. Mag._, Oct. 1910; the article on "Consciousness and
+Energy," by Professor Montague, in _Essays in Honour of William James_,
+and pp. 283-5 of _The New Realism_, etc.
+
+[9] Bulwer Lytton, with his usual remarkable foresight in things
+psychic, clearly perceived this. In his story, "The Haunters and the
+Haunted," he says: "In all that I had witnessed, and indeed in all the
+wonders which the amateurs of mystery in our age record as facts, a
+material human agency is always required. On the Continent you will
+still find magicians who assert that they can raise spirits. Assume for
+a moment that they assert truly, still the living, material form of the
+magician is present, and he is the material agency by which, from some
+constitutional peculiarities, certain strange phenomena are represented
+to your natural senses.... Accept again as truthful the tales of spirit
+manifestation in America, produced by no discernible hand--articles of
+furniture moved about without visible human agency--or the actual sight
+and touch of hands to which no bodies seem to belong--still there must
+be found the "medium," or living being, with constitutional
+peculiarities capable of obtaining these signs. In fine, in all such
+marvels, supposing even that there is no imposture, there must be a
+human being like ourselves, by whom, or through whom, the effects
+presented to human beings are produced."
+
+[10] It should be said, however, that--apart from its innate
+difficulties--this theory has recently received its death-blow by the
+discovery of the fact that space is filled with ultra-violet rays, which
+would soon prove fatal to all forms of life.
+
+[11] See, especially, Duncan, _Some Chemical Problems of Today_, pp.
+63-83 and 97-104.
+
+[12] "Rector" is the name of Mrs. Piper's chief control and amanuensis,
+during her trance sittings.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+INVESTIGATING PSYCHICAL PHENOMENA WITH SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
+
+
+It is generally conceded that Aristotle possessed the greatest single
+intellect the world has ever known; yet any schoolboy today knows more
+of the structure of our universe than did Aristotle! The reason for this
+is that Science has more fully penetrated the secrets of Nature, and we
+now know approximately the constitution of matter and a good deal
+concerning life and mind. How has this progress been possible? Only in
+one way. Improvement in the _mechanical instruments_ by means of which
+we study Nature. We might "speculate" as to the constitution of matter
+for a thousand years, but we should never have arrived at our present
+positive _knowledge_ had it not been for the delicate and sensitive
+instruments which are today in the hands of the physicist and the
+chemist, and employed by him in his laboratory.
+
+Doubtless much the same law will be found to apply in the realm of
+"psychics." Until we can apply definite "laboratory methods," and study
+psychical phenomena by means of physical instruments far more delicate
+than our senses, it is probable that the present state of things will
+continue to exist; but it is my firm belief that, were a laboratory
+fitted up with physical and electrical apparatus, suitable for this
+work, and if we could by their aid study a promising case of "psychic"
+or "mediumistic" phenomena, we should (within ten years or so) arrive
+at some definite conclusions! We should then know something about the
+_laws_ and conditions under which telepathy, clairvoyance, telekinesis
+(the movement of objects without contact), et cetera, operate, and not
+until this is done, I believe, will such positive conclusions be
+reached.
+
+Of course the reader may object, just here, that I am assuming such
+phenomena to be _true_--while the tendency of many present-day
+scientists is to regard them as unreal, hallucinatory, and the result of
+fraud. I cannot spare the time in the present place to argue the point.
+While I admit freely that a very large percentage of such phenomena
+_are_ so produced, and while I freely admit that probably 98 per cent of
+so-called "mediums" are fraudulent; I am equally emphatic in declaring
+that a residuum of genuine phenomena exists--that supernormal
+manifestations _do_ occur, and that every one who investigates
+_carefully enough_ and _long enough_ will find them. This has been not
+only my own experience, but that of every person who has investigated
+this subject with an impartial mind for any length of time. As Sir
+Oliver Lodge said, in writing of this very question:
+
+     "The result of my experience is to convince me that certain
+     phenomena, usually considered abnormal, _do_ belong to the order of
+     Nature, and as a corollary from this, that these phenomena ought to
+     be investigated and recorded by persons and societies interested in
+     natural knowledge."
+
+Based on this conviction, Sir Oliver Lodge wrote, as far back as 1894,
+in a paper entitled "On Some Appliances Needed for a Psychical
+Laboratory":
+
+     "If the investigations are to go on easily and well, special
+     appliances must be contrived and arranged conveniently for use,
+     precisely as is done in any properly fitted laboratory. It has
+     already doubtless been realized that one of the needs of the future
+     is a _psychical laboratory_, specially adapted for all kinds of
+     experimental psychology and psycho-physics...."
+
+Sir Oliver Lodge suggested at the time, among other necessary
+appliances, a delicate registering balance,--so adjusted that it would
+record the medium's weight, unknown to her, at all times during the
+séance--the fluctuations in weight, if any, to be recorded on a
+revolving drum. Means ought also to be provided for studying the
+temperature, pulse, muscular exertion, breathing, etc., etc. The
+lighting of the room should be carefully attended to and capable of the
+slightest gradation. Means should be provided for obtaining moving
+pictures of the séance from without the room, unknown to the medium.
+Were the sittings held in complete darkness, these photographs could be
+obtained by means of ultra-violet light, with which the room might be
+flooded. In addition to these devices, we may add others--such as X-ray
+tubes, high-frequency currents and a delicate field of electric
+force,--while instruments for testing the ionization of the air (if it
+exists) in the immediate vicinity of the medium, during a séance, should
+also be employed,--together with the more strictly psychical instruments
+and devices which have been utilized of late years.
+
+Electrical apparatus _has_, in fact, been utilized on several occasions
+to test so-called "physical mediums" in the past. Italian investigators,
+particularly, have excelled in this. In a series of séances conducted in
+Naples, the following apparatus was employed. (Fig. 1.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+A telegraphic key (b) was connected by wires (a,a) to a battery (d) and
+to two screws, connecting them with an electro-magnet (e) to the
+opposite end of which was attached a needle. The point of the needle
+touched a revolving drum (f), with a smoked surface, driven by two
+interlacing, cogged wheels. The whole of this registering apparatus was
+enclosed under a glass bell-jar (g). The telegraphic key itself (b) was
+covered by a cardboard box (c). The "powers" manifesting were asked to
+press the telegraphic key _without_ tearing the cardboard box (that is,
+_through_ it). When the key was depressed, this would be instantly
+communicated to the electro-magnet, and cause the needle to
+oscillate,--these oscillations being marked upon the smoked surface of
+the revolving drum. A number of successful tests were conducted by means
+of this apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+A variation of this was then employed (Fig. 2). A cylinder filled with
+water (a) was connected by means of tubing (b) to a U-tube, or manometer
+(c), filled with mercury. Upon the further side of this tube floated a
+bent wire (e) inserted into a small cork. The point of this wire, again,
+was so adjusted as to come into contact with the smoked surface of a
+revolving drum (f), driven as before. The top of the cylinder (a) was
+covered with a rubber cap (d), and this whole apparatus was inserted
+under a wooden box (g) having a cloth top.
+
+Now, if the rubber covering (d) were pressed upon, this would force some
+of the water, in a, along the tube, b, and the added air-pressure would
+depress the column of mercury in the manometer, causing the floating
+needle to rise on the opposite side, and scratch upon the revolving
+drum. Fig. 3 shows some of the tracings which were obtained in this
+way--the force acting through the cloth top, g.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 3]
+
+The instruments thus recorded a _definite physical, intelligent force_.
+
+It may interest my readers to know that, at the time of his death, M.
+Curie,--who had been completely convinced of the reality of these
+phenomena,--was busy devising an instrument which would register and
+direct _psychic power_ liberated from the body of a physical medium when
+in trance.
+
+Dr. Imoda, the assistant of Professor Mosso, has also conducted a number
+of experiments in the discharge of an electroscope, by means of "rays"
+issuing from the medium's body. It was found that, if the medium held
+her fingers at a distance of an inch or so from the knob of the
+electroscope, some form of energy, apparently _radio-active_ in
+character, issued from her fingers, and _gradually discharged the
+electroscope_. This is the "radiation" or "emanation" issuing from the
+body, which has been studied extensively by students of the occult. Dr.
+Imoda concluded--as the result of his experiments--that "_the radiations
+of radium, the cathode radiations of the Crookes' tube, and mediumistic
+radiations are fundamentally the same_."
+
+Some other very interesting facts have been observed by means of the
+electroscope. For example, Dr. W. J. Crawford (D.Sc), in his
+experiments, noted that:--
+
+     "... In séance rooms where tables are moved without physical
+     contact, I found that after a sitting was well started, I was
+     always _unable_ to charge an electroscope, even though I tried to
+     do so in the corner of the chamber farthest from the medium. In
+     order to charge it I had to take it outside the room. I asked the
+     'operators' (intelligences 'directing things,' apparently, in the
+     séance-room) if there was any 'power' in the séance-room so far
+     away from the medium, and they answered in raps that there was. By
+     'power' I understand them to mean particles of matter taken from
+     the medium...."
+
+Again, in his _Reality of Psychic Phenomena_, he says:
+
+     "I took the electroscope to the table in the corner; then placed it
+     in the circle near the medium. I asked the operators to touch the
+     disc of the instrument very gently. They did this almost at once,
+     the 'touching' consisting of a metallic scraping upon the brass
+     disc, quite audible, similar in type to the imitation of the floor
+     being rubbed with sand paper, a phenomenon I quite often observed.
+
+     "Result:--On examination, the electroscope was found to be
+     completely _discharged_!
+
+     "I took the electroscope to the table in the corner of the room and
+     tried to recharge it, but found I was unable to do so even after
+     repeated trials. Accordingly I asked the 'operators' to put back
+     into the body of the medium the matter they had taken out (for the
+     production of the sledge-hammer blows) and to give a few raps when
+     they had done so. In a minute or two some _very light raps_ were
+     given, and when I asked if the process was complete I received _no
+     raps in reply at all_, which seemed to indicate to me that all the
+     matter used for rapping had been returned to the medium. At any
+     rate, I found that I could now charge the electroscope; which done,
+     I placed it on the floor as before within the circle, and asked
+     that the disc should be touched lightly. After a little time, there
+     was the metallic scraping as before, and on examination the
+     electroscope was found to be completely _discharged_."
+
+It will be at once apparent to the reader that two problems confront the
+investigator, when once he is called upon to solve such problems as the
+above: (1) the _physical miracle_ itself; and (2) the nature of the
+_intelligence_, lying behind and directing or controlling the
+manifestations. This latter is purely a _psychological_ question, which,
+immensely important as it is intrinsically, does not enter into the
+_physical_ problem. It need only be said that this is _the_ baffling
+question in psychical investigation, and the most puzzling. Whether it
+be an independent "spirit," as it claims to be; or the subconsciousness
+of the medium; or whether it is a sort of compound consciousness, made
+up of the collected minds of those forming the circle at the time; or
+whether some other interpretation is open to us--this is all a moot
+question, which is referred to here, merely to draw attention to the
+fact of its existence.
+
+It will be at once apparent to the reader, also, that physical and
+electrical apparatus have played an important part in such
+investigations, in the past, and are certainly destined to occupy a far
+more important place in the future. These curious phenomena--like all
+others in our world--depend upon invisible forces or energies for their
+production. Those interested in electricity should realize, more than
+all others, the power of the invisible; and the fact that _the invisible
+is the real_. Anything that we see consists merely in a bundle of
+"phenomena"--of _effects_. The real cause is always behind, and is
+always invisible.
+
+There is nothing inherently absurd or impossible, therefore, in these
+odd manifestations,--however bizarre and unusual they appear to us at
+first sight. An unusual combination of circumstances might bring them
+about. Stones do not ordinarily fall out of the air; yet at times they
+_do_ (meteors). Water does not usually rise above its own level, yet it
+can be made to do so. The curious freaks of lightning are well known.
+There is nothing inherently impossible, therefore, in supposing that a
+table can be "levitated" into the air, under unusual conditions; it is
+simply the manifestation of an unknown energy--of which, doubtless,
+there are many. We can manipulate and control the electric current; but
+we do not know yet precisely what it _is_. Similarly, we can study the
+effects of many of these curious biological forces, without
+understanding their true nature. Above all, it behooves us to keep an
+open mind, and not to cry "impossible," just because we have never seen
+such facts, or because they appear to us innately improbable.
+
+Here, as elsewhere, we depend upon hidden and unknown energies. Could we
+but find an _energy common to the two worlds_--the spiritual world and
+the material world--we should have here a means of direct communication,
+possibly by instrumental means. _Delicate physical and electrical
+apparatus may be the means, after all, by which such communication will
+ultimately be established!_ At all events, when subtle causes and forces
+are in operation (as they doubtless are during a séance) it is only
+natural to suppose that instruments, _far more delicate than our
+senses_, should be the logical method of detecting them, and, as yet,
+such experiments have rarely been attempted.
+
+When we take into consideration, finally, the electrical theory of the
+nature of matter; when we remember the many striking analogies between
+electricity and the life-force; when we remember that the science of
+electricity is yet in its infancy, it should hold out to us the hope
+that, _here_, we may find a solution of many of these obscure problems,
+and that further investigations in the field of electricity may serve to
+explain to us many of these unknown and mysterious secrets of our inner
+nature, and the still more mysterious secrets of the séance-room. No
+more interesting and profitable researches could be attempted than those
+which endeavour to establish a connection between known and unknown
+phenomena; between physical and electrical manifestations, on the one
+hand, and these curious "psychical" phenomena, on the other. The crying
+need of the day is a "Psychical Laboratory," wherein such experiments as
+these could be conducted. It is my sincere hope that, some day, I may
+assist in the foundation of such a laboratory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+LIFE: AND ITS INTERPRETATION
+
+(_In the Light of M. Bergson's Philosophy_)
+
+
+The philosophy of life which M. Bergson advocates is more than a mere
+philosophy--more than a metaphysical doctrine; for, in so far as it
+endeavours to account for the "phenomena" of life, it entrenches upon
+biology; and M. Bergson himself is the first to acknowledge this. His
+own books are filled with interesting scientific data, which he has
+interpreted most ingeniously; and no broad-minded biologist can afford
+to neglect his work in the future. Two points of his theory call for
+special mention, however, it seems to me, and are subject, not to
+criticism but to discussion. One of these is that M. Bergson has not
+gone far enough in his interpretation of the facts; in the other he is,
+I believe, wrong in his interpretation--though his is the one commonly
+advanced and accepted. A few remarks on these two points may not,
+perhaps, be without interest.
+
+It is apparent to any student of these problems that the interpretation
+of life which M. Bergson has adopted is very different from that usually
+held. The _facts_, the phenomena of life, are the same on either theory,
+the difference lying in their explanation. All the facts of life are the
+same; they may be interpreted equally well on either theory. It is
+important to bear this in mind for reasons which will become apparent as
+we proceed.
+
+Now, the difference between M. Bergson's theory of life and that
+commonly held is this: that, whereas one[13] regards life as created or
+resulting from the total functioning of the body, the other regards it
+as something separate and distinct--merely utilizing the body for the
+purposes of its manifestation. In the one case, life is, as it were,
+made; in the other, it exists apart from the body it animates, and is
+merely associated with it. To sum up in two words, one is the
+_production_ theory of life; the other is the _transmissive_. One theory
+leads direct to materialism; the other allows all sorts of
+possibilities, which are readily perceived by any student of these
+questions.
+
+Thus stated, the situation at once reminds us of the controversy which
+raged some years ago as to the relation of brain and mind, as the result
+of the publication of James' lecture on _Human Immortality_. He then
+showed that it was quite possible to accept all the facts as to the
+relation of brain and consciousness, yet interpret them in a different
+manner; that there might be a transmissive function of the brain as well
+as a productive or secretive function; and that the undoubted fact of
+the inter-relation of the two sets of phenomena might just as well be
+interpreted in one way as in the other. The mere facts proved no theory
+true. As James so well said: "The psychologists noticed a connection,
+and at once assumed that it was the only possible _kind_ of
+connection"--which was not at all the case. Mere coincidence, in two
+sets of phenomena, does not prove that they are _causally_ related; that
+one produces the other. They may be quite separate from one another
+(psycho-physical parallelism), or both may be aspects of something else,
+etc. It is all a matter of interpretation, not of fact. But this is a
+view of the case which is seldom perceived, it seems to me, by
+psychologists generally. Seeing a coincidence, they at once postulate
+causal relation, and then proceed as if this had been thoroughly and
+scientifically established!
+
+I have spoken of this analogy, drawn from psychology, because it bears
+upon the problem before us in the clearest possible manner. Just as
+consciousness is usually conceived to be due to the functioning of the
+brain; so life is conceived to be due to the functioning of the body;
+but just as mind can be shown to exist apart from brain, and merely
+manifest _through_ it, in the same way, M. Bergson suggests, life may
+exist apart from matter, and merely animate it in its passage through
+it. It is all a question of interpretation.[14]
+
+Is the interpretation correct? As Hamlet said: "That is the question!"
+To use the words of the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour (_Hibbert Journal_,
+October 1911, p. 18):
+
+     "M. Bergson regards matter as the dam which keeps back the rush of
+     life. Organize it a little (as in the protozoa)--i.e. slightly
+     raise the sluice--and a little life will squeeze through. Organize
+     it elaborately (as in man)--i.e. raise the sluice a good deal--and
+     much life will squeeze through. Now this may be a very plausible
+     opinion if the flood of life be really there, beating against
+     matter till it force an entry through the narrow slit of
+     undifferentiated protoplasm. But is it there? Science, modesty
+     professing ignorance, can stumble along without it, and I question
+     whether philosophy, with only scientific data to work upon, can
+     establish its reality."
+
+It would seem to me that the only way to settle this question one way or
+the other is to bring forward certain _facts_ which can be accounted for
+more fully and rationally on one theory than on the other. If facts
+could be produced which one theory could not account for at all, the
+alternative theory might be said to stand proved. Do such facts exist
+which tell in favour of M. Bergson's theory as against the other? I
+believe they do. Before coming to them, however, I must draw attention
+to certain weaknesses in the generally held theory of life, which are,
+it seems to me, also shared by M. Bergson's theory. Until these are
+disposed of, I do not believe that any definite forward step will be
+taken towards proof either in one direction or in the other. So long as
+certain fundamental tenets are held, it seems improbable that any one
+theory of life will be proved more than any other theory. M. Bergson has
+gone part of the way, in his demonstration, but he has stopped there
+instead of carrying his train of argument to its logical conclusion. At
+least so it appears to me; for I think it obvious that the chain of
+argument which M. Bergson adopts can be carried much further than he has
+carried it, in his various writings.
+
+The view which M. Bergson adopts is somewhat as follows: Life is
+directive and creative; it utilizes the chemical and physical forces of
+the body for the purposes of its manifestation. It is the "spark" which
+sets off the explosive; it is the "hair-trigger" which liberates the
+enormous energy contained in the cartridge, etc. To apply the analogy:
+life utilizes and directs the energy obtained from food (by a species of
+chemical combustion) so that the bodily energy, as such, is, so to say,
+a "physical" energy, and subject to the law of conservation; while the
+power that guides, controls, and directs it is conscious life--the power
+of choice, the guider, the controller.
+
+This view of the case is, I believe, unsound, and for two reasons. In
+the first place, it does not, I think, go far enough in its
+interpretation; and, in the second place, we are face to face with a
+paradox--the problem of no-energy affecting energy. Let us take the
+second of these objections first.
+
+If a solid body, a fluid or a gas, be moving in a certain direction, a
+certain amount of energy must be exercised in order to divert its
+course--for otherwise it would continue in a straight line. Similarly,
+any energy will continue to exert itself in one direction, unless its
+course of activity be diverted into another channel; and this
+"divertion" constitutes a pressure, as it were, upon the energy; and
+this "pressure" can only be brought about by a "physical" force or
+energy--and so be within the law of conservation. No matter how _slight_
+this pressure--this guidance--may be, it is nevertheless _there_; and in
+so far as it directs the flow of energy, it must itself _be_ energy--for
+otherwise it could not direct or divert it. Even the analogy of the
+banks of a river fails us, because in that case every atom of the banks
+is acting upon the body of the water by a material pressure; and hence
+the banks as a whole are. Either life must be energy, or it must be
+no-energy. If the first of these suppositions be true, things would be
+intelligible; but if the second were true, they would not be, because
+no-energy cannot effect or guide or control energy without itself being
+energy; and this would either make life a "physical" energy, or remove
+its power of guidance altogether. I do not see how these alternatives
+are to be avoided.
+
+M. Bergson apparently tries to evade this issue by supposing that life
+only affects the energies of the body (derived from food) _very
+slightly_ by a sort of "hair-trigger" action, which releases a vast
+amount of energy, quite disproportionate to the energy of direction
+applied. But surely this is a mere begging of the question! One is
+reminded of Marryat's character, who asked to have her illegitimate baby
+excused "because it was such a little one!" No matter how _slight_ the
+amount of energy may be, if it is capable of affecting energy at all, it
+_is_ energy, and hence subject to the law of conservation. Life, as
+energy, must lie wholly outside the law (in which case all talk of
+"control" and "guidance" must go by the board), or it must lie wholly
+within it (in which case life becomes a purely "physical" energy, like
+any other, and cannot well be thought to exercise this "guidance").[15]
+
+We have thus seen that the second of our two alternatives (that life is
+no-energy) is untenable. Let us now return to the first--that life _is_
+energy--and see whither it leads us.
+
+If life be a form or mode of energy, it might affect, guide, and direct
+other modes of energy, or the matter of the body (and, through it, of
+the inorganic world) readily enough. It would affect them, but blindly.
+It could have no intelligent action. If life be an energy, it must be
+like all other energies in this respect; it must fall within the law of
+conservation and be non-intelligent. Otherwise it would be something
+different from all other forms of energy; and so we should have energy,
+plus intelligence, in the case of life; and only energy for all other
+forms. But in that case life could not simply be converted into or
+derived from any other mode of energy; because we should have
+"intelligence" left over, in our equation--which was created _de novo_
+whenever life was derived from other energies, and plunged into
+extinction and nothingness whenever life passed into any other mode of
+energy--in the course of our daily lives. But this is contrary both to
+experience and to all legitimate scientific thinking! Life, therefore,
+cannot be an intelligent or a directive energy. And so this argument
+also goes by the board, and we have left to us only the old
+materialistic conception of a non-intelligent, blind, life-force, or
+energy, derived from food, by a process of chemical combustion, and
+essentially no more mysterious than any other energy. This, therefore,
+is the conclusion to which we seem driven.
+
+But such a conclusion is not only contrary to M. Bergson's philosophy,
+but to daily observation and scientific knowledge; for we know that life
+_is_ directive, purposive, and progressive, and if evolution teaches us
+anything, it tells us that it must have been so always. We are thus
+driven into this dilemma: life must be an energy--but, as such, it
+cannot be purposive! Life _is_ purposive, yet it must be an energy--for
+otherwise it could not affect the bodily energies and the material
+world! Here then is an apparent paradox--a flat contradiction--incapable
+of solution or further elucidation.
+
+M. Bergson (and before him Sir Oliver Lodge and others) has attempted to
+meet this difficulty by supposing that the energy of the body is a
+"physical" energy, derived from food, and, as such, blind and subject to
+the law of conservation. This energy, they assert, is however
+manipulated and directed by the power of life or consciousness, which
+makes "use" of it, directs, and guides it. But this theory is, it seems
+to me, refuted by the arguments just advanced, which show that life and
+consciousness cannot affect energy in this way unless they themselves be
+energy; and thus we are in a "vicious circle" again, with no hope of
+ever getting out.
+
+The whole difficulty has arisen, it seems to me, because of the
+conception of the nature of life usually held. Were this altered these
+problems would be found to have a ready solution. M. Bergson has gone
+half way toward finding this solution, but has stopped there; he has
+clung to the most fallacious part of the theory, and for this reason has
+been unable to emerge altogether from the difficulties above mentioned.
+Only when we change our conception of the nature of the life-force will
+these problems become clearer--these questions find their true solution.
+
+Have I, then, any theory to offer as to the nature of this power of life
+which is essentially new to physiology and biology? I believe that I
+have--not new as to facts, but as to the interpretation of facts (the
+latter remain the same on either theory).
+
+In order to make the theory which follows plain in as few words as
+possible, it will be necessary to refer for a moment to the current
+conception of vital energy--of life--in the human body. It has been
+stated by Bergson himself with admirable clearness (_Hibbert Journal_,
+October 1911, pp. 35-36; _Creative Evolution_, pp. 253-54, etc.), and is
+briefly this:
+
+Food, when broken down and oxidised in the body, gives forth or
+liberates energy--just as coal liberates energy when burned in the
+engine. In both cases energy (contained in the food or the coal, as the
+case may be) is liberated, and this energy is utilized to drive our
+engine--the human body or the steam-engine (it makes no difference to
+the argument). The energy thus gained is, it is contended, again given
+off as heat and work--muscular and mental work in the case of the human
+engine (the body); mechanical work of all sorts, and heat, in the case
+of the steam-engine. Thus one is essentially no more mysterious than the
+other--the body no more so than the steam-engine--vitality no more so
+than steam! Both are "physical" energies, subject to the law of
+conservation, and as such transmutable one into the other. This is the
+generally accepted theory, which likens the human body to a
+steam-engine, and is the theory all but universally adopted by
+scientific men, held as proved and adopted without question by M.
+Bergson!
+
+But such a view of the case is, I believe, essentially untrue. It is
+_one_ interpretation of the observed facts, truly; but not the only
+interpretation. The facts remain equally true on either theory; the
+difference lies in their explanation. It is the old error of confusing
+coincidence with causation--and not only that, but a particular _kind_
+of causation, and "treating it as the only imaginable kind." Just as the
+psychologists reasoned upon the acknowledged facts of the relation of
+brain and consciousness; so do the physiologists, in our own day, reason
+upon this question of the causation of vital energy by food. In both
+cases there has been one-sided and partial reasoning.
+
+If, however, we reject the prevalent notion of the causation of vital
+energy by food, we must have another theory to offer in its place. It
+is, I know, presumptuous thus to run counter to the whole of accepted
+teaching, in this respect, and my excuse must be that I believe my
+theory represents the truth, while that universally held does not!
+Again, I must emphasize that I speak, not of facts, but of inferences
+drawn from facts. With this apology, I shall state my own view of the
+case as follows:
+
+Instead of comparing the human body with the steam-engine, it should be
+compared with and likened to the _electric motor_. Just as the motor is
+recharged, or receives its energy from some external source, just so, I
+believe, is the human nervous system recharged from without, during the
+hours of sleep. It is placed into a peculiar, receptive condition, in
+which this "recharging" process takes place. Our energy is derived
+through sleep, and not from food. Food merely replaces broken-down
+tissue (and, if you will, the animal heat) but never supplies or creates
+its vital energy. This depends upon its nervous mechanism, and upon
+sleep, and not upon the muscular system and chemical combustion. What
+differentiates the steam-engine from the human organism is the fact that
+one needs sleep while the other does not (in other words, one is living
+and vital, and the other is not), yet, in spite of this obvious
+difference--which is so great that it really destroys all the
+analogy--physiologists have continued to disregard it, and to treat the
+human body as a mere machine--such as a steam-engine--which requires no
+sleep, and derives its energy solely by combustion! To my mind, this is
+one of the most curious paradoxes of modern science.
+
+To place the theory in as clear a light as possible, then, it is this:
+Food supplies or replaces broken-down tissue (and heat) to the body; but
+not vitality, or the power of life, which comes only from rest and
+sleep. No matter how much food we may eat and perfectly oxidise, there
+comes a time, nevertheless, when we must go to bed, and not to the
+dining-room, to recuperate our strength and energies. During sleep,
+vital energy flows into us (our nervous systems), and all animals need
+sleep--this fact differentiating them, at once, from any form of
+mechanical engine. Life, vital energy, is not due, as is universally
+thought, to chemical combustion, but to vital replenishment. No energy
+is _created_ within the body; it is merely _transmitted_. The body, in
+fact, acts as a means of transmission--as a sort of "organic burning
+glass" which transmits and focuses the sun's rays on one focal point.
+And just as any crack, or blur, or clouding, or other accident to the
+burning glass would interfere with its power and capacity from
+transmitting the rays, so, any accident or disease or pathological state
+of the organism would interfere with or altogether prevent the passage
+or flow through it, of the life or vital energy. "The more perfect, the
+better these conditions, the greater the influx of vital force, and vice
+versa. We must see that all the electrodes and avenues and channels are
+bright and clear, so that there shall be as little hindrance as possible
+to either the inflow of energy in the form of power, or to its outflow
+in the form of work done." My theory of the relation of body and bodily
+energy is, in fact, an extension of James' "transmission theory" of
+consciousness to the _whole_ of our life and vital energy. And I believe
+the one is as defensible as the other.
+
+But, I shall be asked, is there any evidence for such a theory? There is
+much evidence, there are many facts, which I have adduced in full
+elsewhere.[16] This is not the place to discuss the physiological
+intricacies involved, and I can only refer those interested to the work
+in question. At present, I shall assume its accuracy--or at least its
+validity--and proceed to show in few words why it is that this theory is
+not contrary to any known facts, but is capable of explaining them just
+as fully as the generally accepted theory, and other (disputed) facts
+far more readily.
+
+The facts upon which the current theory is founded are well known, and,
+apparently, thoroughly established. Briefly, they are these: So much
+food, oxidised or burned outside the body, can be shown to yield so much
+heat and energy. The same foods, oxidised within the body, yield
+approximately the same amount of energy. Further, the energy which the
+body expends (in conscious and unconscious muscular activity, thought,
+emotion, and as heat, etc.) is, it is contended, practically equivalent
+to the energy which is thus supplied. There is, therefore, an
+equivalence, a balance, between income and outgo of energy: so that the
+recently conducted experiments in calorimetry are held to prove beyond
+question the causation of vital energy by food.
+
+I shall not in this place stop to question the accuracy of the figures
+obtained--to point out that the results do not always tally; that far
+too little allowance has been made for mental and emotional states, etc.
+I shall assume that the figures are accurate and prove all that they are
+held to prove. The question then arises: Do the figures prove the
+causation of vital energy by food? Apparently they do, no doubt, and
+they are held to do so by the majority of experimental physiologists;
+but I do not believe that this is at all the case. Admitting the facts,
+admitting far greater accuracy than the figures really show, we have to
+consider the question of their _interpretation_. And this brings us back
+to the remarks made at the beginning of this paper--that coincidence
+does not prove causation; and that the same set of facts may often be
+interpreted in an entirely different manner--one which would show that
+life is not directly dependent upon food combustion at all, as is
+generally supposed. The alternative method of interpreting the facts
+would be as follows:
+
+Life is a _power_ which acts upon organized matter, under certain
+conditions, in a variable and fluctuating manner. Whenever energy acts
+upon substance, substance wastes. Whenever work of any kind is done by
+the body, therefore, the tissues are broken down, and to supply this
+waste, this destruction, food material is needed. The more waste, the
+greater the need for repair, and _per contra_ the less waste, the less
+the need of repair. So far as the material equivalent (food) is
+concerned, therefore, it will be seen that this is only what we should
+expect on either theory; and tells no more in favour of one than the
+other.
+
+But what of the energy? The greater the expenditure of energy, the more
+work done, the more tissue destroyed. The more tissue destroyed, the
+more food needed, and the more ingested. But this does not prove that
+the extra amount of food has _created_ the extra energy! That would be
+putting the cart before the horse with a vengeance! And yet this is what
+is universally done by physiologists in considering these experiments!
+Perhaps I cannot do better than to quote, just here, a portion of the
+excellent Introduction which Dr. A. Rabagliati, F.R.C.S., F.F.C.P.,
+etc., wrote to my book, and which really states the case more clearly
+than I stated it myself. He says in part:
+
+     "To take an analogy: It seems to me it would be as pertinent to
+     argue that because the strings of a violin or harp waste in
+     proportion to the quantity of music evolved through or by means of
+     them, therefore the waste of the strings is the cause of the
+     music, while in fact it is the hand of the player, and even the
+     spirit behind the hand, which is the real and efficient cause of
+     the music. So the form of the infinite and universal energy, which
+     we may call erg-dynamic, is the cause of the waste of the body
+     through which it works; and this is at once made good by the
+     increased trophic metabolism which occurs, to replace the
+     waste--this increased trophic metabolism showing itself in
+     increased O_2 intake and coincidently or correspondingly with
+     increased CO_2 output. If the strings of a musical instrument were
+     self-repairing, we might perhaps be induced to think that the
+     material which fed the strings was the _cause_ of the music, since
+     in that case some measure of the waste would probably be
+     discoverable in the _débris_ emitted; and we might imagine that the
+     _débris_ was the measure of the music, while what it really was,
+     was the measure of the waste of the strings, when they were made
+     the instrument of the music. If a spade is used in digging, the
+     spade wastes in proportion to every spadeful of earth it is made to
+     lift. The more it digs, the more it wastes. If we could arrange
+     that a stream of fine steel particles flowed into the spade, to
+     replace the waste caused by each act of digging, we might perhaps
+     come to think that these fine steel particles were the cause of the
+     digging, especially as the quantity of them required would always
+     be exactly proportioned to the amount of work done. Nevertheless,
+     this would be a very inconsequent assumption. Yet this is the
+     assumption invariably made by modern scientists."
+
+It will thus be seen that another interpretation might easily be placed
+upon the observed facts, and that, while the latter are accepted without
+question, it is yet possible to conceive the relationship as quite other
+than usually imagined; and consequently of life as an energy independent
+of the food supply,[17] and outside the law of conservation--a force
+absolutely distinct, separate, _per se_. M. Bergson has gone so far as
+to speak of life as a "power," as a "vital impetus"--utilizing matter
+for the purposes of its manifestation, etc. I have merely extended this
+conception in what appears to me a logical and necessary direction. It
+appears to me certain that life is a sentient power--different from any
+other mode of energy of which we have any knowledge, and as such no
+longer subject to the objections raised earlier in this paper (to other
+conceptions of life), which might also be advanced, it seems to me,
+against M. Bergson's theory. Were the theory of life here defended true,
+it would not only enable us to account for life in a satisfactory
+manner, but it would render clear many obscure and sporadic phenomena
+which the current theories are quite incapable of explaining (and hence
+often ignore!); and it would also practically assure us continuity of
+life beyond the grave--after the dissolution of the body--because mind
+and consciousness are shown to be independent of physical energy, even
+in _this_ life! This, however, is a subject which requires special and
+lengthy treatment, and I cannot touch upon it now. All that I can aim to
+do at present is to show that there may be a spiritual source even for
+our _physical_ life and energy here. And, were this true, psychic
+phenomena might readily be accounted for--since there would no longer
+remain any valid objection to their occurrence.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] The orthodox, scientific theory.
+
+[14] See _Mind Energy_, chapters 1 and 2. This view has also been
+adopted by Mr. W. Whately Smith (see his _Theory of the Mechanism of
+Survival_) where he says (p. 114): "This latter (the transmissive
+theory) is the view held by M. Bergson, by Mr. Carrington and by
+myself."
+
+[15] It might be contended that life is an _intelligent_ force--both a
+physical energy and intelligence; but if that were the case we should
+simply have energy _plus_ something, and the "plus something" would
+constitute the whole mystery. We should be no better off than we were
+before. All the energies known to us are certainly non-intelligent, and
+if you superimpose anything else on the energy you at once differentiate
+it from all other energies--which you are not entitled to do (see
+below).
+
+[16] See my _Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition_, pp. 225-350.
+
+[17] The question has been asked, What becomes of the potential energy
+contained in the food, if it is not converted into bodily energy? I
+reply, it is given off or imparted to the body as heat (not energy), but
+this heat is again given off by the body. The more imparted to the body,
+the more is again given off. We know that the body possesses a
+self-regulating apparatus which keeps the body, when alive, always at a
+constant temperature. (When dead, of course, the "corpse" cools to the
+temperature of the surrounding air.) The equivalence is again
+maintained, it will be observed, because the more heat we impart to the
+body the more it in turn gives off.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE HUMAN WILL IS A PHYSICAL ENERGY
+
+AN INSTRUMENT WHICH PROVES IT
+
+
+PART I
+
+The Facts
+
+That the human will is a definite physical energy, which can be
+registered by means of a scale or balance, may appear so incredible that
+the bare statement of the case would seem to carry with it its own
+refutation! Yet I firmly believe that this is a fact; that the energy of
+the will may be registered by means of an instrument I am about to
+describe; and that any one can prove this,--any one, i.e., who cares to
+take the time to repeat these experiments, and to try a sufficient
+number of subjects until the right ones be found--who are capable of
+affecting the balance in the manner described.
+
+Such a fact--if fact it be--is of the utmost importance to science and
+to philosophy; even more important and more far-reaching in its
+implications than may at first sight appear. Not only is the fact itself
+of extraordinary interest, but the very origin and structure of our
+universe is called into question--and shown to be capable of an
+interpretation very different from that usually offered by modern
+science. And, further, if it be true that the human will is a physical
+energy, we have here the discovery of a _new force_--a force just as
+new to science as magnetism or electricity--and vastly more interesting,
+since it is intimately associated with all of us, and subject to our
+direction, guidance, and command--a force for us to wield and
+manipulate--for weal or woe!
+
+It may be thought, by some, that this is no new discovery; that the
+human will is a physical energy is a fact of common observation; and
+that we all feel the liberation of this energy whenever an act of
+volition is performed. I may reply at once to such critics that (common
+sense as it may appear) this is not at all the attitude of modern
+psychology; and that, by _savants_ the will is not considered an energy
+at all, but rather a choice of actions or an effort of attention. It is
+a state of consciousness merely, possessing intrinsically no more energy
+than any other state of the kind. This may, perhaps, be made clear by
+the following brief quotation from James' _Psychology_:
+
+     "We can now see that attention with effort is all that any case of
+     volition implies. The essential achievement of the will, in short,
+     when it is most "voluntary" is to attend to a difficult object and
+     hold it fast before the mind. The so doing _is_ the _fiat_; and it
+     is a mere physiological incident that when the object is thus
+     attended to, immediate motor consequences should ensue. Effort of
+     attention is thus the immediate phenomenon of will." (p. 450.)
+
+This, then, is the attitude of psychology. It contends that the will is
+by no means an energy, in the sense in which physicists use that term;
+but rather that it is a mere state of mind, or of consciousness. As
+such it is, of course, helpless; a mere witness of the drama of life,
+incapable in itself of affecting or changing the external world. So far
+as the physical world is concerned, it is a mere by-product, a useless
+adjunct--the feeling of energy-expenditure being delusory. Such is the
+attitude of modern psychology, and a very hopeless and unattractive
+belief it is!
+
+As opposed to this view, I propose to show that the human will _is_ a
+definite physical energy, which forms an essential part of our human
+personality--and forms, indeed, the very core of our being, so far as
+its expression into the physical world is concerned. This view of the
+case, I may say, is not altogether new; several competent neurologists
+have, of late, defended this conception in no measured terms. Thus, Dr.
+William Hanna Thomson, in his _Brain and Personality_, says:
+
+     "An important conclusion is led up to by these facts, namely, that
+     we can _make our own brains_, so far as special mental functions or
+     aptitudes are concerned, if only we have wills strong enough to
+     take the trouble. By practice, practice, practice, as in Miss
+     Keller's case, the Will stimulus will not only organize brain
+     centres to perform new functions, but will project new connections,
+     or, as they are technically called, association fibres, which will
+     make nerve centres work together as they could not without being
+     thus associated.... It is not the power of the brain, it is the
+     masterful personal Will which makes the brain _human_. It is the
+     Will alone which can make material seats for mind, and, when made,
+     they are the most personal things in a man's body.... Man can
+     always do what he chooses, or, in other words, wills. Therefore
+     this very different thing, his Will, makes man different from every
+     other earthly living thing."
+
+Such a view of the case certainly gives a far greater dignity and power
+to the will; but is it true? That is the question; it is a mere matter
+of interpretation, without any means of settling the facts one way or
+the other. It may be "pleasant" to believe this or many other things;
+but that does not make them true!
+
+It is obvious that arguments such as this might go on for ever. The
+nature of the human will would never be settled by such means. We desire
+a more definite and concise method--one capable of settling the case one
+way or the other--and settling it, not by argument, but by fact.
+Arguments convince no one; facts every one! It is only by an appeal to
+fact, therefore, that this question can be settled one way or the other.
+The difficulty has been that, until now, no direct method has been
+devised capable of solving the problem. This has now been rendered
+possible for the first time, by means of the instrument described in
+this chapter. The experiments herein narrated settle, to my mind, the
+question of the nature of the human will; they prove it to be a definite
+physical energy--as much so as any other energy we know. The majority of
+these facts have been before the scientific world for some time; and why
+their philosophic interpretation and implications have not been seen is
+to me a great mystery. One can only account for it by assuming that most
+scientists are not at the same time philosophers; they do not see the
+full _meaning_ of the facts they observe. Only in this manner can one
+account for the apathy with which the scientific world has, so far,
+accepted the facts in question--why it has utterly failed to see their
+tremendous philosophic and even religious value and significance.
+
+My attention was first drawn to the instrument in question by Professor
+Th. Flournoy, of Geneva, the author of _From India to the Planet Mars_,
+_Spiritism and Psychology_, and other works, well known to English
+readers. Immediately I learned of the experiments in question, I wrote
+to Professor Alrutz, and obtained from him one of his instruments, by
+means of which the experiments described below were performed. Writing
+of the early results obtained by him, Professor Alrutz says ("Report to
+the Sixth Congress of Psychology," etc.):
+
+     "In spite of the knowledge we have gained of the electrical and
+     chemical phenomena of the central nervous system, we must confess
+     that we know little indeed of the inner nature of the
+     psycho-physical processes. What is happening in the
+     brain--especially in the psycho-motor centres--when we move an arm
+     by means of an act of will? What are the forms of nervous energy
+     which are employed? Are these entirely electrical and chemical
+     forces, the neural impulses being mere electrical currents? Or are
+     there other forms of energy which experimental physiology has not
+     as yet brought to light? Might there not be, perhaps, some form of
+     energy more closely allied to the psychic acts, constituting a sort
+     of bridge or transition between psychic phenomena, on the one
+     hand, and electrical and chemical phenomena, on the other?
+
+     "When we wish to study the electrical charge contained in any body,
+     we obtain exactitude only when we succeed in transferring this
+     charge to another body; we may then study the nature of the charge
+     under varying circumstances, and establish the influence of the two
+     charges upon one another. It is only in this way that
+     experimentation becomes truly fertile. Should we not apply the same
+     laws to the phenomena of the nervous system, and institute a
+     similar mode of experiment for the nervous energies? Under what
+     conditions can we conceive this transference?
+
+     "The most natural supposition seems to be that it would occur, if
+     at all, in labile organizations; in those subjects which, according
+     to Janet (_Les Névroses_, p. 339), possess an excessively unstable
+     personality; and whose psychic life is characterized by great
+     suggestibility, by instability, and a certain peculiar mobility.
+     Such individuals are also characterized by the great facility with
+     which the functions vary and react upon one another. Binswanger has
+     said that the nervous system of these individuals is characterized
+     by the variability of the dynamic cortical functions; that is to
+     say, by the fact that the nervous segments of their cerebral cortex
+     present a _mélange_ of greater or lesser irritability...."[18]
+
+Professor Alrutz goes on to say that, guided by this idea, he
+constructed an instrument designed to test his theory--based in part,
+but not wholly, upon the earlier instruments employed by Hare, Crookes,
+etc., to test the same thing. As is well known, these experimenters
+spent much time in their investigations--both of them coming to the
+conclusion, after years of patient research, that physical apparatus
+could be definitely influenced and moved by the will of certain persons,
+when exercised in the direction of their movement, and without
+sufficient contact to account for the observed facts. Crookes'
+experiments, in particular, are very conclusive in this direction--his
+apparatus being very similar to that designed by Professor Alrutz. He
+employed a board, one end of which was attached to a spring balance,
+while the other end of the board rested upon a solid table. The subject
+placed his hands upon the board, and a definite pressure was registered
+by the balance--far more than could be obtained in any normal manner.
+These experiments of Crookes are classical, and have never been
+"explained away." With the present instrument, there seems every
+likelihood of confirming these earlier experiments.
+
+The apparatus employed is of the simplest possible construction. A solid
+board, some 10-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches, and 1 inch thick, forms the base of
+the apparatus. In this, at a distance of some 6 inches, two holes are
+drilled, into which are inserted pegs, 3-1/2 inches long, and sharpened
+at their top edges to a fine knife-edge. This constitutes the
+fulcrum--the upper board resting on these knife-edges, and being
+unevenly balanced on them. (See Frontispiece.)
+
+The upper board, resting on these edges, is some 19 inches long by 13
+inches broad at the lower end, and 10 inches broad at the upper end. The
+narrowing takes place about 6 inches from the end of the board (broad
+end), in the form of a rapid inward curve. It is here that a groove is
+cut, and, 7-1/2 inches from the broad end of the board, two pointed
+grooves are also cut, which allow the board to rest nicely upon the
+knife-edges of the two pegs below it. In this position the board would
+naturally assume a downward slant, owing to the greater length of the
+board on one side of the fulcrum than on the other. (See Frontispiece.)
+When the long end of the board is supported, by means of a piece of
+string, to a letter scale, however, the board is made to assume a
+horizontal attitude, parallel to the table top. In this position the
+board weighs just 5 ounces, and if the balance registers more than 5
+ounces, it shows that a weight or pressure or force has been applied to
+the long end of the board. If force be applied on the _short_ end of the
+board (where the hands rest), it would have the effect of merely
+depressing this end of the instrument, and causing a _lessening_ of
+weight, as registered by the balance. This is noted invariably whenever
+pressure of the hands is made upon the board near the sitter.
+
+With this little instrument, Professor Alrutz tried a number of
+experiments, on several occasions, which he divided into groups or
+series. The history of his initial experiments is, as briefly as
+possible, as follows:
+
+_1st Series._--No results.
+
+_2nd Series._--The board, after a short interval, lowered, showing a
+pressure of 40 grammes. This was at the first trial. It descended
+slowly, remaining at this point for about 5 seconds. It again descended
+several times, making at one time a depression of 120 grammes. On
+another occasion the board was depressed, and showed a pressure of 100
+grammes, which lasted for 35 seconds. On other occasions lesser
+depressions were noted, but for longer periods of time. On several
+occasions the balance registered a downward pressure for two minutes or
+more. This was in good light, and was carefully observed by two
+physicians, as well as by Professor Alrutz. The "subjects" were, in this
+case, ladies of good Swedish families, who had never seen or heard of
+the instrument before. They were, however, during the experiments,
+treated as professional "mediums," and every precaution was taken to
+prevent fraud. The following were some of the precautions observed:
+
+The light was sufficiently good to enable the observers to _see_ that no
+threads or hairs were attached to the board or any part of the apparatus
+or balance. They also ascertained this with their hands. It was also
+seen that none of the subjects lifted the board by slipping their
+fingers under the edges of the board and pulling it upwards. (It may be
+remarked in this connection that even had they done so this would not
+account for the results noted; since, in several instances, the downward
+pressure recorded was more than the weight of the entire board.) As the
+eyes of the observers were close to the board and to the fingers of the
+subjects, it was clearly seen, however, that nothing of the sort took
+place. Besides, as before said, the subjects who tried the board were
+ladies, and not professional "psychics" in any sense of the word.
+
+It was also ascertained that no sticky material was upon the fingers of
+the subjects; they were carefully examined both before and after each
+experiment. Further, to test this hypothesis fully, thin strips of wood
+(shavings) were on several occasions introduced between the subjects'
+fingers and the board, which was depressed. Had they lifted their
+fingers, therefore, they could not possibly have lifted the board, which
+would not have adhered to them under these circumstances.
+
+_3rd Series._--Two "functionaries of state" attended this series, the
+principal subject tried being the wife of one of these dignitaries. He
+himself was extremely sceptical of his wife's ability to move the board,
+and remained so until convinced by the facts! The board was lowered, and
+the balance showed a pressure of from 70 to 100 grammes. The subject was
+extremely fatigued after these tests, and went to sleep almost
+immediately. Others who tried the board could obtain a registration of
+only 2 or 3 grammes.
+
+_4th Series._--Several very successful trials were made in this series
+with two ladies as subjects. Both placed their hands on the board
+together, and the depressions were of very long duration. In these
+experiments sooted paper was placed under the hands of the
+experimenters. It was noted that better results were obtained if one of
+them cried "Now!" when the board was to be depressed. The desire to
+sleep was strong after these trials, and in one instance the subject
+really did fall asleep during the experiment! An odd fact which should
+be noted in this connection is that no results were obtained unless the
+subject _looked_ at the long end of the board while the "willing" was in
+progress.
+
+_5th Series._--This series of experiments was attended by a well-known
+physician and a psychologist. The light was good as before. From 40 to
+50 grammes were registered by the balance on several occasions, the
+downward pressure lasting from 20 to 30 seconds. Clearly, therefore,
+none of these depressions could be attributed to mere oscillations of
+the board, but denoted a definite and persistent downward pressure.
+
+Nausea and a strong desire for sleep were experienced by the subjects in
+this series of experiments, as before.
+
+The above is a very rapid summary of the report drawn up by Dr. Sydney
+Alrutz, and read to the Sixth Psychological Congress, which met at
+Geneva in August 1909. Professor Alrutz also attended the Congress in
+person, and brought with him one of his instruments, which he desired to
+try upon some of the members in the presence of a number of
+psychologists. In several instances these attempts were entirely
+successful; and Professor Flournoy, editor of the _Archives de
+Psychologie_, was enabled to say of these experiments:
+
+     "Professor Alrutz invited me to assist in two séances, in which we
+     experimented upon some of the feminine members of the Congress who
+     desired to try it. The first, in which the subject was Mme. Glika,
+     yielded nothing conclusive. But at the second, at which Professor
+     Alrutz attempted to increase the force by adding two other members
+     of the Congress (strangers who had appeared to him to possess
+     suitable temperaments), it succeeded fully, and I was able to prove
+     conclusively after three trials, and under conditions precluding
+     all possibility of fraud or illusion, that the will of these
+     ladies, concentrated upon a certain material object with a desire
+     to produce a movement in it, ended by producing this movement as if
+     by means of a fluid or an invisible force obeying their mental
+     command." (_Spiritism and Psychology_, p. 291.)
+
+So much for the testimony of Professor Flournoy and Professor Alrutz. In
+view of the facts and the well-known caution of these investigators, we
+may assuredly take it for granted that there is here no room for doubt,
+and that the manifestations really took place as recorded.
+
+My own experiments with this board have not, unfortunately, proved
+nearly so conclusive as those of Professor Alrutz--owing, doubtless, to
+the rarity of good "physical mediums" or those capable of exercising
+their will in the desired manner. It must not be thought that any one
+possessing a "strong will" can manipulate the board--as Professor Alrutz
+has pointed out. It is only a peculiarly endowed person who can move the
+board, one capable not only of exercising the necessary will power, but
+also of externalising it--a very rare power. Hence the small number of
+successes. Out of all those tried, I have found only two who could
+(apparently) move the board at all, and even in their cases the results
+were far less striking than in the cases reported by Professor Alrutz.
+In one case a number of slight depressions were obtained; but these were
+so fleeting, and lasted for so short a time, that it was almost
+impossible to be certain that the results were not due to mere
+oscillations of the board. In the second case, however, more definite
+results were obtained. On several occasions, depressions of half an
+ounce were noted; and, on two occasions, of more than an ounce, lasting
+for several seconds. I was enabled to assure myself at the time that
+these depressions were real, and were not the result of fraudulent
+manipulation of the board. Although these results are few and meagre
+compared with those of Professor Alrutz, still they tend to confirm his
+views, and add to the testimony adduced by him and by Professor
+Flournoy, in favour of the reality of the facts--of the actual physical
+pressure by the Will upon the board in question.
+
+In view of these results, then--of this apparently mutually confirmatory
+testimony--it seems impossible to doubt the fact that we have here
+definite and conclusive proof that the human will has succeeded in
+depressing the board in question--in being registered upon the balance,
+and, consequently, that it is a physical energy, capable of affecting
+the material world just as any other physical energy does.
+
+
+PART II
+
+Theories
+
+It may be contended, however, that in thus postulating the human will as
+a physical energy I have not taken into account the alternative
+explanation of the facts which might be adopted or assumed. This theory
+contends that it is not the will itself which causes the movement we
+observe, but the cerebral activity which corresponds to it, and is its
+physiological counterpart. It has frequently been pointed out before
+(_cf._ Ribot, _The Diseases of the Will_, pp. 5, 6), that when we will
+to move our arm, e.g., it may not be the will at all, _per se_, which
+affects the movement, but the brain-state or neural activity which
+accompanies the act of will. In other words, mind or will never affects
+matter (as we feel it does), but it is always one portion of the body
+which affects another portion--the will or state of consciousness being
+merely coincidental with this observed action.
+
+This has been one of the classical objections to the doctrine of
+inter-actionism; and it must not be thought that I have failed to take
+into account this alternate theory. But opposed to this view of the case
+we have the facts--(1) that the state of consciousness, and not the
+brain-state, is surely here the important factor; and (2) that, even
+were the supposition true, this nervous action or influence must cease
+at the periphery of the body; for, were this not the case, we should
+already have exceeded the limits of the orthodox physiological theory,
+which contends that one portion _of the body_ affects another portion
+(only), and does not contend or pretend that this action may extend
+beyond the surface of the body; for, if it did so extend, we should have
+a nervous current without nerves--an appalling fact, and one totally
+opposed to accepted physiological teaching!
+
+In order for nervous energy or life force to exist independent of the
+body (upon the functionings of which it supposedly depends), it would be
+necessary for us to reconstruct the mechanistic interpretation of life,
+since it would show that life is not dependent upon the body for its
+existence, but might exist independently of it, which is the very point
+in dispute. It cannot logically be contended, therefore, that the
+energy which we here see in operation lies in the nerves or in the
+brain-centres, but rather that it is a separate force, which physiology,
+as taught today, cannot account for. Introspection and experiment seem
+to unite in telling us that this energy is none other than the human
+Will.
+
+But if it be granted, on the other hand, that the will is a physical
+energy, we immediately encounter certain difficulties which must not be
+ignored. In the first place, if the will be a physical energy, it is
+subject to the law of Conservation, and, consequently, must be included
+within the cycle of forces which that law encompasses. Light, heat,
+chemical affinity, etc., are supposed to be mutually convertible and
+transmutable; and, according to the present hypothesis, Will must also
+be included in this series! But every energy we know in the physical
+universe is a non-intelligent energy, and, as I have pointed out
+elsewhere, if we make the human will thus subject to the law of
+Conservation, it seems to form a unique exception to the law. For we
+know (if our consciousness tells us anything) that willing is an
+intelligent act, and we should consequently have this conscious act or
+intent left over in the equation. For we have, in all other cases,
+purely physical energy, and in this case physical energy _plus
+something_ (conscious intent). The law of Conservation tells us that one
+energy is derived from another, and is converted again into another form
+of physical energy, when it is expended. But if will, _ex hypothesi_ a
+physical energy, is derived from another physical energy (by a process
+of combustion, or what you will), we have here a case of the lesser
+including the greater--of a thing giving rise to something greater and
+more inclusive than itself--which is contrary to all accepted thinking.
+The will, therefore, cannot be _entirely_ subject to the law of
+Conservation, but appears to draw upon an additional fund or source of
+energy, which is infused into it, as it were, from without. This "thing"
+which is infused or super-added, this "something" which is the "plus" in
+our equation, appears to be the directive element, the life element, the
+sentient element--which is thus shown to lie outside the law of
+Conservation, as many physicists and philosophers (Lodge, Crookes,
+Bergson, etc.) have for some time past contended it must or might lie.
+
+One significant fact, in this connection, is that while the law of
+Conservation is doubtless true, so far as it goes, there is also in
+operation another law, well known to physicists, called the law of the
+Degradation of Energy, which asserts that energies of a higher order are
+constantly being converted into energies of a lower order. This law
+maintains that energies of a lower order cannot be reconverted into
+energies of a higher order. All other energies are being slowly but
+surely converted into heat--the lowest of all forms of energy. And this
+heat is gradually being dissipated, or radiated away, into space, so
+that, at some distant day, our universe will be cold and lifeless, like
+the moon.
+
+Now it is a significant fact that the single exception to this rule
+consists in, and is constituted by, _life_, or vital energy, which is
+constantly building lower forms of energy into higher forms. Life is
+certainly the highest form of energy which we know in this world, and
+all energies are below this in rank--as may readily be proved by an
+appeal to the facts of nutrition and metabolism. And, as life is
+constantly being added to or infused into the world (as the population
+increases), it is certainly true that there is here a definite increase
+of the sum-total of the highest form of energy of which we have any
+knowledge. Life thus occupies not only an important but a unique
+position--in that it is constructive instead of destructive; and this
+fact alone should give us pause, and make us ask whether life is, in its
+totality, subject to and included within the law of Conservation of
+Energy.
+
+The establishment of the fact that the human will is a definite physical
+energy is of importance also, because of its bearing upon the problem of
+the connection or inter-relation of mind and matter. Theories as to this
+bond or connection have been propounded since the dawn of philosophy.
+Aristotle and others wrote and thought deeply upon this subject. As is
+well known, this question formed one of the central points of debate in
+the works of Hobbes, Berkeley, Hume, Descartes, Leibnitz, Spinoza, Kant,
+Hegel, Lotze, and many other philosophical writers--all of whom wrote
+and speculated at length upon this subject. The theories which have been
+advanced in the past are briefly as follows:[19]
+
+_1st. Crude Materialism._--This doctrine contends that consciousness is
+merely matter, or energy, or matter in motion. It is not necessary to
+discuss this theory here, as it is not held today by any scientist of
+the first rank.
+
+_2nd. Epiphenomenalism._--This doctrine found its foremost champion in
+Huxley. It contends that the important happenings are the
+brain-changes--which are causally connected--and that our thoughts, or
+corresponding states of consciousness, merely accompany the
+brain-changes, just as the shadow of a horse may be said to accompany
+the horse.
+
+The objections of this doctrine are:--
+
+(_a_) That it is just as inconceivable to believe or imagine that
+brain-changes generate consciousness as it is to imagine that
+consciousness generates brain-changes.
+
+(_b_) The law of Conservation is preserved at the expense of the law of
+Causality. For, if no part of the cause passed over into the effect (the
+state of consciousness), the law of Causality would be violated.
+
+(_c_) The appearance of consciousness, at some definite point in the
+course of the evolution of the animal kingdom constitutes a breach of
+continuity.
+
+For these and other reasons epiphenomenalism is today held by few, if
+any, philosophers.
+
+_3rd. Psycho-Physical Parallelism._--This is the doctrine maintained by
+Münsterberg and others. It contends that brain-changes and states of
+consciousness are merely coincidental in point of time, and do not ever
+influence each other. Their relation is that of mere coincidence or
+concomitance, and not causation. The two flow along, side by side,
+without in any way interfering with one another.
+
+As regards this doctrine, it need only be pointed out that, were it
+true, mind and body could never influence one another, since they are
+not causally connected. Yet, if there be no connection, how is it that
+they correspond so exactly?--for, as James said, "It is quite
+inconceivable that consciousness should have _nothing to do_ with a
+business which it so faithfully attends."
+
+_4th. Phenomenalistic Parallelism._--This is the theory maintained by
+Kant, Spinoza, and others. It maintains that both brain and
+consciousness (or mind and body) are but two different expressions of
+one underlying reality--just as the convex and concave surfaces of a
+sphere are but two expressions of an underlying reality. As to the
+nature of this reality, Kant and Herbert Spencer were content to call it
+X or the unknown, while Spinoza maintained that it was God.
+
+Analogies which are held to support this doctrine are, however,
+extremely defective; but the subject is too lengthy and technical to
+elucidate in detail here.
+
+_5th. Psychical Monism._--This doctrine contends that consciousness is
+the only reality--the material world being external appearance only.
+Thoughts are causally connected, but not physical events. (The doctrine
+is thus the exact inverse of epiphenomenalism.)
+
+In refutation of this theory, it may be pointed out that, if
+brain-changes are thus caused by, or are the outer expressions of,
+thought--why not muscular changes, and in fact all physical phenomena
+throughout the world everywhere? For we cannot rationally draw the line
+of distinction here. Such is the logical outcome of the theory--and has,
+in fact, been accepted in this form by Fechner and others.
+
+While many philosophers are inclined to accept this view, it may be
+stated that the physical scientists are, naturally, repelled by it, and
+so is common sense!
+
+_6th. Solipsism._--The contention of this theory is that nothing exists
+save states of consciousness in the individual. Neither the material
+world nor other minds exist, save in the mind of the individual. This
+doctrine is so opposed to common sense and daily experience that it is
+unnecessary to dwell upon it.
+
+_7th. Inter-Actionism (Animism)._--Here we have the world-old notion of
+soul and body existing as separate entities, influencing each other.
+Mind is here supposed to influence matter, and utilize it for the
+purposes of its manifestation.
+
+That there are many facts difficult to account for on this theory cannot
+be doubted. Heredity and the origin of life must be taken into account;
+the "inconceivability" of the process has some weight; and the apparent
+infringement of the law of Conservation of Energy is a serious
+objection. Further, it may be urged, what evidence have we that
+consciousness can exist apart from brain-functioning? And, it may be
+said, apart from the facts offered by "psychical research," so-called,
+there is no evidence, strictly speaking. Hence the importance of these
+phenomena, if true. But the greatest objection to the doctrine of
+inter-actionism is doubtless that drawn from the law of the Conservation
+of Energy, which says that, inasmuch as mind is a non-physical energy,
+inasmuch as matter cannot be affected by a non-physical cause,
+brain-changes cannot result from will, or the activities of the mind.
+
+But once prove that the human will is a physical energy, and this
+objection is readily disposed of. A physical energy is doubtless quite
+capable of causing all the changes within the brain which we know to
+exist within it--molecular, chemical, whatever they may be. It at once
+removes this classical objection to the doctrine of inter-actionism; and
+at the same time virtually proves that theory correct--thus solving this
+problem once and for all!
+
+It may be pointed out, _en passant_, that philosophers and
+metaphysicians have really attacked this problem from the wrong
+standpoint--in their arguments concerning the relations of mind and
+brain--for this is a question which might have been (and in my opinion
+should have been) determined not by argument, but by _fact_. Instead of
+arguing, _a priori_, as to the nature of the connection, the problem
+might have been solved in the same way that all other problems are
+solved, viz., by an appeal to evidence and fact. The fundamental point
+made by practically all philosophers, in discussing this question, is
+that brain-states and conscious states are always found together, and
+that consciousness can never exist in the absence of brain. In other
+words, mind cannot exist as an "independent variable" in the world; it
+must always accompany a human brain.
+
+I pass over, without comment, the fact that, according to the doctrines
+of idealistic monism and psycho-physical parallelism, this independence
+is virtually allowed, by the very nature of the doctrine; and shall
+point out merely that, if consciousness could be proved to exist
+independent of brain functioning, philosophic theories would have to be
+remodelled to conform to the evidence; the _a priori_ problem could be
+settled at once by an appeal to actual fact. And again this separate
+existence of consciousness seems to be established by the facts of
+"psychical research," which apparently show that mind can exist apart
+from brain structure. This important fact once established, it would at
+once alter the whole case and render inter-actionism not only a
+"respectable" theory, but a proved fact.
+
+So much for the importance of this doctrine (that the will is a physical
+energy) from the point of view of philosophy, and as applied to the
+question of the inter-relation of brain and mind. Now let us see if it
+cannot be applied in another direction.
+
+The present interpretation of the character and nature of the will, and
+its inclusion as a physical energy, has a distinctly important bearing
+upon one of the most bitterly disputed points in the whole history of
+philosophy, viz., the question of the _Freedom of the Will_.
+
+As is well known, there are two opposing views upon this subject--held
+by opposite schools--the theory of Determinism, on the one hand, and of
+Free Will on the other. The Libertarians assert that our wills are
+free--we having power of choice in all our actions. The Determinists, on
+the other hand, contend that our thoughts and actions are determined by
+definite, ascertainable causes. They contend that the _feeling_ of
+freedom we all experience is but illusory, and that, in reality, our
+every action is inevitable--predetermined by its previous cause of
+causes, and could have been predicted by an intelligence wide enough and
+possessing a grasp deep enough of human nature to perceive life in all
+its tendencies. Indeed, one eminent philosopher went so far as to say
+that a belief in Free Will showed simple ignorance of science and a
+clinging to superstition!
+
+A great deal has been written upon this subject of Free Will in the
+past; the point has been bitterly disputed for years. It may be said,
+however, that, at the present day, practically all philosophers and
+scientists, with few exceptions (e.g., James, Schiller, Bergson, etc.),
+believe in Determinism. The arguments for that doctrine are certainly
+weighty, and may be summarized, briefly, as follows:
+
+1. _The Law of Conservation of Energy_ tells us that no energy can be
+added to or abstracted from the total stock of physical energy in the
+universe. If the will be a non-physical energy (as it is conceived to
+be, by psychologists), it cannot affect the physical world, for if it
+did the law of Conservation of Energy would be overthrown. Hence, the
+will cannot affect the material world: hence, it cannot be a true cause.
+
+2. _Biology_ contends that heredity and environment alone are capable of
+explaining the actions and movements of the lower organisms, without
+postulating any "will." Inasmuch as man is connected with these lower
+organisms by an unbroken line of descent, why should not these factors
+explain man's actions also?
+
+3. _Physiology_ teaches that in-coming nerve stimuli give rise to
+certain physical changes in the nerve cells or centres, which, in turn,
+give rise to out-going (afferent) currents. There is here an arc or loop
+of unbroken physical causation; and there is no "room" for
+consciousness, save as an "epiphenomenon," as postulated by Huxley.
+
+4. The _Law of Causation_ tells us that an effect must have a cause, and
+that the cause must, in a certain sense, resemble the effect--since the
+effect _is_, in a sense, the cause translated. But, inasmuch as the
+effect is a physical event, the cause must also be physical in its
+nature; hence will (supposedly a non-physical event) cannot possibly
+play a part, or be a true cause.
+
+5. _Philosophical Science_ contends that Nature is a "closed circle."
+Mechanical causation holds supreme sway. Everything happens according to
+law and order. If Free Will were allowed a place in the scheme of
+things, chance and caprice would immediately be introduced into our
+world--which could never be tolerated for a moment!
+
+6. _Psychology_ holds that every mental state has its equivalent or
+counterpart in a corresponding brain-state. But each brain-state is not
+caused by the state of consciousness, but by the preceding brain-state.
+Here, again, there is no room for "free will" to play any part.
+
+(Inasmuch as we are approaching this subject from a purely scientific
+point of view, the arguments drawn from sociology, ethics, and theology
+need not here be discussed. The interested reader is referred to
+Professor H. H. Horne's excellent little book, _Free Will and Human
+Responsibility_, for an extremely clear summary of this problem.)
+
+The reply of the Libertarian to these problems is usually somewhat as
+follows:
+
+1. The doctrine of Conservation has not been experimentally proved with
+regard to the relation of mind and brain; it is only assumed. Still,
+granting it to exist, all energy may, in its ultimate analysis, be
+psychical, instead of physical, in its nature--the doctrine of idealism,
+which is today gaining wider and wider acceptance, seeming to support
+this view.
+
+2. That man _resembles_ the lower animals does not prove that he is
+_identical_ with them. On the contrary, the observed differences
+constitute the very differences about which the argument rages. Further,
+recent theories of organic evolution are tending to prove that interior
+(spontaneous) forces play a part, as well as exterior forces.
+
+3. If consciousness were a mere "epiphenomenon," having no "use" to the
+organism, it would soon perish (if it ever appeared) according to the
+law which says that all useless functions perish. But we know that, as a
+matter of fact, consciousness has grown more and more complex, as
+evolution has progressed.
+
+4. The _Law of Causation_ is doubtless valid and universal; but to
+assume that this is invariably physical begs the question at issue. May
+there not be psychical causation? Only thorough-going materialism can
+say "No" to this question; but materialism is today out of date.
+
+5. _The Philosophy of Nature._--This is a strong argument, _a priori_,
+but is subject to re-interpretation, in the light of new facts, to which
+it must conform. Facts might be adduced which proved this particular
+view of nature wrong. It is, in short, only a working hypothesis,
+subject to revision, as new facts are adduced, tending to alter it.
+
+6. _Psychology._--Our ignorance of the possible relation of brain and
+mind is no excuse for our dogmatically asserting that no such connection
+is possible. It may be a fact, though unintelligible to us. Mental
+states may influence, partially at least, successive brain-states. We
+cannot say. If one man asserts that they _cannot_, another may assert
+that they _do_. Hence every one is at liberty to believe what he
+pleases! Nothing is proved.
+
+If, now, we glance at the preceding arguments, we find that they may be
+summarized somewhat as follows:
+
+Arguments 2, 3, 5, and 6 are practically valueless, one way or the
+other. Both sides might claim a victory; none of these arguments would
+settle the question.
+
+Argument 4 is certainly valid, to a certain extent, and can only be
+surmounted by assuming that a non-physical energy can affect physical
+energy. But I do not think that any physicist would be inclined to admit
+this. So that this argument cannot be used in support of the doctrine of
+Free Will.
+
+There remains the first argument, drawn from the law of the Conservation
+of Energy. This is certainly the strongest of all (to my mind), and is,
+as it stands, valid. Though idealism may maintain that all physical
+energy may be, in its ultimate analysis, only psychical energy, I do not
+for a moment believe that any physicist really believes this, or that
+any man accepts it as a common-sense doctrine--one which can be acted
+upon in daily life. It is mere philosophical sophistry and
+hairsplitting, and we must believe, as a matter of fact, that physical
+energy _is_ really physical, and not psychical, in its nature.
+
+As to the first portion of this argument, although the law of
+Conservation of Energy has never been shown to be invalid, when applied
+to the connection of brain and mind, still, every one probably believes
+that it does actually obtain, and that a brain-state cannot result in
+consequence of non-physical influences any more than any other physical
+event could so result. It is tacitly admitted, therefore, that the law
+of Conservation holds good here also, and that will cannot affect brain,
+because will is not a physical energy.
+
+We are now in a position to see the tremendous importance of the facts
+contained in the first part of this chapter. Inasmuch as theory must
+follow fact; inasmuch as it has been proved experimentally that the
+human will is a physical energy--this whole question of the relation of
+brain and mind, of the influence of the former by the latter, and the
+question of Free Will, must be remodelled in accordance with these
+facts. The whole Free Will controversy is settled at one stroke (and in
+favour of Free Will!), and all the books which have been written upon
+this subject, and all the thought and energy which have been expended in
+the past are thus shown to be so much waste-paper and wasted effort!
+For, as we have seen that the whole question resolves itself into the
+central problem of whether or not the law of Conservation of Energy is
+valid--whether will or mind can affect brain--it will be seen that the
+proof that will is a definite physical energy settles the case once and
+for all. Determinism is routed; Free Will wins the day; and here again,
+as usual, theory follows fact, instead of dictating what those facts
+should be! At "one fell swoop" we are enabled to solve and to settle for
+ever one of the most bitterly disputed points in the whole history of
+philosophy and metaphysics!
+
+This theory (might we not say, this fact?) that the will is a definite
+physical energy, at least in part, is thus of great philosophic, no less
+than scientific importance, if true. It even enables us to recast our
+conception of the origin of the world, and of all forces, and enables
+us to reconstruct--in a more or less intelligible manner--the story of
+Creation, contained in the first chapter of Genesis--an account which
+has been more ridiculed, perhaps, by dogmatic physicists than any other
+account in the whole Bible.
+
+Much has been written upon this subject in the past; but it must be
+admitted that, from the point of view of physics, the whole difficulty
+lay in conceiving the first initial impulse which started our Universe
+on its endless way. All matter being but an expression of energy, all
+energy being (in all probability) but the varying modes or forms of
+expression of one underlying primal energy, the difficulty has been in
+accounting for the origin of this primal energy--the initial "push," so
+to say, which sent the Universe on its way.
+
+Many evolutionists have admitted that, once given this initial impulse,
+all might readily be accounted for. The difficulty lay in conceiving
+this primal impetus.
+
+But if Will be also a form of energy--though, as we have seen, only
+partly within the law and partly beyond it--then it is conceivable that
+this energy, coming from a source external to that presented by physical
+nature and physical science, should have infused or imparted enough
+energy (perhaps only an infinitesimal amount, enough to originate the
+impetus), which, according to Haeckel and others, is all that need be
+supposed, to enable us to account for the whole of organic and inorganic
+nature! This _fiat_, having once gone forth, would originate, or be the
+source of, the first "cosmic urge"--would, in fact, supply that impetus
+which modern science has so long sought in vain!
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] This explains why "every one" cannot move the board; there must be
+this peculiar nervous and psychic instability in order to insure the
+results.
+
+[19] I am indebted to Dr. M'Dougall's excellent work, _Body and Mind_,
+for the _data_ from which I have condensed the following summary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MODERN DISSECTION OF THE HUMAN MIND
+
+
+Dissection of the mind! Can that too be dissected? We hear much nowadays
+of dissection of the human body; of organs which have been transplanted
+and which perform their functions in the body of another animal; of
+marvellous operations, in which tissues and viscera have been removed,
+repaired, and replaced--seeming none the worse for their remarkable
+experience; of operations which have been performed even upon the brain,
+in which whole segments have been cut away, and other delicate
+experiments undertaken--all of these marvels we have grown more or less
+accustomed to, by reason of the ease and certainty with which they are
+performed. But the human mind; _that_ is a different matter. Here is
+something which, intangible in itself, seems incapable of dissection or
+of objective experimentation, in the ordinary sense of the word. Yet
+that is what present-day normal and abnormal psychology has been enabled
+to do! Shakespeare's adage: "Who can minister to a mind diseased?" can
+now be answered by saying: "To a certain extent, the specialist in
+normal and abnormal psychology."
+
+If you shut your eyes, and turn your attention inward, in an attempt to
+find your real "self," you will probably find a good deal of difficulty
+in catching it. It will be found as illusory as the proverbial figure of
+Happiness, which ever flits on before us. The real centre of being, the
+self, the ego, the person, the individuality, evades us at every turn.
+Each of us has the feeling, under all ordinary and normal circumstances,
+that, as James expressed it, "I am the same self that I was yesterday."
+And one would be most astonished, I fancy, were he to wake up one fine
+morning and find himself some one else! Like the Arab in the tale, he
+would be bewildered indeed!
+
+    From the solitary desert
+    Up to Bagdad, came a simple
+      Arab; there amid the rout
+    Grew bewildered of the countless
+    People, hither, thither, running,
+    Coming, going, meeting, parting,
+    Clamour, clatter, and confusion,
+      All around him and about.
+
+    Travel-wearied, hubbub-dizzy,
+      Would the simple Arab fain
+    Get to sleep,--"But then on waking,
+    How," quoth he, "amid so many
+      Waking, know myself again?"
+
+    So, to make the matter certain,
+    Strung a gourd about his ankle,
+    And, into a corner creeping,
+    Bagdad and himself and people
+      Soon were blotted from his brain.
+
+    But one that heard him and divined
+    His purpose, slyly crept behind;
+    From the sleeper's ankle clipping,
+      Round his own the pumpkin tied,
+      And laid him down to sleep beside.
+
+    By and by the Arab waking
+    Looks directly for his signal--
+    Sees it on another's ankle--
+    Cries aloud, "Oh, good-for-nothing
+      Rascal to perplex me so,
+    That by you I am bewildered,
+      Whether I be I or no!
+    If _I_--the pumpkin why on you!
+    If _You_--then where am I, and who?"
+
+One can quite appreciate the tangled state of our Arab's mind on
+awakening under such peculiar circumstances, and, from the point of view
+of common sense and common experience, such an awakening would be an
+utter impossibility--fit only for fairy tales and the traditions of
+savage tribes. Yet, in our own day, here in civilized New York and
+London, similar cases have been recorded and studied by experts! Under
+peculiar circumstances, patients have gone to sleep one person and
+awakened another; and they have remained another, not only during the
+first temporary moments of bewilderment, but sometimes for days, weeks,
+and months at a time; and in some cases even whole years have elapsed
+before the first "self" returned to tenant the body, to look out of the
+eyes it had looked out of years before; to take up the self-conscious
+life it had lain down in sleep. And to this there may be the added
+horror that, during the intervening period of oblivion (for this Self)
+the same external body, actuated by another "Self," may have performed
+actions and lived a course of life utterly at variance with the tastes
+and desires of the primary "Self." The other Self may even have married
+the common body in the interval--to a man whom the original self had
+never known--does not know now! There may even have been children;
+friends, environment, all, all may have been changed in the interim.
+Like Rip van Winkle, the setting of life may be found to have altered;
+but in some of these cases, the awakening must be the greater nightmare.
+The unfamiliarity, even horror, of the situation can be imagined. Yet
+many such cases exist; and the two Selves alternately usurp and
+manipulate a common body; the Real Self and the Stranger. Who and what
+is this Stranger? Apparently it is an alien spirit--another soul,
+perchance, entangled miserably in the body of some equally unhappy
+mortal! Yet modern psychology contends that such cases represent, for
+the most part, mere splits or dislocations or dissociations of the
+normal personality; and that the two or more Selves we see before us, at
+such times, are none of them a _real_ self; but mere fragments of the
+primary self, dissociated from it, owing to some shock or accident or
+disease. Let us see if we can penetrate a little deeper into this
+mystery of being; and lay bare the secrets of this alien Self, as well
+as the original Self which owned the body from birth.
+
+The older psychology held that the mind was a _unit_; that it was a
+separate thing or entity, a sort of _sphere_, which, if it could ever be
+caught, would reveal all the secrets of True Being. Accordingly, they
+tried to catch this sphere-of-being, by inward reflection or
+"introspection." But it was never caught! There are many reasons why
+this should be so, the chief reason being that a subject cannot be an
+object also; it is as impossible for a thought to catch itself as it
+would be to turn a hollow rubber ball inside out without tearing the
+cover.[20] But the newer psychology studies the mind objectively, from
+the outside, by means of recording instruments, and does not depend upon
+introspection for its results. Further, the very conception of the
+nature of the "self" is different; it is not now considered an entity,
+as of old; but rather a compound thing, a product, a complex, composed
+of a variety of elements. Instead of being considered a single gossamer
+thread, it is now thought to be rather a _rope_, composed of
+innumerable, interwoven elements--and these, in turn, of still finer
+threads, until the subdivision seems endless. The mind, in other words,
+is thought to be compounded of innumerable separate elements; but held
+together, or compounded into one, by the normal action of the will, of
+attention, and the grip upon the personality of the true Self. When this
+will is weakened; when the attention is constantly slackened, when the
+mind wanders, this single strand of rope separates and unravels. The
+"threads" branch out in various directions, no longer in control of the
+central, governing will; the Self has become dissociated or split-up
+into various minor Selves--all but parts of the real, total self; yet
+separate and distinct, nevertheless. And if enough of these threads
+become joined together, or interwoven, one with another, it can easily
+be imagined that this second strand of rope might become a formidable
+opponent to the original strand; it might become so large and strong, in
+fact, by the constant addition of new threads, and the dissociation of
+these from the first, true strand, that it would assume a more important
+rôle, and become stronger, and finally even control the whole. What was
+originally but a single fine, divergent thread has become, in course of
+time, a successful rival to the original strand of rope.
+
+Now let us apply the analogy. The mind as a whole represents the rope;
+its elements or component parts are the threads; and, under certain
+abnormal conditions, these can become torn away from the original
+Self--like little rivulets, branching off from the main stream of
+consciousness, forming independent selves. This is an abnormal
+condition; a splitting of the mind, a dissociation of consciousness.
+Another fragment of consciousness, distinct in itself, has been formed.
+Thus we have a case of so-called double consciousness, of alternating
+personality; or, if there are three or more such splits or cleavages, of
+multiple personality.[21]
+
+Now we are in a better position to understand the nature of this alien
+self which has been formed, and which alternately usurps the common
+body. It is no foreign spirit; it is not a demon or fiend which has
+entered into the subject; it is merely a portion of the patient's own
+mind, acting independently a life of its own. It is a portion of the
+real Self, functioning independently. Let us now see how these splits or
+dissociations take place.
+
+Often they are the result of some shock to the emotional nature. In one
+of Dr. Morton Prince's cases, the patient happened to look up and saw in
+the window the face of a man whom she had known years before, and with
+whom she had tragic emotional associations. It was storming at the time,
+and a lightning flash revealed the face in the window. It was a highly
+dramatic scene, and the shock to the patient's emotional nature caused
+her consciousness to split-up or become dissociated into various selves;
+and thenceforward for years these separate "selves" lived independent
+lives, each ignorant of the life of the other. In this case, there were
+several such personalities which alternated; and they were only finally
+unified and the real Self again restored by means of hypnotic
+suggestion, after a careful analysis of the various selves. This
+synthesis of the various streams of consciousness, and their ultimate
+unification into one primary normal self, is one of the most startling,
+as it is one of the most interesting and suggestive, feats of modern
+psychological medicine.
+
+The principle upon which many of these cures rest, and the efficacy of
+suggestion, is thus apparent. By its aid the skilled specialist in
+abnormal psychology is enabled to gather up the "loose ends" of
+conscious life, as it were, and unify and consolidate them into one
+normal, healthy Self. He is enabled to weave them all together, and
+again restore the "sheath" or "wrapper" of the individual human will,
+keeping these threads in place henceforth, and restoring the healthy,
+normal personality; the _mens sana in corpore sano_.
+
+Exactly _how_ all this can come about I shall now endeavour to show.
+Before any of the more complex and complicated disorders of the mind can
+be understood, it will be necessary for us to discuss very briefly the
+nature of the subconscious mind--since it is upon this that all modern
+researches have in a great measure rested--upon the improved
+understanding of its nature that many of these cures rest.
+
+It has long been known that there is a sort of mind in us, capable, at
+times, of performing complicated and intelligent actions without the
+co-operation or knowledge of the conscious mind. We see examples of this
+daily--in the absent-minded actions of certain individuals, in the dream
+life, in hypnotic trance, and in many of the cases of normal and
+peculiar mental action, of which numerous examples might be given, but
+which are so well known that it is hardly necessary at this late date to
+elaborate in detail. The idea has been so extensively employed by Hudson
+in his theory of "the subjective mind," and by others, that the general
+theory has pretty well saturated the public mind. Hudson's
+theory--otherwise open to many criticisms--is very lax, not to say
+erroneous, in its construction, and is not accepted today by any
+competent psychologist. Apart from the mysterious powers with which he
+endowed the "subjective" mind, he makes it now synonymous with the
+_whole_ of the subconscious life outside the field of immediate
+consciousness; now as equivalent merely to the hypnotic stratum; now to
+a dream-like self, etc., until the term has become so elastic that it
+means nothing intelligible but everything in general! As understood by
+the modern psychologist, the term "subconscious mind" must be defined
+far more accurately before we can proceed to use it as a working
+hypothesis. What, then, is understood by the subconscious mind? What
+part of us can perform conscious operations without our being conscious
+of them? How can we perform intelligent operations without intelligence?
+It all depends upon the meaning we give to our terms. We must begin by
+explaining just what is meant by the "subconscious mind"; then, perhaps,
+we can better understand its operations and aberrations.
+
+There are several theories as to the nature of this subterranean stratum
+of our being--this hidden self--each of which finds its champion in the
+modern psychological schools. First, there is the theory that it
+consists merely in the mechanical workings of the brain--a purely
+physiological theory, which makes the subconscious mind synonymous with
+certain brain activities--much the same as a series of complex
+reactions. It is well known that there is a brain-change corresponding
+to every thought we think; and the nature of the connection between the
+two has been one of the most debated points in metaphysics, and is one
+which, if we thoroughly understood it, would doubtless solve in a great
+measure the nature of life and of consciousness. Without going into this
+very complex question, however, there remains the undoubted _fact_ of
+the connection; the thought, which is known by us in consciousness; and
+the brain-change, which has been verified by ingenious mechanical and
+electrical instruments, and the effects of which we behold in the
+chemical changes in the brain-substance itself after severe thinking.
+This being so, it has been said, Why not suppose that so-called
+subconscious actions _are_ merely brain activities which take place, but
+which have never risen into consciousness? Professor Münsterberg and
+others hold this view. It has been conclusively shown, however, by Dr.
+Morton Prince and others, that this theory fails to explain adequately
+many of the facts--seems indeed contrary to much experimental evidence;
+and this view is now given up by all but the most materialistic of the
+modern psychological school. We have to search deeper yet for the
+mystery of the subconscious mind; and we shall have to grant it a
+certain amount of consciousness of its own, apart from all purely brain
+activity.
+
+A very opposite theory is that advanced by Mr. F. W. H. Myers--that of
+the "subliminal self." This theory says that the conscious mind is but
+an infinitely small part of our total self--a mere fragment; that
+portion best adapted to meet the needs of everyday life. To borrow an
+analogy from physics, "consciousness is only the visible portion of the
+spectrum; the invisible, ultra portions are our subconscious selves." I
+shall not venture upon a criticism of this theory beyond saying that the
+majority of modern psychologists do not hold to it; and hence, whether
+it be ultimately true or false, we must disregard it for our present
+purposes.
+
+Thirdly, there is the theory that the subconscious mind is composed
+entirely of dissociated or split-off ideas--ideas which have been
+dissociated or split off from the main stream of consciousness, much as
+a few freight cars might be shunted on to a side track by the
+switch-engine. This hypothesis is very similar to another theory, which
+contends that the subconsciousness consists of dissociated
+experiences--mental happenings which have been forgotten or passed
+beyond voluntary recall. For these mental states, or rather trains of
+thought, Prince has suggested the term "co-conscious," because they are
+conscious processes in operation at the same time as the normal
+consciousness. This theory is doubtless far nearer an adequate
+explanation of the facts than that which contends that the subconscious
+is merely a portion of the field of consciousness which happens to lie
+outside the field of _attention_, because _that_ is a theory certainly
+inadequate to cover the facts. This last hypothesis is one which seems
+to be favoured by Coriat and others, but it is certainly limited in its
+application.
+
+Now let us see if we cannot obtain a clearer grasp of the facts, in view
+of the above discussion as to the nature of the subconscious mind. We
+may sum-up the facts as follows:--
+
+As the result, either of some sudden shock, or by reason of certain
+subjective psychological practices carried to an extreme, we have a
+splitting of the mind into two or more separate streams, which function
+separately and independently, and generally with no memory connection
+between the two, so that each is ignorant of what the other stream, or
+self, is doing. This is already an abnormal condition, a pathological
+state, and its severity depends upon the degree of cleavage between the
+streams of thought. If this be deep and lasting, we have a well-marked
+case of hysteria, or other disorders to be noted immediately; if, on the
+other hand, the cleavage be slight, we have merely absent-mindedness,
+wandering of the mind, and many lesser symptoms which indicate this
+tendency to dissociation, and which should be checked at all costs in
+their inception, since they are symptomatic of the tendency to
+disintegration of the mind, and which, if unchecked, would lead to grave
+disturbances later on. It is because of this fact that too much
+automatic writing, crystal-gazing, meditation, attendance at spiritistic
+circles, etc., is harmful; they one and all induce a passive state of
+the mind which favours dissociation and disintegration. Many of the
+insanities start in this fashion; and all such practices, instead of
+being encouraged, should be discouraged; and all experienced and
+intelligent students of psychical research warn those who "dabble" in
+the subject against the repeated and promiscuous indulgence in such
+practices--because of the dangerous, even disastrous, effects upon the
+mind, in many instances.
+
+But we have not yet reached a distinctly morbid state. This dissociation
+may be slight, and of little consequence; and may even be completely
+"healed" without the knowledge of the patient; without his knowledge
+that anything strange has taken place at all--just as tubercular lesions
+of the lungs may be healed without the patient ever having known that he
+had suffered from tuberculosis. The co-conscious stream may again be
+diverted into the main, healthy channel; the threads of the wounded mind
+may again be bound up, with only a scar to indicate where the delicate
+protective covering had been ruptured. If such is the case, all is well
+thenceforward.
+
+But the termination of the accident may not be so fortunate. If, as
+before said, the cleavage be deep and lasting; and if, instead of
+attempting to bind up the wounded mind, those practices which caused the
+original "split" be persisted in; if shock follow shock--to the mental,
+moral, emotional, or physical nature; if great exhaustion, lack of
+sleep, or of proper food, or other causes of a like nature, be
+present--then it is evident that the cleavage must become deeper and
+deeper yet; and, in a short time, the few stray, wandering thoughts
+become grouped and bound together, and begin to form a veritable
+psychological entity. A secondary, an alien self, has been formed. And
+just as it is increasingly difficult to dam-up a river which has once
+found its way to some unaccustomed channel, so this secondary stream of
+consciousness will soon become a rushing, mighty torrent, incapable of
+being checked or dammed in its mad course.
+
+So long as this split-off portion remains a mass of sporadic thoughts,
+not much damage has been done; but when they become abnormally linked or
+associated together, forming groups, then the abnormal conditions have
+begun in earnest. These masses of subconscious experiences are called
+"complexes," and give rise to all sorts of trouble. It must not be
+thought that this complex formation is always harmful; on the contrary,
+this very process, when normally conducted, is the basis of our
+educational processes. But when they are thus conglomerated and
+consolidated outside the conscious mind, and function automatically,
+involuntarily, by themselves, then they have become dangerous to the
+mental stability. Their pressure and influence may be felt in the
+conscious life--in fantastic imaginations, in fears, phobias, and
+obsessions--in morbid dreams--in morbid emotional and moral reactions
+throughout the entire psycho-physical life. It is these automatic,
+self-acting complexes which originate many of the disorders of the mind.
+
+How, then, are we to diagnose this condition when once it has been
+reached; and, when once diagnosed, how is it to be treated? These are
+the all-important questions which modern psychological students have set
+themselves to solve, with more or less success. As briefly as may be,
+these are the methods.
+
+In the first place, a careful system of observation, question, and
+experiment will yield many important results. An analysis of the dream
+life will prove of great value in this connection also. If the dreams
+cannot be voluntarily recalled, they are brought to light by means of
+hypnotism, psycho-analysis, or the employment of what is known as the
+"hypnoidal" state--as induced by Dr. Boris Sidis. This is an
+artificially induced condition, half-way between sleeping and waking, in
+which many half-forgotten experiences again merge into the mind; and
+even thoughts which had _never_ been in the conscious mind at
+all--subconscious observations, etc., or the content of the dream life.
+These dreams are then analysed. It is a very striking fact that
+differing or alternating selves may have entirely different dreams; or,
+on the other hand, different and distinct selves may have a common
+meeting-place in the dream world. By means of dreams, it has thus been
+possible to come in touch with the thoughts of the other Self, which had
+been impossible by any other means at our disposal. A study and analysis
+of the dream life has thus assumed great importance within the past few
+years, and bids fair to assume greater and greater importance as the
+study of the subconscious, and abnormal psychology, increases.
+
+Other methods of tapping the subconscious mental life are: planchette,
+automatic writing and crystal-gazing. In the former cases, a pencil is
+placed in the hand of the subject, or the hand is placed on a
+planchette; and, while the conscious mind is occupied in conversation,
+or reading aloud, etc., the hand is, nevertheless, writing out an
+account of its experiences--its thoughts and feelings--which prove
+highly valuable to the investigator. Or the patient may be asked to look
+into a crystal, and describe what, if any, visions and pictures form
+within the ball. These pictures are, of course, hallucinatory; but they
+indicate, none the less, the content of the subconscious mind; since
+they are the externalized thoughts and feelings of that stratum of the
+mind. Here, again, we have a valuable means of diagnosis.
+
+Again, we have a purely experimental method of studying the emotions--by
+means of the galvanometer. An electric current being passed through the
+body, variations in the current are detected by means of an electric
+needle, which fluctuates as the current varies. Now, it has been found
+that these fluctuations vary in accordance with changed emotional
+states; and that in certain conditions of the mind, such as dementia,
+the variations are almost entirely absent, because of the lack of
+emotional reactions. It has thus been found that this form of insanity
+is largely a disease of the emotional life. On the other hand, when the
+emotions are strong, the fluctuations of the needle are very marked and
+prolonged. We have thus another most valuable method of testing the
+emotional life--always largely subconscious--by means of purely
+mechanical instruments.
+
+Finally, we have hypnotism, the skilled employment of which has been
+found of inestimable value in laying bare the secrets of the
+subconscious life. By its aid it has been found possible to disclose the
+secrets of being, to tap the subconscious mind at will, to explore the
+hidden regions of Self, which would otherwise have remained for ever
+inaccessible to the experimenter. For, by placing the patient in the
+hypnotic condition, the subconscious mind is exposed to view, as it
+were, and its secrets made manifest. The wounds and scars are thus
+rendered visible to the mental eye of the physician, and he is enabled
+to treat his case accordingly.
+
+Yes, hypnotism has been found one of the chief means of cure as well as
+of diagnosis. By its aid the tangled skein of the mental life may be
+unravelled, the mental knots may be untied, and the threads may be woven
+and plaited together again into one normal, healthy chain of being. This
+may be accomplished by means of suggestion rightly applied. When once
+the hidden complex has been brought to the surface, when its story is
+told, its secrets laid bare, it seems incapable of doing more damage, of
+again influencing the mental life detrimentally. Its life, its vitality,
+seems to have gone; its ammunition has been stolen, it has "shot its
+bolt," it is incapable of doing more injury to the normal self. Many
+hidden fears, depressions, and obsessions have been removed in this
+manner, simply by bringing these hidden fears and thoughts to the
+surface and disposing of them by means of suggestion. Many seemingly
+miraculous cures have been effected in this manner. The "demons" have
+been expelled, the brooding thoughts have vanished. This method of
+dispelling them is technically known as the cathartic method, and
+consists simply in a frank and full confession. When this has been
+brought about, when the brooding thoughts have been brought to
+light--confessed and discharged, as it were, from the mind--then a cure
+will be found to have been wrought; the man has again been made whole--a
+very significant fact if taken in connection with religious conversion,
+communion, confession, and prayer.
+
+We have somewhat diverged, however, from our main theme, to which we
+must now return. We have seen that the subconscious mind may become, so
+to speak, _diseased_--this consisting very largely in the processes of
+dissociation, complex formation, etc. Further, we have seen that this
+dissociated, automatically-acting "self" may exist either as a separate
+stream of thought running alongside of, or rather _below_ the main
+current; or may alternate with it, by rising to the surface and
+occupying the whole stage to the exclusion of the normal
+consciousness--when we have those cases of alternating or multiplex
+personality which have so puzzled psychologists for many years--and the
+correct interpretation of which we are only just beginning to realize.
+When this complete change of "self" has taken place, we have those cases
+of altered personality referred to at the beginning of this
+chapter--cases which are tragic in the extreme in many instances, but
+which represent merely extreme types of those losses of memory from
+which we all suffer, to a greater or lesser extent, even in our normal
+life. The restoration of lost memories by means of suggestion--the
+synthesis of the dissociated states--_this_ is the key to the mystery,
+the great secret of modern psychotherapy.
+
+And this theory of dissociation of consciousness has enabled us to
+explain many puzzling facts hitherto inexplicable. Thus _hysteria_, with
+its multiform symptoms and its internal contradictions, has long been
+the stumbling-block of medicine. Now it is no longer thought to be a
+morbid state (dependent usually upon sexual disturbances), but it is
+regarded rather as an indication of the splitting of the mind, a
+dissociation which embraces all the motor, physical, and psychical
+activities. On this theory, hysteria is easily explained and all its
+multiplex symptoms understood. In treating it, the self is unified,
+abnormal suggestibility is removed, and the patient is cured!
+
+_Psychaesthenia_ again, with its obsessions and fears, may be explained
+in the same manner, and its cure rests upon the same principles. The
+"attacks" cease so soon as the psychical synthesis is effected and the
+morbid self-consciousness removed.
+
+_Neurasthenia_, long regarded as a pathological state, due to
+auto-intoxication and similar causes, is now thought to be due chiefly
+to dissociation, caused by excessive fatigue--one of the known
+contributory causes to this condition. _Psycho-epilepsy_--a sort of
+fictitious imitation of the real disease--is due to precisely similar
+causes, and may be cured in a similar manner.
+
+A word of caution may not be out of place in this connection. Inasmuch
+as hypnotism is itself a method of inducing a passive psychological
+state--one peculiarly open to suggestion of all kinds--it can readily be
+seen that its employment may be exceedingly dangerous, save in the
+hands of a skilled operator. It may be the very _cause_ of a splitting
+of the mind--if improperly administered--if the patient is not
+thoroughly awakened, the effects of suggestion completely removed, etc.
+In this lies the great danger--of which we hear so much, usually with so
+little foundation! The _real_ danger in the process is thus apparent;
+but, properly applied, hypnotism is doubtless of great therapeutic
+utility and of great practical value to the psychologist.
+
+Just _how_ these dissociations of the mind take place we do not yet know
+with any degree of certainty. We might suppose that certain areas in the
+brain-cortex become detached in their functionings, as it were, from the
+general activities, and set up a little "monarchy" of their
+own--interactions and associations going on within that area, but never
+extending beyond its periphery; that each one of these centres or areas
+corresponds to a "self," a personality; and that a cure consists,
+physiologically speaking, in bringing about a healthy and normal
+interaction between this "self" and the rest of the brain area, so that
+associations go on thenceforward in a complete and uniform manner. But
+this is pure speculation, for which there is no experimental evidence,
+though it probably represents something of the truth. At all events, the
+dissociation of the mind is the chief cause of the trouble, and its
+synthesis the chief means of cure. _That_ much has been rendered certain
+by the newer researches in the field of the subconscious, and by the
+persistent search for that greatest of all secrets--the Mystery of
+Being.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] It can be shown, theoretically, that this is possible in the
+"fourth dimension," but not in the third. This illustrates the
+difference between theory and practice--a point it might be well for
+Christian Scientists to keep in mind!
+
+[21] Although this theory of the "composite" nature of mind is now
+generally held, Mr. Myers has contended that the Self must have a
+_fundamental_ unity--to enable it to withstand the shock of death.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PSYCHIC PHOTOGRAPHY
+
+(_New Experiments_)
+
+
+In my _Modern Psychical Phenomena_ (Chap. viii.) I reproduced a number
+of "spirit" and "thought" photographs, the evidence for which seemed to
+me to be exceptionally good. Since that time, I have received a number
+of "psychic" photographs, from various sources,--some of them obviously
+fraudulent, and some of them extremely puzzling, when the circumstances
+of their production were fairly taken into account. It will be
+remembered, for instance, that I published a number of curious
+photographs obtained by Mr. E. P. Le Flohic, on whose plates curious
+streaks of light were obtained, in a dark room. Since then, I have
+discussed the matter at some length with Mr. Le Flohic, and I am more
+than ever convinced that no conscious trickery was involved in the
+production of these pictures; I have also examined the _negatives_
+(plates), and am prepared to state that no external markings are upon
+them, and that they have not been tampered with in any way. In other
+words, the lights were undoubtedly _in the room_ at the time the plates
+were exposed. Yet no one saw anything unusual! It is a curious and
+baffling case.
+
+Since then, Mr. Le Flohic has tried other experiments, with almost
+uniform failure. In a letter dated August 14, 1920, he says:--
+
+     "... Since resuming my experiments in psychic photography, I have
+     taken about 25 pictures, and with but two exceptions have had no
+     results whatever. One of these I sent you some time ago, and the
+     last one I am sending you under separate cover. (Reproduced as
+     Figs. 1, 2.) I have not had very favourable conditions for
+     experiments, and discontinued them about three weeks ago. I am
+     going to arrange soon to start a series of experiments, by myself,
+     in my private library, and should I get any results, will gladly
+     inform you."
+
+The curious streak of light noted in Fig. 2 is, on any theory, most
+remarkable. The central band seems to be _dark_ in the middle,
+surrounded by a band of light, from which a golden "aura" radiates. The
+sitters saw nothing unusual--either in the dark, or during the
+flash-light, with which this picture was taken.[22]
+
+Among the newer methods of experimentation I may mention "thought
+photography"--in which attempts have been made, by individuals, to
+obtain photographs of their own _thoughts_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This method of obtaining psychic or thought-photographs is
+entirely different from that employed in obtaining so-called
+"spirit-photographs." In the latter case, a camera is focused upon the
+sitter, who "sits" as usual, and the forms appear upon the plate when
+developed. In obtaining thought-photographs, _no camera at all is used_;
+the plates (or films) are carefully wrapped in opaque black paper and
+sealed up, so as to prevent the slightest ray of light from reaching the
+plates. These plates (or films) are then placed against the forehead,
+where they are held for from five minutes to half an hour, or longer,
+according to the patience of the experimenter and the degree of his
+psychic power. An intense effort is made to impress upon the plate, by
+an act of will, a mental picture or image held in the mind. Anything
+will do--the head of an eagle, the sun, the face of a friend. The plate
+is then taken into the dark-room, unwrapped and carefully developed. In
+those cases which have been successful, an image, more or less clear, of
+the picture held in mind will be found upon the plate.
+
+This will, I have no doubt, appear incredible to the average reader. The
+facts, nevertheless, remain! Such photographs _have_ been obtained--in
+America, France, Poland, Japan and other parts of the world. A series of
+careful, simultaneous experiments have proved to us that such
+photographs _can_ be taken, under precisely the conditions I have
+described.
+
+Commandant Darget, of the French army, obtained a number of very
+striking photographs in this manner. A number of these are to be found
+in Joire's book, _Psychical and Supernormal Phenomena_, where we find
+thought-photographs of bottles, a walking-stick, the head of an eagle
+and other subjects obtained in this manner. Writing of the impression of
+the eagle's head, M. Darget says:
+
+     "With regard to the eagle, it was produced in this way: Mme. Darget
+     was in my office, lying on my sofa, about ten o'clock in the
+     evening. I said to her: 'I am about to put out the lamp and to try
+     (as I have already done sometimes) to take a fluidic print over my
+     forehead. I will hand you a plate for you to do it as well.'
+
+     "I therefore handed her a plate, which she held with both her hands
+     about an inch in front of her forehead. A short time afterwards--it
+     might be about ten minutes--she said to me: 'I think I am going
+     asleep; I am very tired: I am going to lie down.' And feeling her
+     way in the darkness, she handed me the plate.
+
+     "I then went to develop it, and was surprised to see this
+     astonishing figure of an eagle. I have called it a
+     'dream-photograph,' although my wife does not remember having
+     dreamed of a bird or anything else while she held the plate."
+
+Dr. Baraduc, of Paris, likewise asserted that he had obtained psychic
+photographs of human radiations and of human thought. For instance,
+calm, peaceful emotions are said to produce pictures of softly
+homogeneous light, or the appearance of a gentle shower of snowflakes
+against a black background; whereas sad or violent passions suggest, in
+the arrangement of the light and shadows, the idea of a whirlpool or
+revolving storm, somewhat like a meteorological diagram representing a
+cyclone. If these photographs are really what they are believed to be,
+they would seem to indicate that, in our ordinary normal condition, we
+emit radiations which are regulated and flow forth in smooth, even
+succession; but when violent emotions, such as anger or fear, break
+through the control of the will and take possession of us, they produce
+a violent and confused emission.
+
+There is no reason, _a priori_, why the soul should not be a
+space-occupying body, save for the tradition of theology. For all that
+we know, the soul might be a point of force, existing within and
+animating some sort of ethereal body, which corresponds, in size and
+shape, to our material body. But at all events, there is an abundance of
+very good testimony to the effect that the shape of the spiritual body
+corresponds to that of the material body; and, as such, it certainly
+occupies space, and possibly has weight also. It might and it might not;
+it is a question of evidence. It will have to be settled, if at all, not
+by speculations, but by _facts_. Are there any facts, then, that would
+seem to indicate that the soul might be photographed? Have we any
+evidence that the soul may be photographed--say, at the moment of death?
+If so, we should have advanced a great step in our knowledge of this
+subject.
+
+Before I adduce the evidence on this point, however, it may be well to
+illustrate the fact that there is no inherent absurdity in the idea, as
+many might suppose. Of course the spiritual body would have to be
+material enough to reflect light waves, but where is the evidence that
+it is not? There seems to be much evidence, on the contrary, that it
+_is_. It must be remembered that the camera will disclose innumerable
+things quite invisible to the naked eye, or even to the eye aided by the
+strongest glasses or telescopes. Normally, we can see but a few hundred
+stars in the sky; with the aid of telescopes, we can see many thousand;
+but the photographic camera discloses more than _twenty million_! Here,
+then, is direct evidence that the camera can observe things which we
+cannot see; and, indeed, this whole process of sight or "seeing" is a
+far more complicated one than most persons imagine. As Sir Oliver Lodge
+has pointed out, there is no reason why we should not be enabled to
+photograph a spirit, when we can photograph an image in a mirror--which
+is composed simply of vibrations, and reflected vibrations at that! We
+are a long way from the tangible thing, in such a case; and yet we are
+enabled to photograph it with an ordinary camera. Any disturbance in the
+ether we should be enabled to photograph likewise--if only we had
+delicate enough instruments, and if the "conditions" for the experiment
+were favourable. The phenomena of spirit-photography, and especially the
+experiments of Dr. Baraduc, to which I shall presently refer, would seem
+to indicate this.
+
+These experiments, as well as those that are about to follow, gain
+greater credibility when considered in the light of the newer
+experimental researches in physics, which demonstrate, apparently, that
+matter can be made to disintegrate and disappear, and can be again
+reformed from invisible vortices in the ether into sufficiently solid
+bodies to be photographed by the sensitive plate. In his remarkable
+work, _The Evolution of Matter_, Dr. Gustave Le Bon has devoted a whole
+section of his argument to what he has denominated "the
+dematerialization of matter." He proves by experiments in the physical
+laboratory that matter can dissociate, and vanish into apparent
+nothingness. What really takes place, however, is that the solid matter,
+as we have been accustomed to conceive it, is resolved into its finer
+constituent parts--not only into the material atoms of which it is
+composed, but these atoms are in turn dissociated and resolved into a
+series of etheric vortices, invisible to normal sense perception.
+Apparently, therefore, matter has ceased to be, as such; and, in fact,
+it has been resolved into energy! Conversely, Dr. Le Bon proved that, by
+producing artificial equilibria of the elements arising from the
+dissociation of matter, he could succeed in creating, with immaterial
+particles, "something singularly resembling matter." These equilibria
+were maintained a sufficient length of time to enable them to be
+photographed.
+
+On p. 164 of Dr. Le Bon's _Evolution of Matter_, are to be found
+photographs of what is practically materialized matter. This author
+says, in part:--
+
+     "Such equilibria can only be maintained for a moment. If we were
+     able to isolate and fix them for good--that is to say, so that they
+     would survive their generating cause--we should have succeeded in
+     creating with immaterial particles something singularly resembling
+     matter. The enormous quantity of energy condensed within the atom
+     shows the impossibility of realizing such an experiment. But, if we
+     cannot with immaterial things effect equilibria, able to survive
+     the cause which gave them birth, we can at least maintain them for
+     a sufficiently long time to photograph them, and thus create a sort
+     of momentary materialization."
+
+If, therefore, physical science now admits, as it does, that
+vibrations, or disturbances in the ether, can be photographed, there is
+no longer any _a priori_ objection to these experiments by Dr.
+Baraduc--which claim, merely, that similar vibrations have been
+photographed--such vibrations being the external modification or
+impression left upon the ether by the causal thought.
+
+So much for theoretical possibilities: now for the facts.
+
+In a remarkable little booklet, entitled, _Unseen Faces Photographed_,
+Dr. H. A. Reid has presented a number of cases of supposed spirit
+photography, some of which are certainly difficult to account for by any
+theory of fraud. It is true that the methods of imitating this process
+by fraudulent means are numerous and ingenious; but practically none of
+them are unknown. In _The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_, pp.
+206-23, I have described these fraudulent methods in considerable
+detail; and have also published an account of a case in which trickery
+was actually detected in the process of operation. (See _Proceedings of
+the American S.P.R._, 1908, vol. ii., pp. 10-13.) But there seem to be
+certain cases on record that are most difficult to account for by any
+theory of trickery--partly because of the excellence of the conditions,
+and partly because of the character of the experimenter. Let us glance
+at one or two of the cases in which the character of the experimenter
+would seem to insure the fact that no conscious and voluntary fraud was
+practised. A résumé of a few such cases is to be found in Mr. Edward T.
+Bennett's little book on _Spiritualism_, pp. 113-20.[23] I quote in
+part:--
+
+     "The most notable exception to this (rule of fraud) which I am able
+     to quote is that of the late Mr. J. Traill Taylor, who was for a
+     considerable time the editor of the _British Journal of
+     Photography_. The following quotations are from a paper on 'Spirit
+     Photography' by Mr. Taylor. It was originally read before the
+     London and Provincial Photographic Association in March, 1893, and
+     was reprinted in the _British Journal of Photography_ for March
+     26th, 1904, shortly after Mr. Taylor's death. He says:--
+
+     "'Spirit photography, so called, has of late been asserting its
+     existence in such a manner and to such an extent as to warrant
+     competent men in making an investigation, conducted under stringent
+     test conditions, into the circumstances under which such
+     photographs are produced, and exposing the fraud should it prove to
+     be such, instead of pooh-poohing it as insensate because we do not
+     understand how it can be otherwise--a position that scarcely
+     commends itself as intelligent or philosophical. If, in what
+     follows, I call it "spirit photography," instead of psychic
+     photography, it is only in deference to a nomenclature that
+     extensively prevails.... I approach the subject merely as a
+     photographer.'
+
+     "Mr. Taylor then gives a history of the earlier manifestations of
+     spirit photography, and goes on to explain how striking phenomena
+     in photographing what is invisible to the eye may be produced by
+     the agency of florescence. He quotes the demonstration of Dr.
+     Gladstone, F.R.S., at the Bradford meeting of the British
+     Association in 1873, showing that invisible drawings on white cards
+     have produced bold and clear photographs when no eye could see the
+     drawings themselves. Hence, as Mr. Taylor says: 'The photographing
+     of an invisible image is not scientifically impossible.'
+
+     "Mr. Taylor then proceeds to describe some personal experiments. He
+     says: 'For several years I have experienced a strong desire to
+     ascertain by personal investigation the amount of truth in the
+     ever-recurring allegation that figures, other than those visually
+     present in the room, appeared on the sensitive plate.... Mr. D., of
+     Glasgow, in whose presence psychic photographs have long been
+     alleged to be obtained, was lately in London on a visit, and a
+     mutual friend got him to consent to extend his stay in order that I
+     might try to get a psychic photograph under test conditions. To
+     this he willingly agreed. My conditions were exceedingly simple,
+     were courteously expressed to the host, and entirely acquiesced in.
+     They were that I, for the nonce, would assume them all to be
+     tricksters, and, to guard against fraud, should use my own camera
+     and unopened packages of dry plates purchased from dealers of
+     repute, and that I should be excused from allowing a plate to go
+     out of my own hand till after development, unless I felt otherwise
+     disposed; but that as I was to treat them as under suspicion, so
+     must they treat me, and that every act I performed must be in the
+     presence of two witnesses; nay, that I would set a watch upon my
+     own camera in the guise of a duplicate one of the same focus--in
+     other words, I would use a binocular stereoscopic camera and
+     dictate all the conditions of operation....
+
+     "'Dr. G. was the first sitter, and, for a reason known to myself, I
+     used a monocular camera. I myself took the plate out of a packet
+     just previously ripped up, under the surveillance of my two
+     detectives. I placed the slide in my pocket and exposed it by
+     magnesium ribbon which I held in my own hand, keeping one eye, as
+     it were, on the sitter, and the other on the camera. There was no
+     background. I myself took the plate from the dark slide, and, under
+     the eyes of the two detectives, placed it in the developing dish.
+     Between the camera and the sitter a female figure was developed,
+     rather in a more pronounced form than that of the sitter.... I
+     submit this picture.... I do not recognize her, or any of the other
+     figures I obtained, as like any one I know....
+
+     "'Many experiments of like nature followed; on some plates were
+     abnormal appearances, on others none. All this time Mr. D., the
+     medium, during the exposure of the plates, was quite inactive....
+
+     "'The psychic figures behaved badly. Some were in focus, others not
+     so. Some were lighted from the right, while the sitter was from the
+     left; some were comely ... others not so. Some monopolized the
+     major portion of the plate, quite obliterating the material
+     sitters.... But here is the point: Not one of these figures which
+     came out so strongly in the negative was visible in any form or
+     shape to me during the time of exposure in the camera, and I vouch
+     in the strongest manner for the fact that no one whatever had an
+     opportunity of tampering with any plate anterior to its being
+     placed in the dark slide or immediately preceding development.
+     Pictorially they are vile, but how came they there?
+
+     "'Now, all this time I imagine you are wondering how the
+     stereoscopic camera was behaving itself as such. It is due to the
+     psychic entities to say that whatever was produced on one-half of
+     the stereoscopic plates was produced on the other--alike good or
+     bad in definition. But, on a careful examination of one which was
+     rather better than the other ... I deduce this fact, that the
+     impressing of the spirit form was not simultaneous with that of the
+     sitter.... This I consider an important discovery. I carefully
+     examined one in the stereoscope and found that, while the two
+     sitters were stereoscopic _per se_, the psychic figure was
+     absolutely _flat_! I also found that the psychic figure was at
+     least a millimetre higher up in one than in the other. Now, as both
+     had been simultaneously exposed, it follows to demonstration that,
+     although both were correctly placed, vertically in relation to that
+     particular sitter, behind whom the figure appeared, and not so
+     horizontally, this figure had not only not been impressed on the
+     plate simultaneously with the two gentlemen forming the group, but
+     had _not_ been formed by the lens at all, and that, therefore, the
+     psychic image might be produced _without a camera_. I think this is
+     a fair deduction. But still the question obtrudes: How came these
+     figures there? I again assert that the plates were not tampered
+     with by either myself or any one present. Are they crystallizations
+     of thought? Have lens and light really nothing to do with their
+     formation? The whole subject was mysterious enough on the
+     hypothesis of an invisible spirit--whether a thought projection or
+     an actual spirit, being really there in the vicinity of the
+     sitter--but it is now a thousand times more so....
+
+     "'In the foregoing I have confined myself as closely as possible to
+     narrating how I conducted a photographic experiment open to every
+     one to make, avoiding stating any hypothesis or belief of my own on
+     the subject.'"
+
+Let us now return to some later experiments in psychic photography. Two
+small photographs, one showing a face, the other a series of small
+starlike markings, were sent to me by a member of the Society for the
+Study of Psychic Photography, of England. Writing of these prints, my
+correspondent says:
+
+     "A week or so ago we distributed one hundred and ten strips of
+     sensitive film, in light-tight packages, for friends of the members
+     to 'wear.' This was done with the idea of ascertaining
+     approximately what percentage of individuals possessed this gift.
+     We agreed that the films should be carried about for a week, and
+     where possible worn round the forehead at night. The experiment
+     proved more successful than we had anticipated, since six out of
+     the one hundred and ten films were more or less affected. The two
+     best results are those shown on the prints enclosed herewith." (Not
+     shown.)
+
+These results are quite in keeping with some that have lately been
+obtained in California. In a recent communication which I have received
+from Mr. Vincent Jones, Vice-President of the California Psychical
+Research Society,--under whose auspices the experiment was
+undertaken--he says:--
+
+     "Then we tried thought-photography. I bought some ordinary plates,
+     which were opened in the dark-room of an X-ray laboratory. The
+     plate was inclosed within an envelope of opaque black paper and
+     this in another envelope. It was then suspended about twelve
+     inches in front of the eyes of the sitting experimenter....
+
+     "This experimenter first wrote down on a slip of paper the thing he
+     was going to concentrate on, folded it and handed it to a
+     committee. Then he sat and concentrated for ten minutes. The plate
+     was then developed, and contained the image, clear and strong and
+     unmistakable, of a _cross_. This proved to be the subject handed to
+     the committee." (See Fig. 3.)
+
+In view of the remarkable character of this experiment--as well as its
+importance, and taking into account the apparently excellent conditions
+under which the test was made, I wrote to Mr. Jones, asking him to be
+kind enough to secure, if possible, the statements of any additional
+witnesses who might have been present on this occasion, and he sent me,
+in response to this request, the following affidavit, signed by five of
+the witnesses who were present at the time:
+
+
+               California Psychical Research Society,
+                    San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 3, 1920.
+     Dr. Hereward Carrington.
+     504 West 111th St.
+     New York City.
+
+     Dear Dr. Carrington.
+
+     Enclosed is the print I promised you of the "Thought Photograph"
+     taken by a Committee composed in part of members of the Council of
+     the California Psychical Research Society, in May, 1919. The
+     conditions were as follows: I purchased at Hirsch & Kaye, opticians
+     and photo-supplies, a box of one dozen ordinary rapid Seed plates.
+     I took the box unopened to the Committee meeting, which was held
+     at the X-Ray Laboratory of Preston & Huppert in this city. Mr.
+     Henry Huppert, Dr. Frank Collins, Dr. Cecil Nixon and myself went
+     into the dark room, where Mr. Huppert opened the box of plates,
+     took one at random from the centre of the package, enclosed it
+     inside an opaque black envelope, and this again inside another
+     yellow envelope and sealed it. This was taken outside and suspended
+     about 12 inches in front of our subject, who was seated and had
+     previously written down what he would concentrate upon, and handed
+     the memo to Dr. Collins. The subject drew a rough outline of the
+     object of his concentration, gazed fixedly upon it for about 5
+     minutes, then put it aside and for ten minutes concentrated upon
+     the plate without touching the same. The plate was immediately
+     taken into the dark room and developed, and the image of the cross
+     developed at once, clear and strong. One of the Committee was in
+     the room with the subject during the whole time, and there was no
+     opportunity for any tampering with the plate. The object developed
+     proved to be the one previously written down and handed to Dr.
+     Collins.
+
+               Yours very truly,
+
+                    Vincent Jones,
+                    Frank T. Collins, D.O.,
+                    J. C. Anthony, M.D.,
+                    Cecil E. Nixon, D.O.S.,
+                    Henry K. Huppert.
+
+     [Illustration: "Thought Photograph" (3)]
+
+
+Supplementing this formal report, Mr. Vincent Jones sent me the
+following letter, in answer to my questions, which I also quote:--
+
+
+                    San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 10, 1920.
+     Dr. Hereward Carrington.
+     504 West 111th St.
+     New York City.
+
+     Dear Dr. Carrington.
+
+     Here is the signed statement I promised you, and the better print
+     of the cross photo. The others who were present at the experiments
+     are not where I can reach them at present, but the five whose
+     signatures are appended to the accompanying statement are the
+     best-known of the eight who were present,--men whose testimony in a
+     court of law would be accepted without question. Dr. Frank Collins
+     is, or was, President of the Osteopaths' Association, a
+     Spiritualist, student of Astrology and mystical subjects, and a
+     member of the Council of the California Psychical Research Society.
+     Dr. J. C. Anthony is a well and favorably known physician, who has
+     practised here for many years, also a member of our Council. Dr.
+     Cecil E. Nixon is a Dentist, best known as a Magician, and as the
+     inventor of "Isis," a wonderful automaton which plays any tune you
+     request of her on the zither. Mr. Henry Huppert is one of the
+     partners in the Preston-Huppert X-Ray Laboratory, a man with
+     scientific training and a student of the Occult.
+
+     Such a thing as substitution by the subject of another plate for
+     the one we suspended before him was out of the question for two
+     reasons. First, he was not left alone. Second, he did not know in
+     advance just what was to be the nature of our experiment. When Mr.
+     Huppert broke the seal on the box of plates, in the presence of the
+     Committee of four, in the dark room, and selected one at random
+     from the centre of the box, and enclosed it in the two envelopes,
+     he not only sealed the envelopes but marked the envelopes, so that
+     he would know if they had been tampered with. They could not have
+     been opened without destroying these marks. Furthermore, in the
+     room where the experiment was conducted, there was an ordinary
+     electric light burning, and no substitution could have been made
+     without affecting the plate. It could not have been possible that
+     the subject, being previously unaware of the exact nature of the
+     contemplated experiment, could have provided himself with plates of
+     the same size and envelopes of two colours and of identically the
+     same paper as those used in the X-Ray Laboratory. If anything
+     happened to the plate it happened _through_ the paper of the
+     envelopes. But, as I have said, one of the committee was in the
+     room during the whole experiment. The sole possibility of fraud was
+     for the subject to have come prepared with a cross painted with
+     radio-active paint, and to have held this against the envelopes
+     whilst the Committee was off its guard. But the character of the
+     subject is sufficient guarantee to all of us that such was not the
+     case. I admit that to those who do not know him, this would furnish
+     no guarantee, and that for this reason we should have taken even
+     more stringent precautions. Had we known that such a result was to
+     be obtained we probably would have done this, but we were just a
+     company of friends who had gathered to try what we might
+     accomplish, after having read of Colonel de Rochas' experiments
+     along this line. We trusted one another, and so it is barely
+     possible that for a moment some one who was supposed to be
+     watching the subject was off his guard. Therein lies the sole
+     possibility of fraud in this result, and, as I said, this is out of
+     the question with us who know the character of the subject.
+
+               Yours very truly,
+
+                    Vincent Jones,
+                    215 Balboa Bldg.
+
+     P. S. The reason we were not all in the room with the subject
+     during the trial was that we were trying to do the same thing
+     ourselves. I was concentrating upon a V, with a film on my
+     forehead, and the others were trying it either with film or plate.
+     Only one other secured anything at all, and that was but a blur.
+     Our subject who did get the Cross result is a very highly developed
+     mystic with remarkable powers of concentration, but modest about
+     his powers and for that reason, and because he is extremely busy,
+     we have not been able to repeat the experiment with him since. V.
+     J.
+
+As might be expected, many of these "psychic photographs" take on the
+characteristics of "spirit-photographs," in that they show definitely
+recognizable _forms_. This is especially true of a number of psychic
+photographs which were recently taken at Crewe, England, in the presence
+of two non-professional mediums, who have, nevertheless, obtained
+hundreds of successful photographs in this manner. Regarding their
+experiments, a correspondent writes me:
+
+     "They are not professionals and charge no fee. A nominal charge is
+     made for prints.... I do not know of any one who has sat with the
+     Crewe circle who has not been satisfied that fraud, at any rate,
+     will not explain these things. Those who have _not_ been and who
+     know nothing of the subject, say just the opposite.... Many of the
+     results in themselves rule out faking. I have had many sittings
+     with these mediums and have not the slightest doubt whatever
+     regarding their absolute genuineness. In fact, in some of the tests
+     I have carried out with them, faking would have been quite
+     impossible, even had they been desirous of tricking. I speak as an
+     amateur photographer of many years' standing, in touch with
+     photography every working day of his life."
+
+Several photographs obtained at this now-famous Crewe circle are
+reproduced herewith. Certainly it is true that such photographs might be
+obtained by means of double exposure, double printing and other devices;
+but the point is that we have the word of an expert photographer that
+they were _not_ produced in this manner; and when once their genuine
+character is admitted, they assume very great interest, no matter what
+view we may care to take as to the results.
+
+Miss Estelle Stead, daughter of the late W. T. Stead, writing of her
+experiences with this same group of psychics, says:
+
+     "I have several times, since he passed on, obtained photos of my
+     father on the same plate I took with me, _under the most rigid
+     test-conditions_--on plates which I have never let out of my sight,
+     save for the few moments they were in the camera for my photo to be
+     taken.
+
+     "I also obtained a splendid photo of my brother, who passed over in
+     1907. He promised that before I went for the sitting he would be
+     photographed instead of Father, if he could manage it. I said
+     nothing of this to the lady who sat with me for the photograph to
+     be taken, or to the photographer. I put my own marked plate in the
+     slide myself, and stood by while it was developed. My brother's
+     face appeared quite as plainly as mine, and has been recognized by
+     many who knew him in life. He was seldom photographed while here,
+     and certainly _never_ with his head in exactly the position it is
+     in this photograph, received nine years after his death.
+
+     "It is only natural that those who have passed over in the war
+     should, when conditions allow, use this means of establishing their
+     identity, and many have done so successfully! One case of
+     particular interest is that of a boy who was blown to pieces in
+     France last year. His mother wrote in great distress to a friend in
+     Edinburgh stating that the boy had been killed. This friend had not
+     seen the boy since his school-days, but being interested in
+     spiritualism, and able to get in touch with those on the 'other
+     side,' she asked her father, who had passed over, if it would be
+     possible for the boy to be photographed. He said it was doubtful,
+     but they would do their best. She therefore made arrangements to
+     have a sitting with the Crewe mediums, who possess this power which
+     enables those on the other side to manifest sufficiently to be
+     photographed.
+
+     [Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (4, 5)]
+
+     "Two plates were exposed, and on one side, beside the photo of the
+     lady herself, there is an unmistakable photo of the boy. I have
+     seen it, and a photo of the boy taken before he went to France,
+     and there is no mistaking the likeness. She sent the pictures to
+     his parents, who before this had not been believers in the
+     possibility of communication with those who have passed on--with
+     the result that they are now convinced of it, and have received
+     several comforting and assuring messages from their boy."
+
+We see how imperceptibly ordinary psychic photographs shade off into
+those more definitely spiritistic in character. This is true in nearly
+all phenomena in this realm. It is hard to draw any hard-and-fast line,
+and say: "_This_ is due to powers within our own being, and _this_ is
+due to external spiritual beings!" They merge one into the other so
+gradually that it is extremely difficult to draw any line of demarcation
+between the two.
+
+Certainly _some_ of these photographs are due to the thoughts or other
+psychic activities of the sitter. Thus we can hardly suppose that the
+"spirits" of bottles, walking-sticks and eagles (as in Darget's
+experiments) were actually present, and that they impressed themselves
+upon the photographic plate! Again, some pictures show us a definite
+_face_, which we cannot attribute to any outside influence. The
+experimenter merely _thought_ of the face, and it appeared upon the
+plate. This being so, how can we _ever_ obtain proof that the forms and
+faces which appear upon photographic plates are those of discarnate
+spirits,--even though they appear and are recognized,--since we know
+that mental images or memories of faces have been photographed in just
+this manner?
+
+That is indeed a difficult problem: it is very like that which
+confronts us in the case of any good trance-medium. Inasmuch as
+telepathy is a fact, and the medium almost certainly derives _some_ of
+the facts from one's mind, or from the minds of other living people, how
+can we ever prove "survival"--the actual communication of our spirit
+friends?
+
+We can only apply the same sort of tests in the one case as in the
+other. We must discount all those facts which might possibly have been
+obtained normally, or by telepathy, and pin our faith on those which
+could not possibly, or conceivably, have been obtained in this way.
+Similarly, we must assume that all psychic photographs represent normal
+markings upon the plates, or the emotions or thoughts of the sitter, or
+the vital radiations issuing from his body, until indisputable proof to
+the contrary be forthcoming. (It may be added that some very striking
+evidence of identity has been obtained in this manner, from time to time
+in the past, and is now being obtained in various circles both in this
+country and abroad.)
+
+Regarding these "vital radiations" issuing from the body, a number of
+interesting experiments were undertaken in this connection in Poland,
+Paris and elsewhere. M. Durville obtained imprints of hands, from which
+emanated streaks of light, as though the hands were radio-active; indeed
+in no other way can we account for these results.
+
+[Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (6, 7)]
+
+I next present a remarkable series of photographs, kindly lent to me by
+Lady Glenconner,--to whom I am indebted for permission to reproduce
+them. These photographs were taken at the "Crewe Circle," in the
+presence of Mr. Hope, the medium. Personally, I have never had the
+opportunity to attend a Crewe séance, and hence cannot speak of the
+evidential value of these pictures from first-hand evidence. All I can
+say is that Mr. Hope is not a professional "medium," in the usual sense
+of the term, since he receives no payment for his services; that no
+evidence of fraud, in connection with his photographs, has ever been
+forthcoming; and that rigid test conditions have, apparently, been
+enforced on a number of occasions, when successful "extras" were
+obtained upon the plates. In practically all the cases known to me, the
+sitters provided their own marked plates, placed them in the camera
+themselves, took them out themselves, and developed them themselves.
+Such, I understand, were the conditions under which the accompanying
+photographs were obtained. All that Mr. Hope does is to place his
+(opened) hands upon the plate-_holders_, after the plates have been
+inserted therein, and before these are placed in the camera. It is
+during this period that the psychic "extras," appearing upon the plates,
+are thought to appear; or at all events it is this "magnetizing" of the
+plates which renders them susceptible to impressions which would not be
+recorded upon ordinary plates. How far this belief of the sitters
+coincides with the actual facts of course I cannot say.
+
+The first photograph shows us Lady Glenconner, seated, with a
+clearly-defined face over her right arm. This face is enshrouded in the
+same curious mist-like "clothing," common to "spirit" photographs, and
+materialized forms, and especially evident in all the Crewe pictures.
+The face is, I understand, recognizable as that of a lost friend. (Fig.
+4.)
+
+The second photograph is one of Lady Glenconner and her son,--a faint,
+whitish mist appearing over (or on) her left shoulder. This is
+interesting for the reason that, some time before this picture was
+taken, a "spirit" had announced through another medium in London that
+_he would appear in one of Hope's photographs and place his hand on her
+left shoulder_. Within the whitish mist-like mass, a hand and arm are
+clearly distinguishable, upon close examination. (Fig. 5.) In photograph
+number 6 (with a different sitter) the _double_ impression of a face is
+clearly seen, almost obliterating the face of the sitter. These faces
+appear _sideways_, and represent a woman's face,--wearing glasses! This
+same woman's face appears in the next picture (No. 7) no less than three
+times; the uppermost face is the clearest, the one to the right next
+best, while the lowermost "face" is little more than a misty
+impression,--in which, however, the eyes are quite clear. This
+photograph is, on any theory, it seems to me, a very striking and
+suggestive one, and seems to indicate that the "spirit" attempted three
+different times to appear and impress the plate, with the greatest
+strength the first time, and with gradually diminishing energy or power
+thereafter. This, at least, is the appearance of the facts, and such an
+interpretation is, it may be said, in strict conformity with the
+statements made through Mrs. Piper, and other reliable mediums, as to
+the difficulties actually experienced, in attempting to "communicate."
+To my mind,--though I do not know the precise conditions under which the
+picture was obtained--this is a most suggestive and remarkable
+photograph, strongly indicative of the spiritistic theory.
+
+[Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (8, 9)]
+
+In the next illustration (No. 8), a white cloud appears over the
+sitter's head. There are traces of two "faces" in this cloud, but they
+are too uncertain to be emphasized. In the next picture, however (No.
+9), a face, clearly visible, and enveloped in the usual white mist-like
+drapery, appears. It is to be noted that the "face" is, in this case,
+about twice the size of the sitters' heads, as though the "extra" were
+much nearer the camera. It is, however, still in focus!
+
+Photograph No. 10 shows us Lady Glenconner, and upon the plate a number
+of "extras" appearing at various "angles" in relation to the sitter's
+head--some of them at right angles, some of them upside down, etc. (The
+"cracks" are merely defects upon the plate.) Upon examination, it will
+be seen that all these faces represent one man, who, apparently, has
+made a number of separate attempts to "appear" at this sitting. An
+enlargement of this face is given in photograph No. 11, where the
+features are quite distinguishable. There are several peculiarities
+about this face, however, which a closer examination will reveal. The
+enormous left ear is one of these--mal-formed, or as though in the
+process of formation. The right side of the head, on the other hand, is
+partly enveloped in a whitish cloud, through which the outline of the
+face is faintly perceptible. Further impressions of this same face are
+shown in photograph No. 12, when several "impressions" were again
+obtained, all clearly recognizable. In the right-hand photograph, the
+whitish mass seems to have been just removed from about the head, and it
+will be seen that part of this still remains, like a thin veil, in
+front of the _lower_ part of the face (under the eyes) and up the
+left-hand side of the head. This, to me, is a very curious circumstance.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *
+
+Having thus "cleared the ground," so to speak, let us now consider the
+more startling statements and experiments by Dr. Baraduc, summarized by
+him in his work, _Mes Morts; leurs Manifestations_, etc., later on in
+the account.
+
+[Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (10, 11, 12)]
+
+At a quarter-past nine, on a certain memorable day in April, 1907, died
+André M. Joseph Baraduc, at the age of nineteen years. Throughout his
+life there had been a close bond of affection between himself and his
+father, and we are assured that during the lifetime of the son,
+telepathic communication had been frequent between them. When he was but
+nineteen it was discovered that André was suffering from that dread
+disease, consumption; and henceforward he grew rapidly worse, dying
+within the year. Toward the close of this year he made two visits to
+Lourdes, without, however, receiving much benefit in either case, and
+returning apparently without augmented faith in the cures brought about
+at that centre. André was exceedingly religious in temperament, as was
+his father, and both were given to experiments in psychic research. We
+are informed that, during the lifetime of the son, his "astral" form had
+been experimentally separated from his bodily frame on more than one
+occasion. It was only natural to suppose, therefore, that, at the death
+of this favourite son, the father's grief should be so intense that the
+emotional reflex found expression in various visions and apparent
+conversations with the dead boy. For within six hours after the death
+of André, the son appeared to his father, and thenceforth many
+apparitions were seen, and several long conversations were apparently
+held between father and son. Of course, these in themselves would, under
+the circumstances, have no evidential value, since it is only natural to
+suppose that hallucinations, both of sight and hearing, would result in
+a mind so wrought.
+
+These subjective and apparently telepathic experiences of Dr. Baraduc
+cannot, therefore, be considered of value; but the objective
+experiences--that is to say, the experiments performed by him are of
+great interest, since one can hardly suppose that the camera can be
+hallucinated, because of the grief of the photographer! The impressions
+left upon the plates, then, such as they are, have their evidential and
+scientific value, and it is to a consideration of these photographs that
+we now turn.
+
+Nine hours after the death of André, Dr. Baraduc took the first
+photograph of the coffin in which the body was deposited. When this
+plate was developed, it was discovered that, emanating from the coffin,
+was a formless, misty, wave-like mass, radiating in all directions with
+considerable force, impinging upon the bodies of those who came into
+close proximity to the coffin, as though attracted to them by some
+magnetic force. On one occasion, indeed, the force of this projected
+fluidic emanation was so great that Dr. Baraduc received an electric
+shock from head to foot, which produced a temporary vertigo. Emerging
+from the body are dark, tree-shaped emanations, issuing in formal lines,
+which gradually diverge, and become more and more attenuated and misty
+as they recede further and further from the body. Although this
+photograph[24] does not in itself prove anything supernormal, it is
+highly suggestive, and it aroused Dr. Baraduc's interest in the subject,
+and enabled him to pursue his more conclusive experiments immediately
+upon the death of his wife. (Figs. 13, 14.)
+
+Six months after the death of André, Nadine, Dr. Baraduc's wife and the
+mother of André, passed quietly away, giving vent, at the moment of her
+death, to "three gentle sighs." Remembering the result of the former
+experiments (photographing the body of André shortly after his death),
+Dr. Baraduc had prepared a camera beside the bed of his wife, and, at
+the moment of her death, photographed the body, and shortly after
+developed the plate. Upon it were found three luminous globes resting a
+few inches above the body. These gradually condensed and became more
+brilliant. Streaks of light, like fine threads, were also seen darting
+hither and thither. A quarter of an hour after the death of his wife,
+Dr. Baraduc took another photograph. Fluidic cords were seen to have
+developed, partly encircling these globes of light. At three o'clock in
+the afternoon, or an hour after her death, another photograph was taken.
+It will be seen from this photograph that the three globes of light have
+condensed and coalesced into one, obscuring the head of Madame Baraduc,
+and developing towards the right. Cords were formed in the shape of a
+figure eight, closed at the top, and opened at the point nearest the
+body. Thus, as the globe develops in one direction, the cords seem to
+become more tense, and pull in the opposite direction. The separation
+becomes more and more complete, until finally, three and a half hours
+after death, a well-formed globe rested above the body, apparently held
+together by the encircling, luminous cords, which seemed also to guide
+and control it. At this moment, the globe becomes separated from the
+body, and, guided by the cords, floats into Dr. Baraduc's bedroom. He
+speaks to the globe intensely; the globe thereupon approaches him, and
+he feels an icy cold breeze, which seems to surround and issue from the
+ball of light. It then floats away and disappears.
+
+[Illustration: "Photographs of the Soul" (13, 14)]
+
+Frequently, within the next few days after these experiments, Dr.
+Baraduc saw similar globes in various parts of the house. By means of
+automatic writing, obtained through the hand of a non-professional
+psychic, he succeeded at last in establishing communication with this
+luminous ball, and was informed that it was the encasement of Madame
+Baraduc's soul, which was still active and alive within it! It was
+asserted that, as the days progressed, the encircling cords were one by
+one snapped, and that the spirit more nearly assumed the astral body
+facsimile of the earthly body. André, however, was seen by him to be a
+completely developed astral body; and his wife asserted that she too
+would shortly take her place beside André in her permanent form. As
+further photographs were not developed, however, there is no
+experimental evidence confirming these statements.
+
+Although these initial experiments of Dr. Baraduc cannot, of themselves,
+be considered conclusive, they are nevertheless highly interesting, and
+should lead to further research in the same direction. The evidence
+afforded by apparitions, single and collective; by haunted houses; the
+indirect testimony afforded by the apparent psychic perception by
+animals; the evidence, such as it is, for "spirit photography"; the
+recent experiments in thought-photography, and the photographs made at
+the séances of Eusapia Palladino, all tend to confirm, it seems to me,
+the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Baraduc, as the result of his
+preliminary researches. If an astral body of some sort exists, it must
+occupy space; and, being space-occupying, must, _a priori_, be material
+enough to occupy it! Whether or not this material is sufficiently solid
+to reflect light waves, and make an impression upon the sensitive plate
+of the camera, is an aspect of the problem still open to debate.
+
+Further indirect testimony is afforded by the statements of
+clairvoyants, and by the direct testimony (taking it for what it is
+worth) of so-called "spirits" who communicate their sensations and the
+knowledge they have gained after bodily death. They invariably assert
+that there _is_ an astral facsimile, or spiritual replica, of the
+physical body. Repellent as the idea may be to some of a semi-material,
+space-occupying soul, the facts would seem to indicate that such is
+true. Yet there might be a way out of the difficulty, since we might
+still suppose that the soul, or seat of consciousness, exists as a point
+of force within this spiritual organism. Whichever theory is ultimately
+proved correct cannot, of course, be settled by _a priori_ speculation,
+but by _facts_; and such experiments as those conducted by Dr. Baraduc
+in "photographing the soul" are, perhaps, the best line of investigation
+to follow, and one from which,--with the improvements in
+photography,--the most is to be hoped.
+
+The reader now has the facts before him. I have no theory to offer as to
+the nature of these photographs, save that they appear to me to be
+genuine and supernormal from all the evidence and testimony that I have
+been enabled to obtain. In my _Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_ I
+have explained a number of ways in which fraudulent "spirit" photographs
+can be obtained; and in _Modern Psychical Phenomena_ I reproduced a
+number of photographs which seemed to me to be supported by excellent
+testimony, and which were, so far as I could see, genuine psychic
+photographs. In that volume I also discussed the various _theories_
+which have been advanced in the past to explain these extraordinary
+photographs. The present collection is intended merely to supplement the
+former, and to present a number of photographs the solution for which
+is, it seems to me, yet to be found.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] Regarding the earlier photographs, however (those obtained by Mrs.
+Dupont Lee), further evidence has caused me to modify my belief in their
+supernormal value, and I should now attach no "evidential value" to them
+at all, strictly speaking. In an excellent criticism of the Lee
+photographs, published in the _Proceedings_, Amer. S.P.R., vol. xiii.
+pp. 529-87, Dr. Walter F. Prince has shown the undoubtedly fraudulent
+character of the Lee photographs--certainly those with which Keeler had
+anything to do. The others are still _sub judice_.
+
+[23] T. C. and E. C. Jack, Edinburgh.
+
+[24] Not reproduced here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HALLUCINATION AND THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF SPIRITUALISM[25]
+
+
+The discussion begun by Count Solovovo, and continued by Miss
+Johnson,[26] is assuredly of supreme importance to psychical research.
+Whether or no many of the alleged "physical phenomena" are genuine, or
+whether they are merely hallucinatory in character, is a question which
+involves--not only the phenomena themselves, but psychology and human
+life in general, and even influences strongly science and scientific
+experiments in other fields.... The senses are to be relied upon in
+every science other than psychic research; that seems to be the _dictum_
+of the world, and strange and even absurd as it may seem, it is, as we
+know, more or less founded upon fact. In no other science is fraud
+practised as it is in this; in practically no other line of research are
+the mental and physical powers so strained out of their usual or normal
+relations and perceptions as they are in this. It is only right, then,
+that Caution should be the password, and should be most rigidly employed
+in all such investigations as these.
+
+While admitting all this, however, one must also admit that it is easy
+to go too far in the opposite direction, and reject evidence which
+depends upon the senses simply _because_ they depend upon them. This, I
+think, is invalid reasoning. No one would be more willing than I to
+admit their fallibility and untrustworthiness--especially when we are
+dealing with conditions and phenomena where mal-observation is possible;
+but I do not think that any negative conclusion can be drawn from this.
+The case is still an open one; nothing is _proved_, one way or the
+other, and, in such work as ours, proof--and not mere conjecture--must
+be forthcoming. Very true it is that proof of the sort desired is often
+impossible; but it is obtained sometimes. If a medium be caught
+masquerading in a white muslin "robe" and a mask, we are doubtless
+within our rights in saying that the medium has been _proved_ a fraud.
+But failure to detect such trickery does not prove the phenomena
+genuine. That would depend upon other considerations, and would only
+raise a _presumption_ in favour of their authenticity. In such a case,
+"proof" is largely a question of relative probability, and can be
+obtained only by making the probability in favour of the reality of the
+phenomena so strong that the negative aspect is rendered logically
+unsound by the sheer weight of evidence against it.
+
+These trite remarks were nevertheless rendered necessary because of the
+enormous amount of misunderstanding which exists in connection with
+these phenomena, and of the general methods and objects of psychic
+research. The papers that have already been published on the question of
+hallucination in relation to the physical phenomena should do much to
+clear away many of these misconceptions, for in them we find (i) a
+willingness to treat the phenomena seriously; (ii) an admission that the
+witnesses described what they thought they saw; and (iii) a certain
+amount of evidence advanced to show that the alleged phenomena were in
+reality hallucinatory in character, while appearing to be external
+physical realities to the onlookers. Let us now examine the evidence
+advanced, and see in how far it is conclusive of the theory
+entertained--the hypothesis of hallucination.
+
+As both Count Solovovo and Miss Johnson have concentrated their
+attention upon the phenomena occurring in the presence of D. D. Home, I
+shall do so likewise in the first part of this chapter. As briefly as
+possible, I shall review their papers, before passing on to more general
+remarks--remarks which it is the object of this paper to bring into
+prominence.
+
+Count Solovovo thinks that it is evidence in favour of the
+hallucination theory that: "A flower or other small object is seen to
+move; one person present will see a luminous cloud hovering over it,
+another will detect a nebulous-looking hand, whilst others will see
+nothing but the moving flower."[27]
+
+Miss Johnson agrees with this, and in fact goes so far as to say: "If
+these hands had been completely invisible to some person with normal
+sight looking directly at them in a good light, we should then have good
+evidence that they were hallucinatory."[28]
+
+To this I cannot agree. I find myself completely differing from Miss
+Johnson in my interpretation of such an incident as this. For, while
+hallucination is one possible theory to account for the phenomena,
+another equally plausible theory is that the hands were in fact
+objective and real, but were only perceptible to various individuals in
+varying degrees. This aspect of the problem is hardly touched upon by
+Count Solovovo, but is discussed at some length by Miss Johnson. In this
+connection she says:
+
+     "Here [in the hand, i.e.] is a kind of matter which is not only
+     temporary in character--a fact in itself extraordinary enough--but
+     exhibits another quite unprecedented characteristic in the
+     arbitrary selectiveness of its effects on other matter. In order to
+     be visible at all, it must reflect light. How does it manage to
+     reflect light that affects the retina of one person and not the
+     retina of another? We may reply that the difference must lie in the
+     retinae, one being more sensitive than the other. But we do not
+     find the same difference of sensitivity in regard to the light
+     reflected from ordinary objects. It seems to follow then that the
+     light reflected from the spirit-hand is a peculiar kind of light,
+     lying outside the limits of the ordinary visible spectrum. But in
+     that case, why is not the person with the more sensitive retina
+     affected by it? For of course all ordinary objects are constantly
+     giving off radiations outside the limits of the visible spectrum;
+     but our supposed sensitive apparently does not perceive them."[29]
+
+First, as to the matters of fact. Where is the evidence that those with
+the most sensitive retinae were not the very ones who perceived, most
+perfectly, the spirit-hand? Were a series of experiments conducted to
+show which of the onlookers possessed the most sensitive eyes? If so,
+where are these experiments recorded? It is quite possible that the body
+is constantly giving off a kind of _aura_--perceptible to some,
+invisible to others; and the fact that some do not see it is no proof
+that it is not there. If the experiments of Reichenbach and others go
+for anything, indeed, there is very good evidence that such emanations
+do take place--and I venture to think (however rank heresy this may
+appear) that these experiments have never been completely refuted, and
+the results obtained shown to be traceable _in toto_ to suggestion. The
+eyes of certain individuals might be attuned to receive vibrations or
+impressions quite imperceptible to others, no matter how sensitive their
+retinae to normal perceptions or sensations.
+
+But, quite apart from such purely "physical" speculations, I can quite
+conceive that these hands were not "seen" in the ordinary sense of the
+word at all. The physical eyes may have played some part in their
+perception, but only a small part. It is quite possible that "hands" of
+the character here seen were active and functioning upon another plane
+altogether than the sense plane, and were perceived at the time by a
+species of _clairvoyance_. What "clairvoyance" is I do not pretend to
+know (unless spiritism be true, in which case I can quite easily
+conceive its _modus operandi_), but the mass of evidence in its favour
+seems to place it quite beyond the pale of doubt. But even if this be
+not granted, I can quite see how a certain _rapport_ between the sitter
+and the hand--or the intelligence behind the hand--might easily enable
+one sitter to perceive it, and not another. Analogies from trance
+phenomena and even from experimental thought-transference might be drawn
+here, in favour of such a theory. The whole theory of apparitions at the
+moment of death depends upon this established _rapport_, since, if it
+did not exist, and affect the results, the apparition might just as well
+appear to Tom, Dick, and Harry as to the percipient--and the percipient
+is such (supposedly) simply by reason of this pre-established _rapport_.
+
+There might be, then, a certain _rapport_ between some sitters and a
+plane of activity upon which such hands manifest, enabling these
+individuals to see the hands, while prohibiting others from seeing them.
+The receptivity or capacity might indicate a greater or lesser degree of
+psychic capacity--they would be "more mediumistic." That is, the more
+mediumistic the sitter, the more likely would he be to perceive such
+hands. And of course we all know in this connection that mediums or
+psychics in a circle will perceive hands and faces and other forms quite
+invisible to the ordinary observer. The usual recourse in such cases is
+to assume that the mediums are fraudulently in league with one another;
+but when unprofessional psychics experience the same sensations (or
+perceptions) there is good ground for calling a halt, and asking whether
+or not the sensations were not possibly genuine in the case of the
+professional medium also.
+
+In other words, and to summarize this part of the discussion, I can only
+say that there seems to me no valid reason for thinking that the
+spirit-hands in Home's séances were probably hallucinatory in character
+because only some of the sitters saw them. They might just as well be
+explained by supposing that certain of the sitters were more psychic or
+mediumistic than the others, and these saw--clairvoyantly or by some
+similar mode of psychic perception--hands and forms invisible to those
+less sensitive. It need hardly be said that the carrying about of
+objects by these hands renders their objective nature and existence far
+more probable than if such movements had never taken place. These
+physical phenomena remain, no matter what view we take of the visible
+(or invisible) hands.
+
+In speaking next of Home's "full-form phantasms," Miss Johnson draws
+attention to the fact, so often pointed out by Mr. Podmore, that the
+various witnesses in subsequent accounts do not describe the phenomena
+in the same terms or in precisely the same manner. The narrative differs
+in the various accounts, and the phenomena appear far more remarkable
+in some than in others. The inference is that none of them is
+right--certainly not the more remarkable ones--and that the inaccuracy
+of the reports invalidates the records.
+
+Now I have nothing to say against this method _as_ a method. But I think
+it can be pushed too far and wrong deductions drawn therefrom. It is
+right to discount the value of the evidence, but that is a different
+thing from discrediting it altogether. If individual records differ when
+describing any particular phenomenon it is right that the less
+marvellous be accepted as the more probable; but this is not saying that
+the phenomenon did not take place at all! Any two accounts of a given
+phenomenon must necessarily differ--more or less, according to
+circumstances. But if all the accounts obviously concern a given
+phenomenon, and if they agree, even in the essential outlines, it is
+probable that the event resembled the description more or less; and if
+in all these accounts there is no evidence of fraud forthcoming, and no
+indications that it existed, we must take it for granted that no
+suspicious circumstances were noted and no fraud detected--for otherwise
+it would have found its way into the records. And the fact that it never
+did find its way into any of them (with one doubtful exception,
+_Journal, S.P.R._, vol. iv. pp. 120-21, and Jan. and May 1903) seems to
+indicate, not that the phenomena were necessarily genuine, but that the
+central theme of the account, so to speak--the phenomenon--was seen
+alike by all, and was variously described by the witnesses afterward in
+the subsequent reports. The minor discrepancies do not suffice to
+explain away the phenomenon altogether. They serve merely to render it
+less marvellous. Many psychic researchers, however, seem to imagine that
+because the various accounts do not agree, the fact recorded probably
+did not occur at all. That is surely an entirely unwarranted
+supposition, and were this carried to its logical conclusion, would
+suffice to disprove the whole of the past history of the human race.
+
+Miss Johnson's discussion of Home's famous levitation out of one window
+and in at another is surely masterly, and is precisely the kind of
+criticism which psychic research needs. After reading her account, I can
+only say that were this case an isolated incident, unsupported by any
+similar eases of a like nature, it would be so far "explained away" as
+to lose all evidential value. At the same time I think that Count
+Solovovo sums the whole argument up when he says that none of Home's
+phenomena were ever _proved_ to be hallucinatory; all that has been done
+by the discussion is to show that some of them _might possibly_ have
+been so. And there is a great difference between the two. There is a
+natural tendency in many minds to assume and take for granted that
+because a given phenomenon might possibly have been produced by fraud,
+it was unquestionably produced in that manner. That is quite an
+unwarranted supposition, and fraud should be clearly _proved_ in every
+given instance before a medium be charged with trickery. This is a rule
+far too seldom observed by sceptical investigators, but an important one
+nevertheless.
+
+Leaving aside this particular case of Home's levitation, however, it may
+be said that there are others on record far more conclusive in
+character, and against which many of Miss Johnson's criticisms could
+not be levelled. Taken singly, it is probable that no single case of any
+class of phenomena would prove convincing to a sceptic; sufficient
+objections could be raised, and sufficient discrepancies in the records
+pointed out, to invalidate any evidence whatever. Quite apart from any
+_a priori_ objections, any single incident can almost invariably be
+"explained away." It is the weight of a great _mass_ of cumulative
+evidence which tells the tale. The most expert and exact description of
+the fall of a meteor would not have forced an acceptance from the
+scientific world; the relative improbability of the whole of the past
+experience of the human race would have been so much greater than the
+fact that the latter would have been discredited. Gradually it would
+have receded in the mind, and even the original witness might ultimately
+be persuaded that he had not in reality seen a meteor at all!
+
+And so it is with psychic research; and so it is with the theory under
+discussion. No single incident, taken by itself, can be said to prove
+anything; only the great mass of facts, taken together, and all pointing
+in the same direction, can be said to do so. One can quite see how this
+would be the case, e.g. in Mrs. Piper's automatic utterances or
+writings. No matter how conclusive any individual "test" might be, it
+would prove nothing by itself. No matter how well attested an apparition
+at the moment of death, singly it would indicate no telepathic
+communication nor other supernormal factor at work. But together these
+cases form a strand[30] which becomes too strong to be broken, and
+which, taken together, practically prove telepathic communication at the
+moment of death--at least so thought Professor Sidgwick's Committee, of
+which Miss Johnson was one member. (See _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. x.
+p. 394.)
+
+In Home's case, then, the evidence for his levitation phenomena rests,
+not on any one case taken by itself, but on the mass of cumulative
+testimony offered by scores of witnesses. However completely one case
+might be explained away, the other cases still remain to us--each case
+standing on its own merits, and many of them excellently observed, if
+not so well recorded. For example, the cases mentioned by Sir. William
+Crookes (_Journal, S.P.R._, vol. vi. p. 342) are certainly far superior,
+in point of observation, to the famous case so severely criticized by
+Miss Johnson. And I think that if one is going to offer any hypothesis
+at all, it must be one that covers _all_ the facts, and not merely one
+which explains only some of them. The hallucinatory nature of Home's
+phenomena is certainly not inclusive--it does not include many of the
+more striking incidents to say nothing of the lesser phenomena. For this
+reason, it does not appear to me to be conclusive either.
+
+After a brief discussion of Home's fire-tests, which Miss Johnson
+practically admits are inexplicable by any process either of fraud or of
+hallucination known to her (p. 498), she passes on to what are called
+"quasi-hypnotic" effects. To many of the incidents classed by Miss
+Johnson as due to suggestion, I should be inclined to give an entirely
+different interpretation. Some of them doubtless resemble hallucinations
+in a striking degree, but what evidence is there that, e.g., passes made
+over the heads of the sitters can induce identical hallucinations in all
+of them; or that, because one of the circle becomes hysterical, the
+others are thereby rendered susceptible to suggestion? However, I shall
+defer this question until we come to discuss hallucination in general.
+
+After some wholesome criticisms devoted to the "recognition" of
+materialized forms, and the very true statement (p. 509) that "a very
+small error in perception may sometimes lead to a very large error of
+inference," Miss Johnson ends her remarkably interesting paper with two
+illustrations--one a hallucination (?)[31] induced by false association
+of ideas; the other an incident in her own experience, occurring at a
+séance with Eusapia Palladino. Both of these are of importance, and
+should be studied carefully.
+
+Count Solovovo on the contrary considers it somewhat in favour of the
+hallucination theory that hands were found to melt in the sitters'
+grasp, when they were forcibly retained (p. 441). I cannot agree with
+this. It is a different thing to say that hallucination might account
+for the facts, and saying that the facts tell in favour of
+hallucination. Chance might account for an experimental apparition, but
+the fact that the apparition occurred does not prove it to be chance.
+One must be careful to distinguish facts and inferences, in a case of
+this character. Whether or not the hands were hallucinatory will depend,
+not upon _a priori_ probability, or the fact they were visible to some,
+invisible to others, (for all this might just as well be accounted for
+on the opposing theory), but upon the fact that, so far as we know,
+there is no analogy whatever between this oft-recorded event and any of
+the phenomena of suggestion known to us. If we offer a theory to explain
+certain facts, it must not only explain them in a rational manner, but
+must dovetail into what we know--into _the known_. That is the whole
+method of science. If, therefore, a man advances "hallucination" as an
+explanation of such facts as those under discussion, he must show how it
+is that hallucination might be supposed to work: he must bring forward
+some analogies and examples of somewhat similar instances in order to
+have a case at all. In science, we cannot speculate _in vacuo_, but must
+connect with what is already known, if we wish to be scientific at all.
+What analogies, then, have we that spirit-hands, similar to those
+described, can be created by suggestion; and that suggestion can cause a
+number of investigators, at various times, in various places, to believe
+that these hands melted in theirs while they were trying to retain them?
+
+I venture to think we have no analogies whatever. It is quite possible
+that a subject in a hypnotic trance might be induced to believe that he
+was holding a hand while in fact no hand was there, and, further, that
+this hand melted away in his grasp while he was holding fast on to it.
+But I can see practically no resemblance whatever between the two cases.
+For, in the case we have supposed (i) the hand did not move any material
+object; (ii) no one but the hypnotized subject saw the hand; and (iii)
+the illusion was only induced by repeated verbal suggestion to a subject
+already hypnotized. Where is the analogy in the two cases? Home's hands
+moved objects; they were seen by several people at once; and, so far as
+the records prove anything, they prove that constant verbal suggestions
+of the sort necessary were certainly _not_ given, while there is no
+evidence whatever that the subjects were hypnotized! On this very
+subject, speaking of Home's séances, Sir William Crookes has said:
+
+     "General conversation was going on all the time, and on many
+     occasions something on the table had moved some time before Home
+     was aware of it. We had to draw his attention to such things far
+     oftener than he drew our attention to them. Indeed, he sometimes
+     used to annoy me by his indifference to what was going on...."[32]
+
+Does this look like suggestion? Is there any similarity between the two
+cases? Their differences are too obvious to dwell upon. And, apart from
+the performances of the Hindu fakirs (which I have discussed
+elsewhere,[33] and which Count Solovovo himself thinks too few and too
+weak evidentially to require serious consideration), there is no
+similarity between an hallucination induced in a hypnotized subject by
+constant verbal suggestion, and one supposedly induced instantaneously
+in a large number of persons, not hypnotized, without any suggestion.
+The cases cannot be considered similar, or even as resembling one
+another in the slightest degree; while the improbability is heightened a
+thousandfold by the fact that these hands apparently performed physical
+actions and moved physical objects at the same time. The coincidence
+would have to be explained as well as the hallucination, in that case.
+
+Both Count Solovovo and Miss Johnson lay particular stress upon the fact
+that the Master of Lindsay seems to have been extremely suggestible.
+Assuredly, that is an important point in so far as his own experiences
+are concerned, but the fact in nowise affects the experiences of
+_others_. In order to prove that suggestibility played an important part
+in the phenomena, it would be necessary to show that _all_ witnesses of
+the phenomena were suggestible--for the phenomena were seen by all in a
+slightly varying degree. Yet there is no evidence that many of the
+witnesses were suggestible at all: they did not see things Home
+suggested they should see, while, on the other hand, they saw things
+quite on their own account, when Home was busily engaged in conversation
+with some one else. The whole case must be made to hang together, and if
+"suggestion" be the key to the puzzle, it certainly fits the lock
+remarkably ill.[34]
+
+In summing-up his paper and the evidence contained therein, Count
+Solovovo concludes:
+
+     "For my own part I lay it down as a general proposition ... that
+     the testimony of several sane, honest and intelligent eye-witnesses
+     is, broadly speaking, proof of the objectivity of any phenomenon.
+     If there are people who maintain an opposite view, let them make
+     experiments themselves" (p. 477).
+
+That is precisely the position I should assume: I do not believe that
+collective hallucinations of the kind supposed exist at spiritistic
+séances, except perhaps very rarely, and to special gatherings of
+individuals. Let me now adduce the evidence in favour of my position,
+and the reasons for my taking this stand so strongly.
+
+First, then, let us distinguish between _illusions_ and
+_hallucinations_, as this is of the very greatest importance in a
+discussion such as this. An illusion is a false sensory perception, the
+basis of which is, nevertheless, real. Thus, if an old coat in a corner
+of the room be mistaken for a dog, that would be an illusion. A _point
+de repère_ is there--a peg, upon which the mind hangs its false
+inferences or perceptions. An hallucination, on the other hand, is
+entirely a creation of the mind, and there is, in this case, no _point
+de repère_, which exists externally, and serves as the basis of the
+hallucination. Roughly speaking, this may be said to be the difference
+between the two. Now, let us apply this to Home's séances, and to
+spiritistic séances in general.
+
+During the course of my twenty years' constant investigation, I have had
+many score séances with various mediums--slate-writing mediums,
+materializing mediums, physical mediums, clairvoyant mediums, _et hoc
+genus omne_. Speaking now of materialization séances only--of which I
+have seen many--I may say that in all my investigations _I have never
+seen one single instance of suggested or spontaneous hallucination_.
+Plenty of _illusions_ were observed, but never the trace of a full-blown
+hallucination.[35] And I venture to think that, if we examine the
+evidence in the case of D. D. Home, we find very few cases which could
+have been illusions--the vast majority of them seem to have been "pure
+hallucinations"--if they were psychological processes (as opposed to
+physical) at all. So that we should have to suppose that we find in
+these séances--not mere illusions, commonly seen at spiritualistic
+séances, but full-blown hallucinations of a type rarely or never seen
+elsewhere. In other words, these séances present evidences of
+psychological processes for which we can find no analogy in any other
+series of séances, or in hypnotic or any other phenomena with which we
+are familiar. I venture to think that this entirely _new_ order of
+things cannot be accepted upon such evidence: that the hypothesis of
+hallucination cannot be said to explain anything whatever, inasmuch as
+it is entirely unsupported by facts, and finds no analogies whatever in
+any other psychological processes known to us.
+
+At the very conclusion of his paper, Count Solovovo places his finger
+upon the vulnerable spot: he there points out the only way to solve the
+difficulty. It is by the accumulation and study of _new facts_.
+Discussions as to the historical phenomena might go on for ever and the
+question still remain unsolved. The only way out of the difficulty is to
+establish, if possible, the objective or the hallucinatory character of
+these newer phenomena--if such are obtained--and from them draw
+conclusions concerning the older manifestations. If these newer
+phenomena turn out to be hallucinatory--in spite of all the testimony in
+favour of their being objective--then it is highly probable that many of
+the older phenomena were hallucinatory also. If, on the other hand, the
+newer phenomena turn out to be physical and objective, then the
+improbability of the older manifestations having been hallucinatory is
+proportionately increased--until it becomes almost a certainty that they
+were not so. For, if physical phenomena of a genuine character ever do
+occur, the _a priori_ improbability is at once removed, and
+thenceforward there is but little ground for objecting to the phenomena
+in Home's case; and not only those, but the phenomena in the case of
+Stainton Moses, and scores of others less well attested. The props would
+have been knocked from beneath all logical scepticism of the historical
+phenomena, once newer manifestations of the same type be proved true.
+The whole case hinges upon the fact of whether or not such new facts as
+may be forthcoming tend to prove either the one theory or the other.
+Let us therefore turn to this newer evidence, and see which alternative
+is rendered more probable by the phenomena in question.
+
+This newer evidence is, of course, supplied by the case of Eusapia
+Palladino. Here we find phenomena of a physical character recorded by
+many men and women--including numerous eminent scientists--not one of
+whom tolerates for a moment the idea that these phenomena are
+hallucinatory. Indeed, the photographs of table levitations, of hands
+and heads,[36] of instruments flying through the air,[37] and the
+impressions left in cakes of plaster,[38] leave no doubt whatever that,
+in this case, the phenomena--no matter how produced--are objective. This
+conclusion is further supported by the fact that registering apparatus
+has been employed, and has successfully recorded the results of physical
+movements. From this, it is certain that real, objective facts have been
+observed.[39] Whether the phenomena were due to fraud or were the
+results of the operation of some supernormal force, or whatever their
+explanation, they were certainly not due to hallucination.
+
+Our own sittings, it seems to me, abundantly confirm this conclusion.
+During the greater part of the time, when phenomena were in progress,
+Eusapia was passive and silent: when she did speak, she did not suggest
+anything to us directly, and even if she had done so, it would have been
+in Italian--a language I do not understand. And yet I saw the
+phenomena--the movements of objects, the hands and the heads, and felt
+the touches--just as the others did: in fact, I think I may say _more_
+frequently than either of my colleagues did. How was this? Eusapia only
+"suggested" anything to us on three occasions, and on two of these we
+failed to perceive what she wished us to see! On the other hand, we
+frequently perceived what she did not "suggest" to us, and which came as
+a complete surprise to us all. The expression "Oh!" occurring, as it
+does, at several places in the notes, shows how unexpected the
+manifestation was. When one's hair is suddenly and forcibly pulled by
+living fingers, and when one is banged over the head by a closed fist,
+and when one is grasped by a hand and pulled so forcibly as to almost
+upset one into the cabinet--it requires a strong imagination to believe
+that this is nothing but hallucination. Then, too, we all saw the
+phenomenon at the same instant, invariably; and if one of us failed to
+do so, it was always because there was a physical cause for it: the
+curtain intervened, or something of a similar nature occurred. I need
+hardly point out that this, in itself--looked at from one point of
+view--is exceedingly strong evidence that the manifestation was not
+hallucinatory, but objective. The unexpected nature of the majority of
+the phenomena--when Eusapia was in deep trance, and we were doing all
+the talking--renders the hypothesis of hallucination quite untenable, it
+seems to me; at least, if any one chooses to defend it, he must give
+some analogies and somewhat similar instances of the power of
+suggestion--a task that will never be satisfactorily undertaken; of that
+I am sure.
+
+No; whatever be the interpretation of these phenomena, they are
+certainly not hallucinatory. And if they were objective, it is almost
+certain that the Home phenomena were objective also--since the parallel
+between the two cases is often extremely close.
+
+And this, it appears to me, is the only way of approaching this problem
+that is liable to prove conclusive or trustworthy. Discussions of
+historical phenomena will never settle anything one way or the other:
+nothing is _proved_ thereby, one way or the other. The only conclusive
+method, as Count Solovovo pointed out--and I heartily agree with him--is
+the accumulation of _new facts_; and these new facts, when obtained,
+have, it appears to me (and to my colleagues also), proved beyond all
+question that the phenomena were genuine in at least some instances;
+and, that once admitted, the _a priori_ doubts are removed, and the
+historic phenomena raised to a standard of probability which amounts to
+certitude. Some of the physical phenomena of spiritualism are
+objective--real, external facts; and I am assured that they are not due
+to fraud or trickery. Whatever their ultimate explanation, however, they
+can no longer be said to be due to any form of hallucination in the
+sitters.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] The chapter which follows originally appeared in the _Journal_ of
+the American S.P.R. (December 1909), and was critical of the articles of
+Miss Alice Johnson and Count Solovovo, which had previously appeared in
+the English _Proceedings_. While the chapter is self-explanatory, it may
+be well to say that Count Solovovo, in his original paper, considered
+the "hallucination theory" as a possible explanation of certain physical
+phenomena--such as those of D. D. Home--and, after a lengthy discussion,
+came to the conclusion that it would be extremely difficult to believe
+that hallucination could account for all the observed facts. Miss
+Johnson, in her reply, inclined rather more to the hallucination
+theory--at least in some cases--and endeavoured to show how it might
+have occurred on several occasions. My paper is critical of these
+articles--chiefly Miss Johnson's; and I have here endeavoured to combat
+the hallucination theory,--which I do not believe to have nearly so wide
+a range as Miss Johnson supposes. The interested reader is referred to
+the original papers, as well as to the discussion which follows; after
+which he may decide for himself which seems to him the more rational
+explanation of the facts.
+
+[26] _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. xxi. pp. 436-515.
+
+[27] _Researches in the Phenomena of Spiritualism_, p. 92.
+
+[28] _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. xxi. p. 488.
+
+[29] _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. xxi. p. 487.
+
+[30] Critics are apt to compare psychic phenomena to the links of a
+chain--each phenomenon being a separate link. As the chain is only as
+strong as its separate links, it has been pointed out, and as each case,
+taken by itself, can be shown to be inconclusive, it is obvious that the
+whole of psychic research comes to naught. This objection is met, it
+seems to me, by the following consideration. Each separate case
+represents, not the link of a chain, but the thread of a woven rope,
+which, taken by itself, is extremely weak, but which, when placed beside
+hundreds of others, becomes so strong as to be practically unbreakable.
+
+[31] This appears to me to be rather an illusion than a pure
+hallucination. Miss Johnson's own case appears to me to be an illusion
+also. See the discussion of this point later on, however.
+
+[32] _Journal_, vol. vi. p. 343.
+
+[33] See _The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_, pp. 386-93, and my
+pamphlet _Hindu Magic_, for a discussion of these performances, and of
+the theory of hallucination in connection therewith.
+
+[34] See, e.g., Count Solovovo's position which he was driven to
+accept--that the chair-threading witnessed by him was due to unconscious
+telepathic suggestion! (p. 469). The position appears to me to be
+absolutely untenable, in face of the evidence he himself adduces.
+
+[35] An excellent example of an illusion generated by the conditions of
+a spiritualistic séance is the following, which occurred to myself at
+Lily Dale, N. Y., during my investigations there in the summer of 1907,
+and which I reported in the _Proceedings of the American S.P.R._, as
+follows:--
+
+"My sister 'Eva' materialized for me. I suggested 'Eva' and she 'came.'
+I never had a sister Eva, so she was a little out of place. However, she
+'came' as a little girl about ten years old, with a hooked nose, bright
+black eyes, and a fringe of false hair over her forehead. Her doll-like
+appearance was very manifest. After she de-materialized, I was on the
+point of walking back to my chair, but was told to wait. I returned to
+the curtains of the cabinet, and my mother announced herself present,
+'who had died from consumption.' The curtains were pulled aside, and I
+put my face close to the opening, since it was so dark I could see
+nothing. And there, in the dim twilight of that séance room, I beheld
+one of the most ghastly, most truly terrifying faces I have ever seen.
+It was white and drawn, and almost shiny in its glossy, ashen hue. The
+eyes were wide open and staring--fixed. The head and face were encircled
+in white; and altogether the face was one of the most appalling I have
+ever beheld, and it would have required a great deal of fortitude, for
+the moment, to look steadfastly at that terrifying face--in that quiet,
+still room, in response to the spirit's demand: 'Look at me!' The
+distance between our faces was not more than six inches; and after the
+first shock, I regarded the face intently. I was spurred by curiosity
+and excitement, and prompted yet further by the spirit form, who grasped
+my wrist, through the curtain, and drew me yet closer--until I was
+nearly in the cabinet itself. I remembered that my mother had not died
+from consumption, and that the present face in nowise resembled hers,
+and my feeling of terror lasted but an instant; but it was there at the
+time, I confess. I regarded the face intently, and it was gradually
+withdrawn into the shadow of the cabinet, and the curtains pulled over
+it. _I am certain that, had I been in an excited and unbalanced frame of
+mind at that instant, I should have sworn that the face melted away as I
+looked at it._ But my mental balance was by that time regained, and I
+could analyse what was before me. I can quite easily see how it is that
+persons can swear to the melting away of a face before their eyes, after
+my own experience. The appearances clearly indicated that, and it was
+only my alertness to the possibility of deception in this direction,
+which prevented my testifying to the same effect." (See my _Personal
+Experiences in Spiritualism_, pp. 31-32.)
+
+[36] _Annals of Psychical Science_, April 1908, pp. 181-91.
+
+[37] _Ibid._, April-June 1909, pp. 285-305.
+
+[38] Flammarion: _Mysterious Psychic Forces_; Morselli: _Psicologia e
+Spiritismo_; De Fontenay: _A Propos d'Eusapia Paladino_; De Rochas:
+_L'Exteriorization de la Motricite_, etc.
+
+[39] Why were Sir William Crookes' experiments with the spring balance
+not discussed, by the way, in this connection? Here we have indubitable
+proof of the objectivity of the phenomena; even Mr. Podmore being driven
+to grant this, and suppose that the manifestations were the result of
+some trick.--_Modern Spiritualism_, vol. ii. p. 242.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE PROBLEMS OF TELEPATHY
+
+
+     "I suppose everybody would say it would be an extraordinary
+     circumstance," said the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S., in
+     his Presidential Address before the Society for Psychical Research,
+     some years ago, "if at no distant date this earth on which we dwell
+     were to come into collision with some unknown body travelling
+     through space, and, as the result of that collision, be resolved
+     into the original gases of which it is composed.... This is a
+     specimen of a dramatically extraordinary event. Now I will give you
+     a case of what I mean by a scientifically extraordinary
+     event--which you will at once perceive may be one which, at first
+     sight and to many observers, may appear almost commonplace and
+     familiar. I have constantly met people who will tell you, with no
+     apparent consciousness that they are saying anything more out of
+     the way than an observation about the weather, that by the exercise
+     of their will they can make anybody at a little distance turn round
+     and look at them. Now such a fact (if fact it be) is far more
+     scientifically extraordinary than would be the destruction of this
+     globe by some such celestial catastrophe as I have imagined. How
+     profoundly mistaken, then, are they who think that this exercise of
+     'will power,' as they call it, is the most natural and the most
+     normal thing in the world, something which everybody should have
+     expected, something which hardly deserves scientific notice or
+     requires scientific explanation. In reality it is a profound
+     mystery, if it is true, or if anything like it be true; and no
+     event, however startling, which easily finds its appropriate niche
+     in the structure of the physical sciences ought to exercise so much
+     intellectual curiosity as this dull and at first sight commonplace
+     phenomenon." (_Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. x. pp. 9-10.)
+
+These were the words, not only of the Premier of England, but of an
+exceptionally well-balanced and learned man of science, from which it
+will be seen how extraordinary a thing this "thought-transference" or
+"telepathy" is to the scientific world; and how hard it is for the
+_savant_ to accept it! Yet, as Mr. Balfour says, nearly every one at the
+present time believes in telepathy, and accepts it as the only
+explanation for certain facts, and as a more or less commonplace event.
+Why, then, is there so much mystery about it; _why_ is it so
+extraordinary?
+
+The reason for this lies in the fact that psychologists hold a certain
+view of the nature of the mind which is not shared or understood by the
+majority of persons. They believe that the mind, or consciousness, is
+bound up with the functionings of the brain; and that it is inseparable
+from them. Just as digestion is a function of the whole digestive
+apparatus, circulation of the circulatory apparatus, and respiration of
+the respiratory apparatus; just so, it is believed, is thinking a
+function of the thinking apparatus--the brain and nervous system. And
+one is no more detachable than the other; and one is no more "immortal"
+after the death of the body than the other. All these functions fall
+away and perish at once, at the moment of death. This is the position of
+positive, materialistic psychology--which is the psychology taught in
+our schools and colleges at the present day. Naturally, our professors
+do not believe in telepathy; were this theory true, it would be
+"impossible," just as impossible as it is for a solid object to be in
+two places at the same time. Consciousness cannot be both inside the
+brain and out of it; and as it is believed to reside inside, it cannot
+be outside! As it is a function of nervous tissue, how can it make
+itself manifest at a distance of 2000 miles--at the moment, too, when it
+is being annihilated. Obviously the thing is impossible!
+
+But, alas for science (or rather for the dogmatic scientist), the
+experience of the past tells us that many things deemed impossible are
+nevertheless facts. Though they are jeered at when they are first
+brought to the attention of the scientific world, subsequent
+investigation has only served to confirm them.... It is on record that
+no physician over forty years of age at the time of his great discovery
+ever accepted Harvey's proof of the circulation of the blood--so great
+was the force of tradition and orthodoxy.... And today the facts of
+"psychical research" are laughed at, and its investigators held up to
+ridicule, because of this same spirit of prejudice and intolerance, and
+the desire to mock at what we do not understand. "But," as Professor
+James so well remarked _à propos_ of this subject, "whenever a debate
+between the mystics and the scientists has been once for all decided,
+it is the mystics who have usually proved to be right about the _facts_,
+while the scientists had the better of it in respect to _theories_." But
+inasmuch as only the "facts" are now in dispute, and no one cares as yet
+what theory shall be adopted in order to explain them, is it not time at
+least to investigate them, and to see whether or not such facts
+exist--quite irrespective of whether they are explainable, when found?
+
+The facts, then; are they true or are they not? It is a question quite
+open to discussion, one quite capable of being solved by scientific
+methods. It is useless to say beforehand whether or not such and such
+things are or are not possible; the question is: Do they exist? We must
+not question their utility either, even if true, for this never enters
+into any scientific question of fact. Like the celebrated French
+philosopher whose friend had proved to him the "impossibility" of a
+certain happening, he replied: "My dear sir, I never said it was
+_possible_; I said it was a _fact_!"
+
+So, then, we come to the evidence for this wonderful power of telepathy
+or thought-transference. Here I must be very brief, indicating merely a
+fraction of the evidence which has been accumulated in proof of this
+startling scientific truth.
+
+When the Society for Psychical Research was founded, in 1882, its main
+energies were directed toward the investigation of this faculty, and of
+the reality of thought-transference. The various Committees who were
+engaged in this investigation soon came to the conclusion that its
+reality was beyond doubt. Some of the most interesting and conclusive
+experiments were those conducted by Mr. Guthrie, a gentleman living in
+Liverpool, and two of his employés. The tests were so arranged that
+fraud was out of the question, even had it been attempted. All the
+subjects were in a normal state, blindfolded, and separated some
+distance. Strict silence was observed. In the presence of Messrs. Myers
+and Gurney, the following trials in transferring the sensation of taste
+were attempted. Various substances were provided the "agent" (the one
+who was to transfer the sensation) and he placed a small quantity of one
+of these in his mouth; while the "percipient" (receiver of the
+telepathically sent message) stated what his or her impressions were. To
+quote one set of trials:
+
+
+  September 4
+
+  _Substance Tested_          _Answers Given_
+
+  Worcestershire sauce.       Worcestershire sauce.
+    "              "          Vinegar.
+  Port wine.                  Between eau de Cologne and beer.
+    "    "                    Raspberry vinegar.
+  Bitter aloes.               Horrible and bitter.
+  Alum.                       A taste of ink--of iron--of
+                                vinegar. I feel it on my
+                                lips; as if I had been eating
+                                alum.
+    "                         Do. distinct impression: bitter
+                                taste persisted.
+  Nutmeg.                     Peppermint--no; what you put
+                                in puddings--nutmeg.
+    "                         Nutmeg.
+  Sugar.                      Nothing perceived.
+    "                           "       "
+  Cayenne pepper.             Mustard.
+    "       "                 Cayenne pepper.
+
+
+The next series of experiments concerned the transference of bodily
+pains. The subjects still being blindfolded, and some distance apart,
+the agent was pricked in various parts of his body by a needle. Several
+physicians were present at these experiments:
+
+     Back of left ear pricked. Rightly located.
+
+     Lobe of left ear pricked. Rightly located.
+
+     Left wrist pricked. "It is the left hand."
+
+     Third finger of left hand tightly bound round with wire. A lower
+     joint of that finger was guessed.
+
+     Left wrist scratched with pins. "Is it the left wrist? Like being
+     scratched."
+
+     Left ankle pricked. Rightly located.
+
+Now it would be foolish to attribute such results as these to chance.
+But let us proceed.
+
+Dr. Blair Thaw tried a number of experiments in transferring colours.
+The following are samples:
+
+
+  Colours Chosen at Random
+
+  _Chosen_         _1st Guess_       _2nd Guess_
+
+  Bright red.      Bright red.       ....
+  Bright green.    Light green.      ....
+  Yellow.          Dark blue.        Yellow.
+  Bright yellow.   Bright yellow.    ....
+  Dark red.        Blue.             Dark red.
+  Dark blue.       Orange.           Dark blue.
+  Orange.          Green.            Heliotrope.
+
+
+In 1895 Mr. Henry G. Rawson published a paper on the subject,
+in which he narrated his success in transferring the diagrams
+of objects. Tracings of these are given herewith. (O = original
+and R = reproduction.) Further comment is hardly necessary.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Illustrative of Thought-Transference]
+
+He also tried a number of experiments in naming cards drawn at random
+from the pack (where the chance is always 51 to 1 of being correct, and
+the chance of being correct a number of times in succession is
+inconceivably great) and he attained the following results, among
+others:
+
+
+  _Card Chosen_       _Card Guessed_
+
+  5 of Hearts.        7 of Hearts, Ace of Diamonds.
+  8 of Hearts.        8 of Hearts.
+  10 of Clubs.        9 of Clubs, 10 of Clubs.
+  Jack of Diamonds.   Jack of Diamonds.
+  5 of Spades.        7 of Spades, 5 of Spades.
+  2 of Clubs.         2 of Diamonds, 2 of Clubs.
+  Queen of Hearts.    Queen of Hearts.
+  5 of Diamonds.      9 of Diamonds, 5 of Diamonds.
+  Ace of Diamonds.    Ace of Diamonds.
+  Ace of Hearts.      Ace of Hearts.
+  Ace of Clubs.       Ace of Clubs.
+  King of Spades.     King of Diamonds, King of Spades.
+
+
+Again, it is useless to say that such results are attributable to
+chance. The good standing of the participants places their good faith
+beyond question; all normal means of communication were prevented. How
+are we to account for such facts--short of invoking some sort of mental
+interaction, through other than the ordinary channels of sense?
+
+But these were experiments conducted in the normal state. Equally and
+even more interesting and conclusive results were obtained when the
+subject was placed under hypnotism. Of these, the most conclusive
+experiments were those conducted by Mrs. Sidgwick and Miss Alice
+Johnson. Put to the law of chance, it was shown that such coincidences
+were many hundreds, not to say thousands, of times more numerous than
+chance could account for. Then, again, we have the experiments at a
+great distance, in which Dr. Pierre Janet willed a patient of his to
+come through the streets, and she almost invariably came when he willed
+it. We have, too, a number of most interesting experiments in which
+_dreams_ have been induced in others--by trying to influence the
+sleeping thoughts of the dreamer. Here is a fruitful field, as yet
+hardly touched, for an experimenter in this line of research.[40]
+
+Among the most interesting and dramatic cases of the kind are those
+experiments in which one person has voluntarily caused a figure of
+himself to appear to another at a distance. Thus, A sits down and wills
+intently that he shall appear to B that night--in sleep or waking, as
+the case may be. The next morning A receives a letter from B, stating
+that he has seen an apparition of him, and asking him if he is well. The
+following is an example of a case of this character:
+
+     "One certain Sunday evening in November, 1881, having been reading
+     of the great power which the human will is capable of exercising, I
+     determined with the whole force of my being that I would be present
+     in spirit in the front bedroom of the second floor of a house
+     situated at 22 Hogarth Road, Kensington, in which room slept two
+     young ladies of my acquaintance, viz. Miss L. S. V. and Miss E. C.
+     V., aged respectively twenty-five and eleven years. I was living at
+     this time at 23 Kildare Gardens, at a distance of about three miles
+     from Hogarth Road, and I had not in any way mentioned my intention
+     of trying this experiment to either of the above ladies, for the
+     simple reason that it was only on retiring to rest upon this
+     particular Sunday night that I made up my mind to do so. The time
+     at which I determined to be there was one o'clock in the morning,
+     and I also had a strong intention of making my presence
+     perceptible.
+
+     "On the following Thursday I went to see the ladies in question,
+     and in the course of conversation (without any allusion to the
+     subject on my part) the elder one told me that on the previous
+     Sunday night she had been much terrified by perceiving me standing
+     by her bedside and that she screamed when the apparition advanced
+     toward her, and awoke her little sister who saw me also...."
+     (Corroborative evidence was obtained from the two ladies
+     mentioned.)
+
+Such a case is called a "telepathically induced hallucination" or an
+"experimental apparition," for the reason that the figure seen is
+doubtless hallucinatory in character and was induced by means of
+telepathy. Such cases (and there are plenty of them) are very striking
+proof of the direct action of mind on mind; and at the same time form a
+sort of bridge across the gulf which otherwise seems to exist between
+the experimental cases we have just quoted and the spontaneous cases to
+which we must now refer.
+
+Soon after the Society began its work it was noticed that numbers of
+cases were sent in, in which apparitions were seen at the very moment of
+the death of the person symbolized by the apparition. In many such
+cases, no other experience such as this has happened to the percipient
+throughout his or her life; but on the very occasion when such a figure
+_was_ seen, the individual was found to have died at that particular
+time! Can so many cases of so remarkable a character be attributed to
+chance?
+
+The answer at first sight is: No. But here we must be cautious. In
+scientific research such as this, we must not be guided by impressions,
+but by facts and figures. Accordingly it was decided to put this matter
+to the test, and an "International Census of Hallucinations" was
+inaugurated, which extended throughout several countries (America being
+represented by Professor William James), and the taking of which lasted
+several years. As the result of this laborious undertaking, 30,000
+answers were received--the percentage of coincidental apparitions being
+calculated. After making allowances for all possible sources of error,
+it was ascertained that the number of coincidences received were several
+hundred times too numerous to be attributed to chance; and the following
+statement was signed by Professor Sidgwick's Committee[41]:
+
+"_Between deaths and apparitions of the dying person a connection exists
+which is not due to chance alone. This we hold as a proved fact._"
+
+These are important words in many senses; and _donné à penser_. It shows
+us that, after all is said and done, this old theory of "ghosts" is not
+so far wrong, and that they, in a certain sense, _do_ exist; it is only
+a matter of their interpretation: the "mystics" have as usual been
+right as to the existence of the facts, but the "scientists" may be
+right in their interpretation of them.
+
+So we have the whole class of "spontaneous" telepathic phenomena, so
+called because they are not induced by direct experiment. In this class
+we have all those manifestations which take place at or about the moment
+of death; phantasms of the living, phantasms of the dying, and phantasms
+of the dead--according to whether the subject is yet living, is dying,
+or has recently died. In all such cases we may postulate a telepathic
+action at the moment of death, for in those cases when the apparition
+was seen but a few minutes or even a few hours after death, the impact
+might have been transmitted at the moment of death, and only have
+emerged into consciousness during the quietness and peace of the
+evening, or when night gave it a chance to do so. For we now know that
+subconscious ideas do tend to rise into consciousness when the latter is
+less occupied with the events of the day.
+
+It is, of course, impossible to detail here the mass of evidence of all
+kinds which has been accumulated of late years in favour of the
+existence of telepathy, but enough has been quoted to indicate the
+method of approach and the character of the evidence adduced. Suffice it
+to say that, in the eyes of those who have inquired into the subject
+closely, telepathy is now held to be proved; it is now considered to be
+a scientific fact, though not as yet explained. Again I repeat, the
+question is not: Is it possible? but, Is it a fact?
+
+Taking all that has been said into consideration, it may fairly be
+contended that the mere _fact_ of telepathy may therefore be said to
+have been proved. This being so, the interesting question of its nature
+or character presents itself. How is such action to be explained? How
+account for the facts?
+
+There are many theories which have been advanced from time to time to
+explain this remarkable phenomenon, and, if it be a fact in nature, its
+scientific explanation must some day be forthcoming. Once telepathy
+stands proved it will mean the remoulding and recasting of many of our
+scientific theories, and even a reconstruction of science--in so far, at
+least, as it refers to physiological psychology. Such being the case,
+and telepathy being proved, as many eminent men of science today
+believe, the question of its theoretical explanation becomes most
+important.
+
+Now the first analogy which strikes one in the consideration of this
+question is that of wireless telegraphy--the subtle electric vibrations
+which journey to and fro with incredible swiftness through the universal
+ether. In short, telepathy is thought by many to be simply a species of
+physical vibration, proceeding from brain to brain, just as electric
+waves pass from the transmitter to the receiver in wireless telegraphy.
+This explanation is so common that many persons accept it without
+further ado, as being the correct explanation of the facts. But such a
+theory cannot be said to cover the facts in a satisfactory manner.
+
+In the first place, there seems to be no definite or prescribed
+area in the brain adapted for such a purpose; no cell or centre has
+as yet been discovered which appears destined to send out waves of
+this character. Still, perhaps it will be some day, for the functions
+of certain portions of the brain--particularly the frontal lobes--are
+as yet very little understood. But there is the argument that, if
+such waves exist, they must be detected by means of our scientific
+instruments--instruments so delicate and subtle that they are able to
+measure the difference of the pull of gravity of an article when placed
+on the table or on the floor, or can register the heat of a candle at a
+distance of more than a mile (Langley's bolometer). Compared with such
+delicate instruments, our five senses are coarse indeed, and any
+vibrations which can affect these same senses must surely affect the
+more delicate and sensitive instruments just mentioned. Yet none of them
+have as yet been able to indicate the existence of any such vibrations,
+and this would seem to show that they cannot exist.[42]
+
+But there is a reply to this argument. It may be said that, although the
+_senses_ do not register any such vibrations, the _brain_ might do so,
+in some direct manner; and the brain might be far more sensitive than
+any instrument so far devised. Indeed the definition of telepathy, "the
+ability of one mind to influence or be influenced by another mind
+otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense," would seem to
+indicate that in this process only the brain is involved, and not
+necessarily the physical senses at all. So far, then, so good; telepathy
+might still be vibratory in character.
+
+But if so, how could such waves get through the skull to act upon the
+brain direct? This is a staggering thought to the ordinary materialist,
+and at first sight renders such an action unintelligible and hence
+"impossible"! But to reason thus would be very superficial. For we know
+that certain physical energies pass through solid substances--substances
+impervious to other physical energies. Thus we know that glass permits
+light to pass through it, but is a non-conductor of electricity; while
+steel is impervious to light, yet electricity can traverse miles of
+steel in the fraction of a second. "Gravity" seems the only energy which
+cannot be isolated by some means or other. No substance is opaque to
+gravity. It acts through all substances, at all times, continuously. In
+this respect telepathy may resemble gravitation.[43] If this were true,
+or anything like it were true, we could easily see why a solid
+substance, such as the human skull, might offer no appreciable
+resistance to the passage through it of undulations of a certain
+velocity--of a speed so great, perhaps, that they could not be detected
+by any of the instruments at the command of the physicist today.
+
+But there are other and still more serious objections to the vibratory
+action of telepathy which have not as yet been mentioned. For if we try
+to push the analogy further, we shall find that it is by no means so
+clear as might be supposed. Thus in the case of wireless telegraphy the
+vibratory action of the ether is a purely mechanical process and does
+not carry emotion, thought, or intelligence with it--being vibration
+pure and simple. Now, in the case of a supposed telepathic message,
+thought flashed from one brain to another must be supposed to convey
+with it intelligence of some sort; for if it were a _purely_ mechanical
+vibratory action, how is it that this would impress another brain in
+such an entirely different manner from all other vibrations as to
+create in that brain not only a thought, but the precise _kind_ of
+thought--the _replica_ of the thought--which originated in the brain of
+the agent? Granting that vibrations are but "symbols," and that they are
+interpreted by our brains _as_ things, the difficulty remains that, in
+all other cases, such vibrations, no matter what their intensity, convey
+to the brain the idea of external objects, or qualities of those
+objects, and do not convey to it the idea of mind or intelligence. How
+is it, therefore, that one particular species of vibration, which, we
+must assume, would vary more or less with each individual, can convey
+with it the idea of thought, and that this vibration is associated with
+mind, and in fact is thought, while all other vibrations in the world
+are in nowise connected with intelligence and do not appear to us to be
+so connected? And further, how infinitely we should have to vary the
+degree and type of vibration to correspond to all shades of thought and
+feeling and emotion! Sir William Crookes some years ago urged the
+possibility of this vibratory action of telepathy; but Mr. Myers has
+pointed out its defects and stated that all we can at present say about
+telepathy is that "life has the power of manifesting to life"--a formula
+surely general enough, yet highly significant.
+
+Again, the theory has been advanced that all minds are in touch in a
+sort of subterranean way--through their subliminal regions--just as all
+spokes of a wheel ultimately reach the hub, though each spoke is
+distinctive. In this way we could imagine an inter-connection taking
+place, of which we are quite unaware, under certain favourable
+conditions. To use an analogy somewhere employed by Professor James,
+our conscious minds are like the leaves of the trees which whisper
+together, but the roots of the trees are all embedded in the same soil
+and are interlaced inextricably. So our minds, though they appear to be
+so separate and apart, may really be at basis fundamentally _one_. There
+must be, it is said, some common ground of interaction; possibly a sort
+of universal fluid, in which all minds are bathed, and by means of which
+interaction of thought is effected. This is somewhat akin to the theory
+first propounded by Mesmer, and which has been revived, in somewhat
+altered form, more than a hundred years later. Mesmer held that thought
+was communicated from brain to brain "by the vibrations of a subtle
+fluid with which the nerve substance is in continuity." Truly, if any
+sort of physical action is employed, this seems a significant enough
+remark. We know that two tuning forks will resound in unison, if one of
+them be struck. Put in motion a magnetized needle; at a certain distance
+and without contact another magnetized needle will oscillate
+synchronously with the first. Set in vibration a violin string, or the
+string of a piano; and at a certain distance the string of another piano
+or violin will vibrate in unison with it. Such analogies make us wonder
+whether or not communication of this kind might not exist, and,
+certainly, in order to make telepathy intelligible at all, we must
+suppose some such action taking place. We all have a tendency to think
+in physical symbols, owing to our materialistic training.
+
+For if we try to picture to ourselves the process of telepathy as taking
+place in some manner other than physical, how are we to conceive such
+action? Does one consciousness stretch out, as it were, and grasp the
+other passive mind? or does the agent project the thought from his brain
+and impress the mind of the percipient with it--just as a bullet might
+be shot from a rifle, or light waves radiate from some centre? The first
+of these theories would be somewhat akin to true mind-reading, the other
+to thought-projection or transference. But if the latter theory be
+correct, is all thought directed into one single channel--at a target as
+it were--or does it spread equally in all directions, like all other
+vibratory radiations? It may be conceived that telepathy is a
+combination of both the above processes--it being a kind of mutual
+action--a projection on the part of one, and a mental reception or
+grasping on the part of the other. If this be the case, we must conceive
+the thought as met, as it were, in space, and in some way joined or
+seized upon by the percipient thought; but how can we conceive such
+seizing or such perception?
+
+It will be seen that the problems arising from a study of telepathy are
+numerous and remarkable. Let us briefly summarize the chief theories
+which have been advanced to date. These are:
+
+1. _The Theory of Exalted Perception._--This is, that the subject is in
+some manner enabled to see the thoughts of his "magnetizer" or
+hypnotist. This explanation applies only to those telepathic
+manifestations observed when the percipient is in a state of trance; and
+even here the theory cannot be said to explain, for it explains one
+mystery by propounding another.
+
+2. _The Hypothesis of Brain Exaltation with Paralysis of the
+Senses._--On this theory, a sort of sympathetic action and reaction or
+_rapport_ is supposed to take place, but of the exact nature of this
+process its exponents can tell us nothing. Again, it only evades the
+direct issue and answers one problem by asking another.
+
+3. _The Hypothesis of Direct Psychic Action._--This is the view whose
+ablest exponent is Mr. Frederic Myers. It is supposed that such action
+takes place in its own world--its own sphere--just as distinct and just
+as real as the material world. If this were true we could never
+demonstrate the action of telepathy scientifically, since it would be
+beyond the reach of such demonstration. Others again believe that the
+action of telepathy is akin to the phenomena of _induction_; others that
+it is akin to _gravitation_ or the _magnetic force_. While the details
+of these theories are lacking, there is here a valuable suggestion and a
+field for future research.
+
+4. _The Hypothesis of Direct Physical Action._--This supposes that the
+molecular changes in one brain, accompanying thought or emotion, set
+certain ether vibrations in motion, which are caught up by another
+brain, sensitive enough to receive them, or attuned to the proper
+degree. This theory is one which appeals to most persons, though it is
+open to the criticisms before raised. Nevertheless, it _may_ be true;
+and if so, its law ought one day to be discovered. There is here also a
+field for legitimate scientific research.
+
+5. _The Idea of a Universal Fluid._--This is the theory held to by the
+majority of mystics and occultists. There is supposed to exist a sort of
+fluidic intermediary between mind and mind, which acts as the means for
+thought transmission, and it is upon this that all thought is impressed.
+It acts as a sort of mirror, which reflects the thoughts of all living
+persons, just as a material mirror might reflect material objects. In
+such a case, the thought is really _made objective_ and is perceived by
+the subject in a sort of clairvoyant manner. I do not feel competent to
+pronounce upon this hypothesis in the present embryonic state of
+psychical science.
+
+6. _The Theory of Spiritual Intermediaries._--This is the theory that
+our thoughts are read by some purely "spiritual" process, by "spirits,"
+who convey this thought to another individual and impress him in some
+psychical manner directly. They thus act as carrier-pigeons between mind
+and mind. To this theory it may be replied, as Professor Flournoy has
+replied in his _Spiritism and Psychology_, that it represents the grave
+methodological defect of multiplying causes without necessity; by
+postulating spirits and importing them into the problem when they are
+not wanted. It would be better to seek an explanation elsewhere.
+
+7. _The Psycho-Physical Theory._--This theory supposes that all thought
+is accompanied by nervous undulations, which are carried to the surface
+of the body, there setting the ether in vibration; and this, in turn,
+impinges upon the periphery of another person, particularly sensitive to
+receive them, and by him re-transformed into nervous currents--into
+thought! Such a theory completely fails to take into account those cases
+of long-distance telepathy, of which so many have now been collected;
+and in other ways is very defective.
+
+8. Assuming all the above theories to be insufficient, we now come to:
+
+
+_The Elements of a Scientific Explanation_
+
+In studying this subject we must remember certain things:
+
+(_a_) That telepathy is a highly complex phenomenon, and for that reason
+we must not expect to find its solution easily or state it in a single
+sentence.
+
+(_b_) That we must consider it from the double standpoint, physical and
+mental; and
+
+(_c_) That we must consider the conditions affecting the operator, the
+subject, and, if possible, the connection between them.
+
+All scientific explanation consists in reducing the unknown to terms of
+the known. We can often _classify_ a phenomenon without being able to
+_explain_ its innermost nature. If we discover its laws, we have
+advanced to that extent.
+
+Dr. J. Ochorowicz, who has made a prolonged and minute study of this
+question, writes as follows regarding the necessary conditions to be
+observed in the operator:
+
+     "On the side of the _operator_ the conditions have been very little
+     studied. But it is probable:
+
+     "1. That there are personal differences.
+
+     "2. That these differences may be due not only to the degree of
+     thought intensity, but also to the nature of the thought itself,
+     according as it is visual, auditive, or motor.
+
+     "3. That some account has to be taken of a sort of accord, of
+     concordance between the two intelligences.
+
+     "4. That excessive will-power impairs the definiteness of the
+     transmission without much enhancing its intensity.
+
+     "5. That strong, persistent, prolonged thinking of a thought
+     repeated for a longer or shorter time constitutes a condition in
+     the highest degree favourable.
+
+     "6. That any distraction which causes the thought to disappear for
+     a moment, or that makes it cease to be isolated, seems eminently
+     unfavourable to the mental action.
+
+     "7. That, nevertheless, thoughts that are not intense, and even
+     thoughts that are at the moment unconscious (subconscious), may be
+     transmitted involuntarily.
+
+     "8. That the muscular efforts which usually accompany an exertion
+     of will are more or less indifferent; but that the muscle
+     expression of the operator may be useful, subjectively, by reason
+     of the habitude that connects thought with these expressional
+     signs.
+
+     "It follows from these considerations that the operator should
+     insist less upon the 'I will it' than upon the content of that
+     willing; and hence it is probable that, properly speaking, it is
+     not the 'strong will' that helps telepathy so much as clear
+     thinking."
+
+As to the subject or _percipient_, experience has taught us that the
+four following states are probably the most important for the recipience
+of a telepathic message:
+
+1. In the state of profound _aideia_ (complete lack of thought)
+transmission is never immediate, but it may sometimes be latent.
+
+2. In the state of nascent _monoideism_ (one idea) it may be immediate
+and perfect.
+
+3. In the state of _passive polyideism_ (many thoughts) it may be
+either immediate or may take place after an interval of greater or
+lesser length.
+
+4. In the state of _active polyideism_ the conditions are complex and
+subject to further subdivisions, for:
+
+(_a_) Transmission may be direct if the subject helps by voluntary
+self-absorption in a concentration of mind more or less monoideic; he
+lends himself to the action; he listens mentally; he seeks, sometimes he
+finds!
+
+(_b_) It may be indirect, i.e. latent; this time also with some
+concurrence on the part of the subject. This seems more frequent.
+
+(_c_) Finally, it may in exceptional instances be either mediate
+(delayed) or immediate, even without the subject's being advised
+beforehand of the action.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *
+
+Here, then, are the probable conditions; also the state of the agent and
+percipient. Now what about the _connecting links_?
+
+Here we come to the heart of the problem. I shall be as brief as
+possible, since we cannot pretend that the problem is yet solved. I
+merely offer a few suggestions, some original, others advanced before by
+writers on these subjects.[44]
+
+In order to obtain a specific action we must employ a specific
+instrument: a telephone for a telephone; a brain for a brain.
+
+Every living thing is a dynamic focus.
+
+A dynamic focus tends ever to propagate the motion which is proper to
+it.
+
+Propagated motion becomes transformed according to the medium it
+traverses. A force may be transmitted or transformed.
+
+In an identical medium there is only _transmission_.
+
+In a different medium there is _transformation_.
+
+A dynamic nucleus, in propagating its motion, sends it out in every
+direction; but this transmission becomes perceptible only on the lines
+of least resistance.
+
+A process that is at once chemical, physical, and psychical goes on in
+the brain. A complex action of this kind is propagated through the grey
+matter, as waves are propagated in water.
+
+Regarded physiologically, a thought is only a vibration, probably, which
+does not pass out of its appropriate medium. It is propagated, and it
+must be along the motor nerves, since science admits no other route. But
+the _thought itself_ does not radiate; it remains "at home," just as the
+chemical action of a battery remains in the battery; it is represented
+abroad by its dynamic correlate, called, in the case of the battery, a
+_current_; and in the case of the brain, I know not what; but whatever
+its name may be, it is the _dynamic correlate of thought_. Thought,
+therefore, is dynamic. Thought is transformed; and may be
+re-transformed, in another organism which supplies the necessary
+conditions. Thought may be restored.
+
+We have now reached, from a purely physiological standpoint, a position
+which I desired to reach before I advance the final part of the
+theory--which may at first sight appear somewhat fantastic. But
+telepathy itself is fantastic; and yet, being a fact, it must be
+accounted for somehow, or left altogether unexplained.
+
+It has always been contended by a peculiarly-gifted group of individuals
+known as "clairvoyants," that we possess a "spiritual body"--just as we
+possess a physical body--of exactly the same shape and appearance; and
+that we inhabit this body at death. It is further contended that all our
+physical senses find their exact counterpart in this "etheric double";
+there is a physical eye and a spiritual eye; a physical ear and a
+spiritual ear, etc. With the spiritual eye we see "clairvoyantly"; with
+the spiritual ear we hear "clairaudiently," and so forth. I shall not
+discuss the possibility of such a body, except to say that there is now
+a mass of evidence in its favour. Assuming it to exist--assuming it to
+be the exact counterpart of the physical body--then it too possesses a
+brain; and it too must pulsate and vibrate just as the physical brain
+does, when accompanying thought.
+
+Now this inner body may be the _vehicle of thought_. It may possess
+"centres" whose normal office is to send and receive telepathic
+messages. One "etheric centre" may thus act upon another "etheric
+centre" directly--only indirectly upon the physical brain cells. The
+action would thus be dynamic, yet psychical; physical in a sense, yet
+not physical as we conceive it. Philosophy tells us that the table we
+see (the _phenomenon_) is not the "real" table (the _noumenon_)--the
+reality behind; but, if we knock the two tables together, the _noumena_
+touch, just as the phenomenal tables do; only we have no means of
+knowing or directly seeing it. Thus there is a sort of physical
+communication of a spiritual thing. Those who have entered rooms of a
+certain character have often sensed their "psychic atmosphere." This is
+a sort of duplicate or replica of the physical atmosphere, yet it is
+different from it. The whole subject is so subtle that one cannot follow
+it unless he has had some experience or some knowledge of these things.
+The process cannot be explained in clear-cut fashion--any more than
+mediums can tell the source of their thoughts and impressions. A little
+intuition is needed in order to grasp the problem and comprehend its
+difficulties.
+
+Were I to try and state my theory briefly, then it would be somewhat as
+follows: Every thought necessitates a three-fold phenomenon--(1) the
+purely psychic activity; (2) the physiological correlate; and (3) the
+"dynamic correlate," which is as yet unrecognized by science. This
+"dynamic correlate" is the manifestation of the activity of the etheric
+double; which sets into motion certain vibratory activities which,
+though they are not physical vibrations, are their counterpart or
+_equivalent_ on the plane above matter--the "astral" plane, if the term
+be allowable; which is parallel to, but not identical with, the material
+plane. Thus by a sort of "doctrine of correspondences" we arrive at the
+conclusion that telepathic action is physical, in a sense, yet is not
+sufficiently physical to be measured by our instruments in the
+laboratory. The activity is, as it were, the _noumenon_, of which the
+physical vibration would be the phenomenon; but no phenomenal aspect of
+this activity may ever be manifested to us; and hence never be capable
+of being registered by science, as it exists today.
+
+I do not know whether or not I have made this theory very
+comprehensible, but it seems to me some such theory might explain the
+facts and at the same time do away with the difficulties. At all events
+no theory of telepathy which has been advanced to date can be said to be
+explanatory, when all the facts are taken into consideration; and if
+this first tentative groping serves to stimulate others to speculate,
+and above all to _experiment_, in this obscure field, I shall feel that
+a first onward step has been taken toward a correct understanding of the
+"Marvels of Telepathy."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[40] See Dr. G. B. Ermacora's paper in _Proceedings_, S.P.R., vol. xi.
+pp. 235-308.
+
+[41] Professor Henry Sidgwick, as we know, was Professor of Moral
+Philosophy in Cambridge, and his works on _Ethics_ and _Political
+Economy_ are considered standard in all countries.
+
+[42] This is the argument put forward by, e.g., Carl Snyder, in his _New
+Conceptions in Science_, pp. 306-7.
+
+[43] See my article in _The Monist_ (July-September 1913, pp. 445-58),
+"Earlier Theories of Gravity."--H. C.
+
+[44] Especially Dr. Ochorowicz, in his excellent work, _Mental
+Suggestion_, to which I am indebted for several of the ideas which
+follow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE USES AND ABUSES OF MIND-CURE
+
+
+Within the past few years the country has been flooded by a host of
+books, pamphlets, and periodicals dealing with "psychotherapy" and
+mind-cure in general. In some ways it would be impossible to exaggerate
+the good which this has done. It has cheered-up many desponding souls;
+it has brightened many a life; it has stimulated activities and lines of
+thought which otherwise would have remained dormant; it has added real
+zest to life and made it worth living. Undoubtedly, too, real cures have
+been effected by means of these modern mental methods, and any one who
+denies this must surely be ignorant of the vast amount of steadily
+accumulating evidence in their favour. The many advantages of the system
+are doubtless pointed out with acuteness and insisted upon with vigour
+in the books which defend it, and need not be re-stated here. And yet,
+while I acknowledge all this; while I am forced to admit the many
+wonderful cures and much mental relief on account of these newer methods
+of healing, I still believe that a vast amount of harm is also brought
+about by the incautious application of the doctrines taught; by
+over-enthusiasm for the ideals which are ever before us, luring us on
+and on. In the present chapter, therefore, I propose to show in what
+these pitfalls consist; to illustrate some of the errors into which
+over-enthusiastic "mental-curists" are apt to fall.
+
+First of all, however, a confession of faith! For a number of years I
+believed as implicitly as it was possible for any one to believe in the
+great power of mind to cure disease. I read nearly every book of
+importance that had been published on this theme--including Mrs. Eddy's
+books, all the standard works on hypnotism, mind-cure, faith-cure, new
+thought, etc. I was deeply imbued with the truths they contained. I
+became greatly opposed to the so-called "materialism" of medical
+science. The rationality and philosophical truth of the mind-cure
+systems appeared to me irrefutable.
+
+The fundamentals of the system are indeed well laid. We know of the
+tremendous effects of the emotions upon the body--its functions,
+secretions, etc. Cheering faith and optimism are assuredly great
+incentives to health; more than that, they are actual physiological
+health-stimulators. We know that we can make ourselves ill by morbid and
+unwholesome thoughts; and, as Feuchtersleben says: "If the imagination
+can make man sick, can it not make him well?" By opening up the great
+"sluice-gates" of the organism we somehow allow a great influx of
+spiritual energy to pervade us, and the disease vanishes. It is a very
+fascinating doctrine, and, for many diseases, doubtless a true one.
+
+In spite of all this, however, I believe the present tendency to treat
+all diseases--or next to all--by purely mental methods is a great
+mistake. It leaves many persons ill and crippled for life; it allows
+many hundreds of others to sink and fall into premature graves.
+
+And the first objection I would make to mind and faith-curing, and all
+kindred systems, is this: that _they tend to suppress symptoms rather
+than remove causes_. This is a very grave objection indeed. If one
+suffers constantly from constipation or dyspepsia, the natural habit of
+the mind would be to worry about them more or less and take steps to
+prevent their continued progress. But the faith and mind-curists say:
+"No, it is not at all important; imagine yourself whole and well, and
+whole and well you will be!" Many persons have done this and their
+troubles have, apparently, lessened and disappeared. They may have and
+they may not. It is easy to ignore troubles of this kind; but this sort
+of ostrich-philosophy, which buries its head in the sand and refuses to
+look at what is before its eyes, is not natural or by any means the best
+for the bodily organism. Ignoring symptoms does not cure them. What such
+persons fail to take into account is this: that any unpleasant symptom
+which may have arisen must be due to _some cause_--sickness and disease
+do not arise _de novo_ and without just cause. This is not the order of
+a good and kind nature. It must be due to _something_, and generally
+that "something" is the condition of the body at the time; and that
+condition depends, in turn, upon the previous habits and modes of life.
+These have engendered the diseased condition we see before us; and the
+only effective and rational way to stop the effects--the symptoms--is to
+stop the causes, to change the habits of life which have led to such
+results; and not to tinker with the effects. Even pain may be ignored to
+some extent; but pain is due to a certain pathological state which
+requires treatment. It is simply an indication of an existing bodily
+condition. What is the good of ignoring that state, when it exists?
+Symptoms may be ignored, but the causes of those symptoms run on in the
+body, nevertheless, and in the end work havoc and breed sickness and
+decay.
+
+I am aware of the fact that the Christian Scientists, e.g., would reply
+to this that the bodily state (there is no body, according to them, but
+we let that pass, for the moment) _is_ cured at the same time; that, by
+the mere affirmation that the body is whole, we thereby make it whole;
+we do not suppress symptoms, we remove causes as well. This I deny, at
+least in many cases. I have seen too many of such "cures" _and relapses_
+not to know whereof I speak. A patient goes to a "healer" and becomes
+"cured." A few weeks or months later his trouble returns; or, if not the
+same trouble, another and perhaps a worse one. This is "cured" in turn,
+and so on.
+
+Now it is a well-known fact that a disease suppressed in one place or
+one direction has a tendency to break out in another. It has been
+gathering in force all the time within the body, and finally bursts
+forth again worse than before. "And the last state of that man was worse
+than the first." The _causes_ have run on. Similar causes can produce
+opposite effects--just as opposite causes can produce similar effects.
+Although no tangible connection between the first and the second illness
+can be traced, it is there nevertheless; and both have been produced by
+a common cause. We cannot ignore causes; we must treat them; and if we
+do not, they will, in the majority of cases, repay us a thousandfold for
+our past neglect.
+
+When a person is diseased the majority of mental-scientists would at
+least admit that certain unphysiological conditions were present and
+needed to be overcome. If this be so, I ask: Why should we allow the
+body to become diseased at all and thus necessitate its cure by mental
+or any other means? Would it not be much simpler to prevent such a
+diseased condition, in the first place, by proper physiological habits
+of life; and so render any cure by mental or other means unnecessary? It
+seems to me that, by thus allowing the body to become diseased, and then
+"curing" it by mental control (even granting that this is the case), we
+burn the candle at both ends--for the reason that we devitalize the body
+by allowing it to become diseased and then waste more energy in the
+mental effort to get well again! Would it not be more simple and more
+philosophical so to regulate the life that such diseased states and such
+cures are unnecessary?
+
+The fundamentals of Mrs. Eddy's doctrine are well known. God is all in
+all; God is good; hence all is good. Sin and sickness are delusions of
+poor mortal mind. They do not really exist. And this, they say, may
+easily be proved--on the one hand by the cures which take place; and on
+the other by the doctrine of idealism, which philosophers and scientists
+alike are accepting more and more as a satisfactory interpretation of
+the universe. The whole system is very delightful--and very illusory!
+
+In the first place, as to the cures. I must contend that because some
+remarkable cures have been effected, that, therefore, the _doctrines_ of
+Christian Science are not thereby established. We know similar cures
+have been effected at Lourdes; over the bones of saints (which did not
+really exist under the sacred cloth); over (fraudulent) "chips of the
+Cross"; by means of hypnotism, and in a hundred ways. The whole root of
+the matter lies in auto-suggestion; in the patient's faith in himself,
+and in the degree of faith he places in the curing object or dogma. The
+dogma may be quite false, but the cures are effected just the same.
+Because cures are effected by Christian Science methods, therefore, it
+is no proof whatever that the Christian Science theology or philosophy
+is right. It may be one huge error, but the cures would be effected just
+the same--provided the faith, the emotions, the imagination and spirit
+of the patient be touched in an appropriate manner.
+
+True it is that science and philosophy tend towards idealism; and the
+belief that there is, strictly speaking, "no matter." But this belief
+need not make us any the more believers in Christian Science and its
+methods. There is a subtle error here which is unperceived by the
+majority. When first the truth reaches the mind that there is "no
+matter" that matter cannot feel, etc., it bursts like a flood of light
+upon the unfettered mind and appears a fact so overwhelmingly great, so
+vast and so true, that to gainsay it would be to acknowledge ignorance
+of its teaching; to admit intellectual shortsightedness. (This is
+perhaps the reason for the supercilious superiority of many Christian
+Scientists; they imagine that no one perceives this truth but
+themselves.) And once grasped, is it not self-evident, and does not all
+else follow in consequence? At first sight it would indeed appear so!
+
+The great error, however, lies here. Because this fact is
+_theoretically_ true, it is not _practically_ true also. We may admit
+the one; we cannot accept the other. The fallacy has been clearly
+pointed out by Sir Oliver Lodge (_Hibbert Journal_, January, 1905), and
+I cannot do better than to quote his words in this connection. He says:
+
+     "We cannot be permanently satisfied with dualism, but it is
+     possible to be over-hasty and also too precisely insistent. There
+     are those who seem to think that a monistic view of existence
+     precludes the legitimacy of speaking of soul and body, or of God
+     and spiritual things, or of guidance and management, at all; that
+     is to say, they seem to think that because these things can be
+     _ultimately_ unified, therefore they are unified proximately and
+     for practical purposes. We might as well urge that it is incorrect
+     to speak of the chemical elements, or of the various materials with
+     which, in daily life, we have to deal, or of the structures in
+     which we live, or which we see and handle, as separate and real
+     things, because in the last resort we believe that they may all be
+     reduced to a segregation of corpuscles, or to some other mode of
+     unity.... The language of dualism or of multiplism is not incorrect
+     or inappropriable or superseded because we catch ideal glimpses of
+     an ultimate unity; nor would it be any the less appropriable if the
+     underlying unity could be more clearly or completely grasped. The
+     material world may be an aspect of the spiritual world, or _vice
+     versa_ perhaps; or both may be aspects of something else; but both
+     are realities, just the same, and there need be no hesitation in
+     speaking of them clearly and distinctly as, for practical purposes,
+     separate entities."
+
+This, it seems to me, disposes of the argument for Christian Science
+drawn from idealism. No matter whether the material world exists or not,
+we always have to live _as if_ it existed. If we close our eyes and walk
+across the room, we shall be rudely stopped by the brick wall at the
+opposite end when we come to it. No matter how strongly we believe that
+such a wall does not exist, it does, nevertheless, stop us; we have to
+live _as if_ it existed. And, just so, it seems to me; no matter how
+strongly we may believe that the body does not exist, we always have to
+live and act _as if_ it existed--so long, at least, as we live in and
+inhabit the body at all.
+
+Christian Science says that hygiene, diet, etc., are unimportant factors
+in the cure of disease. They "do not count." Apart from the immediate,
+practical disproof which cases of blood-poisoning, etc., would offer to
+such a theory, it may also be disproved theoretically. For if it be
+unnecessary, e.g., to fast during illness--if food is a negligible
+quantity and can be left out of account--why do Christian Scientists
+ever eat at all? If food is unimportant in one case, it must be in the
+other case also. And if it be replied to this, as it is, that the only
+reason for food is because the Christian Scientists are not yet
+sufficiently "advanced" and have not yet sufficient "enlightenment" to
+do without it; then, I reply, by the same logic they are not as yet
+sufficiently advanced, and have not as yet sufficient knowledge to treat
+all cases of accident and disease, which, in point of fact, they do
+treat. If the limitation be acknowledged in one direction, it must be
+acknowledged in the other direction also. Christian Scientists cannot
+yet live without food because they have not yet sufficiently "perfected"
+themselves. So, in like manner, they should not treat many cases of
+disease they do treat because they have not yet sufficiently "perfected"
+themselves.
+
+I might advance arguments such as the above to fill many pages. But I do
+not think it necessary. As a cure for certain functional diseases, for
+nervous disorders, and for many of the affections of the mind, mental
+methods of treatment must be acknowledged to be a great and a most
+important factor. But when an organic lesion is present, in grave states
+demanding immediate attention, I think it little short of criminal that
+such states should meet with almost total neglect because of the
+perverted ideas of physiology and a sickly sentimentalism illogically
+extended from the philosophical doctrine of idealism. As a metaphysical
+doctrine, it may be correct; as a basis for medical practice, it is
+certainly incorrect. Let us once more set our feet to earth and
+determine to live a good and a useful life in the material world of
+which we undoubtedly form a part. We are _in_ a material world, and I
+believe we should be _of_ it. I, for one, raise my voice in protest
+against the tide of intellectual asceticism which is inclined to accept
+without question the modern doctrine and methods of "psychotherapy" and
+mind-cure in place of the more rational and certain measures of hygiene
+and medicine. The further a pendulum swings in one direction, the
+further will it swing in the other, when released. And I believe that
+the modern extreme acceptance of faith and mind-cure in all its forms
+is but the moral and intellectual and spiritual reaction against the
+materialism of the past generation. Hail the day when it again swings
+back to its mid-position; and when mental methods of cure and bodily
+hygiene shall together march hand in hand to the joint attack against
+disease! They each have their mission to fulfil, their cases to cure.
+Tolerance, tolerance! Let them each recognize the rights of the other!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE OUIJA BOARD[45]
+
+
+Before we proceed to discuss the intelligence lying behind the Ouija
+Board, I must offer a few remarks upon the subject of automatic writing
+in general, passing in very brief review the various theories that have
+been advanced from time to time by way of explanation of the action of
+this extraordinary little device.
+
+One of the sanest and most rational popular accounts of this instrument
+and its workings that I have so far come across (all things considered)
+is a little pamphlet entitled _The Planchette Mystery_, very little
+known, from which I shall quote in writing this review. Epes Sargent's
+book, _Planchette: the Despair of Science_, contains in reality very
+little on the planchette board, and the title is somewhat deceptive. Mr.
+Myers's articles on the subject (particularly in _Proceedings of
+S.P.R._, vol. ii. pp. 217-37; vol. iii. pp. 1-63; and vol. ix. pp.
+26-128) are, of course, classical, but are involved and inaccessible for
+the general reader, even had he the time to read them carefully; so that
+perhaps the following résumé may not be unnecessary or out of place.
+
+It is to be presumed that every reader of this book knows what a Ouija
+Board is, and, roughly, what it does. _How_ it does it is a more
+difficult question to answer; in fact, it may be said that no definite
+answer has even yet been forthcoming. All that has been done, or that we
+can do, is to examine the facts, and to advance an explanatory theory
+that is really explanatory and in accord, as nearly as possible, with
+accepted theories and teaching.
+
+First, let us consider the movement of the board. There can be little
+doubt that the same force which propels the planchette board propels the
+ouija board also; and this is still further demonstrated by the fact
+that, in many experiments, the planchette board is used as a ouija, and
+points to the letters, which are written out on a large piece of paper,
+and the pencil point indicates the letter in the same manner as does the
+ouija. It certainly appears far easier for the board to point to letters
+than to write--and this is most suggestive and interesting when we
+consider it. It would seem to indicate that the controlling intelligence
+found it easier to convey its thoughts when the letters were before it,
+in plain sight--a very suggestive fact, taken in conjunction with
+certain mediumistic phenomena.[46] Of course there is the alternative
+explanation of this fact--that a straight push-and-pull action is easier
+to accomplish than the more detailed and complicated action of forming
+words and letters. But that would not make plain to us why it is that no
+_attempt_ at writing should be made, very often, until the
+letter-pointing system is adopted.
+
+Presuming, then, that the movement or impelling force is the same in
+each instance, the question is: What is this force? In the great bulk of
+cases there can only be one answer to this question: unconscious
+muscular action. Whenever muscular contact is allowed, this may safely
+be assumed to be the explanation of the movements of the board--even if
+it shows an apparently independent will and movement of its own, and
+apparently drags the hands of the sitters with it. I have discussed this
+at some length in my _Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_, pp. 66-72,
+and it is unnecessary to go into the question again here. Unconscious
+muscular action will account for so much that, even if it were not the
+true explanation of the facts, in reality, we should have to assume that
+it was.
+
+It will be observed that I have said "in the great bulk of cases." Some
+of my readers may object to this limitation, and say that it is the true
+and sufficient explanation of _all_ the cases, without exception.
+Personally I doubt that fact. There are numerous cases on record when
+the board has continued to write after the hands of all the sitters have
+been removed from it. Now, if there be operative a force which has been
+in some way generated during the sitting, it is quite possible, of
+course, that this same force may be operative in those cases where
+contact is allowed, only it is difficult to prove that fact.[47]
+Personally I have no difficulty in conceiving such a force or power, at
+least theoretically. This force may be the first glimmerings of the
+force whose more powerful manifestations we see in the movements of
+tables (witness Gasparin's experiments, e.g.), and ultimately in
+telekinetic phenomena, as, for example, in the Palladino case. This
+would seem to indicate that such forces and powers are possessed by
+every one in a limited degree, but that it is only in certain
+individuals that it becomes so marked and extraordinary that it produces
+the phenomena spoken of above.
+
+Granting, then, for the sake of argument, that the board is moved by the
+sitter, either consciously or unconsciously; by unconscious muscular
+action or by some "fluid" emanating from his fingers (and we must
+remember that even were a spirit using the writer's organism to manifest
+through, it must use the muscular and motor system), the great and vital
+question still remains: What is the intelligence behind the board that
+directs the phenomena? Who does the writing? What is the source of the
+information so often given?
+
+Let us first consider the theory held by a very large number of
+persons--that the board is moved by some kind of "electricity." We must
+suppose that the generally recognized electricity is meant, because, if
+not, the motive force would be electricity _plus something_, and the
+"something" would be the explanation. And yet, if the force moving the
+board be "electricity," how comes it that this "electricity" can answer
+back, and possess an individuality so independent from that of the
+writer; capable, too, of giving a vast mass of information to the
+sitters, on occasion, of which they knew nothing? Then, again, it must
+be remembered that a ouija or planchette is almost universally made of
+_wood_--not metal or any well-known good conductor of electricity, but
+of wood--which is generally recognized to be an exceedingly bad
+conductor. Obviously the theory is absurd. And when we come to remember
+those cases in which the board gave information previously unknown to
+the writer having his hands on the board at the time, the theory sinks
+into its proper place--oblivion.
+
+Then there is the theory of a floating, ambient mentality. This theory
+is held by many, and it is contended by them that this mentality is
+clothed, by some mysterious process, with a force similar to that which
+it possessed in the living organism; and that, in its expression of the
+combined intelligence of the circle, it generally follows the strongest
+mind, or the mind that is best qualified or conditioned to give
+correctly the thought. This theory found its champion in the person of
+Dr. Joseph Maxwell (see his _Metapsychical Phenomena_), and must be
+taken into account seriously. But an objection, and to my mind a fatal
+objection, to this theory is the fact that the intelligence seems to
+possess, not a collective but a decidedly personal character--one which
+is sufficiently stable and individual to argue back and to maintain its
+own opinions and beliefs in the face of great opposition from all the
+members of the circle. Is there anything in all this that suggests a
+floating, compound mentality; or does it not rather bear the marks of
+being a theory made up for the occasion, in order to evade some
+alternative explanation, objectionable, perhaps, to the sitters or
+critics?
+
+All that has been said above also applies to the theory of a _spiritus
+mundi_, or spirit of the universe, which formed so large a part in the
+cosmological theories of many ancient philosophers. It is supposed to be
+a sort of all-pervading nervous principle, having, however, a mind of
+its own, when occasion demands--for otherwise how are the results to be
+accounted for? I think this and the preceding theory can best be met,
+perhaps, by asking its supporters to produce one iota of evidence in its
+behalf. When this has been forthcoming it will be time enough to
+consider it seriously.
+
+Then there is the theory that the unconscious muscular action of the
+sitters is the cause of the movement and writing. This has been
+considered before, and it was pointed out that, even granting for the
+sake of argument that the board was actually moved by this means, the
+question still remains: How are we to account for the mentality behind
+the movement--especially when facts are given unknown to all the members
+of the circle? (For an example of this see _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol.
+ix. pp. 93-8.)
+
+The question thus arises: _What_ did the writing? The theory of
+unconscious muscular action has been considered, and found not to
+explain all the facts. Many might contend that the board was moved by a
+principle or force as yet unknown, and think the question settled in
+that way. Of course this is a mere begging of the question, for all
+practical purposes, because, if the explanation were known, there would
+be no mystery and no argument about it. But the mere statement that the
+board is operated by a force as yet unknown merely restates the problem,
+without in any way attempting to solve it, and hence leaves us precisely
+where we were. Certainly this theory will not do!
+
+Undoubtedly, the simplest explanation--and the correct one--for the
+majority of the facts is that the subconscious mind is alone responsible
+for them. Thoughts, images, reflections, imaginations, tend to
+externalize or express themselves in this manner,--in motor
+avenues,--through the movement of the board. The vast majority of ouija
+board "communications" are to be accounted for in this way. But what of
+those other (relatively rare) cases in which supernormal information,
+unknown to the sitter, is obtained? Any theory which is advanced must
+explain these cases also, as well as the movement of the board, and pure
+subconscious activity does not. We should still have to account for this
+knowledge, unknown to the writer; so that we shall have to seek further
+yet, in order to discover the true cause of the intelligence doing the
+writing.
+
+We seem to be driven, then, into one of two alternatives: (1) that
+unconscious muscular action pushed the board, and that the supernormal
+information given was obtained by telepathy, clairvoyance, etc.; or (2)
+that spirits did the writing. Let us examine each of these hypotheses in
+turn a little more carefully. It seems to me that the first theory is
+practically unable to account in any satisfactory way for many
+communications that have been received. On the other hand, it would be
+perfectly absurd to invoke the agency of "spirits" for every one of the
+messages that have been written out--I mean supernormal messages. On the
+contrary, there are many experiments that point to clairvoyance or
+telepathy as the true explanation. It is highly probable, it seems to
+me, that the same agency is not involved on every occasion, but that
+there may be spirits (granting such to exist) on some occasions;
+telepathy and clairvoyance on other occasions; and purely unconscious
+muscular action on most occasions, when no supernormal is involved. It
+is only the prevailing tendency to cover all facts by a single
+explanation that has led to the difficulty. If we were willing to admit
+that there may be operative many different influences and causes, on
+different occasions, it seems to me that much of the difficulty would
+vanish.
+
+There can be no doubt as to the fact that the ouija board is a far more
+mysterious little instrument than the majority of persons suppose--or
+rather, the forces and the mentalities behind the movement of the board
+are exceedingly complex, and but little understood. As the author of
+_The Planchette Mystery_ said: "A wonderful jumble of mental and moral
+possibilities is this little piece of dead matter, now giving utterance
+to childish drivel, now bandying jokes and badinage, now stirring the
+conscience by unexceptionable Christian admonitions, and now uttering
+the baldest infidelity or the most shocking profanity; and often
+discoursing gravely on science, philosophy, or theology." Any theory
+that is advanced to explain the facts must take all this into
+consideration, and much more. Let us turn for a few minutes to consider
+the automatic script, as frequently obtained.
+
+There are, very frequently, answers to mental questions--questions, too,
+the answer to which none of those having their hands on the board could
+possibly know. Often, again, remarks are volunteered conveying
+information not possessed by any one of the writers. The distinct
+characterization of a personality is frequently seen,--and a personality
+of a very detestable sort. The language employed, frequently, is quite
+unprintable. The "ouija" lies as coolly and confidently as it tells the
+truth; in fact, it is dogmatically positive that its statements are
+correct in every case, even when they are glaringly incorrect at the
+very time they are written. This spirit of dogmatism is shown in many
+passages, and suggests to us the attempt at domineering on the part of
+an intelligence unused to such a position, and rejoicing in its
+supremacy.
+
+I wish to insist primarily upon the action of the board itself, and its
+apparently _human_ characteristics--quite apart from any information
+which it volunteers; and this will be of the greater interest, I fancy,
+for the reason that such observations have, to the best of my knowledge,
+rarely been made. I can perhaps best illustrate my point by giving a few
+concrete examples.
+
+There can be no question that the board has _moods_. It gets angry on
+occasion, for example, and at such times will tear round the table like
+a living thing, pointing first to one letter and then to another, and
+accentuating its meaning or calling attention to certain letters that
+are important, or that have been omitted in the rapid spelling, by
+rapping impatiently on the latter with the point--the point being lifted
+off the board at such times half an inch or so, and the board remaining
+planted on its two hind legs. I have seen the front leg of the board rap
+a dozen or so times on a letter that had been omitted; and sometimes the
+board would get so violent that it had to be quieted--just as the hand
+in automatic writing has to be quieted. Then, again, the board gets a
+certain "technique" of its own, acting in certain ways on certain
+occasions, and in other ways on other occasions; and frequently assuming
+a perfectly definite _form_ of movement with certain persons--a certain
+sweep or an erratic manner of pointing to letters which it maintains
+uniformly so long as that person has his or her hands on the board.
+Occasionally the ouija will assume a different personality, according to
+the communicating intelligence, and not according to the person having
+his hands on the board. Just as raps or tables assume distinct
+personalities (see Dr. Maxwell's book for examples of this), so the
+ouija board assumes a perfectly definite personality, on occasion, and
+moves and writes according to that personality's idiosyncrasies. And
+this becomes all the more marked when we take into account certain
+peculiarities of the board--for example, its unwillingness to give names
+and dates, or to furnish any definite information about itself. I have
+observed over and over again that, whenever the intelligence doing the
+writing is closely questioned about itself, it will become angry, and
+refuse to give this information--either sulking or swearing at the
+writers. On the other hand, the board has some good points. It refused
+to disclose secrets about other persons, and got angry in the same way
+when pressed. Another exceedingly interesting and suggestive thing is
+that the intelligence operating the board occasionally gets tired. "Give
+me a rest now" is an expression frequently observed, and would seem to
+indicate that the "intelligence" gets confused and fatigued by the very
+process of communicating its thoughts--just as the "controls" do in the
+Piper case.
+
+The very movements of the board frequently showed great skill and
+intelligence also; for instance, if the ouija encountered a rough or
+uneven place in the paper on one occasion it would always avoid crossing
+that spot in the future, and would go carefully round it, so as to avoid
+catching its legs in the hole or rough place in the paper. Still more
+striking was the manner in which the board pointed to certain letters on
+occasion. Many times the board was unable to point to a certain letter
+because the point of the ouija was in an awkward position, or on the
+edge of the table, or for some other reason. On such occasions the board
+backed one of its hind legs around until one of these legs pointed to
+the desired letter! Those having their hands on the board had many a
+hearty laugh over these antics, and particularly this one, which always
+reminded them of a horse backing itself round in this ludicrous way. It
+was always entirely unexpected, and was the source of great amusement.
+But what was the intelligence guiding the board when the only person
+having her hands upon it was not looking at its antics, or paying
+attention to what it was spelling out? Was it a spirit? If so, how did
+it manage to move the board? Did it act directly upon the matter of the
+board, and push it with its hands, as a material being would push it,
+or did it act in some more mysterious manner? Granting, for the sake of
+argument, that a spirit of some sort was involved in the production of
+the writing, how are we to assume its interaction with the matter of the
+board and its movements?
+
+Two theories will at once present themselves to the reader: (1) that the
+spirit acts directly upon the matter of the ouija board, and pushes it
+as any mortal would push it; and (2) that the spirit acts only through
+the brain and nervous and muscular system of the person or persons
+having their hands on the board. I leave these for the present, because
+they have been discussed so often before. The following is _the ouija
+board's own theory_ of such action--so we can at least listen to it with
+interest. In the course of some writing obtained, the following
+explanation of the action of the board was given by the "spirits"
+controlling it. I quote from the record:
+
+     "... Two spirits can always, when it is in divine order, readily
+     communicate with each other, because they can always bring
+     themselves into direct _rapport_ at some one or more points. Though
+     matter is widely discreted from spirit, in that the one is dead and
+     the other is alive, yet there is a certain correspondence between
+     the two, and between the degrees of the one and the degrees of the
+     other; and according to this correspondence, relation, or
+     _rapport_, spirit may act upon matter. Thus your spirit, in all its
+     degrees and faculties, is in the closest _rapport_ with all the
+     degrees of matter composing your body, and for this reason alone is
+     able to move it as it does, which it will no longer be able to do
+     when that _rapport_ is destroyed by what you call death. Through
+     your body it is _en rapport_ with and is able to act upon
+     surrounding matter. If, then, you are in a susceptible condition, a
+     spirit can not only get into _rapport_ with your spirit, and
+     through it with your body, and control its motions, or even suspend
+     your own proper action and external consciousness by entrancement;
+     but if you are at the same time _en rapport_ with this little board
+     it can, through contact of your hands, get into _rapport_ with
+     _that_, and move it without any conscious or volitional agency on
+     your part. Furthermore, under certain favourable conditions, a
+     spirit may, through your sphere and body combined, come into
+     _rapport_ even with the spheres of the ultimate particles of
+     material bodies near you, and thence with the particles and the
+     whole bodies themselves--and may thus, even without contact of your
+     hands, move them or make sounds upon them as has often been
+     witnessed. Its action, as before said, ceases where the _rapport_
+     ceases; and if communications from really intelligent spirits have
+     sometimes been defective as to the quality of the intelligence
+     manifested, it is because there has been found nothing in the
+     medium which could be brought into _rapport_ or correspondence with
+     the more elevated ideas of the spirit. The spirit, too, in frequent
+     instances, is unable to prevent its energizing influences from
+     being diverted by the reactive power of the medium into the
+     channels of the imperfect types of thought and expression that are
+     established in his mind, and it is for this simple reason that the
+     communication is as you say often tinctured with the peculiarities
+     of the medium, and even sometimes is nothing more than a
+     reproduction of the mental states of the latter--perhaps greatly
+     intensified."
+
+Such is the theory originated by "ouija" itself--ingenious enough, if
+not very scientific. The majority of my readers will probably prefer to
+believe, either that some external intelligence moved the board
+directly; or that the sitter himself did so--from purely subconscious
+motives, or because he was thereby externalizing or acting as the
+channel for the expression of ideas imparted to him from without. In
+view of the reality of physical phenomena, I should be inclined to leave
+the question open as to which of these two interpretations is correct in
+any specific case. But there can be no doubt that, in most instances at
+least, the board is moved by the subconscious muscular activity of the
+sitter; and this is the most sane and rational view to take until
+definite proof to the contrary be forthcoming.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] More properly, "the psychology of ouija board _writing_" or "of
+writing obtained by means of the Ouija Board." This general title is
+shorter, however, for a chapter heading.
+
+[46] I have in mind especially one remarkable (but hitherto unpublished)
+experiment with Mrs. Piper. A certain lady of my acquaintance--an old
+Piper sitter--has tried to convey a certain word to "Rector"
+telepathically--to be given by automatic writing through the trance.
+Several attempts failed. Finally, one day, the lady in question wrote
+out the word on a blackboard, and sat looking at it for about half an
+hour. The word was given the next day through Mrs. Piper. The blackboard
+was in the lady's own house, distant some 800 miles from Mrs. Piper, in
+Boston. This certainly seems to show that there is a peculiar "magic" in
+thoughts or things that are objectified in this manner. It serves to
+explain why it is that many clairvoyants cannot read thoughts and
+questions--e.g., until written out on paper--as in the case of Bert
+Reese, whom I have frequently seen.
+
+[47] Dr. W. J. Crawford's experiments have since confirmed this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+WITCHCRAFT: ITS FACTS AND FOLLIES
+
+
+It has frequently been pointed out that, "where there is so much smoke
+there must be some fire"; also that there is, probably, and almost
+necessarily, some grain of truth in any popular superstition, no matter
+how absurd it may appear at first sight. This is not less true of
+witchcraft--though it would be difficult to convince the average person,
+in all probability, that there was anything connected with it but the
+grossest and most repulsive superstition. Taken all in all, it most
+assuredly is that, and very little else; and, before proceeding to
+examine the _residuum_ of truth that probably exists in connection with
+this subject, it will be well for us briefly to examine the other and
+darker side of this curious relic of mediaeval superstition, and to see
+it in its most sombre hues. A belief for which more than nine million
+persons were either burned or hanged since it sprang into being; in
+whose cause five hundred persons were executed in three months in 1515
+in Geneva alone, is not to be put aside as unworthy of a moment's
+consideration; but should, on the contrary, be considered as a most
+extraordinary and lasting delusion--helping to colour the times in which
+it occurred and influence the whole course of a nation's history.
+
+The first trial for sorcery in England was in King John's reign; the
+last within the past two hundred years. In England, America, Germany,
+France, Italy, Spain, Russia--every country without exception--witches
+have lived, flourished, and been burned at the stake. Laws were enacted
+against witches, and they were condemned on the most trivial and even
+ridiculous evidence imaginable. If an old woman were seen to enter a
+house by the front door, and a black cat was seen to leave the house by
+the back door, it was deemed sufficient evidence that the old woman was
+a witch, without further evidence or investigation--and indeed much of
+the evidence was not nearly so good and circumstantial as this! When a
+witch was caught, she was questioned and generally tortured; but it was
+soon ascertained that torture was a very unfair and unsafe method of
+extracting the truth (here as elsewhere), for the reason that a weak
+soul, even if innocent, might confess, and a strong and stubborn one
+would hold out and contend for her innocence to the last, whether guilty
+or not. For these reasons, it was finally given up before the burning
+was abolished.
+
+Witches were supposed to be possessed of the most extraordinary powers
+for evil; they could bewitch a man, woman or child--even the cows and
+flocks--by casting an "evil eye" upon them, by uttering an imprecation,
+or in other ways casting a spell upon them. This power was derived
+directly from the devil himself, with whom witches were supposed to be
+in direct compact; consequently their influence was all for evil. These
+deeds were practised daily throughout the year; but every year there was
+a grand meeting of the demons and witches--a "Sabbath," as it was
+called--and here were recounted all the evil deeds of the past year,
+and here the witches saw and conversed with the devil himself, and
+received their instructions from him. It would be almost impossible to
+conceive a more grotesque and gruesome picture than some of these
+Sabbaths were supposed to be: every impossible and inconceivable thing
+that man's mind could invent was apparently attributed to these
+meetings. In order to form some faint idea of men's beliefs in those
+days, I quote the following, supposedly from a more or less contemporary
+account, of what actually transpired at these Sabbaths:
+
+     "A witch should be an old woman with a wrinkled face, a furred
+     brow, a hairy lip, a gobber tooth, a squint eye, a squeaky voice, a
+     scolding tongue, having a ragged coat on her back, a skull cap on
+     her head, a spindle in her hand, a dog or cat by her side. There
+     are three classes or divisions of devils--black, grey, and white.
+     The first are omnipotent for evil, but powerless for good. The
+     white have power to help, but not to hurt. The grey are efficient
+     for both good and evil.... The modes of bewitching are: by casting
+     an evil eye (fascinating); by making representations of a person to
+     be acted upon in wax or clay, roasting this image before a fire; by
+     mixing magical ointments, or other compositions or ingredients; or
+     sometimes merely by uttering an imprecation.... Witches can ride in
+     sieves on the sea, on brooms, or spits, magically prepared. The
+     meeting of the witches is held every Friday night--between Friday
+     and Saturday.... They steal children from the grave, boil them with
+     lime till all the flesh is loosed from the bones, and is reduced to
+     one mass. They make of the firm part an ointment, and fill a
+     bottle with the fluid; and whosoever drinks this with due ceremony
+     belongs to the league, and is capable of bewitching.... Every year
+     a grand Sabbath is held or ordered for celebration on the
+     Blocksberg Mountains, for the night before the 1st of May. Witches
+     congregate from all parts, and meet at a place where four roads
+     meet, in a rugged mountain range, or in the neighbourhood of a
+     secluded lake or some dark forest; these are the spots selected for
+     the meeting....
+
+     "When orders have been issued for the meeting of the Sabbath, all
+     the wizards and witches who fail to attend it are lashed by demons
+     with a rod made of serpents and scorpions. In France and England
+     the witches ride upon broomsticks; but in Italy and Spain the Devil
+     himself, in the shape of a goat, supports them on his back, which
+     lengthens or shortens according to the number of witches he is
+     desirous of accommodating. No witch, when proceeding to the
+     Sabbath, can go out by a door or window, were she to try ever so
+     much. Their general mode of ingress is by a keyhole and of egress
+     by the chimney, up which they fly, broom and all, with the greatest
+     ease. To prevent the absence of the witches being noticed by their
+     neighbours, some inferior demon is commanded to assume their shapes
+     and lie in their beds, feigning illness, until the Sabbath is over.
+     When all the wizards and witches arrive at the place of rendezvous,
+     the infernal ceremonies begin. Satan, having assumed his favourite
+     shape of a large he-goat, with a face in front and another in his
+     haunches, takes a seat upon the throne; and all present in
+     succession pay their respects to him and kiss him on his face
+     behind. This done, he appoints a master of the ceremonies, in
+     company with whom he makes a personal examination of all the
+     witches to see whether they have the secret mark upon them by which
+     they are stamped as the Devil's own. The mark is always insensible
+     to pain. Those who have not yet been marked receive the mark from
+     the master of ceremonies--the Devil, at the same time, bestowing
+     nicknames upon them. This done, they all begin to sing and dance in
+     a most furious manner, until some one arrives who is anxious to be
+     admitted into the society. They are then silent for a while until
+     the newcomer has denied his salvation, kissed the Devil, spat upon
+     the Bible, and sworn obedience to him in all things. They then
+     begin dancing with all their might, and singing.... In the course
+     of an hour or two they generally become wearied of this violent
+     exercise, and then they all sit down and recount all their evil
+     deeds since last meeting. Those who have not been malicious and
+     mischievous enough towards their fellow-creatures receive personal
+     chastisement from Satan himself, who flogs them with thorns and
+     scorpions until they are covered with blood and unable to sit or
+     stand. When this ceremony is concluded, they are all amused by a
+     dance of toads. Thousands of these creatures spring out of the
+     earth, and, standing upon their hind legs, dance while the Devil
+     plays the bagpipes or the trumpet. These toads are all endowed with
+     the faculty of speech, and entreat the witches there to reward them
+     with the flesh of unbaptized infants for their exertions to give
+     them pleasure. The witches promise compliance. The Devil bids them
+     remember to keep their word, and then, stamping his foot, causes
+     all the toads to sink into the earth in an instant. The place
+     being thus cleared, preparations are made for the banquet, where
+     all manner of disgusting things are served and greedily devoured by
+     the demons and witches--although the latter are sometimes regaled
+     with choice meats and expensive wines from golden plates and
+     crystal goblets; but they are never thus favoured unless they have
+     done an extraordinary number of evil deeds since the last period of
+     meeting. After the feast they begin dancing, but such as have no
+     relish for any more exercise in that way amuse themselves by
+     mocking the holy sacrament of baptism. For this purpose the toads
+     are again called and sprinkled with filthy water, the Devil making
+     the sign of the cross, and the witches calling out [oath omitted].
+     When the Devil wishes to be particularly amused, he makes the
+     witches strip off their clothes and dance before him, each with a
+     cat tied round her neck and another dangling from her body in the
+     form of a tail. When the cock crows they all disappear, and the
+     Sabbath is ended...."
+
+There, reader, is a very fair idea of the monstrous form of belief held
+during the Middle Ages. Scarcely anything that was fanciful and
+diabolical was not conjured up to the mind and said to happen at these
+Sabbaths. There was also a certain amount of ingenious theorizing afoot
+in order to account for certain facts, as, for instance, the cloven
+hoof, which it was said must always appear, no matter how concealed--it
+being due to the fact that the devil took the form of a goat so often
+that he finally acquired the hoof. Sir Thomas Browne explains it to us
+thus:
+
+     "The ground of this opinion at first might be his frequent
+     appearing in the shape of a goat, which answers this description.
+     This was the opinion of the Ancient Christians concerning the
+     apparitions of the ancient panites, fauns, and satyrs; and of this
+     form we read of one that appeared to Anthony in the wilderness. The
+     same is also confirmed from exposition of Holy Scripture. For
+     whereas it is said, 'Thou shalt not offer unto devils,' the
+     original word is _Seghuirim_, i.e., 'rough and hairy goats,'
+     because in that shape the Devil most often appeared, as is
+     expounded by the rabbis, as _Tremellius_ hath also explained; and
+     as the word _Ascimah_, the God of Emath, is by some explained."
+
+It will be noted that the word "Devil" is invariably capitalized by the
+mediaeval writers, and to them he must have been a very real personage,
+and these curious beliefs terrible truths. Indeed, if true, what could
+be more terrible? Even so learned a man as Bacon, we are told--whose
+soul was promised to the devil, no matter "whether he died in or out of
+the church"--endeavoured to cheat the devil out of his due, and had his
+body buried in the _wall_ of the church--thus being neither in nor out
+of it--and so he hoped to cheat the devil of his due!
+
+With the coming of Reginald Scott there arose a certain scepticism
+throughout Europe, which was later echoed in America. Scott wrote a
+monumental work entitled _The Discoverie of Witchcraft_, in which he
+bitterly attacked the credulity of the people, and showed himself
+entirely incredulous of any of the alleged phenomena. Some years before,
+had he published such a book, it was likely that he would have been
+burned himself; but the times were probably ripe for just such a
+publication; there was already much unrest and uneasiness afoot, and his
+book appeared in the nick of time. Scott attempted to account for the
+phenomena of witchcraft on a rational basis, and showed himself
+completely sceptical of the reality of most of the manifestations. He
+even went so far as to attack many of the older "miracles," which
+apparently supported the newer, even taking the very bold course (in
+that day) of attacking some of the Biblical miracles. Thus we read:
+
+     "The Pythoness (speaking of the Witch of Endor) being
+     _ventriloqua_, that is, speaking as it were from the bottom of her
+     belly, did cast herself into a trance, and so abused Saul in
+     Samuel's name in her counterfeit hollow voice."
+
+Indeed, something was necessary to check the rank credulity of the
+times. If an old woman scolded a carter, and later on in the day his
+cart got stuck in the mud or overturned, it was positive evidence that
+he and his cart and horse had been "bewitched"! If an old woman kept a
+black cat or a pet toad, it was most assuredly her "familiar," and she
+was branded as a witch forthwith. If cows sickened and died, it was
+because a "spell" had been cast over them; and so on and so on. The
+superstitions of witchcraft were as innumerable as they were
+extraordinary. Are there any facts, amid all this superstition and
+ignorance, tending to show that genuine supernormal phenomena ever
+occurred at all? And if so, what are they?
+
+It must be remembered that, in the days of witchcraft, virtually nothing
+was known of hysteria, epilepsy, the varied forms of insanity,
+hallucination, hypnotism, or of the possibilities of mal-observation and
+lapse of memory: while such a matter as first-hand circumstantial
+evidence seems to have been lost to sight entirely. If any mental or
+extraordinary physical disturbance took place, if the witch went into a
+trance and described things that were not, this was held to be proof
+positive that she was bewitched and under the influence of the devil.
+But we now know that most of these facts really indicated
+disease--mental and bodily--or the results of hysteria or trance,
+spontaneous or induced. Possibly there were also traces of hypnotism and
+telepathic influence, upon occasion. Of course, fraud pure and simple
+would account for many of the phenomena--the vomiting of pins and
+needles, for instance. But there remain certain facts which cannot be
+accounted for on any of these theories. Let us see, briefly, what these
+are.
+
+First there are the "witches' marks." These were anaesthetic patches or
+zones on the body that were quite insensible to pain. They were searched
+for with the aid of sharp needles, and often found! It was thought that
+these were the spots which the devil had touched; this was his
+"trade-mark," so to speak, by which all witches were known. Now we know
+that just such anaesthetic patches occur in hysterical patients, and are
+not due to supernatural causes at all, but to pathological states.
+
+Then, again, there is the possible occurrence of hallucinations. Edmund
+Gurney pointed this out in _Phantasms of the Living_, vol. i. p. 117,
+where he said:
+
+     "We know now that subjective hallucinations may possess the very
+     fullest sensory character, and may be as real to the percipient as
+     any object he ever beheld. I have myself heard an epileptic
+     subject, who was perfectly sane and rational in his general
+     conduct, describe a series of interviews that he had had with the
+     devil with a precision and an absolute belief in the evidence of
+     his senses equal to anything that I ever read in the records of the
+     witches' compacts. And further, we know now that there is a
+     condition, capable often of being induced in uneducated and simple
+     persons with extreme ease, in which any idea that is suggested may
+     at once take sensory form, and may be projected as an actual
+     hallucination. To those who have seen robust young men, in an early
+     stage of hypnotic trance, staring with horror at a figure which
+     appears to them to be walking on the ceiling, or giving way to
+     strange convulsions under the impression that they have been
+     changed into birds or snakes, there will be nothing very surprising
+     in the belief of hysterical girls that they were possessed by some
+     alien influence, or that their distinct persecutor was actually
+     present to their senses. It is true that in hypnotic experiments
+     there is commonly some preliminary process by which the peculiar
+     condition is induced, and that the idea which originates the
+     delusion has then to be suggested _ab extra_. But with sensitive
+     'subjects' who have been much under any particular influence, a
+     mere word will produce the effect; nor is there any feature in the
+     evidence for witchcraft that more constantly recurs than the
+     _touching_ of the victim by the witch. Moreover, no hard and fast
+     lines exist between the delusions of induced hypnotism and those
+     of spontaneous trance, or of the grave hystero-epileptic crises
+     which mere terror is now known to develop."
+
+Unquestionably, hypnotism and hallucination played their part; also
+perhaps telepathy; and, as Gurney points out elsewhere, "The imagination
+which may be unable to produce, even in feeble-minded persons, the
+belief that they _see_ things that are not there, may be quite able to
+produce the belief that they _have seen_ them, which is all, of course,
+that their testimony implies" (p. 118).
+
+Doubtless a large part of witchcraft, particularly that portion of it
+which relates to the Sabbath and the scenes said to be enacted there,
+can be explained as being due to the morbid workings of the mind while
+in a trance state. It is asserted on good authority that salves and
+ointments were rubbed into the pores of the skin all over the body; and
+that soon after this the witch would feel drowsy and lie down, and
+frequently remain in a semitrance state for several hours. During that
+time she would visit the Sabbath,--so it was said; but her body remained
+on the bed meanwhile, clearly showing that _it_ had not been there.[48]
+
+One of the most curious beliefs prevalent at the time was the belief in
+_lycanthropy_, that is, that certain individuals can, under certain
+conditions, change their bodily shape, and appear _as animals_ to
+persons at a distance! Frequently this animal would be injured, in which
+case the person whom the animal represented would be found to be
+injured in the same way, and in exactly the same place. The witch in
+such cases would frequently be lying at home in bed in a trance state,
+while her "fluidic double," in the shape of the animal, would be roaming
+about "seeking whom he might devour." The following is a typical case,
+which I quote from Adolphe D'Assier's _Posthumous Humanity_, p. 261:
+
+     "A miller, named Bigot, had some reputation for sorcery. One day,
+     when his wife rose very early to go and wash some linen not very
+     far from the house, he tried to dissuade her, repeating to her
+     several times, 'Do not go there; you will be frightened.' 'Why
+     should I be frightened?' answered she. 'I tell you you will be
+     frightened.' She made nothing of these threats, and departed.
+     Hardly had she taken her place at the wash-tub before she saw an
+     animal moving here and there about her. As it was not yet daylight
+     she could not clearly make out its form, but she thought it was a
+     kind of dog. Annoyed by these goings and comings, and not being
+     able to scare it away, she threw at it her wooden clothes-beater,
+     which struck it in the eye. The animal immediately disappeared. At
+     the same moment the children of Bigot heard the latter utter a cry
+     of pain from the bed, and add: 'Ah! the wretch! she has destroyed
+     my eye.' From that day, in fact, he became one-eyed. Several
+     persons told me this fact, and I have heard it from Bigot's
+     children themselves."
+
+How does our author attempt to account for such a fact as this? He says:
+
+     "It was certainly the double of the miller which projected itself
+     while he was in bed and wandered about under an animal form. The
+     wound which the animal received at once repercussed upon the eye of
+     Bigot, just as we have seen the same thing happen in analogous
+     cases of the projection of the double by sorcerers."
+
+Without endorsing such a view of the case, it may be said that recent
+experiments have shown it to be less incredible than might at first
+appear. Thus: We read further:
+
+     "Innumerable facts, observed from antiquity to our own day,
+     demonstrate in our being the existence of an internal reality--the
+     internal man. Analysis of these different manifestations has
+     permitted us to penetrate its nature. Externally it is the exact
+     image of the person of whom it is the complement. Internally it
+     reproduces the mould of all the organs which constitute the
+     framework of the human body. We see it, in short, move, speak, take
+     nourishment; perform, in a word, all the great functions of animal
+     life. The extreme tenuity of these constituent molecules, which
+     represent the last term of inorganic matter, allows it to pass
+     through the walls and partitions of apartments. Hence the name of
+     phantom, by which it is generally designated. Nevertheless, as it
+     is united with the body from which it emanates by an invisible
+     vascular plexus, it can, at will, draw to itself, by a sort of
+     aspiration, the greater part of the living forces which animate the
+     latter. One sees, then, by a singular inversion, life withdrawn
+     from the body, which then exhibits a cadaverous rigidity, and
+     transfers itself entirely to the phantom, which acquires
+     consistency--sometimes even to the point of struggling with
+     persons before whom it materializes. It is but exceptionally that
+     it shows itself in connection with a living person. But as soon as
+     death has snapped the bonds which attach it to our organism, it
+     definitely separates itself from the human body and constitutes the
+     posthumous phantom."
+
+This interpretation of the facts, it will be seen, forms a sort of
+connecting link between apparitions, ghosts, materializations,
+vampirism, and witchcraft; it is also in accord with the statements of
+the theosophists as to the astral body, conforms with certain statements
+made through Mrs. Piper and others as to the fluidic or ethereal body,
+and accounts for many of the phenomena of "collective hallucination" and
+haunted houses. I am far from saying that I think such a theory proved,
+but it is at least consistent and plausible; it is also in accord with
+many facts, and explains them as no other theory can or does.
+
+Colonel A. de Rochas, in his article on "Regression of Memory" (_Annals
+of Psychical Science_, July 1905), claimed that he had experimentally
+produced one of these doubles in a mesmerised subject. After several
+séances, and while the subject was in a deep trance, the following
+occurred:
+
+     "The astral body is now complete. M. de R. tries to make it rise,
+     to send it into another room. The body is stopped in its journey by
+     the ceiling and the walls. M. de R. tells Mayo to stretch towards
+     him the astral right hand, and he pinches it; Mayo feels the
+     pinch."
+
+Experiments such as these could be multiplied _ad infinitum_. There are
+cases on record in which the astral form has been pricked with needles,
+while the "sensitive" felt the prick, and so on. These experiments are
+suggestive, and if they should prove an etheric body, or anything
+corresponding to it, that would be at least one great step in advance in
+psychic research. It would also enable us to understand many of the
+phenomena of witchcraft, which are at present looked upon as mere
+superstitions.
+
+A word, finally, as to the phenomena of "exteriorization of
+sensibility," to which reference was made in the last paragraph. Many
+French observers have, apparently, obtained these phenomena; but there
+seems to be much scepticism regarding them in England and America, where
+they are generally considered to be due entirely to "suggestion." For my
+own part--while I do not uphold past experiments in this direction as
+being particularly convincing--I must confess that I see no inherent
+improbability in the facts themselves. If we have an etheric body, this
+is doubtless more or less detachable, at times--indeed, the ingenious
+author of _The Maniac_ suggests that the premature loosening
+of this body is the cause of much insanity. (See also my own remarks
+along the same general lines in the _Annals of Psychical Science_,
+October-December 1909, pp. 657-67; "Concerning Abnormal Mental Life.")
+This etheric body is doubtless highly sensitive to external forces and
+energies acting upon it, and would also feel physical pressure, etc.,
+when applied. If this were true, we should have a ready explanation for
+these cases of exteriorized sensibility.
+
+But it would not even be necessary for us to assume this! If the
+phenomena of exteriorization of _motivity_ be true (the phenomena
+produced by Eusapia Palladino, for example) then we have here nervous
+energy or "fluid" existing beyond the periphery of the body--that is, in
+space, detached from the nerves. And if a motor current can exist and
+travel in this manner, why not a sensory current? It would only have to
+travel in the opposite direction. For these reasons, therefore, I am
+disposed to regard the phenomena of exteriorized sensibility as highly
+probable, if not actually proved.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[48] See the article on "Witches' Unguents" in the _Occult Review_,
+April 1912, pp. 275-77.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SCIENTIFIC TRUTHS CONTAINED IN FAIRY STORIES
+
+
+How many of us, re-reading the fairy stories of our childhood have for a
+moment believed that many of these tales might be based upon scientific
+truths? Of course it is probable that most of these stories have _no_
+basis of fact behind them, but that they are merely the product of the
+story-teller's imagination--just as similar stories today are produced
+in this manner. But, on the other hand, it is quite conceivable that
+many of the seemingly fabulous accounts are in truth based upon
+realities; and that genuine occurrences may have happened, giving birth
+to these tales. We all know the general character of many of the
+legends. I may mention, as typical of the marvellous things done:
+becoming visible and invisible, as did "Jack the Giant Killer"; the
+existence of giants and dwarfs, as in _Little Tom Thumb_; incredibly
+rapid growth of vegetation, as in _Jack and the Beanstalk_; being
+suddenly transported without effort through immense distances and seeing
+at the other end of such a journey scenes and events actually
+transpiring at the time--as occurred in many of the _Arabian Nights_
+stories; cases in which plates and dishes washed themselves, and many
+other household feats were performed, as in _Prince Hildebrand and
+Princess Ida_; cases of long sleep, such as the _Sleeping Beauty_;
+cases in which human beings have been transformed into animals, and vice
+versa, as in _Beauty and the Beast_; cases in which palaces have sprung
+up over night, existing on the desert plain, only to vanish the next
+night and leave it as barren as before--as so often happened in the
+_Arabian Nights_.
+
+Let us first of all consider the cases in which persons have caused
+themselves to vanish and reappear at will. This power of becoming
+visible and invisible to others is not limited to mythical times, but
+may be reproduced today by artificial means. If a sensitive subject be
+hypnotized (and there is some analogy to the hypnotic pass in the fact
+that the fairy invariably waved her wand before the eyes of the
+onlooker), hallucinations of various types may be induced. Thus, our
+subject may be persuaded to see, for instance, a dog walking across the
+carpet, whereas there is no dog there. He may be persuaded that there is
+a stream in front of him flowing through the drawing-room, and that it
+is necessary for him, in order to prevent his feet from becoming wet, to
+take off his shoes and socks, and turn up his trousers. Hypnotic
+suggestion will perform this, and it may be said that suggestion alone,
+even when the subject is not in the hypnotic state, may be employed to
+produce many of these hallucinatory pictures. On the contrary, it is
+possible to suggest to our subject that such and such an object is
+gradually diminishing in size, and finally that it disappears
+altogether. He sees and describes this diminution, and finally looks in
+vain for the object which, he asserts, has vanished, but which, as a
+matter of fact, is perfectly visible to all others not under the
+influence of the suggestion. We frequently suffer from these "negative
+hallucinations," as they are called, in our ordinary daily life. We
+cannot find an object which is perfectly visible--resting in the very
+centre of the area over which we are searching diligently. Suddenly we
+discover it; it seems incredible to us that we have not seen it before;
+it seems to have sprung into being as though placed there by some
+invisible hand. Nevertheless it had remained throughout in the one
+position, and the only remarkable factor was our inability to see it.
+Such cases are well known to psychologists (the power of suggestion in
+inducing both positive and negative hallucinations), and this--both in
+the normal and the hypnotic state--is well recognized.
+
+Now it is only necessary for us to extend our conception somewhat in
+order to see the scientific truths contained in many fairy stories, in
+which one of the characters--hero, fairy, or what not--becomes visible
+and invisible at will. It is only necessary for us to conceive that some
+degree of mental influence had been brought to bear upon the minds of
+the onlookers, and that suggestion had been skilfully employed, in order
+to account for many of these stories. I know of a case in which the
+operator made his subject, who remained practically in a normal state
+throughout, see him floating about the room--whisking over chairs and
+tables, as though the law of gravity had no further influence upon him!
+
+We might, perhaps, also account for "invisibility" in one or two other
+ways. Thus, the magician or fairy might possess the power of interposing
+some veil or screen between himself and the seer--etheric or
+physical--by some act of will. Or we could suppose that some chemical
+might be applied to the body, rendering its structure and tissues
+transparent. (One is here reminded of H. G. Wells' _Invisible Man_.) Or,
+we might assume that the magician possessed the power of neutralizing
+light-waves, reflected from his body, by some method of
+"interference"--thus rendering himself invisible. This might be due
+either to a greater understanding of the laws of physics--i.e., the
+ability to manipulate light-energy in this manner, or to some purely
+psychic power--volitional, etc. Precise instructions for doing this have
+indeed been published (_Equinox_, vol. iii.). Of course, all such
+speculations as these are purely fantastic, until some proof of their
+possibility be forthcoming.
+
+It may be thought that this knowledge was not possessed by the ancients
+to the requisite extent; but there is abundant evidence to show that
+"mesmerism" has been practised from very ancient times. It is probable
+that the passage in Exodus vii, 10, 11, 12, refers to this, when it
+says: "Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh and before his servants,
+and it became a serpent. Then Pharaoh also called for the wise men and
+the sorcerers: and they also, the magicians of Egypt, did in like manner
+with their enchantments. For they cast down every man his rod, and they
+became serpents; but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods." It is
+interesting to note that Professor S. S. Baldwin, otherwise known as
+"The White Mahatma," recently saw a very similar feat performed in
+Egypt, and gives an account of it in his book, _The Secrets of Mahatma
+Land Explained_. Doubtless the effects in both cases were produced by
+suggestion, and a species of hypnotic influence. That the ancients were
+well versed in magic, and the power of suggestion and personal
+influence, is best illustrated by an old Egyptian papyrus at present in
+the British Museum, which contains an account of a magical séance given
+by a certain Tchatcha-em-ankh before King Khufu, 3766 B. C. In this
+manuscript it is stated of the magician: "He knoweth how to bind on a
+head which hath been cut off; he knoweth how to make a lion follow him,
+as if led by a rope; and he knoweth the number of the stars of the house
+(constellation) of Thoth." The decapitation trick is thus no new thing,
+while the experiment performed with the lion, possibly a hypnotic feat,
+shows hypnotism to be old.
+
+In the _Arabian Nights_, and in various other fairy tales, we also read
+of the sudden appearance and disappearance of palaces, castles, and
+other buildings of monumental character. This strange phenomenon has
+frequently been paralleled in recent times. It is a species of
+hallucination, induced by auto-suggestion or hetero-suggestion--that is,
+suggestion given to oneself, or suggestion from outsiders. Madame
+Blavatsky, in her _Nightmare Tales_, relates an interesting experience
+of this character:
+
+     "A curious optical effect then occurred. The room, which had been
+     previously partially lighted by the sunbeam, grew darker and darker
+     as the star increased in radiance, until we found ourselves in an
+     Egyptian gloom. The star twinkled, trembled, and turned, at first
+     with a slow, gyratory motion, then faster and faster, increasing
+     its circumference at every rotation until it formed a brilliant
+     disk, and we no longer saw the dwarf, who seemed absorbed in its
+     light.... All being now ready, the dervish, without uttering a
+     word, or removing his gaze from the disk, stretched out a hand, and
+     taking hold of mine he drew me to his side, and pointed to the
+     luminous shield. Looking at the place indicated, we saw large
+     patches appear, like those of the moon. These gradually formed
+     themselves into figures, that began moving themselves about in
+     higher relief than their natural colours. They neither appeared
+     like a photograph nor an engraving, still less like the reflection
+     of images on a mirror, but as if the disk were a cameo, and they
+     were raised above its surface--then endowed with life and motion.
+     To my astonishment and my friend's consternation, we recognized the
+     bridge leading from Galata to Stamboul spanning the Golden Horn
+     from the new to the old city. There were the people hurrying to and
+     fro, steamers and caiques gliding on the blue Bosphorus, the
+     many-coloured buildings, villas, palaces reflected in the water;
+     and the whole picture illuminated by the noonday sun. It passed
+     like a panorama, but so vivid was the impression that we could not
+     tell whether it or ourselves were in motion. All was bustle and
+     life, but not a sound broke the oppressive stillness. It was
+     noiseless as a dream. It was a phantom picture.... The scene faded
+     away, and Miss H---- placed herself in turn by the side of the
+     dervish."
+
+We thus see that expectancy and suggestion alone may induce sufficiently
+abnormal mental states to ensure the occurrence of such
+images--especially in a mind previously wrought by imagination,
+superstition, love, or any emotion tending to bring about its temporary
+lack of balance. The visions induced would, of course, be mental, and
+not physical, in their character; they would nevertheless appear just as
+real to the onlooker.
+
+Closely akin to these visions are those in which, it is reported,
+journeys have been made through space on a magic carpet--as in the
+_Arabian Nights_--or merely at the wish or command of some fairy or
+magician. Frequently, in such cases, it is reported that a vision is
+seen at the other end of the journey, coinciding with reality. It may be
+that the princess is, at that moment, being captured by a hideous giant;
+or that her lover is in great danger of losing his life. These visions
+have stirred the recipient into action, the result being that he or she
+arrives in the nick of time to prevent some fearful catastrophe. Such
+visions, too, have foundation in fact. There are many cases in which
+distant scenes have been visited in sleep, and places accurately
+remembered--the seer never having visited that locality in his life.
+Very much the same has happened in hypnotic trance, and even
+occasionally in the waking state, spontaneously. This is a species of
+clairvoyant vision; operative either during sleep, hypnotic trance, or
+daydream; and while it accurately represents scenes transpiring at a
+distance, here too, it will be noted, there is no corporeal
+transition--only mental adjustment from one scene of activity to
+another. Yet the subject remains under the distinct impression that he
+has been there in person, and actually visited the spot indicated.
+
+The Sleeping Beauty is an example of a story, typical of many, which
+illustrates the tradition that on certain occasions persons have passed
+into a sleep-state in which they have remained for long periods of time
+without apparent injury. While we must assume that the periods over
+which this sleep-state extended have been greatly overdrawn, the
+reported cases of hypnotic trance, and of voluntary interment, among the
+Hindus and elsewhere, lend probability to these stories, because of the
+fact that long periods of trance have been undergone by various
+individuals--who awakened from these states in apparently perfect
+health, and none the worse for their remarkable experience. Several
+spontaneous cases have been reported quite recently, in which the
+subject has passed several months, or even a year or more, in a
+sleep-state--awaking every few days or weeks, speaking a few words,
+taking perhaps a little nourishment, and then lapsing into oblivion! The
+older cases of extended sleep thus find a close parallel in the newer
+cases.
+
+One of the chief constituents of every fairy story is the giant or
+dwarf, who occupies a central position. That giants and dwarfs exist
+today there can be no doubt. They are frequently to be seen in the
+side-shows, and even in public life. But it is now known that giants and
+dwarfs suffer from a certain disease, which renders them particularly
+short-lived; and they are, generally speaking, muscularly weak for their
+size. They are not the stalwart, fierce race of beings imagined in the
+fairy stories, and which popular belief still pictures them. For the
+fairy tale, the giant is always enormous and powerful, and generally
+cannibalistic in his habits! Have giants of this character existed?
+Could such a race have existed? To this question it is almost certain
+that we must answer "No." M. Dastre, of the Sorbonne, Paris, has gone
+into this question at great length, and has given us the result of his
+researches in his essay on _The Stature of Man at Various Epochs_. Here
+he says:
+
+     "It is incontestable that beings of gigantic size do appear from
+     time to time.... Giants are men whose development, instead of
+     pursuing a normal course, has undergone a morbid deviation, and
+     whose nutrition has become perverted. They are dystrophic. Their
+     great stature shows that one part has gained at the loss of
+     another. It is a symptom of their inferiority in the struggle for
+     existence. Their condition is not only a variation from the
+     ordinary conditions of development--that is to say, they are
+     'congenital monsters,' the study of which belongs to the science of
+     teratology--but it is a variation also from a state of health,
+     physically and normally sound. In other words, they are diseased,
+     and fall within the domain of the pathologist. Here then, as
+     Brissaud says, you have your giants despoiled of their ancient and
+     favourite prestige. Mythology yields the place to pathology."
+
+The _causes_ of gigantism and of dwarfs are now well known. In the brain
+there is a tiny gland known as the pituitary gland, weighing little more
+than half a gram, and divided into two portions--the "anterior" and the
+"posterior" lobes. Hypertrophy of the _anterior_ lobe causes gigantism.
+The bones grow to an exaggerated length; the hands, feet, and bones of
+the face grow enormous. When, on the contrary, the secretions of the
+anterior lobe are insufficient, the body remains small, undergrown and
+delicate. The secretions of the _posterior_ lobe, on the other hand,
+insure the undue accumulation of fat, and disturb the functional
+activities. Other ductless glands in the body also affect the mental and
+physiological functions of the whole organism.
+
+Nevertheless it is realized that beings have existed from time to time
+far larger and more powerful in every way than the ordinary human being,
+and the mythopoeic tendency of the human mind has doubtless supplied the
+rest, and accredited to them marvellous powers which they did not in
+reality possess.
+
+In not a few fairy tales we read that the plates and dishes, which were
+upon the fairy's table, ran of their own accord to the kitchen, washed
+themselves, and came back to the table; that a cake was cut by a knife
+held by no visible hand; a decanter of water, of its own accord, moved
+about from place to place on the table, refilling the glasses of the
+guests; and in various other ways duties were performed which we are
+accustomed to consider as necessarily performed by ourselves. All this
+was accomplished by the objects without any external assistance, and of
+their own accord. Incredible as such accounts may appear, they are,
+nevertheless, not so extraordinary, viewed in the light of some newer
+researches--which in fact, if proved to be true, render phenomena of
+this sort quite credible. During séances held with Eusapia Palladino,
+objects were moved from place to place in the room without visible
+contact, and apparently of their own accord. They were also lifted from
+place to place and floated about in the air without visible support.
+These phenomena have been observed for a number of years by scientific
+men on the Continent, and they are unanimous in asserting that
+manifestations of this character do in fact take place, and that they
+are not due to any force or forces known to physical science. On one
+occasion, for example, a glass decanter was seen to be moved from the
+sideboard on which it stood on to the séance table, and thence rise and
+float around the room, no one touching it--there being no possibility of
+any connection between it and any object in the room. Finally, the glass
+bottle held itself, or was held by invisible hands, to Eusapia's mouth,
+and she thereupon drank some of the water it contained. The same thing
+happened to an investigator, another member of the circle. The glass
+decanter was then transported back to the sideboard, and a pile of
+dishes and other objects were moved on to the table.[49] Similar
+phenomena are said to have occurred in the presence, or through the
+mediumship, of D.D. Home. Sir William Crookes informs us that on several
+occasions a bunch of flowers was carried from one end of the table to
+the other, and then held to the noses of various investigators in turn,
+for them to smell. Some of those present at the séance saw a white hand,
+visible as far as the wrist, carrying the bouquet. Others saw merely a
+whitish cloud-like mass connected with the bunch of flowers. Still
+others saw nothing--save that the flowers themselves were transported
+through space without visible means of support.
+
+Here, then, we have phenomena, attested by scientific men, all happening
+within the past few years, rivalling any of a like nature that are
+reported to have occurred in fairy stories! If _invisible beings_,
+possessing intelligence, constantly move about us, and are capable, at
+times, of affecting the material world, surely there should be no
+objection to many of these fairy stories, since the difference in the
+facts is one merely of _degree_ and not of _kind_; and this would be
+true even were the phenomena proved to be due only to the action of some
+force or forces (under more or less intelligent control) within
+ourselves, producing the phenomena.
+
+Other extraordinary narratives will doubtless occur to the mind. The
+bean-stalk which grew overnight, might be referred to; and it is
+possible to compare this with cases of electrically or artificially
+forced vegetation. But, of course, the majority of the wonders reported
+in fairy stories find their probable interpretation in those tricks of
+the imagination which have now been duplicated by artificial means, and
+which science is beginning to understand and interpret according to
+well-known psychological laws. Fairy stories may thus present (in many
+instances) the germ of a truth, which it has taken many centuries to
+elaborate and comprehend in detail.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49] _Journal S.P.R._, vol. vi. p. 356. All this was observed by Sir
+Oliver Lodge, Prof. Ch. Richet, Mr. Myers, and Dr. Ochorowicz.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Problems of Psychical Research, by 
+Hereward Carrington
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Problems Of Psychical Research, by Hereward Carrington.
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Problems of Psychical Research, by 
+Hereward Carrington
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Problems of Psychical Research
+       Experiments and Theories in the Realm of the Supernormal
+
+Author: Hereward Carrington
+
+Release Date: November 29, 2007 [EBook #23660]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROBLEMS OF PSYCHICAL RESEARCH ***
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+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Stacy Brown, and the Online
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>THE PROBLEMS OF<br />
+PSYCHICAL RESEARCH</h1>
+
+<h2>EXPERIMENTS AND THEORIES IN<br />
+THE REALM OF THE SUPERNORMAL</h2>
+
+<p class="subhead2 padtop">BY</p>
+
+<h2>HEREWARD CARRINGTON, Ph.D.</h2>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-left: 25%; margin-right: 25%;"><b>AUTHOR OF</b><br /><br />
+"The Coming Science," "The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism," "Death:
+Its Causes and Phenomena," "Modern Psychical Phenomena," "Your Psychic
+Powers: and How to Develop Them," "Higher Psychical Development," "True
+Ghost Stories," Etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter padtop" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/line01.jpg" width="100" height="92" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="subhead2 padtop">NEW YORK<br />
+DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY<br />
+1921</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p class="subhead3 padtop"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1921,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="subhead3 padtop">VAIL-BALLOU COMPANY<br />
+BINGHAMTON AND NEW YORK</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 405px;"><a name="if"></a>
+<img src="images/photo01.jpg" width="405" height="700" alt="" />
+<span class="caption smcap">The "Will Board"</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</p>
+
+
+<p>In the following pages I have dealt chiefly with the <i>mental</i> or
+psychological phenomena of psychical research, and have not touched upon
+the "physical" manifestations to any extent. The book is mostly
+theoretical and constructive in tone; and, because of its speculative
+character, it may, perhaps, prove of value to future psychical
+investigators. It represents the author's conclusions after several
+years' experimentation; and, in a field so new as this, scientific
+hypotheses and speculations are assuredly helpful&mdash;indicating the road
+we must travel, and the possible interpretation of certain facts, which
+have been accumulated in the past, as the result of years of laborious
+research. I believe that practically <i>all</i> the phenomena of spiritualism
+are true; that is, that they have occurred in a genuine manner from time
+to time in the past; that they are supernormal in character, and are
+genuine phenomenal occurrences. But as to the further question: "What is
+the nature of the intelligence lying behind and controlling these
+phenomena?"&mdash;<i>that</i>, I think, is as yet unsolved, and is likely to
+remain so for some time to come. I do not believe that the simple
+spiritistic explanation&mdash;especially as at present held&mdash;is the correct
+one, nor one that explains all the facts; for I believe that the
+phenomena are more complicated than this. Nor are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> ordinary
+psychological explanations at present in vogue adequate to cover them.
+The explanation is yet to seek; and the solution will only be found when
+a sufficient number of facts have been accumulated and the various
+explanatory theories have been tested,&mdash;to see which of them is really
+adequate. My hope is that the present book may help to accomplish this
+result by supplying a little in both directions!</p>
+
+<p>The present edition of this book is to some extent an abridgement of the
+first edition, which appeared some seven years ago. I have, for
+instance, omitted a number of "cases" which were originally included,
+and also my "sittings" with Mrs. Piper&mdash;which material will be published
+at a later date in another volume. I have also omitted the original
+First Chapter,&mdash;since much of this material was subsequently included in
+my <i>Modern Psychical Phenomena</i>. On the other hand, I have included a
+new chapter on Recent Experiments in Psychic Photography,&mdash;composed
+partly of original and hitherto unpublished material, and partly of the
+experiments undertaken, some years ago, by Dr. Baraduc,&mdash;in
+"photographing the soul." The account of his experiments was originally
+published in my book, <i>Death: its Causes and Phenomena</i>, but they are
+now included here as being more in line with other experiments recently
+undertaken in this field. I have also added a brief chapter on the
+Scientific Investigation of Psychic Phenomena by means of Laboratory
+Instruments.</p>
+
+<p>A word, finally, as to the necessarily slow progress which has been and
+is being made in the study of "psychics." As this objection is often
+raised, I cannot do better, perhaps, than to quote an admirable passage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
+from Prof. William James (<i>Memories and Studies</i>, pp. 175-76), where he
+says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"For twenty-five years I have been in touch with the literature of
+psychical research, and have had acquaintance with numerous
+'researchers.' I have also spent a good many hours (though far
+fewer than I should have spent) in witnessing (or trying to
+witness) phenomena. Yet I am theoretically no 'further' than I was
+at the beginning; and I confess that at times I have been tempted
+to believe that the Creator has eternally intended this department
+of nature to remain <i>baffling</i>,&mdash;to prompt our curiosities and
+hopes and suspicions all in equal measure, so that, although ghosts
+and clairvoyances, and raps and messages from spirits, are always
+seeming to exist and can never be fully explained away, they also
+can never be susceptible of full corroboration.... It is hard to
+believe, however, that the Creator has really put any big array of
+phenomena into the world merely to defy and mock our scientific
+tendencies; so my deeper belief is that we psychical researchers
+have been too precipitate in our hopes, and that we must expect to
+mark progress not by quarter-centuries, but by half-centuries or
+whole centuries."</p></div>
+
+<p>In the present book, I have endeavoured to show why this must
+necessarily be so; also to indicate the manner in which the subject may
+be studied in order to arrive at definite knowledge at an earlier date
+than might otherwise be possible.</p>
+
+<p>H. C.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</p>
+
+
+<table summary="table of contents" style="width: 50%;"><tbody>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="tl">Preface</td>                                           <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">I</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Is Psychical Research a Science?</span></td>                  <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">II</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Investigating Psychical Phenomena with Scientific Instruments</span></td>                         <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">III</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Life: and Its Interpretation</span></td>                     <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">IV</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">The Human Will Is a Physical Energy</span>  (<i>An Instrument which Proves It</i>)</td>                  <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">V</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Modern Dissection of the Human Mind</span></td>             <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">VI</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Psychic Photography</span>  (<i>New Experiments</i>)</td>           <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">VII</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Hallucination and the Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism</span></td>                                <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">VIII</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">The Problems of Telepathy</span></td>                        <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">IX</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">The Uses and Abuses of Mind Cure</span></td>                 <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">X</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">The Psychology of the Ouija Board</span></td>                <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">XI</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Witchcraft: Its Facts and Follies</span></td>                <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">XII</td> <td class="tl"><span class="smcap">Scientific Truths Contained in Fairy Stories</span></td>     <td class="tr"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
+
+
+<table summary="list of illustrations" style="width: 50%;"><tbody>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td class="tl"><a href="#if">The "Will Board"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">1.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i1">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">2.</td> <td class="tl"><a href="#i2">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">3.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i3">"Thought Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">4.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i4">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">5.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i5">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">6.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i6">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">7.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i7">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">8.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i8">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">9.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i9">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">10.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i10">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">11.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i11">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">12.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i12">"Psychic Photograph"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">13.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i13">"Photograph of the Soul"</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="trl">14.</td>  <td class="tl"><a href="#i14">"Photograph of the Soul"</a></td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+<h2>THE PROBLEMS OF PSYCHICAL RESEARCH</h2>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span><br /></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">IS PSYCHICAL RESEARCH A SCIENCE?</p>
+
+
+<p>Is Psychical Research a Science?</p>
+
+<p>It seems to me that the answer to this question must be somewhat as
+follows: If the phenomena be true, Yes; if not, No!</p>
+
+<p>If <i>one</i> single prophecy, clairvoyant vision, telepathic impulse, or
+mediumistic message be true&mdash;if veritable supernormal information be
+thereby conveyed&mdash;then psychical research is a science, and illimitable
+avenues are opened up for further research and speculation.</p>
+
+<p>More especially is this true in the case of mediumistic messages. If
+these prove to be delusory&mdash;the result of subliminal activity and so
+forth&mdash;if there be no spiritual world, then "psychics" may be said to be
+"founded upon the sand." It can hardly be called a "science." Only when
+the <i>fact</i> of communication is proved, will the real study of the
+subject begin. Much of the work, up to the present, has been undertaken
+with a view to establishing the reality of the facts. But this is a
+question of evidence, not scientific research. When the facts themselves
+are established, then the real study&mdash;the work of the future&mdash;will
+begin. It will probably be the task of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> future generations to attack the
+problem from this standpoint.</p>
+
+<p>Let me illustrate what I mean by a somewhat striking example. Take the
+facts presented in the case of Mrs. Piper. Hitherto the question has
+resolved itself into that of the <i>evidence</i> for survival. Have or have
+not the various personalities who have communicated through her
+entranced organism proved their personal identity? That is the problem;
+and, as we know, opinions differ! But, granting the reality of the
+facts, granting that "spirits" really do communicate, as alleged&mdash;then
+the study of the question, from the "scientific" point of view, will
+only have begun. <i>How</i> do they communicate? Why are these communications
+so rare? Why such trouble with proper names? How do the "spirits"
+manipulate the nervous organism, and particularly the brain, of the
+medium? Upon what cells or centres do they operate? and how? Does the
+psychic constitution of the communicator affect the results&mdash;and if so,
+how? What is the condition of the communicator's mind while
+communicating? Is the medium's spirit entirely removed from the body
+during the process of communication? and if so, where is it, and what is
+it doing? How does the medium's mind affect the content of the
+communications&mdash;and to what extent? These, and a thousand other
+questions of a like nature, immediately present themselves, and call for
+solution, as soon as the reality of the facts be granted&mdash;as soon as
+spirit communication be accepted as a fact. This will constitute the
+work of the future&mdash;the detailed study of the facts&mdash;not merely
+regarding them from the point of view of evidence. Real, scientific
+psychical research will then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> begin. The subject will then, for the
+first time, become a legitimate branch of human study.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, even now, it may not be altogether unprofitable to adduce a few
+reflections which have been suggested by a study of the facts, up to the
+present time. If theories and speculations of this nature have in
+themselves no value, they often stimulate others to experiment or to
+reflect upon the same line&mdash;sometimes with strikingly important and
+interesting results. It is chiefly with this object in mind that I offer
+the following suggestions&mdash;the result of some years of thought and
+research in this particular field.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Before it is possible for any one to appreciate the importance and
+significance of psychical research, it is necessary for him to become
+"inoculated," as it were, with materialism! To one who admits, <i>a
+priori</i>, the reality of a spiritual world, and sees no difficulties in
+the way of accepting it, there is, of course, no need to convince him
+further. But once admit the position held by modern science
+(particularly biological science) that life is a function of the
+organism, and that thought is a function of the brain, and the phenomena
+assume a very different importance. To state the case in precise terms,
+I could not do better than to quote the words of Professor John Lewis
+March, when he says "Mind is not found to exist apart from matter" (<i>A
+Theory of Mind</i>, p. 11). And it must be admitted that&mdash;apart from the
+facts of psychical research&mdash;there is no evidence that it does so exist.
+So far as we can prove, life and consciousness become obliterated at the
+moment of bodily death. And the only way to prove the contrary is to
+produce evidence that consciousness does so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> persist; and this is only
+possible by the methods adopted in spiritism and psychical research. In
+no other way can the facts be established; by no other method can the
+persistence of human consciousness be scientifically proved.</p>
+
+<p>(2) It may be contended that consciousness, as such, may persist, but
+that individuality does not survive bodily death: the human is merged
+into the All. But such a view of the case seems to be directly opposed
+to evidence no less than to moral feeling. For, in the first place,
+persistence without memory and individuality would not be worth having
+at all; and secondly, this idea is, it seems to me, directly opposed to
+evolution, which tends more and more to accentuate individuality, and
+separate and perfect it.</p>
+
+<p>(3) On the other hand, it might possibly be that our persistence depends
+upon our <i>ability</i> to persist. The theory of mind developed by modern
+researches in psycho-pathology is that the mind of man&mdash;instead of being
+a single "unit," as was formerly supposed&mdash;is composed of a number of
+threads or strands, so to speak, held together by our attention and our
+will. Once these are relaxed, the mind "unravels" and goes to pieces. A
+single, strongly-woven, and well-bound rope might stand a sudden wrench
+and shock, while a less perfectly-made one would tear and snap under the
+strain. Similarly, it might be urged, if the mind be sufficiently
+balanced, strengthened, and controlled, it might withstand the shock of
+death; otherwise it would not. Whether or not we persist would thus
+depend upon our ability to control and hold ourselves together, as it
+were; upon our strength of will; upon the degree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> of development of the
+central personality. When this is lacking, "psychical disintegration"
+takes place, and we fail to survive the last great Ordeal.</p>
+
+<p>While this theory may possibly be true, it seems to me that it is very
+probably untrue, for the reason that this is not a question of moral
+worth which we are considering, but of scientific law&mdash;of the
+Conservation of Energy, of the ability of life and consciousness of any
+sort&mdash;good or bad&mdash;to exist apart from brain-functioning. That is the
+question! Once grant that mind of any kind can persist by and of itself,
+independent of a physical organization, and you have so far broken down
+the barriers of materialism that there should not be the slightest
+objection to granting the persistence of consciousness of any sort&mdash;with
+the probability that it <i>would</i> so persist. Cosmic Law could hardly act
+otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>(4) I know well enough that psychic investigation is, at present at
+least, in a chaotic and uncertain condition, and that little beyond
+uncertainty and discouragement has been attained in the past. As Mr. F.
+C. Constable remarked:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Many of us who have devoted our lives to psychical research can
+but have moments of profound depression. We <i>feel</i> our labours
+cannot be in vain, but we are faced by such a complexity of fraud,
+deliberate and unconscious, mal-observation, denial of scientific
+restrictions, and ignorance of what is trustworthy in evidence and
+deduction, that at times our search for truth seems as futile as
+the search of past alchemists for the philosopher's stone."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And even more forcibly Count Aksakof states the objections which have
+occurred to him:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As years went by, the weak points of spiritualism became more
+evident and more numerous. The insignificance of the
+communications, the poverty of their intellectual content, and
+finally the fraud, etc.&mdash;in short, a host of doubts, objections,
+and aberrations of every kind&mdash;greatly increased the difficulties
+of the problem. Such impressions were well calculated to discourage
+one, if, on the other hand, we had not at our disposal a series of
+indisputable facts." (<i>Animism and Spiritism.</i>)</p></div>
+
+<p>While this is doubtless true, it is nevertheless a fact that psychical
+research is, as yet, in its infancy; and it is in a sense unfair to
+judge the results by the few years of progress which have been possible
+in the past. For while other sciences&mdash;physics, chemistry, anatomy&mdash;are
+more than two thousand years old, psychical research is but forty years
+old&mdash;some of the original founders of the S.P.R. being still alive and
+actively engaged in the work! It is, then, somewhat premature to
+pronounce upon the ultimate outcome of the investigation, and we must
+wait for at least a hundred years or so before it will be possible to
+see whether or not the subject has proved its claims and justified
+itself in the eyes of the world. And this view of the case is further
+supported by the fact that, in so exact a science as cytology, but
+little definite can be said. Thus, Professor E. B. Wilson, on p. 434 of
+his work <i>The Cell</i>, says: "The study of the cell has, on the whole,
+seemed to widen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> rather than to narrow the enormous gap that separates
+even the lowest forms of life from the inorganic world." It will thus be
+seen that the uncertain and unsatisfactory condition of psychics is
+shared also by other branches of scientific investigation, and it is as
+yet too soon to say whether or not the ultimate verdict will swing in
+this direction or in that. We can only hope, and continue to experiment!</p>
+
+<p>5. Psychical research, therefore, may continue to progress, in spite of
+the innate difficulties and the obstacles with which the subject is
+surrounded. It is our duty to see that it does! For it is certain that
+the subject will receive serious set-backs, from time to time, in the
+shape of unjust misrepresentations or bitter attacks from the outsiders,
+determined to "prove a case," even if the cause of truth be abandoned in
+order to do so. Take, e.g., the recent volume of Dr. Tanner and Dr. G.
+Stanley Hall (<i>Studies in Spiritism</i>). They received certain "lying
+communications," in spite of Professor William James' warning that "the
+personalities are very suggestible" and that "every one is liable to get
+back from the trance very much what he puts into it." Even Deleuze could
+have told Drs. Tanner and Hall this fact&mdash;having ascertained it nearly a
+hundred years before (1813); for he wrote in his <i>Critical History of
+Animal Magnetism</i> (pp. 134-5), in reply to those who would question the
+somnambulist upon points of practical advantage:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"You will gain nothing; you will even lose the advantages which you
+might derive from his lucidity. It is very possible that you could
+make him speak upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> all the subjects of your indiscreet curiosity;
+but in that case, as I have already warned you, you will make him
+leave his own sphere and introduce him into yours. He will no
+longer have any other resources than yourself. He will utter you
+very eloquent discourses, but they will no more be dictated by the
+internal inspirations. They will be the product of his
+recollections or of his imagination; perhaps you will also rouse
+his vanity, and then all is lost; he will not re-enter the circle
+from which he has wandered.... The two states cannot be
+confounded.... These somnambulists are evidently influenced by the
+persons who surround them, by the circumstances in which they are
+placed."</p></div>
+
+<p>And Dr. A. E. Fletcher, in <i>The Other World and This</i>, says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Trance mediums, more than any others, are the victims of the
+embodied and the disembodied. If the medium is subject to the
+influence of a spirit, how much more likely is he to be affected by
+the character of those around him! Strong minds in the body may
+take control of his brain, instead of spirit intelligences. Such
+persons must be of a highly sensitive order, and cannot come under
+the same line of human criticism and judgment as might be applied
+to those in everyday life."</p></div>
+
+<p>Even Maudsley, in his <i>Pathology of Mind</i> (p. 77), says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The main feature which the abnormal states (trance, etc.) present
+in common are: first, that coincident with a partial mental
+activity there is more or less inhibition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> which may be complete,
+of all other mental action; secondly, that the individual in such
+condition of limited mental activity <i>is susceptible only to
+impressions which are in relation with his character and are
+consequently assimilated by it</i>...."<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>These passages illustrate, at least, the delicate and often-times
+suggestible nature of the trance; and how inconclusive, to say the
+least, are such experiments as those of Drs. Tanner and Hall!</p>
+
+<p>6. On the other hand, it may be asked: If the messages we receive at
+s&eacute;ances really <i>do</i> come from the departed, why should they be so
+fleeting and so uncertain as they are? And why should not many more
+messages be received from the hundreds and thousands who die yearly, and
+who are doubtless longing to communicate?</p>
+
+<p>Answers to these questions are manifold. In the first place, it may be
+pointed out that the ability to communicate may be rare indeed, and not
+a universal possibility, as is generally supposed. As Dr. Hodgson
+expressed it (<i>Proceedings</i>, xiii., p. 362): "It may be a completely
+erroneous assumption that all persons, young or old, good or evil,
+vigorous or sickly, and whatever their lives or deaths may have been,
+are at all comparable with one another in their capacity to convey clear
+statements from the other world to this." Further, it must not be
+supposed that all "messages" received by mediums (even granting their
+complete honesty)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> really issue from the "Great Beyond." Many mediums
+simply tell their sitters the ideas, impressions, and "messages" which
+come into their minds, and which they believe to come from external
+sources, i.e., "spirits," but which, as a matter of fact, issue from
+their own subconsciousness. These scraps of information resemble
+"bubbles" breaking upon the surface of water&mdash;the finished product of
+latent incubation, and doubtless have every appearance and every feeling
+of external origin. Even if genuine spirit-messages are at times
+received, it is highly probable that the bulk of the messages are the
+product of the medium's subliminal, which catches up and amplifies the
+original external impetus received from without. Professor William James
+believed, e.g., the following: that "genuine messages have been given
+through Mrs. Piper's organism, but he also contended that every time an
+intelligence appeared, calling itself Hodgson, and beginning: 'Hello!
+Here I am again in the witness-box! How are you, old chap?' etc., this
+was not Hodgson at all, but Mrs. Piper's subliminal, and that genuine
+supernormal information only came in 'touches' or 'impulses,' as it
+were, as though the spirit could touch or come into contact with the
+medium's mind at a number of points, making a number of 'dips down,' ...
+as it were, imparting information at each dip which the medium's mind
+thereupon seized upon, elaborated, and gave out in its own dramatic form
+and setting." If this be true of Mrs. Piper (whose messages are shot at
+you from a cannon's mouth, as it were), how much truer must it be of
+other types of mediums, in which the communications are certainly far
+less direct and impressive? Mrs. Piper might be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> styled the "possession"
+type of medium&mdash;as opposed to the "subliminal" type&mdash;commonly seen; and,
+as before said, if the messages be so indirect in the case of Mrs.
+Piper, how much more fragmentary and indirect must they be in the case
+of all other mediums&mdash;less developed and less direct than she? It is
+hardly to be wondered at that the information given is of the vaguest,
+the most hazy and indistinct character, and that recognition and proof
+of identity is almost an impossibility.</p>
+
+<p>7. As to the theory that comparatively few (of those who die) make good
+communicators, I may be permitted to suggest, perhaps, a tentative
+explanation of the rarity of good communicators (and communications),
+based upon this principle. Certain it is that special adaptability and
+idiosyncrasy are necessary to the one on this side&mdash;this constituting,
+in fact, a "medium," as we understand it. It seems highly probable that
+a medium is born and not made, that the gift is hereditary, and that it
+depends but little, if at all, upon physical, mental, or moral
+characteristics, but rather upon a peculiar and innate make-up which is
+independent of all of these. A person is a good psychic or medium just
+as another is a good painter or sculptor or pianist. It can be
+cultivated by training, but the "germ" must be latent within the
+individual, in order that its development may be possible at all.</p>
+
+<p>Granting all this, it seems to me very natural to suppose that some
+similar characteristic might be essential to the one on the "other
+side," in order that <i>he</i> might be a good communicator. Only a few might
+possess this special gift&mdash;without which communication would be
+impossible&mdash;no matter how gifted or clever the individual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> might be, in
+other respects, or how much he longed to communicate. Further, it might
+be that this deceased person could only get <i>en rapport</i> with our world
+when some one on this side was also and simultaneously endeavouring to
+reach him. Neither alone could effect the communication, could bridge
+the chasm.</p>
+
+<p>Let me make the theory clearer by means of an analogy. One theory of
+consciousness contends that it depends for its existence altogether upon
+the touching or inter-connection of certain nervous fibres, without
+which consciousness would be impossible, and is, in fact, abolished&mdash;as
+in sleep. When these "dendrites" touch, communication is established;
+when this contact is broken, it is non-existent.</p>
+
+<p>To apply the analogy. When a medium goes into a trance, she throws out
+(symbolically) psychic "arms," or pseudopodia, much as an octopus might
+feel about him with his tentacled arms. On the other side, a
+communicator would also stretch out these mental arms, feeling about for
+something to grasp and cling to, something capable of receiving and
+transmitting the messages he desired to send. Only when these two
+groping arms find each other "in the dark," as it were, would
+communication become possible. If only <i>one</i> thus sought, nothing would
+result. The rare combination of good sender and good recipient must be
+found before this communication is possible at all, and even then, they
+must both be striving to communicate at the same moment before any
+results follow. It is because of the rarity of this combination and this
+coincidence that mediumistic messages are so scarce. In addition to the
+earnest desire and longing on the other side, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> must be a medium on
+this, capable of receiving the messages. And when this medium is lacking
+(as is usually the case) no communications are received. This fully
+explains to us, it seems to me, why it is that messages of this nature
+are so rarely received: the necessary conditions on this side are
+lacking.</p>
+
+<p>8. Such a theory would also enable us to understand one fact, very
+puzzling to most investigators in this field. It is that one's friends
+and relatives are almost invariably present immediately the medium goes
+into the trance! Sometimes there is a wait, it is true, and they have to
+be "sent for." But as a rule they are "on tap" at once&mdash;and, no matter
+where we may be, they are there <i>instanter</i>&mdash;ready to communicate!</p>
+
+<p>Of course such facts naturally lead one to suppose, <i>a priori</i>, that
+these personages are not present at all, in reality, but merely the
+medium's subliminal, personifying these various personages&mdash;no spirit
+being concerned, directly or indirectly, with their production. This, I
+say, is the natural view of the facts.</p>
+
+<p>But on the theory above outlined the genuine nature of these messages
+may readily be assumed. Suppose our friends and relatives are more or
+less <i>en rapport</i> with us all the time (like "guardian angels"). Time
+and space need not be considered factors in the problem&mdash;since all
+spirits say that they do not exist in "their" world. Then, all we should
+have to do, in order to effect communication, would be to supply the
+necessary conditions on this side&mdash;when the chasm would at once be
+bridged, and communication established.</p>
+
+<p>(I wish it to be distinctly understood, however, that I consider the
+vast bulk of such messages the product of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> the medium's subliminal, and
+not at all coming from the source from which they claim to proceed. I am
+only arguing on general grounds for the <i>possibility</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>9. It will be seen that I have spoken throughout the above argument of
+the <i>trance</i> as a necessary condition for communication, or at least
+assumed that it is invariably present. Why should the trance state have
+this effect? What is the nature of the trance, and what peculiarity
+within it renders these results possible?</p>
+
+<p>The sceptic might begin by questioning the fact itself; but I think it
+now so well established that argument on this score is unnecessary.
+Further, the deeper the trance, <i>ceteris paribus</i>, the better the
+phenomena. There is no denying that fact. While certain striking results
+are often obtained while the medium is in light trance, they are not
+nearly so striking as those which are obtained when the medium is in the
+deeper stage. And this applies, I believe, to mediums producing both
+mental and physical phenomena. The question therefore remains: What
+happens in this trance state to render such results possible? <i>Why</i>
+should the peculiar condition involved be instrumental in producing such
+striking results?</p>
+
+<p>It must be admitted at once that the innermost nature of this trance
+state is unknown. Certainly no purely physiological explanation suffices
+to explain the "medium-trance," even were it sufficient to account for
+similar conditions better known. No matter what the condition of the
+medium's nerve centres may be, this would not account for the
+supernormal information given during the trance state. No matter how
+much nervous or mental "instability" or "disintegration"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> were
+postulated, it would not at all explain or elucidate the primary
+question: <i>How is the supernormal information acquired?</i></p>
+
+<p>It seems to me that the answer to this question can only be found by
+assuming some such theory of the facts as the following:</p>
+
+<p>When a person falls asleep, he loses consciousness when <i>en rapport</i>
+with <i>himself</i>.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> When he is placed in the "mesmeric" trance, he
+remains <i>en rapport</i> with the operator, and the deeper the trance, the
+more complete and effective this <i>rapport</i> is. Explain it as you will,
+the facts remain. The writings of the early mesmerists are filled with
+records of cases of this <i>rapport</i>, in which "community of sensation"
+was present, and various supernormal phenomena, such as clairvoyance,
+etc., were manifested. No such phenomena are recorded in hypnotic
+s&eacute;ances, as a rule, which makes me suspect most strongly that mesmerism
+and hypnotism are not identical, in spite of the general belief that
+they are fundamentally one&mdash;all mesmeric phenomena being due to
+"suggestion." Of this, however, later. For the moment, I wish only to
+draw attention to the fact that, during these deep trance states,
+<i>rapport</i> was noted, and supernormal information frequently given.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, it seems plausible to suppose that, by way of analogy, the medium
+trance would represent a trance state induced by hypnotism <i>from the
+"other side."</i> We know that telepathic hypnotism is a fact&mdash;the numerous
+cases recorded by Myers and Janet being good proof of this. Further, we
+know that dreams may be induced experimentally, by means of telepathic
+suggestion. (See Ermacora's paper, <i>Proceedings</i>, xi. 235-308.) Might we
+not assume, then, that the medium-trance represents a certain condition
+induced by influence from deceased minds&mdash;which would fully account for
+the supernormal information given (for the medium would be <i>en rapport</i>
+with these minds), and for the fact that the medium is not usually
+susceptible to suggestion, pain-tests, &amp;c., on <i>this</i> side. The deeper
+the trance, the more the medium is in touch with the other world, the
+less with this; and <i>vice versa</i>. The medium-trance is, therefore,
+probably a hypnotic or mesmeric trance, induced telepathically by
+operators out of the body.</p>
+
+<p>10. When the trance has been induced, however, how does the "spirit"
+succeed in imparting information to the medium's brain and organism?
+Inasmuch as the phenomena are usually of the motor type&mdash;speech or
+writing&mdash;the motor centres in the brain must somehow be employed; <i>how</i>
+they are employed, and whether other centres in addition to these are
+used is a question calling for solution&mdash;but one which will take
+probably years of patient research to solve.</p>
+
+<p>As we know, Dr. Hodgson was of the opinion that the ordinary centres
+were not used in the production of the automatic writing, for he said
+(<i>Proceedings</i>, xiii. pp.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> 398-9): "What the precise relation is between
+this consciousness and the movements of the hand I do not know. I do not
+know whether or not the motor centres of the brain ordinarily concerned
+in the movements of hand and arm are in operation or not. I incline to
+think not&mdash;certainly not in the ordinary way...." The statement of the
+"controls" is that they use the "empty corners" of Mrs. Piper's
+brain&mdash;which probably means that certain unused areas are pressed into
+service, as far as possible, in the production of the phenomena. Still,
+this is not very definite information! Another theory offered by the
+communicators is that they get into contact with the "light," think
+their thoughts, and these thoughts are then registered or expressed in
+motor phenomena&mdash;speech or writing. What the "light" may be, we have not
+the slightest means of knowing, but it is a very significant fact that a
+"light" of this nature is nearly always associated with spiritual
+phenomena. We hear of the "interior illumination" of the saints and
+martyrs, and of those who have experienced an influx of "cosmic
+consciousness"; of the "halo" which surrounds the heads of holy persons;
+of the "internal light" experienced by many who have had a special
+conversion or illumination; of the "aura" surrounding the bodies of
+certain individuals&mdash;always perceptible to clairvoyants, and lately (it
+is asserted) to any one who observes the subject through specially
+prepared chemical screens;<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of the "light" diffusing itself over the
+region of the forehead,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> which certain mesmeric subjects have inwardly
+perceived,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and of the "aura" which may be produced experimentally by
+means of high-tension electric currents. We must not forget, also, that
+Christ Himself is called "the light of the world," and that He once made
+the very significant remark: "If thine eye be single, <i>thy whole body
+shall be full of light</i>." Lastly, it is somewhat significant, it seems
+to me, that Andrew Jackson Davis used to see the nervous system of the
+person he was studying, while in the "superior condition," as
+<i>light</i>&mdash;as though it were illuminated by some interior glow, or was
+more or less phosphorescent. (And we know that phosphorus is certainly
+connected with the activities of the nervous system&mdash;even though it be
+not so intimately as before supposed.) This string of coincidences is at
+least remarkable; and it will be observed that the "light" is usually
+associated with nervous centres and nervous activity&mdash;for the head,
+e.g., is certainly the part most highly illumined, as a rule; while it
+is certainly the seat of the most active self-consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>11. These facts throw an interesting side-light, also, upon another
+oft-observed phenomenon in psychical research. I refer to the fact that
+apparitions ("ghosts") are nearly always seen to be clear and distinct
+as to the head and upper portions of the body, while they taper off to
+vapour and "filmy nothingness" in the lower limbs, so that often the
+feet are not visible at all. While this may be due in part to the fact
+that the observer's attention is not directed to the lower limbs, but
+more or less centred upon the head and face, it appears<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> to me that
+there may be another interpretation of the facts, more in accordance
+with the phenomena above mentioned, which is this:</p>
+
+<p>During life we are conscious of our body in varying degrees&mdash;of the head
+most of all, then of the arms and upper portions of the body; and
+finally, of the lower limbs and feet, we are, a large part of the time,
+hardly conscious at all. Now, if the light accompanies nervous activity,
+and is present in proportion to it, it is obvious that those portions of
+the organism would have most "light" which were most active
+mentally&mdash;i.e., the brain and those portions of the nervous system
+controlling the hands, face, and upper portions of the body&mdash;while those
+portions which had become entirely automatic and unconscious in their
+activity would have least light&mdash;being physiological to the point almost
+of being mechanical. If this "light" corresponded in any way to
+visibility, therefore, it would only be natural to suppose that the face
+and upper portions of the phantasmal figure should be more or less
+distinctly visible, to one at all sensitive to such impressions, while
+the lower portions of the figure would fade into practical
+invisibility,&mdash;owing to lack of "light." This explanation would
+certainly be in accord with the facts, as we know them, regarding
+phantasmal figures.</p>
+
+<p>12. We are still far from the answer to our question, however: How does
+spirit act upon matter, and in what way does the spirit manipulate the
+nervous mechanism of the medium, during the process of communication?
+Let us now consider this question further.</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Jackson Davis, in his <i>Great Harmonia</i>, vol. i. pp. 55-65,
+discussed this problem, and stated that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> "spirit acts upon the bodily
+organism anatomically, physiologically, mechanically, chemically,
+electrically, magnetically, and spiritually." The trouble with such a
+statement is that it explains nothing (even as elaborated by him), and
+that it is far easier to believe, e.g., that one part of the body acts
+chemically and mechanically, etc., upon another part than to suppose
+that "spirit" has anything to do with the affair whatever. To postulate
+its activity would be merely to multiply causes without necessity.</p>
+
+<p>Just here, it might be interesting to inquire what the modern conception
+is as to the relation of mind and brain&mdash;of soul and body; and
+particularly the question of the "seat" of the soul&mdash;that central point
+which was, until late years, always considered necessary as a fulcrum or
+point of contact upon which the soul might act.</p>
+
+<p>The older psychologists and philosophers always took such a "seat" for
+granted&mdash;Descartes, as we know, imagining that the pineal gland occupied
+that important function. But as the science of psychology progressed,
+this notion was more and more given up, until the prevailing opinion of
+late years seems to be that the <i>whole</i> of the cortex is equally the
+seat of consciousness, and that its <i>total</i> functioning is responsible
+for the psychical activities which we know under the head of personality
+or individuality or ego.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note, however, that Dr. Frederick Peterson, of
+Columbia University, New York, has lately put forward the theory that
+there is, or may be, a seat of consciousness, after all! In a striking
+article in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> <i>Journal of Abnormal Psychology</i> (vol. iii. No. 5), he
+says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I will say at once that the 'seat' of that power which produces
+the manifestations of consciousness is in the basal ganglia
+(probably the <i>corpora striata</i>), and that consciousness is a
+peculiar summation of energy at that point, capable of being
+directed, like the rays of a searchlight, into this or that portion
+of the brain."</p></div>
+
+<p>Dr. Peterson then goes on to give some facts which seem to him to
+support this view. Among these are the phenomena of sleep (the reasons
+being too long to detail here); the fact that, although every
+individual brain is stored full of experiences, only a small area
+is illuminated by consciousness at any one moment; and the phenomena of
+epilepsy&mdash;concerning which Dr. Peterson speaks in the following terms:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The one disorder which has led me to think much of this subject is
+epilepsy, in which disease, loss of consciousness is the most
+extraordinary and often the only symptom. I allude chiefly to such
+remarkable conditions as the <i>tic de salaam</i> and the other forms of
+<i>petit mal</i>, in which the patient drops suddenly to the floor with
+loss of consciousness, and quite as suddenly rises again in full
+possession of his faculties. I have watched such cases for hours,
+and always with increasing marvel. The loss of consciousness is
+complete, and often lasts but a fraction of a second. How account
+for such phenomenon! If consciousness were a diffused attribute of
+the whole brain, what spasm of blood-vessels or other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> physical
+process familiar to us could act and be adjusted with such speed?
+If, however, the 'seat' of consciousness be limited to some very
+small portion of the brain, some physical process such as is
+suggested could easily account for the instantaneous loss and
+regaining of consciousness."</p></div>
+
+<p>Other facts in support of this theory are given, and the statement of
+Dr. C. L. Dana that, in poisoning by illuminating gas, the chief symptom
+is loss of consciousness, and the only lesion discovered is softening of
+the <i>corpora striata</i>; then the following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Assuming now that it were proved that the power which creates
+consciousness has some definite seat, and that it is a summation of
+energies physiologically varying in sleep and waking, which may be
+directed to any part of our store of experiences for purposes of
+illumination, what portion of the brain is so constructed as to be
+in apparently intimate connection with every other? The <i>corpora
+striata</i>!... There is no portion of the brain we know so little
+of.... Here we have a portion of the brain which must be of
+enormous significance, otherwise it would not be always present,
+from the fish up to man."</p></div>
+
+<p>It will be seen that Dr. Peterson is here opposed to the doctrine
+maintained by both Lotze<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and MacDougall,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> who both maintained that:
+"There are a number of separate points in the brain which form so many
+'seats' of the soul. Each of these would be of equal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> value with the
+rest; at each of them the soul would be present with equal
+completeness." But whether there be one or several "seats" of
+consciousness, it is obvious that there must be contact of <i>some</i> sort,
+at one or several points (granting the correctness of the theory that
+spirit acts upon matter at all), and the question is: <i>How</i> may this
+action be supposed to take place?</p>
+
+<p>In discussing this question in a former book<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> I said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is more than probable, it seems to me, that there exists some
+sort of etheric medium between mind and even organic nervous
+tissue, upon which the mind must act first of all. Thus, we should
+have the chain of connection: mind, vital or etheric medium,
+nervous tissue, muscle, bone. So mind acts upon matter; and it will
+be seen that there is an increasing density of structure, and that
+just in proportion to this density is mind incapable of affecting
+matter directly. We must, it seems to me, always postulate some
+sort of etheric medium through which mind acts, in order to affect
+and move matter&mdash;organic or inorganic. And without this vital
+intermediary there can be no action, and consequently no
+manifestation."</p></div>
+
+<p>Now, it would appear rational to suppose that some action of this sort
+takes place when mind acts upon, or influences, matter. Air is
+invisible, and practically imperceptible to our senses&mdash;<i>when
+stationary</i>. But set into motion, a current of air will close a door
+with a bang&mdash;will have the effect of definitely moving a heavy mass of
+inanimate matter, in the manner indicated. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> may be that in somewhat
+the same way mind affects brain. Mind may reside in a sort of etheric
+vehicle, and be more or less stable or stationary, save at the times
+when volition or intense, active conscious operations are in
+progress&mdash;when, in short, <i>effort</i> is exerted. At such times, it is
+surely conceivable that what was static becomes dynamic; something is
+set into motion which in turn brings into activity some more "physical"
+energy, and so on, until sufficient material momentum has been gained to
+affect that most unstable and mobile substance, nervous tissue. It is
+certainly quite conceivable that certain nervous centres in the brain
+(<i>which</i> centres, we cannot say) might be set into actual operation by
+some such process; or at least that the impulse or energy supplied in
+this manner might be sufficient to release the nervous energy stored in
+the cell, much as the trigger of a rifle would, when pressed, release
+the energy contained within the cartridge. Such "hair trigger" action
+has been postulated by both William James and Bergson, and is certainly
+in line with modern speculations in this direction. There are also
+certain analogies to be drawn from physical science to guide us here.</p>
+
+<p>In electricity, e.g., what are known as "relays" are constantly
+employed, and beautifully illustrate the principle here outlined. In
+working over long lines, or where there are a number of instruments in
+one circuit, the currents are often not strong enough to work the
+recording instruments directly. In such a case there is interposed a
+"relay" or "repeater." This instrument consists of an electro-magnet
+round which the line current flows, and whose delicately-poised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+armature, when attracted, makes contact for a local circuit, in which a
+local battery and the receiving Morse instrument (sounder, writer, etc.)
+are included. The principle of the relay is, then, that a current too
+weak to do the work itself may get a strong local current to do its work
+for it.</p>
+
+<p>It may be the same in the case of mental action. Volition or thought may
+be too weak, <i>per se</i>, to influence nervous processes; but, when
+exceptionally active or potent, they may set into activity specific
+nerve energies which manifest in the manner known to us as motor and
+physical phenomena. Here is, it seems to me, a rational explanation of
+the facts, and one which is in accord, not only with ordinary
+psychological phenomena, but with those more puzzling and obscure
+manifestations witnessed from time to time in psychic research.</p>
+
+<p>13. It may be objected that such a conception of the facts supposes that
+will (and conscious thought) are physical energies&mdash;for however <i>slight</i>
+we make this energy, it is still energy none the less. The air which
+closed the door would not move it <i>of itself</i>&mdash;unless some pressure were
+exerted upon it from without. Could "life" act otherwise?</p>
+
+<p>One reply to this objection is that the distinguishing characteristic of
+life is this very power of original, spontaneous movement. It is life,
+and life alone, which possesses this power. Were this doctrine true, it
+would of course upset the present theory of the Conservation of Energy,
+for it would admit the constant infusion into the world of energy from
+without. Despite the theoretical difficulty thus presented, it seems
+probable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> that life is, in a certain sense, a physical energy, or at
+least its manifestation is. It is possible that the two states are
+similar to the difference between potential and kinetic energy; and we
+must remember that <i>energy is always noticed or experienced by us, as
+energy, in its expenditure, never in its accumulation</i>.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>If life be a physical force, if vitality be a specific energy, then, it
+seems to me, many things fall into line&mdash;many phenomena, hitherto
+inexplicable, become at once intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>Let me illustrate this conclusion by mentioning a few such facts:</p>
+
+<p>Take, for instance, the phenomena manifested in the presence of Eusapia
+Palladino. I shall not now stop to discuss the reality of these
+manifestations, because I consider them just as certain as any
+other facts in life, and not at all open to discussion. Now,
+in these phenomena there is an intelligence <i>of some sort</i>
+at work producing them; that is certain. But as to the <i>nature</i> of this
+intelligence&mdash;<i>what</i> it is&mdash;that is altogether another matter, and a
+much more difficult question to answer. Whether this be a low order of
+deceiving and "lying spirits," as Professor Barrett and others are
+apparently inclined to believe, or whether it be a fraction of the
+medium's own mind (Flournoy, Morselli), or whether it be the spirit it
+claims to be, or whether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> it belongs to some other even more doubtful
+order of intelligence, such as postulated by the Theosophists and
+certain Mystics and Occultists, <i>that</i> is a question which we cannot at
+present answer, and for which we may have to wait for several hundred
+years before one can be satisfactorily given.</p>
+
+<p>But, granting the reality of the phenomena, they themselves demand
+solution, solely from the point of view of physics and physiology, and
+quite aside from the nature of the intelligence with which they are at
+times associated. The facts themselves still need elucidation.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago a gentleman of my acquaintance started out with the
+intention of constructing a telephone by means of which it would be
+possible to speak directly to the spirit world! He had in mind great
+delicacy of apparatus, a system of "relays," by means of which it would
+be possible to augment an initial stimulus, however slight, a magnifying
+apparatus which would greatly increase the volume of sound, on the lines
+of the ampliphone and the microphone, etc. I do not believe that very
+definite results were ever achieved, and he is still at work upon the
+problem. Needless to say, this idea of his was ridiculed in all
+quarters; but I myself do not see any valid reason why some such device
+should not succeed&mdash;provided, of course, that a spiritual world exists
+at all. If such a world exists, if the intelligences which reside
+therein can at times produce physical phenomena, then it is certainly
+conceivable that some energy may be set into operation which may produce
+the desired results&mdash;some energy which we, too, can utilize and which
+the spiritual entity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> can also manipulate; in other words, <i>an energy
+common to the two worlds</i>. Were such a common medium or mediator found,
+communication would certainly be established, and it only remains for us
+to discover the common energy. Personally, I believe that this
+intermediary is most probably <i>vitality</i>&mdash;the life-force, without the
+presence of which such manifestations would be impossible. A living,
+human being is necessary, upon whose presence these phenomena depend,
+and without whom they could not occur. It is thus obvious that there is
+a definite connection between these phenomena and <i>life</i>, which can
+hardly be due to chance; it must stand in some intimate and causal
+relation.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>14. Many students of psychical phenomena believe that, in the case of
+Eusapia Palladino, e.g., this connection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> is clearly discernible, and
+that it is upon the externalization of her vital force that many of
+these phenomena depend. Even the materializations are thought to be due
+to this same cause&mdash;due to the moulding, in space, of this plastic
+intermediary projected beyond the limits of her bodily organism. Certain
+it is that such a projection does at times take place, and it seems
+rational to suppose that "raps" may be due to the explosive expulsion of
+this neural energy after it has reached a certain "tension." One quite
+striking incident which has been narrated to me by a physician of my
+acquaintance tends rather to confirm this view. It is that, when he was
+trying on various occasions to move a table, <i>&agrave; la</i> Palladino, he failed
+to do so, but whenever he lifted his hands away from the table,
+"sparkling" took place between his hands and the table-top, closely
+resembling the electric spark which jumps from point to point when the
+tension has reached a certain limit.</p>
+
+<p>Another interesting fact, related to me by the same physician, serves to
+throw a light upon the connection of vital and physical energies. The
+doctor in question was treating a patient, who was apparently
+"obsessed," by means of electricity. The galvanometer needle showed what
+slight variations in the current there were during the course of the
+treatment. In the middle of the process, while the patient was
+conversing with the doctor, she was suddenly "obsessed." <i>Coincidental</i>
+with this obsession, the galvanometer showed a tremendous and permanent
+fluctuation, indicating that the resistance of the body to the current
+had suddenly and greatly changed!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whatever view we may take of the facts, here is, at least, a striking
+incident, which the current theories of the varying causes of bodily
+resistance (in these psycho-galvanic reflexes) hardly serve to explain.
+Can it be that the subject's "etheric body" was in some way disturbed by
+an invading intelligence, and that this disturbance was manifested in
+the fluctuations recorded? Is there a nervous fluid, after all, as the
+magnetizers and mesmerists contend so strongly, but which has been
+relegated to oblivion since the advent of suggestion and hypnotism?
+Personally, I believe that there <i>is</i>, and I shall indicate very briefly
+some of my reasons for thinking so.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>first</i> place, the modern hypnotist can very rarely succeed in
+cultivating clairvoyance in his subject, whereas the records of
+mesmerism teem with cases which were developed under the old <i>r&eacute;gime</i>.
+Surely the dissimilarity in the effect points to a dissimilarity of
+cause. It has always appeared to me highly probable that mesmerism and
+hypnotism are dependent upon entirely different causes, and were not at
+all the same in the last analysis.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>second</i> place, the exhaustion which "healers" sometimes
+experience when treating patients of a certain temperament can hardly be
+due altogether to suggestion. I have been informed by "magnetic" and
+"spiritual" healers that this feeling of exhaustion is very great when a
+self-centred, selfish person is being treated, and correspondingly less
+whenever a generous, large-souled individual is receiving the treatment.
+"Osteopaths" have told me the same thing. Those possessing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> an active
+mind and brain, and who are analytical and unsympathetic by nature, are
+far harder to treat, and leave a far greater exhaustion, than those who
+are not so. This bears a very striking resemblance to the "good" and
+"bad" sitters in the Piper case, and also the Palladino case; in fact,
+it is true of everyday life, to a certain extent. The more active the
+mind, the greater the <i>grasp</i> over life and self which we possess, the
+less susceptible are we to external or internal influences. Let us call
+to mind in this connection the remark of Dr. Snow in his treatise on
+<i>Anaesthetics</i>, that "the more intelligent the patient, the more
+anaesthetic is required to put him under."</p>
+
+<p><i>Thirdly</i>, the phenomena presented by Eusapia Palladino completely prove
+the reality of such a "fluid" to my mind, without any other proof being
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourthly</i>, the impression said to be left in or upon objects or houses,
+and the phenomena of "psychometry" seem to indicate the same thing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifthly</i>, the recent reinforcement of the evidence in favour of the
+human "aura" strongly supports the same view.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixthly</i>, the French experiments in "exteriorization of sensibility,"
+"thought-photography," "radiographs," etc., point to the same
+conclusion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventhly</i>, the successful experiments conducted by Professor Alrutz
+and others with his instrument&mdash;which is thought to register "will
+power"&mdash;is a long step towards recognizing the existence of a nervous,
+vital energy, which can at times be externalized and made to pass into
+and "charge" an inanimate object.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Finally</i>, the facts of materialization and kindred phenomena, which
+find so ready and complete an explanation on this theory.</p>
+
+<p>For these and other reasons, therefore, it seems fairly certain that
+there is a nervous "fluid" which can at times be externalized beyond the
+normal bodily limits, which is operative in mesmeric "passes," and which
+plays so large and hitherto unsuspected a part in the production of many
+physical and psychical phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>15. As we know, it is this "fluid" which is drawn upon, so it is said,
+by materializing mediums for the production of their phantoms, and the
+following interesting experience seems to confirm this view. I quote
+<i>verbatim</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It was an autumn afternoon, about six o'clock. I had returned from
+a stroll in the garden, and was in my own room, sitting on a
+single-backed easy-chair, leisurely dipping into <i>Vanity Fair</i>.
+While turning over the pages in search of some favourite passage, I
+became aware of an abnormal and quite indescribable sensation. My
+chest and breathing seemed inwardly oppressed by some ponderous
+weight, while I became conscious of some presence behind me,
+exerting a powerful influence on the forces within. On trying to
+turn my head to see what this could be, I was powerless to do so,
+neither could I lift a hand or move in any way. I was not a little
+alarmed and began immediately to reason. Was it a fainting fit
+coming on, epilepsy, paralysis&mdash;possibly even death? No, the mind
+was too much alive, though physically I felt an absolutely passive
+instrument, operated upon by some powerful external agent, as if
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> current of nerve-force within seemed forcibly drawn together
+and focussed on a spot in front of me. I gazed motionless, as
+though fascinated, on what was no longer vacant space. There an
+oval, misty light was forming, elongatory, widening&mdash;yes, actually
+developing into a human face and form! Was this hallucination, or
+some vision of the unseen, coming in so unexpected fashion? Before
+me had arisen a remarkable figure, never seen before in picture or
+life&mdash;dark-skinned, aged, with white beard, the expression
+intensely earnest, the features small, the bald head finely
+moulded, lofty over the forehead, the whole demeanour instinct with
+solemn grace. The hands, too, how unlike any hands I knew, yet how
+expressive! They were dark, long in fingers and narrow in palms,
+the veins like sinews, standing out as they moved to and fro in
+eager gesture. He was speaking to me in deep tones, as if in urgent
+entreaty. What would I not give to hear words from such a figure!
+But no effort availed me to distinguish one articulate sound. I
+tried to speak, but could not. With desperate effort I shook out
+the words, "Speak louder!" The face grew more intent, the voice
+louder and more emphatic. Was there something amiss in my own
+hearing, then, that I could distinguish no word amidst these deeply
+emphasized tones? Slowly and deliberately the figure vanished,
+through the same stages of indistinctness, back to the globular,
+lamp-like whiteness, till it faded into nothingness. Before it had
+quite faded away, the face of a woman arose, indistinct and calm.
+The same emphatic hum, though in a subdued note, indistinct and
+dim. The same paralysis of voice and muscle, the same strange
+force, as if it were overshadowing me. With the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> disappearance of
+this second and far less interesting figure, I recovered my power
+of movement, and arose.</p>
+
+<p>"My first impulse was to look round for the origin of this strange
+force; my second was to rush to the looking-glass to make sure I
+was myself. There could be no delusion! There I was, paler than
+usual, and greatly agitated; I walked hurriedly to and fro. True,
+there had been nothing alarming in the apparition itself, but the
+sensation preceding had been vivid in the extreme. What was it? Was
+it night, or had I been in some strange sleep? Certainly not! Was I
+in my right mind? I believed so. Then, if so, and the conditions
+being the same, would it be possible to bring back this strange
+phenomenon that I might know it had really existed, whether
+subjectively or objectively? Like an inspiration I determined that,
+if this experience had a basis in objective or subjective fact, it
+might certainly recur. I would sit down in the same position, try
+to feel calm, open a book, and remain as still and passive as I
+could. To my intense interest, and almost at once, the strange
+sense of some power operating on the nerve-forces within, followed
+by the same loss of muscular power, the same wide-awakeness of the
+reason, the same drawing out and concentrating of the energies on
+that spot in front, repeated itself, this time more deliberately,
+leaving me freer to take mental notes of what was happening. Again
+rose the same noble, earnest figure, gazing at me, the hands moving
+in accompaniment to the deep tones of voice. The same painful
+effort on my part to hear, with no result. The vision passed. Again
+the woman's face, insignificant and meaningless, succeeded it as
+before. She spoke, but in less emphatic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> tones. It flashed upon me
+I <i>would</i> hear. After a frantic effort, I caught two words&mdash;"land,"
+"America"&mdash;with positively no clue to their meaning.</p>
+
+<p>"I was wide awake when the first apparition appeared, and in a
+highly excited state of mind on its reappearance."</p></div>
+
+<p>This case strikes me as particularly interesting, for the reason that it
+illustrates the possible manner of the externalization of forces, and
+the possible manner of their guidance and manipulation by outside
+intelligences, as postulated in <i>Eusapia Palladino</i>, p. 300. Here we see
+the process actually at work, as it were, described by a careful
+observer, who was perfectly conscious all the time of the phenomena
+going on within him. This is, to my mind, a human document of no little
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>It appears quite credible, therefore, that a "fluid" of some sort does
+exist, and that its liberation, under certain peculiar conditions,
+should produce odd physical phenomena; and this conviction has been
+rendered almost a certainty by the unique experiments of Dr. Ochorowicz
+with his medium, Mlle. Tomczyk. A brief summary of that case will make
+this apparent.</p>
+
+<p>For many years experiments of the kind here recorded have been in
+progress, but the path has always been blocked by fraud and innumerable
+difficulties. Dr. Ochorowicz did, however, apparently succeed in
+obtaining photographs of human radiations, of thoughts, and even of
+materialized hands! What are they? Are they the hands of "spirits,"
+inhabitants of the "Great Beyond"? Are they astrals or elementals?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> Are
+they projections from the body of the medium? Of what can they consist?
+Who directs and guides them? And how can a thought be photographed?</p>
+
+<p>These newer researches into the fields of science have been undertaken,
+for the most part, by French investigators, who have progressed very far
+in their demonstrations and speculations in this direction&mdash;much
+further, it may be said, than either the English or American
+investigators have advanced&mdash;assuming, of course, the accuracy of their
+conclusions!</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ochorowicz had been known for thirty years to all researchers as a
+careful investigator. Professor Charles Richet of the University of
+Paris spoke of him in the highest terms, and regarded him as "an
+exceptionally careful and cautious investigator." His book, <i>Mental
+Suggestion</i>, which was published early in the eighties, is considered an
+authority, and his general erudition and scientific attainments no one
+could question. For many years he was professor in the University of
+Lemberg.</p>
+
+<p>Several years ago a young girl, Mlle. Stanislaw Tomczyk, then about
+eighteen years old, was sent to Dr. Ochorowicz for medical treatment.
+She suffered greatly from nervousness. In order to bring about relief
+Dr. Ochorowicz hypnotized her, inducing somnambulism; and in this state
+she displayed, quite spontaneously, a number of "mediumistic" phenomena.
+This proved to be the beginning of her mediumship. She possessed a power
+unknown to herself; and it probably would have remained for ever unknown
+had she not fallen into the hands of a man such as Dr. Ochorowicz. By
+the average physician she would, most probably,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> have been treated as
+hysterical or insane; but careful analysis and training caused her to
+become, instead, one of the most remarkable psychics the world has ever
+known.</p>
+
+<p>Her early trials and tests were simple enough. A glass clock, possessing
+a pointer, was hung up in the centre of the room, and Mlle. Tomczyk was
+told to will that the pointer, when set revolving, should stop at a
+certain number. Generally she pointed with her finger at the indicator,
+keeping her hand a few centimetres distant. The indicator generally,
+though not invariably, stopped at the number desired&mdash;at any rate, a far
+greater number of times than Dr. Ochorowicz or any other person could
+cause it to stop when trying the experiments themselves. The clock
+belonged to Dr. Ochorowicz, and was innocent of trickery.</p>
+
+<p>The next experiments consisted in raising or "levitating" small objects
+from the table&mdash;by placing the medium's hands on either side of them.
+Sometimes the object would be raised from Dr. Ochorowicz's hand
+instead&mdash;while he was holding it. Of course the natural supposition is
+that a thread or hair of some sort was employed, but this possibility
+was eliminated in a number of ways.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that all these manifestations took place when the
+medium was in a state of induced somnambulism. She remembered nothing
+when awakened of what had occurred. But now something curious and
+interesting demanded special attention. A distinct personality, calling
+itself "Little Stasia," began to develop. This personality asserted that
+she, and not the medium, was responsible for the physical
+manifestations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> we have recorded. She said (through the mouth of the
+entranced somnambule) that she was not an independent spirit, but a
+creation, an individuality, similar to the "alternating personalities"
+so well known to us. There would be no difficulty in accepting this
+estimate, were it not for the awkward fact that this little being was
+photographed on one occasion and seen to be a small, independent
+creature, existing apart from the medium! This is how it came about.</p>
+
+<p>Through the entranced medium instructions were given to focus a camera
+upon a certain chair&mdash;having first placed a shawl over the back. This
+was done. Dr. Ochorowicz and Mlle. Tomczyk then left the room together.
+At the end of a certain length of time they returned, developed the
+plate, and upon it was found the distinct imprint of a small child's
+face, apparently belonging to a body, seated in the chair, and swathed
+around with the shawl in question! The experiment was performed in the
+hotel where they happened to be stopping; the photographic camera and
+plates were Dr. Ochorowicz's own, and the medium was out of the room, in
+the doctor's company throughout. It has never been explained.</p>
+
+<p>Such is a brief account of the more interesting experiments conducted
+during the early years of this medium's development. In later years her
+powers, under the skilled guidance of (the late) Dr. Ochorowicz, took
+another turn and provided some of the most interesting and striking
+manifestations in the history of this subject, as, for example, his
+experiments in the photography of "fluidic" or "materialized" hands, and
+also in thought-photography.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These photographs of fluidic hands Dr. Ochorowicz calls "radiographs,"
+because they can only be explained by supposing that the fluidic hand,
+which is placed upon the photographic plate, is in some way radio-active
+during the process. In no other way can the facts be explained. Even
+supposing, for the sake of argument, that the psychic could in some way
+have placed her own hands on the plates, they would not have produced
+the results obtained&mdash;as any one can prove to his own satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>These impressions upon photographic plates were obtained
+"mediumistically"&mdash;that is, in more or less complete darkness, and
+without any apparatus. Not only were all known forms of radiation thus
+excluded, but the impression was direct, and obtained without camera,
+focussing, etc. The impressions of hands obtained were of various shapes
+and sizes, both larger and smaller than those of the medium (who, of
+course, was the only other person present), peculiarly deformed hands
+and partially formed hands, according to the degree of success of the
+experiment, and the desire of the medium.</p>
+
+<p>These hands can only be produced in the presence, and with the
+assistance, of a good "physical medium," in more or less darkness, and
+are taken by means of a peculiar light which the hands seem to create
+for themselves. Sometimes the hands were visible to both the medium and
+Dr. Ochorowicz, sometimes visible only to the medium, sometimes
+invisible to both. We are assured that in the series of tests under
+consideration the impressions were obtained only when the psychic was
+deeply entranced, and then only at certain times.</p>
+
+<p>On a number of occasions the psychic placed her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> hand upon the plate,
+and its impression was left upon it. The hands were photographed by
+means of a form of light radiating from the hands themselves. On one
+occasion, Dr. Ochorowicz held the plate against the medium's ear; the
+ear itself was not photographed, but the side of the head, the hair, and
+particularly the hairpins were. On two occasions a leaf was placed
+between the hands and the plate, and the outline of the leaf was left
+upon the latter. From these experiments it was concluded that the
+rays&mdash;whatever they might be&mdash;were emitted by the "etheric body" (the
+"astral" body, the "double") and not by the physical body, since their
+intensity did not seem to correspond in any way to the anatomical
+distribution of the nerves.</p>
+
+<p>These rays may be centred and concentrated by the action of the will of
+the subject. They radiate from the surface of the skin and reproduce a
+simulacrum, as it were, of the surface. They throw a shadow of any
+object placed between the subject and the photographic plate. They are
+more penetrating than the rays discovered by M. Darget, and brought to
+the attention of the French Academy several years ago. Interesting
+analogies may exist here between these rays and the so-called "Black
+Light" of M. Le Bon, which he describes at length in his work, <i>The
+Evolution of Forces</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It was now determined to attempt more interesting and startling
+experiments. The medium was requested to hold her right hand in the air,
+where it could be seen plainly, against the faint red light in the room.
+It was not moved throughout the experiment. In his own laboratory Dr.
+Ochorowicz then procured a fresh plate and held it in the air, at some
+distance from the hand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> of the medium. The latter then said: "Ah, I see
+another right hand detaching itself from my arm and approaching the
+plate. How it pains me! Yes, it is placing itself over the plate&mdash;it is
+done."</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ochorowicz then took the plate with him at once to the dark room
+and, when it was developed, there was found the outline of an unformed
+hand&mdash;one apparently in the process of condensation. It was, as it were,
+a hand in embryo. It had apparently become detached, or had detached
+itself, from the medium, and remained sufficiently solid to leave an
+impression of itself upon the plate, held about half a metre from it. It
+was, in fact, a form of materialization, but of so shadowy a texture
+that it remained often quite invisible to the onlooker.</p>
+
+<p>A long series of experiments is then described, which might be condensed
+somewhat as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The somnambule said that she did not see the double's hand leave
+hers, but saw it placed upon the plate. It was placed upon it at an
+angle of ninety degrees from the position taken by her own hand. At
+my request the thumb was made particularly distinct, the whole hand
+being quite different in contour from that of the medium.</p>
+
+<p>"I take another plate, and hold it some distance from the medium's
+hand. She makes an effort to impress it, with the result that an
+immense finger, superhuman in size, is seen upon the plate when
+developed. Upon the next plate, which I hold about twenty-five
+centimetres from her hands, three fingers appear, non-luminous&mdash;the
+light seeming to come from behind the hand, and shining through the
+spaces between the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>"I now hold a plate at a distance of one metre from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> her right
+hand, which is held up in front of her. The red light is turned
+slightly low. The somnambule sees a shadowy hand detach itself from
+hers, which is at the same time, also, attached to a very long,
+thin arm, and which approaches the plate. The hand is very large,
+she says, and is a right hand. It places itself over the plate,
+which I thereupon remove and develop. A large hand is distinctly
+visible upon it. Finally, I hold a plate two and a half metres away
+from the medium's hand. The somnambule shivers and feels cold in
+her lower limbs, despite the fact that my laboratory is very warm.
+She again holds out her right hand, and a left hand, attached to a
+long, thin arm, is seen by her to detach itself and place itself
+over the plate held in my hand. Upon being developed, the
+impression of a very large left hand was found upon the plate&mdash;so
+large that only a portion of the hand could be seen! The whole of
+the medium's hand can easily be placed upon the plate. These are
+very similar to the enormous hands frequently seen in the Palladino
+s&eacute;ances, and said to be those of 'John King.'</p>
+
+<p>"From the above facts I think we are justified in arriving at the
+following tentative conclusions:</p>
+
+<p>"1. That the hand of the double can be larger than that of the
+medium.</p>
+
+<p>"2. That a left hand can be projected from a right arm, drawing its
+force from the entire body of the subject, this being accompanied
+by a chilly feeling in the extremities and by congestion of the
+head.</p>
+
+<p>"3. That the arm of the double appears to shrink in size according
+to its distance from the medium's body.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"4. That it is easier for the fluidic hand to imprint itself upon
+the photographic plate (negative) in white than in black.</p>
+
+<p>"5. That in the case of the large and shining thumb it is
+surrounded by a clear halo of light.</p>
+
+<p>"6. The etheric body of the medium, the 'double,' behaves as though
+it were an independent spirit."</p></div>
+
+<p>In a second series of experiments very small hands were produced by
+request. These hands terminated abruptly at the wrist, but it was found
+by a series of independent experiments that any hand would appear to do
+so if the illumination came from a certain direction. In one case the
+photographic plate was placed on the sofa, three feet from the entranced
+somnambule. Dr. Ochorowicz took his seat by her side. A fluidic hand was
+seen to approach the plate, then retreat into the medium's body,
+avoiding the red light. Upon the plate being developed, the imprints of
+two small hands were seen, somewhat resembling the hands of the medium,
+though smaller. They were not typical children's hands. The medium had,
+in fact, made two distinct efforts to impress the plate and have the
+fluidic hand place itself upon it. These semi-materializations are very
+interesting, since they form the connecting link between true
+materialization, which is solid and substantial, and so-called thought
+photography.</p>
+
+<p>After this Dr. Ochorowicz wished to try another experiment. A pencil and
+a sheet of paper were placed on the floor under the bureau by Dr.
+Ochorowicz. The medium sat in her chair entranced. Soon the sound of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+writing was heard; then the fall of the pencil. Upon the sheet of paper
+being removed a word was found scratched across it&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"STANISL&mdash;"</p>
+
+<p>The psychic then desired to obtain writing in full view of Dr.
+Ochorowicz, so he placed another piece of paper upon the floor, and upon
+it the pencil. The medium then exerted herself; the pencil stood on end,
+and attempted to write. In this, however, it failed, and fell to the
+floor. This was repeated several times, when the medium had to give up
+further attempts, owing to her extreme fatigue.</p>
+
+<p>The question now arises: Can these fluidic hands, which are thus
+exteriorized, move of their own volition, or must they remain
+stationary? To this question Dr. Ochorowicz addressed himself in a later
+series of experiments.</p>
+
+<p>In the first experiment, the somnambule saw a finger upon a plate, which
+was self-luminous, and seemed to be writing. A large "J" was seen to be
+traced upon it. In the second trial, neither the medium nor Dr.
+Ochorowicz saw anything, but the letters "J. O." were seen to be
+imprinted upon it when developed.</p>
+
+<p>This proved that the intelligence guiding the finger at least possessed
+memory and intelligence. The finger was to some extent self-luminous.
+From these experiments Dr. Ochorowicz concluded that:</p>
+
+<p>The actinic action of the emitted rays is feeble, comparatively
+speaking; and that the visible light of the fluidic hands is less
+actinic than the invisible light.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of these rays to ordinary light is thus an interesting
+question. It is well known that all mediums<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> shun light, and there are
+sound physiological and psychological reasons for this. Daylight has
+been found to be more destructive to the success of phenomena than any
+form of artificial light; moonlight is far better than sunlight. It has
+lately been shown that light exerts a powerful physical pressure, and is
+a disruptive agency, destroying protoplasm and many of the lower forms
+of life. We only have to see the effect of sunlight upon a photographic
+plate to appreciate its power. The absurdity of assuming that light
+plays no part in such manifestations&mdash;where very delicate, subtle, and
+little understood forces are in operation&mdash;is thus manifest.</p>
+
+<p>Still, the fluidic hands emit a light of their own; and the question is,
+Can this emitted light penetrate solid substances&mdash;"matter," as we
+understand it? As the result of a number of experiments, Dr. Ochorowicz
+ascertained that, in the majority of cases, these rays, like
+ultra-violet light, did not penetrate solid substances, as do the
+X-rays; yet their actinic action was found to be far stronger! Here is a
+field for long-continued observation and experiment. In thought
+photography, on the other hand, it has been ascertained that the rays
+can pass easily through solid matter, like the X-rays.</p>
+
+<p>The next question of interest which presented itself for solution was
+this: To what extent can the fluidic hands change their form, size, and
+contour at will? Experiments were first tried in the reduction of the
+size of the hands, upon request.</p>
+
+<p>Three plates were prepared and laid in a series upon the table at some
+distance from the medium. Through the entranced somnambule the "double"
+was then informed of the experiment, and asked to place its hand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> upon
+the three plates in succession, willing on each occasion to make the
+fluidic hand smaller. This was done. An impression of the same hand was
+obtained on each plate, but it can be seen that, on each occasion, the
+hand is smaller in size. This was all accomplished within a few seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Of these experiments Dr. Ochorowicz says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"We are therefore justified in arriving at the following
+conclusions:</p>
+
+<p>"1. At first, the double's hand is larger than that of the medium.</p>
+
+<p>"2. It tends to decrease in length and general size.</p>
+
+<p>"3. The palm of the hand, especially, tends to decrease.</p>
+
+<p>"4. Only the little finger remains without appreciable change.</p>
+
+<p>"5. The change is that of several millimetres, but not enormous.</p>
+
+<p>"6. The fingers of the double tended to close nearer together, as
+well as become smaller&mdash;just as an ordinary hand would probably
+do."</p></div>
+
+<p>The light which supplied the necessary illumination for these
+photographs seemed to have been emitted from a sort of "egg," near the
+wrist of the hand, which was intensely luminous. This was not expected,
+and came as a surprise. Two suggestions as to its nature at once present
+themselves: (1) that it is a self-created mediumistic light; and (2)
+that it is a mass of matter from which the hand derives its material
+sustenance.</p>
+
+<p>In a further series of experiments, during which Dr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> Ochorowicz was
+repeatedly touched by a cold hand, impressions of large left hands were
+left upon the plates&mdash;the medium's left hand being, meanwhile, a long
+way removed from the plate. The fingers were very large, the thumb
+enormous and abnormally shaped at the end.</p>
+
+<p>Summing up the conclusions which, he thought, could be drawn from his
+researches, Dr. Ochorowicz said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"1. Fluidic hands are detached more or less rarely&mdash;according to
+the condition of the subject's "forces." When these are strong,
+hands may even be produced unknown to the medium.</p>
+
+<p>"2. The direction and character of these hands are determined by
+the subconscious mind of the medium; but also partially by the
+conscious mind.</p>
+
+<p>"3. The properties of the fluidic hands are not constant; they
+change frequently.</p>
+
+<p>"4. These changes represent transformations of energy&mdash;certain
+forms of energy being transformed into other forms. When the
+conditions are good, the forms of available energy are multiplied;
+when weak, they are lessened. They alternate, but do not blend. The
+mechanical effects are produced chiefly by the invisible hands,
+while the visible hands are inactive.</p>
+
+<p>"5. I have never seen more than two hands formed by one medium at
+one time, and more usually only one. When there are two hands,
+however, they may be quite dissimilar, one from the other.</p>
+
+<p>"6. There are several degrees of materiality, which succeed each
+other rapidly. The hands are so fugitive that it is almost
+impossible to seize them. When the imperfectly formed hands are
+grasped, however, they are cold, slippery, and unpleasant to the
+touch. The better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> materialized hands, on the contrary, are warm
+and life-like.</p>
+
+<p>"7. The well-materialized hands can be photographed; even the
+poorly-developed hands can give radiographs.</p>
+
+<p>"8. The ultra-violet light necessary to produce these photographs
+can be produced by the hand of the medium or by the double itself.</p>
+
+<p>"9. Radiographs are difficult to obtain; a materialization
+generally loses its luminosity.</p>
+
+<p>"10. The hands are sometimes like, and sometimes unlike, those of
+the medium.</p>
+
+<p>"11. The fluidic hands can be moulded plastically, and altered as
+to their dimensions."</p></div>
+
+<p>To resume the experiments: Dr. Ochorowicz desired to see whether the
+fluidic hand of the double could pass through a very small hole or
+space. He accordingly proposed placing a rolled-up film in a bottle,
+leaving only the small hole at the top, and see whether the hand could
+impress itself under these circumstances. Upon this being proposed to
+the medium, she exclaimed: "Make it more difficult than that; you will
+make the double lazy! Cork up the bottle!"</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ochorowicz accordingly cut a film, rolled it into a small roll,
+placed it in the bottle, and held the latter between his two hands, the
+right-hand palm acting as a cork, the left supporting the bottle; the
+medium placed her hands on either side of the bottle, on the outside.
+She soon complained that her hands were paining her, seeming to swell
+and get larger. She was soon after seized with cramps, and the
+experiment was at this point discontinued.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Ochorowicz tried to draw the film from the bottle,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> but failed; he
+was finally obliged to break the bottle to extract it. The film was then
+developed, and upon it was the imprint of a hand&mdash;larger even than his
+own, to say nothing of the medium's&mdash;clearly formed. Fraud was
+absolutely out of the question. There seems only the alternative choice
+of invoking the fourth dimension, or assuming that the fluidic hand
+could curve itself round and round the film after having entered the
+bottle in some manner! The facts seem incredible; but I give them as
+recorded.</p>
+
+<p>The question now arises: is the fluidic hand two-dimensioned? It could
+hardly have any thickness, to accomplish the last experiment. Dr.
+Ochorowicz determined to try a novel experiment, to test this theory.</p>
+
+<p>Two photographic plates were placed face to face, separated by small
+pieces of cardboard at the corners. The "double" was requested to insert
+its hand between the plates when the medium was entranced. Upon the
+plates being developed, the imprint of a hand (the same hand) was found
+on both plates; i.e. a photograph of the top, and of the under side of a
+hand. This was repeated again, under more stringent conditions. The hand
+again appeared.</p>
+
+<p>It was then decided to repeat the experiment with the rolled film in the
+bottle. The experiment was again made; the film was developed when the
+medium reclined on the couch on the opposite side of the room, and a
+very large hand was again found to have impressed itself upon the film.
+It had evidently succeeded in curling itself round the rolled film in
+the closed bottle!</p>
+
+<p>The question is: First, Do the facts occur? And if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> they do, what
+is the cause of them? What is the nature of these fluidic hands?
+To whom do they belong? Of what are they constituted? Are they
+the hands of a spirit, or mere exteriorizations from the body of the
+medium&mdash;materializations, only partially independent?</p>
+
+<p>Without attempting to answer these questions in this place, I will
+conclude by pointing out two facts, which seem to me of considerable
+importance. The first is that many nervous and mentally abnormal
+patients may be mediums were the pains taken to ascertain that fact. I
+know of one famous alienist who confided to me his belief that a very
+large percentage of mediumistic cases could be found in hospitals for
+hysterical patients or in wards for the mentally unbalanced. The trouble
+is that experiments tending to ascertain the truth of such a theory are
+never tried. Had not Dr. Ochorowicz been interested in things psychic,
+Mlle. Tomczyk would simply have been cured by him in the general routine
+manner and dismissed. The world would thus have been deprived of one of
+the most remarkable mediums on record!</p>
+
+<p>In the second place, these fluidic hands are almost identical in many
+ways with those presented by Eusapia Palladino at her best. The
+materialized hands, of varying degrees of density and formation,
+attached to long, shadowy arms, are exactly like the hands so often
+materialized at her s&eacute;ances&mdash;hands which are at times small, and at
+other times enormous. They no more resembled the hands of the medium
+than chalk resembles cheese.</p>
+
+<p>16. This brings me to a final reflection, which I should like to mention
+before leaving this branch of our discussion.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> It concerns the question
+of darkness and its effect upon genuine mediumistic phenomena. Whether
+this effect be primarily physical, physiological, or psychological, the
+<i>fact</i> remains that it exists; and the researches of Dr. Ochorowicz have
+tended to confirm this very strongly. His work has shown us (or rather
+confirmed us more strongly in the belief) that the question of <i>light</i>
+is a highly important one, and that the greater the degree of darkness,
+<i>ceteris paribus</i>, the better and the more startling the phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Now, there has always existed a sort of <i>a priori</i> assumption that this
+should be so. Light, as we know, does bring about chemical reactions,
+and even exerts a definite physical force or pressure. Even so gross and
+so powerful a form of physical energy as wireless telegraphy is greatly
+interfered with by reason of the sun's rays (ultra-violet rays), and, of
+course, photographic plates are at once rendered useless by an instant's
+exposure to the sun. Again, it is known that sunlight has a more or less
+destructive influence upon all forms of animal and vegetable protoplasm,
+and it is very soon fatal to many of the lower forms of life. This being
+so, it has always appeared to me perfectly reasonable to suppose that
+the energy of the light-rays should interfere most seriously with the
+delicate and subtle forces and forms of energy which are liberated in
+the s&eacute;ance room. The old objection: "Why must these things always be
+done in the dark?" has appeared to me very short-sighted and
+inconsistent with all the facts above mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>But, further! It is highly probable that life of any kind can only
+originate in the dark. Certainly, conception<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> invariably takes place in
+complete darkness, and the whole period of embryonic development is
+passed in that condition. Again, inter-stellar space is, of course,
+absolutely black and devoid of any form of light save the faint
+twinklings of the far-off stars. Without the surface of some globe to
+reflect the sun's rays, no light of any kind would be possible; so that
+if life were conveyed across space, from star to star, upon
+infinitesimal specks of dust, under the influence of light pressure, as
+postulated by Arrhenius (<i>Worlds in the Making</i>, pp. 212-30), this life
+must exist, and in a sense originate, in the blackness of inter-stellar
+space.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> And, finally, if life on our globe originated, as many think,
+in the ocean's depths,<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> this must have been in the densest darkness,
+since light penetrates but a few fathoms below the surface of the ocean.
+Below that all is blackness, complete and eternal. No light penetrates
+to that depth&mdash;nor has it for millions of years! Yet it is in this
+region that life is thought to have originated! As G. W. Warder
+expressed it (<i>The Universe a Vast Electric Organism</i>, pp. 60-1):</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"During this period of primeval 'darkness upon the face of the
+waters' the resistless electric waves of the sun were beating upon
+the cloud-enwrapped surface of the planet. It was the formative
+period of elementary life, and the descendants and successors of
+that mighty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> host of living beings have to this day to lay the
+foundations of their being in similar conditions of darkness.
+<i>Creative energy in its first stages of living form operates in
+dense darkness</i>, and the first life upon the planet began and
+perfected itself in the age when midnight gloom enveloped the
+globe."</p></div>
+
+<p>This fact&mdash;that life originated in darkness, and that the power of life
+can only be exercised in darkness&mdash;is, it seems to me, a most
+significant one when viewed in the light of our studies, and seems to
+point to the conclusion that the "darkness" said to be essential at
+spiritistic circles is indeed necessary; and that, when delicate and
+subtle forms of life and energy are being manifested, they are likely to
+become disrupted by the sudden introjection of a coarse and powerful
+form of energy, such as light, so that this "condition," said to be
+necessary by all mediums, is probably in reality essential; and their
+claim, far from being absurd, is well founded, and in accordance with
+well-established scientific facts.</p>
+
+<p>17. So far as to the physical phenomena. We must now turn to the mental
+manifestations, and discuss one or two points in connection with them
+before concluding.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto we have considered the process of communication (granting such
+to exist) solely from the physical and physiological sides, and not from
+the psychological. There is a great deal to be said in this latter
+connection, however, though I shall endeavour to be as brief as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>Take, for instance, the question of <i>symbolism</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Our dreams, as we know, are largely symbolic, the work of Freud and
+others having proved this beyond all doubt. It is highly probable that
+the ravings of delirium are also of this nature, though no one, so far
+as I know, has yet devoted any serious attention to their study.
+Certainly it is true in mediumistic phenomena; for, in trance
+conditions, a larger number of messages, tests, and visions seen are of
+this nature and character&mdash;the symbolism often being so elaborate that
+the original thought is not perceived. As Mr. Coates remarked: "When a
+'psychometer' places a geological specimen to his forehead, and
+describes an 'antediluvian monster,' roaring and walking about, no one
+but a very shallow individual would imagine for a moment that the
+psychometer was actually seeing the original," but rather that he
+obtained a faint and dream-like impression of the world at that epoch,
+and his subconscious impression was symbolized in the creature seen. A
+better example is, perhaps, furnished by the following: a gentleman of
+my acquaintance visited a certain trance-medium, and, among other
+things, she described a large key. This meant nothing to him at first;
+but later, and after some apparent effort, the medium succeeded in
+catching (and conveying) the idea that the key was symbolic of
+success&mdash;unlocking the door of happiness, etc.&mdash;whereupon all she had
+said fell naturally into place.</p>
+
+<p>Why this symbolism? The probable answer to this question is that the
+"message" cannot be given <i>directly</i>, and that this symbolic method of
+presentation must be resorted to in order to get the message through at
+all. There is good evidence to show that a pictorial method is resorted
+to, very largely, by the <i>soi-disant</i> spirits&mdash;mediums<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> seeing what they
+describe, very often, when the more direct auditory method is not
+resorted to. The "spirit" presents somehow to the mind of the medium a
+picture, which is described and often interpreted by the medium. Often
+this interpretation is quite erroneous&mdash;resembling a defective analysis
+of a dream. Because of this the message is not recognized. Yet the
+source of the message may have been perfectly "veridical."</p>
+
+<p>Let me illustrate this a little more fully. Suppose you desired to tell
+a Chinaman, who spoke not a word of English, to fetch a certain object
+from the next room. It would be useless for you to say "watch," because
+he would not know what the word meant. Probably you would tap your
+waistcoat pocket, pretend to take out a watch, wind it, look at the
+hands, etc., in your endeavour to convey to him your meaning. If this
+was not recognized, for any reason, you would have the utmost difficulty
+in conveying your meaning to him&mdash;and equal difficulty in telling him to
+fetch the watch from the next room.</p>
+
+<p>Now, suppose these antics&mdash;or somewhat similar ones&mdash;were resorted to by
+a "spirit" in his attempt to convey the word watch&mdash;perhaps to remind
+the sitter of a particular watch he used to wear. The medium might well
+proceed as follows: "He taps his stomach, and looks at a spot over his
+left side.... He seems to wish to convey the impression that he suffered
+much from his bowels&mdash;perhaps a cancer on the left side. Yes, he seems
+to be taking something away from his body; evidently they removed some
+growth, and he wishes to convey the idea that something was taken from
+him.... Now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> he is examining his hands; he is looking intently. He is
+doing something with his fingers.... I can't see what it is ... a little
+movement. Was he connected with machinery in life? Now he is pointing to
+the door ..." etc.</p>
+
+<p>Such an interpretation of the facts, it will be observed, while
+describing all his actions, is wholly misleading in interpretation; the
+symbolism has been entirely perverted and misconstrued. And inasmuch as
+the subject probably never died of cancer, had no bowel trouble,
+underwent no operation, and was never connected with machinery, it is
+highly probable that the "message" would be put down wholly to the
+medium's subliminal, or even to guessing or conscious fraud. Yet, it
+will be observed, the message was, in its inception, wholly
+"veridical"&mdash;the fault lying in the erroneous symbolic interpretation of
+the medium.</p>
+
+<p>There is evidence to show that other forms of symbolism are adopted
+also&mdash;applying to the auditory as well as to the visual presentation of
+the messages. <i>Names</i> afford some of the best evidence for this; e.g. in
+the sitting of Mrs. Verrall with Mrs. Thompson, November 2, 1899
+(<i>Proceedings</i>, xvii. pp. 240-41), "Nelly," the control, gave the names
+"Merrifield, Merriman, Merrythought, Merrifield," and later went on: "I
+am muddled. I will tell you how names come to us. It's like a picture; I
+see school-children enjoying themselves; you can't say Merrimans,
+because that's not a name, nor merry people...." (Mrs. Verrall's maiden
+name was Merrifield.) If I remember correctly, there was similar
+symbolism with regard to the name Greenfield at another sitting.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>18. Here, then, we see the full play of symbolism and its possible
+extension to cover proper names. But there is another and a very simple
+reason why names should be hard to recall and give clearly by "spirits."
+Names are proverbially hard to remember, even in this life&mdash;and we know
+that some persons naturally remember names far better than others. (This
+may account, to a certain extent, for the differences in the ability of
+communicators to give proper names.) But, with all of us, names are hard
+to recall. We all resort to "what's-his-names," and "thing-o'-my-jigs,"
+on occasion, in our efforts to discover within us the name in question.
+And there are good physiological reasons for this. We learn names only
+after many other parts of speech&mdash;which means that the brain-cells
+corresponding thereto are laid down or brought into conscious activity
+<i>last</i>; they are therefore more ephemeral and less fundamental than
+others&mdash;hence the first to "go." This accounts for the increasing
+difficulty in the aged for remembering names&mdash;theirs is a physiological
+rather than a psychological defect. By analogy, therefore, there is
+every reason to believe that proper names are hard to recall&mdash;every
+reason for thinking that they should be&mdash;by "spirits" after the shock
+and wrench of death. The necessary psychical mechanism would be so
+shaken and disturbed that it would be impossible to recall names and
+events, which seem quite straightforward and simple to the sitter. The
+possibly pictorial method of presentation of proper names would greatly
+add to the difficulty, as we have seen, and would be liable to lead to
+misrepresentation and error.</p>
+
+<p>19. Dr. Hyslop, in his second report on Mrs. Piper,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> (<i>Proceedings</i>,
+Amer. S.P.R., pp. 1-812), calls attention to certain analogies which may
+be drawn from everyday psychology, rendering the process of
+communication far more intelligible, and the difficulties within the
+process far clearer to our perception and appreciation. For example, he
+calls attention to certain analogies with aphasia, which are most
+instructive. He says, in part:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The two traditional types of aphasia are motor and sensory.
+Sensory aphasia is the inability to interpret the meaning of a
+sensation ... motor aphasia is the inability to speak a word or
+language, though the ideas and meaning of sensations may be as
+clear as in normal life.... This latter difficulty is apparent in
+several types of phenomena purporting to be associated with
+communications from spirits. I have found them illustrated in four
+different cases of mediumship, and they may be represented in three
+types. They are: (<i>a</i>) The difficulties with proper names; (<i>b</i>)
+The difficulties with unfamiliar words; and (<i>c</i>) The inability to
+immediately answer a pertinent question....</p>
+
+<p>"The analogies with aphasia, of which we are speaking, may comprise
+various conditions affecting both medium and communicator. Thus the
+abnormal physical and mental conditions involved in the trance may
+affect the integrity of the normal motor action. Then the new
+situation in which death places a communicator, in relation to any
+nervous system, may establish conditions very much like aphasia.
+Then there may be difficulties in the communicator's representing
+his thoughts in the form necessary to transmit them to and through
+a foreign organism."</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Dr. Hyslop then offers the following diagram as a possible solution of
+certain difficulties involved:</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/line02a.jpg" width="500" height="194" alt="line drawing of a 5-sided figure" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A B C represents the normal consciousness; A B D the subliminal
+consciousness. They intersect at E, which point represents the
+"equilibrium of the controls." "The area A E B shows the condition in
+which all sorts of confusion may occur, incidental to the infusion of
+controls, and this confusion will vary with the relation with the
+supraliminal and subliminal action of the mind." As one advances, the
+other recedes. As one gains a greater control over the organism, the
+other loses it, and <i>vice versa</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p>Extending this conception to cover the cases of spirit "possession," in
+which this varying and fluctuating control is also manifested, we might
+represent this by the above diagram, in which normal consciousness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> is
+left out of account, for the sake of clearness, and the trance condition
+(subliminal) only represented. The spirit control of the organism takes
+its place in the diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/line02b.jpg" width="500" height="145" alt="line drawing of a 5-sided figure with more lines drawn inside" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Here A B C represents the trance state&mdash;the subliminal consciousness. G
+D F represents the sphere of the spirit's control. It does not begin at
+all until the point F be reached. The space A E F represents the area in
+which all kinds of confusion is possible, and it is within this area
+that most of the mediumistic messages come. E is the "point of balance."
+A F H represents the amount of subliminal action accessible to the
+control, on the one hand, and related to the discarnate, on the other,
+in its <i>rapport</i>. A F represents the amount of the discarnate
+personality which is accessible to communication, so we have two fields
+which are wholly inaccessible to each other, and are respectively
+represented by B C H F and D G I A, the former a portion of the
+subliminal personality of the living and the latter a portion of the
+discarnate personality which cannot reveal itself.</p>
+
+<p>This intermediate area, in which the control is liable to vary, and be
+thrown on to one side or the other, also has an analogy in the
+<i>hypnoidal state</i> of Boris Sidis&mdash;this being an intermediate state (so
+it is thought) which is convertible either into ordinary sleep, on the
+one hand, or into hypnotic sleep on the other. It all depends upon how
+this state is handled and controlled. It may be the same here; the
+medium may sink into internal reverie, or introspective trance; or she
+may be converted into a genuine "medium" by some influence exerted upon
+her from without.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>20. On this theory, the deeper the trance the greater the control by the
+"spirit," and this corresponds very well with what has been said before.
+There are always a number of obstacles to clear communication, and the
+degree to which these are overcome would represent the degree of
+clearness of the communications. The process of transferring a mental
+picture to the medium may be attended with all kinds of difficulties of
+which we know nothing. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that there is
+a sort of etheric body, or double, and that this is in any way involved
+in the process, we might have the following "difficulties" to encounter:
+The difficulty in picturing the event clearly in the communicator's
+mind; difficulty in transferring it to the light; difficulty in getting
+this transferred to the medium's physical body; the difficulty of
+manipulating the latter. We know that we often have great difficulty in
+manipulating our own bodies properly; and, in paralysis and kindred
+affections, we are unable to do so at all. Yet we are thoroughly
+familiar with our own bodies, and know how they work. How much more
+difficult would it be if we were suddenly transplanted in <i>another</i>
+person's body, and had to manipulate <i>that</i>? We should have to "learn
+the ropes," so to say; and all the little automatic tricks, and habits,
+and slips of speech, and what not, would be liable to slip out without
+our consent and before we knew it. We should "inherit," in fact, its
+whole psychological and physiological "setting." This being the case, we
+may readily see how difficult it would be for a discarnate spirit to
+manipulate another organism; and how likely it would be to allow certain
+tricks and habits of the medium herself to slip through, without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> being
+able to control them. As one communicator said, through Mrs. Chenoweth:
+"I do not like those 'don'ts'; they are hers, not mine." Here is a clear
+recognition of the difficulty involved in controlling the organism, and
+this is greatly accentuated when we remember that all such
+communications must be given when the <i>soi-disant</i> communicator is in a
+constrained mental attitude&mdash;"gripping the light," "hanging on to the
+medium's body," while giving the communications. There is a double
+strain involved; and, as Dr. Hyslop said: "With what facility could I
+superintend the work of helping a drowning person and talk philosophy at
+the same time? How well could I hold a plough in stony ground and
+discuss protection and free-trade?" It is small wonder that the messages
+should be fragmentary and incomplete, were any such difficulties as
+these experienced!</p>
+
+<p>The three chief difficulties involved in mediumistic messages may be
+summed-up under three headings: (1) intra-mediumistic conditions; (2)
+intra-cosmic conditions; and (3) the mental conditions of the
+communicators.</p>
+
+<p>Under the first head may be placed all those difficulties which are
+liable to interfere between the communicator and the amanuensis. If the
+communicator is naturally a good visualizer this may help his visual
+communications, but impede the others; an audile might be better in some
+instances. Again, the impulse may come in some motor form, in which case
+neither of these types would be that best suited to control the organism
+of the medium. Whether the communicator is a good visualizer or not may
+affect the communications to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> great extent. Whether or not he had a
+normally good memory would also have a great influence. In fact, the
+whole construction of the mind might have great influence upon the
+results. This is a subject which deserves to be studied very carefully
+one day, when the mere fact of communication is established.</p>
+
+<p>As is well known, both Drs. Hodgson and Hyslop wrote strongly in defence
+of the theory that the communicator, at the time of communicating, was
+in an abnormal mental condition, somewhat resembling trance or delirium
+or secondary personality. They were, at least, not in full control of
+their thoughts; and this was said to be established by the statements of
+the communicators themselves; and by a study of the messages
+communicated, wherein it was found that they became dreamy and vague;
+that they showed the same rapid change of imagery and subject which is
+manifested in dreams; an automatic tendency to capricious and confused
+association, a general indifference to personality, etc., as manifested
+in delirium. In dreams and sleep we have practically no control over the
+body at all, any more than if we were dead; and Dr. Hyslop contended
+that probably "somnambulism and hypnosis, dreaming, sleep, trance
+conditions, and death are all simply different degrees of the same
+state." Dr. Hyslop during his later years modified his views upon this
+question, and came to the conclusion that other conditions play a
+greater share in the results than the state of the communicator's mind.
+But there can be no doubt that this has its results.</p>
+
+<p>Then, too, the medium's subliminal has a great and very decided
+influence upon the content of the messages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> This was very small before
+Dr. Hodgson's death, but increased very much after that time. In a
+letter to me, dated January 27, 1908, Mrs. Ledyard, an old Piper sitter,
+said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"<span class="smcap">Dear Mr. Carrington</span>,&mdash;... All sorts of false statements don't
+necessarily tell against the spiritistic hypothesis. If you get
+other evidences of personality, the false statements only confirm
+R. H.'s belief that "they" are in a sort of dreamy, half-trance
+state and <i>very suggestible</i>. My own opinion of the Piper trance is
+that, since R. H.'s death, when Mrs. P. has been less carefully
+guarded in many ways, and allowed to have so much voice in what she
+would and would not do, that there is much more effect of Mrs.
+Piper herself on the trance&mdash;and more <i>leaks through</i> from Mrs.
+Piper&mdash;though I have, so far, seen no special evidence that it
+leaks the other way, and that what is told her by sitters during
+the trance gets into the normal consciousness. But it does affect
+her normal life, just as an hypnotic suggestion does, on which the
+subject acts quite unconscious of its source...."</p></div>
+
+<p>But Rector's<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> business seems to be more far-reaching and more
+complicated than this. I quote from Dr. Hyslop's second Piper report (p.
+197) the following interesting passage:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I may notice a remark Dr. Hodgson once made to me regarding the
+office of Rector in the phenomena of Mrs. Piper. It was not only as
+control that he exercised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> an influence over the results, but also
+both as intermediary between the communicator and the sitter, and
+as an inhibitor of the influence of the sitter's mind and the
+subconsciousness of Mrs. Piper upon this same result.... His view
+was that Rector inhibited the thought-transference from the sitter
+to Mrs. Piper's subliminal, on the messages, so far as that was
+possible...."</p></div>
+
+<p>From this it will, at all events, be seen that the relationship, and the
+whole system of inhibitions and influences at work in the Piper case is
+very complicated. It must be remembered that, on any theory, the
+"messages" must come <i>through</i> the medium's subliminal, which acts as a
+sort of matrix in which the whole mould of the supernormal is cast; and,
+this being the case, it is only natural to suppose that the results
+would be most complicated and inextricably mixed in their relationships
+and influences. If spirit communications influence the subconscious, we
+have a right to suppose that the subliminal influences the
+communications in turn. And this is apparently proved by the facts.</p>
+
+<p>21. Now a few words as to the psychological processes of communicating,
+and the interplay of minds one with another, which figure in this
+process. Writing of this, Dr. Hyslop says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Psychology distinguishes between what it calls visuals, audiles,
+and motiles. A visual is one in which visual experiences receive
+such emphasis, and which prove to be of such predominant interest
+to the subject that his habit of thinking about objects is
+expressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> mentally or mnemonically in visual terms&mdash;that is, in
+the memory pictures of vision.... An audile is one in whom the
+sense of hearing is predominant. [In motiles the impulse is towards
+motor action.]</p>
+
+<p>"Suppose the psychic is a visual and the communicator an audile,
+might not that difference make a marked difficulty in the
+adjustment necessary for communicating clearly?... A visual might
+see apparitions more easily, and have more difficulty in automatic
+writing; and an audile might easily hear voices and write with more
+difficulty, etc.... A proper name is purely an auditory concept. It
+has no visual equivalent whatever, except the letters which form
+it. If, then, the process of communication at any time involves a
+dominant dependence on visual functions of the mind, the sudden
+attempt to interpose an auditory datum might meet with the
+difficulty of prompt adjustment to auditory conditions for its
+transmission, and it might even be that the psychic could not, from
+habit in visual methods, adjust herself to all the needs of a
+proper name, except by converting it readily into visual terms, as
+the spelling of the name would express....</p>
+
+<p>"In the lighter trance it is clear that visual phenomena play a
+most important part in the communications. With Mrs. Piper the
+phenomena seem to be more auditory. Mrs. Piper never sees
+apparitions or phantasms in her normal state; none have been
+reported of her as systematic experiences, as I have observed them
+in Mrs. Chenoweth....</p>
+
+<p>"What we gain in clearness of consciousness in the communications
+when the message comes through the active subliminal of the medium,
+we lose in the accuracy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> and specific value of the message, while
+what we gain in the specific definiteness of the messages through
+Mrs. Piper, where the subliminal, if intermediary at all, is
+passive and automatic, we lose in the dream-like and disturbed
+mental state of the communicator."</p></div>
+
+<p>22. Another difficulty must be referred to in this place; and that is
+the probable loss of control over the stream of thought by spirits, such
+as we exercise in this life. Here, the checks and inhibitions are easily
+accomplished, unless disease in some manner prevents them; but there are
+strong indications that a "spirit"&mdash;at least when communicating&mdash;cannot
+control his stream of thinking to the same extent; and that, if it is
+constantly interrupted&mdash;by questions, etc., as it usually is&mdash;it tends
+to break up and become automatic, echolalic, or useless. That even
+experienced and careful psychic researchers will interfere with the flow
+of consciousness in this manner I know to be a fact; I myself, though I
+had been especially warned against doing so, did the same thing in my
+Piper sittings! Some of these difficulties I endeavoured to make clear
+in a letter, which I wrote to the English <i>Journal S.P.R.</i>, and which
+appeared in March, 1908. In it I said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"For the sake of argument, let us assume that the intelligences
+that communicate through the organism of Mrs. Piper&mdash;and perhaps of
+some other mediums&mdash;are spirits of the departed, and that they
+temporarily 'possess' the organism of the medium (at least in part)
+during the process of communicating. That is the generally-held
+theory, I believe, and the simplest one to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> account for the facts.
+If this be true, it is to be supposed that the normal consciousness
+of the medium is in some manner removed, superseded, or withdrawn,
+and that only some "vegetable consciousness" remains, as it were,
+sufficient to keep the organism going until the return of the
+normal consciousness and normal control by the medium. Meanwhile,
+the controlling intelligence is, by supposition, influencing the
+nervous mechanism of the medium's body&mdash;directly or indirectly
+through some etheric medium&mdash;and influencing it to write out
+letters and words by the usual slow and laborious process. That
+they <i>do</i> find it slow and laborious is evidenced by the fact that
+all possible abbreviations are adopted&mdash;'U.D.' being used for
+'Understand'; 'M' is frequently written 'N,' and so on. Even in our
+normal life we know that thoughts frequently flow faster than we
+can put them on to paper, and this would almost certainly be the
+case with spiritual intelligences who have no material brain to
+hinder their flow of thought. It is probable that the brain is as
+much an inhibitory organ as anything else; and when this inhibition
+is removed, it is natural to suppose that the flow of thought would
+be far less controllable and far more automatic than it is with us.
+It would be impossible for spirits to check and go on with their
+stream of thought at will, as we do on this hypothesis; they would
+be far more automatic and less under the control of the will. If
+this were true, it would account for much of the confusion present
+in the communications. Suppose a spirit is trying to communicate
+some fact or incident in its past life. It is endeavouring to force
+this thought through, in the face of great difficulties, and while
+trying to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> retain its grasp of the organism. Now, let us suppose
+that this stream of thought is suddenly interrupted by the sitter
+asking an abrupt question&mdash;referring to another incident
+altogether, and perhaps related to another time in the
+communicator's life. Is it not natural to suppose that, labouring
+under these difficulties, and lacking the inhibitory action of the
+brain, the communicator's mind should wander, and that he should
+either think aloud to himself as it were (all this coming through
+as confused writing, be it understood), or that the spirit should
+lose its grasp of the organism altogether and drift away? The mind
+cannot retain two vivid pictures at the same time; either one or
+the other must grow fogged and dim; and this would certainly be so
+in the case of any communicator, where we may suppose a certain
+amount of mental energy&mdash;corresponding to a mental picture
+perhaps&mdash;is necessitated in the very process of holding the control
+of the organism. If communications take place at all in reality, we
+may well suppose that the difficulties of communicating would be so
+great that all clear, systematic thinking would be impossible.
+People seem to imagine that the process of communication is as
+simple as possible, instead of the most delicate and complicated
+imaginable&mdash;the very difficulty being evinced by the rarity of the
+intelligible communications coming through. If any one were to try
+the simple subjective test of closing the eyes and attempting to
+conceive his spirit controlling some <i>other</i> person's organism, he
+would very easily perceive the tremendous difficulties in the way
+of controlling an organism other than his own!</p>
+
+<p>"However, my object in writing this letter is not to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> point out
+difficulties of this character, which are probably well understood
+by the majority of the readers of the <i>Journal</i>. It is to draw
+attention to another fact, and an analogy. Let us take a man in
+good health, whose brain and mental functions are normal. Let this
+man be all but killed in a railroad accident. In the jar and shock
+of the collision this man was thrown (let us say) against an iron
+post, and his head badly cut and bruised. He was knocked
+insensible, and it was several hours before he returned to the
+first dim consciousness of his surroundings. Gradually he would
+revive. Objects would present themselves to his eyesight vaguely,
+indistinctly; he would "see men as trees walking." Sounds would be
+heard, but indistinctly; there would be a vague jumble of noises,
+and no definite and articulate sounds would be recognized at first,
+and until consciousness was more fully restored. Tactile
+sensations, smell and touch, would probably come last, and be least
+powerful of all; they would not be even distinguishable until
+consciousness was almost completely normal. All intellectual
+interests would be abolished, only the most loving and tender
+thoughts would be entertained or tolerable, and these would be
+swallowed up, very largely, in the great, central fact that the
+body and head were in great pain; that the memory was impaired, and
+that anything like normal thinking and a normal grasp of the
+organism was impossible. Thoughts would be scattered, incoherent,
+and only the strongest stimuli would focus the attention on any
+definite object for longer than a few moments at a time, and
+perhaps even these would fail. But if oxygen gas were administered
+to such a person, in moderate doses, he would recover and rally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+far more quickly and effectually than if no such stimulant were
+employed. He would rally more quickly, and be enabled to think more
+clearly and consistently&mdash;at least <i>pro tem.</i> In shocks to the
+living consciousness this would almost certainly be the case.</p>
+
+<p>"Now, when we come to die, the departure of the soul from the body
+must be a great strain and stress upon the surviving consciousness,
+and must shock it tremendously&mdash;just as the accident shocked it in
+the case given above. Certainly this would be so in the case of all
+<i>sudden</i> deaths, and in those cases which 'die hard'; and it is
+natural to suppose that it would be true also, more or less, in
+every case of death, however natural&mdash;since the separation of
+consciousness from its brain must be the greatest shock that any
+given consciousness could receive in the course of its natural
+existence. But after a time the spirit is supposed to outlive and
+'get over' this initial shock, and to regain its normal functions
+and faculties. In its normal life, it is then supposed to be once
+more free and unhampered by any of the bodily conditions that
+rendered its manifestations on earth defective. But when this
+consciousness comes once more to communicate, it seems to again
+take on the conditions of earth life, i.e. those conditions which
+were present when the person died, and this would account for the
+fact, often observed, that mediums 'take on' the conditions of
+certain spirits who are communicating, i.e. they suffer <i>pro tem.</i>
+from heart or bowel trouble, pains in the head, etc. Further, this
+seems to extend to the mental functions and conditions also. Idiocy
+and insanity, e.g., are supposed to gradually wear off in the next
+life, and a gradual return to normal conditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> ensue. This is, at
+least, the statement made through several mediums, and it is only
+natural to suppose that such should be the case. The spirit
+gradually returns to a normal mental condition; but when any
+attempt is made to return to the 'earth plane,' and especially to
+communicate, these conditions return with greater or lesser
+force&mdash;varying with and depending upon the length of time such a
+person had been dead, and other considerations. On any theory, the
+consciousness must undergo some sort of temporary disintegration,
+while communicating, and must be scattered over a wide field of
+recollection, while at the same time attempting to 'hold on' to the
+organism. It must also be remembered that the flow of thought is
+far more automatic than with us. All this being so, we can readily
+understand that any attempt at communication would be attended with
+the greatest difficulties, and such a consciousness, if it were
+constantly interrupted by questions, etc., would tend to go to
+pieces&mdash;to lose its grasp of the organism, and to drift away&mdash;only
+confusion and error coming through. This consciousness might be
+strengthened and rendered clearer, perhaps, by the presentation of
+some object belonging to the person when alive&mdash;as, no matter how
+explained, this seems to clear the communications. Any means that
+can be adopted to render clearer the mind of the communicator, on
+the one hand, or improve the condition of the nervous mechanism of
+the medium on the other, should therefore be of great utility and
+should at least be tried. This being so, I now come to the heart of
+the matter, and offer a suggestion which, if followed out, might
+improve the physical body of the medium, and hence render the
+conditions better<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> from <i>this</i> side&mdash;as the presentation of objects
+might be supposed to render the conditions better from the other
+side.</p>
+
+<p>"I have pointed out before that, in certain cases, when it is
+desirable to restore the consciousness and to render its renewal
+more certain and clear (after an accident, e.g., that has knocked a
+person senseless) a mixture of oxygen gas is sometimes administered
+to the patient in order to produce these results. This being so, I
+ask: why may it not be a good idea to administer a diluted mixture
+of this gas to the medium when she is in a trance state&mdash;and when a
+communicator is attempting to convey his thought to the sitter by
+means of automatic writing? Might not such an experiment be tried,
+since no <i>harm</i> could come to the medium if the oxygen were diluted
+and only sufficiently strong to effect the desired results? And
+might not its administration tend to improve the tone of the
+nervous system <i>pro tem.</i>, and render clearer the consciousness
+that is trying to use it and manifest through it&mdash;just as one's own
+consciousness might be rendered clearer by the same device? Of
+course such a process might have the effect (especially at first)
+of breaking the trance altogether, and of reviving the medium. But
+if the medium understood the experiment beforehand, and the process
+were also explained to the controls, it is reasonable to suppose
+that&mdash;after some trials at any rate&mdash;the trance would not be
+broken, and that better, clearer results would follow. At all
+events, when some of our physicians in America are experimenting
+upon the effects of various electrical rays upon mediums in a
+trance, might not this far simpler and better-understood method be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+tried with more or less impunity? I at least suggest that it be so
+tried."</p></div>
+
+<p>23. It must not be thought that this "possession" theory of the Piper
+and similar cases is the only one which has been held in the past. On
+the contrary, as we know, there have been several others&mdash;Mrs.
+Sidgwick's telepathic theory&mdash;from the discarnate; Mr. Andrew Lang's
+theory of telepathy <i>&agrave; trois</i>; Mr. Podmore's theory of simple telepathy;
+the theory held by Andrew Jackson Davis and other clairvoyants, that
+there exists a sort of mirror-like sphere, upon which all thoughts and
+acts are recorded, and which the medium is somehow enabled to "read"
+during the trance state; the theory that discarnate spirits somehow
+project their thoughts upon a wax-like surface of astral substance, and
+that the medium is enabled to reinterpret them in some mysterious
+manner; the Theosophical theory; the theory of the occultists and
+mystics; the Catholic theory&mdash;that these manifestations are all the
+result of evil, lying spirits&mdash;these are but a few of the hypotheses
+which have been advanced in the past by way of explanation of these
+phenomena. I may say that this latter theory has some respectable
+evidence in its support, by the way, a few very remarkable cases having
+come under my own observation, which I hope to detail at some future
+time; and Dr. J. Godfrey Raupert has cited some impressive cases in his
+<i>Dangers of Spiritualism</i>, <i>Modern Spiritism</i>, and <i>The Supreme
+Problem</i>. This is assuredly a side of psychic investigation which
+demands close study and prolonged investigation; and, in spite of the
+masterly analysis of some of these cases<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> by Professor Flournoy in his
+<i>Spiritism and Psychology</i> (chap. iii.), I cannot but feel that there is
+yet much to be learned as to the nature of the intelligence manifested
+in these cases. And this was, as we know, the opinion also of Professor
+William James, for he wrote (<i>Proceedings of S.P.R.</i>, vol. xxiii. p.
+118): "The refusal of modern 'enlightenment' to treat 'possession' as a
+hypothesis to be spoken of as even possible, in spite of the massive
+human tradition based on concrete experience in its favour, has always
+seemed to me a curious example of the power of fashion in things
+scientific. That the demon theory (not necessarily a devil theory) will
+have its innings again is to my mind absolutely certain.... One must be
+blind and ignorant indeed to suspect no such possibility...." It must by
+no means be taken for granted, therefore, that the intelligences
+operating through Mrs. Piper and other mediums are all that they claim
+to be, even if their externality to the medium were proved.... We must
+be extremely cautious in accepting any messages coming through mediums
+until the most certain and convincing proofs of identity be
+forthcoming&mdash;and <i>then</i> we should be cautious!</p>
+
+<p>The only plausible theory which in any way accounts for the Piper and
+similar phenomena&mdash;short of the spiritistic&mdash;is one based upon the
+existence of independently fluctuating strata of the medium's mind,
+acquiring their knowledge by means of telepathy, clairvoyance, and other
+supernormal means. This view of the case is held and defended with
+extreme ingenuity and persuasiveness by Professor Flournoy in his
+<i>Spiritism and Psychology</i>&mdash;a book which I myself think should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> read
+by every one interested in psychics or inclined to "dabble in
+spiritualism." The complete isolation and individuality of the various
+personalities involved could only be explained, it seems to me, by
+postulating a series of subliminal strata, between which there would be
+no memory connection&mdash;very much like Mr. Gurney's strata obtained by him
+and described in his paper on "The Stages of Hypnotic Memory"
+(<i>Proceedings</i>, vol. iv. pp. 515-31). In this way alone could we account
+for the facts; but even so, are they explained?</p>
+
+<p>When psychical research becomes a recognized science there will be ample
+room for "specialization," and for many years of study in each branch of
+the work. Consider, for instance, the many ramifications and
+possibilities which would be thrown open to the researcher! A man might
+become a "specialist" in haunted houses, in the investigation of such
+cases, and in their "treatment" and "cure." He would then have to
+investigate the nature and character of the phenomena which occur in
+them, and of the intelligences which manifest themselves. The nature of
+the figures seen in such houses would form a special branch of research,
+and the degree of their objectivity or subjectivity in any particular
+case. Numerous experiments might be tried, such as crystal-gazing,
+automatic writing, s&eacute;ances, induced dreams, etc. Experiments should be
+tried in photographing the apparitions, and in getting them to register
+their presence upon delicate and sensitive instruments of all sorts.
+Phonographic records of the "footsteps" of the ghost (if such occur)
+should be made, and a record taken of all the sounds and noises which
+occur in the house. Clairvoyants should be sent on "trips" to ascertain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+the character of the haunting, if possible, in order to "check off"
+their descriptions against the experiences of those living in the house.
+Communication should be established with the "haunting spirits," if
+possible, by means of raps, table-tipping, etc. The character of the
+phenomena should be studied, and the <i>physical</i> separated from the
+<i>mental</i>. The nature of the intelligence "haunting" the house should be
+investigated psychologically. The dreams of those who sleep in the house
+should be recorded and analysed. Animals should be taken to live in the
+house, to see whether or not they perceive anything unusual. The effect
+of suggestion, exorcism, etc., should be tried and noted. Experiments in
+hypnotism, "magnetism," etc., should be conducted in the house. Red
+lights and lights of other colours should be tried, to see whether they
+affect the phenomena in any manner. These are but a few of the many
+tests and experiments that might be made, and which would doubtless
+suggest themselves to the mind of the investigator as soon as the
+legitimacy of the subject were once granted.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in the case of telepathy. Once the facts were proved, the
+fascinating study of the laws and causes would begin. Under what mental,
+physical, and, possibly, spiritual conditions does telepathy operate?
+What is the best mental condition of the agent? of the percipient? What
+would be the effect of hypnotic trance? What of dreams? (These are not
+original ideas, but they have never been followed out as they should be,
+and might be, if the subject were pursued scientifically as other
+questions in science are.) Again, might not telepathy be facilitated if
+we chose individuals of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> same general temperament? If we chose two
+individuals to whom the same chord on the piano appealed (say the common
+chord of G minor or C sharp), and this chord were struck repeatedly,
+might not telepathic transmission be facilitated under such conditions?
+If both subjects were hypnotized, and the agent were told to "will"
+certain figures, etc., might not the percipient receive them more
+easily? If both agent and percipient were placed in a strong magnetic or
+high-tension electric field, might not this in some way influence
+communication? Again, these are but a very few of the experiments which
+might be tried, once telepathy became an accepted fact.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of clairvoyance the field is even greater, but here more
+original work has been done, owing largely to the fact that many of the
+experiments have been conducted upon subjects in the hypnotic trance,
+and hence more fully resembled "laboratory experiments." Still, much
+remains to be done, particularly in the realm of the <i>explanation</i> of
+clairvoyance, and in the investigation of the neural and general
+physiological concomitants of the condition.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of "thought-" and "spirit-photography," the possibilities
+of research and experimentation are obvious and almost unlimited. The
+recent researches of Dr. Ochorowicz in "radiographs," and of Commandant
+Darget in thought-photography and the so-called V-rays, are of extreme
+importance, if true. Here is a field which any one may invade; and, with
+the aid of a camera and specially sensitive plates, might accomplish
+really valuable and striking results. Very rarely have attempts been
+made to photograph apparitions (probably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> because they were too fleeting
+and unexpected), and the forms at s&eacute;ances have been photographed on only
+a few occasions. The human "aura"&mdash;granting it exists&mdash;should certainly
+be capable of being photographed, under certain conditions, as well as
+the radiation said to issue from magnets, crystals, etc., as explained
+by Reichenbach.</p>
+
+<p>The human "aura" itself should be made the subject of special study.
+Here is a perfectly tangible thing, so to speak, which physicists can
+work on to their hearts' content, without becoming "contaminated" by the
+general run of psychic manifestations! Is the aura a form of physical
+radiation? Does it affect the atmosphere? Can it be photographed? Is it
+connected with the phenomena of exteriorization of sensitivity or
+motivity? Will it affect the galvanometer needle, or other delicate
+electrical or physical instruments? Is it connected with the "astral" or
+"etheric body"? What is its condition when the subject is asleep? Can it
+be altered at will? Is it affected by passing a high-tension current
+through the body of the subject? (We know that these high-tension
+currents will themselves create an electric aura around the body.) What
+becomes of the aura after death; and what changes, if any, does it
+undergo at the moment of death? Such are a few of the questions which
+the psychic student might ask himself, and which certainly call for
+solution.</p>
+
+<p>Once more: is "psychometry" a fact? If objects can retain certain
+"influences" within them, what is their nature, and how are they
+retained? How does the sensitive perceive these impressions? Is there
+not a connection between these phenomena and haunted houses?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> or between
+the "charging-up" of a table or planchette board before it proceeds to
+answer questions and behave in the manner it is often reported to do?</p>
+
+<p>What is the nature of the "cold breeze" which is so often experienced,
+not only at s&eacute;ances, but during very many psychic phenomena, both of the
+experimental and spontaneous types, in all parts of the world? Is it a
+physical breeze, or is it purely "psychical"? Could it be collected and
+analysed, as was suggested in the case of the cold breeze issuing from
+the scar on Eusapia Palladino's forehead? What is its source? And what
+is its object? On this subject alone much suggestive and valuable
+research might be undertaken.</p>
+
+<p>Take the simple phenomena of <i>raps</i>. What produces them? What is the
+bond between the hand of the medium which makes a gesture in the
+direction of the table, and the table itself? What is the nature of the
+physical impact upon the table? Are these raps due to exteriorized vital
+force? If so, does this energy exude from the nerve termini, or is it
+connected only with the etheric body or double? Can these raps be
+controlled at will, or directed and controlled when the subject is under
+hypnosis? Can this energy be directed at will? Could it not impress
+delicate physical instruments? Might not a connection be thus
+established between these phenomena and the impressions of hands and
+faces, etc., occasionally seen in the presence of Eusapia and other
+mediums?</p>
+
+<p>Then the phenomena of materialization! Here is a wide field for study
+indeed! How can such an organism be built up? Out of what materials is
+it constructed? What degree of density can be attained? What is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+power which manipulates this matter? and what is the structure of the
+matter itself? How can <i>will</i> plastically mould matter in space? On what
+framework, so to speak, is the body constructed? What is the nature of
+the vital drain upon the medium and the sitters? What is the nature of
+the intelligence animating the materialized figure? What is the
+connection between so-called "thought-forms" and materialized phantoms?</p>
+
+<p>These are but some of the questions which would suggest themselves, and
+call for solution when "psychics" is recognized as a legitimate science,
+as it surely will be one day. These are problems mostly on the physical
+plane; but the psychological problems are just as many and just as
+alluring! I have referred to some of these elsewhere; and would content
+myself with again saying, that only when the <i>facts</i> of psychical
+research are recognized will their real, scientific study begin.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The copy of this book in my possession is the copy once
+owned by Dr. Hodgson&mdash;having his name in the front, and the date, April
+1881. This passage is marked with a thick red pencil stroke, showing the
+importance which Dr. Hodgson attached to the point here made.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Might not this account for the fact that trance or "spirit
+control" practically never occurs during the hours of sleep? Even
+"obsessed" patients find peace and rest during their sleeping hours. Is
+this not, in all probability, due to the fact that the mind is, at such
+times, forced in upon itself; as it were&mdash;instead of being directed
+outwards&mdash;away from the centre of being, as it is daily, during
+conscious life? It is probably nature's protective device&mdash;ensuring the
+stability and integrity of the psychic "self."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Kilner, <i>The Human Atmosphere</i>. I myself have conducted a
+number of interesting experiments in this direction, which I hope to
+make public at a later date.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Townsend, <i>Facts in Mesmerism</i>, p. 215.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Metaphysick</i>, bk. iii. ch. v.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Body and Mind</i>, pp. 299-300.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Eusapia Palladino and her Phenomena</i>, pp. 293-301.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition</i>, p. 41. For discussions
+of this question from a variety of different points of view, see <i>Life
+and Matter</i>, by Lodge; <i>The Riddle of the Universe</i>, Haeckel; <i>The
+Correlation of Spiritual Forces</i>, by Hartmann; "Consciousness and
+Force," <i>Met. Mag.</i>, Oct. 1910; the article on "Consciousness and
+Energy," by Professor Montague, in <i>Essays in Honour of William James</i>,
+and pp. 283-5 of <i>The New Realism</i>, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Bulwer Lytton, with his usual remarkable foresight in
+things psychic, clearly perceived this. In his story, "The Haunters and
+the Haunted," he says: "In all that I had witnessed, and indeed in all
+the wonders which the amateurs of mystery in our age record as facts, a
+material human agency is always required. On the Continent you will
+still find magicians who assert that they can raise spirits. Assume for
+a moment that they assert truly, still the living, material form of the
+magician is present, and he is the material agency by which, from some
+constitutional peculiarities, certain strange phenomena are represented
+to your natural senses.... Accept again as truthful the tales of spirit
+manifestation in America, produced by no discernible hand&mdash;articles of
+furniture moved about without visible human agency&mdash;or the actual sight
+and touch of hands to which no bodies seem to belong&mdash;still there must
+be found the "medium," or living being, with constitutional
+peculiarities capable of obtaining these signs. In fine, in all such
+marvels, supposing even that there is no imposture, there must be a
+human being like ourselves, by whom, or through whom, the effects
+presented to human beings are produced."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> It should be said, however, that&mdash;apart from its innate
+difficulties&mdash;this theory has recently received its death-blow by the
+discovery of the fact that space is filled with ultra-violet rays, which
+would soon prove fatal to all forms of life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See, especially, Duncan, <i>Some Chemical Problems of
+Today</i>, pp. 63-83 and 97-104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> "Rector" is the name of Mrs. Piper's chief control and
+amanuensis, during her trance sittings.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">INVESTIGATING PSYCHICAL PHENOMENA WITH SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS</p>
+
+
+<p>It is generally conceded that Aristotle possessed the greatest single
+intellect the world has ever known; yet any schoolboy today knows more
+of the structure of our universe than did Aristotle! The reason for this
+is that Science has more fully penetrated the secrets of Nature, and we
+now know approximately the constitution of matter and a good deal
+concerning life and mind. How has this progress been possible? Only in
+one way. Improvement in the <i>mechanical instruments</i> by means of which
+we study Nature. We might "speculate" as to the constitution of matter
+for a thousand years, but we should never have arrived at our present
+positive <i>knowledge</i> had it not been for the delicate and sensitive
+instruments which are today in the hands of the physicist and the
+chemist, and employed by him in his laboratory.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless much the same law will be found to apply in the realm of
+"psychics." Until we can apply definite "laboratory methods," and study
+psychical phenomena by means of physical instruments far more delicate
+than our senses, it is probable that the present state of things will
+continue to exist; but it is my firm belief that, were a laboratory
+fitted up with physical and electrical apparatus, suitable for this
+work, and if we could by their aid study a promising case of "psychic"
+or "mediumistic"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> phenomena, we should (within ten years or so) arrive
+at some definite conclusions! We should then know something about the
+<i>laws</i> and conditions under which telepathy, clairvoyance, telekinesis
+(the movement of objects without contact), et cetera, operate, and not
+until this is done, I believe, will such positive conclusions be
+reached.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the reader may object, just here, that I am assuming such
+phenomena to be <i>true</i>&mdash;while the tendency of many present-day
+scientists is to regard them as unreal, hallucinatory, and the result of
+fraud. I cannot spare the time in the present place to argue the point.
+While I admit freely that a very large percentage of such phenomena
+<i>are</i> so produced, and while I freely admit that probably 98 per cent of
+so-called "mediums" are fraudulent; I am equally emphatic in declaring
+that a residuum of genuine phenomena exists&mdash;that supernormal
+manifestations <i>do</i> occur, and that every one who investigates
+<i>carefully enough</i> and <i>long enough</i> will find them. This has been not
+only my own experience, but that of every person who has investigated
+this subject with an impartial mind for any length of time. As Sir
+Oliver Lodge said, in writing of this very question:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The result of my experience is to convince me that certain
+phenomena, usually considered abnormal, <i>do</i> belong to the order of
+Nature, and as a corollary from this, that these phenomena ought to
+be investigated and recorded by persons and societies interested in
+natural knowledge."</p></div>
+
+<p>Based on this conviction, Sir Oliver Lodge wrote, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> far back as 1894,
+in a paper entitled "On Some Appliances Needed for a Psychical
+Laboratory":</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"If the investigations are to go on easily and well, special
+appliances must be contrived and arranged conveniently for use,
+precisely as is done in any properly fitted laboratory. It has
+already doubtless been realized that one of the needs of the future
+is a <i>psychical laboratory</i>, specially adapted for all kinds of
+experimental psychology and psycho-physics...."</p></div>
+
+<p>Sir Oliver Lodge suggested at the time, among other necessary
+appliances, a delicate registering balance,&mdash;so adjusted that it would
+record the medium's weight, unknown to her, at all times during the
+s&eacute;ance&mdash;the fluctuations in weight, if any, to be recorded on a
+revolving drum. Means ought also to be provided for studying the
+temperature, pulse, muscular exertion, breathing, etc., etc. The
+lighting of the room should be carefully attended to and capable of the
+slightest gradation. Means should be provided for obtaining moving
+pictures of the s&eacute;ance from without the room, unknown to the medium.
+Were the sittings held in complete darkness, these photographs could be
+obtained by means of ultra-violet light, with which the room might be
+flooded. In addition to these devices, we may add others&mdash;such as X-ray
+tubes, high-frequency currents and a delicate field of electric
+force,&mdash;while instruments for testing the ionization of the air (if it
+exists) in the immediate vicinity of the medium, during a s&eacute;ance, should
+also be employed,&mdash;together with the more strictly psychical instruments
+and devices which have been utilized of late years.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Electrical apparatus <i>has</i>, in fact, been utilized on several occasions
+to test so-called "physical mediums" in the past. Italian investigators,
+particularly, have excelled in this. In a series of s&eacute;ances conducted in
+Naples, the following apparatus was employed. (Fig. 1.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/line03.jpg" width="400" height="331" alt="Fig. 1" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A telegraphic key (b) was connected by wires (a,a) to a battery (d) and
+to two screws, connecting them with an electro-magnet (e) to the
+opposite end of which was attached a needle. The point of the needle
+touched a revolving drum (f), with a smoked surface, driven by two
+interlacing, cogged wheels. The whole of this registering apparatus was
+enclosed under a glass bell-jar (g). The telegraphic key itself (b) was
+covered by a cardboard box (c). The "powers" manifesting were asked to
+press the telegraphic key <i>without</i> tearing the cardboard box (that is,
+<i>through</i> it). When the key was depressed, this would be instantly
+communicated to the electro-magnet, and cause the needle to
+oscillate,&mdash;these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> oscillations being marked upon the smoked surface of
+the revolving drum. A number of successful tests were conducted by means
+of this apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/line04.jpg" width="400" height="277" alt="Fig. 2" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>A variation of this was then employed (Fig. 2). A cylinder filled with
+water (a) was connected by means of tubing (b) to a U-tube, or manometer
+(c), filled with mercury. Upon the further side of this tube floated a
+bent wire (e) inserted into a small cork. The point of this wire, again,
+was so adjusted as to come into contact with the smoked surface of a
+revolving drum (f), driven as before. The top of the cylinder (a) was
+covered with a rubber cap (d), and this whole apparatus was inserted
+under a wooden box (g) having a cloth top.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if the rubber covering (d) were pressed upon, this would force some
+of the water, in a, along the tube, b, and the added air-pressure would
+depress the column of mercury in the manometer, causing the floating
+needle to rise on the opposite side, and scratch upon the revolving
+drum. Fig. 3 shows some of the tracings which were obtained in this
+way&mdash;the force acting through the cloth top, g.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/line05.jpg" width="400" height="321" alt="Fig. 3" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The instruments thus recorded a <i>definite physical, intelligent force</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It may interest my readers to know that, at the time of his death, M.
+Curie,&mdash;who had been completely convinced of the reality of these
+phenomena,&mdash;was busy devising an instrument which would register and
+direct <i>psychic power</i> liberated from the body of a physical medium when
+in trance.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Imoda, the assistant of Professor Mosso, has also conducted a number
+of experiments in the discharge of an electroscope, by means of "rays"
+issuing from the medium's body. It was found that, if the medium held
+her fingers at a distance of an inch or so from the knob of the
+electroscope, some form of energy, apparently <i>radio-active</i> in
+character, issued from her fingers, and <i>gradually discharged the
+electroscope</i>. This is the "radiation" or "emanation" issuing from the
+body, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> has been studied extensively by students of the occult. Dr.
+Imoda concluded&mdash;as the result of his experiments&mdash;that "<i>the radiations
+of radium, the cathode radiations of the Crookes' tube, and mediumistic
+radiations are fundamentally the same</i>."</p>
+
+<p>Some other very interesting facts have been observed by means of the
+electroscope. For example, Dr. W. J. Crawford (D.Sc), in his
+experiments, noted that:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"... In s&eacute;ance rooms where tables are moved without physical
+contact, I found that after a sitting was well started, I was
+always <i>unable</i> to charge an electroscope, even though I tried to
+do so in the corner of the chamber farthest from the medium. In
+order to charge it I had to take it outside the room. I asked the
+'operators' (intelligences 'directing things,' apparently, in the
+s&eacute;ance-room) if there was any 'power' in the s&eacute;ance-room so far
+away from the medium, and they answered in raps that there was. By
+'power' I understand them to mean particles of matter taken from
+the medium...."</p></div>
+
+<p>Again, in his <i>Reality of Psychic Phenomena</i>, he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I took the electroscope to the table in the corner; then placed it
+in the circle near the medium. I asked the operators to touch the
+disc of the instrument very gently. They did this almost at once,
+the 'touching' consisting of a metallic scraping upon the brass
+disc, quite audible, similar in type to the imitation of the floor
+being rubbed with sand paper, a phenomenon I quite often observed.</p>
+
+<p>"Result:&mdash;On examination, the electroscope was found to be
+completely <i>discharged</i>!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"I took the electroscope to the table in the corner of the room and
+tried to recharge it, but found I was unable to do so even after
+repeated trials. Accordingly I asked the 'operators' to put back
+into the body of the medium the matter they had taken out (for the
+production of the sledge-hammer blows) and to give a few raps when
+they had done so. In a minute or two some <i>very light raps</i> were
+given, and when I asked if the process was complete I received <i>no
+raps in reply at all</i>, which seemed to indicate to me that all the
+matter used for rapping had been returned to the medium. At any
+rate, I found that I could now charge the electroscope; which done,
+I placed it on the floor as before within the circle, and asked
+that the disc should be touched lightly. After a little time, there
+was the metallic scraping as before, and on examination the
+electroscope was found to be completely <i>discharged</i>."</p></div>
+
+<p>It will be at once apparent to the reader that two problems confront the
+investigator, when once he is called upon to solve such problems as the
+above: (1) the <i>physical miracle</i> itself; and (2) the nature of the
+<i>intelligence</i>, lying behind and directing or controlling the
+manifestations. This latter is purely a <i>psychological</i> question, which,
+immensely important as it is intrinsically, does not enter into the
+<i>physical</i> problem. It need only be said that this is <i>the</i> baffling
+question in psychical investigation, and the most puzzling. Whether it
+be an independent "spirit," as it claims to be; or the subconsciousness
+of the medium; or whether it is a sort of compound consciousness, made
+up of the collected minds of those forming the circle at the time; or
+whether some other interpretation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> is open to us&mdash;this is all a moot
+question, which is referred to here, merely to draw attention to the
+fact of its existence.</p>
+
+<p>It will be at once apparent to the reader, also, that physical and
+electrical apparatus have played an important part in such
+investigations, in the past, and are certainly destined to occupy a far
+more important place in the future. These curious phenomena&mdash;like all
+others in our world&mdash;depend upon invisible forces or energies for their
+production. Those interested in electricity should realize, more than
+all others, the power of the invisible; and the fact that <i>the invisible
+is the real</i>. Anything that we see consists merely in a bundle of
+"phenomena"&mdash;of <i>effects</i>. The real cause is always behind, and is
+always invisible.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing inherently absurd or impossible, therefore, in these
+odd manifestations,&mdash;however bizarre and unusual they appear to us at
+first sight. An unusual combination of circumstances might bring them
+about. Stones do not ordinarily fall out of the air; yet at times they
+<i>do</i> (meteors). Water does not usually rise above its own level, yet it
+can be made to do so. The curious freaks of lightning are well known.
+There is nothing inherently impossible, therefore, in supposing that a
+table can be "levitated" into the air, under unusual conditions; it is
+simply the manifestation of an unknown energy&mdash;of which, doubtless,
+there are many. We can manipulate and control the electric current; but
+we do not know yet precisely what it <i>is</i>. Similarly, we can study the
+effects of many of these curious biological forces, without
+understanding their true nature. Above<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> all, it behooves us to keep an
+open mind, and not to cry "impossible," just because we have never seen
+such facts, or because they appear to us innately improbable.</p>
+
+<p>Here, as elsewhere, we depend upon hidden and unknown energies. Could we
+but find an <i>energy common to the two worlds</i>&mdash;the spiritual world and
+the material world&mdash;we should have here a means of direct communication,
+possibly by instrumental means. <i>Delicate physical and electrical
+apparatus may be the means, after all, by which such communication will
+ultimately be established!</i> At all events, when subtle causes and forces
+are in operation (as they doubtless are during a s&eacute;ance) it is only
+natural to suppose that instruments, <i>far more delicate than our
+senses</i>, should be the logical method of detecting them, and, as yet,
+such experiments have rarely been attempted.</p>
+
+<p>When we take into consideration, finally, the electrical theory of the
+nature of matter; when we remember the many striking analogies between
+electricity and the life-force; when we remember that the science of
+electricity is yet in its infancy, it should hold out to us the hope
+that, <i>here</i>, we may find a solution of many of these obscure problems,
+and that further investigations in the field of electricity may serve to
+explain to us many of these unknown and mysterious secrets of our inner
+nature, and the still more mysterious secrets of the s&eacute;ance-room. No
+more interesting and profitable researches could be attempted than those
+which endeavour to establish a connection between known and unknown
+phenomena; between physical and electrical manifestations, on the one
+hand, and these curious "psychical" phenomena, on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> other. The crying
+need of the day is a "Psychical Laboratory," wherein such experiments as
+these could be conducted. It is my sincere hope that, some day, I may
+assist in the foundation of such a laboratory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">LIFE: AND ITS INTERPRETATION</p>
+
+<p class="subhead3">(<i>In the Light of M. Bergson's Philosophy</i>)</p>
+
+
+<p>The philosophy of life which M. Bergson advocates is more than a mere
+philosophy&mdash;more than a metaphysical doctrine; for, in so far as it
+endeavours to account for the "phenomena" of life, it entrenches upon
+biology; and M. Bergson himself is the first to acknowledge this. His
+own books are filled with interesting scientific data, which he has
+interpreted most ingeniously; and no broad-minded biologist can afford
+to neglect his work in the future. Two points of his theory call for
+special mention, however, it seems to me, and are subject, not to
+criticism but to discussion. One of these is that M. Bergson has not
+gone far enough in his interpretation of the facts; in the other he is,
+I believe, wrong in his interpretation&mdash;though his is the one commonly
+advanced and accepted. A few remarks on these two points may not,
+perhaps, be without interest.</p>
+
+<p>It is apparent to any student of these problems that the interpretation
+of life which M. Bergson has adopted is very different from that usually
+held. The <i>facts</i>, the phenomena of life, are the same on either theory,
+the difference lying in their explanation. All the facts of life are the
+same; they may be interpreted equally well on either theory. It is
+important to bear this in mind for reasons which will become apparent as
+we proceed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, the difference between M. Bergson's theory of life and that
+commonly held is this: that, whereas one<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> regards life as created or
+resulting from the total functioning of the body, the other regards it
+as something separate and distinct&mdash;merely utilizing the body for the
+purposes of its manifestation. In the one case, life is, as it were,
+made; in the other, it exists apart from the body it animates, and is
+merely associated with it. To sum up in two words, one is the
+<i>production</i> theory of life; the other is the <i>transmissive</i>. One theory
+leads direct to materialism; the other allows all sorts of
+possibilities, which are readily perceived by any student of these
+questions.</p>
+
+<p>Thus stated, the situation at once reminds us of the controversy which
+raged some years ago as to the relation of brain and mind, as the result
+of the publication of James' lecture on <i>Human Immortality</i>. He then
+showed that it was quite possible to accept all the facts as to the
+relation of brain and consciousness, yet interpret them in a different
+manner; that there might be a transmissive function of the brain as well
+as a productive or secretive function; and that the undoubted fact of
+the inter-relation of the two sets of phenomena might just as well be
+interpreted in one way as in the other. The mere facts proved no theory
+true. As James so well said: "The psychologists noticed a connection,
+and at once assumed that it was the only possible <i>kind</i> of
+connection"&mdash;which was not at all the case. Mere coincidence, in two
+sets of phenomena, does not prove that they are <i>causally</i> related; that
+one produces the other. They may be quite separate from one another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+(psycho-physical parallelism), or both may be aspects of something else,
+etc. It is all a matter of interpretation, not of fact. But this is a
+view of the case which is seldom perceived, it seems to me, by
+psychologists generally. Seeing a coincidence, they at once postulate
+causal relation, and then proceed as if this had been thoroughly and
+scientifically established!</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of this analogy, drawn from psychology, because it bears
+upon the problem before us in the clearest possible manner. Just as
+consciousness is usually conceived to be due to the functioning of the
+brain; so life is conceived to be due to the functioning of the body;
+but just as mind can be shown to exist apart from brain, and merely
+manifest <i>through</i> it, in the same way, M. Bergson suggests, life may
+exist apart from matter, and merely animate it in its passage through
+it. It is all a question of interpretation.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>Is the interpretation correct? As Hamlet said: "That is the question!"
+To use the words of the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour (<i>Hibbert Journal</i>,
+October 1911, p. 18):</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"M. Bergson regards matter as the dam which keeps back the rush of
+life. Organize it a little (as in the protozoa)&mdash;i.e. slightly
+raise the sluice&mdash;and a little life will squeeze through. Organize
+it elaborately (as in man)&mdash;i.e. raise the sluice a good deal&mdash;and
+much life will squeeze through. Now this may be a very plausible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+opinion if the flood of life be really there, beating against
+matter till it force an entry through the narrow slit of
+undifferentiated protoplasm. But is it there? Science, modesty
+professing ignorance, can stumble along without it, and I question
+whether philosophy, with only scientific data to work upon, can
+establish its reality."</p></div>
+
+<p>It would seem to me that the only way to settle this question one way or
+the other is to bring forward certain <i>facts</i> which can be accounted for
+more fully and rationally on one theory than on the other. If facts
+could be produced which one theory could not account for at all, the
+alternative theory might be said to stand proved. Do such facts exist
+which tell in favour of M. Bergson's theory as against the other? I
+believe they do. Before coming to them, however, I must draw attention
+to certain weaknesses in the generally held theory of life, which are,
+it seems to me, also shared by M. Bergson's theory. Until these are
+disposed of, I do not believe that any definite forward step will be
+taken towards proof either in one direction or in the other. So long as
+certain fundamental tenets are held, it seems improbable that any one
+theory of life will be proved more than any other theory. M. Bergson has
+gone part of the way, in his demonstration, but he has stopped there
+instead of carrying his train of argument to its logical conclusion. At
+least so it appears to me; for I think it obvious that the chain of
+argument which M. Bergson adopts can be carried much further than he has
+carried it, in his various writings.</p>
+
+<p>The view which M. Bergson adopts is somewhat as follows: Life is
+directive and creative; it utilizes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> chemical and physical forces of
+the body for the purposes of its manifestation. It is the "spark" which
+sets off the explosive; it is the "hair-trigger" which liberates the
+enormous energy contained in the cartridge, etc. To apply the analogy:
+life utilizes and directs the energy obtained from food (by a species of
+chemical combustion) so that the bodily energy, as such, is, so to say,
+a "physical" energy, and subject to the law of conservation; while the
+power that guides, controls, and directs it is conscious life&mdash;the power
+of choice, the guider, the controller.</p>
+
+<p>This view of the case is, I believe, unsound, and for two reasons. In
+the first place, it does not, I think, go far enough in its
+interpretation; and, in the second place, we are face to face with a
+paradox&mdash;the problem of no-energy affecting energy. Let us take the
+second of these objections first.</p>
+
+<p>If a solid body, a fluid or a gas, be moving in a certain direction, a
+certain amount of energy must be exercised in order to divert its
+course&mdash;for otherwise it would continue in a straight line. Similarly,
+any energy will continue to exert itself in one direction, unless its
+course of activity be diverted into another channel; and this
+"divertion" constitutes a pressure, as it were, upon the energy; and
+this "pressure" can only be brought about by a "physical" force or
+energy&mdash;and so be within the law of conservation. No matter how <i>slight</i>
+this pressure&mdash;this guidance&mdash;may be, it is nevertheless <i>there</i>; and in
+so far as it directs the flow of energy, it must itself <i>be</i> energy&mdash;for
+otherwise it could not direct or divert it. Even the analogy of the
+banks of a river fails us, because in that case every atom of the banks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+is acting upon the body of the water by a material pressure; and hence
+the banks as a whole are. Either life must be energy, or it must be
+no-energy. If the first of these suppositions be true, things would be
+intelligible; but if the second were true, they would not be, because
+no-energy cannot effect or guide or control energy without itself being
+energy; and this would either make life a "physical" energy, or remove
+its power of guidance altogether. I do not see how these alternatives
+are to be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>M. Bergson apparently tries to evade this issue by supposing that life
+only affects the energies of the body (derived from food) <i>very
+slightly</i> by a sort of "hair-trigger" action, which releases a vast
+amount of energy, quite disproportionate to the energy of direction
+applied. But surely this is a mere begging of the question! One is
+reminded of Marryat's character, who asked to have her illegitimate baby
+excused "because it was such a little one!" No matter how <i>slight</i> the
+amount of energy may be, if it is capable of affecting energy at all, it
+<i>is</i> energy, and hence subject to the law of conservation. Life, as
+energy, must lie wholly outside the law (in which case all talk of
+"control" and "guidance" must go by the board), or it must lie wholly
+within it (in which case life becomes a purely "physical" energy, like
+any other, and cannot well be thought to exercise this "guidance").<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>We have thus seen that the second of our two alternatives (that life is
+no-energy) is untenable. Let us now return to the first&mdash;that life <i>is</i>
+energy&mdash;and see whither it leads us.</p>
+
+<p>If life be a form or mode of energy, it might affect, guide, and direct
+other modes of energy, or the matter of the body (and, through it, of
+the inorganic world) readily enough. It would affect them, but blindly.
+It could have no intelligent action. If life be an energy, it must be
+like all other energies in this respect; it must fall within the law of
+conservation and be non-intelligent. Otherwise it would be something
+different from all other forms of energy; and so we should have energy,
+plus intelligence, in the case of life; and only energy for all other
+forms. But in that case life could not simply be converted into or
+derived from any other mode of energy; because we should have
+"intelligence" left over, in our equation&mdash;which was created <i>de novo</i>
+whenever life was derived from other energies, and plunged into
+extinction and nothingness whenever life passed into any other mode of
+energy&mdash;in the course of our daily lives. But this is contrary both to
+experience and to all legitimate scientific thinking! Life, therefore,
+cannot be an intelligent or a directive energy. And so this argument
+also goes by the board, and we have left to us only the old
+materialistic conception of a non-intelligent, blind, life-force, or
+energy, derived from food, by a process of chemical combustion, and
+essentially no more mysterious than any other energy. This,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> therefore,
+is the conclusion to which we seem driven.</p>
+
+<p>But such a conclusion is not only contrary to M. Bergson's philosophy,
+but to daily observation and scientific knowledge; for we know that life
+<i>is</i> directive, purposive, and progressive, and if evolution teaches us
+anything, it tells us that it must have been so always. We are thus
+driven into this dilemma: life must be an energy&mdash;but, as such, it
+cannot be purposive! Life <i>is</i> purposive, yet it must be an energy&mdash;for
+otherwise it could not affect the bodily energies and the material
+world! Here then is an apparent paradox&mdash;a flat contradiction&mdash;incapable
+of solution or further elucidation.</p>
+
+<p>M. Bergson (and before him Sir Oliver Lodge and others) has attempted to
+meet this difficulty by supposing that the energy of the body is a
+"physical" energy, derived from food, and, as such, blind and subject to
+the law of conservation. This energy, they assert, is however
+manipulated and directed by the power of life or consciousness, which
+makes "use" of it, directs, and guides it. But this theory is, it seems
+to me, refuted by the arguments just advanced, which show that life and
+consciousness cannot affect energy in this way unless they themselves be
+energy; and thus we are in a "vicious circle" again, with no hope of
+ever getting out.</p>
+
+<p>The whole difficulty has arisen, it seems to me, because of the
+conception of the nature of life usually held. Were this altered these
+problems would be found to have a ready solution. M. Bergson has gone
+half way toward finding this solution, but has stopped there; he has
+clung to the most fallacious part of the theory, and for this reason has
+been unable to emerge altogether from the difficulties above mentioned.
+Only when we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> change our conception of the nature of the life-force will
+these problems become clearer&mdash;these questions find their true solution.</p>
+
+<p>Have I, then, any theory to offer as to the nature of this power of life
+which is essentially new to physiology and biology? I believe that I
+have&mdash;not new as to facts, but as to the interpretation of facts (the
+latter remain the same on either theory).</p>
+
+<p>In order to make the theory which follows plain in as few words as
+possible, it will be necessary to refer for a moment to the current
+conception of vital energy&mdash;of life&mdash;in the human body. It has been
+stated by Bergson himself with admirable clearness (<i>Hibbert Journal</i>,
+October 1911, pp. 35-36; <i>Creative Evolution</i>, pp. 253-54, etc.), and is
+briefly this:</p>
+
+<p>Food, when broken down and oxidised in the body, gives forth or
+liberates energy&mdash;just as coal liberates energy when burned in the
+engine. In both cases energy (contained in the food or the coal, as the
+case may be) is liberated, and this energy is utilized to drive our
+engine&mdash;the human body or the steam-engine (it makes no difference to
+the argument). The energy thus gained is, it is contended, again given
+off as heat and work&mdash;muscular and mental work in the case of the human
+engine (the body); mechanical work of all sorts, and heat, in the case
+of the steam-engine. Thus one is essentially no more mysterious than the
+other&mdash;the body no more so than the steam-engine&mdash;vitality no more so
+than steam! Both are "physical" energies, subject to the law of
+conservation, and as such transmutable one into the other. This is the
+generally accepted theory, which likens the human body to a
+steam-engine, and is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> the theory all but universally adopted by
+scientific men, held as proved and adopted without question by M.
+Bergson!</p>
+
+<p>But such a view of the case is, I believe, essentially untrue. It is
+<i>one</i> interpretation of the observed facts, truly; but not the only
+interpretation. The facts remain equally true on either theory; the
+difference lies in their explanation. It is the old error of confusing
+coincidence with causation&mdash;and not only that, but a particular <i>kind</i>
+of causation, and "treating it as the only imaginable kind." Just as the
+psychologists reasoned upon the acknowledged facts of the relation of
+brain and consciousness; so do the physiologists, in our own day, reason
+upon this question of the causation of vital energy by food. In both
+cases there has been one-sided and partial reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, we reject the prevalent notion of the causation of vital
+energy by food, we must have another theory to offer in its place. It
+is, I know, presumptuous thus to run counter to the whole of accepted
+teaching, in this respect, and my excuse must be that I believe my
+theory represents the truth, while that universally held does not!
+Again, I must emphasize that I speak, not of facts, but of inferences
+drawn from facts. With this apology, I shall state my own view of the
+case as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Instead of comparing the human body with the steam-engine, it should be
+compared with and likened to the <i>electric motor</i>. Just as the motor is
+recharged, or receives its energy from some external source, just so, I
+believe, is the human nervous system recharged from without, during the
+hours of sleep. It is placed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> into a peculiar, receptive condition, in
+which this "recharging" process takes place. Our energy is derived
+through sleep, and not from food. Food merely replaces broken-down
+tissue (and, if you will, the animal heat) but never supplies or creates
+its vital energy. This depends upon its nervous mechanism, and upon
+sleep, and not upon the muscular system and chemical combustion. What
+differentiates the steam-engine from the human organism is the fact that
+one needs sleep while the other does not (in other words, one is living
+and vital, and the other is not), yet, in spite of this obvious
+difference&mdash;which is so great that it really destroys all the
+analogy&mdash;physiologists have continued to disregard it, and to treat the
+human body as a mere machine&mdash;such as a steam-engine&mdash;which requires no
+sleep, and derives its energy solely by combustion! To my mind, this is
+one of the most curious paradoxes of modern science.</p>
+
+<p>To place the theory in as clear a light as possible, then, it is this:
+Food supplies or replaces broken-down tissue (and heat) to the body; but
+not vitality, or the power of life, which comes only from rest and
+sleep. No matter how much food we may eat and perfectly oxidise, there
+comes a time, nevertheless, when we must go to bed, and not to the
+dining-room, to recuperate our strength and energies. During sleep,
+vital energy flows into us (our nervous systems), and all animals need
+sleep&mdash;this fact differentiating them, at once, from any form of
+mechanical engine. Life, vital energy, is not due, as is universally
+thought, to chemical combustion, but to vital replenishment. No energy
+is <i>created</i> within the body; it is merely <i>transmitted</i>. The body,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> in
+fact, acts as a means of transmission&mdash;as a sort of "organic burning
+glass" which transmits and focuses the sun's rays on one focal point.
+And just as any crack, or blur, or clouding, or other accident to the
+burning glass would interfere with its power and capacity from
+transmitting the rays, so, any accident or disease or pathological state
+of the organism would interfere with or altogether prevent the passage
+or flow through it, of the life or vital energy. "The more perfect, the
+better these conditions, the greater the influx of vital force, and vice
+versa. We must see that all the electrodes and avenues and channels are
+bright and clear, so that there shall be as little hindrance as possible
+to either the inflow of energy in the form of power, or to its outflow
+in the form of work done." My theory of the relation of body and bodily
+energy is, in fact, an extension of James' "transmission theory" of
+consciousness to the <i>whole</i> of our life and vital energy. And I believe
+the one is as defensible as the other.</p>
+
+<p>But, I shall be asked, is there any evidence for such a theory? There is
+much evidence, there are many facts, which I have adduced in full
+elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> This is not the place to discuss the physiological
+intricacies involved, and I can only refer those interested to the work
+in question. At present, I shall assume its accuracy&mdash;or at least its
+validity&mdash;and proceed to show in few words why it is that this theory is
+not contrary to any known facts, but is capable of explaining them just
+as fully as the generally accepted theory, and other (disputed) facts
+far more readily.</p>
+
+<p>The facts upon which the current theory is founded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> are well known, and,
+apparently, thoroughly established. Briefly, they are these: So much
+food, oxidised or burned outside the body, can be shown to yield so much
+heat and energy. The same foods, oxidised within the body, yield
+approximately the same amount of energy. Further, the energy which the
+body expends (in conscious and unconscious muscular activity, thought,
+emotion, and as heat, etc.) is, it is contended, practically equivalent
+to the energy which is thus supplied. There is, therefore, an
+equivalence, a balance, between income and outgo of energy: so that the
+recently conducted experiments in calorimetry are held to prove beyond
+question the causation of vital energy by food.</p>
+
+<p>I shall not in this place stop to question the accuracy of the figures
+obtained&mdash;to point out that the results do not always tally; that far
+too little allowance has been made for mental and emotional states, etc.
+I shall assume that the figures are accurate and prove all that they are
+held to prove. The question then arises: Do the figures prove the
+causation of vital energy by food? Apparently they do, no doubt, and
+they are held to do so by the majority of experimental physiologists;
+but I do not believe that this is at all the case. Admitting the facts,
+admitting far greater accuracy than the figures really show, we have to
+consider the question of their <i>interpretation</i>. And this brings us back
+to the remarks made at the beginning of this paper&mdash;that coincidence
+does not prove causation; and that the same set of facts may often be
+interpreted in an entirely different manner&mdash;one which would show that
+life is not directly dependent upon food combustion at all, as is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+generally supposed. The alternative method of interpreting the facts
+would be as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Life is a <i>power</i> which acts upon organized matter, under certain
+conditions, in a variable and fluctuating manner. Whenever energy acts
+upon substance, substance wastes. Whenever work of any kind is done by
+the body, therefore, the tissues are broken down, and to supply this
+waste, this destruction, food material is needed. The more waste, the
+greater the need for repair, and <i>per contra</i> the less waste, the less
+the need of repair. So far as the material equivalent (food) is
+concerned, therefore, it will be seen that this is only what we should
+expect on either theory; and tells no more in favour of one than the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>But what of the energy? The greater the expenditure of energy, the more
+work done, the more tissue destroyed. The more tissue destroyed, the
+more food needed, and the more ingested. But this does not prove that
+the extra amount of food has <i>created</i> the extra energy! That would be
+putting the cart before the horse with a vengeance! And yet this is what
+is universally done by physiologists in considering these experiments!
+Perhaps I cannot do better than to quote, just here, a portion of the
+excellent Introduction which Dr. A. Rabagliati, F.R.C.S., F.F.C.P.,
+etc., wrote to my book, and which really states the case more clearly
+than I stated it myself. He says in part:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"To take an analogy: It seems to me it would be as pertinent to
+argue that because the strings of a violin or harp waste in
+proportion to the quantity of music evolved through or by means of
+them, therefore the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> waste of the strings is the cause of the
+music, while in fact it is the hand of the player, and even the
+spirit behind the hand, which is the real and efficient cause of
+the music. So the form of the infinite and universal energy, which
+we may call erg-dynamic, is the cause of the waste of the body
+through which it works; and this is at once made good by the
+increased trophic metabolism which occurs, to replace the
+waste&mdash;this increased trophic metabolism showing itself in
+increased O_2 intake and coincidently or correspondingly with
+increased CO_2 output. If the strings of a musical instrument were
+self-repairing, we might perhaps be induced to think that the
+material which fed the strings was the <i>cause</i> of the music, since
+in that case some measure of the waste would probably be
+discoverable in the <i>d&eacute;bris</i> emitted; and we might imagine that the
+<i>d&eacute;bris</i> was the measure of the music, while what it really was,
+was the measure of the waste of the strings, when they were made
+the instrument of the music. If a spade is used in digging, the
+spade wastes in proportion to every spadeful of earth it is made to
+lift. The more it digs, the more it wastes. If we could arrange
+that a stream of fine steel particles flowed into the spade, to
+replace the waste caused by each act of digging, we might perhaps
+come to think that these fine steel particles were the cause of the
+digging, especially as the quantity of them required would always
+be exactly proportioned to the amount of work done. Nevertheless,
+this would be a very inconsequent assumption. Yet this is the
+assumption invariably made by modern scientists."</p></div>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that another interpretation might<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> easily be placed
+upon the observed facts, and that, while the latter are accepted without
+question, it is yet possible to conceive the relationship as quite other
+than usually imagined; and consequently of life as an energy independent
+of the food supply,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and outside the law of conservation&mdash;a force
+absolutely distinct, separate, <i>per se</i>. M. Bergson has gone so far as
+to speak of life as a "power," as a "vital impetus"&mdash;utilizing matter
+for the purposes of its manifestation, etc. I have merely extended this
+conception in what appears to me a logical and necessary direction. It
+appears to me certain that life is a sentient power&mdash;different from any
+other mode of energy of which we have any knowledge, and as such no
+longer subject to the objections raised earlier in this paper (to other
+conceptions of life), which might also be advanced, it seems to me,
+against M. Bergson's theory. Were the theory of life here defended true,
+it would not only enable us to account for life in a satisfactory
+manner, but it would render clear many obscure and sporadic phenomena
+which the current theories are quite incapable of explaining (and hence
+often ignore!); and it would also practically assure us continuity of
+life<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> beyond the grave&mdash;after the dissolution of the body&mdash;because mind
+and consciousness are shown to be independent of physical energy, even
+in <i>this</i> life! This, however, is a subject which requires special and
+lengthy treatment, and I cannot touch upon it now. All that I can aim to
+do at present is to show that there may be a spiritual source even for
+our <i>physical</i> life and energy here. And, were this true, psychic
+phenomena might readily be accounted for&mdash;since there would no longer
+remain any valid objection to their occurrence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The orthodox, scientific theory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> See <i>Mind Energy</i>, chapters 1 and 2. This view has also
+been adopted by Mr. W. Whately Smith (see his <i>Theory of the Mechanism
+of Survival</i>) where he says (p. 114): "This latter (the transmissive
+theory) is the view held by M. Bergson, by Mr. Carrington and by
+myself."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> It might be contended that life is an <i>intelligent</i>
+force&mdash;both a physical energy and intelligence; but if that were the
+case we should simply have energy <i>plus</i> something, and the "plus
+something" would constitute the whole mystery. We should be no better
+off than we were before. All the energies known to us are certainly
+non-intelligent, and if you superimpose anything else on the energy you
+at once differentiate it from all other energies&mdash;which you are not
+entitled to do (see below).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> See my <i>Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition</i>, pp. 225-350.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The question has been asked, What becomes of the potential
+energy contained in the food, if it is not converted into bodily energy?
+I reply, it is given off or imparted to the body as heat (not energy),
+but this heat is again given off by the body. The more imparted to the
+body, the more is again given off. We know that the body possesses a
+self-regulating apparatus which keeps the body, when alive, always at a
+constant temperature. (When dead, of course, the "corpse" cools to the
+temperature of the surrounding air.) The equivalence is again
+maintained, it will be observed, because the more heat we impart to the
+body the more it in turn gives off.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">THE HUMAN WILL IS A PHYSICAL ENERGY</p>
+
+<p class="subhead3">AN INSTRUMENT WHICH PROVES IT</p>
+
+
+<p class="subhead2">PART I</p>
+
+<p class="subhead3"><span class="smcap">The Facts</span></p>
+
+<p>That the human will is a definite physical energy, which can be
+registered by means of a scale or balance, may appear so incredible that
+the bare statement of the case would seem to carry with it its own
+refutation! Yet I firmly believe that this is a fact; that the energy of
+the will may be registered by means of an instrument I am about to
+describe; and that any one can prove this,&mdash;any one, i.e., who cares to
+take the time to repeat these experiments, and to try a sufficient
+number of subjects until the right ones be found&mdash;who are capable of
+affecting the balance in the manner described.</p>
+
+<p>Such a fact&mdash;if fact it be&mdash;is of the utmost importance to science and
+to philosophy; even more important and more far-reaching in its
+implications than may at first sight appear. Not only is the fact itself
+of extraordinary interest, but the very origin and structure of our
+universe is called into question&mdash;and shown to be capable of an
+interpretation very different from that usually offered by modern
+science. And, further, if it be true that the human will is a physical
+energy, we have here the discovery of a <i>new force</i>&mdash;a force just as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+new to science as magnetism or electricity&mdash;and vastly more interesting,
+since it is intimately associated with all of us, and subject to our
+direction, guidance, and command&mdash;a force for us to wield and
+manipulate&mdash;for weal or woe!</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought, by some, that this is no new discovery; that the
+human will is a physical energy is a fact of common observation; and
+that we all feel the liberation of this energy whenever an act of
+volition is performed. I may reply at once to such critics that (common
+sense as it may appear) this is not at all the attitude of modern
+psychology; and that, by <i>savants</i> the will is not considered an energy
+at all, but rather a choice of actions or an effort of attention. It is
+a state of consciousness merely, possessing intrinsically no more energy
+than any other state of the kind. This may, perhaps, be made clear by
+the following brief quotation from James' <i>Psychology</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"We can now see that attention with effort is all that any case of
+volition implies. The essential achievement of the will, in short,
+when it is most "voluntary" is to attend to a difficult object and
+hold it fast before the mind. The so doing <i>is</i> the <i>fiat</i>; and it
+is a mere physiological incident that when the object is thus
+attended to, immediate motor consequences should ensue. Effort of
+attention is thus the immediate phenomenon of will." (p. 450.)</p></div>
+
+<p>This, then, is the attitude of psychology. It contends that the will is
+by no means an energy, in the sense in which physicists use that term;
+but rather that it is a mere state of mind, or of consciousness. As<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+such it is, of course, helpless; a mere witness of the drama of life,
+incapable in itself of affecting or changing the external world. So far
+as the physical world is concerned, it is a mere by-product, a useless
+adjunct&mdash;the feeling of energy-expenditure being delusory. Such is the
+attitude of modern psychology, and a very hopeless and unattractive
+belief it is!</p>
+
+<p>As opposed to this view, I propose to show that the human will <i>is</i> a
+definite physical energy, which forms an essential part of our human
+personality&mdash;and forms, indeed, the very core of our being, so far as
+its expression into the physical world is concerned. This view of the
+case, I may say, is not altogether new; several competent neurologists
+have, of late, defended this conception in no measured terms. Thus, Dr.
+William Hanna Thomson, in his <i>Brain and Personality</i>, says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"An important conclusion is led up to by these facts, namely, that
+we can <i>make our own brains</i>, so far as special mental functions or
+aptitudes are concerned, if only we have wills strong enough to
+take the trouble. By practice, practice, practice, as in Miss
+Keller's case, the Will stimulus will not only organize brain
+centres to perform new functions, but will project new connections,
+or, as they are technically called, association fibres, which will
+make nerve centres work together as they could not without being
+thus associated.... It is not the power of the brain, it is the
+masterful personal Will which makes the brain <i>human</i>. It is the
+Will alone which can make material seats for mind, and, when made,
+they are the most personal things in a man's body.... Man can
+always do what he chooses, or, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> other words, wills. Therefore
+this very different thing, his Will, makes man different from every
+other earthly living thing."</p></div>
+
+<p>Such a view of the case certainly gives a far greater dignity and power
+to the will; but is it true? That is the question; it is a mere matter
+of interpretation, without any means of settling the facts one way or
+the other. It may be "pleasant" to believe this or many other things;
+but that does not make them true!</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that arguments such as this might go on for ever. The
+nature of the human will would never be settled by such means. We desire
+a more definite and concise method&mdash;one capable of settling the case one
+way or the other&mdash;and settling it, not by argument, but by fact.
+Arguments convince no one; facts every one! It is only by an appeal to
+fact, therefore, that this question can be settled one way or the other.
+The difficulty has been that, until now, no direct method has been
+devised capable of solving the problem. This has now been rendered
+possible for the first time, by means of the instrument described in
+this chapter. The experiments herein narrated settle, to my mind, the
+question of the nature of the human will; they prove it to be a definite
+physical energy&mdash;as much so as any other energy we know. The majority of
+these facts have been before the scientific world for some time; and why
+their philosophic interpretation and implications have not been seen is
+to me a great mystery. One can only account for it by assuming that most
+scientists are not at the same time philosophers; they do not see the
+full <i>meaning</i> of the facts they observe. Only in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> this manner can one
+account for the apathy with which the scientific world has, so far,
+accepted the facts in question&mdash;why it has utterly failed to see their
+tremendous philosophic and even religious value and significance.</p>
+
+<p>My attention was first drawn to the instrument in question by Professor
+Th. Flournoy, of Geneva, the author of <i>From India to the Planet Mars</i>,
+<i>Spiritism and Psychology</i>, and other works, well known to English
+readers. Immediately I learned of the experiments in question, I wrote
+to Professor Alrutz, and obtained from him one of his instruments, by
+means of which the experiments described below were performed. Writing
+of the early results obtained by him, Professor Alrutz says ("Report to
+the Sixth Congress of Psychology," etc.):</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"In spite of the knowledge we have gained of the electrical and
+chemical phenomena of the central nervous system, we must confess
+that we know little indeed of the inner nature of the
+psycho-physical processes. What is happening in the
+brain&mdash;especially in the psycho-motor centres&mdash;when we move an arm
+by means of an act of will? What are the forms of nervous energy
+which are employed? Are these entirely electrical and chemical
+forces, the neural impulses being mere electrical currents? Or are
+there other forms of energy which experimental physiology has not
+as yet brought to light? Might there not be, perhaps, some form of
+energy more closely allied to the psychic acts, constituting a sort
+of bridge or transition between psychic phenomena, on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> one
+hand, and electrical and chemical phenomena, on the other?</p>
+
+<p>"When we wish to study the electrical charge contained in any body,
+we obtain exactitude only when we succeed in transferring this
+charge to another body; we may then study the nature of the charge
+under varying circumstances, and establish the influence of the two
+charges upon one another. It is only in this way that
+experimentation becomes truly fertile. Should we not apply the same
+laws to the phenomena of the nervous system, and institute a
+similar mode of experiment for the nervous energies? Under what
+conditions can we conceive this transference?</p>
+
+<p>"The most natural supposition seems to be that it would occur, if
+at all, in labile organizations; in those subjects which, according
+to Janet (<i>Les N&eacute;vroses</i>, p. 339), possess an excessively unstable
+personality; and whose psychic life is characterized by great
+suggestibility, by instability, and a certain peculiar mobility.
+Such individuals are also characterized by the great facility with
+which the functions vary and react upon one another. Binswanger has
+said that the nervous system of these individuals is characterized
+by the variability of the dynamic cortical functions; that is to
+say, by the fact that the nervous segments of their cerebral cortex
+present a <i>m&eacute;lange</i> of greater or lesser irritability...."<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Professor Alrutz goes on to say that, guided by this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> idea, he
+constructed an instrument designed to test his theory&mdash;based in part,
+but not wholly, upon the earlier instruments employed by Hare, Crookes,
+etc., to test the same thing. As is well known, these experimenters
+spent much time in their investigations&mdash;both of them coming to the
+conclusion, after years of patient research, that physical apparatus
+could be definitely influenced and moved by the will of certain persons,
+when exercised in the direction of their movement, and without
+sufficient contact to account for the observed facts. Crookes'
+experiments, in particular, are very conclusive in this direction&mdash;his
+apparatus being very similar to that designed by Professor Alrutz. He
+employed a board, one end of which was attached to a spring balance,
+while the other end of the board rested upon a solid table. The subject
+placed his hands upon the board, and a definite pressure was registered
+by the balance&mdash;far more than could be obtained in any normal manner.
+These experiments of Crookes are classical, and have never been
+"explained away." With the present instrument, there seems every
+likelihood of confirming these earlier experiments.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus employed is of the simplest possible construction. A solid
+board, some 10-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches, and 1 inch thick, forms the base of
+the apparatus. In this, at a distance of some 6 inches, two holes are
+drilled, into which are inserted pegs, 3-1/2 inches long, and sharpened
+at their top edges to a fine knife-edge. This constitutes the
+fulcrum&mdash;the upper board resting on these knife-edges, and being
+unevenly balanced on them. (See Frontispiece.)</p>
+
+<p>The upper board, resting on these edges, is some 19<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> inches long by 13
+inches broad at the lower end, and 10 inches broad at the upper end. The
+narrowing takes place about 6 inches from the end of the board (broad
+end), in the form of a rapid inward curve. It is here that a groove is
+cut, and, 7-1/2 inches from the broad end of the board, two pointed
+grooves are also cut, which allow the board to rest nicely upon the
+knife-edges of the two pegs below it. In this position the board would
+naturally assume a downward slant, owing to the greater length of the
+board on one side of the fulcrum than on the other. (See Frontispiece.)
+When the long end of the board is supported, by means of a piece of
+string, to a letter scale, however, the board is made to assume a
+horizontal attitude, parallel to the table top. In this position the
+board weighs just 5 ounces, and if the balance registers more than 5
+ounces, it shows that a weight or pressure or force has been applied to
+the long end of the board. If force be applied on the <i>short</i> end of the
+board (where the hands rest), it would have the effect of merely
+depressing this end of the instrument, and causing a <i>lessening</i> of
+weight, as registered by the balance. This is noted invariably whenever
+pressure of the hands is made upon the board near the sitter.</p>
+
+<p>With this little instrument, Professor Alrutz tried a number of
+experiments, on several occasions, which he divided into groups or
+series. The history of his initial experiments is, as briefly as
+possible, as follows:</p>
+
+<p><i>1st Series.</i>&mdash;No results.</p>
+
+<p><i>2nd Series.</i>&mdash;The board, after a short interval, lowered, showing a
+pressure of 40 grammes. This was at the first trial. It descended
+slowly, remaining at this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> point for about 5 seconds. It again descended
+several times, making at one time a depression of 120 grammes. On
+another occasion the board was depressed, and showed a pressure of 100
+grammes, which lasted for 35 seconds. On other occasions lesser
+depressions were noted, but for longer periods of time. On several
+occasions the balance registered a downward pressure for two minutes or
+more. This was in good light, and was carefully observed by two
+physicians, as well as by Professor Alrutz. The "subjects" were, in this
+case, ladies of good Swedish families, who had never seen or heard of
+the instrument before. They were, however, during the experiments,
+treated as professional "mediums," and every precaution was taken to
+prevent fraud. The following were some of the precautions observed:</p>
+
+<p>The light was sufficiently good to enable the observers to <i>see</i> that no
+threads or hairs were attached to the board or any part of the apparatus
+or balance. They also ascertained this with their hands. It was also
+seen that none of the subjects lifted the board by slipping their
+fingers under the edges of the board and pulling it upwards. (It may be
+remarked in this connection that even had they done so this would not
+account for the results noted; since, in several instances, the downward
+pressure recorded was more than the weight of the entire board.) As the
+eyes of the observers were close to the board and to the fingers of the
+subjects, it was clearly seen, however, that nothing of the sort took
+place. Besides, as before said, the subjects who tried the board were
+ladies, and not professional "psychics" in any sense of the word.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It was also ascertained that no sticky material was upon the fingers of
+the subjects; they were carefully examined both before and after each
+experiment. Further, to test this hypothesis fully, thin strips of wood
+(shavings) were on several occasions introduced between the subjects'
+fingers and the board, which was depressed. Had they lifted their
+fingers, therefore, they could not possibly have lifted the board, which
+would not have adhered to them under these circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><i>3rd Series.</i>&mdash;Two "functionaries of state" attended this series, the
+principal subject tried being the wife of one of these dignitaries. He
+himself was extremely sceptical of his wife's ability to move the board,
+and remained so until convinced by the facts! The board was lowered, and
+the balance showed a pressure of from 70 to 100 grammes. The subject was
+extremely fatigued after these tests, and went to sleep almost
+immediately. Others who tried the board could obtain a registration of
+only 2 or 3 grammes.</p>
+
+<p><i>4th Series.</i>&mdash;Several very successful trials were made in this series
+with two ladies as subjects. Both placed their hands on the board
+together, and the depressions were of very long duration. In these
+experiments sooted paper was placed under the hands of the
+experimenters. It was noted that better results were obtained if one of
+them cried "Now!" when the board was to be depressed. The desire to
+sleep was strong after these trials, and in one instance the subject
+really did fall asleep during the experiment! An odd fact which should
+be noted in this connection is that no results were obtained unless the
+subject <i>looked</i> at the long end of the board while the "willing" was in
+progress.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>5th Series.</i>&mdash;This series of experiments was attended by a well-known
+physician and a psychologist. The light was good as before. From 40 to
+50 grammes were registered by the balance on several occasions, the
+downward pressure lasting from 20 to 30 seconds. Clearly, therefore,
+none of these depressions could be attributed to mere oscillations of
+the board, but denoted a definite and persistent downward pressure.</p>
+
+<p>Nausea and a strong desire for sleep were experienced by the subjects in
+this series of experiments, as before.</p>
+
+<p>The above is a very rapid summary of the report drawn up by Dr. Sydney
+Alrutz, and read to the Sixth Psychological Congress, which met at
+Geneva in August 1909. Professor Alrutz also attended the Congress in
+person, and brought with him one of his instruments, which he desired to
+try upon some of the members in the presence of a number of
+psychologists. In several instances these attempts were entirely
+successful; and Professor Flournoy, editor of the <i>Archives de
+Psychologie</i>, was enabled to say of these experiments:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Professor Alrutz invited me to assist in two s&eacute;ances, in which we
+experimented upon some of the feminine members of the Congress who
+desired to try it. The first, in which the subject was Mme. Glika,
+yielded nothing conclusive. But at the second, at which Professor
+Alrutz attempted to increase the force by adding two other members
+of the Congress (strangers who had appeared to him to possess
+suitable temperaments), it succeeded fully, and I was able to prove
+conclusively after three trials, and under conditions precluding
+all possibility of fraud or illusion, that the will of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+ladies, concentrated upon a certain material object with a desire
+to produce a movement in it, ended by producing this movement as if
+by means of a fluid or an invisible force obeying their mental
+command." (<i>Spiritism and Psychology</i>, p. 291.)</p></div>
+
+<p>So much for the testimony of Professor Flournoy and Professor Alrutz. In
+view of the facts and the well-known caution of these investigators, we
+may assuredly take it for granted that there is here no room for doubt,
+and that the manifestations really took place as recorded.</p>
+
+<p>My own experiments with this board have not, unfortunately, proved
+nearly so conclusive as those of Professor Alrutz&mdash;owing, doubtless, to
+the rarity of good "physical mediums" or those capable of exercising
+their will in the desired manner. It must not be thought that any one
+possessing a "strong will" can manipulate the board&mdash;as Professor Alrutz
+has pointed out. It is only a peculiarly endowed person who can move the
+board, one capable not only of exercising the necessary will power, but
+also of externalising it&mdash;a very rare power. Hence the small number of
+successes. Out of all those tried, I have found only two who could
+(apparently) move the board at all, and even in their cases the results
+were far less striking than in the cases reported by Professor Alrutz.
+In one case a number of slight depressions were obtained; but these were
+so fleeting, and lasted for so short a time, that it was almost
+impossible to be certain that the results were not due to mere
+oscillations of the board. In the second case, however, more definite
+results were obtained. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> several occasions, depressions of half an
+ounce were noted; and, on two occasions, of more than an ounce, lasting
+for several seconds. I was enabled to assure myself at the time that
+these depressions were real, and were not the result of fraudulent
+manipulation of the board. Although these results are few and meagre
+compared with those of Professor Alrutz, still they tend to confirm his
+views, and add to the testimony adduced by him and by Professor
+Flournoy, in favour of the reality of the facts&mdash;of the actual physical
+pressure by the Will upon the board in question.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these results, then&mdash;of this apparently mutually confirmatory
+testimony&mdash;it seems impossible to doubt the fact that we have here
+definite and conclusive proof that the human will has succeeded in
+depressing the board in question&mdash;in being registered upon the balance,
+and, consequently, that it is a physical energy, capable of affecting
+the material world just as any other physical energy does.</p>
+
+
+<p class="subhead2">PART II</p>
+
+<p class="subhead3"><span class="smcap">Theories</span></p>
+
+<p>It may be contended, however, that in thus postulating the human will as
+a physical energy I have not taken into account the alternative
+explanation of the facts which might be adopted or assumed. This theory
+contends that it is not the will itself which causes the movement we
+observe, but the cerebral activity which corresponds to it, and is its
+physiological counterpart.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> It has frequently been pointed out before
+(<i>cf.</i> Ribot, <i>The Diseases of the Will</i>, pp. 5, 6), that when we will
+to move our arm, e.g., it may not be the will at all, <i>per se</i>, which
+affects the movement, but the brain-state or neural activity which
+accompanies the act of will. In other words, mind or will never affects
+matter (as we feel it does), but it is always one portion of the body
+which affects another portion&mdash;the will or state of consciousness being
+merely coincidental with this observed action.</p>
+
+<p>This has been one of the classical objections to the doctrine of
+inter-actionism; and it must not be thought that I have failed to take
+into account this alternate theory. But opposed to this view of the case
+we have the facts&mdash;(1) that the state of consciousness, and not the
+brain-state, is surely here the important factor; and (2) that, even
+were the supposition true, this nervous action or influence must cease
+at the periphery of the body; for, were this not the case, we should
+already have exceeded the limits of the orthodox physiological theory,
+which contends that one portion <i>of the body</i> affects another portion
+(only), and does not contend or pretend that this action may extend
+beyond the surface of the body; for, if it did so extend, we should have
+a nervous current without nerves&mdash;an appalling fact, and one totally
+opposed to accepted physiological teaching!</p>
+
+<p>In order for nervous energy or life force to exist independent of the
+body (upon the functionings of which it supposedly depends), it would be
+necessary for us to reconstruct the mechanistic interpretation of life,
+since it would show that life is not dependent upon the body for its
+existence, but might exist independently of it, which is the very point
+in dispute. It cannot logically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> be contended, therefore, that the
+energy which we here see in operation lies in the nerves or in the
+brain-centres, but rather that it is a separate force, which physiology,
+as taught today, cannot account for. Introspection and experiment seem
+to unite in telling us that this energy is none other than the human
+Will.</p>
+
+<p>But if it be granted, on the other hand, that the will is a physical
+energy, we immediately encounter certain difficulties which must not be
+ignored. In the first place, if the will be a physical energy, it is
+subject to the law of Conservation, and, consequently, must be included
+within the cycle of forces which that law encompasses. Light, heat,
+chemical affinity, etc., are supposed to be mutually convertible and
+transmutable; and, according to the present hypothesis, Will must also
+be included in this series! But every energy we know in the physical
+universe is a non-intelligent energy, and, as I have pointed out
+elsewhere, if we make the human will thus subject to the law of
+Conservation, it seems to form a unique exception to the law. For we
+know (if our consciousness tells us anything) that willing is an
+intelligent act, and we should consequently have this conscious act or
+intent left over in the equation. For we have, in all other cases,
+purely physical energy, and in this case physical energy <i>plus
+something</i> (conscious intent). The law of Conservation tells us that one
+energy is derived from another, and is converted again into another form
+of physical energy, when it is expended. But if will, <i>ex hypothesi</i> a
+physical energy, is derived from another physical energy (by a process
+of combustion, or what you will), we have here a case of the lesser
+including the greater&mdash;of a thing giving rise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> to something greater and
+more inclusive than itself&mdash;which is contrary to all accepted thinking.
+The will, therefore, cannot be <i>entirely</i> subject to the law of
+Conservation, but appears to draw upon an additional fund or source of
+energy, which is infused into it, as it were, from without. This "thing"
+which is infused or super-added, this "something" which is the "plus" in
+our equation, appears to be the directive element, the life element, the
+sentient element&mdash;which is thus shown to lie outside the law of
+Conservation, as many physicists and philosophers (Lodge, Crookes,
+Bergson, etc.) have for some time past contended it must or might lie.</p>
+
+<p>One significant fact, in this connection, is that while the law of
+Conservation is doubtless true, so far as it goes, there is also in
+operation another law, well known to physicists, called the law of the
+Degradation of Energy, which asserts that energies of a higher order are
+constantly being converted into energies of a lower order. This law
+maintains that energies of a lower order cannot be reconverted into
+energies of a higher order. All other energies are being slowly but
+surely converted into heat&mdash;the lowest of all forms of energy. And this
+heat is gradually being dissipated, or radiated away, into space, so
+that, at some distant day, our universe will be cold and lifeless, like
+the moon.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is a significant fact that the single exception to this rule
+consists in, and is constituted by, <i>life</i>, or vital energy, which is
+constantly building lower forms of energy into higher forms. Life is
+certainly the highest form of energy which we know in this world, and
+all energies are below this in rank&mdash;as may readily be proved by an
+appeal to the facts of nutrition and metabolism.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> And, as life is
+constantly being added to or infused into the world (as the population
+increases), it is certainly true that there is here a definite increase
+of the sum-total of the highest form of energy of which we have any
+knowledge. Life thus occupies not only an important but a unique
+position&mdash;in that it is constructive instead of destructive; and this
+fact alone should give us pause, and make us ask whether life is, in its
+totality, subject to and included within the law of Conservation of
+Energy.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of the fact that the human will is a definite physical
+energy is of importance also, because of its bearing upon the problem of
+the connection or inter-relation of mind and matter. Theories as to this
+bond or connection have been propounded since the dawn of philosophy.
+Aristotle and others wrote and thought deeply upon this subject. As is
+well known, this question formed one of the central points of debate in
+the works of Hobbes, Berkeley, Hume, Descartes, Leibnitz, Spinoza, Kant,
+Hegel, Lotze, and many other philosophical writers&mdash;all of whom wrote
+and speculated at length upon this subject. The theories which have been
+advanced in the past are briefly as follows:<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>1st. Crude Materialism.</i>&mdash;This doctrine contends that consciousness is
+merely matter, or energy, or matter in motion. It is not necessary to
+discuss this theory here, as it is not held today by any scientist of
+the first rank.</p>
+
+<p><i>2nd. Epiphenomenalism.</i>&mdash;This doctrine found its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> foremost champion in
+Huxley. It contends that the important happenings are the
+brain-changes&mdash;which are causally connected&mdash;and that our thoughts, or
+corresponding states of consciousness, merely accompany the
+brain-changes, just as the shadow of a horse may be said to accompany
+the horse.</p>
+
+<p>The objections of this doctrine are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) That it is just as inconceivable to believe or imagine that
+brain-changes generate consciousness as it is to imagine that
+consciousness generates brain-changes.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The law of Conservation is preserved at the expense of the law of
+Causality. For, if no part of the cause passed over into the effect (the
+state of consciousness), the law of Causality would be violated.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The appearance of consciousness, at some definite point in the
+course of the evolution of the animal kingdom constitutes a breach of
+continuity.</p>
+
+<p>For these and other reasons epiphenomenalism is today held by few, if
+any, philosophers.</p>
+
+<p><i>3rd. Psycho-Physical Parallelism.</i>&mdash;This is the doctrine maintained by
+M&uuml;nsterberg and others. It contends that brain-changes and states of
+consciousness are merely coincidental in point of time, and do not ever
+influence each other. Their relation is that of mere coincidence or
+concomitance, and not causation. The two flow along, side by side,
+without in any way interfering with one another.</p>
+
+<p>As regards this doctrine, it need only be pointed out that, were it
+true, mind and body could never influence one another, since they are
+not causally connected. Yet, if there be no connection, how is it that
+they correspond<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> so exactly?&mdash;for, as James said, "It is quite
+inconceivable that consciousness should have <i>nothing to do</i> with a
+business which it so faithfully attends."</p>
+
+<p><i>4th. Phenomenalistic Parallelism.</i>&mdash;This is the theory maintained by
+Kant, Spinoza, and others. It maintains that both brain and
+consciousness (or mind and body) are but two different expressions of
+one underlying reality&mdash;just as the convex and concave surfaces of a
+sphere are but two expressions of an underlying reality. As to the
+nature of this reality, Kant and Herbert Spencer were content to call it
+X or the unknown, while Spinoza maintained that it was God.</p>
+
+<p>Analogies which are held to support this doctrine are, however,
+extremely defective; but the subject is too lengthy and technical to
+elucidate in detail here.</p>
+
+<p><i>5th. Psychical Monism.</i>&mdash;This doctrine contends that consciousness is
+the only reality&mdash;the material world being external appearance only.
+Thoughts are causally connected, but not physical events. (The doctrine
+is thus the exact inverse of epiphenomenalism.)</p>
+
+<p>In refutation of this theory, it may be pointed out that, if
+brain-changes are thus caused by, or are the outer expressions of,
+thought&mdash;why not muscular changes, and in fact all physical phenomena
+throughout the world everywhere? For we cannot rationally draw the line
+of distinction here. Such is the logical outcome of the theory&mdash;and has,
+in fact, been accepted in this form by Fechner and others.</p>
+
+<p>While many philosophers are inclined to accept this view, it may be
+stated that the physical scientists are, naturally, repelled by it, and
+so is common sense!</p>
+
+<p><i>6th. Solipsism.</i>&mdash;The contention of this theory is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> nothing exists
+save states of consciousness in the individual. Neither the material
+world nor other minds exist, save in the mind of the individual. This
+doctrine is so opposed to common sense and daily experience that it is
+unnecessary to dwell upon it.</p>
+
+<p><i>7th. Inter-Actionism (Animism).</i>&mdash;Here we have the world-old notion of
+soul and body existing as separate entities, influencing each other.
+Mind is here supposed to influence matter, and utilize it for the
+purposes of its manifestation.</p>
+
+<p>That there are many facts difficult to account for on this theory cannot
+be doubted. Heredity and the origin of life must be taken into account;
+the "inconceivability" of the process has some weight; and the apparent
+infringement of the law of Conservation of Energy is a serious
+objection. Further, it may be urged, what evidence have we that
+consciousness can exist apart from brain-functioning? And, it may be
+said, apart from the facts offered by "psychical research," so-called,
+there is no evidence, strictly speaking. Hence the importance of these
+phenomena, if true. But the greatest objection to the doctrine of
+inter-actionism is doubtless that drawn from the law of the Conservation
+of Energy, which says that, inasmuch as mind is a non-physical energy,
+inasmuch as matter cannot be affected by a non-physical cause,
+brain-changes cannot result from will, or the activities of the mind.</p>
+
+<p>But once prove that the human will is a physical energy, and this
+objection is readily disposed of. A physical energy is doubtless quite
+capable of causing all the changes within the brain which we know to
+exist within it&mdash;molecular, chemical, whatever they may be. It at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> once
+removes this classical objection to the doctrine of inter-actionism; and
+at the same time virtually proves that theory correct&mdash;thus solving this
+problem once and for all!</p>
+
+<p>It may be pointed out, <i>en passant</i>, that philosophers and
+metaphysicians have really attacked this problem from the wrong
+standpoint&mdash;in their arguments concerning the relations of mind and
+brain&mdash;for this is a question which might have been (and in my opinion
+should have been) determined not by argument, but by <i>fact</i>. Instead of
+arguing, <i>a priori</i>, as to the nature of the connection, the problem
+might have been solved in the same way that all other problems are
+solved, viz., by an appeal to evidence and fact. The fundamental point
+made by practically all philosophers, in discussing this question, is
+that brain-states and conscious states are always found together, and
+that consciousness can never exist in the absence of brain. In other
+words, mind cannot exist as an "independent variable" in the world; it
+must always accompany a human brain.</p>
+
+<p>I pass over, without comment, the fact that, according to the doctrines
+of idealistic monism and psycho-physical parallelism, this independence
+is virtually allowed, by the very nature of the doctrine; and shall
+point out merely that, if consciousness could be proved to exist
+independent of brain functioning, philosophic theories would have to be
+remodelled to conform to the evidence; the <i>a priori</i> problem could be
+settled at once by an appeal to actual fact. And again this separate
+existence of consciousness seems to be established by the facts of
+"psychical research," which apparently show that mind can exist apart
+from brain structure. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> important fact once established, it would at
+once alter the whole case and render inter-actionism not only a
+"respectable" theory, but a proved fact.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the importance of this doctrine (that the will is a physical
+energy) from the point of view of philosophy, and as applied to the
+question of the inter-relation of brain and mind. Now let us see if it
+cannot be applied in another direction.</p>
+
+<p>The present interpretation of the character and nature of the will, and
+its inclusion as a physical energy, has a distinctly important bearing
+upon one of the most bitterly disputed points in the whole history of
+philosophy, viz., the question of the <i>Freedom of the Will</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As is well known, there are two opposing views upon this subject&mdash;held
+by opposite schools&mdash;the theory of Determinism, on the one hand, and of
+Free Will on the other. The Libertarians assert that our wills are
+free&mdash;we having power of choice in all our actions. The Determinists, on
+the other hand, contend that our thoughts and actions are determined by
+definite, ascertainable causes. They contend that the <i>feeling</i> of
+freedom we all experience is but illusory, and that, in reality, our
+every action is inevitable&mdash;predetermined by its previous cause of
+causes, and could have been predicted by an intelligence wide enough and
+possessing a grasp deep enough of human nature to perceive life in all
+its tendencies. Indeed, one eminent philosopher went so far as to say
+that a belief in Free Will showed simple ignorance of science and a
+clinging to superstition!</p>
+
+<p>A great deal has been written upon this subject of Free Will in the
+past; the point has been bitterly disputed for years. It may be said,
+however, that, at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> present day, practically all philosophers and
+scientists, with few exceptions (e.g., James, Schiller, Bergson, etc.),
+believe in Determinism. The arguments for that doctrine are certainly
+weighty, and may be summarized, briefly, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Law of Conservation of Energy</i> tells us that no energy can be
+added to or abstracted from the total stock of physical energy in the
+universe. If the will be a non-physical energy (as it is conceived to
+be, by psychologists), it cannot affect the physical world, for if it
+did the law of Conservation of Energy would be overthrown. Hence, the
+will cannot affect the material world: hence, it cannot be a true cause.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Biology</i> contends that heredity and environment alone are capable of
+explaining the actions and movements of the lower organisms, without
+postulating any "will." Inasmuch as man is connected with these lower
+organisms by an unbroken line of descent, why should not these factors
+explain man's actions also?</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Physiology</i> teaches that in-coming nerve stimuli give rise to
+certain physical changes in the nerve cells or centres, which, in turn,
+give rise to out-going (afferent) currents. There is here an arc or loop
+of unbroken physical causation; and there is no "room" for
+consciousness, save as an "epiphenomenon," as postulated by Huxley.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Law of Causation</i> tells us that an effect must have a cause, and
+that the cause must, in a certain sense, resemble the effect&mdash;since the
+effect <i>is</i>, in a sense, the cause translated. But, inasmuch as the
+effect is a physical event, the cause must also be physical in its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+nature; hence will (supposedly a non-physical event) cannot possibly
+play a part, or be a true cause.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Philosophical Science</i> contends that Nature is a "closed circle."
+Mechanical causation holds supreme sway. Everything happens according to
+law and order. If Free Will were allowed a place in the scheme of
+things, chance and caprice would immediately be introduced into our
+world&mdash;which could never be tolerated for a moment!</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Psychology</i> holds that every mental state has its equivalent or
+counterpart in a corresponding brain-state. But each brain-state is not
+caused by the state of consciousness, but by the preceding brain-state.
+Here, again, there is no room for "free will" to play any part.</p>
+
+<p>(Inasmuch as we are approaching this subject from a purely scientific
+point of view, the arguments drawn from sociology, ethics, and theology
+need not here be discussed. The interested reader is referred to
+Professor H. H. Horne's excellent little book, <i>Free Will and Human
+Responsibility</i>, for an extremely clear summary of this problem.)</p>
+
+<p>The reply of the Libertarian to these problems is usually somewhat as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. The doctrine of Conservation has not been experimentally proved with
+regard to the relation of mind and brain; it is only assumed. Still,
+granting it to exist, all energy may, in its ultimate analysis, be
+psychical, instead of physical, in its nature&mdash;the doctrine of idealism,
+which is today gaining wider and wider acceptance, seeming to support
+this view.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. That man <i>resembles</i> the lower animals does not prove that he is
+<i>identical</i> with them. On the contrary, the observed differences
+constitute the very differences about which the argument rages. Further,
+recent theories of organic evolution are tending to prove that interior
+(spontaneous) forces play a part, as well as exterior forces.</p>
+
+<p>3. If consciousness were a mere "epiphenomenon," having no "use" to the
+organism, it would soon perish (if it ever appeared) according to the
+law which says that all useless functions perish. But we know that, as a
+matter of fact, consciousness has grown more and more complex, as
+evolution has progressed.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Law of Causation</i> is doubtless valid and universal; but to
+assume that this is invariably physical begs the question at issue. May
+there not be psychical causation? Only thorough-going materialism can
+say "No" to this question; but materialism is today out of date.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Philosophy of Nature.</i>&mdash;This is a strong argument, <i>a priori</i>,
+but is subject to re-interpretation, in the light of new facts, to which
+it must conform. Facts might be adduced which proved this particular
+view of nature wrong. It is, in short, only a working hypothesis,
+subject to revision, as new facts are adduced, tending to alter it.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Psychology.</i>&mdash;Our ignorance of the possible relation of brain and
+mind is no excuse for our dogmatically asserting that no such connection
+is possible. It may be a fact, though unintelligible to us. Mental
+states may influence, partially at least, successive brain-states. We
+cannot say. If one man asserts that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> <i>cannot</i>, another may assert
+that they <i>do</i>. Hence every one is at liberty to believe what he
+pleases! Nothing is proved.</p>
+
+<p>If, now, we glance at the preceding arguments, we find that they may be
+summarized somewhat as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Arguments 2, 3, 5, and 6 are practically valueless, one way or the
+other. Both sides might claim a victory; none of these arguments would
+settle the question.</p>
+
+<p>Argument 4 is certainly valid, to a certain extent, and can only be
+surmounted by assuming that a non-physical energy can affect physical
+energy. But I do not think that any physicist would be inclined to admit
+this. So that this argument cannot be used in support of the doctrine of
+Free Will.</p>
+
+<p>There remains the first argument, drawn from the law of the Conservation
+of Energy. This is certainly the strongest of all (to my mind), and is,
+as it stands, valid. Though idealism may maintain that all physical
+energy may be, in its ultimate analysis, only psychical energy, I do not
+for a moment believe that any physicist really believes this, or that
+any man accepts it as a common-sense doctrine&mdash;one which can be acted
+upon in daily life. It is mere philosophical sophistry and
+hairsplitting, and we must believe, as a matter of fact, that physical
+energy <i>is</i> really physical, and not psychical, in its nature.</p>
+
+<p>As to the first portion of this argument, although the law of
+Conservation of Energy has never been shown to be invalid, when applied
+to the connection of brain and mind, still, every one probably believes
+that it does actually obtain, and that a brain-state cannot result in
+consequence of non-physical influences any more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> any other physical
+event could so result. It is tacitly admitted, therefore, that the law
+of Conservation holds good here also, and that will cannot affect brain,
+because will is not a physical energy.</p>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to see the tremendous importance of the facts
+contained in the first part of this chapter. Inasmuch as theory must
+follow fact; inasmuch as it has been proved experimentally that the
+human will is a physical energy&mdash;this whole question of the relation of
+brain and mind, of the influence of the former by the latter, and the
+question of Free Will, must be remodelled in accordance with these
+facts. The whole Free Will controversy is settled at one stroke (and in
+favour of Free Will!), and all the books which have been written upon
+this subject, and all the thought and energy which have been expended in
+the past are thus shown to be so much waste-paper and wasted effort!
+For, as we have seen that the whole question resolves itself into the
+central problem of whether or not the law of Conservation of Energy is
+valid&mdash;whether will or mind can affect brain&mdash;it will be seen that the
+proof that will is a definite physical energy settles the case once and
+for all. Determinism is routed; Free Will wins the day; and here again,
+as usual, theory follows fact, instead of dictating what those facts
+should be! At "one fell swoop" we are enabled to solve and to settle for
+ever one of the most bitterly disputed points in the whole history of
+philosophy and metaphysics!</p>
+
+<p>This theory (might we not say, this fact?) that the will is a definite
+physical energy, at least in part, is thus of great philosophic, no less
+than scientific importance, if true. It even enables us to recast our
+conception of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> the origin of the world, and of all forces, and enables
+us to reconstruct&mdash;in a more or less intelligible manner&mdash;the story of
+Creation, contained in the first chapter of Genesis&mdash;an account which
+has been more ridiculed, perhaps, by dogmatic physicists than any other
+account in the whole Bible.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written upon this subject in the past; but it must be
+admitted that, from the point of view of physics, the whole difficulty
+lay in conceiving the first initial impulse which started our Universe
+on its endless way. All matter being but an expression of energy, all
+energy being (in all probability) but the varying modes or forms of
+expression of one underlying primal energy, the difficulty has been in
+accounting for the origin of this primal energy&mdash;the initial "push," so
+to say, which sent the Universe on its way.</p>
+
+<p>Many evolutionists have admitted that, once given this initial impulse,
+all might readily be accounted for. The difficulty lay in conceiving
+this primal impetus.</p>
+
+<p>But if Will be also a form of energy&mdash;though, as we have seen, only
+partly within the law and partly beyond it&mdash;then it is conceivable that
+this energy, coming from a source external to that presented by physical
+nature and physical science, should have infused or imparted enough
+energy (perhaps only an infinitesimal amount, enough to originate the
+impetus), which, according to Haeckel and others, is all that need be
+supposed, to enable us to account for the whole of organic and inorganic
+nature! This <i>fiat</i>, having once gone forth, would originate, or be the
+source of, the first "cosmic urge"&mdash;would, in fact, supply that impetus
+which modern science has so long sought in vain!</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This explains why "every one" cannot move the board; there
+must be this peculiar nervous and psychic instability in order to insure
+the results.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> I am indebted to Dr. M'Dougall's excellent work, <i>Body and
+Mind</i>, for the <i>data</i> from which I have condensed the following
+summary.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">MODERN DISSECTION OF THE HUMAN MIND</p>
+
+
+<p>Dissection of the mind! Can that too be dissected? We hear much nowadays
+of dissection of the human body; of organs which have been transplanted
+and which perform their functions in the body of another animal; of
+marvellous operations, in which tissues and viscera have been removed,
+repaired, and replaced&mdash;seeming none the worse for their remarkable
+experience; of operations which have been performed even upon the brain,
+in which whole segments have been cut away, and other delicate
+experiments undertaken&mdash;all of these marvels we have grown more or less
+accustomed to, by reason of the ease and certainty with which they are
+performed. But the human mind; <i>that</i> is a different matter. Here is
+something which, intangible in itself, seems incapable of dissection or
+of objective experimentation, in the ordinary sense of the word. Yet
+that is what present-day normal and abnormal psychology has been enabled
+to do! Shakespeare's adage: "Who can minister to a mind diseased?" can
+now be answered by saying: "To a certain extent, the specialist in
+normal and abnormal psychology."</p>
+
+<p>If you shut your eyes, and turn your attention inward, in an attempt to
+find your real "self," you will probably find a good deal of difficulty
+in catching it. It will be found as illusory as the proverbial figure of
+Happiness, which ever flits on before us. The real centre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> of being, the
+self, the ego, the person, the individuality, evades us at every turn.
+Each of us has the feeling, under all ordinary and normal circumstances,
+that, as James expressed it, "I am the same self that I was yesterday."
+And one would be most astonished, I fancy, were he to wake up one fine
+morning and find himself some one else! Like the Arab in the tale, he
+would be bewildered indeed!</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">From the solitary desert<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Up to Bagdad, came a simple<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Arab; there amid the rout<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Grew bewildered of the countless<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">People, hither, thither, running,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Coming, going, meeting, parting,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Clamour, clatter, and confusion,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">All around him and about.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Travel-wearied, hubbub-dizzy,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Would the simple Arab fain<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Get to sleep,&mdash;"But then on waking,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How," quoth he, "amid so many<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Waking, know myself again?"<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">So, to make the matter certain,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Strung a gourd about his ankle,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And, into a corner creeping,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bagdad and himself and people<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Soon were blotted from his brain.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">But one that heard him and divined<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His purpose, slyly crept behind;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From the sleeper's ankle clipping,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Round his own the pumpkin tied,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And laid him down to sleep beside.<br /></span>
+</div><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">By and by the Arab waking<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Looks directly for his signal&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sees it on another's ankle&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cries aloud, "Oh, good-for-nothing<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Rascal to perplex me so,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That by you I am bewildered,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Whether I be I or no!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">If <i>I</i>&mdash;the pumpkin why on you!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">If <i>You</i>&mdash;then where am I, and who?"<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>One can quite appreciate the tangled state of our Arab's mind on
+awakening under such peculiar circumstances, and, from the point of view
+of common sense and common experience, such an awakening would be an
+utter impossibility&mdash;fit only for fairy tales and the traditions of
+savage tribes. Yet, in our own day, here in civilized New York and
+London, similar cases have been recorded and studied by experts! Under
+peculiar circumstances, patients have gone to sleep one person and
+awakened another; and they have remained another, not only during the
+first temporary moments of bewilderment, but sometimes for days, weeks,
+and months at a time; and in some cases even whole years have elapsed
+before the first "self" returned to tenant the body, to look out of the
+eyes it had looked out of years before; to take up the self-conscious
+life it had lain down in sleep. And to this there may be the added
+horror that, during the intervening period of oblivion (for this Self)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+the same external body, actuated by another "Self," may have performed
+actions and lived a course of life utterly at variance with the tastes
+and desires of the primary "Self." The other Self may even have married
+the common body in the interval&mdash;to a man whom the original self had
+never known&mdash;does not know now! There may even have been children;
+friends, environment, all, all may have been changed in the interim.
+Like Rip van Winkle, the setting of life may be found to have altered;
+but in some of these cases, the awakening must be the greater nightmare.
+The unfamiliarity, even horror, of the situation can be imagined. Yet
+many such cases exist; and the two Selves alternately usurp and
+manipulate a common body; the Real Self and the Stranger. Who and what
+is this Stranger? Apparently it is an alien spirit&mdash;another soul,
+perchance, entangled miserably in the body of some equally unhappy
+mortal! Yet modern psychology contends that such cases represent, for
+the most part, mere splits or dislocations or dissociations of the
+normal personality; and that the two or more Selves we see before us, at
+such times, are none of them a <i>real</i> self; but mere fragments of the
+primary self, dissociated from it, owing to some shock or accident or
+disease. Let us see if we can penetrate a little deeper into this
+mystery of being; and lay bare the secrets of this alien Self, as well
+as the original Self which owned the body from birth.</p>
+
+<p>The older psychology held that the mind was a <i>unit</i>; that it was a
+separate thing or entity, a sort of <i>sphere</i>, which, if it could ever be
+caught, would reveal all the secrets of True Being. Accordingly, they
+tried to catch this sphere-of-being, by inward reflection or
+"introspection."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> But it was never caught! There are many reasons why
+this should be so, the chief reason being that a subject cannot be an
+object also; it is as impossible for a thought to catch itself as it
+would be to turn a hollow rubber ball inside out without tearing the
+cover.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> But the newer psychology studies the mind objectively, from
+the outside, by means of recording instruments, and does not depend upon
+introspection for its results. Further, the very conception of the
+nature of the "self" is different; it is not now considered an entity,
+as of old; but rather a compound thing, a product, a complex, composed
+of a variety of elements. Instead of being considered a single gossamer
+thread, it is now thought to be rather a <i>rope</i>, composed of
+innumerable, interwoven elements&mdash;and these, in turn, of still finer
+threads, until the subdivision seems endless. The mind, in other words,
+is thought to be compounded of innumerable separate elements; but held
+together, or compounded into one, by the normal action of the will, of
+attention, and the grip upon the personality of the true Self. When this
+will is weakened; when the attention is constantly slackened, when the
+mind wanders, this single strand of rope separates and unravels. The
+"threads" branch out in various directions, no longer in control of the
+central, governing will; the Self has become dissociated or split-up
+into various minor Selves&mdash;all but parts of the real, total self; yet
+separate and distinct, nevertheless. And if enough of these threads
+become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> joined together, or interwoven, one with another, it can easily
+be imagined that this second strand of rope might become a formidable
+opponent to the original strand; it might become so large and strong, in
+fact, by the constant addition of new threads, and the dissociation of
+these from the first, true strand, that it would assume a more important
+r&ocirc;le, and become stronger, and finally even control the whole. What was
+originally but a single fine, divergent thread has become, in course of
+time, a successful rival to the original strand of rope.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us apply the analogy. The mind as a whole represents the rope;
+its elements or component parts are the threads; and, under certain
+abnormal conditions, these can become torn away from the original
+Self&mdash;like little rivulets, branching off from the main stream of
+consciousness, forming independent selves. This is an abnormal
+condition; a splitting of the mind, a dissociation of consciousness.
+Another fragment of consciousness, distinct in itself, has been formed.
+Thus we have a case of so-called double consciousness, of alternating
+personality; or, if there are three or more such splits or cleavages, of
+multiple personality.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>Now we are in a better position to understand the nature of this alien
+self which has been formed, and which alternately usurps the common
+body. It is no foreign spirit; it is not a demon or fiend which has
+entered into the subject; it is merely a portion of the patient's own
+mind, acting independently a life of its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> own. It is a portion of the
+real Self, functioning independently. Let us now see how these splits or
+dissociations take place.</p>
+
+<p>Often they are the result of some shock to the emotional nature. In one
+of Dr. Morton Prince's cases, the patient happened to look up and saw in
+the window the face of a man whom she had known years before, and with
+whom she had tragic emotional associations. It was storming at the time,
+and a lightning flash revealed the face in the window. It was a highly
+dramatic scene, and the shock to the patient's emotional nature caused
+her consciousness to split-up or become dissociated into various selves;
+and thenceforward for years these separate "selves" lived independent
+lives, each ignorant of the life of the other. In this case, there were
+several such personalities which alternated; and they were only finally
+unified and the real Self again restored by means of hypnotic
+suggestion, after a careful analysis of the various selves. This
+synthesis of the various streams of consciousness, and their ultimate
+unification into one primary normal self, is one of the most startling,
+as it is one of the most interesting and suggestive, feats of modern
+psychological medicine.</p>
+
+<p>The principle upon which many of these cures rest, and the efficacy of
+suggestion, is thus apparent. By its aid the skilled specialist in
+abnormal psychology is enabled to gather up the "loose ends" of
+conscious life, as it were, and unify and consolidate them into one
+normal, healthy Self. He is enabled to weave them all together, and
+again restore the "sheath" or "wrapper" of the individual human will,
+keeping these threads in place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> henceforth, and restoring the healthy,
+normal personality; the <i>mens sana in corpore sano</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Exactly <i>how</i> all this can come about I shall now endeavour to show.
+Before any of the more complex and complicated disorders of the mind can
+be understood, it will be necessary for us to discuss very briefly the
+nature of the subconscious mind&mdash;since it is upon this that all modern
+researches have in a great measure rested&mdash;upon the improved
+understanding of its nature that many of these cures rest.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been known that there is a sort of mind in us, capable, at
+times, of performing complicated and intelligent actions without the
+co-operation or knowledge of the conscious mind. We see examples of this
+daily&mdash;in the absent-minded actions of certain individuals, in the dream
+life, in hypnotic trance, and in many of the cases of normal and
+peculiar mental action, of which numerous examples might be given, but
+which are so well known that it is hardly necessary at this late date to
+elaborate in detail. The idea has been so extensively employed by Hudson
+in his theory of "the subjective mind," and by others, that the general
+theory has pretty well saturated the public mind. Hudson's
+theory&mdash;otherwise open to many criticisms&mdash;is very lax, not to say
+erroneous, in its construction, and is not accepted today by any
+competent psychologist. Apart from the mysterious powers with which he
+endowed the "subjective" mind, he makes it now synonymous with the
+<i>whole</i> of the subconscious life outside the field of immediate
+consciousness; now as equivalent merely to the hypnotic stratum; now to
+a dream-like self, etc.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> until the term has become so elastic that it
+means nothing intelligible but everything in general! As understood by
+the modern psychologist, the term "subconscious mind" must be defined
+far more accurately before we can proceed to use it as a working
+hypothesis. What, then, is understood by the subconscious mind? What
+part of us can perform conscious operations without our being conscious
+of them? How can we perform intelligent operations without intelligence?
+It all depends upon the meaning we give to our terms. We must begin by
+explaining just what is meant by the "subconscious mind"; then, perhaps,
+we can better understand its operations and aberrations.</p>
+
+<p>There are several theories as to the nature of this subterranean stratum
+of our being&mdash;this hidden self&mdash;each of which finds its champion in the
+modern psychological schools. First, there is the theory that it
+consists merely in the mechanical workings of the brain&mdash;a purely
+physiological theory, which makes the subconscious mind synonymous with
+certain brain activities&mdash;much the same as a series of complex
+reactions. It is well known that there is a brain-change corresponding
+to every thought we think; and the nature of the connection between the
+two has been one of the most debated points in metaphysics, and is one
+which, if we thoroughly understood it, would doubtless solve in a great
+measure the nature of life and of consciousness. Without going into this
+very complex question, however, there remains the undoubted <i>fact</i> of
+the connection; the thought, which is known by us in consciousness; and
+the brain-change, which has been verified by ingenious mechanical and
+electrical instruments, and the effects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> of which we behold in the
+chemical changes in the brain-substance itself after severe thinking.
+This being so, it has been said, Why not suppose that so-called
+subconscious actions <i>are</i> merely brain activities which take place, but
+which have never risen into consciousness? Professor M&uuml;nsterberg and
+others hold this view. It has been conclusively shown, however, by Dr.
+Morton Prince and others, that this theory fails to explain adequately
+many of the facts&mdash;seems indeed contrary to much experimental evidence;
+and this view is now given up by all but the most materialistic of the
+modern psychological school. We have to search deeper yet for the
+mystery of the subconscious mind; and we shall have to grant it a
+certain amount of consciousness of its own, apart from all purely brain
+activity.</p>
+
+<p>A very opposite theory is that advanced by Mr. F. W. H. Myers&mdash;that of
+the "subliminal self." This theory says that the conscious mind is but
+an infinitely small part of our total self&mdash;a mere fragment; that
+portion best adapted to meet the needs of everyday life. To borrow an
+analogy from physics, "consciousness is only the visible portion of the
+spectrum; the invisible, ultra portions are our subconscious selves." I
+shall not venture upon a criticism of this theory beyond saying that the
+majority of modern psychologists do not hold to it; and hence, whether
+it be ultimately true or false, we must disregard it for our present
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, there is the theory that the subconscious mind is composed
+entirely of dissociated or split-off ideas&mdash;ideas which have been
+dissociated or split off from the main stream of consciousness, much as
+a few freight cars might be shunted on to a side track by the
+switch-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>engine. This hypothesis is very similar to another theory, which
+contends that the subconsciousness consists of dissociated
+experiences&mdash;mental happenings which have been forgotten or passed
+beyond voluntary recall. For these mental states, or rather trains of
+thought, Prince has suggested the term "co-conscious," because they are
+conscious processes in operation at the same time as the normal
+consciousness. This theory is doubtless far nearer an adequate
+explanation of the facts than that which contends that the subconscious
+is merely a portion of the field of consciousness which happens to lie
+outside the field of <i>attention</i>, because <i>that</i> is a theory certainly
+inadequate to cover the facts. This last hypothesis is one which seems
+to be favoured by Coriat and others, but it is certainly limited in its
+application.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us see if we cannot obtain a clearer grasp of the facts, in view
+of the above discussion as to the nature of the subconscious mind. We
+may sum-up the facts as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>As the result, either of some sudden shock, or by reason of certain
+subjective psychological practices carried to an extreme, we have a
+splitting of the mind into two or more separate streams, which function
+separately and independently, and generally with no memory connection
+between the two, so that each is ignorant of what the other stream, or
+self, is doing. This is already an abnormal condition, a pathological
+state, and its severity depends upon the degree of cleavage between the
+streams of thought. If this be deep and lasting, we have a well-marked
+case of hysteria, or other disorders to be noted immediately; if, on the
+other hand, the cleavage be slight, we have merely absent-mindedness,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+wandering of the mind, and many lesser symptoms which indicate this
+tendency to dissociation, and which should be checked at all costs in
+their inception, since they are symptomatic of the tendency to
+disintegration of the mind, and which, if unchecked, would lead to grave
+disturbances later on. It is because of this fact that too much
+automatic writing, crystal-gazing, meditation, attendance at spiritistic
+circles, etc., is harmful; they one and all induce a passive state of
+the mind which favours dissociation and disintegration. Many of the
+insanities start in this fashion; and all such practices, instead of
+being encouraged, should be discouraged; and all experienced and
+intelligent students of psychical research warn those who "dabble" in
+the subject against the repeated and promiscuous indulgence in such
+practices&mdash;because of the dangerous, even disastrous, effects upon the
+mind, in many instances.</p>
+
+<p>But we have not yet reached a distinctly morbid state. This dissociation
+may be slight, and of little consequence; and may even be completely
+"healed" without the knowledge of the patient; without his knowledge
+that anything strange has taken place at all&mdash;just as tubercular lesions
+of the lungs may be healed without the patient ever having known that he
+had suffered from tuberculosis. The co-conscious stream may again be
+diverted into the main, healthy channel; the threads of the wounded mind
+may again be bound up, with only a scar to indicate where the delicate
+protective covering had been ruptured. If such is the case, all is well
+thenceforward.</p>
+
+<p>But the termination of the accident may not be so fortunate. If, as
+before said, the cleavage be deep and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> lasting; and if, instead of
+attempting to bind up the wounded mind, those practices which caused the
+original "split" be persisted in; if shock follow shock&mdash;to the mental,
+moral, emotional, or physical nature; if great exhaustion, lack of
+sleep, or of proper food, or other causes of a like nature, be
+present&mdash;then it is evident that the cleavage must become deeper and
+deeper yet; and, in a short time, the few stray, wandering thoughts
+become grouped and bound together, and begin to form a veritable
+psychological entity. A secondary, an alien self, has been formed. And
+just as it is increasingly difficult to dam-up a river which has once
+found its way to some unaccustomed channel, so this secondary stream of
+consciousness will soon become a rushing, mighty torrent, incapable of
+being checked or dammed in its mad course.</p>
+
+<p>So long as this split-off portion remains a mass of sporadic thoughts,
+not much damage has been done; but when they become abnormally linked or
+associated together, forming groups, then the abnormal conditions have
+begun in earnest. These masses of subconscious experiences are called
+"complexes," and give rise to all sorts of trouble. It must not be
+thought that this complex formation is always harmful; on the contrary,
+this very process, when normally conducted, is the basis of our
+educational processes. But when they are thus conglomerated and
+consolidated outside the conscious mind, and function automatically,
+involuntarily, by themselves, then they have become dangerous to the
+mental stability. Their pressure and influence may be felt in the
+conscious life&mdash;in fantastic imaginations, in fears, phobias, and
+obsessions&mdash;in morbid dreams&mdash;in morbid emotional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> and moral reactions
+throughout the entire psycho-physical life. It is these automatic,
+self-acting complexes which originate many of the disorders of the mind.</p>
+
+<p>How, then, are we to diagnose this condition when once it has been
+reached; and, when once diagnosed, how is it to be treated? These are
+the all-important questions which modern psychological students have set
+themselves to solve, with more or less success. As briefly as may be,
+these are the methods.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, a careful system of observation, question, and
+experiment will yield many important results. An analysis of the dream
+life will prove of great value in this connection also. If the dreams
+cannot be voluntarily recalled, they are brought to light by means of
+hypnotism, psycho-analysis, or the employment of what is known as the
+"hypnoidal" state&mdash;as induced by Dr. Boris Sidis. This is an
+artificially induced condition, half-way between sleeping and waking, in
+which many half-forgotten experiences again merge into the mind; and
+even thoughts which had <i>never</i> been in the conscious mind at
+all&mdash;subconscious observations, etc., or the content of the dream life.
+These dreams are then analysed. It is a very striking fact that
+differing or alternating selves may have entirely different dreams; or,
+on the other hand, different and distinct selves may have a common
+meeting-place in the dream world. By means of dreams, it has thus been
+possible to come in touch with the thoughts of the other Self, which had
+been impossible by any other means at our disposal. A study and analysis
+of the dream life has thus assumed great importance within the past few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+years, and bids fair to assume greater and greater importance as the
+study of the subconscious, and abnormal psychology, increases.</p>
+
+<p>Other methods of tapping the subconscious mental life are: planchette,
+automatic writing and crystal-gazing. In the former cases, a pencil is
+placed in the hand of the subject, or the hand is placed on a
+planchette; and, while the conscious mind is occupied in conversation,
+or reading aloud, etc., the hand is, nevertheless, writing out an
+account of its experiences&mdash;its thoughts and feelings&mdash;which prove
+highly valuable to the investigator. Or the patient may be asked to look
+into a crystal, and describe what, if any, visions and pictures form
+within the ball. These pictures are, of course, hallucinatory; but they
+indicate, none the less, the content of the subconscious mind; since
+they are the externalized thoughts and feelings of that stratum of the
+mind. Here, again, we have a valuable means of diagnosis.</p>
+
+<p>Again, we have a purely experimental method of studying the emotions&mdash;by
+means of the galvanometer. An electric current being passed through the
+body, variations in the current are detected by means of an electric
+needle, which fluctuates as the current varies. Now, it has been found
+that these fluctuations vary in accordance with changed emotional
+states; and that in certain conditions of the mind, such as dementia,
+the variations are almost entirely absent, because of the lack of
+emotional reactions. It has thus been found that this form of insanity
+is largely a disease of the emotional life. On the other hand, when the
+emotions are strong, the fluctuations of the needle are very marked and
+prolonged.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> We have thus another most valuable method of testing the
+emotional life&mdash;always largely subconscious&mdash;by means of purely
+mechanical instruments.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, we have hypnotism, the skilled employment of which has been
+found of inestimable value in laying bare the secrets of the
+subconscious life. By its aid it has been found possible to disclose the
+secrets of being, to tap the subconscious mind at will, to explore the
+hidden regions of Self, which would otherwise have remained for ever
+inaccessible to the experimenter. For, by placing the patient in the
+hypnotic condition, the subconscious mind is exposed to view, as it
+were, and its secrets made manifest. The wounds and scars are thus
+rendered visible to the mental eye of the physician, and he is enabled
+to treat his case accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, hypnotism has been found one of the chief means of cure as well as
+of diagnosis. By its aid the tangled skein of the mental life may be
+unravelled, the mental knots may be untied, and the threads may be woven
+and plaited together again into one normal, healthy chain of being. This
+may be accomplished by means of suggestion rightly applied. When once
+the hidden complex has been brought to the surface, when its story is
+told, its secrets laid bare, it seems incapable of doing more damage, of
+again influencing the mental life detrimentally. Its life, its vitality,
+seems to have gone; its ammunition has been stolen, it has "shot its
+bolt," it is incapable of doing more injury to the normal self. Many
+hidden fears, depressions, and obsessions have been removed in this
+manner, simply by bringing these hidden fears and thoughts to the
+surface and disposing of them by means of suggestion. Many seemingly
+miraculous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> cures have been effected in this manner. The "demons" have
+been expelled, the brooding thoughts have vanished. This method of
+dispelling them is technically known as the cathartic method, and
+consists simply in a frank and full confession. When this has been
+brought about, when the brooding thoughts have been brought to
+light&mdash;confessed and discharged, as it were, from the mind&mdash;then a cure
+will be found to have been wrought; the man has again been made whole&mdash;a
+very significant fact if taken in connection with religious conversion,
+communion, confession, and prayer.</p>
+
+<p>We have somewhat diverged, however, from our main theme, to which we
+must now return. We have seen that the subconscious mind may become, so
+to speak, <i>diseased</i>&mdash;this consisting very largely in the processes of
+dissociation, complex formation, etc. Further, we have seen that this
+dissociated, automatically-acting "self" may exist either as a separate
+stream of thought running alongside of, or rather <i>below</i> the main
+current; or may alternate with it, by rising to the surface and
+occupying the whole stage to the exclusion of the normal
+consciousness&mdash;when we have those cases of alternating or multiplex
+personality which have so puzzled psychologists for many years&mdash;and the
+correct interpretation of which we are only just beginning to realize.
+When this complete change of "self" has taken place, we have those cases
+of altered personality referred to at the beginning of this
+chapter&mdash;cases which are tragic in the extreme in many instances, but
+which represent merely extreme types of those losses of memory from
+which we all suffer, to a greater or lesser extent, even in our normal
+life. The restoration of lost memories<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> by means of suggestion&mdash;the
+synthesis of the dissociated states&mdash;<i>this</i> is the key to the mystery,
+the great secret of modern psychotherapy.</p>
+
+<p>And this theory of dissociation of consciousness has enabled us to
+explain many puzzling facts hitherto inexplicable. Thus <i>hysteria</i>, with
+its multiform symptoms and its internal contradictions, has long been
+the stumbling-block of medicine. Now it is no longer thought to be a
+morbid state (dependent usually upon sexual disturbances), but it is
+regarded rather as an indication of the splitting of the mind, a
+dissociation which embraces all the motor, physical, and psychical
+activities. On this theory, hysteria is easily explained and all its
+multiplex symptoms understood. In treating it, the self is unified,
+abnormal suggestibility is removed, and the patient is cured!</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychaesthenia</i> again, with its obsessions and fears, may be explained
+in the same manner, and its cure rests upon the same principles. The
+"attacks" cease so soon as the psychical synthesis is effected and the
+morbid self-consciousness removed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neurasthenia</i>, long regarded as a pathological state, due to
+auto-intoxication and similar causes, is now thought to be due chiefly
+to dissociation, caused by excessive fatigue&mdash;one of the known
+contributory causes to this condition. <i>Psycho-epilepsy</i>&mdash;a sort of
+fictitious imitation of the real disease&mdash;is due to precisely similar
+causes, and may be cured in a similar manner.</p>
+
+<p>A word of caution may not be out of place in this connection. Inasmuch
+as hypnotism is itself a method of inducing a passive psychological
+state&mdash;one peculiarly open to suggestion of all kinds&mdash;it can readily be
+seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> that its employment may be exceedingly dangerous, save in the
+hands of a skilled operator. It may be the very <i>cause</i> of a splitting
+of the mind&mdash;if improperly administered&mdash;if the patient is not
+thoroughly awakened, the effects of suggestion completely removed, etc.
+In this lies the great danger&mdash;of which we hear so much, usually with so
+little foundation! The <i>real</i> danger in the process is thus apparent;
+but, properly applied, hypnotism is doubtless of great therapeutic
+utility and of great practical value to the psychologist.</p>
+
+<p>Just <i>how</i> these dissociations of the mind take place we do not yet know
+with any degree of certainty. We might suppose that certain areas in the
+brain-cortex become detached in their functionings, as it were, from the
+general activities, and set up a little "monarchy" of their
+own&mdash;interactions and associations going on within that area, but never
+extending beyond its periphery; that each one of these centres or areas
+corresponds to a "self," a personality; and that a cure consists,
+physiologically speaking, in bringing about a healthy and normal
+interaction between this "self" and the rest of the brain area, so that
+associations go on thenceforward in a complete and uniform manner. But
+this is pure speculation, for which there is no experimental evidence,
+though it probably represents something of the truth. At all events, the
+dissociation of the mind is the chief cause of the trouble, and its
+synthesis the chief means of cure. <i>That</i> much has been rendered certain
+by the newer researches in the field of the subconscious, and by the
+persistent search for that greatest of all secrets&mdash;the <span class="smcap">Mystery of
+Being</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> It can be shown, theoretically, that this is possible in
+the "fourth dimension," but not in the third. This illustrates the
+difference between theory and practice&mdash;a point it might be well for
+Christian Scientists to keep in mind!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Although this theory of the "composite" nature of mind is
+now generally held, Mr. Myers has contended that the Self must have a
+<i>fundamental</i> unity&mdash;to enable it to withstand the shock of death.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">PSYCHIC PHOTOGRAPHY</p>
+
+<p class="subhead3">(<i>New Experiments</i>)</p>
+
+
+<p>In my <i>Modern Psychical Phenomena</i> (Chap. viii.) I reproduced a number
+of "spirit" and "thought" photographs, the evidence for which seemed to
+me to be exceptionally good. Since that time, I have received a number
+of "psychic" photographs, from various sources,&mdash;some of them obviously
+fraudulent, and some of them extremely puzzling, when the circumstances
+of their production were fairly taken into account. It will be
+remembered, for instance, that I published a number of curious
+photographs obtained by Mr. E. P. Le Flohic, on whose plates curious
+streaks of light were obtained, in a dark room. Since then, I have
+discussed the matter at some length with Mr. Le Flohic, and I am more
+than ever convinced that no conscious trickery was involved in the
+production of these pictures; I have also examined the <i>negatives</i>
+(plates), and am prepared to state that no external markings are upon
+them, and that they have not been tampered with in any way. In other
+words, the lights were undoubtedly <i>in the room</i> at the time the plates
+were exposed. Yet no one saw anything unusual! It is a curious and
+baffling case.</p>
+
+<p>Since then, Mr. Le Flohic has tried other experiments, with almost
+uniform failure. In a letter dated August 14, 1920, he says:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"... Since resuming my experiments in psychic photography, I have
+taken about 25 pictures, and with but two exceptions have had no
+results whatever. One of these I sent you some time ago, and the
+last one I am sending you under separate cover. (Reproduced as
+Figs. 1, 2.) I have not had very favourable conditions for
+experiments, and discontinued them about three weeks ago. I am
+going to arrange soon to start a series of experiments, by myself,
+in my private library, and should I get any results, will gladly
+inform you."</p></div>
+
+<p>The curious streak of light noted in Fig. 2 is, on any theory, most
+remarkable. The central band seems to be <i>dark</i> in the middle,
+surrounded by a band of light, from which a golden "aura" radiates. The
+sitters saw nothing unusual&mdash;either in the dark, or during the
+flash-light, with which this picture was taken.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the newer methods of experimentation I may mention "thought
+photography"&mdash;in which attempts have been made, by individuals, to
+obtain photographs of their own <i>thoughts</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This method of obtaining psychic or thought-photographs is
+entirely different from that employed in obtaining <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>so-called
+"spirit-photographs." In the latter case, a camera is focused upon the
+sitter, who "sits" as usual, and the forms appear upon the plate when
+developed. In obtaining thought-photographs, <i>no camera at all is used</i>;
+the plates (or films) are carefully wrapped in opaque black paper and
+sealed up, so as to prevent the slightest ray of light from reaching the
+plates. These plates (or films) are then placed against the forehead,
+where they are held for from five minutes to half an hour, or longer,
+according to the patience of the experimenter and the degree of his
+psychic power. An intense effort is made to impress upon the plate, by
+an act of will, a mental picture or image held in the mind. Anything
+will do&mdash;the head of an eagle, the sun, the face of a friend. The plate
+is then taken into the dark-room, unwrapped and carefully developed. In
+those cases which have been successful, an image, more or less clear, of
+the picture held in mind will be found upon the plate.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><a name="i1"></a>
+<img src="images/photo02a.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" title="" />
+<a name="i2"></a>
+<img src="images/photo02b.jpg" width="350" height="447" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Psychic Photographs (1, 2)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>This will, I have no doubt, appear incredible to the average reader. The
+facts, nevertheless, remain! Such photographs <i>have</i> been obtained&mdash;in
+America, France, Poland, Japan and other parts of the world. A series of
+careful, simultaneous experiments have proved to us that such
+photographs <i>can</i> be taken, under precisely the conditions I have
+described.</p>
+
+
+<p>Commandant Darget, of the French army, obtained a number of very
+striking photographs in this manner. A number of these are to be found
+in Joire's book, <i>Psychical and Supernormal Phenomena</i>, where we find
+thought-photographs of bottles, a walking-stick, the head<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> of an eagle
+and other subjects obtained in this manner. Writing of the impression of
+the eagle's head, M. Darget says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"With regard to the eagle, it was produced in this way: Mme. Darget
+was in my office, lying on my sofa, about ten o'clock in the
+evening. I said to her: 'I am about to put out the lamp and to try
+(as I have already done sometimes) to take a fluidic print over my
+forehead. I will hand you a plate for you to do it as well.'</p>
+
+<p>"I therefore handed her a plate, which she held with both her hands
+about an inch in front of her forehead. A short time afterwards&mdash;it
+might be about ten minutes&mdash;she said to me: 'I think I am going
+asleep; I am very tired: I am going to lie down.' And feeling her
+way in the darkness, she handed me the plate.</p>
+
+<p>"I then went to develop it, and was surprised to see this
+astonishing figure of an eagle. I have called it a
+'dream-photograph,' although my wife does not remember having
+dreamed of a bird or anything else while she held the plate."</p></div>
+
+<p>Dr. Baraduc, of Paris, likewise asserted that he had obtained psychic
+photographs of human radiations and of human thought. For instance,
+calm, peaceful emotions are said to produce pictures of softly
+homogeneous light, or the appearance of a gentle shower of snowflakes
+against a black background; whereas sad or violent passions suggest, in
+the arrangement of the light and shadows, the idea of a whirlpool or
+revolving storm, somewhat like a meteorological diagram representing a
+cyclone. If these photographs are really what they are believed to be,
+they would seem to indicate that, in our<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> ordinary normal condition, we
+emit radiations which are regulated and flow forth in smooth, even
+succession; but when violent emotions, such as anger or fear, break
+through the control of the will and take possession of us, they produce
+a violent and confused emission.</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason, <i>a priori</i>, why the soul should not be a
+space-occupying body, save for the tradition of theology. For all that
+we know, the soul might be a point of force, existing within and
+animating some sort of ethereal body, which corresponds, in size and
+shape, to our material body. But at all events, there is an abundance of
+very good testimony to the effect that the shape of the spiritual body
+corresponds to that of the material body; and, as such, it certainly
+occupies space, and possibly has weight also. It might and it might not;
+it is a question of evidence. It will have to be settled, if at all, not
+by speculations, but by <i>facts</i>. Are there any facts, then, that would
+seem to indicate that the soul might be photographed? Have we any
+evidence that the soul may be photographed&mdash;say, at the moment of death?
+If so, we should have advanced a great step in our knowledge of this
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>Before I adduce the evidence on this point, however, it may be well to
+illustrate the fact that there is no inherent absurdity in the idea, as
+many might suppose. Of course the spiritual body would have to be
+material enough to reflect light waves, but where is the evidence that
+it is not? There seems to be much evidence, on the contrary, that it
+<i>is</i>. It must be remembered that the camera will disclose innumerable
+things quite invisible to the naked eye, or even to the eye aided by the
+strongest glasses or telescopes. Normally, we can see<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> but a few hundred
+stars in the sky; with the aid of telescopes, we can see many thousand;
+but the photographic camera discloses more than <i>twenty million</i>! Here,
+then, is direct evidence that the camera can observe things which we
+cannot see; and, indeed, this whole process of sight or "seeing" is a
+far more complicated one than most persons imagine. As Sir Oliver Lodge
+has pointed out, there is no reason why we should not be enabled to
+photograph a spirit, when we can photograph an image in a mirror&mdash;which
+is composed simply of vibrations, and reflected vibrations at that! We
+are a long way from the tangible thing, in such a case; and yet we are
+enabled to photograph it with an ordinary camera. Any disturbance in the
+ether we should be enabled to photograph likewise&mdash;if only we had
+delicate enough instruments, and if the "conditions" for the experiment
+were favourable. The phenomena of spirit-photography, and especially the
+experiments of Dr. Baraduc, to which I shall presently refer, would seem
+to indicate this.</p>
+
+<p>These experiments, as well as those that are about to follow, gain
+greater credibility when considered in the light of the newer
+experimental researches in physics, which demonstrate, apparently, that
+matter can be made to disintegrate and disappear, and can be again
+reformed from invisible vortices in the ether into sufficiently solid
+bodies to be photographed by the sensitive plate. In his remarkable
+work, <i>The Evolution of Matter</i>, Dr. Gustave Le Bon has devoted a whole
+section of his argument to what he has denominated "the
+dematerialization of matter." He proves by experiments in the physical
+laboratory that matter can dissociate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> and vanish into apparent
+nothingness. What really takes place, however, is that the solid matter,
+as we have been accustomed to conceive it, is resolved into its finer
+constituent parts&mdash;not only into the material atoms of which it is
+composed, but these atoms are in turn dissociated and resolved into a
+series of etheric vortices, invisible to normal sense perception.
+Apparently, therefore, matter has ceased to be, as such; and, in fact,
+it has been resolved into energy! Conversely, Dr. Le Bon proved that, by
+producing artificial equilibria of the elements arising from the
+dissociation of matter, he could succeed in creating, with immaterial
+particles, "something singularly resembling matter." These equilibria
+were maintained a sufficient length of time to enable them to be
+photographed.</p>
+
+<p>On p. 164 of Dr. Le Bon's <i>Evolution of Matter</i>, are to be found
+photographs of what is practically materialized matter. This author
+says, in part:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Such equilibria can only be maintained for a moment. If we were
+able to isolate and fix them for good&mdash;that is to say, so that they
+would survive their generating cause&mdash;we should have succeeded in
+creating with immaterial particles something singularly resembling
+matter. The enormous quantity of energy condensed within the atom
+shows the impossibility of realizing such an experiment. But, if we
+cannot with immaterial things effect equilibria, able to survive
+the cause which gave them birth, we can at least maintain them for
+a sufficiently long time to photograph them, and thus create a sort
+of momentary materialization."</p></div>
+
+<p>If, therefore, physical science now admits, as it does,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> that
+vibrations, or disturbances in the ether, can be photographed, there is
+no longer any <i>a priori</i> objection to these experiments by Dr.
+Baraduc&mdash;which claim, merely, that similar vibrations have been
+photographed&mdash;such vibrations being the external modification or
+impression left upon the ether by the causal thought.</p>
+
+<p>So much for theoretical possibilities: now for the facts.</p>
+
+<p>In a remarkable little booklet, entitled, <i>Unseen Faces Photographed</i>,
+Dr. H. A. Reid has presented a number of cases of supposed spirit
+photography, some of which are certainly difficult to account for by any
+theory of fraud. It is true that the methods of imitating this process
+by fraudulent means are numerous and ingenious; but practically none of
+them are unknown. In <i>The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism</i>, pp.
+206-23, I have described these fraudulent methods in considerable
+detail; and have also published an account of a case in which trickery
+was actually detected in the process of operation. (See <i>Proceedings of
+the American S.P.R.</i>, 1908, vol. ii., pp. 10-13.) But there seem to be
+certain cases on record that are most difficult to account for by any
+theory of trickery&mdash;partly because of the excellence of the conditions,
+and partly because of the character of the experimenter. Let us glance
+at one or two of the cases in which the character of the experimenter
+would seem to insure the fact that no conscious and voluntary fraud was
+practised. A r&eacute;sum&eacute; of a few such cases is to be found in Mr. Edward T.
+Bennett's little book on <i>Spiritualism</i>, pp. 113-20.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> I quote in
+part:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The most notable exception to this (rule of fraud) which I am able
+to quote is that of the late Mr. J. Traill Taylor, who was for a
+considerable time the editor of the <i>British Journal of
+Photography</i>. The following quotations are from a paper on 'Spirit
+Photography' by Mr. Taylor. It was originally read before the
+London and Provincial Photographic Association in March, 1893, and
+was reprinted in the <i>British Journal of Photography</i> for March
+26th, 1904, shortly after Mr. Taylor's death. He says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"'Spirit photography, so called, has of late been asserting its
+existence in such a manner and to such an extent as to warrant
+competent men in making an investigation, conducted under stringent
+test conditions, into the circumstances under which such
+photographs are produced, and exposing the fraud should it prove to
+be such, instead of pooh-poohing it as insensate because we do not
+understand how it can be otherwise&mdash;a position that scarcely
+commends itself as intelligent or philosophical. If, in what
+follows, I call it "spirit photography," instead of psychic
+photography, it is only in deference to a nomenclature that
+extensively prevails.... I approach the subject merely as a
+photographer.'</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Taylor then gives a history of the earlier manifestations of
+spirit photography, and goes on to explain how striking phenomena
+in photographing what is invisible to the eye may be produced by
+the agency of florescence. He quotes the demonstration of Dr.
+Gladstone, F.R.S., at the Bradford meeting of the British
+Association in 1873, showing that invisible drawings on white cards
+have produced bold and clear photographs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> when no eye could see the
+drawings themselves. Hence, as Mr. Taylor says: 'The photographing
+of an invisible image is not scientifically impossible.'</p>
+
+<p>"Mr. Taylor then proceeds to describe some personal experiments. He
+says: 'For several years I have experienced a strong desire to
+ascertain by personal investigation the amount of truth in the
+ever-recurring allegation that figures, other than those visually
+present in the room, appeared on the sensitive plate.... Mr. D., of
+Glasgow, in whose presence psychic photographs have long been
+alleged to be obtained, was lately in London on a visit, and a
+mutual friend got him to consent to extend his stay in order that I
+might try to get a psychic photograph under test conditions. To
+this he willingly agreed. My conditions were exceedingly simple,
+were courteously expressed to the host, and entirely acquiesced in.
+They were that I, for the nonce, would assume them all to be
+tricksters, and, to guard against fraud, should use my own camera
+and unopened packages of dry plates purchased from dealers of
+repute, and that I should be excused from allowing a plate to go
+out of my own hand till after development, unless I felt otherwise
+disposed; but that as I was to treat them as under suspicion, so
+must they treat me, and that every act I performed must be in the
+presence of two witnesses; nay, that I would set a watch upon my
+own camera in the guise of a duplicate one of the same focus&mdash;in
+other words, I would use a binocular stereoscopic camera and
+dictate all the conditions of operation....</p>
+
+<p>"'Dr. G. was the first sitter, and, for a reason known to myself, I
+used a monocular camera. I myself took the plate out of a packet
+just previously ripped up, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> the surveillance of my two
+detectives. I placed the slide in my pocket and exposed it by
+magnesium ribbon which I held in my own hand, keeping one eye, as
+it were, on the sitter, and the other on the camera. There was no
+background. I myself took the plate from the dark slide, and, under
+the eyes of the two detectives, placed it in the developing dish.
+Between the camera and the sitter a female figure was developed,
+rather in a more pronounced form than that of the sitter.... I
+submit this picture.... I do not recognize her, or any of the other
+figures I obtained, as like any one I know....</p>
+
+<p>"'Many experiments of like nature followed; on some plates were
+abnormal appearances, on others none. All this time Mr. D., the
+medium, during the exposure of the plates, was quite inactive....</p>
+
+<p>"'The psychic figures behaved badly. Some were in focus, others not
+so. Some were lighted from the right, while the sitter was from the
+left; some were comely ... others not so. Some monopolized the
+major portion of the plate, quite obliterating the material
+sitters.... But here is the point: Not one of these figures which
+came out so strongly in the negative was visible in any form or
+shape to me during the time of exposure in the camera, and I vouch
+in the strongest manner for the fact that no one whatever had an
+opportunity of tampering with any plate anterior to its being
+placed in the dark slide or immediately preceding development.
+Pictorially they are vile, but how came they there?</p>
+
+<p>"'Now, all this time I imagine you are wondering how the
+stereoscopic camera was behaving itself as such.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> It is due to the
+psychic entities to say that whatever was produced on one-half of
+the stereoscopic plates was produced on the other&mdash;alike good or
+bad in definition. But, on a careful examination of one which was
+rather better than the other ... I deduce this fact, that the
+impressing of the spirit form was not simultaneous with that of the
+sitter.... This I consider an important discovery. I carefully
+examined one in the stereoscope and found that, while the two
+sitters were stereoscopic <i>per se</i>, the psychic figure was
+absolutely <i>flat</i>! I also found that the psychic figure was at
+least a millimetre higher up in one than in the other. Now, as both
+had been simultaneously exposed, it follows to demonstration that,
+although both were correctly placed, vertically in relation to that
+particular sitter, behind whom the figure appeared, and not so
+horizontally, this figure had not only not been impressed on the
+plate simultaneously with the two gentlemen forming the group, but
+had <i>not</i> been formed by the lens at all, and that, therefore, the
+psychic image might be produced <i>without a camera</i>. I think this is
+a fair deduction. But still the question obtrudes: How came these
+figures there? I again assert that the plates were not tampered
+with by either myself or any one present. Are they crystallizations
+of thought? Have lens and light really nothing to do with their
+formation? The whole subject was mysterious enough on the
+hypothesis of an invisible spirit&mdash;whether a thought projection or
+an actual spirit, being really there in the vicinity of the
+sitter&mdash;but it is now a thousand times more so....</p>
+
+<p>"'In the foregoing I have confined myself as closely as possible to
+narrating how I conducted a photographic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> experiment open to every
+one to make, avoiding stating any hypothesis or belief of my own on
+the subject.'"</p></div>
+
+<p>Let us now return to some later experiments in psychic photography. Two
+small photographs, one showing a face, the other a series of small
+starlike markings, were sent to me by a member of the Society for the
+Study of Psychic Photography, of England. Writing of these prints, my
+correspondent says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A week or so ago we distributed one hundred and ten strips of
+sensitive film, in light-tight packages, for friends of the members
+to 'wear.' This was done with the idea of ascertaining
+approximately what percentage of individuals possessed this gift.
+We agreed that the films should be carried about for a week, and
+where possible worn round the forehead at night. The experiment
+proved more successful than we had anticipated, since six out of
+the one hundred and ten films were more or less affected. The two
+best results are those shown on the prints enclosed herewith." (Not
+shown.)</p></div>
+
+<p>These results are quite in keeping with some that have lately been
+obtained in California. In a recent communication which I have received
+from Mr. Vincent Jones, Vice-President of the California Psychical
+Research Society,&mdash;under whose auspices the experiment was
+undertaken&mdash;he says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Then we tried thought-photography. I bought some ordinary plates,
+which were opened in the dark-room of an X-ray laboratory. The
+plate was inclosed within an envelope of opaque black paper and
+this in another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> envelope. It was then suspended about twelve
+inches in front of the eyes of the sitting experimenter....</p>
+
+<p>"This experimenter first wrote down on a slip of paper the thing he
+was going to concentrate on, folded it and handed it to a
+committee. Then he sat and concentrated for ten minutes. The plate
+was then developed, and contained the image, clear and strong and
+unmistakable, of a <i>cross</i>. This proved to be the subject handed to
+the committee." (See Fig. 3.)</p></div>
+
+<p>In view of the remarkable character of this experiment&mdash;as well as its
+importance, and taking into account the apparently excellent conditions
+under which the test was made, I wrote to Mr. Jones, asking him to be
+kind enough to secure, if possible, the statements of any additional
+witnesses who might have been present on this occasion, and he sent me,
+in response to this request, the following affidavit, signed by five of
+the witnesses who were present at the time:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">California Psychical Research Society,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 3, 1920.</span><br />
+Dr. Hereward Carrington.<br />
+504 West 111th St.<br />
+New York City.<br />
+Dear Dr. Carrington.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Enclosed is the print I promised you of the "Thought Photograph"
+taken by a Committee composed in part of members of the Council of
+the California Psychical Research Society, in May, 1919. The
+conditions were as follows: I purchased at Hirsch &amp; Kaye, opticians
+and photo-supplies, a box of one dozen ordinary rapid Seed plates.
+I took the box unopened to the Committee <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>meeting, which was held
+at the X-Ray Laboratory of Preston &amp; Huppert in this city. Mr.
+Henry Huppert, Dr. Frank Collins, Dr. Cecil Nixon and myself went
+into the dark room, where Mr. Huppert opened the box of plates,
+took one at random from the centre of the package, enclosed it
+inside an opaque black envelope, and this again inside another
+yellow envelope and sealed it. This was taken outside and suspended
+about 12 inches in front of our subject, who was seated and had
+previously written down what he would concentrate upon, and handed
+the memo to Dr. Collins. The subject drew a rough outline of the
+object of his concentration, gazed fixedly upon it for about 5
+minutes, then put it aside and for ten minutes concentrated upon
+the plate without touching the same. The plate was immediately
+taken into the dark room and developed, and the image of the cross
+developed at once, clear and strong. One of the Committee was in
+the room with the subject during the whole time, and there was no
+opportunity for any tampering with the plate. The object developed
+proved to be the one previously written down and handed to Dr.
+Collins.</p>
+
+<p>
+Yours very truly,<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Vincent Jones</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Frank T. Collins, D.O.</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">J. C. Anthony, M.D.</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Cecil E. Nixon, D.O.S.</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Henry K. Huppert</span>.</span><br />
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="i3"></a>
+<img src="images/photo03.jpg" width="400" height="221" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="center smcap">Thought Photograph (3)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Supplementing this formal report, Mr. Vincent Jones sent me the
+following letter, in answer to my questions, which I also quote:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 10, 1920.</span><br />
+Dr. Hereward Carrington.<br />
+504 West 111th St.<br />
+New York City.<br />
+Dear Dr. Carrington.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Here is the signed statement I promised you, and the better print
+of the cross photo. The others who were present at the experiments
+are not where I can reach them at present, but the five whose
+signatures are appended to the accompanying statement are the
+best-known of the eight who were present,&mdash;men whose testimony in a
+court of law would be accepted without question. Dr. Frank Collins
+is, or was, President of the Osteopaths' Association, a
+Spiritualist, student of Astrology and mystical subjects, and a
+member of the Council of the California Psychical Research Society.
+Dr. J. C. Anthony is a well and favorably known physician, who has
+practised here for many years, also a member of our Council. Dr.
+Cecil E. Nixon is a Dentist, best known as a Magician, and as the
+inventor of "Isis," a wonderful automaton which plays any tune you
+request of her on the zither. Mr. Henry Huppert is one of the
+partners in the Preston-Huppert X-Ray Laboratory, a man with
+scientific training and a student of the Occult.</p>
+
+<p>Such a thing as substitution by the subject of another plate for
+the one we suspended before him was out of the question for two
+reasons. First, he was not left alone. Second, he did not know in
+advance just what was to be the nature of our experiment. When Mr.
+Huppert broke the seal on the box of plates, in the presence of the
+Committee of four, in the dark room,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> and selected one at random
+from the centre of the box, and enclosed it in the two envelopes,
+he not only sealed the envelopes but marked the envelopes, so that
+he would know if they had been tampered with. They could not have
+been opened without destroying these marks. Furthermore, in the
+room where the experiment was conducted, there was an ordinary
+electric light burning, and no substitution could have been made
+without affecting the plate. It could not have been possible that
+the subject, being previously unaware of the exact nature of the
+contemplated experiment, could have provided himself with plates of
+the same size and envelopes of two colours and of identically the
+same paper as those used in the X-Ray Laboratory. If anything
+happened to the plate it happened <i>through</i> the paper of the
+envelopes. But, as I have said, one of the committee was in the
+room during the whole experiment. The sole possibility of fraud was
+for the subject to have come prepared with a cross painted with
+radio-active paint, and to have held this against the envelopes
+whilst the Committee was off its guard. But the character of the
+subject is sufficient guarantee to all of us that such was not the
+case. I admit that to those who do not know him, this would furnish
+no guarantee, and that for this reason we <span class="smcap">should have taken even
+more stringent precautions. Had we known that such a result was to
+be obtained we probably would have done this, but we were just a
+company of friends who had gathered to try what we might
+accomplish, after having read of Colonel de Rochas' experiments
+along this line. We trusted one another, and so it is barely
+possible that for a moment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> some one who was supposed to be
+watching the subject was off his guard. Therein lies the sole
+possibility of fraud in this result, and, as I said, this is out of
+the question with us who know the character of the subject.</span></p>
+
+<p>
+Yours very truly,<br /><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Vincent Jones</span>,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">215 Balboa Bldg.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>P. S. The reason we were not all in the room with the subject
+during the trial was that we were trying to do the same thing
+ourselves. I was concentrating upon a V, with a film on my
+forehead, and the others were trying it either with film or plate.
+Only one other secured anything at all, and that was but a blur.
+Our subject who did get the Cross result is a very highly developed
+mystic with remarkable powers of concentration, but modest about
+his powers and for that reason, and because he is extremely busy,
+we have not been able to repeat the experiment with him since. V.
+J.</p></div>
+
+<p>As might be expected, many of these "psychic photographs" take on the
+characteristics of "spirit-photographs," in that they show definitely
+recognizable <i>forms</i>. This is especially true of a number of psychic
+photographs which were recently taken at Crewe, England, in the presence
+of two non-professional mediums, who have, nevertheless, obtained
+hundreds of successful photographs in this manner. Regarding their
+experiments, a correspondent writes me:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"They are not professionals and charge no fee. A nominal charge is
+made for prints.... I do not know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> of any one who has sat with the
+Crewe circle who has not been satisfied that fraud, at any rate,
+will not explain these things. Those who have <i>not</i> been and who
+know nothing of the subject, say just the opposite.... Many of the
+results in themselves rule out faking. I have had many sittings
+with these mediums and have not the slightest doubt whatever
+regarding their absolute genuineness. In fact, in some of the tests
+I have carried out with them, faking would have been quite
+impossible, even had they been desirous of tricking. I speak as an
+amateur photographer of many years' standing, in touch with
+photography every working day of his life."</p></div>
+
+<p>Several photographs obtained at this now-famous Crewe circle are
+reproduced herewith. Certainly it is true that such photographs might be
+obtained by means of double exposure, double printing and other devices;
+but the point is that we have the word of an expert photographer that
+they were <i>not</i> produced in this manner; and when once their genuine
+character is admitted, they assume very great interest, no matter what
+view we may care to take as to the results.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Estelle Stead, daughter of the late W. T. Stead, writing of her
+experiences with this same group of psychics, says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I have several times, since he passed on, obtained photos of my
+father on the same plate I took with me, <i>under the most rigid
+test-conditions</i>&mdash;on plates which I have never let out of my sight,
+save for the few moments they were in the camera for my photo to be
+taken.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>"I also obtained a splendid photo of my brother, who passed over in
+1907. He promised that before I went for the sitting he would be
+photographed instead of Father, if he could manage it. I said
+nothing of this to the lady who sat with me for the photograph to
+be taken, or to the photographer. I put my own marked plate in the
+slide myself, and stood by while it was developed. My brother's
+face appeared quite as plainly as mine, and has been recognized by
+many who knew him in life. He was seldom photographed while here,
+and certainly <i>never</i> with his head in exactly the position it is
+in this photograph, received nine years after his death.</p>
+
+<p>"It is only natural that those who have passed over in the war
+should, when conditions allow, use this means of establishing their
+identity, and many have done so successfully! One case of
+particular interest is that of a boy who was blown to pieces in
+France last year. His mother wrote in great distress to a friend in
+Edinburgh stating that the boy had been killed. This friend had not
+seen the boy since his school-days, but being interested in
+spiritualism, and able to get in touch with those on the 'other
+side,' she asked her father, who had passed over, if it would be
+possible for the boy to be photographed. He said it was doubtful,
+but they would do their best. She therefore made arrangements to
+have a sitting with the Crewe mediums, who possess this power which
+enables those on the other side to manifest sufficiently to be
+photographed.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="i4"></a>
+<img src="images/photo04a.jpg" width="300" height="401" alt="" title="" />
+
+<a name="i5"></a>
+<img src="images/photo04b.jpg" width="300" height="429" alt="" title="" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Psychic Photographs (4, 5)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>"Two plates were exposed, and on one side, beside the photo of the
+lady herself, there is an unmistakable photo of the boy. I have
+seen it, and a photo of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>boy taken before he went to France,
+and there is no mistaking the likeness. She sent the pictures to
+his parents, who before this had not been believers in the
+possibility of communication with those who have passed on&mdash;with
+the result that they are now convinced of it, and have received
+several comforting and assuring messages from their boy."</p></div>
+
+<p>We see how imperceptibly ordinary psychic photographs shade off into
+those more definitely spiritistic in character. This is true in nearly
+all phenomena in this realm. It is hard to draw any hard-and-fast line,
+and say: "<i>This</i> is due to powers within our own being, and <i>this</i> is
+due to external spiritual beings!" They merge one into the other so
+gradually that it is extremely difficult to draw any line of demarcation
+between the two.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly <i>some</i> of these photographs are due to the thoughts or other
+psychic activities of the sitter. Thus we can hardly suppose that the
+"spirits" of bottles, walking-sticks and eagles (as in Darget's
+experiments) were actually present, and that they impressed themselves
+upon the photographic plate! Again, some pictures show us a definite
+<i>face</i>, which we cannot attribute to any outside influence. The
+experimenter merely <i>thought</i> of the face, and it appeared upon the
+plate. This being so, how can we <i>ever</i> obtain proof that the forms and
+faces which appear upon photographic plates are those of discarnate
+spirits,&mdash;even though they appear and are recognized,&mdash;since we know
+that mental images or memories of faces have been photographed in just
+this manner?</p>
+
+<p>That is indeed a difficult problem: it is very like that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> which
+confronts us in the case of any good trance-medium. Inasmuch as
+telepathy is a fact, and the medium almost certainly derives <i>some</i> of
+the facts from one's mind, or from the minds of other living people, how
+can we ever prove "survival"&mdash;the actual communication of our spirit
+friends?</p>
+
+<p>We can only apply the same sort of tests in the one case as in the
+other. We must discount all those facts which might possibly have been
+obtained normally, or by telepathy, and pin our faith on those which
+could not possibly, or conceivably, have been obtained in this way.
+Similarly, we must assume that all psychic photographs represent normal
+markings upon the plates, or the emotions or thoughts of the sitter, or
+the vital radiations issuing from his body, until indisputable proof to
+the contrary be forthcoming. (It may be added that some very striking
+evidence of identity has been obtained in this manner, from time to time
+in the past, and is now being obtained in various circles both in this
+country and abroad.)</p>
+
+<p>Regarding these "vital radiations" issuing from the body, a number of
+interesting experiments were undertaken in this connection in Poland,
+Paris and elsewhere. M. Durville obtained imprints of hands, from which
+emanated streaks of light, as though the hands were radio-active; indeed
+in no other way can we account for these results.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="i6"></a>
+<img src="images/photo05a.jpg" width="300" height="432" alt="" title="" />
+<a name="i7"></a>
+<img src="images/photo05b.jpg" width="300" height="475" alt="" title="" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Psychic Photographs (6, 7)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>I next present a remarkable series of photographs, kindly lent to me by
+Lady Glenconner,&mdash;to whom I am indebted for permission to reproduce
+them. These photographs were taken at the "Crewe Circle," in the
+presence of Mr. Hope, the medium. Personally, I have never <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>had the
+opportunity to attend a Crewe s&eacute;ance, and hence cannot speak of the
+evidential value of these pictures from first-hand evidence. All I can
+say is that Mr. Hope is not a professional "medium," in the usual sense
+of the term, since he receives no payment for his services; that no
+evidence of fraud, in connection with his photographs, has ever been
+forthcoming; and that rigid test conditions have, apparently, been
+enforced on a number of occasions, when successful "extras" were
+obtained upon the plates. In practically all the cases known to me, the
+sitters provided their own marked plates, placed them in the camera
+themselves, took them out themselves, and developed them themselves.
+Such, I understand, were the conditions under which the accompanying
+photographs were obtained. All that Mr. Hope does is to place his
+(opened) hands upon the plate-<i>holders</i>, after the plates have been
+inserted therein, and before these are placed in the camera. It is
+during this period that the psychic "extras," appearing upon the plates,
+are thought to appear; or at all events it is this "magnetizing" of the
+plates which renders them susceptible to impressions which would not be
+recorded upon ordinary plates. How far this belief of the sitters
+coincides with the actual facts of course I cannot say.</p>
+
+<p>The first photograph shows us Lady Glenconner, seated, with a
+clearly-defined face over her right arm. This face is enshrouded in the
+same curious mist-like "clothing," common to "spirit" photographs, and
+materialized forms, and especially evident in all the Crewe pictures.
+The face is, I understand, recognizable as that of a lost friend. (Fig.
+4.)</p>
+
+<p>The second photograph is one of Lady Glenconner<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> and her son,&mdash;a faint,
+whitish mist appearing over (or on) her left shoulder. This is
+interesting for the reason that, some time before this picture was
+taken, a "spirit" had announced through another medium in London that
+<i>he would appear in one of Hope's photographs and place his hand on her
+left shoulder</i>. Within the whitish mist-like mass, a hand and arm are
+clearly distinguishable, upon close examination. (Fig. 5.) In photograph
+number 6 (with a different sitter) the <i>double</i> impression of a face is
+clearly seen, almost obliterating the face of the sitter. These faces
+appear <i>sideways</i>, and represent a woman's face,&mdash;wearing glasses! This
+same woman's face appears in the next picture (No. 7) no less than three
+times; the uppermost face is the clearest, the one to the right next
+best, while the lowermost "face" is little more than a misty
+impression,&mdash;in which, however, the eyes are quite clear. This
+photograph is, on any theory, it seems to me, a very striking and
+suggestive one, and seems to indicate that the "spirit" attempted three
+different times to appear and impress the plate, with the greatest
+strength the first time, and with gradually diminishing energy or power
+thereafter. This, at least, is the appearance of the facts, and such an
+interpretation is, it may be said, in strict conformity with the
+statements made through Mrs. Piper, and other reliable mediums, as to
+the difficulties actually experienced, in attempting to "communicate."
+To my mind,&mdash;though I do not know the precise conditions under which the
+picture was obtained&mdash;this is a most suggestive and remarkable
+photograph, strongly indicative of the spiritistic theory.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="i8"></a>
+<img src="images/photo06a.jpg" width="300" height="451" alt="" title="" />
+<a name="i9"></a>
+<img src="images/photo06b.jpg" width="300" height="422" alt="" title="" />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Psychic Photographs (8, 9)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>In the next illustration (No. 8), a white cloud appears over the
+sitter's head. There are traces of two "faces" in this cloud, but they
+are too uncertain to be emphasized. In the next picture, however (No.
+9), a face, clearly visible, and enveloped in the usual white mist-like
+drapery, appears. It is to be noted that the "face" is, in this case,
+about twice the size of the sitters' heads, as though the "extra" were
+much nearer the camera. It is, however, still in focus!</p>
+
+<p>Photograph No. 10 shows us Lady Glenconner, and upon the plate a number
+of "extras" appearing at various "angles" in relation to the sitter's
+head&mdash;some of them at right angles, some of them upside down, etc. (The
+"cracks" are merely defects upon the plate.) Upon examination, it will
+be seen that all these faces represent one man, who, apparently, has
+made a number of separate attempts to "appear" at this sitting. An
+enlargement of this face is given in photograph No. 11, where the
+features are quite distinguishable. There are several peculiarities
+about this face, however, which a closer examination will reveal. The
+enormous left ear is one of these&mdash;mal-formed, or as though in the
+process of formation. The right side of the head, on the other hand, is
+partly enveloped in a whitish cloud, through which the outline of the
+face is faintly perceptible. Further impressions of this same face are
+shown in photograph No. 12, when several "impressions" were again
+obtained, all clearly recognizable. In the right-hand photograph, the
+whitish mass seems to have been just removed from about the head, and it
+will be seen that part of this still remains, like a thin veil, in
+front<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> of the <i>lower</i> part of the face (under the eyes) and up the
+left-hand side of the head. This, to me, is a very curious circumstance.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Having thus "cleared the ground," so to speak, let us now consider the
+more startling statements and experiments by Dr. Baraduc, summarized by
+him in his work, <i>Mes Morts; leurs Manifestations</i>, etc., later on in
+the account.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="i10"></a>
+<img src="images/photo07a.jpg" width="300" height="490" alt="" title="" />
+
+<a name="i11"></a>
+<img src="images/photo07b.jpg" width="300" height="413" alt="" title="" />
+
+
+<a name="i12"></a>
+<img src="images/photo07c.jpg" width="300" height="611" alt="" title="" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Psychic Photographs (10, 11, 12)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>At a quarter-past nine, on a certain memorable day in April, 1907, died
+Andr&eacute; M. Joseph Baraduc, at the age of nineteen years. Throughout his
+life there had been a close bond of affection between himself and his
+father, and we are assured that during the lifetime of the son,
+telepathic communication had been frequent between them. When he was but
+nineteen it was discovered that Andr&eacute; was suffering from that dread
+disease, consumption; and henceforward he grew rapidly worse, dying
+within the year. Toward the close of this year he made two visits to
+Lourdes, without, however, receiving much benefit in either case, and
+returning apparently without augmented faith in the cures brought about
+at that centre. Andr&eacute; was exceedingly religious in temperament, as was
+his father, and both were given to experiments in psychic research. We
+are informed that, during the lifetime of the son, his "astral" form had
+been experimentally separated from his bodily frame on more than one
+occasion. It was only natural to suppose, therefore, that, at the death
+of this favourite son, the father's grief should be so intense that the
+emotional reflex found expression in various visions and apparent
+conversations with the dead boy. For <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>within six hours after the death
+of Andr&eacute;, the son appeared to his father, and thenceforth many
+apparitions were seen, and several long conversations were apparently
+held between father and son. Of course, these in themselves would, under
+the circumstances, have no evidential value, since it is only natural to
+suppose that hallucinations, both of sight and hearing, would result in
+a mind so wrought.</p>
+
+<p>These subjective and apparently telepathic experiences of Dr. Baraduc
+cannot, therefore, be considered of value; but the objective
+experiences&mdash;that is to say, the experiments performed by him are of
+great interest, since one can hardly suppose that the camera can be
+hallucinated, because of the grief of the photographer! The impressions
+left upon the plates, then, such as they are, have their evidential and
+scientific value, and it is to a consideration of these photographs that
+we now turn.</p>
+
+<p>Nine hours after the death of Andr&eacute;, Dr. Baraduc took the first
+photograph of the coffin in which the body was deposited. When this
+plate was developed, it was discovered that, emanating from the coffin,
+was a formless, misty, wave-like mass, radiating in all directions with
+considerable force, impinging upon the bodies of those who came into
+close proximity to the coffin, as though attracted to them by some
+magnetic force. On one occasion, indeed, the force of this projected
+fluidic emanation was so great that Dr. Baraduc received an electric
+shock from head to foot, which produced a temporary vertigo. Emerging
+from the body are dark, tree-shaped emanations, issuing in formal lines,
+which gradually diverge, and become more and more attenuated and misty
+as they recede further and further from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> body. Although this
+photograph<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> does not in itself prove anything supernormal, it is
+highly suggestive, and it aroused Dr. Baraduc's interest in the subject,
+and enabled him to pursue his more conclusive experiments immediately
+upon the death of his wife. (Figs. 13, 14.)</p>
+
+<p>Six months after the death of Andr&eacute;, Nadine, Dr. Baraduc's wife and the
+mother of Andr&eacute;, passed quietly away, giving vent, at the moment of her
+death, to "three gentle sighs." Remembering the result of the former
+experiments (photographing the body of Andr&eacute; shortly after his death),
+Dr. Baraduc had prepared a camera beside the bed of his wife, and, at
+the moment of her death, photographed the body, and shortly after
+developed the plate. Upon it were found three luminous globes resting a
+few inches above the body. These gradually condensed and became more
+brilliant. Streaks of light, like fine threads, were also seen darting
+hither and thither. A quarter of an hour after the death of his wife,
+Dr. Baraduc took another photograph. Fluidic cords were seen to have
+developed, partly encircling these globes of light. At three o'clock in
+the afternoon, or an hour after her death, another photograph was taken.
+It will be seen from this photograph that the three globes of light have
+condensed and coalesced into one, obscuring the head of Madame Baraduc,
+and developing towards the right. Cords were formed in the shape of a
+figure eight, closed at the top, and opened at the point nearest the
+body. Thus, as the globe develops in one direction, the cords seem to
+become more tense, and pull in the opposite direction. The separation
+becomes more and more complete, until <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>finally, three and a half hours
+after death, a well-formed globe rested above the body, apparently held
+together by the encircling, luminous cords, which seemed also to guide
+and control it. At this moment, the globe becomes separated from the
+body, and, guided by the cords, floats into Dr. Baraduc's bedroom. He
+speaks to the globe intensely; the globe thereupon approaches him, and
+he feels an icy cold breeze, which seems to surround and issue from the
+ball of light. It then floats away and disappears.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="i13"></a>
+<img src="images/photo08a.jpg" width="400" height="205" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="i14"></a>
+<img src="images/photo08b.jpg" width="450" height="253" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="center smcap">Photographs of the Soul (13, 14)</span></div>
+
+<p>Frequently, within the next few days after these experiments, Dr.
+Baraduc saw similar globes in various parts of the house. By means of
+automatic writing, obtained through the hand of a non-professional
+psychic, he succeeded at last in establishing communication with this
+luminous ball, and was informed that it was the encasement of Madame
+Baraduc's soul, which was still active and alive within it! It was
+asserted that, as the days progressed, the encircling cords were one by
+one snapped, and that the spirit more nearly assumed the astral body
+facsimile of the earthly body. Andr&eacute;, however, was seen by him to be a
+completely developed astral body; and his wife asserted that she too
+would shortly take her place beside Andr&eacute; in her permanent form. As
+further photographs were not developed, however, there is no
+experimental evidence confirming these statements.</p>
+
+<p>Although these initial experiments of Dr. Baraduc cannot, of themselves,
+be considered conclusive, they are nevertheless highly interesting, and
+should lead to further research in the same direction. The evidence
+afforded by apparitions, single and collective; by haunted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> houses; the
+indirect testimony afforded by the apparent psychic perception by
+animals; the evidence, such as it is, for "spirit photography"; the
+recent experiments in thought-photography, and the photographs made at
+the s&eacute;ances of Eusapia Palladino, all tend to confirm, it seems to me,
+the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Baraduc, as the result of his
+preliminary researches. If an astral body of some sort exists, it must
+occupy space; and, being space-occupying, must, <i>a priori</i>, be material
+enough to occupy it! Whether or not this material is sufficiently solid
+to reflect light waves, and make an impression upon the sensitive plate
+of the camera, is an aspect of the problem still open to debate.</p>
+
+<p>Further indirect testimony is afforded by the statements of
+clairvoyants, and by the direct testimony (taking it for what it is
+worth) of so-called "spirits" who communicate their sensations and the
+knowledge they have gained after bodily death. They invariably assert
+that there <i>is</i> an astral facsimile, or spiritual replica, of the
+physical body. Repellent as the idea may be to some of a semi-material,
+space-occupying soul, the facts would seem to indicate that such is
+true. Yet there might be a way out of the difficulty, since we might
+still suppose that the soul, or seat of consciousness, exists as a point
+of force within this spiritual organism. Whichever theory is ultimately
+proved correct cannot, of course, be settled by <i>a priori</i> speculation,
+but by <i>facts</i>; and such experiments as those conducted by Dr. Baraduc
+in "photographing the soul" are, perhaps, the best line of investigation
+to follow, and one from which,&mdash;with the improvements in
+photography,&mdash;the most is to be hoped.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The reader now has the facts before him. I have no theory to offer as to
+the nature of these photographs, save that they appear to me to be
+genuine and supernormal from all the evidence and testimony that I have
+been enabled to obtain. In my <i>Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism</i> I
+have explained a number of ways in which fraudulent "spirit" photographs
+can be obtained; and in <i>Modern Psychical Phenomena</i> I reproduced a
+number of photographs which seemed to me to be supported by excellent
+testimony, and which were, so far as I could see, genuine psychic
+photographs. In that volume I also discussed the various <i>theories</i>
+which have been advanced in the past to explain these extraordinary
+photographs. The present collection is intended merely to supplement the
+former, and to present a number of photographs the solution for which
+is, it seems to me, yet to be found.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Regarding the earlier photographs, however (those obtained
+by Mrs. Dupont Lee), further evidence has caused me to modify my belief
+in their supernormal value, and I should now attach no "evidential
+value" to them at all, strictly speaking. In an excellent criticism of
+the Lee photographs, published in the <i>Proceedings</i>, Amer. S.P.R., vol.
+xiii. pp. 529-87, Dr. Walter F. Prince has shown the undoubtedly
+fraudulent character of the Lee photographs&mdash;certainly those with which
+Keeler had anything to do. The others are still <i>sub judice</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> T. C. and E. C. Jack, Edinburgh.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Not reproduced here.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">HALLUCINATION AND THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF SPIRITUALISM<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>The discussion begun by Count Solovovo, and continued by Miss
+Johnson,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> is assuredly of supreme importance to psychical research.
+Whether or no many of the alleged "physical phenomena" are genuine, or
+whether they are merely hallucinatory in character, is a question which
+involves&mdash;not only the phenomena themselves,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> but psychology and human
+life in general, and even influences strongly science and scientific
+experiments in other fields.... The senses are to be relied upon in
+every science other than psychic research; that seems to be the <i>dictum</i>
+of the world, and strange and even absurd as it may seem, it is, as we
+know, more or less founded upon fact. In no other science is fraud
+practised as it is in this; in practically no other line of research are
+the mental and physical powers so strained out of their usual or normal
+relations and perceptions as they are in this. It is only right, then,
+that Caution should be the password, and should be most rigidly employed
+in all such investigations as these.</p>
+
+<p>While admitting all this, however, one must also admit that it is easy
+to go too far in the opposite direction, and reject evidence which
+depends upon the senses simply <i>because</i> they depend upon them. This, I
+think, is invalid reasoning. No one would be more willing than I to
+admit their fallibility and untrustworthiness&mdash;especially when we are
+dealing with conditions and phenomena where mal-observation is possible;
+but I do not think that any negative conclusion can be drawn from this.
+The case is still an open one; nothing is <i>proved</i>, one way or the
+other, and, in such work as ours, proof&mdash;and not mere conjecture&mdash;must
+be forthcoming. Very true it is that proof of the sort desired is often
+impossible; but it is obtained sometimes. If a medium be caught
+masquerading in a white muslin "robe" and a mask, we are doubtless
+within our rights in saying that the medium has been <i>proved</i> a fraud.
+But failure to detect such trickery does not prove the phenomena
+genuine. That would depend upon other considerations,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> and would only
+raise a <i>presumption</i> in favour of their authenticity. In such a case,
+"proof" is largely a question of relative probability, and can be
+obtained only by making the probability in favour of the reality of the
+phenomena so strong that the negative aspect is rendered logically
+unsound by the sheer weight of evidence against it.</p>
+
+<p>These trite remarks were nevertheless rendered necessary because of the
+enormous amount of misunderstanding which exists in connection with
+these phenomena, and of the general methods and objects of psychic
+research. The papers that have already been published on the question of
+hallucination in relation to the physical phenomena should do much to
+clear away many of these misconceptions, for in them we find (i) a
+willingness to treat the phenomena seriously; (ii) an admission that the
+witnesses described what they thought they saw; and (iii) a certain
+amount of evidence advanced to show that the alleged phenomena were in
+reality hallucinatory in character, while appearing to be external
+physical realities to the onlookers. Let us now examine the evidence
+advanced, and see in how far it is conclusive of the theory
+entertained&mdash;the hypothesis of hallucination.</p>
+
+<p>As both Count Solovovo and Miss Johnson have concentrated their
+attention upon the phenomena occurring in the presence of D. D. Home, I
+shall do so likewise in the first part of this chapter. As briefly as
+possible, I shall review their papers, before passing on to more general
+remarks&mdash;remarks which it is the object of this paper to bring into
+prominence.</p>
+
+<p>Count Solovovo thinks that it is evidence in favour<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> of the
+hallucination theory that: "A flower or other small object is seen to
+move; one person present will see a luminous cloud hovering over it,
+another will detect a nebulous-looking hand, whilst others will see
+nothing but the moving flower."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>Miss Johnson agrees with this, and in fact goes so far as to say: "If
+these hands had been completely invisible to some person with normal
+sight looking directly at them in a good light, we should then have good
+evidence that they were hallucinatory."<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>To this I cannot agree. I find myself completely differing from Miss
+Johnson in my interpretation of such an incident as this. For, while
+hallucination is one possible theory to account for the phenomena,
+another equally plausible theory is that the hands were in fact
+objective and real, but were only perceptible to various individuals in
+varying degrees. This aspect of the problem is hardly touched upon by
+Count Solovovo, but is discussed at some length by Miss Johnson. In this
+connection she says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Here [in the hand, i.e.] is a kind of matter which is not only
+temporary in character&mdash;a fact in itself extraordinary enough&mdash;but
+exhibits another quite unprecedented characteristic in the
+arbitrary selectiveness of its effects on other matter. In order to
+be visible at all, it must reflect light. How does it manage to
+reflect light that affects the retina of one person and not the
+retina of another? We may reply that the difference must lie in the
+retinae, one being more sensitive than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> the other. But we do not
+find the same difference of sensitivity in regard to the light
+reflected from ordinary objects. It seems to follow then that the
+light reflected from the spirit-hand is a peculiar kind of light,
+lying outside the limits of the ordinary visible spectrum. But in
+that case, why is not the person with the more sensitive retina
+affected by it? For of course all ordinary objects are constantly
+giving off radiations outside the limits of the visible spectrum;
+but our supposed sensitive apparently does not perceive them."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>First, as to the matters of fact. Where is the evidence that those with
+the most sensitive retinae were not the very ones who perceived, most
+perfectly, the spirit-hand? Were a series of experiments conducted to
+show which of the onlookers possessed the most sensitive eyes? If so,
+where are these experiments recorded? It is quite possible that the body
+is constantly giving off a kind of <i>aura</i>&mdash;perceptible to some,
+invisible to others; and the fact that some do not see it is no proof
+that it is not there. If the experiments of Reichenbach and others go
+for anything, indeed, there is very good evidence that such emanations
+do take place&mdash;and I venture to think (however rank heresy this may
+appear) that these experiments have never been completely refuted, and
+the results obtained shown to be traceable <i>in toto</i> to suggestion. The
+eyes of certain individuals might be attuned to receive vibrations or
+impressions quite imperceptible to others, no matter how sensitive their
+retinae to normal perceptions or sensations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But, quite apart from such purely "physical" speculations, I can quite
+conceive that these hands were not "seen" in the ordinary sense of the
+word at all. The physical eyes may have played some part in their
+perception, but only a small part. It is quite possible that "hands" of
+the character here seen were active and functioning upon another plane
+altogether than the sense plane, and were perceived at the time by a
+species of <i>clairvoyance</i>. What "clairvoyance" is I do not pretend to
+know (unless spiritism be true, in which case I can quite easily
+conceive its <i>modus operandi</i>), but the mass of evidence in its favour
+seems to place it quite beyond the pale of doubt. But even if this be
+not granted, I can quite see how a certain <i>rapport</i> between the sitter
+and the hand&mdash;or the intelligence behind the hand&mdash;might easily enable
+one sitter to perceive it, and not another. Analogies from trance
+phenomena and even from experimental thought-transference might be drawn
+here, in favour of such a theory. The whole theory of apparitions at the
+moment of death depends upon this established <i>rapport</i>, since, if it
+did not exist, and affect the results, the apparition might just as well
+appear to Tom, Dick, and Harry as to the percipient&mdash;and the percipient
+is such (supposedly) simply by reason of this pre-established <i>rapport</i>.</p>
+
+<p>There might be, then, a certain <i>rapport</i> between some sitters and a
+plane of activity upon which such hands manifest, enabling these
+individuals to see the hands, while prohibiting others from seeing them.
+The receptivity or capacity might indicate a greater or lesser degree of
+psychic capacity&mdash;they would be "more mediumistic." That is, the more
+mediumistic the sitter, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> more likely would he be to perceive such
+hands. And of course we all know in this connection that mediums or
+psychics in a circle will perceive hands and faces and other forms quite
+invisible to the ordinary observer. The usual recourse in such cases is
+to assume that the mediums are fraudulently in league with one another;
+but when unprofessional psychics experience the same sensations (or
+perceptions) there is good ground for calling a halt, and asking whether
+or not the sensations were not possibly genuine in the case of the
+professional medium also.</p>
+
+<p>In other words, and to summarize this part of the discussion, I can only
+say that there seems to me no valid reason for thinking that the
+spirit-hands in Home's s&eacute;ances were probably hallucinatory in character
+because only some of the sitters saw them. They might just as well be
+explained by supposing that certain of the sitters were more psychic or
+mediumistic than the others, and these saw&mdash;clairvoyantly or by some
+similar mode of psychic perception&mdash;hands and forms invisible to those
+less sensitive. It need hardly be said that the carrying about of
+objects by these hands renders their objective nature and existence far
+more probable than if such movements had never taken place. These
+physical phenomena remain, no matter what view we take of the visible
+(or invisible) hands.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking next of Home's "full-form phantasms," Miss Johnson draws
+attention to the fact, so often pointed out by Mr. Podmore, that the
+various witnesses in subsequent accounts do not describe the phenomena
+in the same terms or in precisely the same manner. The narrative differs
+in the various accounts, and the phenomena<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> appear far more remarkable
+in some than in others. The inference is that none of them is
+right&mdash;certainly not the more remarkable ones&mdash;and that the inaccuracy
+of the reports invalidates the records.</p>
+
+<p>Now I have nothing to say against this method <i>as</i> a method. But I think
+it can be pushed too far and wrong deductions drawn therefrom. It is
+right to discount the value of the evidence, but that is a different
+thing from discrediting it altogether. If individual records differ when
+describing any particular phenomenon it is right that the less
+marvellous be accepted as the more probable; but this is not saying that
+the phenomenon did not take place at all! Any two accounts of a given
+phenomenon must necessarily differ&mdash;more or less, according to
+circumstances. But if all the accounts obviously concern a given
+phenomenon, and if they agree, even in the essential outlines, it is
+probable that the event resembled the description more or less; and if
+in all these accounts there is no evidence of fraud forthcoming, and no
+indications that it existed, we must take it for granted that no
+suspicious circumstances were noted and no fraud detected&mdash;for otherwise
+it would have found its way into the records. And the fact that it never
+did find its way into any of them (with one doubtful exception,
+<i>Journal, S.P.R.</i>, vol. iv. pp. 120-21, and Jan. and May 1903) seems to
+indicate, not that the phenomena were necessarily genuine, but that the
+central theme of the account, so to speak&mdash;the phenomenon&mdash;was seen
+alike by all, and was variously described by the witnesses afterward in
+the subsequent reports. The minor discrepancies do not suffice to
+explain away the phenomenon altogether. They serve<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> merely to render it
+less marvellous. Many psychic researchers, however, seem to imagine that
+because the various accounts do not agree, the fact recorded probably
+did not occur at all. That is surely an entirely unwarranted
+supposition, and were this carried to its logical conclusion, would
+suffice to disprove the whole of the past history of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Johnson's discussion of Home's famous levitation out of one window
+and in at another is surely masterly, and is precisely the kind of
+criticism which psychic research needs. After reading her account, I can
+only say that were this case an isolated incident, unsupported by any
+similar eases of a like nature, it would be so far "explained away" as
+to lose all evidential value. At the same time I think that Count
+Solovovo sums the whole argument up when he says that none of Home's
+phenomena were ever <i>proved</i> to be hallucinatory; all that has been done
+by the discussion is to show that some of them <i>might possibly</i> have
+been so. And there is a great difference between the two. There is a
+natural tendency in many minds to assume and take for granted that
+because a given phenomenon might possibly have been produced by fraud,
+it was unquestionably produced in that manner. That is quite an
+unwarranted supposition, and fraud should be clearly <i>proved</i> in every
+given instance before a medium be charged with trickery. This is a rule
+far too seldom observed by sceptical investigators, but an important one
+nevertheless.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving aside this particular case of Home's levitation, however, it may
+be said that there are others on record far more conclusive in
+character, and against<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> which many of Miss Johnson's criticisms could
+not be levelled. Taken singly, it is probable that no single case of any
+class of phenomena would prove convincing to a sceptic; sufficient
+objections could be raised, and sufficient discrepancies in the records
+pointed out, to invalidate any evidence whatever. Quite apart from any
+<i>a priori</i> objections, any single incident can almost invariably be
+"explained away." It is the weight of a great <i>mass</i> of cumulative
+evidence which tells the tale. The most expert and exact description of
+the fall of a meteor would not have forced an acceptance from the
+scientific world; the relative improbability of the whole of the past
+experience of the human race would have been so much greater than the
+fact that the latter would have been discredited. Gradually it would
+have receded in the mind, and even the original witness might ultimately
+be persuaded that he had not in reality seen a meteor at all!</p>
+
+<p>And so it is with psychic research; and so it is with the theory under
+discussion. No single incident, taken by itself, can be said to prove
+anything; only the great mass of facts, taken together, and all pointing
+in the same direction, can be said to do so. One can quite see how this
+would be the case, e.g. in Mrs. Piper's automatic utterances or
+writings. No matter how conclusive any individual "test" might be, it
+would prove nothing by itself. No matter how well attested an apparition
+at the moment of death, singly it would indicate no telepathic
+communication nor other supernormal factor at work. But together these
+cases form a strand<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> which becomes too strong to be broken, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+which, taken together, practically prove telepathic communication at the
+moment of death&mdash;at least so thought Professor Sidgwick's Committee, of
+which Miss Johnson was one member. (See <i>Proceedings, S.P.R.</i>, vol. x.
+p. 394.)</p>
+
+<p>In Home's case, then, the evidence for his levitation phenomena rests,
+not on any one case taken by itself, but on the mass of cumulative
+testimony offered by scores of witnesses. However completely one case
+might be explained away, the other cases still remain to us&mdash;each case
+standing on its own merits, and many of them excellently observed, if
+not so well recorded. For example, the cases mentioned by Sir. William
+Crookes (<i>Journal, S.P.R.</i>, vol. vi. p. 342) are certainly far superior,
+in point of observation, to the famous case so severely criticized by
+Miss Johnson. And I think that if one is going to offer any hypothesis
+at all, it must be one that covers <i>all</i> the facts, and not merely one
+which explains only some of them. The hallucinatory nature of Home's
+phenomena is certainly not inclusive&mdash;it does not include many of the
+more striking incidents to say nothing of the lesser phenomena. For this
+reason, it does not appear to me to be conclusive either.</p>
+
+<p>After a brief discussion of Home's fire-tests, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> Miss Johnson
+practically admits are inexplicable by any process either of fraud or of
+hallucination known to her (p. 498), she passes on to what are called
+"quasi-hypnotic" effects. To many of the incidents classed by Miss
+Johnson as due to suggestion, I should be inclined to give an entirely
+different interpretation. Some of them doubtless resemble hallucinations
+in a striking degree, but what evidence is there that, e.g., passes made
+over the heads of the sitters can induce identical hallucinations in all
+of them; or that, because one of the circle becomes hysterical, the
+others are thereby rendered susceptible to suggestion? However, I shall
+defer this question until we come to discuss hallucination in general.</p>
+
+<p>After some wholesome criticisms devoted to the "recognition" of
+materialized forms, and the very true statement (p. 509) that "a very
+small error in perception may sometimes lead to a very large error of
+inference," Miss Johnson ends her remarkably interesting paper with two
+illustrations&mdash;one a hallucination (?)<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> induced by false association
+of ideas; the other an incident in her own experience, occurring at a
+s&eacute;ance with Eusapia Palladino. Both of these are of importance, and
+should be studied carefully.</p>
+
+<p>Count Solovovo on the contrary considers it somewhat in favour of the
+hallucination theory that hands were found to melt in the sitters'
+grasp, when they were forcibly retained (p. 441). I cannot agree with
+this. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> a different thing to say that hallucination might account
+for the facts, and saying that the facts tell in favour of
+hallucination. Chance might account for an experimental apparition, but
+the fact that the apparition occurred does not prove it to be chance.
+One must be careful to distinguish facts and inferences, in a case of
+this character. Whether or not the hands were hallucinatory will depend,
+not upon <i>a priori</i> probability, or the fact they were visible to some,
+invisible to others, (for all this might just as well be accounted for
+on the opposing theory), but upon the fact that, so far as we know,
+there is no analogy whatever between this oft-recorded event and any of
+the phenomena of suggestion known to us. If we offer a theory to explain
+certain facts, it must not only explain them in a rational manner, but
+must dovetail into what we know&mdash;into <i>the known</i>. That is the whole
+method of science. If, therefore, a man advances "hallucination" as an
+explanation of such facts as those under discussion, he must show how it
+is that hallucination might be supposed to work: he must bring forward
+some analogies and examples of somewhat similar instances in order to
+have a case at all. In science, we cannot speculate <i>in vacuo</i>, but must
+connect with what is already known, if we wish to be scientific at all.
+What analogies, then, have we that spirit-hands, similar to those
+described, can be created by suggestion; and that suggestion can cause a
+number of investigators, at various times, in various places, to believe
+that these hands melted in theirs while they were trying to retain them?</p>
+
+<p>I venture to think we have no analogies whatever. It is quite possible
+that a subject in a hypnotic trance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> might be induced to believe that he
+was holding a hand while in fact no hand was there, and, further, that
+this hand melted away in his grasp while he was holding fast on to it.
+But I can see practically no resemblance whatever between the two cases.
+For, in the case we have supposed (i) the hand did not move any material
+object; (ii) no one but the hypnotized subject saw the hand; and (iii)
+the illusion was only induced by repeated verbal suggestion to a subject
+already hypnotized. Where is the analogy in the two cases? Home's hands
+moved objects; they were seen by several people at once; and, so far as
+the records prove anything, they prove that constant verbal suggestions
+of the sort necessary were certainly <i>not</i> given, while there is no
+evidence whatever that the subjects were hypnotized! On this very
+subject, speaking of Home's s&eacute;ances, Sir William Crookes has said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"General conversation was going on all the time, and on many
+occasions something on the table had moved some time before Home
+was aware of it. We had to draw his attention to such things far
+oftener than he drew our attention to them. Indeed, he sometimes
+used to annoy me by his indifference to what was going on...."<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Does this look like suggestion? Is there any similarity between the two
+cases? Their differences are too obvious to dwell upon. And, apart from
+the performances of the Hindu fakirs (which I have discussed
+elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> and which Count Solovovo himself thinks too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> few and too
+weak evidentially to require serious consideration), there is no
+similarity between an hallucination induced in a hypnotized subject by
+constant verbal suggestion, and one supposedly induced instantaneously
+in a large number of persons, not hypnotized, without any suggestion.
+The cases cannot be considered similar, or even as resembling one
+another in the slightest degree; while the improbability is heightened a
+thousandfold by the fact that these hands apparently performed physical
+actions and moved physical objects at the same time. The coincidence
+would have to be explained as well as the hallucination, in that case.</p>
+
+<p>Both Count Solovovo and Miss Johnson lay particular stress upon the fact
+that the Master of Lindsay seems to have been extremely suggestible.
+Assuredly, that is an important point in so far as his own experiences
+are concerned, but the fact in nowise affects the experiences of
+<i>others</i>. In order to prove that suggestibility played an important part
+in the phenomena, it would be necessary to show that <i>all</i> witnesses of
+the phenomena were suggestible&mdash;for the phenomena were seen by all in a
+slightly varying degree. Yet there is no evidence that many of the
+witnesses were suggestible at all: they did not see things Home
+suggested they should see, while, on the other hand, they saw things
+quite on their own account, when Home was busily engaged in conversation
+with some one else. The whole case must be made to hang together, and if
+"suggestion" be the key to the puzzle, it certainly fits the lock
+remarkably ill.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>In summing-up his paper and the evidence contained therein, Count
+Solovovo concludes:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"For my own part I lay it down as a general proposition ... that
+the testimony of several sane, honest and intelligent eye-witnesses
+is, broadly speaking, proof of the objectivity of any phenomenon.
+If there are people who maintain an opposite view, let them make
+experiments themselves" (p. 477).</p></div>
+
+<p>That is precisely the position I should assume: I do not believe that
+collective hallucinations of the kind supposed exist at spiritistic
+s&eacute;ances, except perhaps very rarely, and to special gatherings of
+individuals. Let me now adduce the evidence in favour of my position,
+and the reasons for my taking this stand so strongly.</p>
+
+<p>First, then, let us distinguish between <i>illusions</i> and
+<i>hallucinations</i>, as this is of the very greatest importance in a
+discussion such as this. An illusion is a false sensory perception, the
+basis of which is, nevertheless, real. Thus, if an old coat in a corner
+of the room be mistaken for a dog, that would be an illusion. A <i>point
+de rep&egrave;re</i> is there&mdash;a peg, upon which the mind hangs its false
+inferences or perceptions. An hallucination, on the other hand, is
+entirely a creation of the mind, and there is, in this case, no <i>point
+de rep&egrave;re</i>, which exists externally, and serves as the basis of the
+hallucination. Roughly speaking, this may be said to be the difference
+between the two. Now, let us apply this to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> Home's s&eacute;ances, and to
+spiritistic s&eacute;ances in general.</p>
+
+<p>During the course of my twenty years' constant investigation, I have had
+many score s&eacute;ances with various mediums&mdash;slate-writing mediums,
+materializing mediums, physical mediums, clairvoyant mediums, <i>et hoc
+genus omne</i>. Speaking now of materialization s&eacute;ances only&mdash;of which I
+have seen many&mdash;I may say that in all my investigations <i>I have never
+seen one single instance of suggested or spontaneous hallucination</i>.
+Plenty of <i>illusions</i> were observed, but never the trace of a full-blown
+hallucination.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> And I venture to think<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> that, if we examine the
+evidence in the case of D. D. Home, we find very few cases which could
+have been illusions&mdash;the vast majority of them seem to have been "pure
+hallucinations"&mdash;if they were psychological processes (as opposed to
+physical) at all. So that we should have to suppose that we find in
+these s&eacute;ances&mdash;not mere illusions, commonly seen at spiritualistic
+s&eacute;ances, but full-blown hallucinations of a type rarely or never seen
+elsewhere. In other words, these s&eacute;ances present evidences of
+psychological processes for which we can find no analogy in any other
+series of s&eacute;ances, or in hypnotic or any other phenomena with which we
+are familiar. I venture to think that this entirely <i>new</i> order of
+things cannot be accepted upon such evidence: that the hypothesis of
+hallucination cannot be said to explain anything<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> whatever, inasmuch as
+it is entirely unsupported by facts, and finds no analogies whatever in
+any other psychological processes known to us.</p>
+
+<p>At the very conclusion of his paper, Count Solovovo places his finger
+upon the vulnerable spot: he there points out the only way to solve the
+difficulty. It is by the accumulation and study of <i>new facts</i>.
+Discussions as to the historical phenomena might go on for ever and the
+question still remain unsolved. The only way out of the difficulty is to
+establish, if possible, the objective or the hallucinatory character of
+these newer phenomena&mdash;if such are obtained&mdash;and from them draw
+conclusions concerning the older manifestations. If these newer
+phenomena turn out to be hallucinatory&mdash;in spite of all the testimony in
+favour of their being objective&mdash;then it is highly probable that many of
+the older phenomena were hallucinatory also. If, on the other hand, the
+newer phenomena turn out to be physical and objective, then the
+improbability of the older manifestations having been hallucinatory is
+proportionately increased&mdash;until it becomes almost a certainty that they
+were not so. For, if physical phenomena of a genuine character ever do
+occur, the <i>a priori</i> improbability is at once removed, and
+thenceforward there is but little ground for objecting to the phenomena
+in Home's case; and not only those, but the phenomena in the case of
+Stainton Moses, and scores of others less well attested. The props would
+have been knocked from beneath all logical scepticism of the historical
+phenomena, once newer manifestations of the same type be proved true.
+The whole case hinges upon the fact of whether or not such new facts as
+may be forthcoming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> tend to prove either the one theory or the other.
+Let us therefore turn to this newer evidence, and see which alternative
+is rendered more probable by the phenomena in question.</p>
+
+<p>This newer evidence is, of course, supplied by the case of Eusapia
+Palladino. Here we find phenomena of a physical character recorded by
+many men and women&mdash;including numerous eminent scientists&mdash;not one of
+whom tolerates for a moment the idea that these phenomena are
+hallucinatory. Indeed, the photographs of table levitations, of hands
+and heads,<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> of instruments flying through the air,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and the
+impressions left in cakes of plaster,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> leave no doubt whatever that,
+in this case, the phenomena&mdash;no matter how produced&mdash;are objective. This
+conclusion is further supported by the fact that registering apparatus
+has been employed, and has successfully recorded the results of physical
+movements. From this, it is certain that real, objective facts have been
+observed.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Whether the phenomena were due to fraud or were the
+results of the operation of some supernormal force, or whatever their
+explanation, they were certainly not due to hallucination.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Our own sittings, it seems to me, abundantly confirm this conclusion.
+During the greater part of the time, when phenomena were in progress,
+Eusapia was passive and silent: when she did speak, she did not suggest
+anything to us directly, and even if she had done so, it would have been
+in Italian&mdash;a language I do not understand. And yet I saw the
+phenomena&mdash;the movements of objects, the hands and the heads, and felt
+the touches&mdash;just as the others did: in fact, I think I may say <i>more</i>
+frequently than either of my colleagues did. How was this? Eusapia only
+"suggested" anything to us on three occasions, and on two of these we
+failed to perceive what she wished us to see! On the other hand, we
+frequently perceived what she did not "suggest" to us, and which came as
+a complete surprise to us all. The expression "Oh!" occurring, as it
+does, at several places in the notes, shows how unexpected the
+manifestation was. When one's hair is suddenly and forcibly pulled by
+living fingers, and when one is banged over the head by a closed fist,
+and when one is grasped by a hand and pulled so forcibly as to almost
+upset one into the cabinet&mdash;it requires a strong imagination to believe
+that this is nothing but hallucination. Then, too, we all saw the
+phenomenon at the same instant, invariably; and if one of us failed to
+do so, it was always because there was a physical cause for it: the
+curtain intervened, or something of a similar nature occurred. I need
+hardly point out that this, in itself&mdash;looked at from one point of
+view&mdash;is exceedingly strong evidence that the manifestation was not
+hallucinatory, but objective. The unexpected nature of the majority of
+the phenomena&mdash;when Eusapia was in deep trance, and we were doing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> all
+the talking&mdash;renders the hypothesis of hallucination quite untenable, it
+seems to me; at least, if any one chooses to defend it, he must give
+some analogies and somewhat similar instances of the power of
+suggestion&mdash;a task that will never be satisfactorily undertaken; of that
+I am sure.</p>
+
+<p>No; whatever be the interpretation of these phenomena, they are
+certainly not hallucinatory. And if they were objective, it is almost
+certain that the Home phenomena were objective also&mdash;since the parallel
+between the two cases is often extremely close.</p>
+
+<p>And this, it appears to me, is the only way of approaching this problem
+that is liable to prove conclusive or trustworthy. Discussions of
+historical phenomena will never settle anything one way or the other:
+nothing is <i>proved</i> thereby, one way or the other. The only conclusive
+method, as Count Solovovo pointed out&mdash;and I heartily agree with him&mdash;is
+the accumulation of <i>new facts</i>; and these new facts, when obtained,
+have, it appears to me (and to my colleagues also), proved beyond all
+question that the phenomena were genuine in at least some instances;
+and, that once admitted, the <i>a priori</i> doubts are removed, and the
+historic phenomena raised to a standard of probability which amounts to
+certitude. Some of the physical phenomena of spiritualism are
+objective&mdash;real, external facts; and I am assured that they are not due
+to fraud or trickery. Whatever their ultimate explanation, however, they
+can no longer be said to be due to any form of hallucination in the
+sitters.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The chapter which follows originally appeared in the
+<i>Journal</i> of the American S.P.R. (December 1909), and was critical of
+the articles of Miss Alice Johnson and Count Solovovo, which had
+previously appeared in the English <i>Proceedings</i>. While the chapter is
+self-explanatory, it may be well to say that Count Solovovo, in his
+original paper, considered the "hallucination theory" as a possible
+explanation of certain physical phenomena&mdash;such as those of D. D.
+Home&mdash;and, after a lengthy discussion, came to the conclusion that it
+would be extremely difficult to believe that hallucination could account
+for all the observed facts. Miss Johnson, in her reply, inclined rather
+more to the hallucination theory&mdash;at least in some cases&mdash;and
+endeavoured to show how it might have occurred on several occasions. My
+paper is critical of these articles&mdash;chiefly Miss Johnson's; and I have
+here endeavoured to combat the hallucination theory,&mdash;which I do not
+believe to have nearly so wide a range as Miss Johnson supposes. The
+interested reader is referred to the original papers, as well as to the
+discussion which follows; after which he may decide for himself which
+seems to him the more rational explanation of the facts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Proceedings, S.P.R.</i>, vol. xxi. pp. 436-515.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <i>Researches in the Phenomena of Spiritualism</i>, p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Proceedings, S.P.R.</i>, vol. xxi. p. 488.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Proceedings, S.P.R.</i>, vol. xxi. p. 487.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Critics are apt to compare psychic phenomena to the links
+of a chain&mdash;each phenomenon being a separate link. As the chain is only
+as strong as its separate links, it has been pointed out, and as each
+case, taken by itself, can be shown to be inconclusive, it is obvious
+that the whole of psychic research comes to naught. This objection is
+met, it seems to me, by the following consideration. Each separate case
+represents, not the link of a chain, but the thread of a woven rope,
+which, taken by itself, is extremely weak, but which, when placed beside
+hundreds of others, becomes so strong as to be practically unbreakable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> This appears to me to be rather an illusion than a pure
+hallucination. Miss Johnson's own case appears to me to be an illusion
+also. See the discussion of this point later on, however.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Journal</i>, vol. vi. p. 343.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See <i>The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism</i>, pp. 386-93,
+and my pamphlet <i>Hindu Magic</i>, for a discussion of these performances,
+and of the theory of hallucination in connection therewith.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> See, e.g., Count Solovovo's position which he was driven
+to accept&mdash;that the chair-threading witnessed by him was due to
+unconscious telepathic suggestion! (p. 469). The position appears to me
+to be absolutely untenable, in face of the evidence he himself adduces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> An excellent example of an illusion generated by the
+conditions of a spiritualistic s&eacute;ance is the following, which occurred
+to myself at Lily Dale, N. Y., during my investigations there in the
+summer of 1907, and which I reported in the <i>Proceedings of the American
+S.P.R.</i>, as follows:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"My sister 'Eva' materialized for me. I suggested 'Eva' and she 'came.'
+I never had a sister Eva, so she was a little out of place. However, she
+'came' as a little girl about ten years old, with a hooked nose, bright
+black eyes, and a fringe of false hair over her forehead. Her doll-like
+appearance was very manifest. After she de-materialized, I was on the
+point of walking back to my chair, but was told to wait. I returned to
+the curtains of the cabinet, and my mother announced herself present,
+'who had died from consumption.' The curtains were pulled aside, and I
+put my face close to the opening, since it was so dark I could see
+nothing. And there, in the dim twilight of that s&eacute;ance room, I beheld
+one of the most ghastly, most truly terrifying faces I have ever seen.
+It was white and drawn, and almost shiny in its glossy, ashen hue. The
+eyes were wide open and staring&mdash;fixed. The head and face were encircled
+in white; and altogether the face was one of the most appalling I have
+ever beheld, and it would have required a great deal of fortitude, for
+the moment, to look steadfastly at that terrifying face&mdash;in that quiet,
+still room, in response to the spirit's demand: 'Look at me!' The
+distance between our faces was not more than six inches; and after the
+first shock, I regarded the face intently. I was spurred by curiosity
+and excitement, and prompted yet further by the spirit form, who grasped
+my wrist, through the curtain, and drew me yet closer&mdash;until I was
+nearly in the cabinet itself. I remembered that my mother had not died
+from consumption, and that the present face in nowise resembled hers,
+and my feeling of terror lasted but an instant; but it was there at the
+time, I confess. I regarded the face intently, and it was gradually
+withdrawn into the shadow of the cabinet, and the curtains pulled over
+it. <i>I am certain that, had I been in an excited and unbalanced frame of
+mind at that instant, I should have sworn that the face melted away as I
+looked at it.</i> But my mental balance was by that time regained, and I
+could analyse what was before me. I can quite easily see how it is that
+persons can swear to the melting away of a face before their eyes, after
+my own experience. The appearances clearly indicated that, and it was
+only my alertness to the possibility of deception in this direction,
+which prevented my testifying to the same effect." (See my <i>Personal
+Experiences in Spiritualism</i>, pp. 31-32.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Annals of Psychical Science</i>, April 1908, pp. 181-91.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, April-June 1909, pp. 285-305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Flammarion: <i>Mysterious Psychic Forces</i>; Morselli:
+<i>Psicologia e Spiritismo</i>; De Fontenay: <i>A Propos d'Eusapia Paladino</i>;
+De Rochas: <i>L'Exteriorization de la Motricite</i>, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Why were Sir William Crookes' experiments with the spring
+balance not discussed, by the way, in this connection? Here we have
+indubitable proof of the objectivity of the phenomena; even Mr. Podmore
+being driven to grant this, and suppose that the manifestations were the
+result of some trick.&mdash;<i>Modern Spiritualism</i>, vol. ii. p. 242.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">THE PROBLEMS OF TELEPATHY</p>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"I suppose everybody would say it would be an extraordinary
+circumstance," said the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S., in
+his Presidential Address before the Society for Psychical Research,
+some years ago, "if at no distant date this earth on which we dwell
+were to come into collision with some unknown body travelling
+through space, and, as the result of that collision, be resolved
+into the original gases of which it is composed.... This is a
+specimen of a dramatically extraordinary event. Now I will give you
+a case of what I mean by a scientifically extraordinary
+event&mdash;which you will at once perceive may be one which, at first
+sight and to many observers, may appear almost commonplace and
+familiar. I have constantly met people who will tell you, with no
+apparent consciousness that they are saying anything more out of
+the way than an observation about the weather, that by the exercise
+of their will they can make anybody at a little distance turn round
+and look at them. Now such a fact (if fact it be) is far more
+scientifically extraordinary than would be the destruction of this
+globe by some such celestial catastrophe as I have imagined. How
+profoundly mistaken, then, are they who think that this exercise of
+'will power,' as they call it, is the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> natural and the most
+normal thing in the world, something which everybody should have
+expected, something which hardly deserves scientific notice or
+requires scientific explanation. In reality it is a profound
+mystery, if it is true, or if anything like it be true; and no
+event, however startling, which easily finds its appropriate niche
+in the structure of the physical sciences ought to exercise so much
+intellectual curiosity as this dull and at first sight commonplace
+phenomenon." (<i>Proceedings, S.P.R.</i>, vol. x. pp. 9-10.)</p></div>
+
+<p>These were the words, not only of the Premier of England, but of an
+exceptionally well-balanced and learned man of science, from which it
+will be seen how extraordinary a thing this "thought-transference" or
+"telepathy" is to the scientific world; and how hard it is for the
+<i>savant</i> to accept it! Yet, as Mr. Balfour says, nearly every one at the
+present time believes in telepathy, and accepts it as the only
+explanation for certain facts, and as a more or less commonplace event.
+Why, then, is there so much mystery about it; <i>why</i> is it so
+extraordinary?</p>
+
+<p>The reason for this lies in the fact that psychologists hold a certain
+view of the nature of the mind which is not shared or understood by the
+majority of persons. They believe that the mind, or consciousness, is
+bound up with the functionings of the brain; and that it is inseparable
+from them. Just as digestion is a function of the whole digestive
+apparatus, circulation of the circulatory apparatus, and respiration of
+the respiratory apparatus; just so, it is believed, is thinking a
+function of the thinking apparatus&mdash;the brain and nervous system.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> And
+one is no more detachable than the other; and one is no more "immortal"
+after the death of the body than the other. All these functions fall
+away and perish at once, at the moment of death. This is the position of
+positive, materialistic psychology&mdash;which is the psychology taught in
+our schools and colleges at the present day. Naturally, our professors
+do not believe in telepathy; were this theory true, it would be
+"impossible," just as impossible as it is for a solid object to be in
+two places at the same time. Consciousness cannot be both inside the
+brain and out of it; and as it is believed to reside inside, it cannot
+be outside! As it is a function of nervous tissue, how can it make
+itself manifest at a distance of 2000 miles&mdash;at the moment, too, when it
+is being annihilated. Obviously the thing is impossible!</p>
+
+<p>But, alas for science (or rather for the dogmatic scientist), the
+experience of the past tells us that many things deemed impossible are
+nevertheless facts. Though they are jeered at when they are first
+brought to the attention of the scientific world, subsequent
+investigation has only served to confirm them.... It is on record that
+no physician over forty years of age at the time of his great discovery
+ever accepted Harvey's proof of the circulation of the blood&mdash;so great
+was the force of tradition and orthodoxy.... And today the facts of
+"psychical research" are laughed at, and its investigators held up to
+ridicule, because of this same spirit of prejudice and intolerance, and
+the desire to mock at what we do not understand. "But," as Professor
+James so well remarked <i>&agrave; propos</i> of this subject, "whenever a debate
+between the mystics and the scientists<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> has been once for all decided,
+it is the mystics who have usually proved to be right about the <i>facts</i>,
+while the scientists had the better of it in respect to <i>theories</i>." But
+inasmuch as only the "facts" are now in dispute, and no one cares as yet
+what theory shall be adopted in order to explain them, is it not time at
+least to investigate them, and to see whether or not such facts
+exist&mdash;quite irrespective of whether they are explainable, when found?</p>
+
+<p>The facts, then; are they true or are they not? It is a question quite
+open to discussion, one quite capable of being solved by scientific
+methods. It is useless to say beforehand whether or not such and such
+things are or are not possible; the question is: Do they exist? We must
+not question their utility either, even if true, for this never enters
+into any scientific question of fact. Like the celebrated French
+philosopher whose friend had proved to him the "impossibility" of a
+certain happening, he replied: "My dear sir, I never said it was
+<i>possible</i>; I said it was a <i>fact</i>!"</p>
+
+<p>So, then, we come to the evidence for this wonderful power of telepathy
+or thought-transference. Here I must be very brief, indicating merely a
+fraction of the evidence which has been accumulated in proof of this
+startling scientific truth.</p>
+
+<p>When the Society for Psychical Research was founded, in 1882, its main
+energies were directed toward the investigation of this faculty, and of
+the reality of thought-transference. The various Committees who were
+engaged in this investigation soon came to the conclusion that its
+reality was beyond doubt. Some of the most interesting and conclusive
+experiments were those conducted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> by Mr. Guthrie, a gentleman living in
+Liverpool, and two of his employ&eacute;s. The tests were so arranged that
+fraud was out of the question, even had it been attempted. All the
+subjects were in a normal state, blindfolded, and separated some
+distance. Strict silence was observed. In the presence of Messrs. Myers
+and Gurney, the following trials in transferring the sensation of taste
+were attempted. Various substances were provided the "agent" (the one
+who was to transfer the sensation) and he placed a small quantity of one
+of these in his mouth; while the "percipient" (receiver of the
+telepathically sent message) stated what his or her impressions were. To
+quote one set of trials:</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2"><span class="smcap">September 4</span></p>
+
+<table summary="substances and answers" style="width: 50%;" cellpadding="6"><tbody>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Substance Tested</i></td>         <td class="tl" style="width: 50%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Answers Given</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Worcestershire sauce.</td>       <td class="tl">Worcestershire sauce.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>        <td class="tl">Vinegar.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Port wine.</td>                  <td class="tl">Between eau de Cologne and beer.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>                <td class="tl">Raspberry vinegar.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Bitter aloes.</td>               <td class="tl">Horrible and bitter.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Alum.</td>                      <td class="tl">A taste of ink&mdash;of iron&mdash;of vinegar. I feel it on my lips; as if I had been eating alum.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>                  <td class="tl">Do. distinct impression: bitter taste persisted.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Nutmeg.</td>                     <td class="tl">Peppermint&mdash;no; what you put in puddings&mdash;nutmeg.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>                    <td class="tl">Nutmeg.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Sugar.</td>                      <td class="tl">Nothing perceived.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>                      <td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Cayenne pepper.</td>             <td class="tl">Mustard.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td>             <td class="tl">Cayenne pepper.</td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>The next series of experiments concerned the transference of bodily
+pains. The subjects still being blindfolded, and some distance apart,
+the agent was pricked in various parts of his body by a needle. Several
+physicians were present at these experiments:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Back of left ear pricked. Rightly located.</p>
+
+<p>Lobe of left ear pricked. Rightly located.</p>
+
+<p>Left wrist pricked. "It is the left hand."</p>
+
+<p>Third finger of left hand tightly bound round with wire. A lower
+joint of that finger was guessed.</p>
+
+<p>Left wrist scratched with pins. "Is it the left wrist? Like being
+scratched."</p>
+
+<p>Left ankle pricked. Rightly located.</p></div>
+
+<p>Now it would be foolish to attribute such results as these to chance.
+But let us proceed.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Blair Thaw tried a number of experiments in transferring colours.
+The following are samples:</p>
+
+
+<p class="subhead2"><span class="smcap">Colours Chosen at Random</span></p>
+
+<table summary="colours and guesses" style="width: 50%;" cellpadding="6" class="center"><tbody>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Chosen</i></td>  <td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>1st Guess</i></td>    <td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>2nd Guess</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Bright red.</td>      <td class="tl">Bright red.</td>       <td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;....</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Bright green.</td>    <td class="tl">Light green.</td>      <td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;....</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Yellow.</td>          <td class="tl">Dark blue.</td>        <td class="tl">Yellow.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Bright yellow.</td>   <td class="tl">Bright yellow.</td>   <td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;....</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Dark red.</td>        <td class="tl">Blue.</td>             <td class="tl">Dark red.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Dark blue.</td>       <td class="tl">Orange.</td>           <td class="tl">Dark blue.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Orange.</td>          <td class="tl">Green.</td>            <td class="tl">Heliotrope.</td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p>In 1895 Mr. Henry G. Rawson published a paper on the subject, in which
+he narrated his success in transferring the diagrams of objects.
+Tracings of these are given herewith. (O&nbsp;=&nbsp;original and R&nbsp;=&nbsp;reproduction.) Further comment is hardly necessary.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;">
+<img src="images/line06.jpg" width="345" height="640" alt="" title="" />
+<span class="center smcap">Diagram Illustrative of Thought-Transference.</span></div>
+
+
+<p>He also tried a number of experiments in naming cards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> drawn at random
+from the pack (where the chance is always 51 to 1 of being correct, and
+the chance of being correct a number of times in succession is
+inconceivably great) and he attained the following results, among
+others:</p>
+
+<table summary="cards chosen and guessed" style="width: 50%;" class="center" cellpadding="6"><tbody>
+<tr>
+<td class="tl">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Card Chosen</i></td>         <td class="tl" style="width: 60%;">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Card Guessed</i></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">5 of Hearts.</td>        <td class="tl">7 of Hearts, Ace of Diamonds.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">8 of Hearts.</td>        <td class="tl">8 of Hearts.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">10 of Clubs.</td>        <td class="tl">9 of Clubs, 10 of Clubs.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Jack of Diamonds.</td>   <td class="tl">Jack of Diamonds.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">5 of Spades.</td>        <td class="tl">7 of Spades, 5 of Spades.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">2 of Clubs.</td>        <td class="tl">2 of Diamonds, 2 of Clubs.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Queen of Hearts.</td>    <td class="tl">Queen of Hearts.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">5 of Diamonds.</td>      <td class="tl">9 of Diamonds, 5 of Diamonds.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Ace of Diamonds.</td>    <td class="tl">Ace of Diamonds.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Ace of Hearts.</td>      <td class="tl">Ace of Hearts.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">Ace of Clubs.</td>       <td class="tl">Ace of Clubs.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="tl">King of Spades.</td>     <td class="tl">King of Diamonds, King of Spades.</td>
+</tr></tbody></table>
+
+<p>Again, it is useless to say that such results are attributable to
+chance. The good standing of the participants places their good faith
+beyond question; all normal means of communication were prevented. How
+are we to account for such facts&mdash;short of invoking some sort of mental
+interaction, through other than the ordinary channels of sense?</p>
+
+<p>But these were experiments conducted in the normal state. Equally and
+even more interesting and conclusive results were obtained when the
+subject was placed under hypnotism. Of these, the most conclusive
+experiments were those conducted by Mrs. Sidgwick and Miss Alice
+Johnson. Put to the law of chance, it was shown that such coincidences
+were many hundreds, not to say thousands, of times more numerous than
+chance could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> account for. Then, again, we have the experiments at a
+great distance, in which Dr. Pierre Janet willed a patient of his to
+come through the streets, and she almost invariably came when he willed
+it. We have, too, a number of most interesting experiments in which
+<i>dreams</i> have been induced in others&mdash;by trying to influence the
+sleeping thoughts of the dreamer. Here is a fruitful field, as yet
+hardly touched, for an experimenter in this line of research.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the most interesting and dramatic cases of the kind are those
+experiments in which one person has voluntarily caused a figure of
+himself to appear to another at a distance. Thus, A sits down and wills
+intently that he shall appear to B that night&mdash;in sleep or waking, as
+the case may be. The next morning A receives a letter from B, stating
+that he has seen an apparition of him, and asking him if he is well. The
+following is an example of a case of this character:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"One certain Sunday evening in November, 1881, having been reading
+of the great power which the human will is capable of exercising, I
+determined with the whole force of my being that I would be present
+in spirit in the front bedroom of the second floor of a house
+situated at 22 Hogarth Road, Kensington, in which room slept two
+young ladies of my acquaintance, viz. Miss L. S. V. and Miss E. C.
+V., aged respectively twenty-five and eleven years. I was living at
+this time at 23 Kildare Gardens, at a distance of about three miles
+from Hogarth Road, and I had not in any way mentioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> my intention
+of trying this experiment to either of the above ladies, for the
+simple reason that it was only on retiring to rest upon this
+particular Sunday night that I made up my mind to do so. The time
+at which I determined to be there was one o'clock in the morning,
+and I also had a strong intention of making my presence
+perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>"On the following Thursday I went to see the ladies in question,
+and in the course of conversation (without any allusion to the
+subject on my part) the elder one told me that on the previous
+Sunday night she had been much terrified by perceiving me standing
+by her bedside and that she screamed when the apparition advanced
+toward her, and awoke her little sister who saw me also...."
+(Corroborative evidence was obtained from the two ladies
+mentioned.)</p></div>
+
+<p>Such a case is called a "telepathically induced hallucination" or an
+"experimental apparition," for the reason that the figure seen is
+doubtless hallucinatory in character and was induced by means of
+telepathy. Such cases (and there are plenty of them) are very striking
+proof of the direct action of mind on mind; and at the same time form a
+sort of bridge across the gulf which otherwise seems to exist between
+the experimental cases we have just quoted and the spontaneous cases to
+which we must now refer.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the Society began its work it was noticed that numbers of
+cases were sent in, in which apparitions were seen at the very moment of
+the death of the person symbolized by the apparition. In many such
+cases, no other experience such as this has happened to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> percipient
+throughout his or her life; but on the very occasion when such a figure
+<i>was</i> seen, the individual was found to have died at that particular
+time! Can so many cases of so remarkable a character be attributed to
+chance?</p>
+
+<p>The answer at first sight is: No. But here we must be cautious. In
+scientific research such as this, we must not be guided by impressions,
+but by facts and figures. Accordingly it was decided to put this matter
+to the test, and an "International Census of Hallucinations" was
+inaugurated, which extended throughout several countries (America being
+represented by Professor William James), and the taking of which lasted
+several years. As the result of this laborious undertaking, 30,000
+answers were received&mdash;the percentage of coincidental apparitions being
+calculated. After making allowances for all possible sources of error,
+it was ascertained that the number of coincidences received were several
+hundred times too numerous to be attributed to chance; and the following
+statement was signed by Professor Sidgwick's Committee<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Between deaths and apparitions of the dying person a connection exists
+which is not due to chance alone. This we hold as a proved fact.</i>"</p>
+
+<p>These are important words in many senses; and <i>donn&eacute; &agrave; penser</i>. It shows
+us that, after all is said and done, this old theory of "ghosts" is not
+so far wrong, and that they, in a certain sense, <i>do</i> exist; it is only
+a matter of their interpretation: the "mystics" have as usual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> been
+right as to the existence of the facts, but the "scientists" may be
+right in their interpretation of them.</p>
+
+<p>So we have the whole class of "spontaneous" telepathic phenomena, so
+called because they are not induced by direct experiment. In this class
+we have all those manifestations which take place at or about the moment
+of death; phantasms of the living, phantasms of the dying, and phantasms
+of the dead&mdash;according to whether the subject is yet living, is dying,
+or has recently died. In all such cases we may postulate a telepathic
+action at the moment of death, for in those cases when the apparition
+was seen but a few minutes or even a few hours after death, the impact
+might have been transmitted at the moment of death, and only have
+emerged into consciousness during the quietness and peace of the
+evening, or when night gave it a chance to do so. For we now know that
+subconscious ideas do tend to rise into consciousness when the latter is
+less occupied with the events of the day.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, impossible to detail here the mass of evidence of all
+kinds which has been accumulated of late years in favour of the
+existence of telepathy, but enough has been quoted to indicate the
+method of approach and the character of the evidence adduced. Suffice it
+to say that, in the eyes of those who have inquired into the subject
+closely, telepathy is now held to be proved; it is now considered to be
+a scientific fact, though not as yet explained. Again I repeat, the
+question is not: Is it possible? but, Is it a fact?</p>
+
+<p>Taking all that has been said into consideration, it may fairly be
+contended that the mere <i>fact</i> of telepathy may therefore be said to
+have been proved. This being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> so, the interesting question of its nature
+or character presents itself. How is such action to be explained? How
+account for the facts?</p>
+
+<p>There are many theories which have been advanced from time to time to
+explain this remarkable phenomenon, and, if it be a fact in nature, its
+scientific explanation must some day be forthcoming. Once telepathy
+stands proved it will mean the remoulding and recasting of many of our
+scientific theories, and even a reconstruction of science&mdash;in so far, at
+least, as it refers to physiological psychology. Such being the case,
+and telepathy being proved, as many eminent men of science today
+believe, the question of its theoretical explanation becomes most
+important.</p>
+
+<p>Now the first analogy which strikes one in the consideration of this
+question is that of wireless telegraphy&mdash;the subtle electric vibrations
+which journey to and fro with incredible swiftness through the universal
+ether. In short, telepathy is thought by many to be simply a species of
+physical vibration, proceeding from brain to brain, just as electric
+waves pass from the transmitter to the receiver in wireless telegraphy.
+This explanation is so common that many persons accept it without
+further ado, as being the correct explanation of the facts. But such a
+theory cannot be said to cover the facts in a satisfactory manner.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, there seems to be no definite or prescribed
+area in the brain adapted for such a purpose; no cell or centre has
+as yet been discovered which appears destined to send out waves of
+this character. Still, perhaps it will be some day, for the functions
+of certain portions of the brain&mdash;particularly the frontal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> lobes&mdash;are
+as yet very little understood. But there is the argument that, if
+such waves exist, they must be detected by means of our scientific
+instruments&mdash;instruments so delicate and subtle that they are able to
+measure the difference of the pull of gravity of an article when placed
+on the table or on the floor, or can register the heat of a candle at a
+distance of more than a mile (Langley's bolometer). Compared with such
+delicate instruments, our five senses are coarse indeed, and any
+vibrations which can affect these same senses must surely affect the
+more delicate and sensitive instruments just mentioned. Yet none of them
+have as yet been able to indicate the existence of any such vibrations,
+and this would seem to show that they cannot exist.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>But there is a reply to this argument. It may be said that, although the
+<i>senses</i> do not register any such vibrations, the <i>brain</i> might do so,
+in some direct manner; and the brain might be far more sensitive than
+any instrument so far devised. Indeed the definition of telepathy, "the
+ability of one mind to influence or be influenced by another mind
+otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense," would seem to
+indicate that in this process only the brain is involved, and not
+necessarily the physical senses at all. So far, then, so good; telepathy
+might still be vibratory in character.</p>
+
+<p>But if so, how could such waves get through the skull to act upon the
+brain direct? This is a staggering thought to the ordinary materialist,
+and at first sight renders such an action unintelligible and hence
+"impossible"! But to reason thus would be very superficial.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> For we know
+that certain physical energies pass through solid substances&mdash;substances
+impervious to other physical energies. Thus we know that glass permits
+light to pass through it, but is a non-conductor of electricity; while
+steel is impervious to light, yet electricity can traverse miles of
+steel in the fraction of a second. "Gravity" seems the only energy which
+cannot be isolated by some means or other. No substance is opaque to
+gravity. It acts through all substances, at all times, continuously. In
+this respect telepathy may resemble gravitation.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> If this were true,
+or anything like it were true, we could easily see why a solid
+substance, such as the human skull, might offer no appreciable
+resistance to the passage through it of undulations of a certain
+velocity&mdash;of a speed so great, perhaps, that they could not be detected
+by any of the instruments at the command of the physicist today.</p>
+
+<p>But there are other and still more serious objections to the vibratory
+action of telepathy which have not as yet been mentioned. For if we try
+to push the analogy further, we shall find that it is by no means so
+clear as might be supposed. Thus in the case of wireless telegraphy the
+vibratory action of the ether is a purely mechanical process and does
+not carry emotion, thought, or intelligence with it&mdash;being vibration
+pure and simple. Now, in the case of a supposed telepathic message,
+thought flashed from one brain to another must be supposed to convey
+with it intelligence of some sort; for if it were a <i>purely</i> mechanical
+vibratory action, how is it that this would impress another brain in
+such an entirely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> different manner from all other vibrations as to
+create in that brain not only a thought, but the precise <i>kind</i> of
+thought&mdash;the <i>replica</i> of the thought&mdash;which originated in the brain of
+the agent? Granting that vibrations are but "symbols," and that they are
+interpreted by our brains <i>as</i> things, the difficulty remains that, in
+all other cases, such vibrations, no matter what their intensity, convey
+to the brain the idea of external objects, or qualities of those
+objects, and do not convey to it the idea of mind or intelligence. How
+is it, therefore, that one particular species of vibration, which, we
+must assume, would vary more or less with each individual, can convey
+with it the idea of thought, and that this vibration is associated with
+mind, and in fact is thought, while all other vibrations in the world
+are in nowise connected with intelligence and do not appear to us to be
+so connected? And further, how infinitely we should have to vary the
+degree and type of vibration to correspond to all shades of thought and
+feeling and emotion! Sir William Crookes some years ago urged the
+possibility of this vibratory action of telepathy; but Mr. Myers has
+pointed out its defects and stated that all we can at present say about
+telepathy is that "life has the power of manifesting to life"&mdash;a formula
+surely general enough, yet highly significant.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the theory has been advanced that all minds are in touch in a
+sort of subterranean way&mdash;through their subliminal regions&mdash;just as all
+spokes of a wheel ultimately reach the hub, though each spoke is
+distinctive. In this way we could imagine an inter-connection taking
+place, of which we are quite unaware, under certain favourable
+conditions. To use an analogy somewhere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> employed by Professor James,
+our conscious minds are like the leaves of the trees which whisper
+together, but the roots of the trees are all embedded in the same soil
+and are interlaced inextricably. So our minds, though they appear to be
+so separate and apart, may really be at basis fundamentally <i>one</i>. There
+must be, it is said, some common ground of interaction; possibly a sort
+of universal fluid, in which all minds are bathed, and by means of which
+interaction of thought is effected. This is somewhat akin to the theory
+first propounded by Mesmer, and which has been revived, in somewhat
+altered form, more than a hundred years later. Mesmer held that thought
+was communicated from brain to brain "by the vibrations of a subtle
+fluid with which the nerve substance is in continuity." Truly, if any
+sort of physical action is employed, this seems a significant enough
+remark. We know that two tuning forks will resound in unison, if one of
+them be struck. Put in motion a magnetized needle; at a certain distance
+and without contact another magnetized needle will oscillate
+synchronously with the first. Set in vibration a violin string, or the
+string of a piano; and at a certain distance the string of another piano
+or violin will vibrate in unison with it. Such analogies make us wonder
+whether or not communication of this kind might not exist, and,
+certainly, in order to make telepathy intelligible at all, we must
+suppose some such action taking place. We all have a tendency to think
+in physical symbols, owing to our materialistic training.</p>
+
+<p>For if we try to picture to ourselves the process of telepathy as taking
+place in some manner other than physical, how are we to conceive such
+action? Does one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> consciousness stretch out, as it were, and grasp the
+other passive mind? or does the agent project the thought from his brain
+and impress the mind of the percipient with it&mdash;just as a bullet might
+be shot from a rifle, or light waves radiate from some centre? The first
+of these theories would be somewhat akin to true mind-reading, the other
+to thought-projection or transference. But if the latter theory be
+correct, is all thought directed into one single channel&mdash;at a target as
+it were&mdash;or does it spread equally in all directions, like all other
+vibratory radiations? It may be conceived that telepathy is a
+combination of both the above processes&mdash;it being a kind of mutual
+action&mdash;a projection on the part of one, and a mental reception or
+grasping on the part of the other. If this be the case, we must conceive
+the thought as met, as it were, in space, and in some way joined or
+seized upon by the percipient thought; but how can we conceive such
+seizing or such perception?</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the problems arising from a study of telepathy are
+numerous and remarkable. Let us briefly summarize the chief theories
+which have been advanced to date. These are:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Theory of Exalted Perception.</i>&mdash;This is, that the subject is in
+some manner enabled to see the thoughts of his "magnetizer" or
+hypnotist. This explanation applies only to those telepathic
+manifestations observed when the percipient is in a state of trance; and
+even here the theory cannot be said to explain, for it explains one
+mystery by propounding another.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Hypothesis of Brain Exaltation with Paralysis of the
+Senses.</i>&mdash;On this theory, a sort of sympathetic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> action and reaction or
+<i>rapport</i> is supposed to take place, but of the exact nature of this
+process its exponents can tell us nothing. Again, it only evades the
+direct issue and answers one problem by asking another.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Hypothesis of Direct Psychic Action.</i>&mdash;This is the view whose
+ablest exponent is Mr. Frederic Myers. It is supposed that such action
+takes place in its own world&mdash;its own sphere&mdash;just as distinct and just
+as real as the material world. If this were true we could never
+demonstrate the action of telepathy scientifically, since it would be
+beyond the reach of such demonstration. Others again believe that the
+action of telepathy is akin to the phenomena of <i>induction</i>; others that
+it is akin to <i>gravitation</i> or the <i>magnetic force</i>. While the details
+of these theories are lacking, there is here a valuable suggestion and a
+field for future research.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Hypothesis of Direct Physical Action.</i>&mdash;This supposes that the
+molecular changes in one brain, accompanying thought or emotion, set
+certain ether vibrations in motion, which are caught up by another
+brain, sensitive enough to receive them, or attuned to the proper
+degree. This theory is one which appeals to most persons, though it is
+open to the criticisms before raised. Nevertheless, it <i>may</i> be true;
+and if so, its law ought one day to be discovered. There is here also a
+field for legitimate scientific research.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Idea of a Universal Fluid.</i>&mdash;This is the theory held to by the
+majority of mystics and occultists. There is supposed to exist a sort of
+fluidic intermediary between mind and mind, which acts as the means for
+thought transmission, and it is upon this that all thought is impressed.
+It acts as a sort of mirror, which reflects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> the thoughts of all living
+persons, just as a material mirror might reflect material objects. In
+such a case, the thought is really <i>made objective</i> and is perceived by
+the subject in a sort of clairvoyant manner. I do not feel competent to
+pronounce upon this hypothesis in the present embryonic state of
+psychical science.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Theory of Spiritual Intermediaries.</i>&mdash;This is the theory that
+our thoughts are read by some purely "spiritual" process, by "spirits,"
+who convey this thought to another individual and impress him in some
+psychical manner directly. They thus act as carrier-pigeons between mind
+and mind. To this theory it may be replied, as Professor Flournoy has
+replied in his <i>Spiritism and Psychology</i>, that it represents the grave
+methodological defect of multiplying causes without necessity; by
+postulating spirits and importing them into the problem when they are
+not wanted. It would be better to seek an explanation elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>The Psycho-Physical Theory.</i>&mdash;This theory supposes that all thought
+is accompanied by nervous undulations, which are carried to the surface
+of the body, there setting the ether in vibration; and this, in turn,
+impinges upon the periphery of another person, particularly sensitive to
+receive them, and by him re-transformed into nervous currents&mdash;into
+thought! Such a theory completely fails to take into account those cases
+of long-distance telepathy, of which so many have now been collected;
+and in other ways is very defective.</p>
+
+<p>8. Assuming all the above theories to be insufficient, we now come to:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>The Elements of a Scientific Explanation</i></p>
+
+<p>In studying this subject we must remember certain things:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) That telepathy is a highly complex phenomenon, and for that reason
+we must not expect to find its solution easily or state it in a single
+sentence.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) That we must consider it from the double standpoint, physical and
+mental; and</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) That we must consider the conditions affecting the operator, the
+subject, and, if possible, the connection between them.</p>
+
+<p>All scientific explanation consists in reducing the unknown to terms of
+the known. We can often <i>classify</i> a phenomenon without being able to
+<i>explain</i> its innermost nature. If we discover its laws, we have
+advanced to that extent.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. J. Ochorowicz, who has made a prolonged and minute study of this
+question, writes as follows regarding the necessary conditions to be
+observed in the operator:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"On the side of the <i>operator</i> the conditions have been very little
+studied. But it is probable:</p>
+
+<p>"1. That there are personal differences.</p>
+
+<p>"2. That these differences may be due not only to the degree of
+thought intensity, but also to the nature of the thought itself,
+according as it is visual, auditive, or motor.</p>
+
+<p>"3. That some account has to be taken of a sort of accord, of
+concordance between the two intelligences.</p>
+
+<p>"4. That excessive will-power impairs the definiteness<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> of the
+transmission without much enhancing its intensity.</p>
+
+<p>"5. That strong, persistent, prolonged thinking of a thought
+repeated for a longer or shorter time constitutes a condition in
+the highest degree favourable.</p>
+
+<p>"6. That any distraction which causes the thought to disappear for
+a moment, or that makes it cease to be isolated, seems eminently
+unfavourable to the mental action.</p>
+
+<p>"7. That, nevertheless, thoughts that are not intense, and even
+thoughts that are at the moment unconscious (subconscious), may be
+transmitted involuntarily.</p>
+
+<p>"8. That the muscular efforts which usually accompany an exertion
+of will are more or less indifferent; but that the muscle
+expression of the operator may be useful, subjectively, by reason
+of the habitude that connects thought with these expressional
+signs.</p>
+
+<p>"It follows from these considerations that the operator should
+insist less upon the 'I will it' than upon the content of that
+willing; and hence it is probable that, properly speaking, it is
+not the 'strong will' that helps telepathy so much as clear
+thinking."</p></div>
+
+<p>As to the subject or <i>percipient</i>, experience has taught us that the
+four following states are probably the most important for the recipience
+of a telepathic message:</p>
+
+<p>1. In the state of profound <i>aideia</i> (complete lack of thought)
+transmission is never immediate, but it may sometimes be latent.</p>
+
+<p>2. In the state of nascent <i>monoideism</i> (one idea) it may be immediate
+and perfect.</p>
+
+<p>3. In the state of <i>passive polyideism</i> (many thoughts)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> it may be
+either immediate or may take place after an interval of greater or
+lesser length.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the state of <i>active polyideism</i> the conditions are complex and
+subject to further subdivisions, for:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Transmission may be direct if the subject helps by voluntary
+self-absorption in a concentration of mind more or less monoideic; he
+lends himself to the action; he listens mentally; he seeks, sometimes he
+finds!</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) It may be indirect, i.e. latent; this time also with some
+concurrence on the part of the subject. This seems more frequent.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Finally, it may in exceptional instances be either mediate
+(delayed) or immediate, even without the subject's being advised
+beforehand of the action.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Here, then, are the probable conditions; also the state of the agent and
+percipient. Now what about the <i>connecting links</i>?</p>
+
+<p>Here we come to the heart of the problem. I shall be as brief as
+possible, since we cannot pretend that the problem is yet solved. I
+merely offer a few suggestions, some original, others advanced before by
+writers on these subjects.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain a specific action we must employ a specific
+instrument: a telephone for a telephone; a brain for a brain.</p>
+
+<p>Every living thing is a dynamic focus.</p>
+
+<p>A dynamic focus tends ever to propagate the motion which is proper to
+it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Propagated motion becomes transformed according to the medium it
+traverses. A force may be transmitted or transformed.</p>
+
+<p>In an identical medium there is only <i>transmission</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In a different medium there is <i>transformation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A dynamic nucleus, in propagating its motion, sends it out in every
+direction; but this transmission becomes perceptible only on the lines
+of least resistance.</p>
+
+<p>A process that is at once chemical, physical, and psychical goes on in
+the brain. A complex action of this kind is propagated through the grey
+matter, as waves are propagated in water.</p>
+
+<p>Regarded physiologically, a thought is only a vibration, probably, which
+does not pass out of its appropriate medium. It is propagated, and it
+must be along the motor nerves, since science admits no other route. But
+the <i>thought itself</i> does not radiate; it remains "at home," just as the
+chemical action of a battery remains in the battery; it is represented
+abroad by its dynamic correlate, called, in the case of the battery, a
+<i>current</i>; and in the case of the brain, I know not what; but whatever
+its name may be, it is the <i>dynamic correlate of thought</i>. Thought,
+therefore, is dynamic. Thought is transformed; and may be
+re-transformed, in another organism which supplies the necessary
+conditions. Thought may be restored.</p>
+
+<p>We have now reached, from a purely physiological standpoint, a position
+which I desired to reach before I advance the final part of the
+theory&mdash;which may at first sight appear somewhat fantastic. But
+telepathy itself is fantastic; and yet, being a fact, it must be
+accounted for somehow, or left altogether unexplained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It has always been contended by a peculiarly-gifted group of individuals
+known as "clairvoyants," that we possess a "spiritual body"&mdash;just as we
+possess a physical body&mdash;of exactly the same shape and appearance; and
+that we inhabit this body at death. It is further contended that all our
+physical senses find their exact counterpart in this "etheric double";
+there is a physical eye and a spiritual eye; a physical ear and a
+spiritual ear, etc. With the spiritual eye we see "clairvoyantly"; with
+the spiritual ear we hear "clairaudiently," and so forth. I shall not
+discuss the possibility of such a body, except to say that there is now
+a mass of evidence in its favour. Assuming it to exist&mdash;assuming it to
+be the exact counterpart of the physical body&mdash;then it too possesses a
+brain; and it too must pulsate and vibrate just as the physical brain
+does, when accompanying thought.</p>
+
+<p>Now this inner body may be the <i>vehicle of thought</i>. It may possess
+"centres" whose normal office is to send and receive telepathic
+messages. One "etheric centre" may thus act upon another "etheric
+centre" directly&mdash;only indirectly upon the physical brain cells. The
+action would thus be dynamic, yet psychical; physical in a sense, yet
+not physical as we conceive it. Philosophy tells us that the table we
+see (the <i>phenomenon</i>) is not the "real" table (the <i>noumenon</i>)&mdash;the
+reality behind; but, if we knock the two tables together, the <i>noumena</i>
+touch, just as the phenomenal tables do; only we have no means of
+knowing or directly seeing it. Thus there is a sort of physical
+communication of a spiritual thing. Those who have entered rooms of a
+certain character have often sensed their "psychic atmosphere."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> This is
+a sort of duplicate or replica of the physical atmosphere, yet it is
+different from it. The whole subject is so subtle that one cannot follow
+it unless he has had some experience or some knowledge of these things.
+The process cannot be explained in clear-cut fashion&mdash;any more than
+mediums can tell the source of their thoughts and impressions. A little
+intuition is needed in order to grasp the problem and comprehend its
+difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>Were I to try and state my theory briefly, then it would be somewhat as
+follows: Every thought necessitates a three-fold phenomenon&mdash;(1) the
+purely psychic activity; (2) the physiological correlate; and (3) the
+"dynamic correlate," which is as yet unrecognized by science. This
+"dynamic correlate" is the manifestation of the activity of the etheric
+double; which sets into motion certain vibratory activities which,
+though they are not physical vibrations, are their counterpart or
+<i>equivalent</i> on the plane above matter&mdash;the "astral" plane, if the term
+be allowable; which is parallel to, but not identical with, the material
+plane. Thus by a sort of "doctrine of correspondences" we arrive at the
+conclusion that telepathic action is physical, in a sense, yet is not
+sufficiently physical to be measured by our instruments in the
+laboratory. The activity is, as it were, the <i>noumenon</i>, of which the
+physical vibration would be the phenomenon; but no phenomenal aspect of
+this activity may ever be manifested to us; and hence never be capable
+of being registered by science, as it exists today.</p>
+
+<p>I do not know whether or not I have made this theory very
+comprehensible, but it seems to me some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> such theory might explain the
+facts and at the same time do away with the difficulties. At all events
+no theory of telepathy which has been advanced to date can be said to be
+explanatory, when all the facts are taken into consideration; and if
+this first tentative groping serves to stimulate others to speculate,
+and above all to <i>experiment</i>, in this obscure field, I shall feel that
+a first onward step has been taken toward a correct understanding of the
+"Marvels of Telepathy."</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> See Dr. G. B. Ermacora's paper in <i>Proceedings</i>, S.P.R.,
+vol. xi. pp. 235-308.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Professor Henry Sidgwick, as we know, was Professor of
+Moral Philosophy in Cambridge, and his works on <i>Ethics</i> and <i>Political
+Economy</i> are considered standard in all countries.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> This is the argument put forward by, e.g., Carl Snyder, in
+his <i>New Conceptions in Science</i>, pp. 306-7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> See my article in <i>The Monist</i> (July-September 1913, pp.
+445-58), "Earlier Theories of Gravity."&mdash;H. C.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Especially Dr. Ochorowicz, in his excellent work, <i>Mental
+Suggestion</i>, to which I am indebted for several of the ideas which
+follow.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">THE USES AND ABUSES OF MIND-CURE</p>
+
+
+<p>Within the past few years the country has been flooded by a host of
+books, pamphlets, and periodicals dealing with "psychotherapy" and
+mind-cure in general. In some ways it would be impossible to exaggerate
+the good which this has done. It has cheered-up many desponding souls;
+it has brightened many a life; it has stimulated activities and lines of
+thought which otherwise would have remained dormant; it has added real
+zest to life and made it worth living. Undoubtedly, too, real cures have
+been effected by means of these modern mental methods, and any one who
+denies this must surely be ignorant of the vast amount of steadily
+accumulating evidence in their favour. The many advantages of the system
+are doubtless pointed out with acuteness and insisted upon with vigour
+in the books which defend it, and need not be re-stated here. And yet,
+while I acknowledge all this; while I am forced to admit the many
+wonderful cures and much mental relief on account of these newer methods
+of healing, I still believe that a vast amount of harm is also brought
+about by the incautious application of the doctrines taught; by
+over-enthusiasm for the ideals which are ever before us, luring us on
+and on. In the present chapter, therefore, I propose to show in what
+these pitfalls<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> consist; to illustrate some of the errors into which
+over-enthusiastic "mental-curists" are apt to fall.</p>
+
+<p>First of all, however, a confession of faith! For a number of years I
+believed as implicitly as it was possible for any one to believe in the
+great power of mind to cure disease. I read nearly every book of
+importance that had been published on this theme&mdash;including Mrs. Eddy's
+books, all the standard works on hypnotism, mind-cure, faith-cure, new
+thought, etc. I was deeply imbued with the truths they contained. I
+became greatly opposed to the so-called "materialism" of medical
+science. The rationality and philosophical truth of the mind-cure
+systems appeared to me irrefutable.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamentals of the system are indeed well laid. We know of the
+tremendous effects of the emotions upon the body&mdash;its functions,
+secretions, etc. Cheering faith and optimism are assuredly great
+incentives to health; more than that, they are actual physiological
+health-stimulators. We know that we can make ourselves ill by morbid and
+unwholesome thoughts; and, as Feuchtersleben says: "If the imagination
+can make man sick, can it not make him well?" By opening up the great
+"sluice-gates" of the organism we somehow allow a great influx of
+spiritual energy to pervade us, and the disease vanishes. It is a very
+fascinating doctrine, and, for many diseases, doubtless a true one.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of all this, however, I believe the present tendency to treat
+all diseases&mdash;or next to all&mdash;by purely mental methods is a great
+mistake. It leaves many persons ill and crippled for life; it allows
+many hundreds of others to sink and fall into premature graves.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And the first objection I would make to mind and faith-curing, and all
+kindred systems, is this: that <i>they tend to suppress symptoms rather
+than remove causes</i>. This is a very grave objection indeed. If one
+suffers constantly from constipation or dyspepsia, the natural habit of
+the mind would be to worry about them more or less and take steps to
+prevent their continued progress. But the faith and mind-curists say:
+"No, it is not at all important; imagine yourself whole and well, and
+whole and well you will be!" Many persons have done this and their
+troubles have, apparently, lessened and disappeared. They may have and
+they may not. It is easy to ignore troubles of this kind; but this sort
+of ostrich-philosophy, which buries its head in the sand and refuses to
+look at what is before its eyes, is not natural or by any means the best
+for the bodily organism. Ignoring symptoms does not cure them. What such
+persons fail to take into account is this: that any unpleasant symptom
+which may have arisen must be due to <i>some cause</i>&mdash;sickness and disease
+do not arise <i>de novo</i> and without just cause. This is not the order of
+a good and kind nature. It must be due to <i>something</i>, and generally
+that "something" is the condition of the body at the time; and that
+condition depends, in turn, upon the previous habits and modes of life.
+These have engendered the diseased condition we see before us; and the
+only effective and rational way to stop the effects&mdash;the symptoms&mdash;is to
+stop the causes, to change the habits of life which have led to such
+results; and not to tinker with the effects. Even pain may be ignored to
+some extent; but pain is due to a certain pathological state which
+requires treatment. It is simply an indication<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> of an existing bodily
+condition. What is the good of ignoring that state, when it exists?
+Symptoms may be ignored, but the causes of those symptoms run on in the
+body, nevertheless, and in the end work havoc and breed sickness and
+decay.</p>
+
+<p>I am aware of the fact that the Christian Scientists, e.g., would reply
+to this that the bodily state (there is no body, according to them, but
+we let that pass, for the moment) <i>is</i> cured at the same time; that, by
+the mere affirmation that the body is whole, we thereby make it whole;
+we do not suppress symptoms, we remove causes as well. This I deny, at
+least in many cases. I have seen too many of such "cures" <i>and relapses</i>
+not to know whereof I speak. A patient goes to a "healer" and becomes
+"cured." A few weeks or months later his trouble returns; or, if not the
+same trouble, another and perhaps a worse one. This is "cured" in turn,
+and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is a well-known fact that a disease suppressed in one place or
+one direction has a tendency to break out in another. It has been
+gathering in force all the time within the body, and finally bursts
+forth again worse than before. "And the last state of that man was worse
+than the first." The <i>causes</i> have run on. Similar causes can produce
+opposite effects&mdash;just as opposite causes can produce similar effects.
+Although no tangible connection between the first and the second illness
+can be traced, it is there nevertheless; and both have been produced by
+a common cause. We cannot ignore causes; we must treat them; and if we
+do not, they will, in the majority of cases, repay us a thousandfold for
+our past neglect.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When a person is diseased the majority of mental-scientists would at
+least admit that certain unphysiological conditions were present and
+needed to be overcome. If this be so, I ask: Why should we allow the
+body to become diseased at all and thus necessitate its cure by mental
+or any other means? Would it not be much simpler to prevent such a
+diseased condition, in the first place, by proper physiological habits
+of life; and so render any cure by mental or other means unnecessary? It
+seems to me that, by thus allowing the body to become diseased, and then
+"curing" it by mental control (even granting that this is the case), we
+burn the candle at both ends&mdash;for the reason that we devitalize the body
+by allowing it to become diseased and then waste more energy in the
+mental effort to get well again! Would it not be more simple and more
+philosophical so to regulate the life that such diseased states and such
+cures are unnecessary?</p>
+
+<p>The fundamentals of Mrs. Eddy's doctrine are well known. God is all in
+all; God is good; hence all is good. Sin and sickness are delusions of
+poor mortal mind. They do not really exist. And this, they say, may
+easily be proved&mdash;on the one hand by the cures which take place; and on
+the other by the doctrine of idealism, which philosophers and scientists
+alike are accepting more and more as a satisfactory interpretation of
+the universe. The whole system is very delightful&mdash;and very illusory!</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, as to the cures. I must contend that because some
+remarkable cures have been effected, that, therefore, the <i>doctrines</i> of
+Christian Science are not thereby established. We know similar cures
+have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> effected at Lourdes; over the bones of saints (which did not
+really exist under the sacred cloth); over (fraudulent) "chips of the
+Cross"; by means of hypnotism, and in a hundred ways. The whole root of
+the matter lies in auto-suggestion; in the patient's faith in himself,
+and in the degree of faith he places in the curing object or dogma. The
+dogma may be quite false, but the cures are effected just the same.
+Because cures are effected by Christian Science methods, therefore, it
+is no proof whatever that the Christian Science theology or philosophy
+is right. It may be one huge error, but the cures would be effected just
+the same&mdash;provided the faith, the emotions, the imagination and spirit
+of the patient be touched in an appropriate manner.</p>
+
+<p>True it is that science and philosophy tend towards idealism; and the
+belief that there is, strictly speaking, "no matter." But this belief
+need not make us any the more believers in Christian Science and its
+methods. There is a subtle error here which is unperceived by the
+majority. When first the truth reaches the mind that there is "no
+matter" that matter cannot feel, etc., it bursts like a flood of light
+upon the unfettered mind and appears a fact so overwhelmingly great, so
+vast and so true, that to gainsay it would be to acknowledge ignorance
+of its teaching; to admit intellectual shortsightedness. (This is
+perhaps the reason for the supercilious superiority of many Christian
+Scientists; they imagine that no one perceives this truth but
+themselves.) And once grasped, is it not self-evident, and does not all
+else follow in consequence? At first sight it would indeed appear so!<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The great error, however, lies here. Because this fact is
+<i>theoretically</i> true, it is not <i>practically</i> true also. We may admit
+the one; we cannot accept the other. The fallacy has been clearly
+pointed out by Sir Oliver Lodge (<i>Hibbert Journal</i>, January, 1905), and
+I cannot do better than to quote his words in this connection. He says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"We cannot be permanently satisfied with dualism, but it is
+possible to be over-hasty and also too precisely insistent. There
+are those who seem to think that a monistic view of existence
+precludes the legitimacy of speaking of soul and body, or of God
+and spiritual things, or of guidance and management, at all; that
+is to say, they seem to think that because these things can be
+<i>ultimately</i> unified, therefore they are unified proximately and
+for practical purposes. We might as well urge that it is incorrect
+to speak of the chemical elements, or of the various materials with
+which, in daily life, we have to deal, or of the structures in
+which we live, or which we see and handle, as separate and real
+things, because in the last resort we believe that they may all be
+reduced to a segregation of corpuscles, or to some other mode of
+unity.... The language of dualism or of multiplism is not incorrect
+or inappropriable or superseded because we catch ideal glimpses of
+an ultimate unity; nor would it be any the less appropriable if the
+underlying unity could be more clearly or completely grasped. The
+material world may be an aspect of the spiritual world, or <i>vice
+versa</i> perhaps; or both may be aspects of something else; but both
+are realities,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> just the same, and there need be no hesitation in
+speaking of them clearly and distinctly as, for practical purposes,
+separate entities."</p></div>
+
+<p>This, it seems to me, disposes of the argument for Christian Science
+drawn from idealism. No matter whether the material world exists or not,
+we always have to live <i>as if</i> it existed. If we close our eyes and walk
+across the room, we shall be rudely stopped by the brick wall at the
+opposite end when we come to it. No matter how strongly we believe that
+such a wall does not exist, it does, nevertheless, stop us; we have to
+live <i>as if</i> it existed. And, just so, it seems to me; no matter how
+strongly we may believe that the body does not exist, we always have to
+live and act <i>as if</i> it existed&mdash;so long, at least, as we live in and
+inhabit the body at all.</p>
+
+<p>Christian Science says that hygiene, diet, etc., are unimportant factors
+in the cure of disease. They "do not count." Apart from the immediate,
+practical disproof which cases of blood-poisoning, etc., would offer to
+such a theory, it may also be disproved theoretically. For if it be
+unnecessary, e.g., to fast during illness&mdash;if food is a negligible
+quantity and can be left out of account&mdash;why do Christian Scientists
+ever eat at all? If food is unimportant in one case, it must be in the
+other case also. And if it be replied to this, as it is, that the only
+reason for food is because the Christian Scientists are not yet
+sufficiently "advanced" and have not yet sufficient "enlightenment" to
+do without it; then, I reply, by the same logic they are not as yet
+sufficiently advanced, and have not as yet sufficient knowledge to treat
+all cases of accident and disease, which, in point of fact, they do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+treat. If the limitation be acknowledged in one direction, it must be
+acknowledged in the other direction also. Christian Scientists cannot
+yet live without food because they have not yet sufficiently "perfected"
+themselves. So, in like manner, they should not treat many cases of
+disease they do treat because they have not yet sufficiently "perfected"
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>I might advance arguments such as the above to fill many pages. But I do
+not think it necessary. As a cure for certain functional diseases, for
+nervous disorders, and for many of the affections of the mind, mental
+methods of treatment must be acknowledged to be a great and a most
+important factor. But when an organic lesion is present, in grave states
+demanding immediate attention, I think it little short of criminal that
+such states should meet with almost total neglect because of the
+perverted ideas of physiology and a sickly sentimentalism illogically
+extended from the philosophical doctrine of idealism. As a metaphysical
+doctrine, it may be correct; as a basis for medical practice, it is
+certainly incorrect. Let us once more set our feet to earth and
+determine to live a good and a useful life in the material world of
+which we undoubtedly form a part. We are <i>in</i> a material world, and I
+believe we should be <i>of</i> it. I, for one, raise my voice in protest
+against the tide of intellectual asceticism which is inclined to accept
+without question the modern doctrine and methods of "psychotherapy" and
+mind-cure in place of the more rational and certain measures of hygiene
+and medicine. The further a pendulum swings in one direction, the
+further will it swing in the other, when released. And I believe that
+the modern extreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> acceptance of faith and mind-cure in all its forms
+is but the moral and intellectual and spiritual reaction against the
+materialism of the past generation. Hail the day when it again swings
+back to its mid-position; and when mental methods of cure and bodily
+hygiene shall together march hand in hand to the joint attack against
+disease! They each have their mission to fulfil, their cases to cure.
+Tolerance, tolerance! Let them each recognize the rights of the other!</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE OUIJA BOARD<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>Before we proceed to discuss the intelligence lying behind the Ouija
+Board, I must offer a few remarks upon the subject of automatic writing
+in general, passing in very brief review the various theories that have
+been advanced from time to time by way of explanation of the action of
+this extraordinary little device.</p>
+
+<p>One of the sanest and most rational popular accounts of this instrument
+and its workings that I have so far come across (all things considered)
+is a little pamphlet entitled <i>The Planchette Mystery</i>, very little
+known, from which I shall quote in writing this review. Epes Sargent's
+book, <i>Planchette: the Despair of Science</i>, contains in reality very
+little on the planchette board, and the title is somewhat deceptive. Mr.
+Myers's articles on the subject (particularly in <i>Proceedings of
+S.P.R.</i>, vol. ii. pp. 217-37; vol. iii. pp. 1-63; and vol. ix. pp.
+26-128) are, of course, classical, but are involved and inaccessible for
+the general reader, even had he the time to read them carefully; so that
+perhaps the following r&eacute;sum&eacute; may not be unnecessary or out of place.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be presumed that every reader of this book knows what a Ouija
+Board is, and, roughly, what it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> does. <i>How</i> it does it is a more
+difficult question to answer; in fact, it may be said that no definite
+answer has even yet been forthcoming. All that has been done, or that we
+can do, is to examine the facts, and to advance an explanatory theory
+that is really explanatory and in accord, as nearly as possible, with
+accepted theories and teaching.</p>
+
+<p>First, let us consider the movement of the board. There can be little
+doubt that the same force which propels the planchette board propels the
+ouija board also; and this is still further demonstrated by the fact
+that, in many experiments, the planchette board is used as a ouija, and
+points to the letters, which are written out on a large piece of paper,
+and the pencil point indicates the letter in the same manner as does the
+ouija. It certainly appears far easier for the board to point to letters
+than to write&mdash;and this is most suggestive and interesting when we
+consider it. It would seem to indicate that the controlling intelligence
+found it easier to convey its thoughts when the letters were before it,
+in plain sight&mdash;a very suggestive fact, taken in conjunction with
+certain mediumistic phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> course there is the alternative
+explanation of this fact&mdash;that a straight push-and-pull action is easier
+to accomplish than the more detailed and complicated action of forming
+words and letters. But that would not make plain to us why it is that no
+<i>attempt</i> at writing should be made, very often, until the
+letter-pointing system is adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Presuming, then, that the movement or impelling force is the same in
+each instance, the question is: What is this force? In the great bulk of
+cases there can only be one answer to this question: unconscious
+muscular action. Whenever muscular contact is allowed, this may safely
+be assumed to be the explanation of the movements of the board&mdash;even if
+it shows an apparently independent will and movement of its own, and
+apparently drags the hands of the sitters with it. I have discussed this
+at some length in my <i>Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism</i>, pp. 66-72,
+and it is unnecessary to go into the question again here. Unconscious
+muscular action will account for so much that, even if it were not the
+true explanation of the facts, in reality, we should have to assume that
+it was.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that I have said "in the great bulk of cases." Some
+of my readers may object to this limitation, and say that it is the true
+and sufficient explanation of <i>all</i> the cases, without exception.
+Personally I doubt that fact. There are numerous cases on record when
+the board has continued to write after the hands of all the sitters have
+been removed from it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> Now, if there be operative a force which has been
+in some way generated during the sitting, it is quite possible, of
+course, that this same force may be operative in those cases where
+contact is allowed, only it is difficult to prove that fact.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+Personally I have no difficulty in conceiving such a force or power, at
+least theoretically. This force may be the first glimmerings of the
+force whose more powerful manifestations we see in the movements of
+tables (witness Gasparin's experiments, e.g.), and ultimately in
+telekinetic phenomena, as, for example, in the Palladino case. This
+would seem to indicate that such forces and powers are possessed by
+every one in a limited degree, but that it is only in certain
+individuals that it becomes so marked and extraordinary that it produces
+the phenomena spoken of above.</p>
+
+<p>Granting, then, for the sake of argument, that the board is moved by the
+sitter, either consciously or unconsciously; by unconscious muscular
+action or by some "fluid" emanating from his fingers (and we must
+remember that even were a spirit using the writer's organism to manifest
+through, it must use the muscular and motor system), the great and vital
+question still remains: What is the intelligence behind the board that
+directs the phenomena? Who does the writing? What is the source of the
+information so often given?</p>
+
+<p>Let us first consider the theory held by a very large number of
+persons&mdash;that the board is moved by some kind of "electricity." We must
+suppose that the generally recognized electricity is meant, because, if
+not, the motive force would be electricity <i>plus something</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> and the
+"something" would be the explanation. And yet, if the force moving the
+board be "electricity," how comes it that this "electricity" can answer
+back, and possess an individuality so independent from that of the
+writer; capable, too, of giving a vast mass of information to the
+sitters, on occasion, of which they knew nothing? Then, again, it must
+be remembered that a ouija or planchette is almost universally made of
+<i>wood</i>&mdash;not metal or any well-known good conductor of electricity, but
+of wood&mdash;which is generally recognized to be an exceedingly bad
+conductor. Obviously the theory is absurd. And when we come to remember
+those cases in which the board gave information previously unknown to
+the writer having his hands on the board at the time, the theory sinks
+into its proper place&mdash;oblivion.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the theory of a floating, ambient mentality. This theory
+is held by many, and it is contended by them that this mentality is
+clothed, by some mysterious process, with a force similar to that which
+it possessed in the living organism; and that, in its expression of the
+combined intelligence of the circle, it generally follows the strongest
+mind, or the mind that is best qualified or conditioned to give
+correctly the thought. This theory found its champion in the person of
+Dr. Joseph Maxwell (see his <i>Metapsychical Phenomena</i>), and must be
+taken into account seriously. But an objection, and to my mind a fatal
+objection, to this theory is the fact that the intelligence seems to
+possess, not a collective but a decidedly personal character&mdash;one which
+is sufficiently stable and individual to argue back and to maintain its
+own opinions and beliefs in the face of great opposition from all the
+members of the circle.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> Is there anything in all this that suggests a
+floating, compound mentality; or does it not rather bear the marks of
+being a theory made up for the occasion, in order to evade some
+alternative explanation, objectionable, perhaps, to the sitters or
+critics?</p>
+
+<p>All that has been said above also applies to the theory of a <i>spiritus
+mundi</i>, or spirit of the universe, which formed so large a part in the
+cosmological theories of many ancient philosophers. It is supposed to be
+a sort of all-pervading nervous principle, having, however, a mind of
+its own, when occasion demands&mdash;for otherwise how are the results to be
+accounted for? I think this and the preceding theory can best be met,
+perhaps, by asking its supporters to produce one iota of evidence in its
+behalf. When this has been forthcoming it will be time enough to
+consider it seriously.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the theory that the unconscious muscular action of the
+sitters is the cause of the movement and writing. This has been
+considered before, and it was pointed out that, even granting for the
+sake of argument that the board was actually moved by this means, the
+question still remains: How are we to account for the mentality behind
+the movement&mdash;especially when facts are given unknown to all the members
+of the circle? (For an example of this see <i>Proceedings, S.P.R.</i>, vol.
+ix. pp. 93-8.)</p>
+
+<p>The question thus arises: <i>What</i> did the writing? The theory of
+unconscious muscular action has been considered, and found not to
+explain all the facts. Many might contend that the board was moved by a
+principle or force as yet unknown, and think the question settled in
+that way. Of course this is a mere begging of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> question, for all
+practical purposes, because, if the explanation were known, there would
+be no mystery and no argument about it. But the mere statement that the
+board is operated by a force as yet unknown merely restates the problem,
+without in any way attempting to solve it, and hence leaves us precisely
+where we were. Certainly this theory will not do!</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly, the simplest explanation&mdash;and the correct one&mdash;for the
+majority of the facts is that the subconscious mind is alone responsible
+for them. Thoughts, images, reflections, imaginations, tend to
+externalize or express themselves in this manner,&mdash;in motor
+avenues,&mdash;through the movement of the board. The vast majority of ouija
+board "communications" are to be accounted for in this way. But what of
+those other (relatively rare) cases in which supernormal information,
+unknown to the sitter, is obtained? Any theory which is advanced must
+explain these cases also, as well as the movement of the board, and pure
+subconscious activity does not. We should still have to account for this
+knowledge, unknown to the writer; so that we shall have to seek further
+yet, in order to discover the true cause of the intelligence doing the
+writing.</p>
+
+<p>We seem to be driven, then, into one of two alternatives: (1) that
+unconscious muscular action pushed the board, and that the supernormal
+information given was obtained by telepathy, clairvoyance, etc.; or (2)
+that spirits did the writing. Let us examine each of these hypotheses in
+turn a little more carefully. It seems to me that the first theory is
+practically unable to account in any satisfactory way for many
+communications that have been received. On the other hand, it would be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+perfectly absurd to invoke the agency of "spirits" for every one of the
+messages that have been written out&mdash;I mean supernormal messages. On the
+contrary, there are many experiments that point to clairvoyance or
+telepathy as the true explanation. It is highly probable, it seems to
+me, that the same agency is not involved on every occasion, but that
+there may be spirits (granting such to exist) on some occasions;
+telepathy and clairvoyance on other occasions; and purely unconscious
+muscular action on most occasions, when no supernormal is involved. It
+is only the prevailing tendency to cover all facts by a single
+explanation that has led to the difficulty. If we were willing to admit
+that there may be operative many different influences and causes, on
+different occasions, it seems to me that much of the difficulty would
+vanish.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt as to the fact that the ouija board is a far more
+mysterious little instrument than the majority of persons suppose&mdash;or
+rather, the forces and the mentalities behind the movement of the board
+are exceedingly complex, and but little understood. As the author of
+<i>The Planchette Mystery</i> said: "A wonderful jumble of mental and moral
+possibilities is this little piece of dead matter, now giving utterance
+to childish drivel, now bandying jokes and badinage, now stirring the
+conscience by unexceptionable Christian admonitions, and now uttering
+the baldest infidelity or the most shocking profanity; and often
+discoursing gravely on science, philosophy, or theology." Any theory
+that is advanced to explain the facts must take all this into
+consideration, and much more. Let us turn for a few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> minutes to consider
+the automatic script, as frequently obtained.</p>
+
+<p>There are, very frequently, answers to mental questions&mdash;questions, too,
+the answer to which none of those having their hands on the board could
+possibly know. Often, again, remarks are volunteered conveying
+information not possessed by any one of the writers. The distinct
+characterization of a personality is frequently seen,&mdash;and a personality
+of a very detestable sort. The language employed, frequently, is quite
+unprintable. The "ouija" lies as coolly and confidently as it tells the
+truth; in fact, it is dogmatically positive that its statements are
+correct in every case, even when they are glaringly incorrect at the
+very time they are written. This spirit of dogmatism is shown in many
+passages, and suggests to us the attempt at domineering on the part of
+an intelligence unused to such a position, and rejoicing in its
+supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>I wish to insist primarily upon the action of the board itself, and its
+apparently <i>human</i> characteristics&mdash;quite apart from any information
+which it volunteers; and this will be of the greater interest, I fancy,
+for the reason that such observations have, to the best of my knowledge,
+rarely been made. I can perhaps best illustrate my point by giving a few
+concrete examples.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no question that the board has <i>moods</i>. It gets angry on
+occasion, for example, and at such times will tear round the table like
+a living thing, pointing first to one letter and then to another, and
+accentuating its meaning or calling attention to certain letters that
+are important, or that have been omitted in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> the rapid spelling, by
+rapping impatiently on the latter with the point&mdash;the point being lifted
+off the board at such times half an inch or so, and the board remaining
+planted on its two hind legs. I have seen the front leg of the board rap
+a dozen or so times on a letter that had been omitted; and sometimes the
+board would get so violent that it had to be quieted&mdash;just as the hand
+in automatic writing has to be quieted. Then, again, the board gets a
+certain "technique" of its own, acting in certain ways on certain
+occasions, and in other ways on other occasions; and frequently assuming
+a perfectly definite <i>form</i> of movement with certain persons&mdash;a certain
+sweep or an erratic manner of pointing to letters which it maintains
+uniformly so long as that person has his or her hands on the board.
+Occasionally the ouija will assume a different personality, according to
+the communicating intelligence, and not according to the person having
+his hands on the board. Just as raps or tables assume distinct
+personalities (see Dr. Maxwell's book for examples of this), so the
+ouija board assumes a perfectly definite personality, on occasion, and
+moves and writes according to that personality's idiosyncrasies. And
+this becomes all the more marked when we take into account certain
+peculiarities of the board&mdash;for example, its unwillingness to give names
+and dates, or to furnish any definite information about itself. I have
+observed over and over again that, whenever the intelligence doing the
+writing is closely questioned about itself, it will become angry, and
+refuse to give this information&mdash;either sulking or swearing at the
+writers. On the other hand, the board has some good points. It refused
+to disclose secrets about other persons,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> and got angry in the same way
+when pressed. Another exceedingly interesting and suggestive thing is
+that the intelligence operating the board occasionally gets tired. "Give
+me a rest now" is an expression frequently observed, and would seem to
+indicate that the "intelligence" gets confused and fatigued by the very
+process of communicating its thoughts&mdash;just as the "controls" do in the
+Piper case.</p>
+
+<p>The very movements of the board frequently showed great skill and
+intelligence also; for instance, if the ouija encountered a rough or
+uneven place in the paper on one occasion it would always avoid crossing
+that spot in the future, and would go carefully round it, so as to avoid
+catching its legs in the hole or rough place in the paper. Still more
+striking was the manner in which the board pointed to certain letters on
+occasion. Many times the board was unable to point to a certain letter
+because the point of the ouija was in an awkward position, or on the
+edge of the table, or for some other reason. On such occasions the board
+backed one of its hind legs around until one of these legs pointed to
+the desired letter! Those having their hands on the board had many a
+hearty laugh over these antics, and particularly this one, which always
+reminded them of a horse backing itself round in this ludicrous way. It
+was always entirely unexpected, and was the source of great amusement.
+But what was the intelligence guiding the board when the only person
+having her hands upon it was not looking at its antics, or paying
+attention to what it was spelling out? Was it a spirit? If so, how did
+it manage to move the board? Did it act directly upon the matter of the
+board, and push it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> with its hands, as a material being would push it,
+or did it act in some more mysterious manner? Granting, for the sake of
+argument, that a spirit of some sort was involved in the production of
+the writing, how are we to assume its interaction with the matter of the
+board and its movements?</p>
+
+<p>Two theories will at once present themselves to the reader: (1) that the
+spirit acts directly upon the matter of the ouija board, and pushes it
+as any mortal would push it; and (2) that the spirit acts only through
+the brain and nervous and muscular system of the person or persons
+having their hands on the board. I leave these for the present, because
+they have been discussed so often before. The following is <i>the ouija
+board's own theory</i> of such action&mdash;so we can at least listen to it with
+interest. In the course of some writing obtained, the following
+explanation of the action of the board was given by the "spirits"
+controlling it. I quote from the record:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"... Two spirits can always, when it is in divine order, readily
+communicate with each other, because they can always bring
+themselves into direct <i>rapport</i> at some one or more points. Though
+matter is widely discreted from spirit, in that the one is dead and
+the other is alive, yet there is a certain correspondence between
+the two, and between the degrees of the one and the degrees of the
+other; and according to this correspondence, relation, or
+<i>rapport</i>, spirit may act upon matter. Thus your spirit, in all its
+degrees and faculties, is in the closest <i>rapport</i> with all the
+degrees of matter composing your body, and for this reason alone is
+able to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> move it as it does, which it will no longer be able to do
+when that <i>rapport</i> is destroyed by what you call death. Through
+your body it is <i>en rapport</i> with and is able to act upon
+surrounding matter. If, then, you are in a susceptible condition, a
+spirit can not only get into <i>rapport</i> with your spirit, and
+through it with your body, and control its motions, or even suspend
+your own proper action and external consciousness by entrancement;
+but if you are at the same time <i>en rapport</i> with this little board
+it can, through contact of your hands, get into <i>rapport</i> with
+<i>that</i>, and move it without any conscious or volitional agency on
+your part. Furthermore, under certain favourable conditions, a
+spirit may, through your sphere and body combined, come into
+<i>rapport</i> even with the spheres of the ultimate particles of
+material bodies near you, and thence with the particles and the
+whole bodies themselves&mdash;and may thus, even without contact of your
+hands, move them or make sounds upon them as has often been
+witnessed. Its action, as before said, ceases where the <i>rapport</i>
+ceases; and if communications from really intelligent spirits have
+sometimes been defective as to the quality of the intelligence
+manifested, it is because there has been found nothing in the
+medium which could be brought into <i>rapport</i> or correspondence with
+the more elevated ideas of the spirit. The spirit, too, in frequent
+instances, is unable to prevent its energizing influences from
+being diverted by the reactive power of the medium into the
+channels of the imperfect types of thought and expression that are
+established in his mind, and it is for this simple reason that the
+communication is as you say often tinctured with the peculiarities
+of the medium,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> and even sometimes is nothing more than a
+reproduction of the mental states of the latter&mdash;perhaps greatly
+intensified."</p></div>
+
+<p>Such is the theory originated by "ouija" itself&mdash;ingenious enough, if
+not very scientific. The majority of my readers will probably prefer to
+believe, either that some external intelligence moved the board
+directly; or that the sitter himself did so&mdash;from purely subconscious
+motives, or because he was thereby externalizing or acting as the
+channel for the expression of ideas imparted to him from without. In
+view of the reality of physical phenomena, I should be inclined to leave
+the question open as to which of these two interpretations is correct in
+any specific case. But there can be no doubt that, in most instances at
+least, the board is moved by the subconscious muscular activity of the
+sitter; and this is the most sane and rational view to take until
+definite proof to the contrary be forthcoming.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> More properly, "the psychology of ouija board <i>writing</i>"
+or "of writing obtained by means of the Ouija Board." This general title
+is shorter, however, for a chapter heading.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> I have in mind especially one remarkable (but hitherto
+unpublished) experiment with Mrs. Piper. A certain lady of my
+acquaintance&mdash;an old Piper sitter&mdash;has tried to convey a certain word to
+"Rector" telepathically&mdash;to be given by automatic writing through the
+trance. Several attempts failed. Finally, one day, the lady in question
+wrote out the word on a blackboard, and sat looking at it for about half
+an hour. The word was given the next day through Mrs. Piper. The
+blackboard was in the lady's own house, distant some 800 miles from Mrs.
+Piper, in Boston. This certainly seems to show that there is a peculiar
+"magic" in thoughts or things that are objectified in this manner. It
+serves to explain why it is that many clairvoyants cannot read thoughts
+and questions&mdash;e.g., until written out on paper&mdash;as in the case of Bert
+Reese, whom I have frequently seen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Dr. W. J. Crawford's experiments have since confirmed
+this.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">WITCHCRAFT: ITS FACTS AND FOLLIES</p>
+
+
+<p>It has frequently been pointed out that, "where there is so much smoke
+there must be some fire"; also that there is, probably, and almost
+necessarily, some grain of truth in any popular superstition, no matter
+how absurd it may appear at first sight. This is not less true of
+witchcraft&mdash;though it would be difficult to convince the average person,
+in all probability, that there was anything connected with it but the
+grossest and most repulsive superstition. Taken all in all, it most
+assuredly is that, and very little else; and, before proceeding to
+examine the <i>residuum</i> of truth that probably exists in connection with
+this subject, it will be well for us briefly to examine the other and
+darker side of this curious relic of mediaeval superstition, and to see
+it in its most sombre hues. A belief for which more than nine million
+persons were either burned or hanged since it sprang into being; in
+whose cause five hundred persons were executed in three months in 1515
+in Geneva alone, is not to be put aside as unworthy of a moment's
+consideration; but should, on the contrary, be considered as a most
+extraordinary and lasting delusion&mdash;helping to colour the times in which
+it occurred and influence the whole course of a nation's history.</p>
+
+<p>The first trial for sorcery in England was in King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> John's reign; the
+last within the past two hundred years. In England, America, Germany,
+France, Italy, Spain, Russia&mdash;every country without exception&mdash;witches
+have lived, flourished, and been burned at the stake. Laws were enacted
+against witches, and they were condemned on the most trivial and even
+ridiculous evidence imaginable. If an old woman were seen to enter a
+house by the front door, and a black cat was seen to leave the house by
+the back door, it was deemed sufficient evidence that the old woman was
+a witch, without further evidence or investigation&mdash;and indeed much of
+the evidence was not nearly so good and circumstantial as this! When a
+witch was caught, she was questioned and generally tortured; but it was
+soon ascertained that torture was a very unfair and unsafe method of
+extracting the truth (here as elsewhere), for the reason that a weak
+soul, even if innocent, might confess, and a strong and stubborn one
+would hold out and contend for her innocence to the last, whether guilty
+or not. For these reasons, it was finally given up before the burning
+was abolished.</p>
+
+<p>Witches were supposed to be possessed of the most extraordinary powers
+for evil; they could bewitch a man, woman or child&mdash;even the cows and
+flocks&mdash;by casting an "evil eye" upon them, by uttering an imprecation,
+or in other ways casting a spell upon them. This power was derived
+directly from the devil himself, with whom witches were supposed to be
+in direct compact; consequently their influence was all for evil. These
+deeds were practised daily throughout the year; but every year there was
+a grand meeting of the demons and witches&mdash;a "Sabbath," as it was
+called&mdash;and here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> were recounted all the evil deeds of the past year,
+and here the witches saw and conversed with the devil himself, and
+received their instructions from him. It would be almost impossible to
+conceive a more grotesque and gruesome picture than some of these
+Sabbaths were supposed to be: every impossible and inconceivable thing
+that man's mind could invent was apparently attributed to these
+meetings. In order to form some faint idea of men's beliefs in those
+days, I quote the following, supposedly from a more or less contemporary
+account, of what actually transpired at these Sabbaths:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A witch should be an old woman with a wrinkled face, a furred
+brow, a hairy lip, a gobber tooth, a squint eye, a squeaky voice, a
+scolding tongue, having a ragged coat on her back, a skull cap on
+her head, a spindle in her hand, a dog or cat by her side. There
+are three classes or divisions of devils&mdash;black, grey, and white.
+The first are omnipotent for evil, but powerless for good. The
+white have power to help, but not to hurt. The grey are efficient
+for both good and evil.... The modes of bewitching are: by casting
+an evil eye (fascinating); by making representations of a person to
+be acted upon in wax or clay, roasting this image before a fire; by
+mixing magical ointments, or other compositions or ingredients; or
+sometimes merely by uttering an imprecation.... Witches can ride in
+sieves on the sea, on brooms, or spits, magically prepared. The
+meeting of the witches is held every Friday night&mdash;between Friday
+and Saturday.... They steal children from the grave, boil them with
+lime till all the flesh is loosed from the bones, and is reduced to
+one mass. They make of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> firm part an ointment, and fill a
+bottle with the fluid; and whosoever drinks this with due ceremony
+belongs to the league, and is capable of bewitching.... Every year
+a grand Sabbath is held or ordered for celebration on the
+Blocksberg Mountains, for the night before the 1st of May. Witches
+congregate from all parts, and meet at a place where four roads
+meet, in a rugged mountain range, or in the neighbourhood of a
+secluded lake or some dark forest; these are the spots selected for
+the meeting....</p>
+
+<p>"When orders have been issued for the meeting of the Sabbath, all
+the wizards and witches who fail to attend it are lashed by demons
+with a rod made of serpents and scorpions. In France and England
+the witches ride upon broomsticks; but in Italy and Spain the Devil
+himself, in the shape of a goat, supports them on his back, which
+lengthens or shortens according to the number of witches he is
+desirous of accommodating. No witch, when proceeding to the
+Sabbath, can go out by a door or window, were she to try ever so
+much. Their general mode of ingress is by a keyhole and of egress
+by the chimney, up which they fly, broom and all, with the greatest
+ease. To prevent the absence of the witches being noticed by their
+neighbours, some inferior demon is commanded to assume their shapes
+and lie in their beds, feigning illness, until the Sabbath is over.
+When all the wizards and witches arrive at the place of rendezvous,
+the infernal ceremonies begin. Satan, having assumed his favourite
+shape of a large he-goat, with a face in front and another in his
+haunches, takes a seat upon the throne; and all present in
+succession pay their respects to him and kiss him on his face
+behind. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> done, he appoints a master of the ceremonies, in
+company with whom he makes a personal examination of all the
+witches to see whether they have the secret mark upon them by which
+they are stamped as the Devil's own. The mark is always insensible
+to pain. Those who have not yet been marked receive the mark from
+the master of ceremonies&mdash;the Devil, at the same time, bestowing
+nicknames upon them. This done, they all begin to sing and dance in
+a most furious manner, until some one arrives who is anxious to be
+admitted into the society. They are then silent for a while until
+the newcomer has denied his salvation, kissed the Devil, spat upon
+the Bible, and sworn obedience to him in all things. They then
+begin dancing with all their might, and singing.... In the course
+of an hour or two they generally become wearied of this violent
+exercise, and then they all sit down and recount all their evil
+deeds since last meeting. Those who have not been malicious and
+mischievous enough towards their fellow-creatures receive personal
+chastisement from Satan himself, who flogs them with thorns and
+scorpions until they are covered with blood and unable to sit or
+stand. When this ceremony is concluded, they are all amused by a
+dance of toads. Thousands of these creatures spring out of the
+earth, and, standing upon their hind legs, dance while the Devil
+plays the bagpipes or the trumpet. These toads are all endowed with
+the faculty of speech, and entreat the witches there to reward them
+with the flesh of unbaptized infants for their exertions to give
+them pleasure. The witches promise compliance. The Devil bids them
+remember to keep their word, and then, stamping his foot, causes
+all the toads to sink into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> earth in an instant. The place
+being thus cleared, preparations are made for the banquet, where
+all manner of disgusting things are served and greedily devoured by
+the demons and witches&mdash;although the latter are sometimes regaled
+with choice meats and expensive wines from golden plates and
+crystal goblets; but they are never thus favoured unless they have
+done an extraordinary number of evil deeds since the last period of
+meeting. After the feast they begin dancing, but such as have no
+relish for any more exercise in that way amuse themselves by
+mocking the holy sacrament of baptism. For this purpose the toads
+are again called and sprinkled with filthy water, the Devil making
+the sign of the cross, and the witches calling out [oath omitted].
+When the Devil wishes to be particularly amused, he makes the
+witches strip off their clothes and dance before him, each with a
+cat tied round her neck and another dangling from her body in the
+form of a tail. When the cock crows they all disappear, and the
+Sabbath is ended...."</p></div>
+
+<p>There, reader, is a very fair idea of the monstrous form of belief held
+during the Middle Ages. Scarcely anything that was fanciful and
+diabolical was not conjured up to the mind and said to happen at these
+Sabbaths. There was also a certain amount of ingenious theorizing afoot
+in order to account for certain facts, as, for instance, the cloven
+hoof, which it was said must always appear, no matter how concealed&mdash;it
+being due to the fact that the devil took the form of a goat so often
+that he finally acquired the hoof. Sir Thomas Browne explains it to us
+thus:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The ground of this opinion at first might be his frequent
+appearing in the shape of a goat, which answers this description.
+This was the opinion of the Ancient Christians concerning the
+apparitions of the ancient panites, fauns, and satyrs; and of this
+form we read of one that appeared to Anthony in the wilderness. The
+same is also confirmed from exposition of Holy Scripture. For
+whereas it is said, 'Thou shalt not offer unto devils,' the
+original word is <i>Seghuirim</i>, i.e., 'rough and hairy goats,'
+because in that shape the Devil most often appeared, as is
+expounded by the rabbis, as <i>Tremellius</i> hath also explained; and
+as the word <i>Ascimah</i>, the God of Emath, is by some explained."</p></div>
+
+<p>It will be noted that the word "Devil" is invariably capitalized by the
+mediaeval writers, and to them he must have been a very real personage,
+and these curious beliefs terrible truths. Indeed, if true, what could
+be more terrible? Even so learned a man as Bacon, we are told&mdash;whose
+soul was promised to the devil, no matter "whether he died in or out of
+the church"&mdash;endeavoured to cheat the devil out of his due, and had his
+body buried in the <i>wall</i> of the church&mdash;thus being neither in nor out
+of it&mdash;and so he hoped to cheat the devil of his due!</p>
+
+<p>With the coming of Reginald Scott there arose a certain scepticism
+throughout Europe, which was later echoed in America. Scott wrote a
+monumental work entitled <i>The Discoverie of Witchcraft</i>, in which he
+bitterly attacked the credulity of the people, and showed himself
+entirely incredulous of any of the alleged phenomena. Some years before,
+had he published such a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> book, it was likely that he would have been
+burned himself; but the times were probably ripe for just such a
+publication; there was already much unrest and uneasiness afoot, and his
+book appeared in the nick of time. Scott attempted to account for the
+phenomena of witchcraft on a rational basis, and showed himself
+completely sceptical of the reality of most of the manifestations. He
+even went so far as to attack many of the older "miracles," which
+apparently supported the newer, even taking the very bold course (in
+that day) of attacking some of the Biblical miracles. Thus we read:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Pythoness (speaking of the Witch of Endor) being
+<i>ventriloqua</i>, that is, speaking as it were from the bottom of her
+belly, did cast herself into a trance, and so abused Saul in
+Samuel's name in her counterfeit hollow voice."</p></div>
+
+<p>Indeed, something was necessary to check the rank credulity of the
+times. If an old woman scolded a carter, and later on in the day his
+cart got stuck in the mud or overturned, it was positive evidence that
+he and his cart and horse had been "bewitched"! If an old woman kept a
+black cat or a pet toad, it was most assuredly her "familiar," and she
+was branded as a witch forthwith. If cows sickened and died, it was
+because a "spell" had been cast over them; and so on and so on. The
+superstitions of witchcraft were as innumerable as they were
+extraordinary. Are there any facts, amid all this superstition and
+ignorance, tending to show that genuine supernormal phenomena ever
+occurred at all? And if so, what are they?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that, in the days of witchcraft, virtually nothing
+was known of hysteria, epilepsy, the varied forms of insanity,
+hallucination, hypnotism, or of the possibilities of mal-observation and
+lapse of memory: while such a matter as first-hand circumstantial
+evidence seems to have been lost to sight entirely. If any mental or
+extraordinary physical disturbance took place, if the witch went into a
+trance and described things that were not, this was held to be proof
+positive that she was bewitched and under the influence of the devil.
+But we now know that most of these facts really indicated
+disease&mdash;mental and bodily&mdash;or the results of hysteria or trance,
+spontaneous or induced. Possibly there were also traces of hypnotism and
+telepathic influence, upon occasion. Of course, fraud pure and simple
+would account for many of the phenomena&mdash;the vomiting of pins and
+needles, for instance. But there remain certain facts which cannot be
+accounted for on any of these theories. Let us see, briefly, what these
+are.</p>
+
+<p>First there are the "witches' marks." These were anaesthetic patches or
+zones on the body that were quite insensible to pain. They were searched
+for with the aid of sharp needles, and often found! It was thought that
+these were the spots which the devil had touched; this was his
+"trade-mark," so to speak, by which all witches were known. Now we know
+that just such anaesthetic patches occur in hysterical patients, and are
+not due to supernatural causes at all, but to pathological states.</p>
+
+<p>Then, again, there is the possible occurrence of hallucinations. Edmund
+Gurney pointed this out in <i>Phantasms of the Living</i>, vol. i. p. 117,
+where he said:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"We know now that subjective hallucinations may possess the very
+fullest sensory character, and may be as real to the percipient as
+any object he ever beheld. I have myself heard an epileptic
+subject, who was perfectly sane and rational in his general
+conduct, describe a series of interviews that he had had with the
+devil with a precision and an absolute belief in the evidence of
+his senses equal to anything that I ever read in the records of the
+witches' compacts. And further, we know now that there is a
+condition, capable often of being induced in uneducated and simple
+persons with extreme ease, in which any idea that is suggested may
+at once take sensory form, and may be projected as an actual
+hallucination. To those who have seen robust young men, in an early
+stage of hypnotic trance, staring with horror at a figure which
+appears to them to be walking on the ceiling, or giving way to
+strange convulsions under the impression that they have been
+changed into birds or snakes, there will be nothing very surprising
+in the belief of hysterical girls that they were possessed by some
+alien influence, or that their distinct persecutor was actually
+present to their senses. It is true that in hypnotic experiments
+there is commonly some preliminary process by which the peculiar
+condition is induced, and that the idea which originates the
+delusion has then to be suggested <i>ab extra</i>. But with sensitive
+'subjects' who have been much under any particular influence, a
+mere word will produce the effect; nor is there any feature in the
+evidence for witchcraft that more constantly recurs than the
+<i>touching</i> of the victim by the witch. Moreover, no hard and fast
+lines exist between the delusions of induced hypnotism<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> and those
+of spontaneous trance, or of the grave hystero-epileptic crises
+which mere terror is now known to develop."</p></div>
+
+<p>Unquestionably, hypnotism and hallucination played their part; also
+perhaps telepathy; and, as Gurney points out elsewhere, "The imagination
+which may be unable to produce, even in feeble-minded persons, the
+belief that they <i>see</i> things that are not there, may be quite able to
+produce the belief that they <i>have seen</i> them, which is all, of course,
+that their testimony implies" (p. 118).</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless a large part of witchcraft, particularly that portion of it
+which relates to the Sabbath and the scenes said to be enacted there,
+can be explained as being due to the morbid workings of the mind while
+in a trance state. It is asserted on good authority that salves and
+ointments were rubbed into the pores of the skin all over the body; and
+that soon after this the witch would feel drowsy and lie down, and
+frequently remain in a semitrance state for several hours. During that
+time she would visit the Sabbath,&mdash;so it was said; but her body remained
+on the bed meanwhile, clearly showing that <i>it</i> had not been there.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p>
+
+<p>One of the most curious beliefs prevalent at the time was the belief in
+<i>lycanthropy</i>, that is, that certain individuals can, under certain
+conditions, change their bodily shape, and appear <i>as animals</i> to
+persons at a distance! Frequently this animal would be injured, in which
+case the person whom the animal represented<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> would be found to be
+injured in the same way, and in exactly the same place. The witch in
+such cases would frequently be lying at home in bed in a trance state,
+while her "fluidic double," in the shape of the animal, would be roaming
+about "seeking whom he might devour." The following is a typical case,
+which I quote from Adolphe D'Assier's <i>Posthumous Humanity</i>, p. 261:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A miller, named Bigot, had some reputation for sorcery. One day,
+when his wife rose very early to go and wash some linen not very
+far from the house, he tried to dissuade her, repeating to her
+several times, 'Do not go there; you will be frightened.' 'Why
+should I be frightened?' answered she. 'I tell you you will be
+frightened.' She made nothing of these threats, and departed.
+Hardly had she taken her place at the wash-tub before she saw an
+animal moving here and there about her. As it was not yet daylight
+she could not clearly make out its form, but she thought it was a
+kind of dog. Annoyed by these goings and comings, and not being
+able to scare it away, she threw at it her wooden clothes-beater,
+which struck it in the eye. The animal immediately disappeared. At
+the same moment the children of Bigot heard the latter utter a cry
+of pain from the bed, and add: 'Ah! the wretch! she has destroyed
+my eye.' From that day, in fact, he became one-eyed. Several
+persons told me this fact, and I have heard it from Bigot's
+children themselves."</p></div>
+
+<p>How does our author attempt to account for such a fact as this? He says:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p><div class="blockquot"><p>"It was certainly the double of the miller which projected itself
+while he was in bed and wandered about under an animal form. The
+wound which the animal received at once repercussed upon the eye of
+Bigot, just as we have seen the same thing happen in analogous
+cases of the projection of the double by sorcerers."</p></div>
+
+<p>Without endorsing such a view of the case, it may be said that recent
+experiments have shown it to be less incredible than might at first
+appear. Thus: We read further:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Innumerable facts, observed from antiquity to our own day,
+demonstrate in our being the existence of an internal reality&mdash;the
+internal man. Analysis of these different manifestations has
+permitted us to penetrate its nature. Externally it is the exact
+image of the person of whom it is the complement. Internally it
+reproduces the mould of all the organs which constitute the
+framework of the human body. We see it, in short, move, speak, take
+nourishment; perform, in a word, all the great functions of animal
+life. The extreme tenuity of these constituent molecules, which
+represent the last term of inorganic matter, allows it to pass
+through the walls and partitions of apartments. Hence the name of
+phantom, by which it is generally designated. Nevertheless, as it
+is united with the body from which it emanates by an invisible
+vascular plexus, it can, at will, draw to itself, by a sort of
+aspiration, the greater part of the living forces which animate the
+latter. One sees, then, by a singular inversion, life withdrawn
+from the body, which then exhibits a cadaverous rigidity, and
+transfers itself entirely to the phantom, which acquires
+consistency&mdash;sometimes even to the point of struggling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> with
+persons before whom it materializes. It is but exceptionally that
+it shows itself in connection with a living person. But as soon as
+death has snapped the bonds which attach it to our organism, it
+definitely separates itself from the human body and constitutes the
+posthumous phantom."</p></div>
+
+<p>This interpretation of the facts, it will be seen, forms a sort of
+connecting link between apparitions, ghosts, materializations,
+vampirism, and witchcraft; it is also in accord with the statements of
+the theosophists as to the astral body, conforms with certain statements
+made through Mrs. Piper and others as to the fluidic or ethereal body,
+and accounts for many of the phenomena of "collective hallucination" and
+haunted houses. I am far from saying that I think such a theory proved,
+but it is at least consistent and plausible; it is also in accord with
+many facts, and explains them as no other theory can or does.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel A. de Rochas, in his article on "Regression of Memory" (<i>Annals
+of Psychical Science</i>, July 1905), claimed that he had experimentally
+produced one of these doubles in a mesmerised subject. After several
+s&eacute;ances, and while the subject was in a deep trance, the following
+occurred:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The astral body is now complete. M. de R. tries to make it rise,
+to send it into another room. The body is stopped in its journey by
+the ceiling and the walls. M. de R. tells Mayo to stretch towards
+him the astral right hand, and he pinches it; Mayo feels the
+pinch."</p></div>
+
+<p>Experiments such as these could be multiplied <i>ad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> infinitum</i>. There are
+cases on record in which the astral form has been pricked with needles,
+while the "sensitive" felt the prick, and so on. These experiments are
+suggestive, and if they should prove an etheric body, or anything
+corresponding to it, that would be at least one great step in advance in
+psychic research. It would also enable us to understand many of the
+phenomena of witchcraft, which are at present looked upon as mere
+superstitions.</p>
+
+<p>A word, finally, as to the phenomena of "exteriorization of
+sensibility," to which reference was made in the last paragraph. Many
+French observers have, apparently, obtained these phenomena; but there
+seems to be much scepticism regarding them in England and America, where
+they are generally considered to be due entirely to "suggestion." For my
+own part&mdash;while I do not uphold past experiments in this direction as
+being particularly convincing&mdash;I must confess that I see no inherent
+improbability in the facts themselves. If we have an etheric body, this
+is doubtless more or less detachable, at times&mdash;indeed, the ingenious
+author of <i>The Maniac</i> suggests that the premature loosening
+of this body is the cause of much insanity. (See also my own remarks
+along the same general lines in the <i>Annals of Psychical Science</i>,
+October-December 1909, pp. 657-67; "Concerning Abnormal Mental Life.")
+This etheric body is doubtless highly sensitive to external forces and
+energies acting upon it, and would also feel physical pressure, etc.,
+when applied. If this were true, we should have a ready explanation for
+these cases of exteriorized sensibility.</p>
+
+<p>But it would not even be necessary for us to assume<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> this! If the
+phenomena of exteriorization of <i>motivity</i> be true (the phenomena
+produced by Eusapia Palladino, for example) then we have here nervous
+energy or "fluid" existing beyond the periphery of the body&mdash;that is, in
+space, detached from the nerves. And if a motor current can exist and
+travel in this manner, why not a sensory current? It would only have to
+travel in the opposite direction. For these reasons, therefore, I am
+disposed to regard the phenomena of exteriorized sensibility as highly
+probable, if not actually proved.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> See the article on "Witches' Unguents" in the <i>Occult
+Review</i>, April 1912, pp. 275-77.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span></p>
+<p class="subhead1"><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</p>
+
+<p class="subhead2">SCIENTIFIC TRUTHS CONTAINED IN FAIRY STORIES</p>
+
+
+<p>How many of us, re-reading the fairy stories of our childhood have for a
+moment believed that many of these tales might be based upon scientific
+truths? Of course it is probable that most of these stories have <i>no</i>
+basis of fact behind them, but that they are merely the product of the
+story-teller's imagination&mdash;just as similar stories today are produced
+in this manner. But, on the other hand, it is quite conceivable that
+many of the seemingly fabulous accounts are in truth based upon
+realities; and that genuine occurrences may have happened, giving birth
+to these tales. We all know the general character of many of the
+legends. I may mention, as typical of the marvellous things done:
+becoming visible and invisible, as did "Jack the Giant Killer"; the
+existence of giants and dwarfs, as in <i>Little Tom Thumb</i>; incredibly
+rapid growth of vegetation, as in <i>Jack and the Beanstalk</i>; being
+suddenly transported without effort through immense distances and seeing
+at the other end of such a journey scenes and events actually
+transpiring at the time&mdash;as occurred in many of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>
+stories; cases in which plates and dishes washed themselves, and many
+other household feats were performed, as in <i>Prince Hildebrand and
+Princess Ida</i>; cases of long sleep, such as the <i>Sleeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> Beauty</i>;
+cases in which human beings have been transformed into animals, and vice
+versa, as in <i>Beauty and the Beast</i>; cases in which palaces have sprung
+up over night, existing on the desert plain, only to vanish the next
+night and leave it as barren as before&mdash;as so often happened in the
+<i>Arabian Nights</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Let us first of all consider the cases in which persons have caused
+themselves to vanish and reappear at will. This power of becoming
+visible and invisible to others is not limited to mythical times, but
+may be reproduced today by artificial means. If a sensitive subject be
+hypnotized (and there is some analogy to the hypnotic pass in the fact
+that the fairy invariably waved her wand before the eyes of the
+onlooker), hallucinations of various types may be induced. Thus, our
+subject may be persuaded to see, for instance, a dog walking across the
+carpet, whereas there is no dog there. He may be persuaded that there is
+a stream in front of him flowing through the drawing-room, and that it
+is necessary for him, in order to prevent his feet from becoming wet, to
+take off his shoes and socks, and turn up his trousers. Hypnotic
+suggestion will perform this, and it may be said that suggestion alone,
+even when the subject is not in the hypnotic state, may be employed to
+produce many of these hallucinatory pictures. On the contrary, it is
+possible to suggest to our subject that such and such an object is
+gradually diminishing in size, and finally that it disappears
+altogether. He sees and describes this diminution, and finally looks in
+vain for the object which, he asserts, has vanished, but which, as a
+matter of fact, is perfectly visible to all others not under the
+influence of the suggestion. We frequently suffer from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> these "negative
+hallucinations," as they are called, in our ordinary daily life. We
+cannot find an object which is perfectly visible&mdash;resting in the very
+centre of the area over which we are searching diligently. Suddenly we
+discover it; it seems incredible to us that we have not seen it before;
+it seems to have sprung into being as though placed there by some
+invisible hand. Nevertheless it had remained throughout in the one
+position, and the only remarkable factor was our inability to see it.
+Such cases are well known to psychologists (the power of suggestion in
+inducing both positive and negative hallucinations), and this&mdash;both in
+the normal and the hypnotic state&mdash;is well recognized.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is only necessary for us to extend our conception somewhat in
+order to see the scientific truths contained in many fairy stories, in
+which one of the characters&mdash;hero, fairy, or what not&mdash;becomes visible
+and invisible at will. It is only necessary for us to conceive that some
+degree of mental influence had been brought to bear upon the minds of
+the onlookers, and that suggestion had been skilfully employed, in order
+to account for many of these stories. I know of a case in which the
+operator made his subject, who remained practically in a normal state
+throughout, see him floating about the room&mdash;whisking over chairs and
+tables, as though the law of gravity had no further influence upon him!</p>
+
+<p>We might, perhaps, also account for "invisibility" in one or two other
+ways. Thus, the magician or fairy might possess the power of interposing
+some veil or screen between himself and the seer&mdash;etheric or
+physical&mdash;by some act of will. Or we could suppose that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> some chemical
+might be applied to the body, rendering its structure and tissues
+transparent. (One is here reminded of H. G. Wells' <i>Invisible Man</i>.) Or,
+we might assume that the magician possessed the power of neutralizing
+light-waves, reflected from his body, by some method of
+"interference"&mdash;thus rendering himself invisible. This might be due
+either to a greater understanding of the laws of physics&mdash;i.e., the
+ability to manipulate light-energy in this manner, or to some purely
+psychic power&mdash;volitional, etc. Precise instructions for doing this have
+indeed been published (<i>Equinox</i>, vol. iii.). Of course, all such
+speculations as these are purely fantastic, until some proof of their
+possibility be forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>It may be thought that this knowledge was not possessed by the ancients
+to the requisite extent; but there is abundant evidence to show that
+"mesmerism" has been practised from very ancient times. It is probable
+that the passage in Exodus vii, 10, 11, 12, refers to this, when it
+says: "Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh and before his servants,
+and it became a serpent. Then Pharaoh also called for the wise men and
+the sorcerers: and they also, the magicians of Egypt, did in like manner
+with their enchantments. For they cast down every man his rod, and they
+became serpents; but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods." It is
+interesting to note that Professor S. S. Baldwin, otherwise known as
+"The White Mahatma," recently saw a very similar feat performed in
+Egypt, and gives an account of it in his book, <i>The Secrets of Mahatma
+Land Explained</i>. Doubtless the effects in both cases were produced by
+suggestion, and a species of hypnotic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> influence. That the ancients were
+well versed in magic, and the power of suggestion and personal
+influence, is best illustrated by an old Egyptian papyrus at present in
+the British Museum, which contains an account of a magical s&eacute;ance given
+by a certain Tchatcha-em-ankh before King Khufu, 3766 <span class="smcap">b. c.</span> In this
+manuscript it is stated of the magician: "He knoweth how to bind on a
+head which hath been cut off; he knoweth how to make a lion follow him,
+as if led by a rope; and he knoweth the number of the stars of the house
+(constellation) of Thoth." The decapitation trick is thus no new thing,
+while the experiment performed with the lion, possibly a hypnotic feat,
+shows hypnotism to be old.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, and in various other fairy tales, we also read
+of the sudden appearance and disappearance of palaces, castles, and
+other buildings of monumental character. This strange phenomenon has
+frequently been paralleled in recent times. It is a species of
+hallucination, induced by auto-suggestion or hetero-suggestion&mdash;that is,
+suggestion given to oneself, or suggestion from outsiders. Madame
+Blavatsky, in her <i>Nightmare Tales</i>, relates an interesting experience
+of this character:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A curious optical effect then occurred. The room, which had been
+previously partially lighted by the sunbeam, grew darker and darker
+as the star increased in radiance, until we found ourselves in an
+Egyptian gloom. The star twinkled, trembled, and turned, at first
+with a slow, gyratory motion, then faster and faster, increasing
+its circumference at every rotation until it formed a brilliant
+disk, and we no longer saw the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> dwarf, who seemed absorbed in its
+light.... All being now ready, the dervish, without uttering a
+word, or removing his gaze from the disk, stretched out a hand, and
+taking hold of mine he drew me to his side, and pointed to the
+luminous shield. Looking at the place indicated, we saw large
+patches appear, like those of the moon. These gradually formed
+themselves into figures, that began moving themselves about in
+higher relief than their natural colours. They neither appeared
+like a photograph nor an engraving, still less like the reflection
+of images on a mirror, but as if the disk were a cameo, and they
+were raised above its surface&mdash;then endowed with life and motion.
+To my astonishment and my friend's consternation, we recognized the
+bridge leading from Galata to Stamboul spanning the Golden Horn
+from the new to the old city. There were the people hurrying to and
+fro, steamers and caiques gliding on the blue Bosphorus, the
+many-coloured buildings, villas, palaces reflected in the water;
+and the whole picture illuminated by the noonday sun. It passed
+like a panorama, but so vivid was the impression that we could not
+tell whether it or ourselves were in motion. All was bustle and
+life, but not a sound broke the oppressive stillness. It was
+noiseless as a dream. It was a phantom picture.... The scene faded
+away, and Miss H&mdash;&mdash; placed herself in turn by the side of the
+dervish."</p></div>
+
+<p>We thus see that expectancy and suggestion alone may induce sufficiently
+abnormal mental states to ensure the occurrence of such
+images&mdash;especially in a mind previously wrought by imagination,
+superstition, love, or any emotion tending to bring about its temporary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
+lack of balance. The visions induced would, of course, be mental, and
+not physical, in their character; they would nevertheless appear just as
+real to the onlooker.</p>
+
+<p>Closely akin to these visions are those in which, it is reported,
+journeys have been made through space on a magic carpet&mdash;as in the
+<i>Arabian Nights</i>&mdash;or merely at the wish or command of some fairy or
+magician. Frequently, in such cases, it is reported that a vision is
+seen at the other end of the journey, coinciding with reality. It may be
+that the princess is, at that moment, being captured by a hideous giant;
+or that her lover is in great danger of losing his life. These visions
+have stirred the recipient into action, the result being that he or she
+arrives in the nick of time to prevent some fearful catastrophe. Such
+visions, too, have foundation in fact. There are many cases in which
+distant scenes have been visited in sleep, and places accurately
+remembered&mdash;the seer never having visited that locality in his life.
+Very much the same has happened in hypnotic trance, and even
+occasionally in the waking state, spontaneously. This is a species of
+clairvoyant vision; operative either during sleep, hypnotic trance, or
+daydream; and while it accurately represents scenes transpiring at a
+distance, here too, it will be noted, there is no corporeal
+transition&mdash;only mental adjustment from one scene of activity to
+another. Yet the subject remains under the distinct impression that he
+has been there in person, and actually visited the spot indicated.</p>
+
+<p>The Sleeping Beauty is an example of a story, typical of many, which
+illustrates the tradition that on certain occasions persons have passed
+into a sleep-state in which they have remained for long periods of time
+without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> apparent injury. While we must assume that the periods over
+which this sleep-state extended have been greatly overdrawn, the
+reported cases of hypnotic trance, and of voluntary interment, among the
+Hindus and elsewhere, lend probability to these stories, because of the
+fact that long periods of trance have been undergone by various
+individuals&mdash;who awakened from these states in apparently perfect
+health, and none the worse for their remarkable experience. Several
+spontaneous cases have been reported quite recently, in which the
+subject has passed several months, or even a year or more, in a
+sleep-state&mdash;awaking every few days or weeks, speaking a few words,
+taking perhaps a little nourishment, and then lapsing into oblivion! The
+older cases of extended sleep thus find a close parallel in the newer
+cases.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief constituents of every fairy story is the giant or
+dwarf, who occupies a central position. That giants and dwarfs exist
+today there can be no doubt. They are frequently to be seen in the
+side-shows, and even in public life. But it is now known that giants and
+dwarfs suffer from a certain disease, which renders them particularly
+short-lived; and they are, generally speaking, muscularly weak for their
+size. They are not the stalwart, fierce race of beings imagined in the
+fairy stories, and which popular belief still pictures them. For the
+fairy tale, the giant is always enormous and powerful, and generally
+cannibalistic in his habits! Have giants of this character existed?
+Could such a race have existed? To this question it is almost certain
+that we must answer "No." M. Dastre, of the Sorbonne, Paris, has gone
+into this question at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> great length, and has given us the result of his
+researches in his essay on <i>The Stature of Man at Various Epochs</i>. Here
+he says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is incontestable that beings of gigantic size do appear from
+time to time.... Giants are men whose development, instead of
+pursuing a normal course, has undergone a morbid deviation, and
+whose nutrition has become perverted. They are dystrophic. Their
+great stature shows that one part has gained at the loss of
+another. It is a symptom of their inferiority in the struggle for
+existence. Their condition is not only a variation from the
+ordinary conditions of development&mdash;that is to say, they are
+'congenital monsters,' the study of which belongs to the science of
+teratology&mdash;but it is a variation also from a state of health,
+physically and normally sound. In other words, they are diseased,
+and fall within the domain of the pathologist. Here then, as
+Brissaud says, you have your giants despoiled of their ancient and
+favourite prestige. Mythology yields the place to pathology."</p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>causes</i> of gigantism and of dwarfs are now well known. In the brain
+there is a tiny gland known as the pituitary gland, weighing little more
+than half a gram, and divided into two portions&mdash;the "anterior" and the
+"posterior" lobes. Hypertrophy of the <i>anterior</i> lobe causes gigantism.
+The bones grow to an exaggerated length; the hands, feet, and bones of
+the face grow enormous. When, on the contrary, the secretions of the
+anterior lobe are insufficient, the body remains small, undergrown and
+delicate. The secretions of the <i>posterior</i> lobe, on the other hand,
+insure the undue accumulation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> of fat, and disturb the functional
+activities. Other ductless glands in the body also affect the mental and
+physiological functions of the whole organism.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless it is realized that beings have existed from time to time
+far larger and more powerful in every way than the ordinary human being,
+and the mythopoeic tendency of the human mind has doubtless supplied the
+rest, and accredited to them marvellous powers which they did not in
+reality possess.</p>
+
+<p>In not a few fairy tales we read that the plates and dishes, which were
+upon the fairy's table, ran of their own accord to the kitchen, washed
+themselves, and came back to the table; that a cake was cut by a knife
+held by no visible hand; a decanter of water, of its own accord, moved
+about from place to place on the table, refilling the glasses of the
+guests; and in various other ways duties were performed which we are
+accustomed to consider as necessarily performed by ourselves. All this
+was accomplished by the objects without any external assistance, and of
+their own accord. Incredible as such accounts may appear, they are,
+nevertheless, not so extraordinary, viewed in the light of some newer
+researches&mdash;which in fact, if proved to be true, render phenomena of
+this sort quite credible. During s&eacute;ances held with Eusapia Palladino,
+objects were moved from place to place in the room without visible
+contact, and apparently of their own accord. They were also lifted from
+place to place and floated about in the air without visible support.
+These phenomena have been observed for a number of years by scientific
+men on the Continent, and they are unanimous in asserting that
+manifestations of this character do in fact take place, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> that they
+are not due to any force or forces known to physical science. On one
+occasion, for example, a glass decanter was seen to be moved from the
+sideboard on which it stood on to the s&eacute;ance table, and thence rise and
+float around the room, no one touching it&mdash;there being no possibility of
+any connection between it and any object in the room. Finally, the glass
+bottle held itself, or was held by invisible hands, to Eusapia's mouth,
+and she thereupon drank some of the water it contained. The same thing
+happened to an investigator, another member of the circle. The glass
+decanter was then transported back to the sideboard, and a pile of
+dishes and other objects were moved on to the table.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Similar
+phenomena are said to have occurred in the presence, or through the
+mediumship, of D.D. Home. Sir William Crookes informs us that on several
+occasions a bunch of flowers was carried from one end of the table to
+the other, and then held to the noses of various investigators in turn,
+for them to smell. Some of those present at the s&eacute;ance saw a white hand,
+visible as far as the wrist, carrying the bouquet. Others saw merely a
+whitish cloud-like mass connected with the bunch of flowers. Still
+others saw nothing&mdash;save that the flowers themselves were transported
+through space without visible means of support.</p>
+
+<p>Here, then, we have phenomena, attested by scientific men, all happening
+within the past few years, rivalling any of a like nature that are
+reported to have occurred in fairy stories! If <i>invisible beings</i>,
+possessing intelligence, constantly move about us, and are capable, at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+times, of affecting the material world, surely there should be no
+objection to many of these fairy stories, since the difference in the
+facts is one merely of <i>degree</i> and not of <i>kind</i>; and this would be
+true even were the phenomena proved to be due only to the action of some
+force or forces (under more or less intelligent control) within
+ourselves, producing the phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>Other extraordinary narratives will doubtless occur to the mind. The
+bean-stalk which grew overnight, might be referred to; and it is
+possible to compare this with cases of electrically or artificially
+forced vegetation. But, of course, the majority of the wonders reported
+in fairy stories find their probable interpretation in those tricks of
+the imagination which have now been duplicated by artificial means, and
+which science is beginning to understand and interpret according to
+well-known psychological laws. Fairy stories may thus present (in many
+instances) the germ of a truth, which it has taken many centuries to
+elaborate and comprehend in detail.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> <i>Journal S.P.R.</i>, vol. vi. p. 356. All this was observed
+by Sir Oliver Lodge, Prof. Ch. Richet, Mr. Myers, and Dr. Ochorowicz.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Problems of Psychical Research, by 
+Hereward Carrington
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Problems of Psychical Research, by
+Hereward Carrington
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Problems of Psychical Research
+       Experiments and Theories in the Realm of the Supernormal
+
+Author: Hereward Carrington
+
+Release Date: November 29, 2007 [EBook #23660]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROBLEMS OF PSYCHICAL RESEARCH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Shell, Stacy Brown, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: The "Will Board"]
+
+
+
+
+  THE PROBLEMS OF
+  PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
+
+  EXPERIMENTS AND THEORIES IN
+  THE REALM OF THE SUPERNORMAL
+
+  BY
+
+  HEREWARD CARRINGTON, Ph.D.
+
+  AUTHOR OF
+
+  "The Coming Science," "The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism,"
+  "Death: Its Causes and Phenomena," "Modern Psychical Phenomena,"
+  "Your Psychic Powers: and How to Develop Them," "Higher Psychical
+  Development," "True Ghost Stories," Etc.
+
+  NEW YORK
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
+  1921
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright, 1921,
+  By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Inc.
+
+
+  VAIL-BALLOU COMPANY
+  BINGHAMTON AND NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In the following pages I have dealt chiefly with the _mental_ or
+psychological phenomena of psychical research, and have not touched upon
+the "physical" manifestations to any extent. The book is mostly
+theoretical and constructive in tone; and, because of its speculative
+character, it may, perhaps, prove of value to future psychical
+investigators. It represents the author's conclusions after several
+years' experimentation; and, in a field so new as this, scientific
+hypotheses and speculations are assuredly helpful--indicating the road
+we must travel, and the possible interpretation of certain facts, which
+have been accumulated in the past, as the result of years of laborious
+research. I believe that practically _all_ the phenomena of spiritualism
+are true; that is, that they have occurred in a genuine manner from time
+to time in the past; that they are supernormal in character, and are
+genuine phenomenal occurrences. But as to the further question: "What is
+the nature of the intelligence lying behind and controlling these
+phenomena?"--_that_, I think, is as yet unsolved, and is likely to
+remain so for some time to come. I do not believe that the simple
+spiritistic explanation--especially as at present held--is the correct
+one, nor one that explains all the facts; for I believe that the
+phenomena are more complicated than this. Nor are the ordinary
+psychological explanations at present in vogue adequate to cover them.
+The explanation is yet to seek; and the solution will only be found when
+a sufficient number of facts have been accumulated and the various
+explanatory theories have been tested,--to see which of them is really
+adequate. My hope is that the present book may help to accomplish this
+result by supplying a little in both directions!
+
+The present edition of this book is to some extent an abridgement of the
+first edition, which appeared some seven years ago. I have, for
+instance, omitted a number of "cases" which were originally included,
+and also my "sittings" with Mrs. Piper--which material will be published
+at a later date in another volume. I have also omitted the original
+First Chapter,--since much of this material was subsequently included in
+my _Modern Psychical Phenomena_. On the other hand, I have included a
+new chapter on Recent Experiments in Psychic Photography,--composed
+partly of original and hitherto unpublished material, and partly of the
+experiments undertaken, some years ago, by Dr. Baraduc,--in
+"photographing the soul." The account of his experiments was originally
+published in my book, _Death: its Causes and Phenomena_, but they are
+now included here as being more in line with other experiments recently
+undertaken in this field. I have also added a brief chapter on the
+Scientific Investigation of Psychic Phenomena by means of Laboratory
+Instruments.
+
+A word, finally, as to the necessarily slow progress which has been and
+is being made in the study of "psychics." As this objection is often
+raised, I cannot do better, perhaps, than to quote an admirable passage
+from Prof. William James (_Memories and Studies_, pp. 175-76), where he
+says:--
+
+     "For twenty-five years I have been in touch with the literature of
+     psychical research, and have had acquaintance with numerous
+     'researchers.' I have also spent a good many hours (though far
+     fewer than I should have spent) in witnessing (or trying to
+     witness) phenomena. Yet I am theoretically no 'further' than I was
+     at the beginning; and I confess that at times I have been tempted
+     to believe that the Creator has eternally intended this department
+     of nature to remain _baffling_,--to prompt our curiosities and
+     hopes and suspicions all in equal measure, so that, although ghosts
+     and clairvoyances, and raps and messages from spirits, are always
+     seeming to exist and can never be fully explained away, they also
+     can never be susceptible of full corroboration.... It is hard to
+     believe, however, that the Creator has really put any big array of
+     phenomena into the world merely to defy and mock our scientific
+     tendencies; so my deeper belief is that we psychical researchers
+     have been too precipitate in our hopes, and that we must expect to
+     mark progress not by quarter-centuries, but by half-centuries or
+     whole centuries."
+
+In the present book, I have endeavoured to show why this must
+necessarily be so; also to indicate the manner in which the subject may
+be studied in order to arrive at definite knowledge at an earlier date
+than might otherwise be possible.
+
+H. C.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                              PAGE
+
+        Preface                                           v
+
+     I  Is Psychical Research a Science?                  1
+
+    II  Investigating Psychical Phenomena with
+         Scientific Instruments                          82
+
+   III  Life: and Its Interpretation                     93
+
+    IV  The Human Will Is a Physical Energy (_An
+         Instrument which Proves It_)                   110
+
+     V  Modern Dissection of the Human Mind             138
+
+    VI  Psychic Photography (_New Experiments_)         157
+
+   VII  Hallucination and the Physical Phenomena
+         of Spiritualism                                188
+
+  VIII  The Problems of Telepathy                       210
+
+    IX  The Uses and Abuses of Mind Cure                237
+
+     X  The Psychology of the Ouija Board               247
+
+    XI  Witchcraft: Its Facts and Follies               261
+
+   XII  Scientific Truths Contained in Fairy Stories    277
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+      The "Will Board"             _Frontispiece_
+
+                                            PAGE
+                                           FACING
+  1.  "Psychic Photograph"                    158
+
+  2. "Psychic Photograph"                     158
+
+  3.  "Thought Photograph"                    170
+
+  4.  "Psychic Photograph"                    176
+
+  5.  "Psychic Photograph"                    176
+
+  6.  "Psychic Photograph"                    178
+
+  7.  "Psychic Photograph"                    178
+
+  8.  "Psychic Photograph"                    180
+
+  9.  "Psychic Photograph"                    180
+
+ 10.  "Psychic Photograph"                    182
+
+ 11.  "Psychic Photograph"                    182
+
+ 12.  "Psychic Photograph"                    182
+
+ 13.  "Photograph of the Soul"                184
+
+ 14.  "Photograph of the Soul"                184
+
+
+
+
+THE PROBLEMS OF PSYCHICAL RESEARCH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+IS PSYCHICAL RESEARCH A SCIENCE?
+
+
+Is Psychical Research a Science?
+
+It seems to me that the answer to this question must be somewhat as
+follows: If the phenomena be true, Yes; if not, No!
+
+If _one_ single prophecy, clairvoyant vision, telepathic impulse, or
+mediumistic message be true--if veritable supernormal information be
+thereby conveyed--then psychical research is a science, and illimitable
+avenues are opened up for further research and speculation.
+
+More especially is this true in the case of mediumistic messages. If
+these prove to be delusory--the result of subliminal activity and so
+forth--if there be no spiritual world, then "psychics" may be said to be
+"founded upon the sand." It can hardly be called a "science." Only when
+the _fact_ of communication is proved, will the real study of the
+subject begin. Much of the work, up to the present, has been undertaken
+with a view to establishing the reality of the facts. But this is a
+question of evidence, not scientific research. When the facts themselves
+are established, then the real study--the work of the future--will
+begin. It will probably be the task of future generations to attack the
+problem from this standpoint.
+
+Let me illustrate what I mean by a somewhat striking example. Take the
+facts presented in the case of Mrs. Piper. Hitherto the question has
+resolved itself into that of the _evidence_ for survival. Have or have
+not the various personalities who have communicated through her
+entranced organism proved their personal identity? That is the problem;
+and, as we know, opinions differ! But, granting the reality of the
+facts, granting that "spirits" really do communicate, as alleged--then
+the study of the question, from the "scientific" point of view, will
+only have begun. _How_ do they communicate? Why are these communications
+so rare? Why such trouble with proper names? How do the "spirits"
+manipulate the nervous organism, and particularly the brain, of the
+medium? Upon what cells or centres do they operate? and how? Does the
+psychic constitution of the communicator affect the results--and if so,
+how? What is the condition of the communicator's mind while
+communicating? Is the medium's spirit entirely removed from the body
+during the process of communication? and if so, where is it, and what is
+it doing? How does the medium's mind affect the content of the
+communications--and to what extent? These, and a thousand other
+questions of a like nature, immediately present themselves, and call for
+solution, as soon as the reality of the facts be granted--as soon as
+spirit communication be accepted as a fact. This will constitute the
+work of the future--the detailed study of the facts--not merely
+regarding them from the point of view of evidence. Real, scientific
+psychical research will then begin. The subject will then, for the
+first time, become a legitimate branch of human study.
+
+Yet, even now, it may not be altogether unprofitable to adduce a few
+reflections which have been suggested by a study of the facts, up to the
+present time. If theories and speculations of this nature have in
+themselves no value, they often stimulate others to experiment or to
+reflect upon the same line--sometimes with strikingly important and
+interesting results. It is chiefly with this object in mind that I offer
+the following suggestions--the result of some years of thought and
+research in this particular field.
+
+(1) Before it is possible for any one to appreciate the importance and
+significance of psychical research, it is necessary for him to become
+"inoculated," as it were, with materialism! To one who admits, _a
+priori_, the reality of a spiritual world, and sees no difficulties in
+the way of accepting it, there is, of course, no need to convince him
+further. But once admit the position held by modern science
+(particularly biological science) that life is a function of the
+organism, and that thought is a function of the brain, and the phenomena
+assume a very different importance. To state the case in precise terms,
+I could not do better than to quote the words of Professor John Lewis
+March, when he says "Mind is not found to exist apart from matter" (_A
+Theory of Mind_, p. 11). And it must be admitted that--apart from the
+facts of psychical research--there is no evidence that it does so exist.
+So far as we can prove, life and consciousness become obliterated at the
+moment of bodily death. And the only way to prove the contrary is to
+produce evidence that consciousness does so persist; and this is only
+possible by the methods adopted in spiritism and psychical research. In
+no other way can the facts be established; by no other method can the
+persistence of human consciousness be scientifically proved.
+
+(2) It may be contended that consciousness, as such, may persist, but
+that individuality does not survive bodily death: the human is merged
+into the All. But such a view of the case seems to be directly opposed
+to evidence no less than to moral feeling. For, in the first place,
+persistence without memory and individuality would not be worth having
+at all; and secondly, this idea is, it seems to me, directly opposed to
+evolution, which tends more and more to accentuate individuality, and
+separate and perfect it.
+
+(3) On the other hand, it might possibly be that our persistence depends
+upon our _ability_ to persist. The theory of mind developed by modern
+researches in psycho-pathology is that the mind of man--instead of being
+a single "unit," as was formerly supposed--is composed of a number of
+threads or strands, so to speak, held together by our attention and our
+will. Once these are relaxed, the mind "unravels" and goes to pieces. A
+single, strongly-woven, and well-bound rope might stand a sudden wrench
+and shock, while a less perfectly-made one would tear and snap under the
+strain. Similarly, it might be urged, if the mind be sufficiently
+balanced, strengthened, and controlled, it might withstand the shock of
+death; otherwise it would not. Whether or not we persist would thus
+depend upon our ability to control and hold ourselves together, as it
+were; upon our strength of will; upon the degree of development of the
+central personality. When this is lacking, "psychical disintegration"
+takes place, and we fail to survive the last great Ordeal.
+
+While this theory may possibly be true, it seems to me that it is very
+probably untrue, for the reason that this is not a question of moral
+worth which we are considering, but of scientific law--of the
+Conservation of Energy, of the ability of life and consciousness of any
+sort--good or bad--to exist apart from brain-functioning. That is the
+question! Once grant that mind of any kind can persist by and of itself,
+independent of a physical organization, and you have so far broken down
+the barriers of materialism that there should not be the slightest
+objection to granting the persistence of consciousness of any sort--with
+the probability that it _would_ so persist. Cosmic Law could hardly act
+otherwise.
+
+(4) I know well enough that psychic investigation is, at present at
+least, in a chaotic and uncertain condition, and that little beyond
+uncertainty and discouragement has been attained in the past. As Mr. F.
+C. Constable remarked:
+
+     "Many of us who have devoted our lives to psychical research can
+     but have moments of profound depression. We _feel_ our labours
+     cannot be in vain, but we are faced by such a complexity of fraud,
+     deliberate and unconscious, mal-observation, denial of scientific
+     restrictions, and ignorance of what is trustworthy in evidence and
+     deduction, that at times our search for truth seems as futile as
+     the search of past alchemists for the philosopher's stone."
+
+And even more forcibly Count Aksakof states the objections which have
+occurred to him:
+
+     "As years went by, the weak points of spiritualism became more
+     evident and more numerous. The insignificance of the
+     communications, the poverty of their intellectual content, and
+     finally the fraud, etc.--in short, a host of doubts, objections,
+     and aberrations of every kind--greatly increased the difficulties
+     of the problem. Such impressions were well calculated to discourage
+     one, if, on the other hand, we had not at our disposal a series of
+     indisputable facts." (_Animism and Spiritism._)
+
+While this is doubtless true, it is nevertheless a fact that psychical
+research is, as yet, in its infancy; and it is in a sense unfair to
+judge the results by the few years of progress which have been possible
+in the past. For while other sciences--physics, chemistry, anatomy--are
+more than two thousand years old, psychical research is but forty years
+old--some of the original founders of the S.P.R. being still alive and
+actively engaged in the work! It is, then, somewhat premature to
+pronounce upon the ultimate outcome of the investigation, and we must
+wait for at least a hundred years or so before it will be possible to
+see whether or not the subject has proved its claims and justified
+itself in the eyes of the world. And this view of the case is further
+supported by the fact that, in so exact a science as cytology, but
+little definite can be said. Thus, Professor E. B. Wilson, on p. 434 of
+his work _The Cell_, says: "The study of the cell has, on the whole,
+seemed to widen rather than to narrow the enormous gap that separates
+even the lowest forms of life from the inorganic world." It will thus be
+seen that the uncertain and unsatisfactory condition of psychics is
+shared also by other branches of scientific investigation, and it is as
+yet too soon to say whether or not the ultimate verdict will swing in
+this direction or in that. We can only hope, and continue to experiment!
+
+5. Psychical research, therefore, may continue to progress, in spite of
+the innate difficulties and the obstacles with which the subject is
+surrounded. It is our duty to see that it does! For it is certain that
+the subject will receive serious set-backs, from time to time, in the
+shape of unjust misrepresentations or bitter attacks from the outsiders,
+determined to "prove a case," even if the cause of truth be abandoned in
+order to do so. Take, e.g., the recent volume of Dr. Tanner and Dr. G.
+Stanley Hall (_Studies in Spiritism_). They received certain "lying
+communications," in spite of Professor William James' warning that "the
+personalities are very suggestible" and that "every one is liable to get
+back from the trance very much what he puts into it." Even Deleuze could
+have told Drs. Tanner and Hall this fact--having ascertained it nearly a
+hundred years before (1813); for he wrote in his _Critical History of
+Animal Magnetism_ (pp. 134-5), in reply to those who would question the
+somnambulist upon points of practical advantage:
+
+     "You will gain nothing; you will even lose the advantages which you
+     might derive from his lucidity. It is very possible that you could
+     make him speak upon all the subjects of your indiscreet curiosity;
+     but in that case, as I have already warned you, you will make him
+     leave his own sphere and introduce him into yours. He will no
+     longer have any other resources than yourself. He will utter you
+     very eloquent discourses, but they will no more be dictated by the
+     internal inspirations. They will be the product of his
+     recollections or of his imagination; perhaps you will also rouse
+     his vanity, and then all is lost; he will not re-enter the circle
+     from which he has wandered.... The two states cannot be
+     confounded.... These somnambulists are evidently influenced by the
+     persons who surround them, by the circumstances in which they are
+     placed."
+
+And Dr. A. E. Fletcher, in _The Other World and This_, says:
+
+     "Trance mediums, more than any others, are the victims of the
+     embodied and the disembodied. If the medium is subject to the
+     influence of a spirit, how much more likely is he to be affected by
+     the character of those around him! Strong minds in the body may
+     take control of his brain, instead of spirit intelligences. Such
+     persons must be of a highly sensitive order, and cannot come under
+     the same line of human criticism and judgment as might be applied
+     to those in everyday life."
+
+Even Maudsley, in his _Pathology of Mind_ (p. 77), says:
+
+     "The main feature which the abnormal states (trance, etc.) present
+     in common are: first, that coincident with a partial mental
+     activity there is more or less inhibition, which may be complete,
+     of all other mental action; secondly, that the individual in such
+     condition of limited mental activity _is susceptible only to
+     impressions which are in relation with his character and are
+     consequently assimilated by it_...."[1]
+
+These passages illustrate, at least, the delicate and often-times
+suggestible nature of the trance; and how inconclusive, to say the
+least, are such experiments as those of Drs. Tanner and Hall!
+
+6. On the other hand, it may be asked: If the messages we receive at
+seances really _do_ come from the departed, why should they be so
+fleeting and so uncertain as they are? And why should not many more
+messages be received from the hundreds and thousands who die yearly, and
+who are doubtless longing to communicate?
+
+Answers to these questions are manifold. In the first place, it may be
+pointed out that the ability to communicate may be rare indeed, and not
+a universal possibility, as is generally supposed. As Dr. Hodgson
+expressed it (_Proceedings_, xiii., p. 362): "It may be a completely
+erroneous assumption that all persons, young or old, good or evil,
+vigorous or sickly, and whatever their lives or deaths may have been,
+are at all comparable with one another in their capacity to convey clear
+statements from the other world to this." Further, it must not be
+supposed that all "messages" received by mediums (even granting their
+complete honesty) really issue from the "Great Beyond." Many mediums
+simply tell their sitters the ideas, impressions, and "messages" which
+come into their minds, and which they believe to come from external
+sources, i.e., "spirits," but which, as a matter of fact, issue from
+their own subconsciousness. These scraps of information resemble
+"bubbles" breaking upon the surface of water--the finished product of
+latent incubation, and doubtless have every appearance and every feeling
+of external origin. Even if genuine spirit-messages are at times
+received, it is highly probable that the bulk of the messages are the
+product of the medium's subliminal, which catches up and amplifies the
+original external impetus received from without. Professor William James
+believed, e.g., the following: that "genuine messages have been given
+through Mrs. Piper's organism, but he also contended that every time an
+intelligence appeared, calling itself Hodgson, and beginning: 'Hello!
+Here I am again in the witness-box! How are you, old chap?' etc., this
+was not Hodgson at all, but Mrs. Piper's subliminal, and that genuine
+supernormal information only came in 'touches' or 'impulses,' as it
+were, as though the spirit could touch or come into contact with the
+medium's mind at a number of points, making a number of 'dips down,' ...
+as it were, imparting information at each dip which the medium's mind
+thereupon seized upon, elaborated, and gave out in its own dramatic form
+and setting." If this be true of Mrs. Piper (whose messages are shot at
+you from a cannon's mouth, as it were), how much truer must it be of
+other types of mediums, in which the communications are certainly far
+less direct and impressive? Mrs. Piper might be styled the "possession"
+type of medium--as opposed to the "subliminal" type--commonly seen; and,
+as before said, if the messages be so indirect in the case of Mrs.
+Piper, how much more fragmentary and indirect must they be in the case
+of all other mediums--less developed and less direct than she? It is
+hardly to be wondered at that the information given is of the vaguest,
+the most hazy and indistinct character, and that recognition and proof
+of identity is almost an impossibility.
+
+7. As to the theory that comparatively few (of those who die) make good
+communicators, I may be permitted to suggest, perhaps, a tentative
+explanation of the rarity of good communicators (and communications),
+based upon this principle. Certain it is that special adaptability and
+idiosyncrasy are necessary to the one on this side--this constituting,
+in fact, a "medium," as we understand it. It seems highly probable that
+a medium is born and not made, that the gift is hereditary, and that it
+depends but little, if at all, upon physical, mental, or moral
+characteristics, but rather upon a peculiar and innate make-up which is
+independent of all of these. A person is a good psychic or medium just
+as another is a good painter or sculptor or pianist. It can be
+cultivated by training, but the "germ" must be latent within the
+individual, in order that its development may be possible at all.
+
+Granting all this, it seems to me very natural to suppose that some
+similar characteristic might be essential to the one on the "other
+side," in order that _he_ might be a good communicator. Only a few might
+possess this special gift--without which communication would be
+impossible--no matter how gifted or clever the individual might be, in
+other respects, or how much he longed to communicate. Further, it might
+be that this deceased person could only get _en rapport_ with our world
+when some one on this side was also and simultaneously endeavouring to
+reach him. Neither alone could effect the communication, could bridge
+the chasm.
+
+Let me make the theory clearer by means of an analogy. One theory of
+consciousness contends that it depends for its existence altogether upon
+the touching or inter-connection of certain nervous fibres, without
+which consciousness would be impossible, and is, in fact, abolished--as
+in sleep. When these "dendrites" touch, communication is established;
+when this contact is broken, it is non-existent.
+
+To apply the analogy. When a medium goes into a trance, she throws out
+(symbolically) psychic "arms," or pseudopodia, much as an octopus might
+feel about him with his tentacled arms. On the other side, a
+communicator would also stretch out these mental arms, feeling about for
+something to grasp and cling to, something capable of receiving and
+transmitting the messages he desired to send. Only when these two
+groping arms find each other "in the dark," as it were, would
+communication become possible. If only _one_ thus sought, nothing would
+result. The rare combination of good sender and good recipient must be
+found before this communication is possible at all, and even then, they
+must both be striving to communicate at the same moment before any
+results follow. It is because of the rarity of this combination and this
+coincidence that mediumistic messages are so scarce. In addition to the
+earnest desire and longing on the other side, there must be a medium on
+this, capable of receiving the messages. And when this medium is lacking
+(as is usually the case) no communications are received. This fully
+explains to us, it seems to me, why it is that messages of this nature
+are so rarely received: the necessary conditions on this side are
+lacking.
+
+8. Such a theory would also enable us to understand one fact, very
+puzzling to most investigators in this field. It is that one's friends
+and relatives are almost invariably present immediately the medium goes
+into the trance! Sometimes there is a wait, it is true, and they have to
+be "sent for." But as a rule they are "on tap" at once--and, no matter
+where we may be, they are there _instanter_--ready to communicate!
+
+Of course such facts naturally lead one to suppose, _a priori_, that
+these personages are not present at all, in reality, but merely the
+medium's subliminal, personifying these various personages--no spirit
+being concerned, directly or indirectly, with their production. This, I
+say, is the natural view of the facts.
+
+But on the theory above outlined the genuine nature of these messages
+may readily be assumed. Suppose our friends and relatives are more or
+less _en rapport_ with us all the time (like "guardian angels"). Time
+and space need not be considered factors in the problem--since all
+spirits say that they do not exist in "their" world. Then, all we should
+have to do, in order to effect communication, would be to supply the
+necessary conditions on this side--when the chasm would at once be
+bridged, and communication established.
+
+(I wish it to be distinctly understood, however, that I consider the
+vast bulk of such messages the product of the medium's subliminal, and
+not at all coming from the source from which they claim to proceed. I am
+only arguing on general grounds for the _possibility_.)
+
+9. It will be seen that I have spoken throughout the above argument of
+the _trance_ as a necessary condition for communication, or at least
+assumed that it is invariably present. Why should the trance state have
+this effect? What is the nature of the trance, and what peculiarity
+within it renders these results possible?
+
+The sceptic might begin by questioning the fact itself; but I think it
+now so well established that argument on this score is unnecessary.
+Further, the deeper the trance, _ceteris paribus_, the better the
+phenomena. There is no denying that fact. While certain striking results
+are often obtained while the medium is in light trance, they are not
+nearly so striking as those which are obtained when the medium is in the
+deeper stage. And this applies, I believe, to mediums producing both
+mental and physical phenomena. The question therefore remains: What
+happens in this trance state to render such results possible? _Why_
+should the peculiar condition involved be instrumental in producing such
+striking results?
+
+It must be admitted at once that the innermost nature of this trance
+state is unknown. Certainly no purely physiological explanation suffices
+to explain the "medium-trance," even were it sufficient to account for
+similar conditions better known. No matter what the condition of the
+medium's nerve centres may be, this would not account for the
+supernormal information given during the trance state. No matter how
+much nervous or mental "instability" or "disintegration" were
+postulated, it would not at all explain or elucidate the primary
+question: _How is the supernormal information acquired?_
+
+It seems to me that the answer to this question can only be found by
+assuming some such theory of the facts as the following:
+
+When a person falls asleep, he loses consciousness when _en rapport_
+with _himself_.[2] When he is placed in the "mesmeric" trance, he
+remains _en rapport_ with the operator, and the deeper the trance, the
+more complete and effective this _rapport_ is. Explain it as you will,
+the facts remain. The writings of the early mesmerists are filled with
+records of cases of this _rapport_, in which "community of sensation"
+was present, and various supernormal phenomena, such as clairvoyance,
+etc., were manifested. No such phenomena are recorded in hypnotic
+seances, as a rule, which makes me suspect most strongly that mesmerism
+and hypnotism are not identical, in spite of the general belief that
+they are fundamentally one--all mesmeric phenomena being due to
+"suggestion." Of this, however, later. For the moment, I wish only to
+draw attention to the fact that, during these deep trance states,
+_rapport_ was noted, and supernormal information frequently given.
+
+Now, it seems plausible to suppose that, by way of analogy, the medium
+trance would represent a trance state induced by hypnotism _from the
+"other side."_ We know that telepathic hypnotism is a fact--the numerous
+cases recorded by Myers and Janet being good proof of this. Further, we
+know that dreams may be induced experimentally, by means of telepathic
+suggestion. (See Ermacora's paper, _Proceedings_, xi. 235-308.) Might we
+not assume, then, that the medium-trance represents a certain condition
+induced by influence from deceased minds--which would fully account for
+the supernormal information given (for the medium would be _en rapport_
+with these minds), and for the fact that the medium is not usually
+susceptible to suggestion, pain-tests, &c., on _this_ side. The deeper
+the trance, the more the medium is in touch with the other world, the
+less with this; and _vice versa_. The medium-trance is, therefore,
+probably a hypnotic or mesmeric trance, induced telepathically by
+operators out of the body.
+
+10. When the trance has been induced, however, how does the "spirit"
+succeed in imparting information to the medium's brain and organism?
+Inasmuch as the phenomena are usually of the motor type--speech or
+writing--the motor centres in the brain must somehow be employed; _how_
+they are employed, and whether other centres in addition to these are
+used is a question calling for solution--but one which will take
+probably years of patient research to solve.
+
+As we know, Dr. Hodgson was of the opinion that the ordinary centres
+were not used in the production of the automatic writing, for he said
+(_Proceedings_, xiii. pp. 398-9): "What the precise relation is between
+this consciousness and the movements of the hand I do not know. I do not
+know whether or not the motor centres of the brain ordinarily concerned
+in the movements of hand and arm are in operation or not. I incline to
+think not--certainly not in the ordinary way...." The statement of the
+"controls" is that they use the "empty corners" of Mrs. Piper's
+brain--which probably means that certain unused areas are pressed into
+service, as far as possible, in the production of the phenomena. Still,
+this is not very definite information! Another theory offered by the
+communicators is that they get into contact with the "light," think
+their thoughts, and these thoughts are then registered or expressed in
+motor phenomena--speech or writing. What the "light" may be, we have not
+the slightest means of knowing, but it is a very significant fact that a
+"light" of this nature is nearly always associated with spiritual
+phenomena. We hear of the "interior illumination" of the saints and
+martyrs, and of those who have experienced an influx of "cosmic
+consciousness"; of the "halo" which surrounds the heads of holy persons;
+of the "internal light" experienced by many who have had a special
+conversion or illumination; of the "aura" surrounding the bodies of
+certain individuals--always perceptible to clairvoyants, and lately (it
+is asserted) to any one who observes the subject through specially
+prepared chemical screens;[3] of the "light" diffusing itself over the
+region of the forehead, which certain mesmeric subjects have inwardly
+perceived,[4] and of the "aura" which may be produced experimentally by
+means of high-tension electric currents. We must not forget, also, that
+Christ Himself is called "the light of the world," and that He once made
+the very significant remark: "If thine eye be single, _thy whole body
+shall be full of light_." Lastly, it is somewhat significant, it seems
+to me, that Andrew Jackson Davis used to see the nervous system of the
+person he was studying, while in the "superior condition," as
+_light_--as though it were illuminated by some interior glow, or was
+more or less phosphorescent. (And we know that phosphorus is certainly
+connected with the activities of the nervous system--even though it be
+not so intimately as before supposed.) This string of coincidences is at
+least remarkable; and it will be observed that the "light" is usually
+associated with nervous centres and nervous activity--for the head,
+e.g., is certainly the part most highly illumined, as a rule; while it
+is certainly the seat of the most active self-consciousness.
+
+11. These facts throw an interesting side-light, also, upon another
+oft-observed phenomenon in psychical research. I refer to the fact that
+apparitions ("ghosts") are nearly always seen to be clear and distinct
+as to the head and upper portions of the body, while they taper off to
+vapour and "filmy nothingness" in the lower limbs, so that often the
+feet are not visible at all. While this may be due in part to the fact
+that the observer's attention is not directed to the lower limbs, but
+more or less centred upon the head and face, it appears to me that
+there may be another interpretation of the facts, more in accordance
+with the phenomena above mentioned, which is this:
+
+During life we are conscious of our body in varying degrees--of the head
+most of all, then of the arms and upper portions of the body; and
+finally, of the lower limbs and feet, we are, a large part of the time,
+hardly conscious at all. Now, if the light accompanies nervous activity,
+and is present in proportion to it, it is obvious that those portions of
+the organism would have most "light" which were most active
+mentally--i.e., the brain and those portions of the nervous system
+controlling the hands, face, and upper portions of the body--while those
+portions which had become entirely automatic and unconscious in their
+activity would have least light--being physiological to the point almost
+of being mechanical. If this "light" corresponded in any way to
+visibility, therefore, it would only be natural to suppose that the face
+and upper portions of the phantasmal figure should be more or less
+distinctly visible, to one at all sensitive to such impressions, while
+the lower portions of the figure would fade into practical
+invisibility,--owing to lack of "light." This explanation would
+certainly be in accord with the facts, as we know them, regarding
+phantasmal figures.
+
+12. We are still far from the answer to our question, however: How does
+spirit act upon matter, and in what way does the spirit manipulate the
+nervous mechanism of the medium, during the process of communication?
+Let us now consider this question further.
+
+Andrew Jackson Davis, in his _Great Harmonia_, vol. i. pp. 55-65,
+discussed this problem, and stated that "spirit acts upon the bodily
+organism anatomically, physiologically, mechanically, chemically,
+electrically, magnetically, and spiritually." The trouble with such a
+statement is that it explains nothing (even as elaborated by him), and
+that it is far easier to believe, e.g., that one part of the body acts
+chemically and mechanically, etc., upon another part than to suppose
+that "spirit" has anything to do with the affair whatever. To postulate
+its activity would be merely to multiply causes without necessity.
+
+Just here, it might be interesting to inquire what the modern conception
+is as to the relation of mind and brain--of soul and body; and
+particularly the question of the "seat" of the soul--that central point
+which was, until late years, always considered necessary as a fulcrum or
+point of contact upon which the soul might act.
+
+The older psychologists and philosophers always took such a "seat" for
+granted--Descartes, as we know, imagining that the pineal gland occupied
+that important function. But as the science of psychology progressed,
+this notion was more and more given up, until the prevailing opinion of
+late years seems to be that the _whole_ of the cortex is equally the
+seat of consciousness, and that its _total_ functioning is responsible
+for the psychical activities which we know under the head of personality
+or individuality or ego.
+
+It is interesting to note, however, that Dr. Frederick Peterson, of
+Columbia University, New York, has lately put forward the theory that
+there is, or may be, a seat of consciousness, after all! In a striking
+article in the _Journal of Abnormal Psychology_ (vol. iii. No. 5), he
+says:--
+
+     "I will say at once that the 'seat' of that power which produces
+     the manifestations of consciousness is in the basal ganglia
+     (probably the _corpora striata_), and that consciousness is a
+     peculiar summation of energy at that point, capable of being
+     directed, like the rays of a searchlight, into this or that portion
+     of the brain."
+
+Dr. Peterson then goes on to give some facts which seem to him to
+support this view. Among these are the phenomena of sleep (the reasons
+being too long to detail here); the fact that, although every
+individual brain is stored full of experiences, only a small area
+is illuminated by consciousness at any one moment; and the phenomena of
+epilepsy--concerning which Dr. Peterson speaks in the following terms:
+
+     "The one disorder which has led me to think much of this subject is
+     epilepsy, in which disease, loss of consciousness is the most
+     extraordinary and often the only symptom. I allude chiefly to such
+     remarkable conditions as the _tic de salaam_ and the other forms of
+     _petit mal_, in which the patient drops suddenly to the floor with
+     loss of consciousness, and quite as suddenly rises again in full
+     possession of his faculties. I have watched such cases for hours,
+     and always with increasing marvel. The loss of consciousness is
+     complete, and often lasts but a fraction of a second. How account
+     for such phenomenon! If consciousness were a diffused attribute of
+     the whole brain, what spasm of blood-vessels or other physical
+     process familiar to us could act and be adjusted with such speed?
+     If, however, the 'seat' of consciousness be limited to some very
+     small portion of the brain, some physical process such as is
+     suggested could easily account for the instantaneous loss and
+     regaining of consciousness."
+
+Other facts in support of this theory are given, and the statement of
+Dr. C. L. Dana that, in poisoning by illuminating gas, the chief symptom
+is loss of consciousness, and the only lesion discovered is softening of
+the _corpora striata_; then the following:
+
+     "Assuming now that it were proved that the power which creates
+     consciousness has some definite seat, and that it is a summation of
+     energies physiologically varying in sleep and waking, which may be
+     directed to any part of our store of experiences for purposes of
+     illumination, what portion of the brain is so constructed as to be
+     in apparently intimate connection with every other? The _corpora
+     striata_!... There is no portion of the brain we know so little
+     of.... Here we have a portion of the brain which must be of
+     enormous significance, otherwise it would not be always present,
+     from the fish up to man."
+
+It will be seen that Dr. Peterson is here opposed to the doctrine
+maintained by both Lotze[5] and MacDougall,[6] who both maintained that:
+"There are a number of separate points in the brain which form so many
+'seats' of the soul. Each of these would be of equal value with the
+rest; at each of them the soul would be present with equal
+completeness." But whether there be one or several "seats" of
+consciousness, it is obvious that there must be contact of _some_ sort,
+at one or several points (granting the correctness of the theory that
+spirit acts upon matter at all), and the question is: _How_ may this
+action be supposed to take place?
+
+In discussing this question in a former book[7] I said:
+
+     "It is more than probable, it seems to me, that there exists some
+     sort of etheric medium between mind and even organic nervous
+     tissue, upon which the mind must act first of all. Thus, we should
+     have the chain of connection: mind, vital or etheric medium,
+     nervous tissue, muscle, bone. So mind acts upon matter; and it will
+     be seen that there is an increasing density of structure, and that
+     just in proportion to this density is mind incapable of affecting
+     matter directly. We must, it seems to me, always postulate some
+     sort of etheric medium through which mind acts, in order to affect
+     and move matter--organic or inorganic. And without this vital
+     intermediary there can be no action, and consequently no
+     manifestation."
+
+Now, it would appear rational to suppose that some action of this sort
+takes place when mind acts upon, or influences, matter. Air is
+invisible, and practically imperceptible to our senses--_when
+stationary_. But set into motion, a current of air will close a door
+with a bang--will have the effect of definitely moving a heavy mass of
+inanimate matter, in the manner indicated. It may be that in somewhat
+the same way mind affects brain. Mind may reside in a sort of etheric
+vehicle, and be more or less stable or stationary, save at the times
+when volition or intense, active conscious operations are in
+progress--when, in short, _effort_ is exerted. At such times, it is
+surely conceivable that what was static becomes dynamic; something is
+set into motion which in turn brings into activity some more "physical"
+energy, and so on, until sufficient material momentum has been gained to
+affect that most unstable and mobile substance, nervous tissue. It is
+certainly quite conceivable that certain nervous centres in the brain
+(_which_ centres, we cannot say) might be set into actual operation by
+some such process; or at least that the impulse or energy supplied in
+this manner might be sufficient to release the nervous energy stored in
+the cell, much as the trigger of a rifle would, when pressed, release
+the energy contained within the cartridge. Such "hair trigger" action
+has been postulated by both William James and Bergson, and is certainly
+in line with modern speculations in this direction. There are also
+certain analogies to be drawn from physical science to guide us here.
+
+In electricity, e.g., what are known as "relays" are constantly
+employed, and beautifully illustrate the principle here outlined. In
+working over long lines, or where there are a number of instruments in
+one circuit, the currents are often not strong enough to work the
+recording instruments directly. In such a case there is interposed a
+"relay" or "repeater." This instrument consists of an electro-magnet
+round which the line current flows, and whose delicately-poised
+armature, when attracted, makes contact for a local circuit, in which a
+local battery and the receiving Morse instrument (sounder, writer, etc.)
+are included. The principle of the relay is, then, that a current too
+weak to do the work itself may get a strong local current to do its work
+for it.
+
+It may be the same in the case of mental action. Volition or thought may
+be too weak, _per se_, to influence nervous processes; but, when
+exceptionally active or potent, they may set into activity specific
+nerve energies which manifest in the manner known to us as motor and
+physical phenomena. Here is, it seems to me, a rational explanation of
+the facts, and one which is in accord, not only with ordinary
+psychological phenomena, but with those more puzzling and obscure
+manifestations witnessed from time to time in psychic research.
+
+13. It may be objected that such a conception of the facts supposes that
+will (and conscious thought) are physical energies--for however _slight_
+we make this energy, it is still energy none the less. The air which
+closed the door would not move it _of itself_--unless some pressure were
+exerted upon it from without. Could "life" act otherwise?
+
+One reply to this objection is that the distinguishing characteristic of
+life is this very power of original, spontaneous movement. It is life,
+and life alone, which possesses this power. Were this doctrine true, it
+would of course upset the present theory of the Conservation of Energy,
+for it would admit the constant infusion into the world of energy from
+without. Despite the theoretical difficulty thus presented, it seems
+probable that life is, in a certain sense, a physical energy, or at
+least its manifestation is. It is possible that the two states are
+similar to the difference between potential and kinetic energy; and we
+must remember that _energy is always noticed or experienced by us, as
+energy, in its expenditure, never in its accumulation_.[8]
+
+If life be a physical force, if vitality be a specific energy, then, it
+seems to me, many things fall into line--many phenomena, hitherto
+inexplicable, become at once intelligible.
+
+Let me illustrate this conclusion by mentioning a few such facts:
+
+Take, for instance, the phenomena manifested in the presence of Eusapia
+Palladino. I shall not now stop to discuss the reality of these
+manifestations, because I consider them just as certain as any
+other facts in life, and not at all open to discussion. Now,
+in these phenomena there is an intelligence _of some sort_
+at work producing them; that is certain. But as to the _nature_ of this
+intelligence--_what_ it is--that is altogether another matter, and a
+much more difficult question to answer. Whether this be a low order of
+deceiving and "lying spirits," as Professor Barrett and others are
+apparently inclined to believe, or whether it be a fraction of the
+medium's own mind (Flournoy, Morselli), or whether it be the spirit it
+claims to be, or whether it belongs to some other even more doubtful
+order of intelligence, such as postulated by the Theosophists and
+certain Mystics and Occultists, _that_ is a question which we cannot at
+present answer, and for which we may have to wait for several hundred
+years before one can be satisfactorily given.
+
+But, granting the reality of the phenomena, they themselves demand
+solution, solely from the point of view of physics and physiology, and
+quite aside from the nature of the intelligence with which they are at
+times associated. The facts themselves still need elucidation.
+
+Some years ago a gentleman of my acquaintance started out with the
+intention of constructing a telephone by means of which it would be
+possible to speak directly to the spirit world! He had in mind great
+delicacy of apparatus, a system of "relays," by means of which it would
+be possible to augment an initial stimulus, however slight, a magnifying
+apparatus which would greatly increase the volume of sound, on the lines
+of the ampliphone and the microphone, etc. I do not believe that very
+definite results were ever achieved, and he is still at work upon the
+problem. Needless to say, this idea of his was ridiculed in all
+quarters; but I myself do not see any valid reason why some such device
+should not succeed--provided, of course, that a spiritual world exists
+at all. If such a world exists, if the intelligences which reside
+therein can at times produce physical phenomena, then it is certainly
+conceivable that some energy may be set into operation which may produce
+the desired results--some energy which we, too, can utilize and which
+the spiritual entity can also manipulate; in other words, _an energy
+common to the two worlds_. Were such a common medium or mediator found,
+communication would certainly be established, and it only remains for us
+to discover the common energy. Personally, I believe that this
+intermediary is most probably _vitality_--the life-force, without the
+presence of which such manifestations would be impossible. A living,
+human being is necessary, upon whose presence these phenomena depend,
+and without whom they could not occur. It is thus obvious that there is
+a definite connection between these phenomena and _life_, which can
+hardly be due to chance; it must stand in some intimate and causal
+relation.[9]
+
+14. Many students of psychical phenomena believe that, in the case of
+Eusapia Palladino, e.g., this connection is clearly discernible, and
+that it is upon the externalization of her vital force that many of
+these phenomena depend. Even the materializations are thought to be due
+to this same cause--due to the moulding, in space, of this plastic
+intermediary projected beyond the limits of her bodily organism. Certain
+it is that such a projection does at times take place, and it seems
+rational to suppose that "raps" may be due to the explosive expulsion of
+this neural energy after it has reached a certain "tension." One quite
+striking incident which has been narrated to me by a physician of my
+acquaintance tends rather to confirm this view. It is that, when he was
+trying on various occasions to move a table, _a la_ Palladino, he failed
+to do so, but whenever he lifted his hands away from the table,
+"sparkling" took place between his hands and the table-top, closely
+resembling the electric spark which jumps from point to point when the
+tension has reached a certain limit.
+
+Another interesting fact, related to me by the same physician, serves to
+throw a light upon the connection of vital and physical energies. The
+doctor in question was treating a patient, who was apparently
+"obsessed," by means of electricity. The galvanometer needle showed what
+slight variations in the current there were during the course of the
+treatment. In the middle of the process, while the patient was
+conversing with the doctor, she was suddenly "obsessed." _Coincidental_
+with this obsession, the galvanometer showed a tremendous and permanent
+fluctuation, indicating that the resistance of the body to the current
+had suddenly and greatly changed!
+
+Whatever view we may take of the facts, here is, at least, a striking
+incident, which the current theories of the varying causes of bodily
+resistance (in these psycho-galvanic reflexes) hardly serve to explain.
+Can it be that the subject's "etheric body" was in some way disturbed by
+an invading intelligence, and that this disturbance was manifested in
+the fluctuations recorded? Is there a nervous fluid, after all, as the
+magnetizers and mesmerists contend so strongly, but which has been
+relegated to oblivion since the advent of suggestion and hypnotism?
+Personally, I believe that there _is_, and I shall indicate very briefly
+some of my reasons for thinking so.
+
+In the _first_ place, the modern hypnotist can very rarely succeed in
+cultivating clairvoyance in his subject, whereas the records of
+mesmerism teem with cases which were developed under the old _regime_.
+Surely the dissimilarity in the effect points to a dissimilarity of
+cause. It has always appeared to me highly probable that mesmerism and
+hypnotism are dependent upon entirely different causes, and were not at
+all the same in the last analysis.
+
+In the _second_ place, the exhaustion which "healers" sometimes
+experience when treating patients of a certain temperament can hardly be
+due altogether to suggestion. I have been informed by "magnetic" and
+"spiritual" healers that this feeling of exhaustion is very great when a
+self-centred, selfish person is being treated, and correspondingly less
+whenever a generous, large-souled individual is receiving the treatment.
+"Osteopaths" have told me the same thing. Those possessing an active
+mind and brain, and who are analytical and unsympathetic by nature, are
+far harder to treat, and leave a far greater exhaustion, than those who
+are not so. This bears a very striking resemblance to the "good" and
+"bad" sitters in the Piper case, and also the Palladino case; in fact,
+it is true of everyday life, to a certain extent. The more active the
+mind, the greater the _grasp_ over life and self which we possess, the
+less susceptible are we to external or internal influences. Let us call
+to mind in this connection the remark of Dr. Snow in his treatise on
+_Anaesthetics_, that "the more intelligent the patient, the more
+anaesthetic is required to put him under."
+
+_Thirdly_, the phenomena presented by Eusapia Palladino completely prove
+the reality of such a "fluid" to my mind, without any other proof being
+necessary.
+
+_Fourthly_, the impression said to be left in or upon objects or houses,
+and the phenomena of "psychometry" seem to indicate the same thing.
+
+_Fifthly_, the recent reinforcement of the evidence in favour of the
+human "aura" strongly supports the same view.
+
+_Sixthly_, the French experiments in "exteriorization of sensibility,"
+"thought-photography," "radiographs," etc., point to the same
+conclusion.
+
+_Seventhly_, the successful experiments conducted by Professor Alrutz
+and others with his instrument--which is thought to register "will
+power"--is a long step towards recognizing the existence of a nervous,
+vital energy, which can at times be externalized and made to pass into
+and "charge" an inanimate object.
+
+_Finally_, the facts of materialization and kindred phenomena, which
+find so ready and complete an explanation on this theory.
+
+For these and other reasons, therefore, it seems fairly certain that
+there is a nervous "fluid" which can at times be externalized beyond the
+normal bodily limits, which is operative in mesmeric "passes," and which
+plays so large and hitherto unsuspected a part in the production of many
+physical and psychical phenomena.
+
+15. As we know, it is this "fluid" which is drawn upon, so it is said,
+by materializing mediums for the production of their phantoms, and the
+following interesting experience seems to confirm this view. I quote
+_verbatim_:
+
+     "It was an autumn afternoon, about six o'clock. I had returned from
+     a stroll in the garden, and was in my own room, sitting on a
+     single-backed easy-chair, leisurely dipping into _Vanity Fair_.
+     While turning over the pages in search of some favourite passage, I
+     became aware of an abnormal and quite indescribable sensation. My
+     chest and breathing seemed inwardly oppressed by some ponderous
+     weight, while I became conscious of some presence behind me,
+     exerting a powerful influence on the forces within. On trying to
+     turn my head to see what this could be, I was powerless to do so,
+     neither could I lift a hand or move in any way. I was not a little
+     alarmed and began immediately to reason. Was it a fainting fit
+     coming on, epilepsy, paralysis--possibly even death? No, the mind
+     was too much alive, though physically I felt an absolutely passive
+     instrument, operated upon by some powerful external agent, as if
+     the current of nerve-force within seemed forcibly drawn together
+     and focussed on a spot in front of me. I gazed motionless, as
+     though fascinated, on what was no longer vacant space. There an
+     oval, misty light was forming, elongatory, widening--yes, actually
+     developing into a human face and form! Was this hallucination, or
+     some vision of the unseen, coming in so unexpected fashion? Before
+     me had arisen a remarkable figure, never seen before in picture or
+     life--dark-skinned, aged, with white beard, the expression
+     intensely earnest, the features small, the bald head finely
+     moulded, lofty over the forehead, the whole demeanour instinct with
+     solemn grace. The hands, too, how unlike any hands I knew, yet how
+     expressive! They were dark, long in fingers and narrow in palms,
+     the veins like sinews, standing out as they moved to and fro in
+     eager gesture. He was speaking to me in deep tones, as if in urgent
+     entreaty. What would I not give to hear words from such a figure!
+     But no effort availed me to distinguish one articulate sound. I
+     tried to speak, but could not. With desperate effort I shook out
+     the words, "Speak louder!" The face grew more intent, the voice
+     louder and more emphatic. Was there something amiss in my own
+     hearing, then, that I could distinguish no word amidst these deeply
+     emphasized tones? Slowly and deliberately the figure vanished,
+     through the same stages of indistinctness, back to the globular,
+     lamp-like whiteness, till it faded into nothingness. Before it had
+     quite faded away, the face of a woman arose, indistinct and calm.
+     The same emphatic hum, though in a subdued note, indistinct and
+     dim. The same paralysis of voice and muscle, the same strange
+     force, as if it were overshadowing me. With the disappearance of
+     this second and far less interesting figure, I recovered my power
+     of movement, and arose.
+
+     "My first impulse was to look round for the origin of this strange
+     force; my second was to rush to the looking-glass to make sure I
+     was myself. There could be no delusion! There I was, paler than
+     usual, and greatly agitated; I walked hurriedly to and fro. True,
+     there had been nothing alarming in the apparition itself, but the
+     sensation preceding had been vivid in the extreme. What was it? Was
+     it night, or had I been in some strange sleep? Certainly not! Was I
+     in my right mind? I believed so. Then, if so, and the conditions
+     being the same, would it be possible to bring back this strange
+     phenomenon that I might know it had really existed, whether
+     subjectively or objectively? Like an inspiration I determined that,
+     if this experience had a basis in objective or subjective fact, it
+     might certainly recur. I would sit down in the same position, try
+     to feel calm, open a book, and remain as still and passive as I
+     could. To my intense interest, and almost at once, the strange
+     sense of some power operating on the nerve-forces within, followed
+     by the same loss of muscular power, the same wide-awakeness of the
+     reason, the same drawing out and concentrating of the energies on
+     that spot in front, repeated itself, this time more deliberately,
+     leaving me freer to take mental notes of what was happening. Again
+     rose the same noble, earnest figure, gazing at me, the hands moving
+     in accompaniment to the deep tones of voice. The same painful
+     effort on my part to hear, with no result. The vision passed. Again
+     the woman's face, insignificant and meaningless, succeeded it as
+     before. She spoke, but in less emphatic tones. It flashed upon me
+     I _would_ hear. After a frantic effort, I caught two words--"land,"
+     "America"--with positively no clue to their meaning.
+
+     "I was wide awake when the first apparition appeared, and in a
+     highly excited state of mind on its reappearance."
+
+This case strikes me as particularly interesting, for the reason that it
+illustrates the possible manner of the externalization of forces, and
+the possible manner of their guidance and manipulation by outside
+intelligences, as postulated in _Eusapia Palladino_, p. 300. Here we see
+the process actually at work, as it were, described by a careful
+observer, who was perfectly conscious all the time of the phenomena
+going on within him. This is, to my mind, a human document of no little
+importance.
+
+It appears quite credible, therefore, that a "fluid" of some sort does
+exist, and that its liberation, under certain peculiar conditions,
+should produce odd physical phenomena; and this conviction has been
+rendered almost a certainty by the unique experiments of Dr. Ochorowicz
+with his medium, Mlle. Tomczyk. A brief summary of that case will make
+this apparent.
+
+For many years experiments of the kind here recorded have been in
+progress, but the path has always been blocked by fraud and innumerable
+difficulties. Dr. Ochorowicz did, however, apparently succeed in
+obtaining photographs of human radiations, of thoughts, and even of
+materialized hands! What are they? Are they the hands of "spirits,"
+inhabitants of the "Great Beyond"? Are they astrals or elementals? Are
+they projections from the body of the medium? Of what can they consist?
+Who directs and guides them? And how can a thought be photographed?
+
+These newer researches into the fields of science have been undertaken,
+for the most part, by French investigators, who have progressed very far
+in their demonstrations and speculations in this direction--much
+further, it may be said, than either the English or American
+investigators have advanced--assuming, of course, the accuracy of their
+conclusions!
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz had been known for thirty years to all researchers as a
+careful investigator. Professor Charles Richet of the University of
+Paris spoke of him in the highest terms, and regarded him as "an
+exceptionally careful and cautious investigator." His book, _Mental
+Suggestion_, which was published early in the eighties, is considered an
+authority, and his general erudition and scientific attainments no one
+could question. For many years he was professor in the University of
+Lemberg.
+
+Several years ago a young girl, Mlle. Stanislaw Tomczyk, then about
+eighteen years old, was sent to Dr. Ochorowicz for medical treatment.
+She suffered greatly from nervousness. In order to bring about relief
+Dr. Ochorowicz hypnotized her, inducing somnambulism; and in this state
+she displayed, quite spontaneously, a number of "mediumistic" phenomena.
+This proved to be the beginning of her mediumship. She possessed a power
+unknown to herself; and it probably would have remained for ever unknown
+had she not fallen into the hands of a man such as Dr. Ochorowicz. By
+the average physician she would, most probably, have been treated as
+hysterical or insane; but careful analysis and training caused her to
+become, instead, one of the most remarkable psychics the world has ever
+known.
+
+Her early trials and tests were simple enough. A glass clock, possessing
+a pointer, was hung up in the centre of the room, and Mlle. Tomczyk was
+told to will that the pointer, when set revolving, should stop at a
+certain number. Generally she pointed with her finger at the indicator,
+keeping her hand a few centimetres distant. The indicator generally,
+though not invariably, stopped at the number desired--at any rate, a far
+greater number of times than Dr. Ochorowicz or any other person could
+cause it to stop when trying the experiments themselves. The clock
+belonged to Dr. Ochorowicz, and was innocent of trickery.
+
+The next experiments consisted in raising or "levitating" small objects
+from the table--by placing the medium's hands on either side of them.
+Sometimes the object would be raised from Dr. Ochorowicz's hand
+instead--while he was holding it. Of course the natural supposition is
+that a thread or hair of some sort was employed, but this possibility
+was eliminated in a number of ways.
+
+It must be remembered that all these manifestations took place when the
+medium was in a state of induced somnambulism. She remembered nothing
+when awakened of what had occurred. But now something curious and
+interesting demanded special attention. A distinct personality, calling
+itself "Little Stasia," began to develop. This personality asserted that
+she, and not the medium, was responsible for the physical
+manifestations we have recorded. She said (through the mouth of the
+entranced somnambule) that she was not an independent spirit, but a
+creation, an individuality, similar to the "alternating personalities"
+so well known to us. There would be no difficulty in accepting this
+estimate, were it not for the awkward fact that this little being was
+photographed on one occasion and seen to be a small, independent
+creature, existing apart from the medium! This is how it came about.
+
+Through the entranced medium instructions were given to focus a camera
+upon a certain chair--having first placed a shawl over the back. This
+was done. Dr. Ochorowicz and Mlle. Tomczyk then left the room together.
+At the end of a certain length of time they returned, developed the
+plate, and upon it was found the distinct imprint of a small child's
+face, apparently belonging to a body, seated in the chair, and swathed
+around with the shawl in question! The experiment was performed in the
+hotel where they happened to be stopping; the photographic camera and
+plates were Dr. Ochorowicz's own, and the medium was out of the room, in
+the doctor's company throughout. It has never been explained.
+
+Such is a brief account of the more interesting experiments conducted
+during the early years of this medium's development. In later years her
+powers, under the skilled guidance of (the late) Dr. Ochorowicz, took
+another turn and provided some of the most interesting and striking
+manifestations in the history of this subject, as, for example, his
+experiments in the photography of "fluidic" or "materialized" hands, and
+also in thought-photography.
+
+These photographs of fluidic hands Dr. Ochorowicz calls "radiographs,"
+because they can only be explained by supposing that the fluidic hand,
+which is placed upon the photographic plate, is in some way radio-active
+during the process. In no other way can the facts be explained. Even
+supposing, for the sake of argument, that the psychic could in some way
+have placed her own hands on the plates, they would not have produced
+the results obtained--as any one can prove to his own satisfaction.
+
+These impressions upon photographic plates were obtained
+"mediumistically"--that is, in more or less complete darkness, and
+without any apparatus. Not only were all known forms of radiation thus
+excluded, but the impression was direct, and obtained without camera,
+focussing, etc. The impressions of hands obtained were of various shapes
+and sizes, both larger and smaller than those of the medium (who, of
+course, was the only other person present), peculiarly deformed hands
+and partially formed hands, according to the degree of success of the
+experiment, and the desire of the medium.
+
+These hands can only be produced in the presence, and with the
+assistance, of a good "physical medium," in more or less darkness, and
+are taken by means of a peculiar light which the hands seem to create
+for themselves. Sometimes the hands were visible to both the medium and
+Dr. Ochorowicz, sometimes visible only to the medium, sometimes
+invisible to both. We are assured that in the series of tests under
+consideration the impressions were obtained only when the psychic was
+deeply entranced, and then only at certain times.
+
+On a number of occasions the psychic placed her hand upon the plate,
+and its impression was left upon it. The hands were photographed by
+means of a form of light radiating from the hands themselves. On one
+occasion, Dr. Ochorowicz held the plate against the medium's ear; the
+ear itself was not photographed, but the side of the head, the hair, and
+particularly the hairpins were. On two occasions a leaf was placed
+between the hands and the plate, and the outline of the leaf was left
+upon the latter. From these experiments it was concluded that the
+rays--whatever they might be--were emitted by the "etheric body" (the
+"astral" body, the "double") and not by the physical body, since their
+intensity did not seem to correspond in any way to the anatomical
+distribution of the nerves.
+
+These rays may be centred and concentrated by the action of the will of
+the subject. They radiate from the surface of the skin and reproduce a
+simulacrum, as it were, of the surface. They throw a shadow of any
+object placed between the subject and the photographic plate. They are
+more penetrating than the rays discovered by M. Darget, and brought to
+the attention of the French Academy several years ago. Interesting
+analogies may exist here between these rays and the so-called "Black
+Light" of M. Le Bon, which he describes at length in his work, _The
+Evolution of Forces_.
+
+It was now determined to attempt more interesting and startling
+experiments. The medium was requested to hold her right hand in the air,
+where it could be seen plainly, against the faint red light in the room.
+It was not moved throughout the experiment. In his own laboratory Dr.
+Ochorowicz then procured a fresh plate and held it in the air, at some
+distance from the hand of the medium. The latter then said: "Ah, I see
+another right hand detaching itself from my arm and approaching the
+plate. How it pains me! Yes, it is placing itself over the plate--it is
+done."
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz then took the plate with him at once to the dark room
+and, when it was developed, there was found the outline of an unformed
+hand--one apparently in the process of condensation. It was, as it were,
+a hand in embryo. It had apparently become detached, or had detached
+itself, from the medium, and remained sufficiently solid to leave an
+impression of itself upon the plate, held about half a metre from it. It
+was, in fact, a form of materialization, but of so shadowy a texture
+that it remained often quite invisible to the onlooker.
+
+A long series of experiments is then described, which might be condensed
+somewhat as follows:--
+
+     "The somnambule said that she did not see the double's hand leave
+     hers, but saw it placed upon the plate. It was placed upon it at an
+     angle of ninety degrees from the position taken by her own hand. At
+     my request the thumb was made particularly distinct, the whole hand
+     being quite different in contour from that of the medium.
+
+     "I take another plate, and hold it some distance from the medium's
+     hand. She makes an effort to impress it, with the result that an
+     immense finger, superhuman in size, is seen upon the plate when
+     developed. Upon the next plate, which I hold about twenty-five
+     centimetres from her hands, three fingers appear, non-luminous--the
+     light seeming to come from behind the hand, and shining through the
+     spaces between the fingers.
+
+     "I now hold a plate at a distance of one metre from her right
+     hand, which is held up in front of her. The red light is turned
+     slightly low. The somnambule sees a shadowy hand detach itself from
+     hers, which is at the same time, also, attached to a very long,
+     thin arm, and which approaches the plate. The hand is very large,
+     she says, and is a right hand. It places itself over the plate,
+     which I thereupon remove and develop. A large hand is distinctly
+     visible upon it. Finally, I hold a plate two and a half metres away
+     from the medium's hand. The somnambule shivers and feels cold in
+     her lower limbs, despite the fact that my laboratory is very warm.
+     She again holds out her right hand, and a left hand, attached to a
+     long, thin arm, is seen by her to detach itself and place itself
+     over the plate held in my hand. Upon being developed, the
+     impression of a very large left hand was found upon the plate--so
+     large that only a portion of the hand could be seen! The whole of
+     the medium's hand can easily be placed upon the plate. These are
+     very similar to the enormous hands frequently seen in the Palladino
+     seances, and said to be those of 'John King.'
+
+     "From the above facts I think we are justified in arriving at the
+     following tentative conclusions:
+
+     "1. That the hand of the double can be larger than that of the
+     medium.
+
+     "2. That a left hand can be projected from a right arm, drawing its
+     force from the entire body of the subject, this being accompanied
+     by a chilly feeling in the extremities and by congestion of the
+     head.
+
+     "3. That the arm of the double appears to shrink in size according
+     to its distance from the medium's body.
+
+     "4. That it is easier for the fluidic hand to imprint itself upon
+     the photographic plate (negative) in white than in black.
+
+     "5. That in the case of the large and shining thumb it is
+     surrounded by a clear halo of light.
+
+     "6. The etheric body of the medium, the 'double,' behaves as though
+     it were an independent spirit."
+
+In a second series of experiments very small hands were produced by
+request. These hands terminated abruptly at the wrist, but it was found
+by a series of independent experiments that any hand would appear to do
+so if the illumination came from a certain direction. In one case the
+photographic plate was placed on the sofa, three feet from the entranced
+somnambule. Dr. Ochorowicz took his seat by her side. A fluidic hand was
+seen to approach the plate, then retreat into the medium's body,
+avoiding the red light. Upon the plate being developed, the imprints of
+two small hands were seen, somewhat resembling the hands of the medium,
+though smaller. They were not typical children's hands. The medium had,
+in fact, made two distinct efforts to impress the plate and have the
+fluidic hand place itself upon it. These semi-materializations are very
+interesting, since they form the connecting link between true
+materialization, which is solid and substantial, and so-called thought
+photography.
+
+After this Dr. Ochorowicz wished to try another experiment. A pencil and
+a sheet of paper were placed on the floor under the bureau by Dr.
+Ochorowicz. The medium sat in her chair entranced. Soon the sound of
+writing was heard; then the fall of the pencil. Upon the sheet of paper
+being removed a word was found scratched across it--
+
+"STANISL--"
+
+The psychic then desired to obtain writing in full view of Dr.
+Ochorowicz, so he placed another piece of paper upon the floor, and upon
+it the pencil. The medium then exerted herself; the pencil stood on end,
+and attempted to write. In this, however, it failed, and fell to the
+floor. This was repeated several times, when the medium had to give up
+further attempts, owing to her extreme fatigue.
+
+The question now arises: Can these fluidic hands, which are thus
+exteriorized, move of their own volition, or must they remain
+stationary? To this question Dr. Ochorowicz addressed himself in a later
+series of experiments.
+
+In the first experiment, the somnambule saw a finger upon a plate, which
+was self-luminous, and seemed to be writing. A large "J" was seen to be
+traced upon it. In the second trial, neither the medium nor Dr.
+Ochorowicz saw anything, but the letters "J. O." were seen to be
+imprinted upon it when developed.
+
+This proved that the intelligence guiding the finger at least possessed
+memory and intelligence. The finger was to some extent self-luminous.
+From these experiments Dr. Ochorowicz concluded that:
+
+The actinic action of the emitted rays is feeble, comparatively
+speaking; and that the visible light of the fluidic hands is less
+actinic than the invisible light.
+
+The relation of these rays to ordinary light is thus an interesting
+question. It is well known that all mediums shun light, and there are
+sound physiological and psychological reasons for this. Daylight has
+been found to be more destructive to the success of phenomena than any
+form of artificial light; moonlight is far better than sunlight. It has
+lately been shown that light exerts a powerful physical pressure, and is
+a disruptive agency, destroying protoplasm and many of the lower forms
+of life. We only have to see the effect of sunlight upon a photographic
+plate to appreciate its power. The absurdity of assuming that light
+plays no part in such manifestations--where very delicate, subtle, and
+little understood forces are in operation--is thus manifest.
+
+Still, the fluidic hands emit a light of their own; and the question is,
+Can this emitted light penetrate solid substances--"matter," as we
+understand it? As the result of a number of experiments, Dr. Ochorowicz
+ascertained that, in the majority of cases, these rays, like
+ultra-violet light, did not penetrate solid substances, as do the
+X-rays; yet their actinic action was found to be far stronger! Here is a
+field for long-continued observation and experiment. In thought
+photography, on the other hand, it has been ascertained that the rays
+can pass easily through solid matter, like the X-rays.
+
+The next question of interest which presented itself for solution was
+this: To what extent can the fluidic hands change their form, size, and
+contour at will? Experiments were first tried in the reduction of the
+size of the hands, upon request.
+
+Three plates were prepared and laid in a series upon the table at some
+distance from the medium. Through the entranced somnambule the "double"
+was then informed of the experiment, and asked to place its hand upon
+the three plates in succession, willing on each occasion to make the
+fluidic hand smaller. This was done. An impression of the same hand was
+obtained on each plate, but it can be seen that, on each occasion, the
+hand is smaller in size. This was all accomplished within a few seconds.
+
+Of these experiments Dr. Ochorowicz says:
+
+     "We are therefore justified in arriving at the following
+     conclusions:
+
+     "1. At first, the double's hand is larger than that of the medium.
+
+     "2. It tends to decrease in length and general size.
+
+     "3. The palm of the hand, especially, tends to decrease.
+
+     "4. Only the little finger remains without appreciable change.
+
+     "5. The change is that of several millimetres, but not enormous.
+
+     "6. The fingers of the double tended to close nearer together, as
+     well as become smaller--just as an ordinary hand would probably
+     do."
+
+The light which supplied the necessary illumination for these
+photographs seemed to have been emitted from a sort of "egg," near the
+wrist of the hand, which was intensely luminous. This was not expected,
+and came as a surprise. Two suggestions as to its nature at once present
+themselves: (1) that it is a self-created mediumistic light; and (2)
+that it is a mass of matter from which the hand derives its material
+sustenance.
+
+In a further series of experiments, during which Dr. Ochorowicz was
+repeatedly touched by a cold hand, impressions of large left hands were
+left upon the plates--the medium's left hand being, meanwhile, a long
+way removed from the plate. The fingers were very large, the thumb
+enormous and abnormally shaped at the end.
+
+Summing up the conclusions which, he thought, could be drawn from his
+researches, Dr. Ochorowicz said:
+
+     "1. Fluidic hands are detached more or less rarely--according to
+     the condition of the subject's "forces." When these are strong,
+     hands may even be produced unknown to the medium.
+
+     "2. The direction and character of these hands are determined by
+     the subconscious mind of the medium; but also partially by the
+     conscious mind.
+
+     "3. The properties of the fluidic hands are not constant; they
+     change frequently.
+
+     "4. These changes represent transformations of energy--certain
+     forms of energy being transformed into other forms. When the
+     conditions are good, the forms of available energy are multiplied;
+     when weak, they are lessened. They alternate, but do not blend. The
+     mechanical effects are produced chiefly by the invisible hands,
+     while the visible hands are inactive.
+
+     "5. I have never seen more than two hands formed by one medium at
+     one time, and more usually only one. When there are two hands,
+     however, they may be quite dissimilar, one from the other.
+
+     "6. There are several degrees of materiality, which succeed each
+     other rapidly. The hands are so fugitive that it is almost
+     impossible to seize them. When the imperfectly formed hands are
+     grasped, however, they are cold, slippery, and unpleasant to the
+     touch. The better materialized hands, on the contrary, are warm
+     and life-like.
+
+     "7. The well-materialized hands can be photographed; even the
+     poorly-developed hands can give radiographs.
+
+     "8. The ultra-violet light necessary to produce these photographs
+     can be produced by the hand of the medium or by the double itself.
+
+     "9. Radiographs are difficult to obtain; a materialization
+     generally loses its luminosity.
+
+     "10. The hands are sometimes like, and sometimes unlike, those of
+     the medium.
+
+     "11. The fluidic hands can be moulded plastically, and altered as
+     to their dimensions."
+
+To resume the experiments: Dr. Ochorowicz desired to see whether the
+fluidic hand of the double could pass through a very small hole or
+space. He accordingly proposed placing a rolled-up film in a bottle,
+leaving only the small hole at the top, and see whether the hand could
+impress itself under these circumstances. Upon this being proposed to
+the medium, she exclaimed: "Make it more difficult than that; you will
+make the double lazy! Cork up the bottle!"
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz accordingly cut a film, rolled it into a small roll,
+placed it in the bottle, and held the latter between his two hands, the
+right-hand palm acting as a cork, the left supporting the bottle; the
+medium placed her hands on either side of the bottle, on the outside.
+She soon complained that her hands were paining her, seeming to swell
+and get larger. She was soon after seized with cramps, and the
+experiment was at this point discontinued.
+
+Dr. Ochorowicz tried to draw the film from the bottle, but failed; he
+was finally obliged to break the bottle to extract it. The film was then
+developed, and upon it was the imprint of a hand--larger even than his
+own, to say nothing of the medium's--clearly formed. Fraud was
+absolutely out of the question. There seems only the alternative choice
+of invoking the fourth dimension, or assuming that the fluidic hand
+could curve itself round and round the film after having entered the
+bottle in some manner! The facts seem incredible; but I give them as
+recorded.
+
+The question now arises: is the fluidic hand two-dimensioned? It could
+hardly have any thickness, to accomplish the last experiment. Dr.
+Ochorowicz determined to try a novel experiment, to test this theory.
+
+Two photographic plates were placed face to face, separated by small
+pieces of cardboard at the corners. The "double" was requested to insert
+its hand between the plates when the medium was entranced. Upon the
+plates being developed, the imprint of a hand (the same hand) was found
+on both plates; i.e. a photograph of the top, and of the under side of a
+hand. This was repeated again, under more stringent conditions. The hand
+again appeared.
+
+It was then decided to repeat the experiment with the rolled film in the
+bottle. The experiment was again made; the film was developed when the
+medium reclined on the couch on the opposite side of the room, and a
+very large hand was again found to have impressed itself upon the film.
+It had evidently succeeded in curling itself round the rolled film in
+the closed bottle!
+
+The question is: First, Do the facts occur? And if they do, what
+is the cause of them? What is the nature of these fluidic hands?
+To whom do they belong? Of what are they constituted? Are they
+the hands of a spirit, or mere exteriorizations from the body of the
+medium--materializations, only partially independent?
+
+Without attempting to answer these questions in this place, I will
+conclude by pointing out two facts, which seem to me of considerable
+importance. The first is that many nervous and mentally abnormal
+patients may be mediums were the pains taken to ascertain that fact. I
+know of one famous alienist who confided to me his belief that a very
+large percentage of mediumistic cases could be found in hospitals for
+hysterical patients or in wards for the mentally unbalanced. The trouble
+is that experiments tending to ascertain the truth of such a theory are
+never tried. Had not Dr. Ochorowicz been interested in things psychic,
+Mlle. Tomczyk would simply have been cured by him in the general routine
+manner and dismissed. The world would thus have been deprived of one of
+the most remarkable mediums on record!
+
+In the second place, these fluidic hands are almost identical in many
+ways with those presented by Eusapia Palladino at her best. The
+materialized hands, of varying degrees of density and formation,
+attached to long, shadowy arms, are exactly like the hands so often
+materialized at her seances--hands which are at times small, and at
+other times enormous. They no more resembled the hands of the medium
+than chalk resembles cheese.
+
+16. This brings me to a final reflection, which I should like to mention
+before leaving this branch of our discussion. It concerns the question
+of darkness and its effect upon genuine mediumistic phenomena. Whether
+this effect be primarily physical, physiological, or psychological, the
+_fact_ remains that it exists; and the researches of Dr. Ochorowicz have
+tended to confirm this very strongly. His work has shown us (or rather
+confirmed us more strongly in the belief) that the question of _light_
+is a highly important one, and that the greater the degree of darkness,
+_ceteris paribus_, the better and the more startling the phenomena.
+
+Now, there has always existed a sort of _a priori_ assumption that this
+should be so. Light, as we know, does bring about chemical reactions,
+and even exerts a definite physical force or pressure. Even so gross and
+so powerful a form of physical energy as wireless telegraphy is greatly
+interfered with by reason of the sun's rays (ultra-violet rays), and, of
+course, photographic plates are at once rendered useless by an instant's
+exposure to the sun. Again, it is known that sunlight has a more or less
+destructive influence upon all forms of animal and vegetable protoplasm,
+and it is very soon fatal to many of the lower forms of life. This being
+so, it has always appeared to me perfectly reasonable to suppose that
+the energy of the light-rays should interfere most seriously with the
+delicate and subtle forces and forms of energy which are liberated in
+the seance room. The old objection: "Why must these things always be
+done in the dark?" has appeared to me very short-sighted and
+inconsistent with all the facts above mentioned.
+
+But, further! It is highly probable that life of any kind can only
+originate in the dark. Certainly, conception invariably takes place in
+complete darkness, and the whole period of embryonic development is
+passed in that condition. Again, inter-stellar space is, of course,
+absolutely black and devoid of any form of light save the faint
+twinklings of the far-off stars. Without the surface of some globe to
+reflect the sun's rays, no light of any kind would be possible; so that
+if life were conveyed across space, from star to star, upon
+infinitesimal specks of dust, under the influence of light pressure, as
+postulated by Arrhenius (_Worlds in the Making_, pp. 212-30), this life
+must exist, and in a sense originate, in the blackness of inter-stellar
+space.[10] And, finally, if life on our globe originated, as many think,
+in the ocean's depths,[11] this must have been in the densest darkness,
+since light penetrates but a few fathoms below the surface of the ocean.
+Below that all is blackness, complete and eternal. No light penetrates
+to that depth--nor has it for millions of years! Yet it is in this
+region that life is thought to have originated! As G. W. Warder
+expressed it (_The Universe a Vast Electric Organism_, pp. 60-1):
+
+     "During this period of primeval 'darkness upon the face of the
+     waters' the resistless electric waves of the sun were beating upon
+     the cloud-enwrapped surface of the planet. It was the formative
+     period of elementary life, and the descendants and successors of
+     that mighty host of living beings have to this day to lay the
+     foundations of their being in similar conditions of darkness.
+     _Creative energy in its first stages of living form operates in
+     dense darkness_, and the first life upon the planet began and
+     perfected itself in the age when midnight gloom enveloped the
+     globe."
+
+This fact--that life originated in darkness, and that the power of life
+can only be exercised in darkness--is, it seems to me, a most
+significant one when viewed in the light of our studies, and seems to
+point to the conclusion that the "darkness" said to be essential at
+spiritistic circles is indeed necessary; and that, when delicate and
+subtle forms of life and energy are being manifested, they are likely to
+become disrupted by the sudden introjection of a coarse and powerful
+form of energy, such as light, so that this "condition," said to be
+necessary by all mediums, is probably in reality essential; and their
+claim, far from being absurd, is well founded, and in accordance with
+well-established scientific facts.
+
+17. So far as to the physical phenomena. We must now turn to the mental
+manifestations, and discuss one or two points in connection with them
+before concluding.
+
+Hitherto we have considered the process of communication (granting such
+to exist) solely from the physical and physiological sides, and not from
+the psychological. There is a great deal to be said in this latter
+connection, however, though I shall endeavour to be as brief as
+possible.
+
+Take, for instance, the question of _symbolism_.
+
+Our dreams, as we know, are largely symbolic, the work of Freud and
+others having proved this beyond all doubt. It is highly probable that
+the ravings of delirium are also of this nature, though no one, so far
+as I know, has yet devoted any serious attention to their study.
+Certainly it is true in mediumistic phenomena; for, in trance
+conditions, a larger number of messages, tests, and visions seen are of
+this nature and character--the symbolism often being so elaborate that
+the original thought is not perceived. As Mr. Coates remarked: "When a
+'psychometer' places a geological specimen to his forehead, and
+describes an 'antediluvian monster,' roaring and walking about, no one
+but a very shallow individual would imagine for a moment that the
+psychometer was actually seeing the original," but rather that he
+obtained a faint and dream-like impression of the world at that epoch,
+and his subconscious impression was symbolized in the creature seen. A
+better example is, perhaps, furnished by the following: a gentleman of
+my acquaintance visited a certain trance-medium, and, among other
+things, she described a large key. This meant nothing to him at first;
+but later, and after some apparent effort, the medium succeeded in
+catching (and conveying) the idea that the key was symbolic of
+success--unlocking the door of happiness, etc.--whereupon all she had
+said fell naturally into place.
+
+Why this symbolism? The probable answer to this question is that the
+"message" cannot be given _directly_, and that this symbolic method of
+presentation must be resorted to in order to get the message through at
+all. There is good evidence to show that a pictorial method is resorted
+to, very largely, by the _soi-disant_ spirits--mediums seeing what they
+describe, very often, when the more direct auditory method is not
+resorted to. The "spirit" presents somehow to the mind of the medium a
+picture, which is described and often interpreted by the medium. Often
+this interpretation is quite erroneous--resembling a defective analysis
+of a dream. Because of this the message is not recognized. Yet the
+source of the message may have been perfectly "veridical."
+
+Let me illustrate this a little more fully. Suppose you desired to tell
+a Chinaman, who spoke not a word of English, to fetch a certain object
+from the next room. It would be useless for you to say "watch," because
+he would not know what the word meant. Probably you would tap your
+waistcoat pocket, pretend to take out a watch, wind it, look at the
+hands, etc., in your endeavour to convey to him your meaning. If this
+was not recognized, for any reason, you would have the utmost difficulty
+in conveying your meaning to him--and equal difficulty in telling him to
+fetch the watch from the next room.
+
+Now, suppose these antics--or somewhat similar ones--were resorted to by
+a "spirit" in his attempt to convey the word watch--perhaps to remind
+the sitter of a particular watch he used to wear. The medium might well
+proceed as follows: "He taps his stomach, and looks at a spot over his
+left side.... He seems to wish to convey the impression that he suffered
+much from his bowels--perhaps a cancer on the left side. Yes, he seems
+to be taking something away from his body; evidently they removed some
+growth, and he wishes to convey the idea that something was taken from
+him.... Now he is examining his hands; he is looking intently. He is
+doing something with his fingers.... I can't see what it is ... a little
+movement. Was he connected with machinery in life? Now he is pointing to
+the door ..." etc.
+
+Such an interpretation of the facts, it will be observed, while
+describing all his actions, is wholly misleading in interpretation; the
+symbolism has been entirely perverted and misconstrued. And inasmuch as
+the subject probably never died of cancer, had no bowel trouble,
+underwent no operation, and was never connected with machinery, it is
+highly probable that the "message" would be put down wholly to the
+medium's subliminal, or even to guessing or conscious fraud. Yet, it
+will be observed, the message was, in its inception, wholly
+"veridical"--the fault lying in the erroneous symbolic interpretation of
+the medium.
+
+There is evidence to show that other forms of symbolism are adopted
+also--applying to the auditory as well as to the visual presentation of
+the messages. _Names_ afford some of the best evidence for this; e.g. in
+the sitting of Mrs. Verrall with Mrs. Thompson, November 2, 1899
+(_Proceedings_, xvii. pp. 240-41), "Nelly," the control, gave the names
+"Merrifield, Merriman, Merrythought, Merrifield," and later went on: "I
+am muddled. I will tell you how names come to us. It's like a picture; I
+see school-children enjoying themselves; you can't say Merrimans,
+because that's not a name, nor merry people...." (Mrs. Verrall's maiden
+name was Merrifield.) If I remember correctly, there was similar
+symbolism with regard to the name Greenfield at another sitting.
+
+18. Here, then, we see the full play of symbolism and its possible
+extension to cover proper names. But there is another and a very simple
+reason why names should be hard to recall and give clearly by "spirits."
+Names are proverbially hard to remember, even in this life--and we know
+that some persons naturally remember names far better than others. (This
+may account, to a certain extent, for the differences in the ability of
+communicators to give proper names.) But, with all of us, names are hard
+to recall. We all resort to "what's-his-names," and "thing-o'-my-jigs,"
+on occasion, in our efforts to discover within us the name in question.
+And there are good physiological reasons for this. We learn names only
+after many other parts of speech--which means that the brain-cells
+corresponding thereto are laid down or brought into conscious activity
+_last_; they are therefore more ephemeral and less fundamental than
+others--hence the first to "go." This accounts for the increasing
+difficulty in the aged for remembering names--theirs is a physiological
+rather than a psychological defect. By analogy, therefore, there is
+every reason to believe that proper names are hard to recall--every
+reason for thinking that they should be--by "spirits" after the shock
+and wrench of death. The necessary psychical mechanism would be so
+shaken and disturbed that it would be impossible to recall names and
+events, which seem quite straightforward and simple to the sitter. The
+possibly pictorial method of presentation of proper names would greatly
+add to the difficulty, as we have seen, and would be liable to lead to
+misrepresentation and error.
+
+19. Dr. Hyslop, in his second report on Mrs. Piper, (_Proceedings_,
+Amer. S.P.R., pp. 1-812), calls attention to certain analogies which may
+be drawn from everyday psychology, rendering the process of
+communication far more intelligible, and the difficulties within the
+process far clearer to our perception and appreciation. For example, he
+calls attention to certain analogies with aphasia, which are most
+instructive. He says, in part:
+
+     "The two traditional types of aphasia are motor and sensory.
+     Sensory aphasia is the inability to interpret the meaning of a
+     sensation ... motor aphasia is the inability to speak a word or
+     language, though the ideas and meaning of sensations may be as
+     clear as in normal life.... This latter difficulty is apparent in
+     several types of phenomena purporting to be associated with
+     communications from spirits. I have found them illustrated in four
+     different cases of mediumship, and they may be represented in three
+     types. They are: (_a_) The difficulties with proper names; (_b_)
+     The difficulties with unfamiliar words; and (_c_) The inability to
+     immediately answer a pertinent question....
+
+     "The analogies with aphasia, of which we are speaking, may comprise
+     various conditions affecting both medium and communicator. Thus the
+     abnormal physical and mental conditions involved in the trance may
+     affect the integrity of the normal motor action. Then the new
+     situation in which death places a communicator, in relation to any
+     nervous system, may establish conditions very much like aphasia.
+     Then there may be difficulties in the communicator's representing
+     his thoughts in the form necessary to transmit them to and through
+     a foreign organism."
+
+Dr. Hyslop then offers the following diagram as a possible solution of
+certain difficulties involved:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A B C represents the normal consciousness; A B D the subliminal
+consciousness. They intersect at E, which point represents the
+"equilibrium of the controls." "The area A E B shows the condition in
+which all sorts of confusion may occur, incidental to the infusion of
+controls, and this confusion will vary with the relation with the
+supraliminal and subliminal action of the mind." As one advances, the
+other recedes. As one gains a greater control over the organism, the
+other loses it, and _vice versa_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Extending this conception to cover the cases of spirit "possession," in
+which this varying and fluctuating control is also manifested, we might
+represent this by the above diagram, in which normal consciousness is
+left out of account, for the sake of clearness, and the trance condition
+(subliminal) only represented. The spirit control of the organism takes
+its place in the diagram.
+
+Here A B C represents the trance state--the subliminal consciousness. G
+D F represents the sphere of the spirit's control. It does not begin at
+all until the point F be reached. The space A E F represents the area in
+which all kinds of confusion is possible, and it is within this area
+that most of the mediumistic messages come. E is the "point of balance."
+A F H represents the amount of subliminal action accessible to the
+control, on the one hand, and related to the discarnate, on the other,
+in its _rapport_. A F represents the amount of the discarnate
+personality which is accessible to communication, so we have two fields
+which are wholly inaccessible to each other, and are respectively
+represented by B C H F and D G I A, the former a portion of the
+subliminal personality of the living and the latter a portion of the
+discarnate personality which cannot reveal itself.
+
+This intermediate area, in which the control is liable to vary, and be
+thrown on to one side or the other, also has an analogy in the
+_hypnoidal state_ of Boris Sidis--this being an intermediate state (so
+it is thought) which is convertible either into ordinary sleep, on the
+one hand, or into hypnotic sleep on the other. It all depends upon how
+this state is handled and controlled. It may be the same here; the
+medium may sink into internal reverie, or introspective trance; or she
+may be converted into a genuine "medium" by some influence exerted upon
+her from without.
+
+20. On this theory, the deeper the trance the greater the control by the
+"spirit," and this corresponds very well with what has been said before.
+There are always a number of obstacles to clear communication, and the
+degree to which these are overcome would represent the degree of
+clearness of the communications. The process of transferring a mental
+picture to the medium may be attended with all kinds of difficulties of
+which we know nothing. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that there is
+a sort of etheric body, or double, and that this is in any way involved
+in the process, we might have the following "difficulties" to encounter:
+The difficulty in picturing the event clearly in the communicator's
+mind; difficulty in transferring it to the light; difficulty in getting
+this transferred to the medium's physical body; the difficulty of
+manipulating the latter. We know that we often have great difficulty in
+manipulating our own bodies properly; and, in paralysis and kindred
+affections, we are unable to do so at all. Yet we are thoroughly
+familiar with our own bodies, and know how they work. How much more
+difficult would it be if we were suddenly transplanted in _another_
+person's body, and had to manipulate _that_? We should have to "learn
+the ropes," so to say; and all the little automatic tricks, and habits,
+and slips of speech, and what not, would be liable to slip out without
+our consent and before we knew it. We should "inherit," in fact, its
+whole psychological and physiological "setting." This being the case, we
+may readily see how difficult it would be for a discarnate spirit to
+manipulate another organism; and how likely it would be to allow certain
+tricks and habits of the medium herself to slip through, without being
+able to control them. As one communicator said, through Mrs. Chenoweth:
+"I do not like those 'don'ts'; they are hers, not mine." Here is a clear
+recognition of the difficulty involved in controlling the organism, and
+this is greatly accentuated when we remember that all such
+communications must be given when the _soi-disant_ communicator is in a
+constrained mental attitude--"gripping the light," "hanging on to the
+medium's body," while giving the communications. There is a double
+strain involved; and, as Dr. Hyslop said: "With what facility could I
+superintend the work of helping a drowning person and talk philosophy at
+the same time? How well could I hold a plough in stony ground and
+discuss protection and free-trade?" It is small wonder that the messages
+should be fragmentary and incomplete, were any such difficulties as
+these experienced!
+
+The three chief difficulties involved in mediumistic messages may be
+summed-up under three headings: (1) intra-mediumistic conditions; (2)
+intra-cosmic conditions; and (3) the mental conditions of the
+communicators.
+
+Under the first head may be placed all those difficulties which are
+liable to interfere between the communicator and the amanuensis. If the
+communicator is naturally a good visualizer this may help his visual
+communications, but impede the others; an audile might be better in some
+instances. Again, the impulse may come in some motor form, in which case
+neither of these types would be that best suited to control the organism
+of the medium. Whether the communicator is a good visualizer or not may
+affect the communications to a great extent. Whether or not he had a
+normally good memory would also have a great influence. In fact, the
+whole construction of the mind might have great influence upon the
+results. This is a subject which deserves to be studied very carefully
+one day, when the mere fact of communication is established.
+
+As is well known, both Drs. Hodgson and Hyslop wrote strongly in defence
+of the theory that the communicator, at the time of communicating, was
+in an abnormal mental condition, somewhat resembling trance or delirium
+or secondary personality. They were, at least, not in full control of
+their thoughts; and this was said to be established by the statements of
+the communicators themselves; and by a study of the messages
+communicated, wherein it was found that they became dreamy and vague;
+that they showed the same rapid change of imagery and subject which is
+manifested in dreams; an automatic tendency to capricious and confused
+association, a general indifference to personality, etc., as manifested
+in delirium. In dreams and sleep we have practically no control over the
+body at all, any more than if we were dead; and Dr. Hyslop contended
+that probably "somnambulism and hypnosis, dreaming, sleep, trance
+conditions, and death are all simply different degrees of the same
+state." Dr. Hyslop during his later years modified his views upon this
+question, and came to the conclusion that other conditions play a
+greater share in the results than the state of the communicator's mind.
+But there can be no doubt that this has its results.
+
+Then, too, the medium's subliminal has a great and very decided
+influence upon the content of the messages. This was very small before
+Dr. Hodgson's death, but increased very much after that time. In a
+letter to me, dated January 27, 1908, Mrs. Ledyard, an old Piper sitter,
+said:
+
+     "Dear Mr. Carrington,--... All sorts of false statements don't
+     necessarily tell against the spiritistic hypothesis. If you get
+     other evidences of personality, the false statements only confirm
+     R. H.'s belief that "they" are in a sort of dreamy, half-trance
+     state and _very suggestible_. My own opinion of the Piper trance is
+     that, since R. H.'s death, when Mrs. P. has been less carefully
+     guarded in many ways, and allowed to have so much voice in what she
+     would and would not do, that there is much more effect of Mrs.
+     Piper herself on the trance--and more _leaks through_ from Mrs.
+     Piper--though I have, so far, seen no special evidence that it
+     leaks the other way, and that what is told her by sitters during
+     the trance gets into the normal consciousness. But it does affect
+     her normal life, just as an hypnotic suggestion does, on which the
+     subject acts quite unconscious of its source...."
+
+But Rector's[12] business seems to be more far-reaching and more
+complicated than this. I quote from Dr. Hyslop's second Piper report (p.
+197) the following interesting passage:
+
+     "I may notice a remark Dr. Hodgson once made to me regarding the
+     office of Rector in the phenomena of Mrs. Piper. It was not only as
+     control that he exercised an influence over the results, but also
+     both as intermediary between the communicator and the sitter, and
+     as an inhibitor of the influence of the sitter's mind and the
+     subconsciousness of Mrs. Piper upon this same result.... His view
+     was that Rector inhibited the thought-transference from the sitter
+     to Mrs. Piper's subliminal, on the messages, so far as that was
+     possible...."
+
+From this it will, at all events, be seen that the relationship, and the
+whole system of inhibitions and influences at work in the Piper case is
+very complicated. It must be remembered that, on any theory, the
+"messages" must come _through_ the medium's subliminal, which acts as a
+sort of matrix in which the whole mould of the supernormal is cast; and,
+this being the case, it is only natural to suppose that the results
+would be most complicated and inextricably mixed in their relationships
+and influences. If spirit communications influence the subconscious, we
+have a right to suppose that the subliminal influences the
+communications in turn. And this is apparently proved by the facts.
+
+21. Now a few words as to the psychological processes of communicating,
+and the interplay of minds one with another, which figure in this
+process. Writing of this, Dr. Hyslop says:
+
+     "Psychology distinguishes between what it calls visuals, audiles,
+     and motiles. A visual is one in which visual experiences receive
+     such emphasis, and which prove to be of such predominant interest
+     to the subject that his habit of thinking about objects is
+     expressed mentally or mnemonically in visual terms--that is, in
+     the memory pictures of vision.... An audile is one in whom the
+     sense of hearing is predominant. [In motiles the impulse is towards
+     motor action.]
+
+     "Suppose the psychic is a visual and the communicator an audile,
+     might not that difference make a marked difficulty in the
+     adjustment necessary for communicating clearly?... A visual might
+     see apparitions more easily, and have more difficulty in automatic
+     writing; and an audile might easily hear voices and write with more
+     difficulty, etc.... A proper name is purely an auditory concept. It
+     has no visual equivalent whatever, except the letters which form
+     it. If, then, the process of communication at any time involves a
+     dominant dependence on visual functions of the mind, the sudden
+     attempt to interpose an auditory datum might meet with the
+     difficulty of prompt adjustment to auditory conditions for its
+     transmission, and it might even be that the psychic could not, from
+     habit in visual methods, adjust herself to all the needs of a
+     proper name, except by converting it readily into visual terms, as
+     the spelling of the name would express....
+
+     "In the lighter trance it is clear that visual phenomena play a
+     most important part in the communications. With Mrs. Piper the
+     phenomena seem to be more auditory. Mrs. Piper never sees
+     apparitions or phantasms in her normal state; none have been
+     reported of her as systematic experiences, as I have observed them
+     in Mrs. Chenoweth....
+
+     "What we gain in clearness of consciousness in the communications
+     when the message comes through the active subliminal of the medium,
+     we lose in the accuracy and specific value of the message, while
+     what we gain in the specific definiteness of the messages through
+     Mrs. Piper, where the subliminal, if intermediary at all, is
+     passive and automatic, we lose in the dream-like and disturbed
+     mental state of the communicator."
+
+22. Another difficulty must be referred to in this place; and that is
+the probable loss of control over the stream of thought by spirits, such
+as we exercise in this life. Here, the checks and inhibitions are easily
+accomplished, unless disease in some manner prevents them; but there are
+strong indications that a "spirit"--at least when communicating--cannot
+control his stream of thinking to the same extent; and that, if it is
+constantly interrupted--by questions, etc., as it usually is--it tends
+to break up and become automatic, echolalic, or useless. That even
+experienced and careful psychic researchers will interfere with the flow
+of consciousness in this manner I know to be a fact; I myself, though I
+had been especially warned against doing so, did the same thing in my
+Piper sittings! Some of these difficulties I endeavoured to make clear
+in a letter, which I wrote to the English _Journal S.P.R._, and which
+appeared in March, 1908. In it I said:
+
+     "For the sake of argument, let us assume that the intelligences
+     that communicate through the organism of Mrs. Piper--and perhaps of
+     some other mediums--are spirits of the departed, and that they
+     temporarily 'possess' the organism of the medium (at least in part)
+     during the process of communicating. That is the generally-held
+     theory, I believe, and the simplest one to account for the facts.
+     If this be true, it is to be supposed that the normal consciousness
+     of the medium is in some manner removed, superseded, or withdrawn,
+     and that only some "vegetable consciousness" remains, as it were,
+     sufficient to keep the organism going until the return of the
+     normal consciousness and normal control by the medium. Meanwhile,
+     the controlling intelligence is, by supposition, influencing the
+     nervous mechanism of the medium's body--directly or indirectly
+     through some etheric medium--and influencing it to write out
+     letters and words by the usual slow and laborious process. That
+     they _do_ find it slow and laborious is evidenced by the fact that
+     all possible abbreviations are adopted--'U.D.' being used for
+     'Understand'; 'M' is frequently written 'N,' and so on. Even in our
+     normal life we know that thoughts frequently flow faster than we
+     can put them on to paper, and this would almost certainly be the
+     case with spiritual intelligences who have no material brain to
+     hinder their flow of thought. It is probable that the brain is as
+     much an inhibitory organ as anything else; and when this inhibition
+     is removed, it is natural to suppose that the flow of thought would
+     be far less controllable and far more automatic than it is with us.
+     It would be impossible for spirits to check and go on with their
+     stream of thought at will, as we do on this hypothesis; they would
+     be far more automatic and less under the control of the will. If
+     this were true, it would account for much of the confusion present
+     in the communications. Suppose a spirit is trying to communicate
+     some fact or incident in its past life. It is endeavouring to force
+     this thought through, in the face of great difficulties, and while
+     trying to retain its grasp of the organism. Now, let us suppose
+     that this stream of thought is suddenly interrupted by the sitter
+     asking an abrupt question--referring to another incident
+     altogether, and perhaps related to another time in the
+     communicator's life. Is it not natural to suppose that, labouring
+     under these difficulties, and lacking the inhibitory action of the
+     brain, the communicator's mind should wander, and that he should
+     either think aloud to himself as it were (all this coming through
+     as confused writing, be it understood), or that the spirit should
+     lose its grasp of the organism altogether and drift away? The mind
+     cannot retain two vivid pictures at the same time; either one or
+     the other must grow fogged and dim; and this would certainly be so
+     in the case of any communicator, where we may suppose a certain
+     amount of mental energy--corresponding to a mental picture
+     perhaps--is necessitated in the very process of holding the control
+     of the organism. If communications take place at all in reality, we
+     may well suppose that the difficulties of communicating would be so
+     great that all clear, systematic thinking would be impossible.
+     People seem to imagine that the process of communication is as
+     simple as possible, instead of the most delicate and complicated
+     imaginable--the very difficulty being evinced by the rarity of the
+     intelligible communications coming through. If any one were to try
+     the simple subjective test of closing the eyes and attempting to
+     conceive his spirit controlling some _other_ person's organism, he
+     would very easily perceive the tremendous difficulties in the way
+     of controlling an organism other than his own!
+
+     "However, my object in writing this letter is not to point out
+     difficulties of this character, which are probably well understood
+     by the majority of the readers of the _Journal_. It is to draw
+     attention to another fact, and an analogy. Let us take a man in
+     good health, whose brain and mental functions are normal. Let this
+     man be all but killed in a railroad accident. In the jar and shock
+     of the collision this man was thrown (let us say) against an iron
+     post, and his head badly cut and bruised. He was knocked
+     insensible, and it was several hours before he returned to the
+     first dim consciousness of his surroundings. Gradually he would
+     revive. Objects would present themselves to his eyesight vaguely,
+     indistinctly; he would "see men as trees walking." Sounds would be
+     heard, but indistinctly; there would be a vague jumble of noises,
+     and no definite and articulate sounds would be recognized at first,
+     and until consciousness was more fully restored. Tactile
+     sensations, smell and touch, would probably come last, and be least
+     powerful of all; they would not be even distinguishable until
+     consciousness was almost completely normal. All intellectual
+     interests would be abolished, only the most loving and tender
+     thoughts would be entertained or tolerable, and these would be
+     swallowed up, very largely, in the great, central fact that the
+     body and head were in great pain; that the memory was impaired, and
+     that anything like normal thinking and a normal grasp of the
+     organism was impossible. Thoughts would be scattered, incoherent,
+     and only the strongest stimuli would focus the attention on any
+     definite object for longer than a few moments at a time, and
+     perhaps even these would fail. But if oxygen gas were administered
+     to such a person, in moderate doses, he would recover and rally
+     far more quickly and effectually than if no such stimulant were
+     employed. He would rally more quickly, and be enabled to think more
+     clearly and consistently--at least _pro tem._ In shocks to the
+     living consciousness this would almost certainly be the case.
+
+     "Now, when we come to die, the departure of the soul from the body
+     must be a great strain and stress upon the surviving consciousness,
+     and must shock it tremendously--just as the accident shocked it in
+     the case given above. Certainly this would be so in the case of all
+     _sudden_ deaths, and in those cases which 'die hard'; and it is
+     natural to suppose that it would be true also, more or less, in
+     every case of death, however natural--since the separation of
+     consciousness from its brain must be the greatest shock that any
+     given consciousness could receive in the course of its natural
+     existence. But after a time the spirit is supposed to outlive and
+     'get over' this initial shock, and to regain its normal functions
+     and faculties. In its normal life, it is then supposed to be once
+     more free and unhampered by any of the bodily conditions that
+     rendered its manifestations on earth defective. But when this
+     consciousness comes once more to communicate, it seems to again
+     take on the conditions of earth life, i.e. those conditions which
+     were present when the person died, and this would account for the
+     fact, often observed, that mediums 'take on' the conditions of
+     certain spirits who are communicating, i.e. they suffer _pro tem._
+     from heart or bowel trouble, pains in the head, etc. Further, this
+     seems to extend to the mental functions and conditions also. Idiocy
+     and insanity, e.g., are supposed to gradually wear off in the next
+     life, and a gradual return to normal conditions ensue. This is, at
+     least, the statement made through several mediums, and it is only
+     natural to suppose that such should be the case. The spirit
+     gradually returns to a normal mental condition; but when any
+     attempt is made to return to the 'earth plane,' and especially to
+     communicate, these conditions return with greater or lesser
+     force--varying with and depending upon the length of time such a
+     person had been dead, and other considerations. On any theory, the
+     consciousness must undergo some sort of temporary disintegration,
+     while communicating, and must be scattered over a wide field of
+     recollection, while at the same time attempting to 'hold on' to the
+     organism. It must also be remembered that the flow of thought is
+     far more automatic than with us. All this being so, we can readily
+     understand that any attempt at communication would be attended with
+     the greatest difficulties, and such a consciousness, if it were
+     constantly interrupted by questions, etc., would tend to go to
+     pieces--to lose its grasp of the organism, and to drift away--only
+     confusion and error coming through. This consciousness might be
+     strengthened and rendered clearer, perhaps, by the presentation of
+     some object belonging to the person when alive--as, no matter how
+     explained, this seems to clear the communications. Any means that
+     can be adopted to render clearer the mind of the communicator, on
+     the one hand, or improve the condition of the nervous mechanism of
+     the medium on the other, should therefore be of great utility and
+     should at least be tried. This being so, I now come to the heart of
+     the matter, and offer a suggestion which, if followed out, might
+     improve the physical body of the medium, and hence render the
+     conditions better from _this_ side--as the presentation of objects
+     might be supposed to render the conditions better from the other
+     side.
+
+     "I have pointed out before that, in certain cases, when it is
+     desirable to restore the consciousness and to render its renewal
+     more certain and clear (after an accident, e.g., that has knocked a
+     person senseless) a mixture of oxygen gas is sometimes administered
+     to the patient in order to produce these results. This being so, I
+     ask: why may it not be a good idea to administer a diluted mixture
+     of this gas to the medium when she is in a trance state--and when a
+     communicator is attempting to convey his thought to the sitter by
+     means of automatic writing? Might not such an experiment be tried,
+     since no _harm_ could come to the medium if the oxygen were diluted
+     and only sufficiently strong to effect the desired results? And
+     might not its administration tend to improve the tone of the
+     nervous system _pro tem._, and render clearer the consciousness
+     that is trying to use it and manifest through it--just as one's own
+     consciousness might be rendered clearer by the same device? Of
+     course such a process might have the effect (especially at first)
+     of breaking the trance altogether, and of reviving the medium. But
+     if the medium understood the experiment beforehand, and the process
+     were also explained to the controls, it is reasonable to suppose
+     that--after some trials at any rate--the trance would not be
+     broken, and that better, clearer results would follow. At all
+     events, when some of our physicians in America are experimenting
+     upon the effects of various electrical rays upon mediums in a
+     trance, might not this far simpler and better-understood method be
+     tried with more or less impunity? I at least suggest that it be so
+     tried."
+
+23. It must not be thought that this "possession" theory of the Piper
+and similar cases is the only one which has been held in the past. On
+the contrary, as we know, there have been several others--Mrs.
+Sidgwick's telepathic theory--from the discarnate; Mr. Andrew Lang's
+theory of telepathy _a trois_; Mr. Podmore's theory of simple telepathy;
+the theory held by Andrew Jackson Davis and other clairvoyants, that
+there exists a sort of mirror-like sphere, upon which all thoughts and
+acts are recorded, and which the medium is somehow enabled to "read"
+during the trance state; the theory that discarnate spirits somehow
+project their thoughts upon a wax-like surface of astral substance, and
+that the medium is enabled to reinterpret them in some mysterious
+manner; the Theosophical theory; the theory of the occultists and
+mystics; the Catholic theory--that these manifestations are all the
+result of evil, lying spirits--these are but a few of the hypotheses
+which have been advanced in the past by way of explanation of these
+phenomena. I may say that this latter theory has some respectable
+evidence in its support, by the way, a few very remarkable cases having
+come under my own observation, which I hope to detail at some future
+time; and Dr. J. Godfrey Raupert has cited some impressive cases in his
+_Dangers of Spiritualism_, _Modern Spiritism_, and _The Supreme
+Problem_. This is assuredly a side of psychic investigation which
+demands close study and prolonged investigation; and, in spite of the
+masterly analysis of some of these cases by Professor Flournoy in his
+_Spiritism and Psychology_ (chap. iii.), I cannot but feel that there is
+yet much to be learned as to the nature of the intelligence manifested
+in these cases. And this was, as we know, the opinion also of Professor
+William James, for he wrote (_Proceedings of S.P.R._, vol. xxiii. p.
+118): "The refusal of modern 'enlightenment' to treat 'possession' as a
+hypothesis to be spoken of as even possible, in spite of the massive
+human tradition based on concrete experience in its favour, has always
+seemed to me a curious example of the power of fashion in things
+scientific. That the demon theory (not necessarily a devil theory) will
+have its innings again is to my mind absolutely certain.... One must be
+blind and ignorant indeed to suspect no such possibility...." It must by
+no means be taken for granted, therefore, that the intelligences
+operating through Mrs. Piper and other mediums are all that they claim
+to be, even if their externality to the medium were proved.... We must
+be extremely cautious in accepting any messages coming through mediums
+until the most certain and convincing proofs of identity be
+forthcoming--and _then_ we should be cautious!
+
+The only plausible theory which in any way accounts for the Piper and
+similar phenomena--short of the spiritistic--is one based upon the
+existence of independently fluctuating strata of the medium's mind,
+acquiring their knowledge by means of telepathy, clairvoyance, and other
+supernormal means. This view of the case is held and defended with
+extreme ingenuity and persuasiveness by Professor Flournoy in his
+_Spiritism and Psychology_--a book which I myself think should be read
+by every one interested in psychics or inclined to "dabble in
+spiritualism." The complete isolation and individuality of the various
+personalities involved could only be explained, it seems to me, by
+postulating a series of subliminal strata, between which there would be
+no memory connection--very much like Mr. Gurney's strata obtained by him
+and described in his paper on "The Stages of Hypnotic Memory"
+(_Proceedings_, vol. iv. pp. 515-31). In this way alone could we account
+for the facts; but even so, are they explained?
+
+When psychical research becomes a recognized science there will be ample
+room for "specialization," and for many years of study in each branch of
+the work. Consider, for instance, the many ramifications and
+possibilities which would be thrown open to the researcher! A man might
+become a "specialist" in haunted houses, in the investigation of such
+cases, and in their "treatment" and "cure." He would then have to
+investigate the nature and character of the phenomena which occur in
+them, and of the intelligences which manifest themselves. The nature of
+the figures seen in such houses would form a special branch of research,
+and the degree of their objectivity or subjectivity in any particular
+case. Numerous experiments might be tried, such as crystal-gazing,
+automatic writing, seances, induced dreams, etc. Experiments should be
+tried in photographing the apparitions, and in getting them to register
+their presence upon delicate and sensitive instruments of all sorts.
+Phonographic records of the "footsteps" of the ghost (if such occur)
+should be made, and a record taken of all the sounds and noises which
+occur in the house. Clairvoyants should be sent on "trips" to ascertain
+the character of the haunting, if possible, in order to "check off"
+their descriptions against the experiences of those living in the house.
+Communication should be established with the "haunting spirits," if
+possible, by means of raps, table-tipping, etc. The character of the
+phenomena should be studied, and the _physical_ separated from the
+_mental_. The nature of the intelligence "haunting" the house should be
+investigated psychologically. The dreams of those who sleep in the house
+should be recorded and analysed. Animals should be taken to live in the
+house, to see whether or not they perceive anything unusual. The effect
+of suggestion, exorcism, etc., should be tried and noted. Experiments in
+hypnotism, "magnetism," etc., should be conducted in the house. Red
+lights and lights of other colours should be tried, to see whether they
+affect the phenomena in any manner. These are but a few of the many
+tests and experiments that might be made, and which would doubtless
+suggest themselves to the mind of the investigator as soon as the
+legitimacy of the subject were once granted.
+
+Again, in the case of telepathy. Once the facts were proved, the
+fascinating study of the laws and causes would begin. Under what mental,
+physical, and, possibly, spiritual conditions does telepathy operate?
+What is the best mental condition of the agent? of the percipient? What
+would be the effect of hypnotic trance? What of dreams? (These are not
+original ideas, but they have never been followed out as they should be,
+and might be, if the subject were pursued scientifically as other
+questions in science are.) Again, might not telepathy be facilitated if
+we chose individuals of the same general temperament? If we chose two
+individuals to whom the same chord on the piano appealed (say the common
+chord of G minor or C sharp), and this chord were struck repeatedly,
+might not telepathic transmission be facilitated under such conditions?
+If both subjects were hypnotized, and the agent were told to "will"
+certain figures, etc., might not the percipient receive them more
+easily? If both agent and percipient were placed in a strong magnetic or
+high-tension electric field, might not this in some way influence
+communication? Again, these are but a very few of the experiments which
+might be tried, once telepathy became an accepted fact.
+
+In the case of clairvoyance the field is even greater, but here more
+original work has been done, owing largely to the fact that many of the
+experiments have been conducted upon subjects in the hypnotic trance,
+and hence more fully resembled "laboratory experiments." Still, much
+remains to be done, particularly in the realm of the _explanation_ of
+clairvoyance, and in the investigation of the neural and general
+physiological concomitants of the condition.
+
+In the field of "thought-" and "spirit-photography," the possibilities
+of research and experimentation are obvious and almost unlimited. The
+recent researches of Dr. Ochorowicz in "radiographs," and of Commandant
+Darget in thought-photography and the so-called V-rays, are of extreme
+importance, if true. Here is a field which any one may invade; and, with
+the aid of a camera and specially sensitive plates, might accomplish
+really valuable and striking results. Very rarely have attempts been
+made to photograph apparitions (probably because they were too fleeting
+and unexpected), and the forms at seances have been photographed on only
+a few occasions. The human "aura"--granting it exists--should certainly
+be capable of being photographed, under certain conditions, as well as
+the radiation said to issue from magnets, crystals, etc., as explained
+by Reichenbach.
+
+The human "aura" itself should be made the subject of special study.
+Here is a perfectly tangible thing, so to speak, which physicists can
+work on to their hearts' content, without becoming "contaminated" by the
+general run of psychic manifestations! Is the aura a form of physical
+radiation? Does it affect the atmosphere? Can it be photographed? Is it
+connected with the phenomena of exteriorization of sensitivity or
+motivity? Will it affect the galvanometer needle, or other delicate
+electrical or physical instruments? Is it connected with the "astral" or
+"etheric body"? What is its condition when the subject is asleep? Can it
+be altered at will? Is it affected by passing a high-tension current
+through the body of the subject? (We know that these high-tension
+currents will themselves create an electric aura around the body.) What
+becomes of the aura after death; and what changes, if any, does it
+undergo at the moment of death? Such are a few of the questions which
+the psychic student might ask himself, and which certainly call for
+solution.
+
+Once more: is "psychometry" a fact? If objects can retain certain
+"influences" within them, what is their nature, and how are they
+retained? How does the sensitive perceive these impressions? Is there
+not a connection between these phenomena and haunted houses? or between
+the "charging-up" of a table or planchette board before it proceeds to
+answer questions and behave in the manner it is often reported to do?
+
+What is the nature of the "cold breeze" which is so often experienced,
+not only at seances, but during very many psychic phenomena, both of the
+experimental and spontaneous types, in all parts of the world? Is it a
+physical breeze, or is it purely "psychical"? Could it be collected and
+analysed, as was suggested in the case of the cold breeze issuing from
+the scar on Eusapia Palladino's forehead? What is its source? And what
+is its object? On this subject alone much suggestive and valuable
+research might be undertaken.
+
+Take the simple phenomena of _raps_. What produces them? What is the
+bond between the hand of the medium which makes a gesture in the
+direction of the table, and the table itself? What is the nature of the
+physical impact upon the table? Are these raps due to exteriorized vital
+force? If so, does this energy exude from the nerve termini, or is it
+connected only with the etheric body or double? Can these raps be
+controlled at will, or directed and controlled when the subject is under
+hypnosis? Can this energy be directed at will? Could it not impress
+delicate physical instruments? Might not a connection be thus
+established between these phenomena and the impressions of hands and
+faces, etc., occasionally seen in the presence of Eusapia and other
+mediums?
+
+Then the phenomena of materialization! Here is a wide field for study
+indeed! How can such an organism be built up? Out of what materials is
+it constructed? What degree of density can be attained? What is the
+power which manipulates this matter? and what is the structure of the
+matter itself? How can _will_ plastically mould matter in space? On what
+framework, so to speak, is the body constructed? What is the nature of
+the vital drain upon the medium and the sitters? What is the nature of
+the intelligence animating the materialized figure? What is the
+connection between so-called "thought-forms" and materialized phantoms?
+
+These are but some of the questions which would suggest themselves, and
+call for solution when "psychics" is recognized as a legitimate science,
+as it surely will be one day. These are problems mostly on the physical
+plane; but the psychological problems are just as many and just as
+alluring! I have referred to some of these elsewhere; and would content
+myself with again saying, that only when the _facts_ of psychical
+research are recognized will their real, scientific study begin.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The copy of this book in my possession is the copy once owned by Dr.
+Hodgson--having his name in the front, and the date, April 1881. This
+passage is marked with a thick red pencil stroke, showing the importance
+which Dr. Hodgson attached to the point here made.
+
+[2] Might not this account for the fact that trance or "spirit control"
+practically never occurs during the hours of sleep? Even "obsessed"
+patients find peace and rest during their sleeping hours. Is this not,
+in all probability, due to the fact that the mind is, at such times,
+forced in upon itself; as it were--instead of being directed
+outwards--away from the centre of being, as it is daily, during
+conscious life? It is probably nature's protective device--ensuring the
+stability and integrity of the psychic "self."
+
+[3] Kilner, _The Human Atmosphere_. I myself have conducted a number of
+interesting experiments in this direction, which I hope to make public
+at a later date.
+
+[4] Townsend, _Facts in Mesmerism_, p. 215.
+
+[5] _Metaphysick_, bk. iii. ch. v.
+
+[6] _Body and Mind_, pp. 299-300.
+
+[7] _Eusapia Palladino and her Phenomena_, pp. 293-301.
+
+[8] _Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition_, p. 41. For discussions of this
+question from a variety of different points of view, see _Life and
+Matter_, by Lodge; _The Riddle of the Universe_, Haeckel; _The
+Correlation of Spiritual Forces_, by Hartmann; "Consciousness and
+Force," _Met. Mag._, Oct. 1910; the article on "Consciousness and
+Energy," by Professor Montague, in _Essays in Honour of William James_,
+and pp. 283-5 of _The New Realism_, etc.
+
+[9] Bulwer Lytton, with his usual remarkable foresight in things
+psychic, clearly perceived this. In his story, "The Haunters and the
+Haunted," he says: "In all that I had witnessed, and indeed in all the
+wonders which the amateurs of mystery in our age record as facts, a
+material human agency is always required. On the Continent you will
+still find magicians who assert that they can raise spirits. Assume for
+a moment that they assert truly, still the living, material form of the
+magician is present, and he is the material agency by which, from some
+constitutional peculiarities, certain strange phenomena are represented
+to your natural senses.... Accept again as truthful the tales of spirit
+manifestation in America, produced by no discernible hand--articles of
+furniture moved about without visible human agency--or the actual sight
+and touch of hands to which no bodies seem to belong--still there must
+be found the "medium," or living being, with constitutional
+peculiarities capable of obtaining these signs. In fine, in all such
+marvels, supposing even that there is no imposture, there must be a
+human being like ourselves, by whom, or through whom, the effects
+presented to human beings are produced."
+
+[10] It should be said, however, that--apart from its innate
+difficulties--this theory has recently received its death-blow by the
+discovery of the fact that space is filled with ultra-violet rays, which
+would soon prove fatal to all forms of life.
+
+[11] See, especially, Duncan, _Some Chemical Problems of Today_, pp.
+63-83 and 97-104.
+
+[12] "Rector" is the name of Mrs. Piper's chief control and amanuensis,
+during her trance sittings.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+INVESTIGATING PSYCHICAL PHENOMENA WITH SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
+
+
+It is generally conceded that Aristotle possessed the greatest single
+intellect the world has ever known; yet any schoolboy today knows more
+of the structure of our universe than did Aristotle! The reason for this
+is that Science has more fully penetrated the secrets of Nature, and we
+now know approximately the constitution of matter and a good deal
+concerning life and mind. How has this progress been possible? Only in
+one way. Improvement in the _mechanical instruments_ by means of which
+we study Nature. We might "speculate" as to the constitution of matter
+for a thousand years, but we should never have arrived at our present
+positive _knowledge_ had it not been for the delicate and sensitive
+instruments which are today in the hands of the physicist and the
+chemist, and employed by him in his laboratory.
+
+Doubtless much the same law will be found to apply in the realm of
+"psychics." Until we can apply definite "laboratory methods," and study
+psychical phenomena by means of physical instruments far more delicate
+than our senses, it is probable that the present state of things will
+continue to exist; but it is my firm belief that, were a laboratory
+fitted up with physical and electrical apparatus, suitable for this
+work, and if we could by their aid study a promising case of "psychic"
+or "mediumistic" phenomena, we should (within ten years or so) arrive
+at some definite conclusions! We should then know something about the
+_laws_ and conditions under which telepathy, clairvoyance, telekinesis
+(the movement of objects without contact), et cetera, operate, and not
+until this is done, I believe, will such positive conclusions be
+reached.
+
+Of course the reader may object, just here, that I am assuming such
+phenomena to be _true_--while the tendency of many present-day
+scientists is to regard them as unreal, hallucinatory, and the result of
+fraud. I cannot spare the time in the present place to argue the point.
+While I admit freely that a very large percentage of such phenomena
+_are_ so produced, and while I freely admit that probably 98 per cent of
+so-called "mediums" are fraudulent; I am equally emphatic in declaring
+that a residuum of genuine phenomena exists--that supernormal
+manifestations _do_ occur, and that every one who investigates
+_carefully enough_ and _long enough_ will find them. This has been not
+only my own experience, but that of every person who has investigated
+this subject with an impartial mind for any length of time. As Sir
+Oliver Lodge said, in writing of this very question:
+
+     "The result of my experience is to convince me that certain
+     phenomena, usually considered abnormal, _do_ belong to the order of
+     Nature, and as a corollary from this, that these phenomena ought to
+     be investigated and recorded by persons and societies interested in
+     natural knowledge."
+
+Based on this conviction, Sir Oliver Lodge wrote, as far back as 1894,
+in a paper entitled "On Some Appliances Needed for a Psychical
+Laboratory":
+
+     "If the investigations are to go on easily and well, special
+     appliances must be contrived and arranged conveniently for use,
+     precisely as is done in any properly fitted laboratory. It has
+     already doubtless been realized that one of the needs of the future
+     is a _psychical laboratory_, specially adapted for all kinds of
+     experimental psychology and psycho-physics...."
+
+Sir Oliver Lodge suggested at the time, among other necessary
+appliances, a delicate registering balance,--so adjusted that it would
+record the medium's weight, unknown to her, at all times during the
+seance--the fluctuations in weight, if any, to be recorded on a
+revolving drum. Means ought also to be provided for studying the
+temperature, pulse, muscular exertion, breathing, etc., etc. The
+lighting of the room should be carefully attended to and capable of the
+slightest gradation. Means should be provided for obtaining moving
+pictures of the seance from without the room, unknown to the medium.
+Were the sittings held in complete darkness, these photographs could be
+obtained by means of ultra-violet light, with which the room might be
+flooded. In addition to these devices, we may add others--such as X-ray
+tubes, high-frequency currents and a delicate field of electric
+force,--while instruments for testing the ionization of the air (if it
+exists) in the immediate vicinity of the medium, during a seance, should
+also be employed,--together with the more strictly psychical instruments
+and devices which have been utilized of late years.
+
+Electrical apparatus _has_, in fact, been utilized on several occasions
+to test so-called "physical mediums" in the past. Italian investigators,
+particularly, have excelled in this. In a series of seances conducted in
+Naples, the following apparatus was employed. (Fig. 1.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+A telegraphic key (b) was connected by wires (a,a) to a battery (d) and
+to two screws, connecting them with an electro-magnet (e) to the
+opposite end of which was attached a needle. The point of the needle
+touched a revolving drum (f), with a smoked surface, driven by two
+interlacing, cogged wheels. The whole of this registering apparatus was
+enclosed under a glass bell-jar (g). The telegraphic key itself (b) was
+covered by a cardboard box (c). The "powers" manifesting were asked to
+press the telegraphic key _without_ tearing the cardboard box (that is,
+_through_ it). When the key was depressed, this would be instantly
+communicated to the electro-magnet, and cause the needle to
+oscillate,--these oscillations being marked upon the smoked surface of
+the revolving drum. A number of successful tests were conducted by means
+of this apparatus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+A variation of this was then employed (Fig. 2). A cylinder filled with
+water (a) was connected by means of tubing (b) to a U-tube, or manometer
+(c), filled with mercury. Upon the further side of this tube floated a
+bent wire (e) inserted into a small cork. The point of this wire, again,
+was so adjusted as to come into contact with the smoked surface of a
+revolving drum (f), driven as before. The top of the cylinder (a) was
+covered with a rubber cap (d), and this whole apparatus was inserted
+under a wooden box (g) having a cloth top.
+
+Now, if the rubber covering (d) were pressed upon, this would force some
+of the water, in a, along the tube, b, and the added air-pressure would
+depress the column of mercury in the manometer, causing the floating
+needle to rise on the opposite side, and scratch upon the revolving
+drum. Fig. 3 shows some of the tracings which were obtained in this
+way--the force acting through the cloth top, g.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 3]
+
+The instruments thus recorded a _definite physical, intelligent force_.
+
+It may interest my readers to know that, at the time of his death, M.
+Curie,--who had been completely convinced of the reality of these
+phenomena,--was busy devising an instrument which would register and
+direct _psychic power_ liberated from the body of a physical medium when
+in trance.
+
+Dr. Imoda, the assistant of Professor Mosso, has also conducted a number
+of experiments in the discharge of an electroscope, by means of "rays"
+issuing from the medium's body. It was found that, if the medium held
+her fingers at a distance of an inch or so from the knob of the
+electroscope, some form of energy, apparently _radio-active_ in
+character, issued from her fingers, and _gradually discharged the
+electroscope_. This is the "radiation" or "emanation" issuing from the
+body, which has been studied extensively by students of the occult. Dr.
+Imoda concluded--as the result of his experiments--that "_the radiations
+of radium, the cathode radiations of the Crookes' tube, and mediumistic
+radiations are fundamentally the same_."
+
+Some other very interesting facts have been observed by means of the
+electroscope. For example, Dr. W. J. Crawford (D.Sc), in his
+experiments, noted that:--
+
+     "... In seance rooms where tables are moved without physical
+     contact, I found that after a sitting was well started, I was
+     always _unable_ to charge an electroscope, even though I tried to
+     do so in the corner of the chamber farthest from the medium. In
+     order to charge it I had to take it outside the room. I asked the
+     'operators' (intelligences 'directing things,' apparently, in the
+     seance-room) if there was any 'power' in the seance-room so far
+     away from the medium, and they answered in raps that there was. By
+     'power' I understand them to mean particles of matter taken from
+     the medium...."
+
+Again, in his _Reality of Psychic Phenomena_, he says:
+
+     "I took the electroscope to the table in the corner; then placed it
+     in the circle near the medium. I asked the operators to touch the
+     disc of the instrument very gently. They did this almost at once,
+     the 'touching' consisting of a metallic scraping upon the brass
+     disc, quite audible, similar in type to the imitation of the floor
+     being rubbed with sand paper, a phenomenon I quite often observed.
+
+     "Result:--On examination, the electroscope was found to be
+     completely _discharged_!
+
+     "I took the electroscope to the table in the corner of the room and
+     tried to recharge it, but found I was unable to do so even after
+     repeated trials. Accordingly I asked the 'operators' to put back
+     into the body of the medium the matter they had taken out (for the
+     production of the sledge-hammer blows) and to give a few raps when
+     they had done so. In a minute or two some _very light raps_ were
+     given, and when I asked if the process was complete I received _no
+     raps in reply at all_, which seemed to indicate to me that all the
+     matter used for rapping had been returned to the medium. At any
+     rate, I found that I could now charge the electroscope; which done,
+     I placed it on the floor as before within the circle, and asked
+     that the disc should be touched lightly. After a little time, there
+     was the metallic scraping as before, and on examination the
+     electroscope was found to be completely _discharged_."
+
+It will be at once apparent to the reader that two problems confront the
+investigator, when once he is called upon to solve such problems as the
+above: (1) the _physical miracle_ itself; and (2) the nature of the
+_intelligence_, lying behind and directing or controlling the
+manifestations. This latter is purely a _psychological_ question, which,
+immensely important as it is intrinsically, does not enter into the
+_physical_ problem. It need only be said that this is _the_ baffling
+question in psychical investigation, and the most puzzling. Whether it
+be an independent "spirit," as it claims to be; or the subconsciousness
+of the medium; or whether it is a sort of compound consciousness, made
+up of the collected minds of those forming the circle at the time; or
+whether some other interpretation is open to us--this is all a moot
+question, which is referred to here, merely to draw attention to the
+fact of its existence.
+
+It will be at once apparent to the reader, also, that physical and
+electrical apparatus have played an important part in such
+investigations, in the past, and are certainly destined to occupy a far
+more important place in the future. These curious phenomena--like all
+others in our world--depend upon invisible forces or energies for their
+production. Those interested in electricity should realize, more than
+all others, the power of the invisible; and the fact that _the invisible
+is the real_. Anything that we see consists merely in a bundle of
+"phenomena"--of _effects_. The real cause is always behind, and is
+always invisible.
+
+There is nothing inherently absurd or impossible, therefore, in these
+odd manifestations,--however bizarre and unusual they appear to us at
+first sight. An unusual combination of circumstances might bring them
+about. Stones do not ordinarily fall out of the air; yet at times they
+_do_ (meteors). Water does not usually rise above its own level, yet it
+can be made to do so. The curious freaks of lightning are well known.
+There is nothing inherently impossible, therefore, in supposing that a
+table can be "levitated" into the air, under unusual conditions; it is
+simply the manifestation of an unknown energy--of which, doubtless,
+there are many. We can manipulate and control the electric current; but
+we do not know yet precisely what it _is_. Similarly, we can study the
+effects of many of these curious biological forces, without
+understanding their true nature. Above all, it behooves us to keep an
+open mind, and not to cry "impossible," just because we have never seen
+such facts, or because they appear to us innately improbable.
+
+Here, as elsewhere, we depend upon hidden and unknown energies. Could we
+but find an _energy common to the two worlds_--the spiritual world and
+the material world--we should have here a means of direct communication,
+possibly by instrumental means. _Delicate physical and electrical
+apparatus may be the means, after all, by which such communication will
+ultimately be established!_ At all events, when subtle causes and forces
+are in operation (as they doubtless are during a seance) it is only
+natural to suppose that instruments, _far more delicate than our
+senses_, should be the logical method of detecting them, and, as yet,
+such experiments have rarely been attempted.
+
+When we take into consideration, finally, the electrical theory of the
+nature of matter; when we remember the many striking analogies between
+electricity and the life-force; when we remember that the science of
+electricity is yet in its infancy, it should hold out to us the hope
+that, _here_, we may find a solution of many of these obscure problems,
+and that further investigations in the field of electricity may serve to
+explain to us many of these unknown and mysterious secrets of our inner
+nature, and the still more mysterious secrets of the seance-room. No
+more interesting and profitable researches could be attempted than those
+which endeavour to establish a connection between known and unknown
+phenomena; between physical and electrical manifestations, on the one
+hand, and these curious "psychical" phenomena, on the other. The crying
+need of the day is a "Psychical Laboratory," wherein such experiments as
+these could be conducted. It is my sincere hope that, some day, I may
+assist in the foundation of such a laboratory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+LIFE: AND ITS INTERPRETATION
+
+(_In the Light of M. Bergson's Philosophy_)
+
+
+The philosophy of life which M. Bergson advocates is more than a mere
+philosophy--more than a metaphysical doctrine; for, in so far as it
+endeavours to account for the "phenomena" of life, it entrenches upon
+biology; and M. Bergson himself is the first to acknowledge this. His
+own books are filled with interesting scientific data, which he has
+interpreted most ingeniously; and no broad-minded biologist can afford
+to neglect his work in the future. Two points of his theory call for
+special mention, however, it seems to me, and are subject, not to
+criticism but to discussion. One of these is that M. Bergson has not
+gone far enough in his interpretation of the facts; in the other he is,
+I believe, wrong in his interpretation--though his is the one commonly
+advanced and accepted. A few remarks on these two points may not,
+perhaps, be without interest.
+
+It is apparent to any student of these problems that the interpretation
+of life which M. Bergson has adopted is very different from that usually
+held. The _facts_, the phenomena of life, are the same on either theory,
+the difference lying in their explanation. All the facts of life are the
+same; they may be interpreted equally well on either theory. It is
+important to bear this in mind for reasons which will become apparent as
+we proceed.
+
+Now, the difference between M. Bergson's theory of life and that
+commonly held is this: that, whereas one[13] regards life as created or
+resulting from the total functioning of the body, the other regards it
+as something separate and distinct--merely utilizing the body for the
+purposes of its manifestation. In the one case, life is, as it were,
+made; in the other, it exists apart from the body it animates, and is
+merely associated with it. To sum up in two words, one is the
+_production_ theory of life; the other is the _transmissive_. One theory
+leads direct to materialism; the other allows all sorts of
+possibilities, which are readily perceived by any student of these
+questions.
+
+Thus stated, the situation at once reminds us of the controversy which
+raged some years ago as to the relation of brain and mind, as the result
+of the publication of James' lecture on _Human Immortality_. He then
+showed that it was quite possible to accept all the facts as to the
+relation of brain and consciousness, yet interpret them in a different
+manner; that there might be a transmissive function of the brain as well
+as a productive or secretive function; and that the undoubted fact of
+the inter-relation of the two sets of phenomena might just as well be
+interpreted in one way as in the other. The mere facts proved no theory
+true. As James so well said: "The psychologists noticed a connection,
+and at once assumed that it was the only possible _kind_ of
+connection"--which was not at all the case. Mere coincidence, in two
+sets of phenomena, does not prove that they are _causally_ related; that
+one produces the other. They may be quite separate from one another
+(psycho-physical parallelism), or both may be aspects of something else,
+etc. It is all a matter of interpretation, not of fact. But this is a
+view of the case which is seldom perceived, it seems to me, by
+psychologists generally. Seeing a coincidence, they at once postulate
+causal relation, and then proceed as if this had been thoroughly and
+scientifically established!
+
+I have spoken of this analogy, drawn from psychology, because it bears
+upon the problem before us in the clearest possible manner. Just as
+consciousness is usually conceived to be due to the functioning of the
+brain; so life is conceived to be due to the functioning of the body;
+but just as mind can be shown to exist apart from brain, and merely
+manifest _through_ it, in the same way, M. Bergson suggests, life may
+exist apart from matter, and merely animate it in its passage through
+it. It is all a question of interpretation.[14]
+
+Is the interpretation correct? As Hamlet said: "That is the question!"
+To use the words of the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour (_Hibbert Journal_,
+October 1911, p. 18):
+
+     "M. Bergson regards matter as the dam which keeps back the rush of
+     life. Organize it a little (as in the protozoa)--i.e. slightly
+     raise the sluice--and a little life will squeeze through. Organize
+     it elaborately (as in man)--i.e. raise the sluice a good deal--and
+     much life will squeeze through. Now this may be a very plausible
+     opinion if the flood of life be really there, beating against
+     matter till it force an entry through the narrow slit of
+     undifferentiated protoplasm. But is it there? Science, modesty
+     professing ignorance, can stumble along without it, and I question
+     whether philosophy, with only scientific data to work upon, can
+     establish its reality."
+
+It would seem to me that the only way to settle this question one way or
+the other is to bring forward certain _facts_ which can be accounted for
+more fully and rationally on one theory than on the other. If facts
+could be produced which one theory could not account for at all, the
+alternative theory might be said to stand proved. Do such facts exist
+which tell in favour of M. Bergson's theory as against the other? I
+believe they do. Before coming to them, however, I must draw attention
+to certain weaknesses in the generally held theory of life, which are,
+it seems to me, also shared by M. Bergson's theory. Until these are
+disposed of, I do not believe that any definite forward step will be
+taken towards proof either in one direction or in the other. So long as
+certain fundamental tenets are held, it seems improbable that any one
+theory of life will be proved more than any other theory. M. Bergson has
+gone part of the way, in his demonstration, but he has stopped there
+instead of carrying his train of argument to its logical conclusion. At
+least so it appears to me; for I think it obvious that the chain of
+argument which M. Bergson adopts can be carried much further than he has
+carried it, in his various writings.
+
+The view which M. Bergson adopts is somewhat as follows: Life is
+directive and creative; it utilizes the chemical and physical forces of
+the body for the purposes of its manifestation. It is the "spark" which
+sets off the explosive; it is the "hair-trigger" which liberates the
+enormous energy contained in the cartridge, etc. To apply the analogy:
+life utilizes and directs the energy obtained from food (by a species of
+chemical combustion) so that the bodily energy, as such, is, so to say,
+a "physical" energy, and subject to the law of conservation; while the
+power that guides, controls, and directs it is conscious life--the power
+of choice, the guider, the controller.
+
+This view of the case is, I believe, unsound, and for two reasons. In
+the first place, it does not, I think, go far enough in its
+interpretation; and, in the second place, we are face to face with a
+paradox--the problem of no-energy affecting energy. Let us take the
+second of these objections first.
+
+If a solid body, a fluid or a gas, be moving in a certain direction, a
+certain amount of energy must be exercised in order to divert its
+course--for otherwise it would continue in a straight line. Similarly,
+any energy will continue to exert itself in one direction, unless its
+course of activity be diverted into another channel; and this
+"divertion" constitutes a pressure, as it were, upon the energy; and
+this "pressure" can only be brought about by a "physical" force or
+energy--and so be within the law of conservation. No matter how _slight_
+this pressure--this guidance--may be, it is nevertheless _there_; and in
+so far as it directs the flow of energy, it must itself _be_ energy--for
+otherwise it could not direct or divert it. Even the analogy of the
+banks of a river fails us, because in that case every atom of the banks
+is acting upon the body of the water by a material pressure; and hence
+the banks as a whole are. Either life must be energy, or it must be
+no-energy. If the first of these suppositions be true, things would be
+intelligible; but if the second were true, they would not be, because
+no-energy cannot effect or guide or control energy without itself being
+energy; and this would either make life a "physical" energy, or remove
+its power of guidance altogether. I do not see how these alternatives
+are to be avoided.
+
+M. Bergson apparently tries to evade this issue by supposing that life
+only affects the energies of the body (derived from food) _very
+slightly_ by a sort of "hair-trigger" action, which releases a vast
+amount of energy, quite disproportionate to the energy of direction
+applied. But surely this is a mere begging of the question! One is
+reminded of Marryat's character, who asked to have her illegitimate baby
+excused "because it was such a little one!" No matter how _slight_ the
+amount of energy may be, if it is capable of affecting energy at all, it
+_is_ energy, and hence subject to the law of conservation. Life, as
+energy, must lie wholly outside the law (in which case all talk of
+"control" and "guidance" must go by the board), or it must lie wholly
+within it (in which case life becomes a purely "physical" energy, like
+any other, and cannot well be thought to exercise this "guidance").[15]
+
+We have thus seen that the second of our two alternatives (that life is
+no-energy) is untenable. Let us now return to the first--that life _is_
+energy--and see whither it leads us.
+
+If life be a form or mode of energy, it might affect, guide, and direct
+other modes of energy, or the matter of the body (and, through it, of
+the inorganic world) readily enough. It would affect them, but blindly.
+It could have no intelligent action. If life be an energy, it must be
+like all other energies in this respect; it must fall within the law of
+conservation and be non-intelligent. Otherwise it would be something
+different from all other forms of energy; and so we should have energy,
+plus intelligence, in the case of life; and only energy for all other
+forms. But in that case life could not simply be converted into or
+derived from any other mode of energy; because we should have
+"intelligence" left over, in our equation--which was created _de novo_
+whenever life was derived from other energies, and plunged into
+extinction and nothingness whenever life passed into any other mode of
+energy--in the course of our daily lives. But this is contrary both to
+experience and to all legitimate scientific thinking! Life, therefore,
+cannot be an intelligent or a directive energy. And so this argument
+also goes by the board, and we have left to us only the old
+materialistic conception of a non-intelligent, blind, life-force, or
+energy, derived from food, by a process of chemical combustion, and
+essentially no more mysterious than any other energy. This, therefore,
+is the conclusion to which we seem driven.
+
+But such a conclusion is not only contrary to M. Bergson's philosophy,
+but to daily observation and scientific knowledge; for we know that life
+_is_ directive, purposive, and progressive, and if evolution teaches us
+anything, it tells us that it must have been so always. We are thus
+driven into this dilemma: life must be an energy--but, as such, it
+cannot be purposive! Life _is_ purposive, yet it must be an energy--for
+otherwise it could not affect the bodily energies and the material
+world! Here then is an apparent paradox--a flat contradiction--incapable
+of solution or further elucidation.
+
+M. Bergson (and before him Sir Oliver Lodge and others) has attempted to
+meet this difficulty by supposing that the energy of the body is a
+"physical" energy, derived from food, and, as such, blind and subject to
+the law of conservation. This energy, they assert, is however
+manipulated and directed by the power of life or consciousness, which
+makes "use" of it, directs, and guides it. But this theory is, it seems
+to me, refuted by the arguments just advanced, which show that life and
+consciousness cannot affect energy in this way unless they themselves be
+energy; and thus we are in a "vicious circle" again, with no hope of
+ever getting out.
+
+The whole difficulty has arisen, it seems to me, because of the
+conception of the nature of life usually held. Were this altered these
+problems would be found to have a ready solution. M. Bergson has gone
+half way toward finding this solution, but has stopped there; he has
+clung to the most fallacious part of the theory, and for this reason has
+been unable to emerge altogether from the difficulties above mentioned.
+Only when we change our conception of the nature of the life-force will
+these problems become clearer--these questions find their true solution.
+
+Have I, then, any theory to offer as to the nature of this power of life
+which is essentially new to physiology and biology? I believe that I
+have--not new as to facts, but as to the interpretation of facts (the
+latter remain the same on either theory).
+
+In order to make the theory which follows plain in as few words as
+possible, it will be necessary to refer for a moment to the current
+conception of vital energy--of life--in the human body. It has been
+stated by Bergson himself with admirable clearness (_Hibbert Journal_,
+October 1911, pp. 35-36; _Creative Evolution_, pp. 253-54, etc.), and is
+briefly this:
+
+Food, when broken down and oxidised in the body, gives forth or
+liberates energy--just as coal liberates energy when burned in the
+engine. In both cases energy (contained in the food or the coal, as the
+case may be) is liberated, and this energy is utilized to drive our
+engine--the human body or the steam-engine (it makes no difference to
+the argument). The energy thus gained is, it is contended, again given
+off as heat and work--muscular and mental work in the case of the human
+engine (the body); mechanical work of all sorts, and heat, in the case
+of the steam-engine. Thus one is essentially no more mysterious than the
+other--the body no more so than the steam-engine--vitality no more so
+than steam! Both are "physical" energies, subject to the law of
+conservation, and as such transmutable one into the other. This is the
+generally accepted theory, which likens the human body to a
+steam-engine, and is the theory all but universally adopted by
+scientific men, held as proved and adopted without question by M.
+Bergson!
+
+But such a view of the case is, I believe, essentially untrue. It is
+_one_ interpretation of the observed facts, truly; but not the only
+interpretation. The facts remain equally true on either theory; the
+difference lies in their explanation. It is the old error of confusing
+coincidence with causation--and not only that, but a particular _kind_
+of causation, and "treating it as the only imaginable kind." Just as the
+psychologists reasoned upon the acknowledged facts of the relation of
+brain and consciousness; so do the physiologists, in our own day, reason
+upon this question of the causation of vital energy by food. In both
+cases there has been one-sided and partial reasoning.
+
+If, however, we reject the prevalent notion of the causation of vital
+energy by food, we must have another theory to offer in its place. It
+is, I know, presumptuous thus to run counter to the whole of accepted
+teaching, in this respect, and my excuse must be that I believe my
+theory represents the truth, while that universally held does not!
+Again, I must emphasize that I speak, not of facts, but of inferences
+drawn from facts. With this apology, I shall state my own view of the
+case as follows:
+
+Instead of comparing the human body with the steam-engine, it should be
+compared with and likened to the _electric motor_. Just as the motor is
+recharged, or receives its energy from some external source, just so, I
+believe, is the human nervous system recharged from without, during the
+hours of sleep. It is placed into a peculiar, receptive condition, in
+which this "recharging" process takes place. Our energy is derived
+through sleep, and not from food. Food merely replaces broken-down
+tissue (and, if you will, the animal heat) but never supplies or creates
+its vital energy. This depends upon its nervous mechanism, and upon
+sleep, and not upon the muscular system and chemical combustion. What
+differentiates the steam-engine from the human organism is the fact that
+one needs sleep while the other does not (in other words, one is living
+and vital, and the other is not), yet, in spite of this obvious
+difference--which is so great that it really destroys all the
+analogy--physiologists have continued to disregard it, and to treat the
+human body as a mere machine--such as a steam-engine--which requires no
+sleep, and derives its energy solely by combustion! To my mind, this is
+one of the most curious paradoxes of modern science.
+
+To place the theory in as clear a light as possible, then, it is this:
+Food supplies or replaces broken-down tissue (and heat) to the body; but
+not vitality, or the power of life, which comes only from rest and
+sleep. No matter how much food we may eat and perfectly oxidise, there
+comes a time, nevertheless, when we must go to bed, and not to the
+dining-room, to recuperate our strength and energies. During sleep,
+vital energy flows into us (our nervous systems), and all animals need
+sleep--this fact differentiating them, at once, from any form of
+mechanical engine. Life, vital energy, is not due, as is universally
+thought, to chemical combustion, but to vital replenishment. No energy
+is _created_ within the body; it is merely _transmitted_. The body, in
+fact, acts as a means of transmission--as a sort of "organic burning
+glass" which transmits and focuses the sun's rays on one focal point.
+And just as any crack, or blur, or clouding, or other accident to the
+burning glass would interfere with its power and capacity from
+transmitting the rays, so, any accident or disease or pathological state
+of the organism would interfere with or altogether prevent the passage
+or flow through it, of the life or vital energy. "The more perfect, the
+better these conditions, the greater the influx of vital force, and vice
+versa. We must see that all the electrodes and avenues and channels are
+bright and clear, so that there shall be as little hindrance as possible
+to either the inflow of energy in the form of power, or to its outflow
+in the form of work done." My theory of the relation of body and bodily
+energy is, in fact, an extension of James' "transmission theory" of
+consciousness to the _whole_ of our life and vital energy. And I believe
+the one is as defensible as the other.
+
+But, I shall be asked, is there any evidence for such a theory? There is
+much evidence, there are many facts, which I have adduced in full
+elsewhere.[16] This is not the place to discuss the physiological
+intricacies involved, and I can only refer those interested to the work
+in question. At present, I shall assume its accuracy--or at least its
+validity--and proceed to show in few words why it is that this theory is
+not contrary to any known facts, but is capable of explaining them just
+as fully as the generally accepted theory, and other (disputed) facts
+far more readily.
+
+The facts upon which the current theory is founded are well known, and,
+apparently, thoroughly established. Briefly, they are these: So much
+food, oxidised or burned outside the body, can be shown to yield so much
+heat and energy. The same foods, oxidised within the body, yield
+approximately the same amount of energy. Further, the energy which the
+body expends (in conscious and unconscious muscular activity, thought,
+emotion, and as heat, etc.) is, it is contended, practically equivalent
+to the energy which is thus supplied. There is, therefore, an
+equivalence, a balance, between income and outgo of energy: so that the
+recently conducted experiments in calorimetry are held to prove beyond
+question the causation of vital energy by food.
+
+I shall not in this place stop to question the accuracy of the figures
+obtained--to point out that the results do not always tally; that far
+too little allowance has been made for mental and emotional states, etc.
+I shall assume that the figures are accurate and prove all that they are
+held to prove. The question then arises: Do the figures prove the
+causation of vital energy by food? Apparently they do, no doubt, and
+they are held to do so by the majority of experimental physiologists;
+but I do not believe that this is at all the case. Admitting the facts,
+admitting far greater accuracy than the figures really show, we have to
+consider the question of their _interpretation_. And this brings us back
+to the remarks made at the beginning of this paper--that coincidence
+does not prove causation; and that the same set of facts may often be
+interpreted in an entirely different manner--one which would show that
+life is not directly dependent upon food combustion at all, as is
+generally supposed. The alternative method of interpreting the facts
+would be as follows:
+
+Life is a _power_ which acts upon organized matter, under certain
+conditions, in a variable and fluctuating manner. Whenever energy acts
+upon substance, substance wastes. Whenever work of any kind is done by
+the body, therefore, the tissues are broken down, and to supply this
+waste, this destruction, food material is needed. The more waste, the
+greater the need for repair, and _per contra_ the less waste, the less
+the need of repair. So far as the material equivalent (food) is
+concerned, therefore, it will be seen that this is only what we should
+expect on either theory; and tells no more in favour of one than the
+other.
+
+But what of the energy? The greater the expenditure of energy, the more
+work done, the more tissue destroyed. The more tissue destroyed, the
+more food needed, and the more ingested. But this does not prove that
+the extra amount of food has _created_ the extra energy! That would be
+putting the cart before the horse with a vengeance! And yet this is what
+is universally done by physiologists in considering these experiments!
+Perhaps I cannot do better than to quote, just here, a portion of the
+excellent Introduction which Dr. A. Rabagliati, F.R.C.S., F.F.C.P.,
+etc., wrote to my book, and which really states the case more clearly
+than I stated it myself. He says in part:
+
+     "To take an analogy: It seems to me it would be as pertinent to
+     argue that because the strings of a violin or harp waste in
+     proportion to the quantity of music evolved through or by means of
+     them, therefore the waste of the strings is the cause of the
+     music, while in fact it is the hand of the player, and even the
+     spirit behind the hand, which is the real and efficient cause of
+     the music. So the form of the infinite and universal energy, which
+     we may call erg-dynamic, is the cause of the waste of the body
+     through which it works; and this is at once made good by the
+     increased trophic metabolism which occurs, to replace the
+     waste--this increased trophic metabolism showing itself in
+     increased O_2 intake and coincidently or correspondingly with
+     increased CO_2 output. If the strings of a musical instrument were
+     self-repairing, we might perhaps be induced to think that the
+     material which fed the strings was the _cause_ of the music, since
+     in that case some measure of the waste would probably be
+     discoverable in the _debris_ emitted; and we might imagine that the
+     _debris_ was the measure of the music, while what it really was,
+     was the measure of the waste of the strings, when they were made
+     the instrument of the music. If a spade is used in digging, the
+     spade wastes in proportion to every spadeful of earth it is made to
+     lift. The more it digs, the more it wastes. If we could arrange
+     that a stream of fine steel particles flowed into the spade, to
+     replace the waste caused by each act of digging, we might perhaps
+     come to think that these fine steel particles were the cause of the
+     digging, especially as the quantity of them required would always
+     be exactly proportioned to the amount of work done. Nevertheless,
+     this would be a very inconsequent assumption. Yet this is the
+     assumption invariably made by modern scientists."
+
+It will thus be seen that another interpretation might easily be placed
+upon the observed facts, and that, while the latter are accepted without
+question, it is yet possible to conceive the relationship as quite other
+than usually imagined; and consequently of life as an energy independent
+of the food supply,[17] and outside the law of conservation--a force
+absolutely distinct, separate, _per se_. M. Bergson has gone so far as
+to speak of life as a "power," as a "vital impetus"--utilizing matter
+for the purposes of its manifestation, etc. I have merely extended this
+conception in what appears to me a logical and necessary direction. It
+appears to me certain that life is a sentient power--different from any
+other mode of energy of which we have any knowledge, and as such no
+longer subject to the objections raised earlier in this paper (to other
+conceptions of life), which might also be advanced, it seems to me,
+against M. Bergson's theory. Were the theory of life here defended true,
+it would not only enable us to account for life in a satisfactory
+manner, but it would render clear many obscure and sporadic phenomena
+which the current theories are quite incapable of explaining (and hence
+often ignore!); and it would also practically assure us continuity of
+life beyond the grave--after the dissolution of the body--because mind
+and consciousness are shown to be independent of physical energy, even
+in _this_ life! This, however, is a subject which requires special and
+lengthy treatment, and I cannot touch upon it now. All that I can aim to
+do at present is to show that there may be a spiritual source even for
+our _physical_ life and energy here. And, were this true, psychic
+phenomena might readily be accounted for--since there would no longer
+remain any valid objection to their occurrence.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] The orthodox, scientific theory.
+
+[14] See _Mind Energy_, chapters 1 and 2. This view has also been
+adopted by Mr. W. Whately Smith (see his _Theory of the Mechanism of
+Survival_) where he says (p. 114): "This latter (the transmissive
+theory) is the view held by M. Bergson, by Mr. Carrington and by
+myself."
+
+[15] It might be contended that life is an _intelligent_ force--both a
+physical energy and intelligence; but if that were the case we should
+simply have energy _plus_ something, and the "plus something" would
+constitute the whole mystery. We should be no better off than we were
+before. All the energies known to us are certainly non-intelligent, and
+if you superimpose anything else on the energy you at once differentiate
+it from all other energies--which you are not entitled to do (see
+below).
+
+[16] See my _Vitality, Fasting and Nutrition_, pp. 225-350.
+
+[17] The question has been asked, What becomes of the potential energy
+contained in the food, if it is not converted into bodily energy? I
+reply, it is given off or imparted to the body as heat (not energy), but
+this heat is again given off by the body. The more imparted to the body,
+the more is again given off. We know that the body possesses a
+self-regulating apparatus which keeps the body, when alive, always at a
+constant temperature. (When dead, of course, the "corpse" cools to the
+temperature of the surrounding air.) The equivalence is again
+maintained, it will be observed, because the more heat we impart to the
+body the more it in turn gives off.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE HUMAN WILL IS A PHYSICAL ENERGY
+
+AN INSTRUMENT WHICH PROVES IT
+
+
+PART I
+
+The Facts
+
+That the human will is a definite physical energy, which can be
+registered by means of a scale or balance, may appear so incredible that
+the bare statement of the case would seem to carry with it its own
+refutation! Yet I firmly believe that this is a fact; that the energy of
+the will may be registered by means of an instrument I am about to
+describe; and that any one can prove this,--any one, i.e., who cares to
+take the time to repeat these experiments, and to try a sufficient
+number of subjects until the right ones be found--who are capable of
+affecting the balance in the manner described.
+
+Such a fact--if fact it be--is of the utmost importance to science and
+to philosophy; even more important and more far-reaching in its
+implications than may at first sight appear. Not only is the fact itself
+of extraordinary interest, but the very origin and structure of our
+universe is called into question--and shown to be capable of an
+interpretation very different from that usually offered by modern
+science. And, further, if it be true that the human will is a physical
+energy, we have here the discovery of a _new force_--a force just as
+new to science as magnetism or electricity--and vastly more interesting,
+since it is intimately associated with all of us, and subject to our
+direction, guidance, and command--a force for us to wield and
+manipulate--for weal or woe!
+
+It may be thought, by some, that this is no new discovery; that the
+human will is a physical energy is a fact of common observation; and
+that we all feel the liberation of this energy whenever an act of
+volition is performed. I may reply at once to such critics that (common
+sense as it may appear) this is not at all the attitude of modern
+psychology; and that, by _savants_ the will is not considered an energy
+at all, but rather a choice of actions or an effort of attention. It is
+a state of consciousness merely, possessing intrinsically no more energy
+than any other state of the kind. This may, perhaps, be made clear by
+the following brief quotation from James' _Psychology_:
+
+     "We can now see that attention with effort is all that any case of
+     volition implies. The essential achievement of the will, in short,
+     when it is most "voluntary" is to attend to a difficult object and
+     hold it fast before the mind. The so doing _is_ the _fiat_; and it
+     is a mere physiological incident that when the object is thus
+     attended to, immediate motor consequences should ensue. Effort of
+     attention is thus the immediate phenomenon of will." (p. 450.)
+
+This, then, is the attitude of psychology. It contends that the will is
+by no means an energy, in the sense in which physicists use that term;
+but rather that it is a mere state of mind, or of consciousness. As
+such it is, of course, helpless; a mere witness of the drama of life,
+incapable in itself of affecting or changing the external world. So far
+as the physical world is concerned, it is a mere by-product, a useless
+adjunct--the feeling of energy-expenditure being delusory. Such is the
+attitude of modern psychology, and a very hopeless and unattractive
+belief it is!
+
+As opposed to this view, I propose to show that the human will _is_ a
+definite physical energy, which forms an essential part of our human
+personality--and forms, indeed, the very core of our being, so far as
+its expression into the physical world is concerned. This view of the
+case, I may say, is not altogether new; several competent neurologists
+have, of late, defended this conception in no measured terms. Thus, Dr.
+William Hanna Thomson, in his _Brain and Personality_, says:
+
+     "An important conclusion is led up to by these facts, namely, that
+     we can _make our own brains_, so far as special mental functions or
+     aptitudes are concerned, if only we have wills strong enough to
+     take the trouble. By practice, practice, practice, as in Miss
+     Keller's case, the Will stimulus will not only organize brain
+     centres to perform new functions, but will project new connections,
+     or, as they are technically called, association fibres, which will
+     make nerve centres work together as they could not without being
+     thus associated.... It is not the power of the brain, it is the
+     masterful personal Will which makes the brain _human_. It is the
+     Will alone which can make material seats for mind, and, when made,
+     they are the most personal things in a man's body.... Man can
+     always do what he chooses, or, in other words, wills. Therefore
+     this very different thing, his Will, makes man different from every
+     other earthly living thing."
+
+Such a view of the case certainly gives a far greater dignity and power
+to the will; but is it true? That is the question; it is a mere matter
+of interpretation, without any means of settling the facts one way or
+the other. It may be "pleasant" to believe this or many other things;
+but that does not make them true!
+
+It is obvious that arguments such as this might go on for ever. The
+nature of the human will would never be settled by such means. We desire
+a more definite and concise method--one capable of settling the case one
+way or the other--and settling it, not by argument, but by fact.
+Arguments convince no one; facts every one! It is only by an appeal to
+fact, therefore, that this question can be settled one way or the other.
+The difficulty has been that, until now, no direct method has been
+devised capable of solving the problem. This has now been rendered
+possible for the first time, by means of the instrument described in
+this chapter. The experiments herein narrated settle, to my mind, the
+question of the nature of the human will; they prove it to be a definite
+physical energy--as much so as any other energy we know. The majority of
+these facts have been before the scientific world for some time; and why
+their philosophic interpretation and implications have not been seen is
+to me a great mystery. One can only account for it by assuming that most
+scientists are not at the same time philosophers; they do not see the
+full _meaning_ of the facts they observe. Only in this manner can one
+account for the apathy with which the scientific world has, so far,
+accepted the facts in question--why it has utterly failed to see their
+tremendous philosophic and even religious value and significance.
+
+My attention was first drawn to the instrument in question by Professor
+Th. Flournoy, of Geneva, the author of _From India to the Planet Mars_,
+_Spiritism and Psychology_, and other works, well known to English
+readers. Immediately I learned of the experiments in question, I wrote
+to Professor Alrutz, and obtained from him one of his instruments, by
+means of which the experiments described below were performed. Writing
+of the early results obtained by him, Professor Alrutz says ("Report to
+the Sixth Congress of Psychology," etc.):
+
+     "In spite of the knowledge we have gained of the electrical and
+     chemical phenomena of the central nervous system, we must confess
+     that we know little indeed of the inner nature of the
+     psycho-physical processes. What is happening in the
+     brain--especially in the psycho-motor centres--when we move an arm
+     by means of an act of will? What are the forms of nervous energy
+     which are employed? Are these entirely electrical and chemical
+     forces, the neural impulses being mere electrical currents? Or are
+     there other forms of energy which experimental physiology has not
+     as yet brought to light? Might there not be, perhaps, some form of
+     energy more closely allied to the psychic acts, constituting a sort
+     of bridge or transition between psychic phenomena, on the one
+     hand, and electrical and chemical phenomena, on the other?
+
+     "When we wish to study the electrical charge contained in any body,
+     we obtain exactitude only when we succeed in transferring this
+     charge to another body; we may then study the nature of the charge
+     under varying circumstances, and establish the influence of the two
+     charges upon one another. It is only in this way that
+     experimentation becomes truly fertile. Should we not apply the same
+     laws to the phenomena of the nervous system, and institute a
+     similar mode of experiment for the nervous energies? Under what
+     conditions can we conceive this transference?
+
+     "The most natural supposition seems to be that it would occur, if
+     at all, in labile organizations; in those subjects which, according
+     to Janet (_Les Nevroses_, p. 339), possess an excessively unstable
+     personality; and whose psychic life is characterized by great
+     suggestibility, by instability, and a certain peculiar mobility.
+     Such individuals are also characterized by the great facility with
+     which the functions vary and react upon one another. Binswanger has
+     said that the nervous system of these individuals is characterized
+     by the variability of the dynamic cortical functions; that is to
+     say, by the fact that the nervous segments of their cerebral cortex
+     present a _melange_ of greater or lesser irritability...."[18]
+
+Professor Alrutz goes on to say that, guided by this idea, he
+constructed an instrument designed to test his theory--based in part,
+but not wholly, upon the earlier instruments employed by Hare, Crookes,
+etc., to test the same thing. As is well known, these experimenters
+spent much time in their investigations--both of them coming to the
+conclusion, after years of patient research, that physical apparatus
+could be definitely influenced and moved by the will of certain persons,
+when exercised in the direction of their movement, and without
+sufficient contact to account for the observed facts. Crookes'
+experiments, in particular, are very conclusive in this direction--his
+apparatus being very similar to that designed by Professor Alrutz. He
+employed a board, one end of which was attached to a spring balance,
+while the other end of the board rested upon a solid table. The subject
+placed his hands upon the board, and a definite pressure was registered
+by the balance--far more than could be obtained in any normal manner.
+These experiments of Crookes are classical, and have never been
+"explained away." With the present instrument, there seems every
+likelihood of confirming these earlier experiments.
+
+The apparatus employed is of the simplest possible construction. A solid
+board, some 10-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches, and 1 inch thick, forms the base of
+the apparatus. In this, at a distance of some 6 inches, two holes are
+drilled, into which are inserted pegs, 3-1/2 inches long, and sharpened
+at their top edges to a fine knife-edge. This constitutes the
+fulcrum--the upper board resting on these knife-edges, and being
+unevenly balanced on them. (See Frontispiece.)
+
+The upper board, resting on these edges, is some 19 inches long by 13
+inches broad at the lower end, and 10 inches broad at the upper end. The
+narrowing takes place about 6 inches from the end of the board (broad
+end), in the form of a rapid inward curve. It is here that a groove is
+cut, and, 7-1/2 inches from the broad end of the board, two pointed
+grooves are also cut, which allow the board to rest nicely upon the
+knife-edges of the two pegs below it. In this position the board would
+naturally assume a downward slant, owing to the greater length of the
+board on one side of the fulcrum than on the other. (See Frontispiece.)
+When the long end of the board is supported, by means of a piece of
+string, to a letter scale, however, the board is made to assume a
+horizontal attitude, parallel to the table top. In this position the
+board weighs just 5 ounces, and if the balance registers more than 5
+ounces, it shows that a weight or pressure or force has been applied to
+the long end of the board. If force be applied on the _short_ end of the
+board (where the hands rest), it would have the effect of merely
+depressing this end of the instrument, and causing a _lessening_ of
+weight, as registered by the balance. This is noted invariably whenever
+pressure of the hands is made upon the board near the sitter.
+
+With this little instrument, Professor Alrutz tried a number of
+experiments, on several occasions, which he divided into groups or
+series. The history of his initial experiments is, as briefly as
+possible, as follows:
+
+_1st Series._--No results.
+
+_2nd Series._--The board, after a short interval, lowered, showing a
+pressure of 40 grammes. This was at the first trial. It descended
+slowly, remaining at this point for about 5 seconds. It again descended
+several times, making at one time a depression of 120 grammes. On
+another occasion the board was depressed, and showed a pressure of 100
+grammes, which lasted for 35 seconds. On other occasions lesser
+depressions were noted, but for longer periods of time. On several
+occasions the balance registered a downward pressure for two minutes or
+more. This was in good light, and was carefully observed by two
+physicians, as well as by Professor Alrutz. The "subjects" were, in this
+case, ladies of good Swedish families, who had never seen or heard of
+the instrument before. They were, however, during the experiments,
+treated as professional "mediums," and every precaution was taken to
+prevent fraud. The following were some of the precautions observed:
+
+The light was sufficiently good to enable the observers to _see_ that no
+threads or hairs were attached to the board or any part of the apparatus
+or balance. They also ascertained this with their hands. It was also
+seen that none of the subjects lifted the board by slipping their
+fingers under the edges of the board and pulling it upwards. (It may be
+remarked in this connection that even had they done so this would not
+account for the results noted; since, in several instances, the downward
+pressure recorded was more than the weight of the entire board.) As the
+eyes of the observers were close to the board and to the fingers of the
+subjects, it was clearly seen, however, that nothing of the sort took
+place. Besides, as before said, the subjects who tried the board were
+ladies, and not professional "psychics" in any sense of the word.
+
+It was also ascertained that no sticky material was upon the fingers of
+the subjects; they were carefully examined both before and after each
+experiment. Further, to test this hypothesis fully, thin strips of wood
+(shavings) were on several occasions introduced between the subjects'
+fingers and the board, which was depressed. Had they lifted their
+fingers, therefore, they could not possibly have lifted the board, which
+would not have adhered to them under these circumstances.
+
+_3rd Series._--Two "functionaries of state" attended this series, the
+principal subject tried being the wife of one of these dignitaries. He
+himself was extremely sceptical of his wife's ability to move the board,
+and remained so until convinced by the facts! The board was lowered, and
+the balance showed a pressure of from 70 to 100 grammes. The subject was
+extremely fatigued after these tests, and went to sleep almost
+immediately. Others who tried the board could obtain a registration of
+only 2 or 3 grammes.
+
+_4th Series._--Several very successful trials were made in this series
+with two ladies as subjects. Both placed their hands on the board
+together, and the depressions were of very long duration. In these
+experiments sooted paper was placed under the hands of the
+experimenters. It was noted that better results were obtained if one of
+them cried "Now!" when the board was to be depressed. The desire to
+sleep was strong after these trials, and in one instance the subject
+really did fall asleep during the experiment! An odd fact which should
+be noted in this connection is that no results were obtained unless the
+subject _looked_ at the long end of the board while the "willing" was in
+progress.
+
+_5th Series._--This series of experiments was attended by a well-known
+physician and a psychologist. The light was good as before. From 40 to
+50 grammes were registered by the balance on several occasions, the
+downward pressure lasting from 20 to 30 seconds. Clearly, therefore,
+none of these depressions could be attributed to mere oscillations of
+the board, but denoted a definite and persistent downward pressure.
+
+Nausea and a strong desire for sleep were experienced by the subjects in
+this series of experiments, as before.
+
+The above is a very rapid summary of the report drawn up by Dr. Sydney
+Alrutz, and read to the Sixth Psychological Congress, which met at
+Geneva in August 1909. Professor Alrutz also attended the Congress in
+person, and brought with him one of his instruments, which he desired to
+try upon some of the members in the presence of a number of
+psychologists. In several instances these attempts were entirely
+successful; and Professor Flournoy, editor of the _Archives de
+Psychologie_, was enabled to say of these experiments:
+
+     "Professor Alrutz invited me to assist in two seances, in which we
+     experimented upon some of the feminine members of the Congress who
+     desired to try it. The first, in which the subject was Mme. Glika,
+     yielded nothing conclusive. But at the second, at which Professor
+     Alrutz attempted to increase the force by adding two other members
+     of the Congress (strangers who had appeared to him to possess
+     suitable temperaments), it succeeded fully, and I was able to prove
+     conclusively after three trials, and under conditions precluding
+     all possibility of fraud or illusion, that the will of these
+     ladies, concentrated upon a certain material object with a desire
+     to produce a movement in it, ended by producing this movement as if
+     by means of a fluid or an invisible force obeying their mental
+     command." (_Spiritism and Psychology_, p. 291.)
+
+So much for the testimony of Professor Flournoy and Professor Alrutz. In
+view of the facts and the well-known caution of these investigators, we
+may assuredly take it for granted that there is here no room for doubt,
+and that the manifestations really took place as recorded.
+
+My own experiments with this board have not, unfortunately, proved
+nearly so conclusive as those of Professor Alrutz--owing, doubtless, to
+the rarity of good "physical mediums" or those capable of exercising
+their will in the desired manner. It must not be thought that any one
+possessing a "strong will" can manipulate the board--as Professor Alrutz
+has pointed out. It is only a peculiarly endowed person who can move the
+board, one capable not only of exercising the necessary will power, but
+also of externalising it--a very rare power. Hence the small number of
+successes. Out of all those tried, I have found only two who could
+(apparently) move the board at all, and even in their cases the results
+were far less striking than in the cases reported by Professor Alrutz.
+In one case a number of slight depressions were obtained; but these were
+so fleeting, and lasted for so short a time, that it was almost
+impossible to be certain that the results were not due to mere
+oscillations of the board. In the second case, however, more definite
+results were obtained. On several occasions, depressions of half an
+ounce were noted; and, on two occasions, of more than an ounce, lasting
+for several seconds. I was enabled to assure myself at the time that
+these depressions were real, and were not the result of fraudulent
+manipulation of the board. Although these results are few and meagre
+compared with those of Professor Alrutz, still they tend to confirm his
+views, and add to the testimony adduced by him and by Professor
+Flournoy, in favour of the reality of the facts--of the actual physical
+pressure by the Will upon the board in question.
+
+In view of these results, then--of this apparently mutually confirmatory
+testimony--it seems impossible to doubt the fact that we have here
+definite and conclusive proof that the human will has succeeded in
+depressing the board in question--in being registered upon the balance,
+and, consequently, that it is a physical energy, capable of affecting
+the material world just as any other physical energy does.
+
+
+PART II
+
+Theories
+
+It may be contended, however, that in thus postulating the human will as
+a physical energy I have not taken into account the alternative
+explanation of the facts which might be adopted or assumed. This theory
+contends that it is not the will itself which causes the movement we
+observe, but the cerebral activity which corresponds to it, and is its
+physiological counterpart. It has frequently been pointed out before
+(_cf._ Ribot, _The Diseases of the Will_, pp. 5, 6), that when we will
+to move our arm, e.g., it may not be the will at all, _per se_, which
+affects the movement, but the brain-state or neural activity which
+accompanies the act of will. In other words, mind or will never affects
+matter (as we feel it does), but it is always one portion of the body
+which affects another portion--the will or state of consciousness being
+merely coincidental with this observed action.
+
+This has been one of the classical objections to the doctrine of
+inter-actionism; and it must not be thought that I have failed to take
+into account this alternate theory. But opposed to this view of the case
+we have the facts--(1) that the state of consciousness, and not the
+brain-state, is surely here the important factor; and (2) that, even
+were the supposition true, this nervous action or influence must cease
+at the periphery of the body; for, were this not the case, we should
+already have exceeded the limits of the orthodox physiological theory,
+which contends that one portion _of the body_ affects another portion
+(only), and does not contend or pretend that this action may extend
+beyond the surface of the body; for, if it did so extend, we should have
+a nervous current without nerves--an appalling fact, and one totally
+opposed to accepted physiological teaching!
+
+In order for nervous energy or life force to exist independent of the
+body (upon the functionings of which it supposedly depends), it would be
+necessary for us to reconstruct the mechanistic interpretation of life,
+since it would show that life is not dependent upon the body for its
+existence, but might exist independently of it, which is the very point
+in dispute. It cannot logically be contended, therefore, that the
+energy which we here see in operation lies in the nerves or in the
+brain-centres, but rather that it is a separate force, which physiology,
+as taught today, cannot account for. Introspection and experiment seem
+to unite in telling us that this energy is none other than the human
+Will.
+
+But if it be granted, on the other hand, that the will is a physical
+energy, we immediately encounter certain difficulties which must not be
+ignored. In the first place, if the will be a physical energy, it is
+subject to the law of Conservation, and, consequently, must be included
+within the cycle of forces which that law encompasses. Light, heat,
+chemical affinity, etc., are supposed to be mutually convertible and
+transmutable; and, according to the present hypothesis, Will must also
+be included in this series! But every energy we know in the physical
+universe is a non-intelligent energy, and, as I have pointed out
+elsewhere, if we make the human will thus subject to the law of
+Conservation, it seems to form a unique exception to the law. For we
+know (if our consciousness tells us anything) that willing is an
+intelligent act, and we should consequently have this conscious act or
+intent left over in the equation. For we have, in all other cases,
+purely physical energy, and in this case physical energy _plus
+something_ (conscious intent). The law of Conservation tells us that one
+energy is derived from another, and is converted again into another form
+of physical energy, when it is expended. But if will, _ex hypothesi_ a
+physical energy, is derived from another physical energy (by a process
+of combustion, or what you will), we have here a case of the lesser
+including the greater--of a thing giving rise to something greater and
+more inclusive than itself--which is contrary to all accepted thinking.
+The will, therefore, cannot be _entirely_ subject to the law of
+Conservation, but appears to draw upon an additional fund or source of
+energy, which is infused into it, as it were, from without. This "thing"
+which is infused or super-added, this "something" which is the "plus" in
+our equation, appears to be the directive element, the life element, the
+sentient element--which is thus shown to lie outside the law of
+Conservation, as many physicists and philosophers (Lodge, Crookes,
+Bergson, etc.) have for some time past contended it must or might lie.
+
+One significant fact, in this connection, is that while the law of
+Conservation is doubtless true, so far as it goes, there is also in
+operation another law, well known to physicists, called the law of the
+Degradation of Energy, which asserts that energies of a higher order are
+constantly being converted into energies of a lower order. This law
+maintains that energies of a lower order cannot be reconverted into
+energies of a higher order. All other energies are being slowly but
+surely converted into heat--the lowest of all forms of energy. And this
+heat is gradually being dissipated, or radiated away, into space, so
+that, at some distant day, our universe will be cold and lifeless, like
+the moon.
+
+Now it is a significant fact that the single exception to this rule
+consists in, and is constituted by, _life_, or vital energy, which is
+constantly building lower forms of energy into higher forms. Life is
+certainly the highest form of energy which we know in this world, and
+all energies are below this in rank--as may readily be proved by an
+appeal to the facts of nutrition and metabolism. And, as life is
+constantly being added to or infused into the world (as the population
+increases), it is certainly true that there is here a definite increase
+of the sum-total of the highest form of energy of which we have any
+knowledge. Life thus occupies not only an important but a unique
+position--in that it is constructive instead of destructive; and this
+fact alone should give us pause, and make us ask whether life is, in its
+totality, subject to and included within the law of Conservation of
+Energy.
+
+The establishment of the fact that the human will is a definite physical
+energy is of importance also, because of its bearing upon the problem of
+the connection or inter-relation of mind and matter. Theories as to this
+bond or connection have been propounded since the dawn of philosophy.
+Aristotle and others wrote and thought deeply upon this subject. As is
+well known, this question formed one of the central points of debate in
+the works of Hobbes, Berkeley, Hume, Descartes, Leibnitz, Spinoza, Kant,
+Hegel, Lotze, and many other philosophical writers--all of whom wrote
+and speculated at length upon this subject. The theories which have been
+advanced in the past are briefly as follows:[19]
+
+_1st. Crude Materialism._--This doctrine contends that consciousness is
+merely matter, or energy, or matter in motion. It is not necessary to
+discuss this theory here, as it is not held today by any scientist of
+the first rank.
+
+_2nd. Epiphenomenalism._--This doctrine found its foremost champion in
+Huxley. It contends that the important happenings are the
+brain-changes--which are causally connected--and that our thoughts, or
+corresponding states of consciousness, merely accompany the
+brain-changes, just as the shadow of a horse may be said to accompany
+the horse.
+
+The objections of this doctrine are:--
+
+(_a_) That it is just as inconceivable to believe or imagine that
+brain-changes generate consciousness as it is to imagine that
+consciousness generates brain-changes.
+
+(_b_) The law of Conservation is preserved at the expense of the law of
+Causality. For, if no part of the cause passed over into the effect (the
+state of consciousness), the law of Causality would be violated.
+
+(_c_) The appearance of consciousness, at some definite point in the
+course of the evolution of the animal kingdom constitutes a breach of
+continuity.
+
+For these and other reasons epiphenomenalism is today held by few, if
+any, philosophers.
+
+_3rd. Psycho-Physical Parallelism._--This is the doctrine maintained by
+Muensterberg and others. It contends that brain-changes and states of
+consciousness are merely coincidental in point of time, and do not ever
+influence each other. Their relation is that of mere coincidence or
+concomitance, and not causation. The two flow along, side by side,
+without in any way interfering with one another.
+
+As regards this doctrine, it need only be pointed out that, were it
+true, mind and body could never influence one another, since they are
+not causally connected. Yet, if there be no connection, how is it that
+they correspond so exactly?--for, as James said, "It is quite
+inconceivable that consciousness should have _nothing to do_ with a
+business which it so faithfully attends."
+
+_4th. Phenomenalistic Parallelism._--This is the theory maintained by
+Kant, Spinoza, and others. It maintains that both brain and
+consciousness (or mind and body) are but two different expressions of
+one underlying reality--just as the convex and concave surfaces of a
+sphere are but two expressions of an underlying reality. As to the
+nature of this reality, Kant and Herbert Spencer were content to call it
+X or the unknown, while Spinoza maintained that it was God.
+
+Analogies which are held to support this doctrine are, however,
+extremely defective; but the subject is too lengthy and technical to
+elucidate in detail here.
+
+_5th. Psychical Monism._--This doctrine contends that consciousness is
+the only reality--the material world being external appearance only.
+Thoughts are causally connected, but not physical events. (The doctrine
+is thus the exact inverse of epiphenomenalism.)
+
+In refutation of this theory, it may be pointed out that, if
+brain-changes are thus caused by, or are the outer expressions of,
+thought--why not muscular changes, and in fact all physical phenomena
+throughout the world everywhere? For we cannot rationally draw the line
+of distinction here. Such is the logical outcome of the theory--and has,
+in fact, been accepted in this form by Fechner and others.
+
+While many philosophers are inclined to accept this view, it may be
+stated that the physical scientists are, naturally, repelled by it, and
+so is common sense!
+
+_6th. Solipsism._--The contention of this theory is that nothing exists
+save states of consciousness in the individual. Neither the material
+world nor other minds exist, save in the mind of the individual. This
+doctrine is so opposed to common sense and daily experience that it is
+unnecessary to dwell upon it.
+
+_7th. Inter-Actionism (Animism)._--Here we have the world-old notion of
+soul and body existing as separate entities, influencing each other.
+Mind is here supposed to influence matter, and utilize it for the
+purposes of its manifestation.
+
+That there are many facts difficult to account for on this theory cannot
+be doubted. Heredity and the origin of life must be taken into account;
+the "inconceivability" of the process has some weight; and the apparent
+infringement of the law of Conservation of Energy is a serious
+objection. Further, it may be urged, what evidence have we that
+consciousness can exist apart from brain-functioning? And, it may be
+said, apart from the facts offered by "psychical research," so-called,
+there is no evidence, strictly speaking. Hence the importance of these
+phenomena, if true. But the greatest objection to the doctrine of
+inter-actionism is doubtless that drawn from the law of the Conservation
+of Energy, which says that, inasmuch as mind is a non-physical energy,
+inasmuch as matter cannot be affected by a non-physical cause,
+brain-changes cannot result from will, or the activities of the mind.
+
+But once prove that the human will is a physical energy, and this
+objection is readily disposed of. A physical energy is doubtless quite
+capable of causing all the changes within the brain which we know to
+exist within it--molecular, chemical, whatever they may be. It at once
+removes this classical objection to the doctrine of inter-actionism; and
+at the same time virtually proves that theory correct--thus solving this
+problem once and for all!
+
+It may be pointed out, _en passant_, that philosophers and
+metaphysicians have really attacked this problem from the wrong
+standpoint--in their arguments concerning the relations of mind and
+brain--for this is a question which might have been (and in my opinion
+should have been) determined not by argument, but by _fact_. Instead of
+arguing, _a priori_, as to the nature of the connection, the problem
+might have been solved in the same way that all other problems are
+solved, viz., by an appeal to evidence and fact. The fundamental point
+made by practically all philosophers, in discussing this question, is
+that brain-states and conscious states are always found together, and
+that consciousness can never exist in the absence of brain. In other
+words, mind cannot exist as an "independent variable" in the world; it
+must always accompany a human brain.
+
+I pass over, without comment, the fact that, according to the doctrines
+of idealistic monism and psycho-physical parallelism, this independence
+is virtually allowed, by the very nature of the doctrine; and shall
+point out merely that, if consciousness could be proved to exist
+independent of brain functioning, philosophic theories would have to be
+remodelled to conform to the evidence; the _a priori_ problem could be
+settled at once by an appeal to actual fact. And again this separate
+existence of consciousness seems to be established by the facts of
+"psychical research," which apparently show that mind can exist apart
+from brain structure. This important fact once established, it would at
+once alter the whole case and render inter-actionism not only a
+"respectable" theory, but a proved fact.
+
+So much for the importance of this doctrine (that the will is a physical
+energy) from the point of view of philosophy, and as applied to the
+question of the inter-relation of brain and mind. Now let us see if it
+cannot be applied in another direction.
+
+The present interpretation of the character and nature of the will, and
+its inclusion as a physical energy, has a distinctly important bearing
+upon one of the most bitterly disputed points in the whole history of
+philosophy, viz., the question of the _Freedom of the Will_.
+
+As is well known, there are two opposing views upon this subject--held
+by opposite schools--the theory of Determinism, on the one hand, and of
+Free Will on the other. The Libertarians assert that our wills are
+free--we having power of choice in all our actions. The Determinists, on
+the other hand, contend that our thoughts and actions are determined by
+definite, ascertainable causes. They contend that the _feeling_ of
+freedom we all experience is but illusory, and that, in reality, our
+every action is inevitable--predetermined by its previous cause of
+causes, and could have been predicted by an intelligence wide enough and
+possessing a grasp deep enough of human nature to perceive life in all
+its tendencies. Indeed, one eminent philosopher went so far as to say
+that a belief in Free Will showed simple ignorance of science and a
+clinging to superstition!
+
+A great deal has been written upon this subject of Free Will in the
+past; the point has been bitterly disputed for years. It may be said,
+however, that, at the present day, practically all philosophers and
+scientists, with few exceptions (e.g., James, Schiller, Bergson, etc.),
+believe in Determinism. The arguments for that doctrine are certainly
+weighty, and may be summarized, briefly, as follows:
+
+1. _The Law of Conservation of Energy_ tells us that no energy can be
+added to or abstracted from the total stock of physical energy in the
+universe. If the will be a non-physical energy (as it is conceived to
+be, by psychologists), it cannot affect the physical world, for if it
+did the law of Conservation of Energy would be overthrown. Hence, the
+will cannot affect the material world: hence, it cannot be a true cause.
+
+2. _Biology_ contends that heredity and environment alone are capable of
+explaining the actions and movements of the lower organisms, without
+postulating any "will." Inasmuch as man is connected with these lower
+organisms by an unbroken line of descent, why should not these factors
+explain man's actions also?
+
+3. _Physiology_ teaches that in-coming nerve stimuli give rise to
+certain physical changes in the nerve cells or centres, which, in turn,
+give rise to out-going (afferent) currents. There is here an arc or loop
+of unbroken physical causation; and there is no "room" for
+consciousness, save as an "epiphenomenon," as postulated by Huxley.
+
+4. The _Law of Causation_ tells us that an effect must have a cause, and
+that the cause must, in a certain sense, resemble the effect--since the
+effect _is_, in a sense, the cause translated. But, inasmuch as the
+effect is a physical event, the cause must also be physical in its
+nature; hence will (supposedly a non-physical event) cannot possibly
+play a part, or be a true cause.
+
+5. _Philosophical Science_ contends that Nature is a "closed circle."
+Mechanical causation holds supreme sway. Everything happens according to
+law and order. If Free Will were allowed a place in the scheme of
+things, chance and caprice would immediately be introduced into our
+world--which could never be tolerated for a moment!
+
+6. _Psychology_ holds that every mental state has its equivalent or
+counterpart in a corresponding brain-state. But each brain-state is not
+caused by the state of consciousness, but by the preceding brain-state.
+Here, again, there is no room for "free will" to play any part.
+
+(Inasmuch as we are approaching this subject from a purely scientific
+point of view, the arguments drawn from sociology, ethics, and theology
+need not here be discussed. The interested reader is referred to
+Professor H. H. Horne's excellent little book, _Free Will and Human
+Responsibility_, for an extremely clear summary of this problem.)
+
+The reply of the Libertarian to these problems is usually somewhat as
+follows:
+
+1. The doctrine of Conservation has not been experimentally proved with
+regard to the relation of mind and brain; it is only assumed. Still,
+granting it to exist, all energy may, in its ultimate analysis, be
+psychical, instead of physical, in its nature--the doctrine of idealism,
+which is today gaining wider and wider acceptance, seeming to support
+this view.
+
+2. That man _resembles_ the lower animals does not prove that he is
+_identical_ with them. On the contrary, the observed differences
+constitute the very differences about which the argument rages. Further,
+recent theories of organic evolution are tending to prove that interior
+(spontaneous) forces play a part, as well as exterior forces.
+
+3. If consciousness were a mere "epiphenomenon," having no "use" to the
+organism, it would soon perish (if it ever appeared) according to the
+law which says that all useless functions perish. But we know that, as a
+matter of fact, consciousness has grown more and more complex, as
+evolution has progressed.
+
+4. The _Law of Causation_ is doubtless valid and universal; but to
+assume that this is invariably physical begs the question at issue. May
+there not be psychical causation? Only thorough-going materialism can
+say "No" to this question; but materialism is today out of date.
+
+5. _The Philosophy of Nature._--This is a strong argument, _a priori_,
+but is subject to re-interpretation, in the light of new facts, to which
+it must conform. Facts might be adduced which proved this particular
+view of nature wrong. It is, in short, only a working hypothesis,
+subject to revision, as new facts are adduced, tending to alter it.
+
+6. _Psychology._--Our ignorance of the possible relation of brain and
+mind is no excuse for our dogmatically asserting that no such connection
+is possible. It may be a fact, though unintelligible to us. Mental
+states may influence, partially at least, successive brain-states. We
+cannot say. If one man asserts that they _cannot_, another may assert
+that they _do_. Hence every one is at liberty to believe what he
+pleases! Nothing is proved.
+
+If, now, we glance at the preceding arguments, we find that they may be
+summarized somewhat as follows:
+
+Arguments 2, 3, 5, and 6 are practically valueless, one way or the
+other. Both sides might claim a victory; none of these arguments would
+settle the question.
+
+Argument 4 is certainly valid, to a certain extent, and can only be
+surmounted by assuming that a non-physical energy can affect physical
+energy. But I do not think that any physicist would be inclined to admit
+this. So that this argument cannot be used in support of the doctrine of
+Free Will.
+
+There remains the first argument, drawn from the law of the Conservation
+of Energy. This is certainly the strongest of all (to my mind), and is,
+as it stands, valid. Though idealism may maintain that all physical
+energy may be, in its ultimate analysis, only psychical energy, I do not
+for a moment believe that any physicist really believes this, or that
+any man accepts it as a common-sense doctrine--one which can be acted
+upon in daily life. It is mere philosophical sophistry and
+hairsplitting, and we must believe, as a matter of fact, that physical
+energy _is_ really physical, and not psychical, in its nature.
+
+As to the first portion of this argument, although the law of
+Conservation of Energy has never been shown to be invalid, when applied
+to the connection of brain and mind, still, every one probably believes
+that it does actually obtain, and that a brain-state cannot result in
+consequence of non-physical influences any more than any other physical
+event could so result. It is tacitly admitted, therefore, that the law
+of Conservation holds good here also, and that will cannot affect brain,
+because will is not a physical energy.
+
+We are now in a position to see the tremendous importance of the facts
+contained in the first part of this chapter. Inasmuch as theory must
+follow fact; inasmuch as it has been proved experimentally that the
+human will is a physical energy--this whole question of the relation of
+brain and mind, of the influence of the former by the latter, and the
+question of Free Will, must be remodelled in accordance with these
+facts. The whole Free Will controversy is settled at one stroke (and in
+favour of Free Will!), and all the books which have been written upon
+this subject, and all the thought and energy which have been expended in
+the past are thus shown to be so much waste-paper and wasted effort!
+For, as we have seen that the whole question resolves itself into the
+central problem of whether or not the law of Conservation of Energy is
+valid--whether will or mind can affect brain--it will be seen that the
+proof that will is a definite physical energy settles the case once and
+for all. Determinism is routed; Free Will wins the day; and here again,
+as usual, theory follows fact, instead of dictating what those facts
+should be! At "one fell swoop" we are enabled to solve and to settle for
+ever one of the most bitterly disputed points in the whole history of
+philosophy and metaphysics!
+
+This theory (might we not say, this fact?) that the will is a definite
+physical energy, at least in part, is thus of great philosophic, no less
+than scientific importance, if true. It even enables us to recast our
+conception of the origin of the world, and of all forces, and enables
+us to reconstruct--in a more or less intelligible manner--the story of
+Creation, contained in the first chapter of Genesis--an account which
+has been more ridiculed, perhaps, by dogmatic physicists than any other
+account in the whole Bible.
+
+Much has been written upon this subject in the past; but it must be
+admitted that, from the point of view of physics, the whole difficulty
+lay in conceiving the first initial impulse which started our Universe
+on its endless way. All matter being but an expression of energy, all
+energy being (in all probability) but the varying modes or forms of
+expression of one underlying primal energy, the difficulty has been in
+accounting for the origin of this primal energy--the initial "push," so
+to say, which sent the Universe on its way.
+
+Many evolutionists have admitted that, once given this initial impulse,
+all might readily be accounted for. The difficulty lay in conceiving
+this primal impetus.
+
+But if Will be also a form of energy--though, as we have seen, only
+partly within the law and partly beyond it--then it is conceivable that
+this energy, coming from a source external to that presented by physical
+nature and physical science, should have infused or imparted enough
+energy (perhaps only an infinitesimal amount, enough to originate the
+impetus), which, according to Haeckel and others, is all that need be
+supposed, to enable us to account for the whole of organic and inorganic
+nature! This _fiat_, having once gone forth, would originate, or be the
+source of, the first "cosmic urge"--would, in fact, supply that impetus
+which modern science has so long sought in vain!
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] This explains why "every one" cannot move the board; there must be
+this peculiar nervous and psychic instability in order to insure the
+results.
+
+[19] I am indebted to Dr. M'Dougall's excellent work, _Body and Mind_,
+for the _data_ from which I have condensed the following summary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+MODERN DISSECTION OF THE HUMAN MIND
+
+
+Dissection of the mind! Can that too be dissected? We hear much nowadays
+of dissection of the human body; of organs which have been transplanted
+and which perform their functions in the body of another animal; of
+marvellous operations, in which tissues and viscera have been removed,
+repaired, and replaced--seeming none the worse for their remarkable
+experience; of operations which have been performed even upon the brain,
+in which whole segments have been cut away, and other delicate
+experiments undertaken--all of these marvels we have grown more or less
+accustomed to, by reason of the ease and certainty with which they are
+performed. But the human mind; _that_ is a different matter. Here is
+something which, intangible in itself, seems incapable of dissection or
+of objective experimentation, in the ordinary sense of the word. Yet
+that is what present-day normal and abnormal psychology has been enabled
+to do! Shakespeare's adage: "Who can minister to a mind diseased?" can
+now be answered by saying: "To a certain extent, the specialist in
+normal and abnormal psychology."
+
+If you shut your eyes, and turn your attention inward, in an attempt to
+find your real "self," you will probably find a good deal of difficulty
+in catching it. It will be found as illusory as the proverbial figure of
+Happiness, which ever flits on before us. The real centre of being, the
+self, the ego, the person, the individuality, evades us at every turn.
+Each of us has the feeling, under all ordinary and normal circumstances,
+that, as James expressed it, "I am the same self that I was yesterday."
+And one would be most astonished, I fancy, were he to wake up one fine
+morning and find himself some one else! Like the Arab in the tale, he
+would be bewildered indeed!
+
+    From the solitary desert
+    Up to Bagdad, came a simple
+      Arab; there amid the rout
+    Grew bewildered of the countless
+    People, hither, thither, running,
+    Coming, going, meeting, parting,
+    Clamour, clatter, and confusion,
+      All around him and about.
+
+    Travel-wearied, hubbub-dizzy,
+      Would the simple Arab fain
+    Get to sleep,--"But then on waking,
+    How," quoth he, "amid so many
+      Waking, know myself again?"
+
+    So, to make the matter certain,
+    Strung a gourd about his ankle,
+    And, into a corner creeping,
+    Bagdad and himself and people
+      Soon were blotted from his brain.
+
+    But one that heard him and divined
+    His purpose, slyly crept behind;
+    From the sleeper's ankle clipping,
+      Round his own the pumpkin tied,
+      And laid him down to sleep beside.
+
+    By and by the Arab waking
+    Looks directly for his signal--
+    Sees it on another's ankle--
+    Cries aloud, "Oh, good-for-nothing
+      Rascal to perplex me so,
+    That by you I am bewildered,
+      Whether I be I or no!
+    If _I_--the pumpkin why on you!
+    If _You_--then where am I, and who?"
+
+One can quite appreciate the tangled state of our Arab's mind on
+awakening under such peculiar circumstances, and, from the point of view
+of common sense and common experience, such an awakening would be an
+utter impossibility--fit only for fairy tales and the traditions of
+savage tribes. Yet, in our own day, here in civilized New York and
+London, similar cases have been recorded and studied by experts! Under
+peculiar circumstances, patients have gone to sleep one person and
+awakened another; and they have remained another, not only during the
+first temporary moments of bewilderment, but sometimes for days, weeks,
+and months at a time; and in some cases even whole years have elapsed
+before the first "self" returned to tenant the body, to look out of the
+eyes it had looked out of years before; to take up the self-conscious
+life it had lain down in sleep. And to this there may be the added
+horror that, during the intervening period of oblivion (for this Self)
+the same external body, actuated by another "Self," may have performed
+actions and lived a course of life utterly at variance with the tastes
+and desires of the primary "Self." The other Self may even have married
+the common body in the interval--to a man whom the original self had
+never known--does not know now! There may even have been children;
+friends, environment, all, all may have been changed in the interim.
+Like Rip van Winkle, the setting of life may be found to have altered;
+but in some of these cases, the awakening must be the greater nightmare.
+The unfamiliarity, even horror, of the situation can be imagined. Yet
+many such cases exist; and the two Selves alternately usurp and
+manipulate a common body; the Real Self and the Stranger. Who and what
+is this Stranger? Apparently it is an alien spirit--another soul,
+perchance, entangled miserably in the body of some equally unhappy
+mortal! Yet modern psychology contends that such cases represent, for
+the most part, mere splits or dislocations or dissociations of the
+normal personality; and that the two or more Selves we see before us, at
+such times, are none of them a _real_ self; but mere fragments of the
+primary self, dissociated from it, owing to some shock or accident or
+disease. Let us see if we can penetrate a little deeper into this
+mystery of being; and lay bare the secrets of this alien Self, as well
+as the original Self which owned the body from birth.
+
+The older psychology held that the mind was a _unit_; that it was a
+separate thing or entity, a sort of _sphere_, which, if it could ever be
+caught, would reveal all the secrets of True Being. Accordingly, they
+tried to catch this sphere-of-being, by inward reflection or
+"introspection." But it was never caught! There are many reasons why
+this should be so, the chief reason being that a subject cannot be an
+object also; it is as impossible for a thought to catch itself as it
+would be to turn a hollow rubber ball inside out without tearing the
+cover.[20] But the newer psychology studies the mind objectively, from
+the outside, by means of recording instruments, and does not depend upon
+introspection for its results. Further, the very conception of the
+nature of the "self" is different; it is not now considered an entity,
+as of old; but rather a compound thing, a product, a complex, composed
+of a variety of elements. Instead of being considered a single gossamer
+thread, it is now thought to be rather a _rope_, composed of
+innumerable, interwoven elements--and these, in turn, of still finer
+threads, until the subdivision seems endless. The mind, in other words,
+is thought to be compounded of innumerable separate elements; but held
+together, or compounded into one, by the normal action of the will, of
+attention, and the grip upon the personality of the true Self. When this
+will is weakened; when the attention is constantly slackened, when the
+mind wanders, this single strand of rope separates and unravels. The
+"threads" branch out in various directions, no longer in control of the
+central, governing will; the Self has become dissociated or split-up
+into various minor Selves--all but parts of the real, total self; yet
+separate and distinct, nevertheless. And if enough of these threads
+become joined together, or interwoven, one with another, it can easily
+be imagined that this second strand of rope might become a formidable
+opponent to the original strand; it might become so large and strong, in
+fact, by the constant addition of new threads, and the dissociation of
+these from the first, true strand, that it would assume a more important
+role, and become stronger, and finally even control the whole. What was
+originally but a single fine, divergent thread has become, in course of
+time, a successful rival to the original strand of rope.
+
+Now let us apply the analogy. The mind as a whole represents the rope;
+its elements or component parts are the threads; and, under certain
+abnormal conditions, these can become torn away from the original
+Self--like little rivulets, branching off from the main stream of
+consciousness, forming independent selves. This is an abnormal
+condition; a splitting of the mind, a dissociation of consciousness.
+Another fragment of consciousness, distinct in itself, has been formed.
+Thus we have a case of so-called double consciousness, of alternating
+personality; or, if there are three or more such splits or cleavages, of
+multiple personality.[21]
+
+Now we are in a better position to understand the nature of this alien
+self which has been formed, and which alternately usurps the common
+body. It is no foreign spirit; it is not a demon or fiend which has
+entered into the subject; it is merely a portion of the patient's own
+mind, acting independently a life of its own. It is a portion of the
+real Self, functioning independently. Let us now see how these splits or
+dissociations take place.
+
+Often they are the result of some shock to the emotional nature. In one
+of Dr. Morton Prince's cases, the patient happened to look up and saw in
+the window the face of a man whom she had known years before, and with
+whom she had tragic emotional associations. It was storming at the time,
+and a lightning flash revealed the face in the window. It was a highly
+dramatic scene, and the shock to the patient's emotional nature caused
+her consciousness to split-up or become dissociated into various selves;
+and thenceforward for years these separate "selves" lived independent
+lives, each ignorant of the life of the other. In this case, there were
+several such personalities which alternated; and they were only finally
+unified and the real Self again restored by means of hypnotic
+suggestion, after a careful analysis of the various selves. This
+synthesis of the various streams of consciousness, and their ultimate
+unification into one primary normal self, is one of the most startling,
+as it is one of the most interesting and suggestive, feats of modern
+psychological medicine.
+
+The principle upon which many of these cures rest, and the efficacy of
+suggestion, is thus apparent. By its aid the skilled specialist in
+abnormal psychology is enabled to gather up the "loose ends" of
+conscious life, as it were, and unify and consolidate them into one
+normal, healthy Self. He is enabled to weave them all together, and
+again restore the "sheath" or "wrapper" of the individual human will,
+keeping these threads in place henceforth, and restoring the healthy,
+normal personality; the _mens sana in corpore sano_.
+
+Exactly _how_ all this can come about I shall now endeavour to show.
+Before any of the more complex and complicated disorders of the mind can
+be understood, it will be necessary for us to discuss very briefly the
+nature of the subconscious mind--since it is upon this that all modern
+researches have in a great measure rested--upon the improved
+understanding of its nature that many of these cures rest.
+
+It has long been known that there is a sort of mind in us, capable, at
+times, of performing complicated and intelligent actions without the
+co-operation or knowledge of the conscious mind. We see examples of this
+daily--in the absent-minded actions of certain individuals, in the dream
+life, in hypnotic trance, and in many of the cases of normal and
+peculiar mental action, of which numerous examples might be given, but
+which are so well known that it is hardly necessary at this late date to
+elaborate in detail. The idea has been so extensively employed by Hudson
+in his theory of "the subjective mind," and by others, that the general
+theory has pretty well saturated the public mind. Hudson's
+theory--otherwise open to many criticisms--is very lax, not to say
+erroneous, in its construction, and is not accepted today by any
+competent psychologist. Apart from the mysterious powers with which he
+endowed the "subjective" mind, he makes it now synonymous with the
+_whole_ of the subconscious life outside the field of immediate
+consciousness; now as equivalent merely to the hypnotic stratum; now to
+a dream-like self, etc., until the term has become so elastic that it
+means nothing intelligible but everything in general! As understood by
+the modern psychologist, the term "subconscious mind" must be defined
+far more accurately before we can proceed to use it as a working
+hypothesis. What, then, is understood by the subconscious mind? What
+part of us can perform conscious operations without our being conscious
+of them? How can we perform intelligent operations without intelligence?
+It all depends upon the meaning we give to our terms. We must begin by
+explaining just what is meant by the "subconscious mind"; then, perhaps,
+we can better understand its operations and aberrations.
+
+There are several theories as to the nature of this subterranean stratum
+of our being--this hidden self--each of which finds its champion in the
+modern psychological schools. First, there is the theory that it
+consists merely in the mechanical workings of the brain--a purely
+physiological theory, which makes the subconscious mind synonymous with
+certain brain activities--much the same as a series of complex
+reactions. It is well known that there is a brain-change corresponding
+to every thought we think; and the nature of the connection between the
+two has been one of the most debated points in metaphysics, and is one
+which, if we thoroughly understood it, would doubtless solve in a great
+measure the nature of life and of consciousness. Without going into this
+very complex question, however, there remains the undoubted _fact_ of
+the connection; the thought, which is known by us in consciousness; and
+the brain-change, which has been verified by ingenious mechanical and
+electrical instruments, and the effects of which we behold in the
+chemical changes in the brain-substance itself after severe thinking.
+This being so, it has been said, Why not suppose that so-called
+subconscious actions _are_ merely brain activities which take place, but
+which have never risen into consciousness? Professor Muensterberg and
+others hold this view. It has been conclusively shown, however, by Dr.
+Morton Prince and others, that this theory fails to explain adequately
+many of the facts--seems indeed contrary to much experimental evidence;
+and this view is now given up by all but the most materialistic of the
+modern psychological school. We have to search deeper yet for the
+mystery of the subconscious mind; and we shall have to grant it a
+certain amount of consciousness of its own, apart from all purely brain
+activity.
+
+A very opposite theory is that advanced by Mr. F. W. H. Myers--that of
+the "subliminal self." This theory says that the conscious mind is but
+an infinitely small part of our total self--a mere fragment; that
+portion best adapted to meet the needs of everyday life. To borrow an
+analogy from physics, "consciousness is only the visible portion of the
+spectrum; the invisible, ultra portions are our subconscious selves." I
+shall not venture upon a criticism of this theory beyond saying that the
+majority of modern psychologists do not hold to it; and hence, whether
+it be ultimately true or false, we must disregard it for our present
+purposes.
+
+Thirdly, there is the theory that the subconscious mind is composed
+entirely of dissociated or split-off ideas--ideas which have been
+dissociated or split off from the main stream of consciousness, much as
+a few freight cars might be shunted on to a side track by the
+switch-engine. This hypothesis is very similar to another theory, which
+contends that the subconsciousness consists of dissociated
+experiences--mental happenings which have been forgotten or passed
+beyond voluntary recall. For these mental states, or rather trains of
+thought, Prince has suggested the term "co-conscious," because they are
+conscious processes in operation at the same time as the normal
+consciousness. This theory is doubtless far nearer an adequate
+explanation of the facts than that which contends that the subconscious
+is merely a portion of the field of consciousness which happens to lie
+outside the field of _attention_, because _that_ is a theory certainly
+inadequate to cover the facts. This last hypothesis is one which seems
+to be favoured by Coriat and others, but it is certainly limited in its
+application.
+
+Now let us see if we cannot obtain a clearer grasp of the facts, in view
+of the above discussion as to the nature of the subconscious mind. We
+may sum-up the facts as follows:--
+
+As the result, either of some sudden shock, or by reason of certain
+subjective psychological practices carried to an extreme, we have a
+splitting of the mind into two or more separate streams, which function
+separately and independently, and generally with no memory connection
+between the two, so that each is ignorant of what the other stream, or
+self, is doing. This is already an abnormal condition, a pathological
+state, and its severity depends upon the degree of cleavage between the
+streams of thought. If this be deep and lasting, we have a well-marked
+case of hysteria, or other disorders to be noted immediately; if, on the
+other hand, the cleavage be slight, we have merely absent-mindedness,
+wandering of the mind, and many lesser symptoms which indicate this
+tendency to dissociation, and which should be checked at all costs in
+their inception, since they are symptomatic of the tendency to
+disintegration of the mind, and which, if unchecked, would lead to grave
+disturbances later on. It is because of this fact that too much
+automatic writing, crystal-gazing, meditation, attendance at spiritistic
+circles, etc., is harmful; they one and all induce a passive state of
+the mind which favours dissociation and disintegration. Many of the
+insanities start in this fashion; and all such practices, instead of
+being encouraged, should be discouraged; and all experienced and
+intelligent students of psychical research warn those who "dabble" in
+the subject against the repeated and promiscuous indulgence in such
+practices--because of the dangerous, even disastrous, effects upon the
+mind, in many instances.
+
+But we have not yet reached a distinctly morbid state. This dissociation
+may be slight, and of little consequence; and may even be completely
+"healed" without the knowledge of the patient; without his knowledge
+that anything strange has taken place at all--just as tubercular lesions
+of the lungs may be healed without the patient ever having known that he
+had suffered from tuberculosis. The co-conscious stream may again be
+diverted into the main, healthy channel; the threads of the wounded mind
+may again be bound up, with only a scar to indicate where the delicate
+protective covering had been ruptured. If such is the case, all is well
+thenceforward.
+
+But the termination of the accident may not be so fortunate. If, as
+before said, the cleavage be deep and lasting; and if, instead of
+attempting to bind up the wounded mind, those practices which caused the
+original "split" be persisted in; if shock follow shock--to the mental,
+moral, emotional, or physical nature; if great exhaustion, lack of
+sleep, or of proper food, or other causes of a like nature, be
+present--then it is evident that the cleavage must become deeper and
+deeper yet; and, in a short time, the few stray, wandering thoughts
+become grouped and bound together, and begin to form a veritable
+psychological entity. A secondary, an alien self, has been formed. And
+just as it is increasingly difficult to dam-up a river which has once
+found its way to some unaccustomed channel, so this secondary stream of
+consciousness will soon become a rushing, mighty torrent, incapable of
+being checked or dammed in its mad course.
+
+So long as this split-off portion remains a mass of sporadic thoughts,
+not much damage has been done; but when they become abnormally linked or
+associated together, forming groups, then the abnormal conditions have
+begun in earnest. These masses of subconscious experiences are called
+"complexes," and give rise to all sorts of trouble. It must not be
+thought that this complex formation is always harmful; on the contrary,
+this very process, when normally conducted, is the basis of our
+educational processes. But when they are thus conglomerated and
+consolidated outside the conscious mind, and function automatically,
+involuntarily, by themselves, then they have become dangerous to the
+mental stability. Their pressure and influence may be felt in the
+conscious life--in fantastic imaginations, in fears, phobias, and
+obsessions--in morbid dreams--in morbid emotional and moral reactions
+throughout the entire psycho-physical life. It is these automatic,
+self-acting complexes which originate many of the disorders of the mind.
+
+How, then, are we to diagnose this condition when once it has been
+reached; and, when once diagnosed, how is it to be treated? These are
+the all-important questions which modern psychological students have set
+themselves to solve, with more or less success. As briefly as may be,
+these are the methods.
+
+In the first place, a careful system of observation, question, and
+experiment will yield many important results. An analysis of the dream
+life will prove of great value in this connection also. If the dreams
+cannot be voluntarily recalled, they are brought to light by means of
+hypnotism, psycho-analysis, or the employment of what is known as the
+"hypnoidal" state--as induced by Dr. Boris Sidis. This is an
+artificially induced condition, half-way between sleeping and waking, in
+which many half-forgotten experiences again merge into the mind; and
+even thoughts which had _never_ been in the conscious mind at
+all--subconscious observations, etc., or the content of the dream life.
+These dreams are then analysed. It is a very striking fact that
+differing or alternating selves may have entirely different dreams; or,
+on the other hand, different and distinct selves may have a common
+meeting-place in the dream world. By means of dreams, it has thus been
+possible to come in touch with the thoughts of the other Self, which had
+been impossible by any other means at our disposal. A study and analysis
+of the dream life has thus assumed great importance within the past few
+years, and bids fair to assume greater and greater importance as the
+study of the subconscious, and abnormal psychology, increases.
+
+Other methods of tapping the subconscious mental life are: planchette,
+automatic writing and crystal-gazing. In the former cases, a pencil is
+placed in the hand of the subject, or the hand is placed on a
+planchette; and, while the conscious mind is occupied in conversation,
+or reading aloud, etc., the hand is, nevertheless, writing out an
+account of its experiences--its thoughts and feelings--which prove
+highly valuable to the investigator. Or the patient may be asked to look
+into a crystal, and describe what, if any, visions and pictures form
+within the ball. These pictures are, of course, hallucinatory; but they
+indicate, none the less, the content of the subconscious mind; since
+they are the externalized thoughts and feelings of that stratum of the
+mind. Here, again, we have a valuable means of diagnosis.
+
+Again, we have a purely experimental method of studying the emotions--by
+means of the galvanometer. An electric current being passed through the
+body, variations in the current are detected by means of an electric
+needle, which fluctuates as the current varies. Now, it has been found
+that these fluctuations vary in accordance with changed emotional
+states; and that in certain conditions of the mind, such as dementia,
+the variations are almost entirely absent, because of the lack of
+emotional reactions. It has thus been found that this form of insanity
+is largely a disease of the emotional life. On the other hand, when the
+emotions are strong, the fluctuations of the needle are very marked and
+prolonged. We have thus another most valuable method of testing the
+emotional life--always largely subconscious--by means of purely
+mechanical instruments.
+
+Finally, we have hypnotism, the skilled employment of which has been
+found of inestimable value in laying bare the secrets of the
+subconscious life. By its aid it has been found possible to disclose the
+secrets of being, to tap the subconscious mind at will, to explore the
+hidden regions of Self, which would otherwise have remained for ever
+inaccessible to the experimenter. For, by placing the patient in the
+hypnotic condition, the subconscious mind is exposed to view, as it
+were, and its secrets made manifest. The wounds and scars are thus
+rendered visible to the mental eye of the physician, and he is enabled
+to treat his case accordingly.
+
+Yes, hypnotism has been found one of the chief means of cure as well as
+of diagnosis. By its aid the tangled skein of the mental life may be
+unravelled, the mental knots may be untied, and the threads may be woven
+and plaited together again into one normal, healthy chain of being. This
+may be accomplished by means of suggestion rightly applied. When once
+the hidden complex has been brought to the surface, when its story is
+told, its secrets laid bare, it seems incapable of doing more damage, of
+again influencing the mental life detrimentally. Its life, its vitality,
+seems to have gone; its ammunition has been stolen, it has "shot its
+bolt," it is incapable of doing more injury to the normal self. Many
+hidden fears, depressions, and obsessions have been removed in this
+manner, simply by bringing these hidden fears and thoughts to the
+surface and disposing of them by means of suggestion. Many seemingly
+miraculous cures have been effected in this manner. The "demons" have
+been expelled, the brooding thoughts have vanished. This method of
+dispelling them is technically known as the cathartic method, and
+consists simply in a frank and full confession. When this has been
+brought about, when the brooding thoughts have been brought to
+light--confessed and discharged, as it were, from the mind--then a cure
+will be found to have been wrought; the man has again been made whole--a
+very significant fact if taken in connection with religious conversion,
+communion, confession, and prayer.
+
+We have somewhat diverged, however, from our main theme, to which we
+must now return. We have seen that the subconscious mind may become, so
+to speak, _diseased_--this consisting very largely in the processes of
+dissociation, complex formation, etc. Further, we have seen that this
+dissociated, automatically-acting "self" may exist either as a separate
+stream of thought running alongside of, or rather _below_ the main
+current; or may alternate with it, by rising to the surface and
+occupying the whole stage to the exclusion of the normal
+consciousness--when we have those cases of alternating or multiplex
+personality which have so puzzled psychologists for many years--and the
+correct interpretation of which we are only just beginning to realize.
+When this complete change of "self" has taken place, we have those cases
+of altered personality referred to at the beginning of this
+chapter--cases which are tragic in the extreme in many instances, but
+which represent merely extreme types of those losses of memory from
+which we all suffer, to a greater or lesser extent, even in our normal
+life. The restoration of lost memories by means of suggestion--the
+synthesis of the dissociated states--_this_ is the key to the mystery,
+the great secret of modern psychotherapy.
+
+And this theory of dissociation of consciousness has enabled us to
+explain many puzzling facts hitherto inexplicable. Thus _hysteria_, with
+its multiform symptoms and its internal contradictions, has long been
+the stumbling-block of medicine. Now it is no longer thought to be a
+morbid state (dependent usually upon sexual disturbances), but it is
+regarded rather as an indication of the splitting of the mind, a
+dissociation which embraces all the motor, physical, and psychical
+activities. On this theory, hysteria is easily explained and all its
+multiplex symptoms understood. In treating it, the self is unified,
+abnormal suggestibility is removed, and the patient is cured!
+
+_Psychaesthenia_ again, with its obsessions and fears, may be explained
+in the same manner, and its cure rests upon the same principles. The
+"attacks" cease so soon as the psychical synthesis is effected and the
+morbid self-consciousness removed.
+
+_Neurasthenia_, long regarded as a pathological state, due to
+auto-intoxication and similar causes, is now thought to be due chiefly
+to dissociation, caused by excessive fatigue--one of the known
+contributory causes to this condition. _Psycho-epilepsy_--a sort of
+fictitious imitation of the real disease--is due to precisely similar
+causes, and may be cured in a similar manner.
+
+A word of caution may not be out of place in this connection. Inasmuch
+as hypnotism is itself a method of inducing a passive psychological
+state--one peculiarly open to suggestion of all kinds--it can readily be
+seen that its employment may be exceedingly dangerous, save in the
+hands of a skilled operator. It may be the very _cause_ of a splitting
+of the mind--if improperly administered--if the patient is not
+thoroughly awakened, the effects of suggestion completely removed, etc.
+In this lies the great danger--of which we hear so much, usually with so
+little foundation! The _real_ danger in the process is thus apparent;
+but, properly applied, hypnotism is doubtless of great therapeutic
+utility and of great practical value to the psychologist.
+
+Just _how_ these dissociations of the mind take place we do not yet know
+with any degree of certainty. We might suppose that certain areas in the
+brain-cortex become detached in their functionings, as it were, from the
+general activities, and set up a little "monarchy" of their
+own--interactions and associations going on within that area, but never
+extending beyond its periphery; that each one of these centres or areas
+corresponds to a "self," a personality; and that a cure consists,
+physiologically speaking, in bringing about a healthy and normal
+interaction between this "self" and the rest of the brain area, so that
+associations go on thenceforward in a complete and uniform manner. But
+this is pure speculation, for which there is no experimental evidence,
+though it probably represents something of the truth. At all events, the
+dissociation of the mind is the chief cause of the trouble, and its
+synthesis the chief means of cure. _That_ much has been rendered certain
+by the newer researches in the field of the subconscious, and by the
+persistent search for that greatest of all secrets--the Mystery of
+Being.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] It can be shown, theoretically, that this is possible in the
+"fourth dimension," but not in the third. This illustrates the
+difference between theory and practice--a point it might be well for
+Christian Scientists to keep in mind!
+
+[21] Although this theory of the "composite" nature of mind is now
+generally held, Mr. Myers has contended that the Self must have a
+_fundamental_ unity--to enable it to withstand the shock of death.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PSYCHIC PHOTOGRAPHY
+
+(_New Experiments_)
+
+
+In my _Modern Psychical Phenomena_ (Chap. viii.) I reproduced a number
+of "spirit" and "thought" photographs, the evidence for which seemed to
+me to be exceptionally good. Since that time, I have received a number
+of "psychic" photographs, from various sources,--some of them obviously
+fraudulent, and some of them extremely puzzling, when the circumstances
+of their production were fairly taken into account. It will be
+remembered, for instance, that I published a number of curious
+photographs obtained by Mr. E. P. Le Flohic, on whose plates curious
+streaks of light were obtained, in a dark room. Since then, I have
+discussed the matter at some length with Mr. Le Flohic, and I am more
+than ever convinced that no conscious trickery was involved in the
+production of these pictures; I have also examined the _negatives_
+(plates), and am prepared to state that no external markings are upon
+them, and that they have not been tampered with in any way. In other
+words, the lights were undoubtedly _in the room_ at the time the plates
+were exposed. Yet no one saw anything unusual! It is a curious and
+baffling case.
+
+Since then, Mr. Le Flohic has tried other experiments, with almost
+uniform failure. In a letter dated August 14, 1920, he says:--
+
+     "... Since resuming my experiments in psychic photography, I have
+     taken about 25 pictures, and with but two exceptions have had no
+     results whatever. One of these I sent you some time ago, and the
+     last one I am sending you under separate cover. (Reproduced as
+     Figs. 1, 2.) I have not had very favourable conditions for
+     experiments, and discontinued them about three weeks ago. I am
+     going to arrange soon to start a series of experiments, by myself,
+     in my private library, and should I get any results, will gladly
+     inform you."
+
+The curious streak of light noted in Fig. 2 is, on any theory, most
+remarkable. The central band seems to be _dark_ in the middle,
+surrounded by a band of light, from which a golden "aura" radiates. The
+sitters saw nothing unusual--either in the dark, or during the
+flash-light, with which this picture was taken.[22]
+
+Among the newer methods of experimentation I may mention "thought
+photography"--in which attempts have been made, by individuals, to
+obtain photographs of their own _thoughts_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This method of obtaining psychic or thought-photographs is
+entirely different from that employed in obtaining so-called
+"spirit-photographs." In the latter case, a camera is focused upon the
+sitter, who "sits" as usual, and the forms appear upon the plate when
+developed. In obtaining thought-photographs, _no camera at all is used_;
+the plates (or films) are carefully wrapped in opaque black paper and
+sealed up, so as to prevent the slightest ray of light from reaching the
+plates. These plates (or films) are then placed against the forehead,
+where they are held for from five minutes to half an hour, or longer,
+according to the patience of the experimenter and the degree of his
+psychic power. An intense effort is made to impress upon the plate, by
+an act of will, a mental picture or image held in the mind. Anything
+will do--the head of an eagle, the sun, the face of a friend. The plate
+is then taken into the dark-room, unwrapped and carefully developed. In
+those cases which have been successful, an image, more or less clear, of
+the picture held in mind will be found upon the plate.
+
+This will, I have no doubt, appear incredible to the average reader. The
+facts, nevertheless, remain! Such photographs _have_ been obtained--in
+America, France, Poland, Japan and other parts of the world. A series of
+careful, simultaneous experiments have proved to us that such
+photographs _can_ be taken, under precisely the conditions I have
+described.
+
+Commandant Darget, of the French army, obtained a number of very
+striking photographs in this manner. A number of these are to be found
+in Joire's book, _Psychical and Supernormal Phenomena_, where we find
+thought-photographs of bottles, a walking-stick, the head of an eagle
+and other subjects obtained in this manner. Writing of the impression of
+the eagle's head, M. Darget says:
+
+     "With regard to the eagle, it was produced in this way: Mme. Darget
+     was in my office, lying on my sofa, about ten o'clock in the
+     evening. I said to her: 'I am about to put out the lamp and to try
+     (as I have already done sometimes) to take a fluidic print over my
+     forehead. I will hand you a plate for you to do it as well.'
+
+     "I therefore handed her a plate, which she held with both her hands
+     about an inch in front of her forehead. A short time afterwards--it
+     might be about ten minutes--she said to me: 'I think I am going
+     asleep; I am very tired: I am going to lie down.' And feeling her
+     way in the darkness, she handed me the plate.
+
+     "I then went to develop it, and was surprised to see this
+     astonishing figure of an eagle. I have called it a
+     'dream-photograph,' although my wife does not remember having
+     dreamed of a bird or anything else while she held the plate."
+
+Dr. Baraduc, of Paris, likewise asserted that he had obtained psychic
+photographs of human radiations and of human thought. For instance,
+calm, peaceful emotions are said to produce pictures of softly
+homogeneous light, or the appearance of a gentle shower of snowflakes
+against a black background; whereas sad or violent passions suggest, in
+the arrangement of the light and shadows, the idea of a whirlpool or
+revolving storm, somewhat like a meteorological diagram representing a
+cyclone. If these photographs are really what they are believed to be,
+they would seem to indicate that, in our ordinary normal condition, we
+emit radiations which are regulated and flow forth in smooth, even
+succession; but when violent emotions, such as anger or fear, break
+through the control of the will and take possession of us, they produce
+a violent and confused emission.
+
+There is no reason, _a priori_, why the soul should not be a
+space-occupying body, save for the tradition of theology. For all that
+we know, the soul might be a point of force, existing within and
+animating some sort of ethereal body, which corresponds, in size and
+shape, to our material body. But at all events, there is an abundance of
+very good testimony to the effect that the shape of the spiritual body
+corresponds to that of the material body; and, as such, it certainly
+occupies space, and possibly has weight also. It might and it might not;
+it is a question of evidence. It will have to be settled, if at all, not
+by speculations, but by _facts_. Are there any facts, then, that would
+seem to indicate that the soul might be photographed? Have we any
+evidence that the soul may be photographed--say, at the moment of death?
+If so, we should have advanced a great step in our knowledge of this
+subject.
+
+Before I adduce the evidence on this point, however, it may be well to
+illustrate the fact that there is no inherent absurdity in the idea, as
+many might suppose. Of course the spiritual body would have to be
+material enough to reflect light waves, but where is the evidence that
+it is not? There seems to be much evidence, on the contrary, that it
+_is_. It must be remembered that the camera will disclose innumerable
+things quite invisible to the naked eye, or even to the eye aided by the
+strongest glasses or telescopes. Normally, we can see but a few hundred
+stars in the sky; with the aid of telescopes, we can see many thousand;
+but the photographic camera discloses more than _twenty million_! Here,
+then, is direct evidence that the camera can observe things which we
+cannot see; and, indeed, this whole process of sight or "seeing" is a
+far more complicated one than most persons imagine. As Sir Oliver Lodge
+has pointed out, there is no reason why we should not be enabled to
+photograph a spirit, when we can photograph an image in a mirror--which
+is composed simply of vibrations, and reflected vibrations at that! We
+are a long way from the tangible thing, in such a case; and yet we are
+enabled to photograph it with an ordinary camera. Any disturbance in the
+ether we should be enabled to photograph likewise--if only we had
+delicate enough instruments, and if the "conditions" for the experiment
+were favourable. The phenomena of spirit-photography, and especially the
+experiments of Dr. Baraduc, to which I shall presently refer, would seem
+to indicate this.
+
+These experiments, as well as those that are about to follow, gain
+greater credibility when considered in the light of the newer
+experimental researches in physics, which demonstrate, apparently, that
+matter can be made to disintegrate and disappear, and can be again
+reformed from invisible vortices in the ether into sufficiently solid
+bodies to be photographed by the sensitive plate. In his remarkable
+work, _The Evolution of Matter_, Dr. Gustave Le Bon has devoted a whole
+section of his argument to what he has denominated "the
+dematerialization of matter." He proves by experiments in the physical
+laboratory that matter can dissociate, and vanish into apparent
+nothingness. What really takes place, however, is that the solid matter,
+as we have been accustomed to conceive it, is resolved into its finer
+constituent parts--not only into the material atoms of which it is
+composed, but these atoms are in turn dissociated and resolved into a
+series of etheric vortices, invisible to normal sense perception.
+Apparently, therefore, matter has ceased to be, as such; and, in fact,
+it has been resolved into energy! Conversely, Dr. Le Bon proved that, by
+producing artificial equilibria of the elements arising from the
+dissociation of matter, he could succeed in creating, with immaterial
+particles, "something singularly resembling matter." These equilibria
+were maintained a sufficient length of time to enable them to be
+photographed.
+
+On p. 164 of Dr. Le Bon's _Evolution of Matter_, are to be found
+photographs of what is practically materialized matter. This author
+says, in part:--
+
+     "Such equilibria can only be maintained for a moment. If we were
+     able to isolate and fix them for good--that is to say, so that they
+     would survive their generating cause--we should have succeeded in
+     creating with immaterial particles something singularly resembling
+     matter. The enormous quantity of energy condensed within the atom
+     shows the impossibility of realizing such an experiment. But, if we
+     cannot with immaterial things effect equilibria, able to survive
+     the cause which gave them birth, we can at least maintain them for
+     a sufficiently long time to photograph them, and thus create a sort
+     of momentary materialization."
+
+If, therefore, physical science now admits, as it does, that
+vibrations, or disturbances in the ether, can be photographed, there is
+no longer any _a priori_ objection to these experiments by Dr.
+Baraduc--which claim, merely, that similar vibrations have been
+photographed--such vibrations being the external modification or
+impression left upon the ether by the causal thought.
+
+So much for theoretical possibilities: now for the facts.
+
+In a remarkable little booklet, entitled, _Unseen Faces Photographed_,
+Dr. H. A. Reid has presented a number of cases of supposed spirit
+photography, some of which are certainly difficult to account for by any
+theory of fraud. It is true that the methods of imitating this process
+by fraudulent means are numerous and ingenious; but practically none of
+them are unknown. In _The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_, pp.
+206-23, I have described these fraudulent methods in considerable
+detail; and have also published an account of a case in which trickery
+was actually detected in the process of operation. (See _Proceedings of
+the American S.P.R._, 1908, vol. ii., pp. 10-13.) But there seem to be
+certain cases on record that are most difficult to account for by any
+theory of trickery--partly because of the excellence of the conditions,
+and partly because of the character of the experimenter. Let us glance
+at one or two of the cases in which the character of the experimenter
+would seem to insure the fact that no conscious and voluntary fraud was
+practised. A resume of a few such cases is to be found in Mr. Edward T.
+Bennett's little book on _Spiritualism_, pp. 113-20.[23] I quote in
+part:--
+
+     "The most notable exception to this (rule of fraud) which I am able
+     to quote is that of the late Mr. J. Traill Taylor, who was for a
+     considerable time the editor of the _British Journal of
+     Photography_. The following quotations are from a paper on 'Spirit
+     Photography' by Mr. Taylor. It was originally read before the
+     London and Provincial Photographic Association in March, 1893, and
+     was reprinted in the _British Journal of Photography_ for March
+     26th, 1904, shortly after Mr. Taylor's death. He says:--
+
+     "'Spirit photography, so called, has of late been asserting its
+     existence in such a manner and to such an extent as to warrant
+     competent men in making an investigation, conducted under stringent
+     test conditions, into the circumstances under which such
+     photographs are produced, and exposing the fraud should it prove to
+     be such, instead of pooh-poohing it as insensate because we do not
+     understand how it can be otherwise--a position that scarcely
+     commends itself as intelligent or philosophical. If, in what
+     follows, I call it "spirit photography," instead of psychic
+     photography, it is only in deference to a nomenclature that
+     extensively prevails.... I approach the subject merely as a
+     photographer.'
+
+     "Mr. Taylor then gives a history of the earlier manifestations of
+     spirit photography, and goes on to explain how striking phenomena
+     in photographing what is invisible to the eye may be produced by
+     the agency of florescence. He quotes the demonstration of Dr.
+     Gladstone, F.R.S., at the Bradford meeting of the British
+     Association in 1873, showing that invisible drawings on white cards
+     have produced bold and clear photographs when no eye could see the
+     drawings themselves. Hence, as Mr. Taylor says: 'The photographing
+     of an invisible image is not scientifically impossible.'
+
+     "Mr. Taylor then proceeds to describe some personal experiments. He
+     says: 'For several years I have experienced a strong desire to
+     ascertain by personal investigation the amount of truth in the
+     ever-recurring allegation that figures, other than those visually
+     present in the room, appeared on the sensitive plate.... Mr. D., of
+     Glasgow, in whose presence psychic photographs have long been
+     alleged to be obtained, was lately in London on a visit, and a
+     mutual friend got him to consent to extend his stay in order that I
+     might try to get a psychic photograph under test conditions. To
+     this he willingly agreed. My conditions were exceedingly simple,
+     were courteously expressed to the host, and entirely acquiesced in.
+     They were that I, for the nonce, would assume them all to be
+     tricksters, and, to guard against fraud, should use my own camera
+     and unopened packages of dry plates purchased from dealers of
+     repute, and that I should be excused from allowing a plate to go
+     out of my own hand till after development, unless I felt otherwise
+     disposed; but that as I was to treat them as under suspicion, so
+     must they treat me, and that every act I performed must be in the
+     presence of two witnesses; nay, that I would set a watch upon my
+     own camera in the guise of a duplicate one of the same focus--in
+     other words, I would use a binocular stereoscopic camera and
+     dictate all the conditions of operation....
+
+     "'Dr. G. was the first sitter, and, for a reason known to myself, I
+     used a monocular camera. I myself took the plate out of a packet
+     just previously ripped up, under the surveillance of my two
+     detectives. I placed the slide in my pocket and exposed it by
+     magnesium ribbon which I held in my own hand, keeping one eye, as
+     it were, on the sitter, and the other on the camera. There was no
+     background. I myself took the plate from the dark slide, and, under
+     the eyes of the two detectives, placed it in the developing dish.
+     Between the camera and the sitter a female figure was developed,
+     rather in a more pronounced form than that of the sitter.... I
+     submit this picture.... I do not recognize her, or any of the other
+     figures I obtained, as like any one I know....
+
+     "'Many experiments of like nature followed; on some plates were
+     abnormal appearances, on others none. All this time Mr. D., the
+     medium, during the exposure of the plates, was quite inactive....
+
+     "'The psychic figures behaved badly. Some were in focus, others not
+     so. Some were lighted from the right, while the sitter was from the
+     left; some were comely ... others not so. Some monopolized the
+     major portion of the plate, quite obliterating the material
+     sitters.... But here is the point: Not one of these figures which
+     came out so strongly in the negative was visible in any form or
+     shape to me during the time of exposure in the camera, and I vouch
+     in the strongest manner for the fact that no one whatever had an
+     opportunity of tampering with any plate anterior to its being
+     placed in the dark slide or immediately preceding development.
+     Pictorially they are vile, but how came they there?
+
+     "'Now, all this time I imagine you are wondering how the
+     stereoscopic camera was behaving itself as such. It is due to the
+     psychic entities to say that whatever was produced on one-half of
+     the stereoscopic plates was produced on the other--alike good or
+     bad in definition. But, on a careful examination of one which was
+     rather better than the other ... I deduce this fact, that the
+     impressing of the spirit form was not simultaneous with that of the
+     sitter.... This I consider an important discovery. I carefully
+     examined one in the stereoscope and found that, while the two
+     sitters were stereoscopic _per se_, the psychic figure was
+     absolutely _flat_! I also found that the psychic figure was at
+     least a millimetre higher up in one than in the other. Now, as both
+     had been simultaneously exposed, it follows to demonstration that,
+     although both were correctly placed, vertically in relation to that
+     particular sitter, behind whom the figure appeared, and not so
+     horizontally, this figure had not only not been impressed on the
+     plate simultaneously with the two gentlemen forming the group, but
+     had _not_ been formed by the lens at all, and that, therefore, the
+     psychic image might be produced _without a camera_. I think this is
+     a fair deduction. But still the question obtrudes: How came these
+     figures there? I again assert that the plates were not tampered
+     with by either myself or any one present. Are they crystallizations
+     of thought? Have lens and light really nothing to do with their
+     formation? The whole subject was mysterious enough on the
+     hypothesis of an invisible spirit--whether a thought projection or
+     an actual spirit, being really there in the vicinity of the
+     sitter--but it is now a thousand times more so....
+
+     "'In the foregoing I have confined myself as closely as possible to
+     narrating how I conducted a photographic experiment open to every
+     one to make, avoiding stating any hypothesis or belief of my own on
+     the subject.'"
+
+Let us now return to some later experiments in psychic photography. Two
+small photographs, one showing a face, the other a series of small
+starlike markings, were sent to me by a member of the Society for the
+Study of Psychic Photography, of England. Writing of these prints, my
+correspondent says:
+
+     "A week or so ago we distributed one hundred and ten strips of
+     sensitive film, in light-tight packages, for friends of the members
+     to 'wear.' This was done with the idea of ascertaining
+     approximately what percentage of individuals possessed this gift.
+     We agreed that the films should be carried about for a week, and
+     where possible worn round the forehead at night. The experiment
+     proved more successful than we had anticipated, since six out of
+     the one hundred and ten films were more or less affected. The two
+     best results are those shown on the prints enclosed herewith." (Not
+     shown.)
+
+These results are quite in keeping with some that have lately been
+obtained in California. In a recent communication which I have received
+from Mr. Vincent Jones, Vice-President of the California Psychical
+Research Society,--under whose auspices the experiment was
+undertaken--he says:--
+
+     "Then we tried thought-photography. I bought some ordinary plates,
+     which were opened in the dark-room of an X-ray laboratory. The
+     plate was inclosed within an envelope of opaque black paper and
+     this in another envelope. It was then suspended about twelve
+     inches in front of the eyes of the sitting experimenter....
+
+     "This experimenter first wrote down on a slip of paper the thing he
+     was going to concentrate on, folded it and handed it to a
+     committee. Then he sat and concentrated for ten minutes. The plate
+     was then developed, and contained the image, clear and strong and
+     unmistakable, of a _cross_. This proved to be the subject handed to
+     the committee." (See Fig. 3.)
+
+In view of the remarkable character of this experiment--as well as its
+importance, and taking into account the apparently excellent conditions
+under which the test was made, I wrote to Mr. Jones, asking him to be
+kind enough to secure, if possible, the statements of any additional
+witnesses who might have been present on this occasion, and he sent me,
+in response to this request, the following affidavit, signed by five of
+the witnesses who were present at the time:
+
+
+               California Psychical Research Society,
+                    San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 3, 1920.
+     Dr. Hereward Carrington.
+     504 West 111th St.
+     New York City.
+
+     Dear Dr. Carrington.
+
+     Enclosed is the print I promised you of the "Thought Photograph"
+     taken by a Committee composed in part of members of the Council of
+     the California Psychical Research Society, in May, 1919. The
+     conditions were as follows: I purchased at Hirsch & Kaye, opticians
+     and photo-supplies, a box of one dozen ordinary rapid Seed plates.
+     I took the box unopened to the Committee meeting, which was held
+     at the X-Ray Laboratory of Preston & Huppert in this city. Mr.
+     Henry Huppert, Dr. Frank Collins, Dr. Cecil Nixon and myself went
+     into the dark room, where Mr. Huppert opened the box of plates,
+     took one at random from the centre of the package, enclosed it
+     inside an opaque black envelope, and this again inside another
+     yellow envelope and sealed it. This was taken outside and suspended
+     about 12 inches in front of our subject, who was seated and had
+     previously written down what he would concentrate upon, and handed
+     the memo to Dr. Collins. The subject drew a rough outline of the
+     object of his concentration, gazed fixedly upon it for about 5
+     minutes, then put it aside and for ten minutes concentrated upon
+     the plate without touching the same. The plate was immediately
+     taken into the dark room and developed, and the image of the cross
+     developed at once, clear and strong. One of the Committee was in
+     the room with the subject during the whole time, and there was no
+     opportunity for any tampering with the plate. The object developed
+     proved to be the one previously written down and handed to Dr.
+     Collins.
+
+               Yours very truly,
+
+                    Vincent Jones,
+                    Frank T. Collins, D.O.,
+                    J. C. Anthony, M.D.,
+                    Cecil E. Nixon, D.O.S.,
+                    Henry K. Huppert.
+
+     [Illustration: "Thought Photograph" (3)]
+
+
+Supplementing this formal report, Mr. Vincent Jones sent me the
+following letter, in answer to my questions, which I also quote:--
+
+
+                    San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 10, 1920.
+     Dr. Hereward Carrington.
+     504 West 111th St.
+     New York City.
+
+     Dear Dr. Carrington.
+
+     Here is the signed statement I promised you, and the better print
+     of the cross photo. The others who were present at the experiments
+     are not where I can reach them at present, but the five whose
+     signatures are appended to the accompanying statement are the
+     best-known of the eight who were present,--men whose testimony in a
+     court of law would be accepted without question. Dr. Frank Collins
+     is, or was, President of the Osteopaths' Association, a
+     Spiritualist, student of Astrology and mystical subjects, and a
+     member of the Council of the California Psychical Research Society.
+     Dr. J. C. Anthony is a well and favorably known physician, who has
+     practised here for many years, also a member of our Council. Dr.
+     Cecil E. Nixon is a Dentist, best known as a Magician, and as the
+     inventor of "Isis," a wonderful automaton which plays any tune you
+     request of her on the zither. Mr. Henry Huppert is one of the
+     partners in the Preston-Huppert X-Ray Laboratory, a man with
+     scientific training and a student of the Occult.
+
+     Such a thing as substitution by the subject of another plate for
+     the one we suspended before him was out of the question for two
+     reasons. First, he was not left alone. Second, he did not know in
+     advance just what was to be the nature of our experiment. When Mr.
+     Huppert broke the seal on the box of plates, in the presence of the
+     Committee of four, in the dark room, and selected one at random
+     from the centre of the box, and enclosed it in the two envelopes,
+     he not only sealed the envelopes but marked the envelopes, so that
+     he would know if they had been tampered with. They could not have
+     been opened without destroying these marks. Furthermore, in the
+     room where the experiment was conducted, there was an ordinary
+     electric light burning, and no substitution could have been made
+     without affecting the plate. It could not have been possible that
+     the subject, being previously unaware of the exact nature of the
+     contemplated experiment, could have provided himself with plates of
+     the same size and envelopes of two colours and of identically the
+     same paper as those used in the X-Ray Laboratory. If anything
+     happened to the plate it happened _through_ the paper of the
+     envelopes. But, as I have said, one of the committee was in the
+     room during the whole experiment. The sole possibility of fraud was
+     for the subject to have come prepared with a cross painted with
+     radio-active paint, and to have held this against the envelopes
+     whilst the Committee was off its guard. But the character of the
+     subject is sufficient guarantee to all of us that such was not the
+     case. I admit that to those who do not know him, this would furnish
+     no guarantee, and that for this reason we should have taken even
+     more stringent precautions. Had we known that such a result was to
+     be obtained we probably would have done this, but we were just a
+     company of friends who had gathered to try what we might
+     accomplish, after having read of Colonel de Rochas' experiments
+     along this line. We trusted one another, and so it is barely
+     possible that for a moment some one who was supposed to be
+     watching the subject was off his guard. Therein lies the sole
+     possibility of fraud in this result, and, as I said, this is out of
+     the question with us who know the character of the subject.
+
+               Yours very truly,
+
+                    Vincent Jones,
+                    215 Balboa Bldg.
+
+     P. S. The reason we were not all in the room with the subject
+     during the trial was that we were trying to do the same thing
+     ourselves. I was concentrating upon a V, with a film on my
+     forehead, and the others were trying it either with film or plate.
+     Only one other secured anything at all, and that was but a blur.
+     Our subject who did get the Cross result is a very highly developed
+     mystic with remarkable powers of concentration, but modest about
+     his powers and for that reason, and because he is extremely busy,
+     we have not been able to repeat the experiment with him since. V.
+     J.
+
+As might be expected, many of these "psychic photographs" take on the
+characteristics of "spirit-photographs," in that they show definitely
+recognizable _forms_. This is especially true of a number of psychic
+photographs which were recently taken at Crewe, England, in the presence
+of two non-professional mediums, who have, nevertheless, obtained
+hundreds of successful photographs in this manner. Regarding their
+experiments, a correspondent writes me:
+
+     "They are not professionals and charge no fee. A nominal charge is
+     made for prints.... I do not know of any one who has sat with the
+     Crewe circle who has not been satisfied that fraud, at any rate,
+     will not explain these things. Those who have _not_ been and who
+     know nothing of the subject, say just the opposite.... Many of the
+     results in themselves rule out faking. I have had many sittings
+     with these mediums and have not the slightest doubt whatever
+     regarding their absolute genuineness. In fact, in some of the tests
+     I have carried out with them, faking would have been quite
+     impossible, even had they been desirous of tricking. I speak as an
+     amateur photographer of many years' standing, in touch with
+     photography every working day of his life."
+
+Several photographs obtained at this now-famous Crewe circle are
+reproduced herewith. Certainly it is true that such photographs might be
+obtained by means of double exposure, double printing and other devices;
+but the point is that we have the word of an expert photographer that
+they were _not_ produced in this manner; and when once their genuine
+character is admitted, they assume very great interest, no matter what
+view we may care to take as to the results.
+
+Miss Estelle Stead, daughter of the late W. T. Stead, writing of her
+experiences with this same group of psychics, says:
+
+     "I have several times, since he passed on, obtained photos of my
+     father on the same plate I took with me, _under the most rigid
+     test-conditions_--on plates which I have never let out of my sight,
+     save for the few moments they were in the camera for my photo to be
+     taken.
+
+     "I also obtained a splendid photo of my brother, who passed over in
+     1907. He promised that before I went for the sitting he would be
+     photographed instead of Father, if he could manage it. I said
+     nothing of this to the lady who sat with me for the photograph to
+     be taken, or to the photographer. I put my own marked plate in the
+     slide myself, and stood by while it was developed. My brother's
+     face appeared quite as plainly as mine, and has been recognized by
+     many who knew him in life. He was seldom photographed while here,
+     and certainly _never_ with his head in exactly the position it is
+     in this photograph, received nine years after his death.
+
+     "It is only natural that those who have passed over in the war
+     should, when conditions allow, use this means of establishing their
+     identity, and many have done so successfully! One case of
+     particular interest is that of a boy who was blown to pieces in
+     France last year. His mother wrote in great distress to a friend in
+     Edinburgh stating that the boy had been killed. This friend had not
+     seen the boy since his school-days, but being interested in
+     spiritualism, and able to get in touch with those on the 'other
+     side,' she asked her father, who had passed over, if it would be
+     possible for the boy to be photographed. He said it was doubtful,
+     but they would do their best. She therefore made arrangements to
+     have a sitting with the Crewe mediums, who possess this power which
+     enables those on the other side to manifest sufficiently to be
+     photographed.
+
+     [Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (4, 5)]
+
+     "Two plates were exposed, and on one side, beside the photo of the
+     lady herself, there is an unmistakable photo of the boy. I have
+     seen it, and a photo of the boy taken before he went to France,
+     and there is no mistaking the likeness. She sent the pictures to
+     his parents, who before this had not been believers in the
+     possibility of communication with those who have passed on--with
+     the result that they are now convinced of it, and have received
+     several comforting and assuring messages from their boy."
+
+We see how imperceptibly ordinary psychic photographs shade off into
+those more definitely spiritistic in character. This is true in nearly
+all phenomena in this realm. It is hard to draw any hard-and-fast line,
+and say: "_This_ is due to powers within our own being, and _this_ is
+due to external spiritual beings!" They merge one into the other so
+gradually that it is extremely difficult to draw any line of demarcation
+between the two.
+
+Certainly _some_ of these photographs are due to the thoughts or other
+psychic activities of the sitter. Thus we can hardly suppose that the
+"spirits" of bottles, walking-sticks and eagles (as in Darget's
+experiments) were actually present, and that they impressed themselves
+upon the photographic plate! Again, some pictures show us a definite
+_face_, which we cannot attribute to any outside influence. The
+experimenter merely _thought_ of the face, and it appeared upon the
+plate. This being so, how can we _ever_ obtain proof that the forms and
+faces which appear upon photographic plates are those of discarnate
+spirits,--even though they appear and are recognized,--since we know
+that mental images or memories of faces have been photographed in just
+this manner?
+
+That is indeed a difficult problem: it is very like that which
+confronts us in the case of any good trance-medium. Inasmuch as
+telepathy is a fact, and the medium almost certainly derives _some_ of
+the facts from one's mind, or from the minds of other living people, how
+can we ever prove "survival"--the actual communication of our spirit
+friends?
+
+We can only apply the same sort of tests in the one case as in the
+other. We must discount all those facts which might possibly have been
+obtained normally, or by telepathy, and pin our faith on those which
+could not possibly, or conceivably, have been obtained in this way.
+Similarly, we must assume that all psychic photographs represent normal
+markings upon the plates, or the emotions or thoughts of the sitter, or
+the vital radiations issuing from his body, until indisputable proof to
+the contrary be forthcoming. (It may be added that some very striking
+evidence of identity has been obtained in this manner, from time to time
+in the past, and is now being obtained in various circles both in this
+country and abroad.)
+
+Regarding these "vital radiations" issuing from the body, a number of
+interesting experiments were undertaken in this connection in Poland,
+Paris and elsewhere. M. Durville obtained imprints of hands, from which
+emanated streaks of light, as though the hands were radio-active; indeed
+in no other way can we account for these results.
+
+[Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (6, 7)]
+
+I next present a remarkable series of photographs, kindly lent to me by
+Lady Glenconner,--to whom I am indebted for permission to reproduce
+them. These photographs were taken at the "Crewe Circle," in the
+presence of Mr. Hope, the medium. Personally, I have never had the
+opportunity to attend a Crewe seance, and hence cannot speak of the
+evidential value of these pictures from first-hand evidence. All I can
+say is that Mr. Hope is not a professional "medium," in the usual sense
+of the term, since he receives no payment for his services; that no
+evidence of fraud, in connection with his photographs, has ever been
+forthcoming; and that rigid test conditions have, apparently, been
+enforced on a number of occasions, when successful "extras" were
+obtained upon the plates. In practically all the cases known to me, the
+sitters provided their own marked plates, placed them in the camera
+themselves, took them out themselves, and developed them themselves.
+Such, I understand, were the conditions under which the accompanying
+photographs were obtained. All that Mr. Hope does is to place his
+(opened) hands upon the plate-_holders_, after the plates have been
+inserted therein, and before these are placed in the camera. It is
+during this period that the psychic "extras," appearing upon the plates,
+are thought to appear; or at all events it is this "magnetizing" of the
+plates which renders them susceptible to impressions which would not be
+recorded upon ordinary plates. How far this belief of the sitters
+coincides with the actual facts of course I cannot say.
+
+The first photograph shows us Lady Glenconner, seated, with a
+clearly-defined face over her right arm. This face is enshrouded in the
+same curious mist-like "clothing," common to "spirit" photographs, and
+materialized forms, and especially evident in all the Crewe pictures.
+The face is, I understand, recognizable as that of a lost friend. (Fig.
+4.)
+
+The second photograph is one of Lady Glenconner and her son,--a faint,
+whitish mist appearing over (or on) her left shoulder. This is
+interesting for the reason that, some time before this picture was
+taken, a "spirit" had announced through another medium in London that
+_he would appear in one of Hope's photographs and place his hand on her
+left shoulder_. Within the whitish mist-like mass, a hand and arm are
+clearly distinguishable, upon close examination. (Fig. 5.) In photograph
+number 6 (with a different sitter) the _double_ impression of a face is
+clearly seen, almost obliterating the face of the sitter. These faces
+appear _sideways_, and represent a woman's face,--wearing glasses! This
+same woman's face appears in the next picture (No. 7) no less than three
+times; the uppermost face is the clearest, the one to the right next
+best, while the lowermost "face" is little more than a misty
+impression,--in which, however, the eyes are quite clear. This
+photograph is, on any theory, it seems to me, a very striking and
+suggestive one, and seems to indicate that the "spirit" attempted three
+different times to appear and impress the plate, with the greatest
+strength the first time, and with gradually diminishing energy or power
+thereafter. This, at least, is the appearance of the facts, and such an
+interpretation is, it may be said, in strict conformity with the
+statements made through Mrs. Piper, and other reliable mediums, as to
+the difficulties actually experienced, in attempting to "communicate."
+To my mind,--though I do not know the precise conditions under which the
+picture was obtained--this is a most suggestive and remarkable
+photograph, strongly indicative of the spiritistic theory.
+
+[Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (8, 9)]
+
+In the next illustration (No. 8), a white cloud appears over the
+sitter's head. There are traces of two "faces" in this cloud, but they
+are too uncertain to be emphasized. In the next picture, however (No.
+9), a face, clearly visible, and enveloped in the usual white mist-like
+drapery, appears. It is to be noted that the "face" is, in this case,
+about twice the size of the sitters' heads, as though the "extra" were
+much nearer the camera. It is, however, still in focus!
+
+Photograph No. 10 shows us Lady Glenconner, and upon the plate a number
+of "extras" appearing at various "angles" in relation to the sitter's
+head--some of them at right angles, some of them upside down, etc. (The
+"cracks" are merely defects upon the plate.) Upon examination, it will
+be seen that all these faces represent one man, who, apparently, has
+made a number of separate attempts to "appear" at this sitting. An
+enlargement of this face is given in photograph No. 11, where the
+features are quite distinguishable. There are several peculiarities
+about this face, however, which a closer examination will reveal. The
+enormous left ear is one of these--mal-formed, or as though in the
+process of formation. The right side of the head, on the other hand, is
+partly enveloped in a whitish cloud, through which the outline of the
+face is faintly perceptible. Further impressions of this same face are
+shown in photograph No. 12, when several "impressions" were again
+obtained, all clearly recognizable. In the right-hand photograph, the
+whitish mass seems to have been just removed from about the head, and it
+will be seen that part of this still remains, like a thin veil, in
+front of the _lower_ part of the face (under the eyes) and up the
+left-hand side of the head. This, to me, is a very curious circumstance.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *
+
+Having thus "cleared the ground," so to speak, let us now consider the
+more startling statements and experiments by Dr. Baraduc, summarized by
+him in his work, _Mes Morts; leurs Manifestations_, etc., later on in
+the account.
+
+[Illustration: "Psychic Photographs" (10, 11, 12)]
+
+At a quarter-past nine, on a certain memorable day in April, 1907, died
+Andre M. Joseph Baraduc, at the age of nineteen years. Throughout his
+life there had been a close bond of affection between himself and his
+father, and we are assured that during the lifetime of the son,
+telepathic communication had been frequent between them. When he was but
+nineteen it was discovered that Andre was suffering from that dread
+disease, consumption; and henceforward he grew rapidly worse, dying
+within the year. Toward the close of this year he made two visits to
+Lourdes, without, however, receiving much benefit in either case, and
+returning apparently without augmented faith in the cures brought about
+at that centre. Andre was exceedingly religious in temperament, as was
+his father, and both were given to experiments in psychic research. We
+are informed that, during the lifetime of the son, his "astral" form had
+been experimentally separated from his bodily frame on more than one
+occasion. It was only natural to suppose, therefore, that, at the death
+of this favourite son, the father's grief should be so intense that the
+emotional reflex found expression in various visions and apparent
+conversations with the dead boy. For within six hours after the death
+of Andre, the son appeared to his father, and thenceforth many
+apparitions were seen, and several long conversations were apparently
+held between father and son. Of course, these in themselves would, under
+the circumstances, have no evidential value, since it is only natural to
+suppose that hallucinations, both of sight and hearing, would result in
+a mind so wrought.
+
+These subjective and apparently telepathic experiences of Dr. Baraduc
+cannot, therefore, be considered of value; but the objective
+experiences--that is to say, the experiments performed by him are of
+great interest, since one can hardly suppose that the camera can be
+hallucinated, because of the grief of the photographer! The impressions
+left upon the plates, then, such as they are, have their evidential and
+scientific value, and it is to a consideration of these photographs that
+we now turn.
+
+Nine hours after the death of Andre, Dr. Baraduc took the first
+photograph of the coffin in which the body was deposited. When this
+plate was developed, it was discovered that, emanating from the coffin,
+was a formless, misty, wave-like mass, radiating in all directions with
+considerable force, impinging upon the bodies of those who came into
+close proximity to the coffin, as though attracted to them by some
+magnetic force. On one occasion, indeed, the force of this projected
+fluidic emanation was so great that Dr. Baraduc received an electric
+shock from head to foot, which produced a temporary vertigo. Emerging
+from the body are dark, tree-shaped emanations, issuing in formal lines,
+which gradually diverge, and become more and more attenuated and misty
+as they recede further and further from the body. Although this
+photograph[24] does not in itself prove anything supernormal, it is
+highly suggestive, and it aroused Dr. Baraduc's interest in the subject,
+and enabled him to pursue his more conclusive experiments immediately
+upon the death of his wife. (Figs. 13, 14.)
+
+Six months after the death of Andre, Nadine, Dr. Baraduc's wife and the
+mother of Andre, passed quietly away, giving vent, at the moment of her
+death, to "three gentle sighs." Remembering the result of the former
+experiments (photographing the body of Andre shortly after his death),
+Dr. Baraduc had prepared a camera beside the bed of his wife, and, at
+the moment of her death, photographed the body, and shortly after
+developed the plate. Upon it were found three luminous globes resting a
+few inches above the body. These gradually condensed and became more
+brilliant. Streaks of light, like fine threads, were also seen darting
+hither and thither. A quarter of an hour after the death of his wife,
+Dr. Baraduc took another photograph. Fluidic cords were seen to have
+developed, partly encircling these globes of light. At three o'clock in
+the afternoon, or an hour after her death, another photograph was taken.
+It will be seen from this photograph that the three globes of light have
+condensed and coalesced into one, obscuring the head of Madame Baraduc,
+and developing towards the right. Cords were formed in the shape of a
+figure eight, closed at the top, and opened at the point nearest the
+body. Thus, as the globe develops in one direction, the cords seem to
+become more tense, and pull in the opposite direction. The separation
+becomes more and more complete, until finally, three and a half hours
+after death, a well-formed globe rested above the body, apparently held
+together by the encircling, luminous cords, which seemed also to guide
+and control it. At this moment, the globe becomes separated from the
+body, and, guided by the cords, floats into Dr. Baraduc's bedroom. He
+speaks to the globe intensely; the globe thereupon approaches him, and
+he feels an icy cold breeze, which seems to surround and issue from the
+ball of light. It then floats away and disappears.
+
+[Illustration: "Photographs of the Soul" (13, 14)]
+
+Frequently, within the next few days after these experiments, Dr.
+Baraduc saw similar globes in various parts of the house. By means of
+automatic writing, obtained through the hand of a non-professional
+psychic, he succeeded at last in establishing communication with this
+luminous ball, and was informed that it was the encasement of Madame
+Baraduc's soul, which was still active and alive within it! It was
+asserted that, as the days progressed, the encircling cords were one by
+one snapped, and that the spirit more nearly assumed the astral body
+facsimile of the earthly body. Andre, however, was seen by him to be a
+completely developed astral body; and his wife asserted that she too
+would shortly take her place beside Andre in her permanent form. As
+further photographs were not developed, however, there is no
+experimental evidence confirming these statements.
+
+Although these initial experiments of Dr. Baraduc cannot, of themselves,
+be considered conclusive, they are nevertheless highly interesting, and
+should lead to further research in the same direction. The evidence
+afforded by apparitions, single and collective; by haunted houses; the
+indirect testimony afforded by the apparent psychic perception by
+animals; the evidence, such as it is, for "spirit photography"; the
+recent experiments in thought-photography, and the photographs made at
+the seances of Eusapia Palladino, all tend to confirm, it seems to me,
+the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Baraduc, as the result of his
+preliminary researches. If an astral body of some sort exists, it must
+occupy space; and, being space-occupying, must, _a priori_, be material
+enough to occupy it! Whether or not this material is sufficiently solid
+to reflect light waves, and make an impression upon the sensitive plate
+of the camera, is an aspect of the problem still open to debate.
+
+Further indirect testimony is afforded by the statements of
+clairvoyants, and by the direct testimony (taking it for what it is
+worth) of so-called "spirits" who communicate their sensations and the
+knowledge they have gained after bodily death. They invariably assert
+that there _is_ an astral facsimile, or spiritual replica, of the
+physical body. Repellent as the idea may be to some of a semi-material,
+space-occupying soul, the facts would seem to indicate that such is
+true. Yet there might be a way out of the difficulty, since we might
+still suppose that the soul, or seat of consciousness, exists as a point
+of force within this spiritual organism. Whichever theory is ultimately
+proved correct cannot, of course, be settled by _a priori_ speculation,
+but by _facts_; and such experiments as those conducted by Dr. Baraduc
+in "photographing the soul" are, perhaps, the best line of investigation
+to follow, and one from which,--with the improvements in
+photography,--the most is to be hoped.
+
+The reader now has the facts before him. I have no theory to offer as to
+the nature of these photographs, save that they appear to me to be
+genuine and supernormal from all the evidence and testimony that I have
+been enabled to obtain. In my _Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_ I
+have explained a number of ways in which fraudulent "spirit" photographs
+can be obtained; and in _Modern Psychical Phenomena_ I reproduced a
+number of photographs which seemed to me to be supported by excellent
+testimony, and which were, so far as I could see, genuine psychic
+photographs. In that volume I also discussed the various _theories_
+which have been advanced in the past to explain these extraordinary
+photographs. The present collection is intended merely to supplement the
+former, and to present a number of photographs the solution for which
+is, it seems to me, yet to be found.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[22] Regarding the earlier photographs, however (those obtained by Mrs.
+Dupont Lee), further evidence has caused me to modify my belief in their
+supernormal value, and I should now attach no "evidential value" to them
+at all, strictly speaking. In an excellent criticism of the Lee
+photographs, published in the _Proceedings_, Amer. S.P.R., vol. xiii.
+pp. 529-87, Dr. Walter F. Prince has shown the undoubtedly fraudulent
+character of the Lee photographs--certainly those with which Keeler had
+anything to do. The others are still _sub judice_.
+
+[23] T. C. and E. C. Jack, Edinburgh.
+
+[24] Not reproduced here.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HALLUCINATION AND THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF SPIRITUALISM[25]
+
+
+The discussion begun by Count Solovovo, and continued by Miss
+Johnson,[26] is assuredly of supreme importance to psychical research.
+Whether or no many of the alleged "physical phenomena" are genuine, or
+whether they are merely hallucinatory in character, is a question which
+involves--not only the phenomena themselves, but psychology and human
+life in general, and even influences strongly science and scientific
+experiments in other fields.... The senses are to be relied upon in
+every science other than psychic research; that seems to be the _dictum_
+of the world, and strange and even absurd as it may seem, it is, as we
+know, more or less founded upon fact. In no other science is fraud
+practised as it is in this; in practically no other line of research are
+the mental and physical powers so strained out of their usual or normal
+relations and perceptions as they are in this. It is only right, then,
+that Caution should be the password, and should be most rigidly employed
+in all such investigations as these.
+
+While admitting all this, however, one must also admit that it is easy
+to go too far in the opposite direction, and reject evidence which
+depends upon the senses simply _because_ they depend upon them. This, I
+think, is invalid reasoning. No one would be more willing than I to
+admit their fallibility and untrustworthiness--especially when we are
+dealing with conditions and phenomena where mal-observation is possible;
+but I do not think that any negative conclusion can be drawn from this.
+The case is still an open one; nothing is _proved_, one way or the
+other, and, in such work as ours, proof--and not mere conjecture--must
+be forthcoming. Very true it is that proof of the sort desired is often
+impossible; but it is obtained sometimes. If a medium be caught
+masquerading in a white muslin "robe" and a mask, we are doubtless
+within our rights in saying that the medium has been _proved_ a fraud.
+But failure to detect such trickery does not prove the phenomena
+genuine. That would depend upon other considerations, and would only
+raise a _presumption_ in favour of their authenticity. In such a case,
+"proof" is largely a question of relative probability, and can be
+obtained only by making the probability in favour of the reality of the
+phenomena so strong that the negative aspect is rendered logically
+unsound by the sheer weight of evidence against it.
+
+These trite remarks were nevertheless rendered necessary because of the
+enormous amount of misunderstanding which exists in connection with
+these phenomena, and of the general methods and objects of psychic
+research. The papers that have already been published on the question of
+hallucination in relation to the physical phenomena should do much to
+clear away many of these misconceptions, for in them we find (i) a
+willingness to treat the phenomena seriously; (ii) an admission that the
+witnesses described what they thought they saw; and (iii) a certain
+amount of evidence advanced to show that the alleged phenomena were in
+reality hallucinatory in character, while appearing to be external
+physical realities to the onlookers. Let us now examine the evidence
+advanced, and see in how far it is conclusive of the theory
+entertained--the hypothesis of hallucination.
+
+As both Count Solovovo and Miss Johnson have concentrated their
+attention upon the phenomena occurring in the presence of D. D. Home, I
+shall do so likewise in the first part of this chapter. As briefly as
+possible, I shall review their papers, before passing on to more general
+remarks--remarks which it is the object of this paper to bring into
+prominence.
+
+Count Solovovo thinks that it is evidence in favour of the
+hallucination theory that: "A flower or other small object is seen to
+move; one person present will see a luminous cloud hovering over it,
+another will detect a nebulous-looking hand, whilst others will see
+nothing but the moving flower."[27]
+
+Miss Johnson agrees with this, and in fact goes so far as to say: "If
+these hands had been completely invisible to some person with normal
+sight looking directly at them in a good light, we should then have good
+evidence that they were hallucinatory."[28]
+
+To this I cannot agree. I find myself completely differing from Miss
+Johnson in my interpretation of such an incident as this. For, while
+hallucination is one possible theory to account for the phenomena,
+another equally plausible theory is that the hands were in fact
+objective and real, but were only perceptible to various individuals in
+varying degrees. This aspect of the problem is hardly touched upon by
+Count Solovovo, but is discussed at some length by Miss Johnson. In this
+connection she says:
+
+     "Here [in the hand, i.e.] is a kind of matter which is not only
+     temporary in character--a fact in itself extraordinary enough--but
+     exhibits another quite unprecedented characteristic in the
+     arbitrary selectiveness of its effects on other matter. In order to
+     be visible at all, it must reflect light. How does it manage to
+     reflect light that affects the retina of one person and not the
+     retina of another? We may reply that the difference must lie in the
+     retinae, one being more sensitive than the other. But we do not
+     find the same difference of sensitivity in regard to the light
+     reflected from ordinary objects. It seems to follow then that the
+     light reflected from the spirit-hand is a peculiar kind of light,
+     lying outside the limits of the ordinary visible spectrum. But in
+     that case, why is not the person with the more sensitive retina
+     affected by it? For of course all ordinary objects are constantly
+     giving off radiations outside the limits of the visible spectrum;
+     but our supposed sensitive apparently does not perceive them."[29]
+
+First, as to the matters of fact. Where is the evidence that those with
+the most sensitive retinae were not the very ones who perceived, most
+perfectly, the spirit-hand? Were a series of experiments conducted to
+show which of the onlookers possessed the most sensitive eyes? If so,
+where are these experiments recorded? It is quite possible that the body
+is constantly giving off a kind of _aura_--perceptible to some,
+invisible to others; and the fact that some do not see it is no proof
+that it is not there. If the experiments of Reichenbach and others go
+for anything, indeed, there is very good evidence that such emanations
+do take place--and I venture to think (however rank heresy this may
+appear) that these experiments have never been completely refuted, and
+the results obtained shown to be traceable _in toto_ to suggestion. The
+eyes of certain individuals might be attuned to receive vibrations or
+impressions quite imperceptible to others, no matter how sensitive their
+retinae to normal perceptions or sensations.
+
+But, quite apart from such purely "physical" speculations, I can quite
+conceive that these hands were not "seen" in the ordinary sense of the
+word at all. The physical eyes may have played some part in their
+perception, but only a small part. It is quite possible that "hands" of
+the character here seen were active and functioning upon another plane
+altogether than the sense plane, and were perceived at the time by a
+species of _clairvoyance_. What "clairvoyance" is I do not pretend to
+know (unless spiritism be true, in which case I can quite easily
+conceive its _modus operandi_), but the mass of evidence in its favour
+seems to place it quite beyond the pale of doubt. But even if this be
+not granted, I can quite see how a certain _rapport_ between the sitter
+and the hand--or the intelligence behind the hand--might easily enable
+one sitter to perceive it, and not another. Analogies from trance
+phenomena and even from experimental thought-transference might be drawn
+here, in favour of such a theory. The whole theory of apparitions at the
+moment of death depends upon this established _rapport_, since, if it
+did not exist, and affect the results, the apparition might just as well
+appear to Tom, Dick, and Harry as to the percipient--and the percipient
+is such (supposedly) simply by reason of this pre-established _rapport_.
+
+There might be, then, a certain _rapport_ between some sitters and a
+plane of activity upon which such hands manifest, enabling these
+individuals to see the hands, while prohibiting others from seeing them.
+The receptivity or capacity might indicate a greater or lesser degree of
+psychic capacity--they would be "more mediumistic." That is, the more
+mediumistic the sitter, the more likely would he be to perceive such
+hands. And of course we all know in this connection that mediums or
+psychics in a circle will perceive hands and faces and other forms quite
+invisible to the ordinary observer. The usual recourse in such cases is
+to assume that the mediums are fraudulently in league with one another;
+but when unprofessional psychics experience the same sensations (or
+perceptions) there is good ground for calling a halt, and asking whether
+or not the sensations were not possibly genuine in the case of the
+professional medium also.
+
+In other words, and to summarize this part of the discussion, I can only
+say that there seems to me no valid reason for thinking that the
+spirit-hands in Home's seances were probably hallucinatory in character
+because only some of the sitters saw them. They might just as well be
+explained by supposing that certain of the sitters were more psychic or
+mediumistic than the others, and these saw--clairvoyantly or by some
+similar mode of psychic perception--hands and forms invisible to those
+less sensitive. It need hardly be said that the carrying about of
+objects by these hands renders their objective nature and existence far
+more probable than if such movements had never taken place. These
+physical phenomena remain, no matter what view we take of the visible
+(or invisible) hands.
+
+In speaking next of Home's "full-form phantasms," Miss Johnson draws
+attention to the fact, so often pointed out by Mr. Podmore, that the
+various witnesses in subsequent accounts do not describe the phenomena
+in the same terms or in precisely the same manner. The narrative differs
+in the various accounts, and the phenomena appear far more remarkable
+in some than in others. The inference is that none of them is
+right--certainly not the more remarkable ones--and that the inaccuracy
+of the reports invalidates the records.
+
+Now I have nothing to say against this method _as_ a method. But I think
+it can be pushed too far and wrong deductions drawn therefrom. It is
+right to discount the value of the evidence, but that is a different
+thing from discrediting it altogether. If individual records differ when
+describing any particular phenomenon it is right that the less
+marvellous be accepted as the more probable; but this is not saying that
+the phenomenon did not take place at all! Any two accounts of a given
+phenomenon must necessarily differ--more or less, according to
+circumstances. But if all the accounts obviously concern a given
+phenomenon, and if they agree, even in the essential outlines, it is
+probable that the event resembled the description more or less; and if
+in all these accounts there is no evidence of fraud forthcoming, and no
+indications that it existed, we must take it for granted that no
+suspicious circumstances were noted and no fraud detected--for otherwise
+it would have found its way into the records. And the fact that it never
+did find its way into any of them (with one doubtful exception,
+_Journal, S.P.R._, vol. iv. pp. 120-21, and Jan. and May 1903) seems to
+indicate, not that the phenomena were necessarily genuine, but that the
+central theme of the account, so to speak--the phenomenon--was seen
+alike by all, and was variously described by the witnesses afterward in
+the subsequent reports. The minor discrepancies do not suffice to
+explain away the phenomenon altogether. They serve merely to render it
+less marvellous. Many psychic researchers, however, seem to imagine that
+because the various accounts do not agree, the fact recorded probably
+did not occur at all. That is surely an entirely unwarranted
+supposition, and were this carried to its logical conclusion, would
+suffice to disprove the whole of the past history of the human race.
+
+Miss Johnson's discussion of Home's famous levitation out of one window
+and in at another is surely masterly, and is precisely the kind of
+criticism which psychic research needs. After reading her account, I can
+only say that were this case an isolated incident, unsupported by any
+similar eases of a like nature, it would be so far "explained away" as
+to lose all evidential value. At the same time I think that Count
+Solovovo sums the whole argument up when he says that none of Home's
+phenomena were ever _proved_ to be hallucinatory; all that has been done
+by the discussion is to show that some of them _might possibly_ have
+been so. And there is a great difference between the two. There is a
+natural tendency in many minds to assume and take for granted that
+because a given phenomenon might possibly have been produced by fraud,
+it was unquestionably produced in that manner. That is quite an
+unwarranted supposition, and fraud should be clearly _proved_ in every
+given instance before a medium be charged with trickery. This is a rule
+far too seldom observed by sceptical investigators, but an important one
+nevertheless.
+
+Leaving aside this particular case of Home's levitation, however, it may
+be said that there are others on record far more conclusive in
+character, and against which many of Miss Johnson's criticisms could
+not be levelled. Taken singly, it is probable that no single case of any
+class of phenomena would prove convincing to a sceptic; sufficient
+objections could be raised, and sufficient discrepancies in the records
+pointed out, to invalidate any evidence whatever. Quite apart from any
+_a priori_ objections, any single incident can almost invariably be
+"explained away." It is the weight of a great _mass_ of cumulative
+evidence which tells the tale. The most expert and exact description of
+the fall of a meteor would not have forced an acceptance from the
+scientific world; the relative improbability of the whole of the past
+experience of the human race would have been so much greater than the
+fact that the latter would have been discredited. Gradually it would
+have receded in the mind, and even the original witness might ultimately
+be persuaded that he had not in reality seen a meteor at all!
+
+And so it is with psychic research; and so it is with the theory under
+discussion. No single incident, taken by itself, can be said to prove
+anything; only the great mass of facts, taken together, and all pointing
+in the same direction, can be said to do so. One can quite see how this
+would be the case, e.g. in Mrs. Piper's automatic utterances or
+writings. No matter how conclusive any individual "test" might be, it
+would prove nothing by itself. No matter how well attested an apparition
+at the moment of death, singly it would indicate no telepathic
+communication nor other supernormal factor at work. But together these
+cases form a strand[30] which becomes too strong to be broken, and
+which, taken together, practically prove telepathic communication at the
+moment of death--at least so thought Professor Sidgwick's Committee, of
+which Miss Johnson was one member. (See _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. x.
+p. 394.)
+
+In Home's case, then, the evidence for his levitation phenomena rests,
+not on any one case taken by itself, but on the mass of cumulative
+testimony offered by scores of witnesses. However completely one case
+might be explained away, the other cases still remain to us--each case
+standing on its own merits, and many of them excellently observed, if
+not so well recorded. For example, the cases mentioned by Sir. William
+Crookes (_Journal, S.P.R._, vol. vi. p. 342) are certainly far superior,
+in point of observation, to the famous case so severely criticized by
+Miss Johnson. And I think that if one is going to offer any hypothesis
+at all, it must be one that covers _all_ the facts, and not merely one
+which explains only some of them. The hallucinatory nature of Home's
+phenomena is certainly not inclusive--it does not include many of the
+more striking incidents to say nothing of the lesser phenomena. For this
+reason, it does not appear to me to be conclusive either.
+
+After a brief discussion of Home's fire-tests, which Miss Johnson
+practically admits are inexplicable by any process either of fraud or of
+hallucination known to her (p. 498), she passes on to what are called
+"quasi-hypnotic" effects. To many of the incidents classed by Miss
+Johnson as due to suggestion, I should be inclined to give an entirely
+different interpretation. Some of them doubtless resemble hallucinations
+in a striking degree, but what evidence is there that, e.g., passes made
+over the heads of the sitters can induce identical hallucinations in all
+of them; or that, because one of the circle becomes hysterical, the
+others are thereby rendered susceptible to suggestion? However, I shall
+defer this question until we come to discuss hallucination in general.
+
+After some wholesome criticisms devoted to the "recognition" of
+materialized forms, and the very true statement (p. 509) that "a very
+small error in perception may sometimes lead to a very large error of
+inference," Miss Johnson ends her remarkably interesting paper with two
+illustrations--one a hallucination (?)[31] induced by false association
+of ideas; the other an incident in her own experience, occurring at a
+seance with Eusapia Palladino. Both of these are of importance, and
+should be studied carefully.
+
+Count Solovovo on the contrary considers it somewhat in favour of the
+hallucination theory that hands were found to melt in the sitters'
+grasp, when they were forcibly retained (p. 441). I cannot agree with
+this. It is a different thing to say that hallucination might account
+for the facts, and saying that the facts tell in favour of
+hallucination. Chance might account for an experimental apparition, but
+the fact that the apparition occurred does not prove it to be chance.
+One must be careful to distinguish facts and inferences, in a case of
+this character. Whether or not the hands were hallucinatory will depend,
+not upon _a priori_ probability, or the fact they were visible to some,
+invisible to others, (for all this might just as well be accounted for
+on the opposing theory), but upon the fact that, so far as we know,
+there is no analogy whatever between this oft-recorded event and any of
+the phenomena of suggestion known to us. If we offer a theory to explain
+certain facts, it must not only explain them in a rational manner, but
+must dovetail into what we know--into _the known_. That is the whole
+method of science. If, therefore, a man advances "hallucination" as an
+explanation of such facts as those under discussion, he must show how it
+is that hallucination might be supposed to work: he must bring forward
+some analogies and examples of somewhat similar instances in order to
+have a case at all. In science, we cannot speculate _in vacuo_, but must
+connect with what is already known, if we wish to be scientific at all.
+What analogies, then, have we that spirit-hands, similar to those
+described, can be created by suggestion; and that suggestion can cause a
+number of investigators, at various times, in various places, to believe
+that these hands melted in theirs while they were trying to retain them?
+
+I venture to think we have no analogies whatever. It is quite possible
+that a subject in a hypnotic trance might be induced to believe that he
+was holding a hand while in fact no hand was there, and, further, that
+this hand melted away in his grasp while he was holding fast on to it.
+But I can see practically no resemblance whatever between the two cases.
+For, in the case we have supposed (i) the hand did not move any material
+object; (ii) no one but the hypnotized subject saw the hand; and (iii)
+the illusion was only induced by repeated verbal suggestion to a subject
+already hypnotized. Where is the analogy in the two cases? Home's hands
+moved objects; they were seen by several people at once; and, so far as
+the records prove anything, they prove that constant verbal suggestions
+of the sort necessary were certainly _not_ given, while there is no
+evidence whatever that the subjects were hypnotized! On this very
+subject, speaking of Home's seances, Sir William Crookes has said:
+
+     "General conversation was going on all the time, and on many
+     occasions something on the table had moved some time before Home
+     was aware of it. We had to draw his attention to such things far
+     oftener than he drew our attention to them. Indeed, he sometimes
+     used to annoy me by his indifference to what was going on...."[32]
+
+Does this look like suggestion? Is there any similarity between the two
+cases? Their differences are too obvious to dwell upon. And, apart from
+the performances of the Hindu fakirs (which I have discussed
+elsewhere,[33] and which Count Solovovo himself thinks too few and too
+weak evidentially to require serious consideration), there is no
+similarity between an hallucination induced in a hypnotized subject by
+constant verbal suggestion, and one supposedly induced instantaneously
+in a large number of persons, not hypnotized, without any suggestion.
+The cases cannot be considered similar, or even as resembling one
+another in the slightest degree; while the improbability is heightened a
+thousandfold by the fact that these hands apparently performed physical
+actions and moved physical objects at the same time. The coincidence
+would have to be explained as well as the hallucination, in that case.
+
+Both Count Solovovo and Miss Johnson lay particular stress upon the fact
+that the Master of Lindsay seems to have been extremely suggestible.
+Assuredly, that is an important point in so far as his own experiences
+are concerned, but the fact in nowise affects the experiences of
+_others_. In order to prove that suggestibility played an important part
+in the phenomena, it would be necessary to show that _all_ witnesses of
+the phenomena were suggestible--for the phenomena were seen by all in a
+slightly varying degree. Yet there is no evidence that many of the
+witnesses were suggestible at all: they did not see things Home
+suggested they should see, while, on the other hand, they saw things
+quite on their own account, when Home was busily engaged in conversation
+with some one else. The whole case must be made to hang together, and if
+"suggestion" be the key to the puzzle, it certainly fits the lock
+remarkably ill.[34]
+
+In summing-up his paper and the evidence contained therein, Count
+Solovovo concludes:
+
+     "For my own part I lay it down as a general proposition ... that
+     the testimony of several sane, honest and intelligent eye-witnesses
+     is, broadly speaking, proof of the objectivity of any phenomenon.
+     If there are people who maintain an opposite view, let them make
+     experiments themselves" (p. 477).
+
+That is precisely the position I should assume: I do not believe that
+collective hallucinations of the kind supposed exist at spiritistic
+seances, except perhaps very rarely, and to special gatherings of
+individuals. Let me now adduce the evidence in favour of my position,
+and the reasons for my taking this stand so strongly.
+
+First, then, let us distinguish between _illusions_ and
+_hallucinations_, as this is of the very greatest importance in a
+discussion such as this. An illusion is a false sensory perception, the
+basis of which is, nevertheless, real. Thus, if an old coat in a corner
+of the room be mistaken for a dog, that would be an illusion. A _point
+de repere_ is there--a peg, upon which the mind hangs its false
+inferences or perceptions. An hallucination, on the other hand, is
+entirely a creation of the mind, and there is, in this case, no _point
+de repere_, which exists externally, and serves as the basis of the
+hallucination. Roughly speaking, this may be said to be the difference
+between the two. Now, let us apply this to Home's seances, and to
+spiritistic seances in general.
+
+During the course of my twenty years' constant investigation, I have had
+many score seances with various mediums--slate-writing mediums,
+materializing mediums, physical mediums, clairvoyant mediums, _et hoc
+genus omne_. Speaking now of materialization seances only--of which I
+have seen many--I may say that in all my investigations _I have never
+seen one single instance of suggested or spontaneous hallucination_.
+Plenty of _illusions_ were observed, but never the trace of a full-blown
+hallucination.[35] And I venture to think that, if we examine the
+evidence in the case of D. D. Home, we find very few cases which could
+have been illusions--the vast majority of them seem to have been "pure
+hallucinations"--if they were psychological processes (as opposed to
+physical) at all. So that we should have to suppose that we find in
+these seances--not mere illusions, commonly seen at spiritualistic
+seances, but full-blown hallucinations of a type rarely or never seen
+elsewhere. In other words, these seances present evidences of
+psychological processes for which we can find no analogy in any other
+series of seances, or in hypnotic or any other phenomena with which we
+are familiar. I venture to think that this entirely _new_ order of
+things cannot be accepted upon such evidence: that the hypothesis of
+hallucination cannot be said to explain anything whatever, inasmuch as
+it is entirely unsupported by facts, and finds no analogies whatever in
+any other psychological processes known to us.
+
+At the very conclusion of his paper, Count Solovovo places his finger
+upon the vulnerable spot: he there points out the only way to solve the
+difficulty. It is by the accumulation and study of _new facts_.
+Discussions as to the historical phenomena might go on for ever and the
+question still remain unsolved. The only way out of the difficulty is to
+establish, if possible, the objective or the hallucinatory character of
+these newer phenomena--if such are obtained--and from them draw
+conclusions concerning the older manifestations. If these newer
+phenomena turn out to be hallucinatory--in spite of all the testimony in
+favour of their being objective--then it is highly probable that many of
+the older phenomena were hallucinatory also. If, on the other hand, the
+newer phenomena turn out to be physical and objective, then the
+improbability of the older manifestations having been hallucinatory is
+proportionately increased--until it becomes almost a certainty that they
+were not so. For, if physical phenomena of a genuine character ever do
+occur, the _a priori_ improbability is at once removed, and
+thenceforward there is but little ground for objecting to the phenomena
+in Home's case; and not only those, but the phenomena in the case of
+Stainton Moses, and scores of others less well attested. The props would
+have been knocked from beneath all logical scepticism of the historical
+phenomena, once newer manifestations of the same type be proved true.
+The whole case hinges upon the fact of whether or not such new facts as
+may be forthcoming tend to prove either the one theory or the other.
+Let us therefore turn to this newer evidence, and see which alternative
+is rendered more probable by the phenomena in question.
+
+This newer evidence is, of course, supplied by the case of Eusapia
+Palladino. Here we find phenomena of a physical character recorded by
+many men and women--including numerous eminent scientists--not one of
+whom tolerates for a moment the idea that these phenomena are
+hallucinatory. Indeed, the photographs of table levitations, of hands
+and heads,[36] of instruments flying through the air,[37] and the
+impressions left in cakes of plaster,[38] leave no doubt whatever that,
+in this case, the phenomena--no matter how produced--are objective. This
+conclusion is further supported by the fact that registering apparatus
+has been employed, and has successfully recorded the results of physical
+movements. From this, it is certain that real, objective facts have been
+observed.[39] Whether the phenomena were due to fraud or were the
+results of the operation of some supernormal force, or whatever their
+explanation, they were certainly not due to hallucination.
+
+Our own sittings, it seems to me, abundantly confirm this conclusion.
+During the greater part of the time, when phenomena were in progress,
+Eusapia was passive and silent: when she did speak, she did not suggest
+anything to us directly, and even if she had done so, it would have been
+in Italian--a language I do not understand. And yet I saw the
+phenomena--the movements of objects, the hands and the heads, and felt
+the touches--just as the others did: in fact, I think I may say _more_
+frequently than either of my colleagues did. How was this? Eusapia only
+"suggested" anything to us on three occasions, and on two of these we
+failed to perceive what she wished us to see! On the other hand, we
+frequently perceived what she did not "suggest" to us, and which came as
+a complete surprise to us all. The expression "Oh!" occurring, as it
+does, at several places in the notes, shows how unexpected the
+manifestation was. When one's hair is suddenly and forcibly pulled by
+living fingers, and when one is banged over the head by a closed fist,
+and when one is grasped by a hand and pulled so forcibly as to almost
+upset one into the cabinet--it requires a strong imagination to believe
+that this is nothing but hallucination. Then, too, we all saw the
+phenomenon at the same instant, invariably; and if one of us failed to
+do so, it was always because there was a physical cause for it: the
+curtain intervened, or something of a similar nature occurred. I need
+hardly point out that this, in itself--looked at from one point of
+view--is exceedingly strong evidence that the manifestation was not
+hallucinatory, but objective. The unexpected nature of the majority of
+the phenomena--when Eusapia was in deep trance, and we were doing all
+the talking--renders the hypothesis of hallucination quite untenable, it
+seems to me; at least, if any one chooses to defend it, he must give
+some analogies and somewhat similar instances of the power of
+suggestion--a task that will never be satisfactorily undertaken; of that
+I am sure.
+
+No; whatever be the interpretation of these phenomena, they are
+certainly not hallucinatory. And if they were objective, it is almost
+certain that the Home phenomena were objective also--since the parallel
+between the two cases is often extremely close.
+
+And this, it appears to me, is the only way of approaching this problem
+that is liable to prove conclusive or trustworthy. Discussions of
+historical phenomena will never settle anything one way or the other:
+nothing is _proved_ thereby, one way or the other. The only conclusive
+method, as Count Solovovo pointed out--and I heartily agree with him--is
+the accumulation of _new facts_; and these new facts, when obtained,
+have, it appears to me (and to my colleagues also), proved beyond all
+question that the phenomena were genuine in at least some instances;
+and, that once admitted, the _a priori_ doubts are removed, and the
+historic phenomena raised to a standard of probability which amounts to
+certitude. Some of the physical phenomena of spiritualism are
+objective--real, external facts; and I am assured that they are not due
+to fraud or trickery. Whatever their ultimate explanation, however, they
+can no longer be said to be due to any form of hallucination in the
+sitters.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] The chapter which follows originally appeared in the _Journal_ of
+the American S.P.R. (December 1909), and was critical of the articles of
+Miss Alice Johnson and Count Solovovo, which had previously appeared in
+the English _Proceedings_. While the chapter is self-explanatory, it may
+be well to say that Count Solovovo, in his original paper, considered
+the "hallucination theory" as a possible explanation of certain physical
+phenomena--such as those of D. D. Home--and, after a lengthy discussion,
+came to the conclusion that it would be extremely difficult to believe
+that hallucination could account for all the observed facts. Miss
+Johnson, in her reply, inclined rather more to the hallucination
+theory--at least in some cases--and endeavoured to show how it might
+have occurred on several occasions. My paper is critical of these
+articles--chiefly Miss Johnson's; and I have here endeavoured to combat
+the hallucination theory,--which I do not believe to have nearly so wide
+a range as Miss Johnson supposes. The interested reader is referred to
+the original papers, as well as to the discussion which follows; after
+which he may decide for himself which seems to him the more rational
+explanation of the facts.
+
+[26] _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. xxi. pp. 436-515.
+
+[27] _Researches in the Phenomena of Spiritualism_, p. 92.
+
+[28] _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. xxi. p. 488.
+
+[29] _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. xxi. p. 487.
+
+[30] Critics are apt to compare psychic phenomena to the links of a
+chain--each phenomenon being a separate link. As the chain is only as
+strong as its separate links, it has been pointed out, and as each case,
+taken by itself, can be shown to be inconclusive, it is obvious that the
+whole of psychic research comes to naught. This objection is met, it
+seems to me, by the following consideration. Each separate case
+represents, not the link of a chain, but the thread of a woven rope,
+which, taken by itself, is extremely weak, but which, when placed beside
+hundreds of others, becomes so strong as to be practically unbreakable.
+
+[31] This appears to me to be rather an illusion than a pure
+hallucination. Miss Johnson's own case appears to me to be an illusion
+also. See the discussion of this point later on, however.
+
+[32] _Journal_, vol. vi. p. 343.
+
+[33] See _The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_, pp. 386-93, and my
+pamphlet _Hindu Magic_, for a discussion of these performances, and of
+the theory of hallucination in connection therewith.
+
+[34] See, e.g., Count Solovovo's position which he was driven to
+accept--that the chair-threading witnessed by him was due to unconscious
+telepathic suggestion! (p. 469). The position appears to me to be
+absolutely untenable, in face of the evidence he himself adduces.
+
+[35] An excellent example of an illusion generated by the conditions of
+a spiritualistic seance is the following, which occurred to myself at
+Lily Dale, N. Y., during my investigations there in the summer of 1907,
+and which I reported in the _Proceedings of the American S.P.R._, as
+follows:--
+
+"My sister 'Eva' materialized for me. I suggested 'Eva' and she 'came.'
+I never had a sister Eva, so she was a little out of place. However, she
+'came' as a little girl about ten years old, with a hooked nose, bright
+black eyes, and a fringe of false hair over her forehead. Her doll-like
+appearance was very manifest. After she de-materialized, I was on the
+point of walking back to my chair, but was told to wait. I returned to
+the curtains of the cabinet, and my mother announced herself present,
+'who had died from consumption.' The curtains were pulled aside, and I
+put my face close to the opening, since it was so dark I could see
+nothing. And there, in the dim twilight of that seance room, I beheld
+one of the most ghastly, most truly terrifying faces I have ever seen.
+It was white and drawn, and almost shiny in its glossy, ashen hue. The
+eyes were wide open and staring--fixed. The head and face were encircled
+in white; and altogether the face was one of the most appalling I have
+ever beheld, and it would have required a great deal of fortitude, for
+the moment, to look steadfastly at that terrifying face--in that quiet,
+still room, in response to the spirit's demand: 'Look at me!' The
+distance between our faces was not more than six inches; and after the
+first shock, I regarded the face intently. I was spurred by curiosity
+and excitement, and prompted yet further by the spirit form, who grasped
+my wrist, through the curtain, and drew me yet closer--until I was
+nearly in the cabinet itself. I remembered that my mother had not died
+from consumption, and that the present face in nowise resembled hers,
+and my feeling of terror lasted but an instant; but it was there at the
+time, I confess. I regarded the face intently, and it was gradually
+withdrawn into the shadow of the cabinet, and the curtains pulled over
+it. _I am certain that, had I been in an excited and unbalanced frame of
+mind at that instant, I should have sworn that the face melted away as I
+looked at it._ But my mental balance was by that time regained, and I
+could analyse what was before me. I can quite easily see how it is that
+persons can swear to the melting away of a face before their eyes, after
+my own experience. The appearances clearly indicated that, and it was
+only my alertness to the possibility of deception in this direction,
+which prevented my testifying to the same effect." (See my _Personal
+Experiences in Spiritualism_, pp. 31-32.)
+
+[36] _Annals of Psychical Science_, April 1908, pp. 181-91.
+
+[37] _Ibid._, April-June 1909, pp. 285-305.
+
+[38] Flammarion: _Mysterious Psychic Forces_; Morselli: _Psicologia e
+Spiritismo_; De Fontenay: _A Propos d'Eusapia Paladino_; De Rochas:
+_L'Exteriorization de la Motricite_, etc.
+
+[39] Why were Sir William Crookes' experiments with the spring balance
+not discussed, by the way, in this connection? Here we have indubitable
+proof of the objectivity of the phenomena; even Mr. Podmore being driven
+to grant this, and suppose that the manifestations were the result of
+some trick.--_Modern Spiritualism_, vol. ii. p. 242.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE PROBLEMS OF TELEPATHY
+
+
+     "I suppose everybody would say it would be an extraordinary
+     circumstance," said the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S., in
+     his Presidential Address before the Society for Psychical Research,
+     some years ago, "if at no distant date this earth on which we dwell
+     were to come into collision with some unknown body travelling
+     through space, and, as the result of that collision, be resolved
+     into the original gases of which it is composed.... This is a
+     specimen of a dramatically extraordinary event. Now I will give you
+     a case of what I mean by a scientifically extraordinary
+     event--which you will at once perceive may be one which, at first
+     sight and to many observers, may appear almost commonplace and
+     familiar. I have constantly met people who will tell you, with no
+     apparent consciousness that they are saying anything more out of
+     the way than an observation about the weather, that by the exercise
+     of their will they can make anybody at a little distance turn round
+     and look at them. Now such a fact (if fact it be) is far more
+     scientifically extraordinary than would be the destruction of this
+     globe by some such celestial catastrophe as I have imagined. How
+     profoundly mistaken, then, are they who think that this exercise of
+     'will power,' as they call it, is the most natural and the most
+     normal thing in the world, something which everybody should have
+     expected, something which hardly deserves scientific notice or
+     requires scientific explanation. In reality it is a profound
+     mystery, if it is true, or if anything like it be true; and no
+     event, however startling, which easily finds its appropriate niche
+     in the structure of the physical sciences ought to exercise so much
+     intellectual curiosity as this dull and at first sight commonplace
+     phenomenon." (_Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol. x. pp. 9-10.)
+
+These were the words, not only of the Premier of England, but of an
+exceptionally well-balanced and learned man of science, from which it
+will be seen how extraordinary a thing this "thought-transference" or
+"telepathy" is to the scientific world; and how hard it is for the
+_savant_ to accept it! Yet, as Mr. Balfour says, nearly every one at the
+present time believes in telepathy, and accepts it as the only
+explanation for certain facts, and as a more or less commonplace event.
+Why, then, is there so much mystery about it; _why_ is it so
+extraordinary?
+
+The reason for this lies in the fact that psychologists hold a certain
+view of the nature of the mind which is not shared or understood by the
+majority of persons. They believe that the mind, or consciousness, is
+bound up with the functionings of the brain; and that it is inseparable
+from them. Just as digestion is a function of the whole digestive
+apparatus, circulation of the circulatory apparatus, and respiration of
+the respiratory apparatus; just so, it is believed, is thinking a
+function of the thinking apparatus--the brain and nervous system. And
+one is no more detachable than the other; and one is no more "immortal"
+after the death of the body than the other. All these functions fall
+away and perish at once, at the moment of death. This is the position of
+positive, materialistic psychology--which is the psychology taught in
+our schools and colleges at the present day. Naturally, our professors
+do not believe in telepathy; were this theory true, it would be
+"impossible," just as impossible as it is for a solid object to be in
+two places at the same time. Consciousness cannot be both inside the
+brain and out of it; and as it is believed to reside inside, it cannot
+be outside! As it is a function of nervous tissue, how can it make
+itself manifest at a distance of 2000 miles--at the moment, too, when it
+is being annihilated. Obviously the thing is impossible!
+
+But, alas for science (or rather for the dogmatic scientist), the
+experience of the past tells us that many things deemed impossible are
+nevertheless facts. Though they are jeered at when they are first
+brought to the attention of the scientific world, subsequent
+investigation has only served to confirm them.... It is on record that
+no physician over forty years of age at the time of his great discovery
+ever accepted Harvey's proof of the circulation of the blood--so great
+was the force of tradition and orthodoxy.... And today the facts of
+"psychical research" are laughed at, and its investigators held up to
+ridicule, because of this same spirit of prejudice and intolerance, and
+the desire to mock at what we do not understand. "But," as Professor
+James so well remarked _a propos_ of this subject, "whenever a debate
+between the mystics and the scientists has been once for all decided,
+it is the mystics who have usually proved to be right about the _facts_,
+while the scientists had the better of it in respect to _theories_." But
+inasmuch as only the "facts" are now in dispute, and no one cares as yet
+what theory shall be adopted in order to explain them, is it not time at
+least to investigate them, and to see whether or not such facts
+exist--quite irrespective of whether they are explainable, when found?
+
+The facts, then; are they true or are they not? It is a question quite
+open to discussion, one quite capable of being solved by scientific
+methods. It is useless to say beforehand whether or not such and such
+things are or are not possible; the question is: Do they exist? We must
+not question their utility either, even if true, for this never enters
+into any scientific question of fact. Like the celebrated French
+philosopher whose friend had proved to him the "impossibility" of a
+certain happening, he replied: "My dear sir, I never said it was
+_possible_; I said it was a _fact_!"
+
+So, then, we come to the evidence for this wonderful power of telepathy
+or thought-transference. Here I must be very brief, indicating merely a
+fraction of the evidence which has been accumulated in proof of this
+startling scientific truth.
+
+When the Society for Psychical Research was founded, in 1882, its main
+energies were directed toward the investigation of this faculty, and of
+the reality of thought-transference. The various Committees who were
+engaged in this investigation soon came to the conclusion that its
+reality was beyond doubt. Some of the most interesting and conclusive
+experiments were those conducted by Mr. Guthrie, a gentleman living in
+Liverpool, and two of his employes. The tests were so arranged that
+fraud was out of the question, even had it been attempted. All the
+subjects were in a normal state, blindfolded, and separated some
+distance. Strict silence was observed. In the presence of Messrs. Myers
+and Gurney, the following trials in transferring the sensation of taste
+were attempted. Various substances were provided the "agent" (the one
+who was to transfer the sensation) and he placed a small quantity of one
+of these in his mouth; while the "percipient" (receiver of the
+telepathically sent message) stated what his or her impressions were. To
+quote one set of trials:
+
+
+  September 4
+
+  _Substance Tested_          _Answers Given_
+
+  Worcestershire sauce.       Worcestershire sauce.
+    "              "          Vinegar.
+  Port wine.                  Between eau de Cologne and beer.
+    "    "                    Raspberry vinegar.
+  Bitter aloes.               Horrible and bitter.
+  Alum.                       A taste of ink--of iron--of
+                                vinegar. I feel it on my
+                                lips; as if I had been eating
+                                alum.
+    "                         Do. distinct impression: bitter
+                                taste persisted.
+  Nutmeg.                     Peppermint--no; what you put
+                                in puddings--nutmeg.
+    "                         Nutmeg.
+  Sugar.                      Nothing perceived.
+    "                           "       "
+  Cayenne pepper.             Mustard.
+    "       "                 Cayenne pepper.
+
+
+The next series of experiments concerned the transference of bodily
+pains. The subjects still being blindfolded, and some distance apart,
+the agent was pricked in various parts of his body by a needle. Several
+physicians were present at these experiments:
+
+     Back of left ear pricked. Rightly located.
+
+     Lobe of left ear pricked. Rightly located.
+
+     Left wrist pricked. "It is the left hand."
+
+     Third finger of left hand tightly bound round with wire. A lower
+     joint of that finger was guessed.
+
+     Left wrist scratched with pins. "Is it the left wrist? Like being
+     scratched."
+
+     Left ankle pricked. Rightly located.
+
+Now it would be foolish to attribute such results as these to chance.
+But let us proceed.
+
+Dr. Blair Thaw tried a number of experiments in transferring colours.
+The following are samples:
+
+
+  Colours Chosen at Random
+
+  _Chosen_         _1st Guess_       _2nd Guess_
+
+  Bright red.      Bright red.       ....
+  Bright green.    Light green.      ....
+  Yellow.          Dark blue.        Yellow.
+  Bright yellow.   Bright yellow.    ....
+  Dark red.        Blue.             Dark red.
+  Dark blue.       Orange.           Dark blue.
+  Orange.          Green.            Heliotrope.
+
+
+In 1895 Mr. Henry G. Rawson published a paper on the subject,
+in which he narrated his success in transferring the diagrams
+of objects. Tracings of these are given herewith. (O = original
+and R = reproduction.) Further comment is hardly necessary.
+
+[Illustration: Diagram Illustrative of Thought-Transference]
+
+He also tried a number of experiments in naming cards drawn at random
+from the pack (where the chance is always 51 to 1 of being correct, and
+the chance of being correct a number of times in succession is
+inconceivably great) and he attained the following results, among
+others:
+
+
+  _Card Chosen_       _Card Guessed_
+
+  5 of Hearts.        7 of Hearts, Ace of Diamonds.
+  8 of Hearts.        8 of Hearts.
+  10 of Clubs.        9 of Clubs, 10 of Clubs.
+  Jack of Diamonds.   Jack of Diamonds.
+  5 of Spades.        7 of Spades, 5 of Spades.
+  2 of Clubs.         2 of Diamonds, 2 of Clubs.
+  Queen of Hearts.    Queen of Hearts.
+  5 of Diamonds.      9 of Diamonds, 5 of Diamonds.
+  Ace of Diamonds.    Ace of Diamonds.
+  Ace of Hearts.      Ace of Hearts.
+  Ace of Clubs.       Ace of Clubs.
+  King of Spades.     King of Diamonds, King of Spades.
+
+
+Again, it is useless to say that such results are attributable to
+chance. The good standing of the participants places their good faith
+beyond question; all normal means of communication were prevented. How
+are we to account for such facts--short of invoking some sort of mental
+interaction, through other than the ordinary channels of sense?
+
+But these were experiments conducted in the normal state. Equally and
+even more interesting and conclusive results were obtained when the
+subject was placed under hypnotism. Of these, the most conclusive
+experiments were those conducted by Mrs. Sidgwick and Miss Alice
+Johnson. Put to the law of chance, it was shown that such coincidences
+were many hundreds, not to say thousands, of times more numerous than
+chance could account for. Then, again, we have the experiments at a
+great distance, in which Dr. Pierre Janet willed a patient of his to
+come through the streets, and she almost invariably came when he willed
+it. We have, too, a number of most interesting experiments in which
+_dreams_ have been induced in others--by trying to influence the
+sleeping thoughts of the dreamer. Here is a fruitful field, as yet
+hardly touched, for an experimenter in this line of research.[40]
+
+Among the most interesting and dramatic cases of the kind are those
+experiments in which one person has voluntarily caused a figure of
+himself to appear to another at a distance. Thus, A sits down and wills
+intently that he shall appear to B that night--in sleep or waking, as
+the case may be. The next morning A receives a letter from B, stating
+that he has seen an apparition of him, and asking him if he is well. The
+following is an example of a case of this character:
+
+     "One certain Sunday evening in November, 1881, having been reading
+     of the great power which the human will is capable of exercising, I
+     determined with the whole force of my being that I would be present
+     in spirit in the front bedroom of the second floor of a house
+     situated at 22 Hogarth Road, Kensington, in which room slept two
+     young ladies of my acquaintance, viz. Miss L. S. V. and Miss E. C.
+     V., aged respectively twenty-five and eleven years. I was living at
+     this time at 23 Kildare Gardens, at a distance of about three miles
+     from Hogarth Road, and I had not in any way mentioned my intention
+     of trying this experiment to either of the above ladies, for the
+     simple reason that it was only on retiring to rest upon this
+     particular Sunday night that I made up my mind to do so. The time
+     at which I determined to be there was one o'clock in the morning,
+     and I also had a strong intention of making my presence
+     perceptible.
+
+     "On the following Thursday I went to see the ladies in question,
+     and in the course of conversation (without any allusion to the
+     subject on my part) the elder one told me that on the previous
+     Sunday night she had been much terrified by perceiving me standing
+     by her bedside and that she screamed when the apparition advanced
+     toward her, and awoke her little sister who saw me also...."
+     (Corroborative evidence was obtained from the two ladies
+     mentioned.)
+
+Such a case is called a "telepathically induced hallucination" or an
+"experimental apparition," for the reason that the figure seen is
+doubtless hallucinatory in character and was induced by means of
+telepathy. Such cases (and there are plenty of them) are very striking
+proof of the direct action of mind on mind; and at the same time form a
+sort of bridge across the gulf which otherwise seems to exist between
+the experimental cases we have just quoted and the spontaneous cases to
+which we must now refer.
+
+Soon after the Society began its work it was noticed that numbers of
+cases were sent in, in which apparitions were seen at the very moment of
+the death of the person symbolized by the apparition. In many such
+cases, no other experience such as this has happened to the percipient
+throughout his or her life; but on the very occasion when such a figure
+_was_ seen, the individual was found to have died at that particular
+time! Can so many cases of so remarkable a character be attributed to
+chance?
+
+The answer at first sight is: No. But here we must be cautious. In
+scientific research such as this, we must not be guided by impressions,
+but by facts and figures. Accordingly it was decided to put this matter
+to the test, and an "International Census of Hallucinations" was
+inaugurated, which extended throughout several countries (America being
+represented by Professor William James), and the taking of which lasted
+several years. As the result of this laborious undertaking, 30,000
+answers were received--the percentage of coincidental apparitions being
+calculated. After making allowances for all possible sources of error,
+it was ascertained that the number of coincidences received were several
+hundred times too numerous to be attributed to chance; and the following
+statement was signed by Professor Sidgwick's Committee[41]:
+
+"_Between deaths and apparitions of the dying person a connection exists
+which is not due to chance alone. This we hold as a proved fact._"
+
+These are important words in many senses; and _donne a penser_. It shows
+us that, after all is said and done, this old theory of "ghosts" is not
+so far wrong, and that they, in a certain sense, _do_ exist; it is only
+a matter of their interpretation: the "mystics" have as usual been
+right as to the existence of the facts, but the "scientists" may be
+right in their interpretation of them.
+
+So we have the whole class of "spontaneous" telepathic phenomena, so
+called because they are not induced by direct experiment. In this class
+we have all those manifestations which take place at or about the moment
+of death; phantasms of the living, phantasms of the dying, and phantasms
+of the dead--according to whether the subject is yet living, is dying,
+or has recently died. In all such cases we may postulate a telepathic
+action at the moment of death, for in those cases when the apparition
+was seen but a few minutes or even a few hours after death, the impact
+might have been transmitted at the moment of death, and only have
+emerged into consciousness during the quietness and peace of the
+evening, or when night gave it a chance to do so. For we now know that
+subconscious ideas do tend to rise into consciousness when the latter is
+less occupied with the events of the day.
+
+It is, of course, impossible to detail here the mass of evidence of all
+kinds which has been accumulated of late years in favour of the
+existence of telepathy, but enough has been quoted to indicate the
+method of approach and the character of the evidence adduced. Suffice it
+to say that, in the eyes of those who have inquired into the subject
+closely, telepathy is now held to be proved; it is now considered to be
+a scientific fact, though not as yet explained. Again I repeat, the
+question is not: Is it possible? but, Is it a fact?
+
+Taking all that has been said into consideration, it may fairly be
+contended that the mere _fact_ of telepathy may therefore be said to
+have been proved. This being so, the interesting question of its nature
+or character presents itself. How is such action to be explained? How
+account for the facts?
+
+There are many theories which have been advanced from time to time to
+explain this remarkable phenomenon, and, if it be a fact in nature, its
+scientific explanation must some day be forthcoming. Once telepathy
+stands proved it will mean the remoulding and recasting of many of our
+scientific theories, and even a reconstruction of science--in so far, at
+least, as it refers to physiological psychology. Such being the case,
+and telepathy being proved, as many eminent men of science today
+believe, the question of its theoretical explanation becomes most
+important.
+
+Now the first analogy which strikes one in the consideration of this
+question is that of wireless telegraphy--the subtle electric vibrations
+which journey to and fro with incredible swiftness through the universal
+ether. In short, telepathy is thought by many to be simply a species of
+physical vibration, proceeding from brain to brain, just as electric
+waves pass from the transmitter to the receiver in wireless telegraphy.
+This explanation is so common that many persons accept it without
+further ado, as being the correct explanation of the facts. But such a
+theory cannot be said to cover the facts in a satisfactory manner.
+
+In the first place, there seems to be no definite or prescribed
+area in the brain adapted for such a purpose; no cell or centre has
+as yet been discovered which appears destined to send out waves of
+this character. Still, perhaps it will be some day, for the functions
+of certain portions of the brain--particularly the frontal lobes--are
+as yet very little understood. But there is the argument that, if
+such waves exist, they must be detected by means of our scientific
+instruments--instruments so delicate and subtle that they are able to
+measure the difference of the pull of gravity of an article when placed
+on the table or on the floor, or can register the heat of a candle at a
+distance of more than a mile (Langley's bolometer). Compared with such
+delicate instruments, our five senses are coarse indeed, and any
+vibrations which can affect these same senses must surely affect the
+more delicate and sensitive instruments just mentioned. Yet none of them
+have as yet been able to indicate the existence of any such vibrations,
+and this would seem to show that they cannot exist.[42]
+
+But there is a reply to this argument. It may be said that, although the
+_senses_ do not register any such vibrations, the _brain_ might do so,
+in some direct manner; and the brain might be far more sensitive than
+any instrument so far devised. Indeed the definition of telepathy, "the
+ability of one mind to influence or be influenced by another mind
+otherwise than through the recognized channels of sense," would seem to
+indicate that in this process only the brain is involved, and not
+necessarily the physical senses at all. So far, then, so good; telepathy
+might still be vibratory in character.
+
+But if so, how could such waves get through the skull to act upon the
+brain direct? This is a staggering thought to the ordinary materialist,
+and at first sight renders such an action unintelligible and hence
+"impossible"! But to reason thus would be very superficial. For we know
+that certain physical energies pass through solid substances--substances
+impervious to other physical energies. Thus we know that glass permits
+light to pass through it, but is a non-conductor of electricity; while
+steel is impervious to light, yet electricity can traverse miles of
+steel in the fraction of a second. "Gravity" seems the only energy which
+cannot be isolated by some means or other. No substance is opaque to
+gravity. It acts through all substances, at all times, continuously. In
+this respect telepathy may resemble gravitation.[43] If this were true,
+or anything like it were true, we could easily see why a solid
+substance, such as the human skull, might offer no appreciable
+resistance to the passage through it of undulations of a certain
+velocity--of a speed so great, perhaps, that they could not be detected
+by any of the instruments at the command of the physicist today.
+
+But there are other and still more serious objections to the vibratory
+action of telepathy which have not as yet been mentioned. For if we try
+to push the analogy further, we shall find that it is by no means so
+clear as might be supposed. Thus in the case of wireless telegraphy the
+vibratory action of the ether is a purely mechanical process and does
+not carry emotion, thought, or intelligence with it--being vibration
+pure and simple. Now, in the case of a supposed telepathic message,
+thought flashed from one brain to another must be supposed to convey
+with it intelligence of some sort; for if it were a _purely_ mechanical
+vibratory action, how is it that this would impress another brain in
+such an entirely different manner from all other vibrations as to
+create in that brain not only a thought, but the precise _kind_ of
+thought--the _replica_ of the thought--which originated in the brain of
+the agent? Granting that vibrations are but "symbols," and that they are
+interpreted by our brains _as_ things, the difficulty remains that, in
+all other cases, such vibrations, no matter what their intensity, convey
+to the brain the idea of external objects, or qualities of those
+objects, and do not convey to it the idea of mind or intelligence. How
+is it, therefore, that one particular species of vibration, which, we
+must assume, would vary more or less with each individual, can convey
+with it the idea of thought, and that this vibration is associated with
+mind, and in fact is thought, while all other vibrations in the world
+are in nowise connected with intelligence and do not appear to us to be
+so connected? And further, how infinitely we should have to vary the
+degree and type of vibration to correspond to all shades of thought and
+feeling and emotion! Sir William Crookes some years ago urged the
+possibility of this vibratory action of telepathy; but Mr. Myers has
+pointed out its defects and stated that all we can at present say about
+telepathy is that "life has the power of manifesting to life"--a formula
+surely general enough, yet highly significant.
+
+Again, the theory has been advanced that all minds are in touch in a
+sort of subterranean way--through their subliminal regions--just as all
+spokes of a wheel ultimately reach the hub, though each spoke is
+distinctive. In this way we could imagine an inter-connection taking
+place, of which we are quite unaware, under certain favourable
+conditions. To use an analogy somewhere employed by Professor James,
+our conscious minds are like the leaves of the trees which whisper
+together, but the roots of the trees are all embedded in the same soil
+and are interlaced inextricably. So our minds, though they appear to be
+so separate and apart, may really be at basis fundamentally _one_. There
+must be, it is said, some common ground of interaction; possibly a sort
+of universal fluid, in which all minds are bathed, and by means of which
+interaction of thought is effected. This is somewhat akin to the theory
+first propounded by Mesmer, and which has been revived, in somewhat
+altered form, more than a hundred years later. Mesmer held that thought
+was communicated from brain to brain "by the vibrations of a subtle
+fluid with which the nerve substance is in continuity." Truly, if any
+sort of physical action is employed, this seems a significant enough
+remark. We know that two tuning forks will resound in unison, if one of
+them be struck. Put in motion a magnetized needle; at a certain distance
+and without contact another magnetized needle will oscillate
+synchronously with the first. Set in vibration a violin string, or the
+string of a piano; and at a certain distance the string of another piano
+or violin will vibrate in unison with it. Such analogies make us wonder
+whether or not communication of this kind might not exist, and,
+certainly, in order to make telepathy intelligible at all, we must
+suppose some such action taking place. We all have a tendency to think
+in physical symbols, owing to our materialistic training.
+
+For if we try to picture to ourselves the process of telepathy as taking
+place in some manner other than physical, how are we to conceive such
+action? Does one consciousness stretch out, as it were, and grasp the
+other passive mind? or does the agent project the thought from his brain
+and impress the mind of the percipient with it--just as a bullet might
+be shot from a rifle, or light waves radiate from some centre? The first
+of these theories would be somewhat akin to true mind-reading, the other
+to thought-projection or transference. But if the latter theory be
+correct, is all thought directed into one single channel--at a target as
+it were--or does it spread equally in all directions, like all other
+vibratory radiations? It may be conceived that telepathy is a
+combination of both the above processes--it being a kind of mutual
+action--a projection on the part of one, and a mental reception or
+grasping on the part of the other. If this be the case, we must conceive
+the thought as met, as it were, in space, and in some way joined or
+seized upon by the percipient thought; but how can we conceive such
+seizing or such perception?
+
+It will be seen that the problems arising from a study of telepathy are
+numerous and remarkable. Let us briefly summarize the chief theories
+which have been advanced to date. These are:
+
+1. _The Theory of Exalted Perception._--This is, that the subject is in
+some manner enabled to see the thoughts of his "magnetizer" or
+hypnotist. This explanation applies only to those telepathic
+manifestations observed when the percipient is in a state of trance; and
+even here the theory cannot be said to explain, for it explains one
+mystery by propounding another.
+
+2. _The Hypothesis of Brain Exaltation with Paralysis of the
+Senses._--On this theory, a sort of sympathetic action and reaction or
+_rapport_ is supposed to take place, but of the exact nature of this
+process its exponents can tell us nothing. Again, it only evades the
+direct issue and answers one problem by asking another.
+
+3. _The Hypothesis of Direct Psychic Action._--This is the view whose
+ablest exponent is Mr. Frederic Myers. It is supposed that such action
+takes place in its own world--its own sphere--just as distinct and just
+as real as the material world. If this were true we could never
+demonstrate the action of telepathy scientifically, since it would be
+beyond the reach of such demonstration. Others again believe that the
+action of telepathy is akin to the phenomena of _induction_; others that
+it is akin to _gravitation_ or the _magnetic force_. While the details
+of these theories are lacking, there is here a valuable suggestion and a
+field for future research.
+
+4. _The Hypothesis of Direct Physical Action._--This supposes that the
+molecular changes in one brain, accompanying thought or emotion, set
+certain ether vibrations in motion, which are caught up by another
+brain, sensitive enough to receive them, or attuned to the proper
+degree. This theory is one which appeals to most persons, though it is
+open to the criticisms before raised. Nevertheless, it _may_ be true;
+and if so, its law ought one day to be discovered. There is here also a
+field for legitimate scientific research.
+
+5. _The Idea of a Universal Fluid._--This is the theory held to by the
+majority of mystics and occultists. There is supposed to exist a sort of
+fluidic intermediary between mind and mind, which acts as the means for
+thought transmission, and it is upon this that all thought is impressed.
+It acts as a sort of mirror, which reflects the thoughts of all living
+persons, just as a material mirror might reflect material objects. In
+such a case, the thought is really _made objective_ and is perceived by
+the subject in a sort of clairvoyant manner. I do not feel competent to
+pronounce upon this hypothesis in the present embryonic state of
+psychical science.
+
+6. _The Theory of Spiritual Intermediaries._--This is the theory that
+our thoughts are read by some purely "spiritual" process, by "spirits,"
+who convey this thought to another individual and impress him in some
+psychical manner directly. They thus act as carrier-pigeons between mind
+and mind. To this theory it may be replied, as Professor Flournoy has
+replied in his _Spiritism and Psychology_, that it represents the grave
+methodological defect of multiplying causes without necessity; by
+postulating spirits and importing them into the problem when they are
+not wanted. It would be better to seek an explanation elsewhere.
+
+7. _The Psycho-Physical Theory._--This theory supposes that all thought
+is accompanied by nervous undulations, which are carried to the surface
+of the body, there setting the ether in vibration; and this, in turn,
+impinges upon the periphery of another person, particularly sensitive to
+receive them, and by him re-transformed into nervous currents--into
+thought! Such a theory completely fails to take into account those cases
+of long-distance telepathy, of which so many have now been collected;
+and in other ways is very defective.
+
+8. Assuming all the above theories to be insufficient, we now come to:
+
+
+_The Elements of a Scientific Explanation_
+
+In studying this subject we must remember certain things:
+
+(_a_) That telepathy is a highly complex phenomenon, and for that reason
+we must not expect to find its solution easily or state it in a single
+sentence.
+
+(_b_) That we must consider it from the double standpoint, physical and
+mental; and
+
+(_c_) That we must consider the conditions affecting the operator, the
+subject, and, if possible, the connection between them.
+
+All scientific explanation consists in reducing the unknown to terms of
+the known. We can often _classify_ a phenomenon without being able to
+_explain_ its innermost nature. If we discover its laws, we have
+advanced to that extent.
+
+Dr. J. Ochorowicz, who has made a prolonged and minute study of this
+question, writes as follows regarding the necessary conditions to be
+observed in the operator:
+
+     "On the side of the _operator_ the conditions have been very little
+     studied. But it is probable:
+
+     "1. That there are personal differences.
+
+     "2. That these differences may be due not only to the degree of
+     thought intensity, but also to the nature of the thought itself,
+     according as it is visual, auditive, or motor.
+
+     "3. That some account has to be taken of a sort of accord, of
+     concordance between the two intelligences.
+
+     "4. That excessive will-power impairs the definiteness of the
+     transmission without much enhancing its intensity.
+
+     "5. That strong, persistent, prolonged thinking of a thought
+     repeated for a longer or shorter time constitutes a condition in
+     the highest degree favourable.
+
+     "6. That any distraction which causes the thought to disappear for
+     a moment, or that makes it cease to be isolated, seems eminently
+     unfavourable to the mental action.
+
+     "7. That, nevertheless, thoughts that are not intense, and even
+     thoughts that are at the moment unconscious (subconscious), may be
+     transmitted involuntarily.
+
+     "8. That the muscular efforts which usually accompany an exertion
+     of will are more or less indifferent; but that the muscle
+     expression of the operator may be useful, subjectively, by reason
+     of the habitude that connects thought with these expressional
+     signs.
+
+     "It follows from these considerations that the operator should
+     insist less upon the 'I will it' than upon the content of that
+     willing; and hence it is probable that, properly speaking, it is
+     not the 'strong will' that helps telepathy so much as clear
+     thinking."
+
+As to the subject or _percipient_, experience has taught us that the
+four following states are probably the most important for the recipience
+of a telepathic message:
+
+1. In the state of profound _aideia_ (complete lack of thought)
+transmission is never immediate, but it may sometimes be latent.
+
+2. In the state of nascent _monoideism_ (one idea) it may be immediate
+and perfect.
+
+3. In the state of _passive polyideism_ (many thoughts) it may be
+either immediate or may take place after an interval of greater or
+lesser length.
+
+4. In the state of _active polyideism_ the conditions are complex and
+subject to further subdivisions, for:
+
+(_a_) Transmission may be direct if the subject helps by voluntary
+self-absorption in a concentration of mind more or less monoideic; he
+lends himself to the action; he listens mentally; he seeks, sometimes he
+finds!
+
+(_b_) It may be indirect, i.e. latent; this time also with some
+concurrence on the part of the subject. This seems more frequent.
+
+(_c_) Finally, it may in exceptional instances be either mediate
+(delayed) or immediate, even without the subject's being advised
+beforehand of the action.
+
+     *     *     *     *     *
+
+Here, then, are the probable conditions; also the state of the agent and
+percipient. Now what about the _connecting links_?
+
+Here we come to the heart of the problem. I shall be as brief as
+possible, since we cannot pretend that the problem is yet solved. I
+merely offer a few suggestions, some original, others advanced before by
+writers on these subjects.[44]
+
+In order to obtain a specific action we must employ a specific
+instrument: a telephone for a telephone; a brain for a brain.
+
+Every living thing is a dynamic focus.
+
+A dynamic focus tends ever to propagate the motion which is proper to
+it.
+
+Propagated motion becomes transformed according to the medium it
+traverses. A force may be transmitted or transformed.
+
+In an identical medium there is only _transmission_.
+
+In a different medium there is _transformation_.
+
+A dynamic nucleus, in propagating its motion, sends it out in every
+direction; but this transmission becomes perceptible only on the lines
+of least resistance.
+
+A process that is at once chemical, physical, and psychical goes on in
+the brain. A complex action of this kind is propagated through the grey
+matter, as waves are propagated in water.
+
+Regarded physiologically, a thought is only a vibration, probably, which
+does not pass out of its appropriate medium. It is propagated, and it
+must be along the motor nerves, since science admits no other route. But
+the _thought itself_ does not radiate; it remains "at home," just as the
+chemical action of a battery remains in the battery; it is represented
+abroad by its dynamic correlate, called, in the case of the battery, a
+_current_; and in the case of the brain, I know not what; but whatever
+its name may be, it is the _dynamic correlate of thought_. Thought,
+therefore, is dynamic. Thought is transformed; and may be
+re-transformed, in another organism which supplies the necessary
+conditions. Thought may be restored.
+
+We have now reached, from a purely physiological standpoint, a position
+which I desired to reach before I advance the final part of the
+theory--which may at first sight appear somewhat fantastic. But
+telepathy itself is fantastic; and yet, being a fact, it must be
+accounted for somehow, or left altogether unexplained.
+
+It has always been contended by a peculiarly-gifted group of individuals
+known as "clairvoyants," that we possess a "spiritual body"--just as we
+possess a physical body--of exactly the same shape and appearance; and
+that we inhabit this body at death. It is further contended that all our
+physical senses find their exact counterpart in this "etheric double";
+there is a physical eye and a spiritual eye; a physical ear and a
+spiritual ear, etc. With the spiritual eye we see "clairvoyantly"; with
+the spiritual ear we hear "clairaudiently," and so forth. I shall not
+discuss the possibility of such a body, except to say that there is now
+a mass of evidence in its favour. Assuming it to exist--assuming it to
+be the exact counterpart of the physical body--then it too possesses a
+brain; and it too must pulsate and vibrate just as the physical brain
+does, when accompanying thought.
+
+Now this inner body may be the _vehicle of thought_. It may possess
+"centres" whose normal office is to send and receive telepathic
+messages. One "etheric centre" may thus act upon another "etheric
+centre" directly--only indirectly upon the physical brain cells. The
+action would thus be dynamic, yet psychical; physical in a sense, yet
+not physical as we conceive it. Philosophy tells us that the table we
+see (the _phenomenon_) is not the "real" table (the _noumenon_)--the
+reality behind; but, if we knock the two tables together, the _noumena_
+touch, just as the phenomenal tables do; only we have no means of
+knowing or directly seeing it. Thus there is a sort of physical
+communication of a spiritual thing. Those who have entered rooms of a
+certain character have often sensed their "psychic atmosphere." This is
+a sort of duplicate or replica of the physical atmosphere, yet it is
+different from it. The whole subject is so subtle that one cannot follow
+it unless he has had some experience or some knowledge of these things.
+The process cannot be explained in clear-cut fashion--any more than
+mediums can tell the source of their thoughts and impressions. A little
+intuition is needed in order to grasp the problem and comprehend its
+difficulties.
+
+Were I to try and state my theory briefly, then it would be somewhat as
+follows: Every thought necessitates a three-fold phenomenon--(1) the
+purely psychic activity; (2) the physiological correlate; and (3) the
+"dynamic correlate," which is as yet unrecognized by science. This
+"dynamic correlate" is the manifestation of the activity of the etheric
+double; which sets into motion certain vibratory activities which,
+though they are not physical vibrations, are their counterpart or
+_equivalent_ on the plane above matter--the "astral" plane, if the term
+be allowable; which is parallel to, but not identical with, the material
+plane. Thus by a sort of "doctrine of correspondences" we arrive at the
+conclusion that telepathic action is physical, in a sense, yet is not
+sufficiently physical to be measured by our instruments in the
+laboratory. The activity is, as it were, the _noumenon_, of which the
+physical vibration would be the phenomenon; but no phenomenal aspect of
+this activity may ever be manifested to us; and hence never be capable
+of being registered by science, as it exists today.
+
+I do not know whether or not I have made this theory very
+comprehensible, but it seems to me some such theory might explain the
+facts and at the same time do away with the difficulties. At all events
+no theory of telepathy which has been advanced to date can be said to be
+explanatory, when all the facts are taken into consideration; and if
+this first tentative groping serves to stimulate others to speculate,
+and above all to _experiment_, in this obscure field, I shall feel that
+a first onward step has been taken toward a correct understanding of the
+"Marvels of Telepathy."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[40] See Dr. G. B. Ermacora's paper in _Proceedings_, S.P.R., vol. xi.
+pp. 235-308.
+
+[41] Professor Henry Sidgwick, as we know, was Professor of Moral
+Philosophy in Cambridge, and his works on _Ethics_ and _Political
+Economy_ are considered standard in all countries.
+
+[42] This is the argument put forward by, e.g., Carl Snyder, in his _New
+Conceptions in Science_, pp. 306-7.
+
+[43] See my article in _The Monist_ (July-September 1913, pp. 445-58),
+"Earlier Theories of Gravity."--H. C.
+
+[44] Especially Dr. Ochorowicz, in his excellent work, _Mental
+Suggestion_, to which I am indebted for several of the ideas which
+follow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE USES AND ABUSES OF MIND-CURE
+
+
+Within the past few years the country has been flooded by a host of
+books, pamphlets, and periodicals dealing with "psychotherapy" and
+mind-cure in general. In some ways it would be impossible to exaggerate
+the good which this has done. It has cheered-up many desponding souls;
+it has brightened many a life; it has stimulated activities and lines of
+thought which otherwise would have remained dormant; it has added real
+zest to life and made it worth living. Undoubtedly, too, real cures have
+been effected by means of these modern mental methods, and any one who
+denies this must surely be ignorant of the vast amount of steadily
+accumulating evidence in their favour. The many advantages of the system
+are doubtless pointed out with acuteness and insisted upon with vigour
+in the books which defend it, and need not be re-stated here. And yet,
+while I acknowledge all this; while I am forced to admit the many
+wonderful cures and much mental relief on account of these newer methods
+of healing, I still believe that a vast amount of harm is also brought
+about by the incautious application of the doctrines taught; by
+over-enthusiasm for the ideals which are ever before us, luring us on
+and on. In the present chapter, therefore, I propose to show in what
+these pitfalls consist; to illustrate some of the errors into which
+over-enthusiastic "mental-curists" are apt to fall.
+
+First of all, however, a confession of faith! For a number of years I
+believed as implicitly as it was possible for any one to believe in the
+great power of mind to cure disease. I read nearly every book of
+importance that had been published on this theme--including Mrs. Eddy's
+books, all the standard works on hypnotism, mind-cure, faith-cure, new
+thought, etc. I was deeply imbued with the truths they contained. I
+became greatly opposed to the so-called "materialism" of medical
+science. The rationality and philosophical truth of the mind-cure
+systems appeared to me irrefutable.
+
+The fundamentals of the system are indeed well laid. We know of the
+tremendous effects of the emotions upon the body--its functions,
+secretions, etc. Cheering faith and optimism are assuredly great
+incentives to health; more than that, they are actual physiological
+health-stimulators. We know that we can make ourselves ill by morbid and
+unwholesome thoughts; and, as Feuchtersleben says: "If the imagination
+can make man sick, can it not make him well?" By opening up the great
+"sluice-gates" of the organism we somehow allow a great influx of
+spiritual energy to pervade us, and the disease vanishes. It is a very
+fascinating doctrine, and, for many diseases, doubtless a true one.
+
+In spite of all this, however, I believe the present tendency to treat
+all diseases--or next to all--by purely mental methods is a great
+mistake. It leaves many persons ill and crippled for life; it allows
+many hundreds of others to sink and fall into premature graves.
+
+And the first objection I would make to mind and faith-curing, and all
+kindred systems, is this: that _they tend to suppress symptoms rather
+than remove causes_. This is a very grave objection indeed. If one
+suffers constantly from constipation or dyspepsia, the natural habit of
+the mind would be to worry about them more or less and take steps to
+prevent their continued progress. But the faith and mind-curists say:
+"No, it is not at all important; imagine yourself whole and well, and
+whole and well you will be!" Many persons have done this and their
+troubles have, apparently, lessened and disappeared. They may have and
+they may not. It is easy to ignore troubles of this kind; but this sort
+of ostrich-philosophy, which buries its head in the sand and refuses to
+look at what is before its eyes, is not natural or by any means the best
+for the bodily organism. Ignoring symptoms does not cure them. What such
+persons fail to take into account is this: that any unpleasant symptom
+which may have arisen must be due to _some cause_--sickness and disease
+do not arise _de novo_ and without just cause. This is not the order of
+a good and kind nature. It must be due to _something_, and generally
+that "something" is the condition of the body at the time; and that
+condition depends, in turn, upon the previous habits and modes of life.
+These have engendered the diseased condition we see before us; and the
+only effective and rational way to stop the effects--the symptoms--is to
+stop the causes, to change the habits of life which have led to such
+results; and not to tinker with the effects. Even pain may be ignored to
+some extent; but pain is due to a certain pathological state which
+requires treatment. It is simply an indication of an existing bodily
+condition. What is the good of ignoring that state, when it exists?
+Symptoms may be ignored, but the causes of those symptoms run on in the
+body, nevertheless, and in the end work havoc and breed sickness and
+decay.
+
+I am aware of the fact that the Christian Scientists, e.g., would reply
+to this that the bodily state (there is no body, according to them, but
+we let that pass, for the moment) _is_ cured at the same time; that, by
+the mere affirmation that the body is whole, we thereby make it whole;
+we do not suppress symptoms, we remove causes as well. This I deny, at
+least in many cases. I have seen too many of such "cures" _and relapses_
+not to know whereof I speak. A patient goes to a "healer" and becomes
+"cured." A few weeks or months later his trouble returns; or, if not the
+same trouble, another and perhaps a worse one. This is "cured" in turn,
+and so on.
+
+Now it is a well-known fact that a disease suppressed in one place or
+one direction has a tendency to break out in another. It has been
+gathering in force all the time within the body, and finally bursts
+forth again worse than before. "And the last state of that man was worse
+than the first." The _causes_ have run on. Similar causes can produce
+opposite effects--just as opposite causes can produce similar effects.
+Although no tangible connection between the first and the second illness
+can be traced, it is there nevertheless; and both have been produced by
+a common cause. We cannot ignore causes; we must treat them; and if we
+do not, they will, in the majority of cases, repay us a thousandfold for
+our past neglect.
+
+When a person is diseased the majority of mental-scientists would at
+least admit that certain unphysiological conditions were present and
+needed to be overcome. If this be so, I ask: Why should we allow the
+body to become diseased at all and thus necessitate its cure by mental
+or any other means? Would it not be much simpler to prevent such a
+diseased condition, in the first place, by proper physiological habits
+of life; and so render any cure by mental or other means unnecessary? It
+seems to me that, by thus allowing the body to become diseased, and then
+"curing" it by mental control (even granting that this is the case), we
+burn the candle at both ends--for the reason that we devitalize the body
+by allowing it to become diseased and then waste more energy in the
+mental effort to get well again! Would it not be more simple and more
+philosophical so to regulate the life that such diseased states and such
+cures are unnecessary?
+
+The fundamentals of Mrs. Eddy's doctrine are well known. God is all in
+all; God is good; hence all is good. Sin and sickness are delusions of
+poor mortal mind. They do not really exist. And this, they say, may
+easily be proved--on the one hand by the cures which take place; and on
+the other by the doctrine of idealism, which philosophers and scientists
+alike are accepting more and more as a satisfactory interpretation of
+the universe. The whole system is very delightful--and very illusory!
+
+In the first place, as to the cures. I must contend that because some
+remarkable cures have been effected, that, therefore, the _doctrines_ of
+Christian Science are not thereby established. We know similar cures
+have been effected at Lourdes; over the bones of saints (which did not
+really exist under the sacred cloth); over (fraudulent) "chips of the
+Cross"; by means of hypnotism, and in a hundred ways. The whole root of
+the matter lies in auto-suggestion; in the patient's faith in himself,
+and in the degree of faith he places in the curing object or dogma. The
+dogma may be quite false, but the cures are effected just the same.
+Because cures are effected by Christian Science methods, therefore, it
+is no proof whatever that the Christian Science theology or philosophy
+is right. It may be one huge error, but the cures would be effected just
+the same--provided the faith, the emotions, the imagination and spirit
+of the patient be touched in an appropriate manner.
+
+True it is that science and philosophy tend towards idealism; and the
+belief that there is, strictly speaking, "no matter." But this belief
+need not make us any the more believers in Christian Science and its
+methods. There is a subtle error here which is unperceived by the
+majority. When first the truth reaches the mind that there is "no
+matter" that matter cannot feel, etc., it bursts like a flood of light
+upon the unfettered mind and appears a fact so overwhelmingly great, so
+vast and so true, that to gainsay it would be to acknowledge ignorance
+of its teaching; to admit intellectual shortsightedness. (This is
+perhaps the reason for the supercilious superiority of many Christian
+Scientists; they imagine that no one perceives this truth but
+themselves.) And once grasped, is it not self-evident, and does not all
+else follow in consequence? At first sight it would indeed appear so!
+
+The great error, however, lies here. Because this fact is
+_theoretically_ true, it is not _practically_ true also. We may admit
+the one; we cannot accept the other. The fallacy has been clearly
+pointed out by Sir Oliver Lodge (_Hibbert Journal_, January, 1905), and
+I cannot do better than to quote his words in this connection. He says:
+
+     "We cannot be permanently satisfied with dualism, but it is
+     possible to be over-hasty and also too precisely insistent. There
+     are those who seem to think that a monistic view of existence
+     precludes the legitimacy of speaking of soul and body, or of God
+     and spiritual things, or of guidance and management, at all; that
+     is to say, they seem to think that because these things can be
+     _ultimately_ unified, therefore they are unified proximately and
+     for practical purposes. We might as well urge that it is incorrect
+     to speak of the chemical elements, or of the various materials with
+     which, in daily life, we have to deal, or of the structures in
+     which we live, or which we see and handle, as separate and real
+     things, because in the last resort we believe that they may all be
+     reduced to a segregation of corpuscles, or to some other mode of
+     unity.... The language of dualism or of multiplism is not incorrect
+     or inappropriable or superseded because we catch ideal glimpses of
+     an ultimate unity; nor would it be any the less appropriable if the
+     underlying unity could be more clearly or completely grasped. The
+     material world may be an aspect of the spiritual world, or _vice
+     versa_ perhaps; or both may be aspects of something else; but both
+     are realities, just the same, and there need be no hesitation in
+     speaking of them clearly and distinctly as, for practical purposes,
+     separate entities."
+
+This, it seems to me, disposes of the argument for Christian Science
+drawn from idealism. No matter whether the material world exists or not,
+we always have to live _as if_ it existed. If we close our eyes and walk
+across the room, we shall be rudely stopped by the brick wall at the
+opposite end when we come to it. No matter how strongly we believe that
+such a wall does not exist, it does, nevertheless, stop us; we have to
+live _as if_ it existed. And, just so, it seems to me; no matter how
+strongly we may believe that the body does not exist, we always have to
+live and act _as if_ it existed--so long, at least, as we live in and
+inhabit the body at all.
+
+Christian Science says that hygiene, diet, etc., are unimportant factors
+in the cure of disease. They "do not count." Apart from the immediate,
+practical disproof which cases of blood-poisoning, etc., would offer to
+such a theory, it may also be disproved theoretically. For if it be
+unnecessary, e.g., to fast during illness--if food is a negligible
+quantity and can be left out of account--why do Christian Scientists
+ever eat at all? If food is unimportant in one case, it must be in the
+other case also. And if it be replied to this, as it is, that the only
+reason for food is because the Christian Scientists are not yet
+sufficiently "advanced" and have not yet sufficient "enlightenment" to
+do without it; then, I reply, by the same logic they are not as yet
+sufficiently advanced, and have not as yet sufficient knowledge to treat
+all cases of accident and disease, which, in point of fact, they do
+treat. If the limitation be acknowledged in one direction, it must be
+acknowledged in the other direction also. Christian Scientists cannot
+yet live without food because they have not yet sufficiently "perfected"
+themselves. So, in like manner, they should not treat many cases of
+disease they do treat because they have not yet sufficiently "perfected"
+themselves.
+
+I might advance arguments such as the above to fill many pages. But I do
+not think it necessary. As a cure for certain functional diseases, for
+nervous disorders, and for many of the affections of the mind, mental
+methods of treatment must be acknowledged to be a great and a most
+important factor. But when an organic lesion is present, in grave states
+demanding immediate attention, I think it little short of criminal that
+such states should meet with almost total neglect because of the
+perverted ideas of physiology and a sickly sentimentalism illogically
+extended from the philosophical doctrine of idealism. As a metaphysical
+doctrine, it may be correct; as a basis for medical practice, it is
+certainly incorrect. Let us once more set our feet to earth and
+determine to live a good and a useful life in the material world of
+which we undoubtedly form a part. We are _in_ a material world, and I
+believe we should be _of_ it. I, for one, raise my voice in protest
+against the tide of intellectual asceticism which is inclined to accept
+without question the modern doctrine and methods of "psychotherapy" and
+mind-cure in place of the more rational and certain measures of hygiene
+and medicine. The further a pendulum swings in one direction, the
+further will it swing in the other, when released. And I believe that
+the modern extreme acceptance of faith and mind-cure in all its forms
+is but the moral and intellectual and spiritual reaction against the
+materialism of the past generation. Hail the day when it again swings
+back to its mid-position; and when mental methods of cure and bodily
+hygiene shall together march hand in hand to the joint attack against
+disease! They each have their mission to fulfil, their cases to cure.
+Tolerance, tolerance! Let them each recognize the rights of the other!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE OUIJA BOARD[45]
+
+
+Before we proceed to discuss the intelligence lying behind the Ouija
+Board, I must offer a few remarks upon the subject of automatic writing
+in general, passing in very brief review the various theories that have
+been advanced from time to time by way of explanation of the action of
+this extraordinary little device.
+
+One of the sanest and most rational popular accounts of this instrument
+and its workings that I have so far come across (all things considered)
+is a little pamphlet entitled _The Planchette Mystery_, very little
+known, from which I shall quote in writing this review. Epes Sargent's
+book, _Planchette: the Despair of Science_, contains in reality very
+little on the planchette board, and the title is somewhat deceptive. Mr.
+Myers's articles on the subject (particularly in _Proceedings of
+S.P.R._, vol. ii. pp. 217-37; vol. iii. pp. 1-63; and vol. ix. pp.
+26-128) are, of course, classical, but are involved and inaccessible for
+the general reader, even had he the time to read them carefully; so that
+perhaps the following resume may not be unnecessary or out of place.
+
+It is to be presumed that every reader of this book knows what a Ouija
+Board is, and, roughly, what it does. _How_ it does it is a more
+difficult question to answer; in fact, it may be said that no definite
+answer has even yet been forthcoming. All that has been done, or that we
+can do, is to examine the facts, and to advance an explanatory theory
+that is really explanatory and in accord, as nearly as possible, with
+accepted theories and teaching.
+
+First, let us consider the movement of the board. There can be little
+doubt that the same force which propels the planchette board propels the
+ouija board also; and this is still further demonstrated by the fact
+that, in many experiments, the planchette board is used as a ouija, and
+points to the letters, which are written out on a large piece of paper,
+and the pencil point indicates the letter in the same manner as does the
+ouija. It certainly appears far easier for the board to point to letters
+than to write--and this is most suggestive and interesting when we
+consider it. It would seem to indicate that the controlling intelligence
+found it easier to convey its thoughts when the letters were before it,
+in plain sight--a very suggestive fact, taken in conjunction with
+certain mediumistic phenomena.[46] Of course there is the alternative
+explanation of this fact--that a straight push-and-pull action is easier
+to accomplish than the more detailed and complicated action of forming
+words and letters. But that would not make plain to us why it is that no
+_attempt_ at writing should be made, very often, until the
+letter-pointing system is adopted.
+
+Presuming, then, that the movement or impelling force is the same in
+each instance, the question is: What is this force? In the great bulk of
+cases there can only be one answer to this question: unconscious
+muscular action. Whenever muscular contact is allowed, this may safely
+be assumed to be the explanation of the movements of the board--even if
+it shows an apparently independent will and movement of its own, and
+apparently drags the hands of the sitters with it. I have discussed this
+at some length in my _Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism_, pp. 66-72,
+and it is unnecessary to go into the question again here. Unconscious
+muscular action will account for so much that, even if it were not the
+true explanation of the facts, in reality, we should have to assume that
+it was.
+
+It will be observed that I have said "in the great bulk of cases." Some
+of my readers may object to this limitation, and say that it is the true
+and sufficient explanation of _all_ the cases, without exception.
+Personally I doubt that fact. There are numerous cases on record when
+the board has continued to write after the hands of all the sitters have
+been removed from it. Now, if there be operative a force which has been
+in some way generated during the sitting, it is quite possible, of
+course, that this same force may be operative in those cases where
+contact is allowed, only it is difficult to prove that fact.[47]
+Personally I have no difficulty in conceiving such a force or power, at
+least theoretically. This force may be the first glimmerings of the
+force whose more powerful manifestations we see in the movements of
+tables (witness Gasparin's experiments, e.g.), and ultimately in
+telekinetic phenomena, as, for example, in the Palladino case. This
+would seem to indicate that such forces and powers are possessed by
+every one in a limited degree, but that it is only in certain
+individuals that it becomes so marked and extraordinary that it produces
+the phenomena spoken of above.
+
+Granting, then, for the sake of argument, that the board is moved by the
+sitter, either consciously or unconsciously; by unconscious muscular
+action or by some "fluid" emanating from his fingers (and we must
+remember that even were a spirit using the writer's organism to manifest
+through, it must use the muscular and motor system), the great and vital
+question still remains: What is the intelligence behind the board that
+directs the phenomena? Who does the writing? What is the source of the
+information so often given?
+
+Let us first consider the theory held by a very large number of
+persons--that the board is moved by some kind of "electricity." We must
+suppose that the generally recognized electricity is meant, because, if
+not, the motive force would be electricity _plus something_, and the
+"something" would be the explanation. And yet, if the force moving the
+board be "electricity," how comes it that this "electricity" can answer
+back, and possess an individuality so independent from that of the
+writer; capable, too, of giving a vast mass of information to the
+sitters, on occasion, of which they knew nothing? Then, again, it must
+be remembered that a ouija or planchette is almost universally made of
+_wood_--not metal or any well-known good conductor of electricity, but
+of wood--which is generally recognized to be an exceedingly bad
+conductor. Obviously the theory is absurd. And when we come to remember
+those cases in which the board gave information previously unknown to
+the writer having his hands on the board at the time, the theory sinks
+into its proper place--oblivion.
+
+Then there is the theory of a floating, ambient mentality. This theory
+is held by many, and it is contended by them that this mentality is
+clothed, by some mysterious process, with a force similar to that which
+it possessed in the living organism; and that, in its expression of the
+combined intelligence of the circle, it generally follows the strongest
+mind, or the mind that is best qualified or conditioned to give
+correctly the thought. This theory found its champion in the person of
+Dr. Joseph Maxwell (see his _Metapsychical Phenomena_), and must be
+taken into account seriously. But an objection, and to my mind a fatal
+objection, to this theory is the fact that the intelligence seems to
+possess, not a collective but a decidedly personal character--one which
+is sufficiently stable and individual to argue back and to maintain its
+own opinions and beliefs in the face of great opposition from all the
+members of the circle. Is there anything in all this that suggests a
+floating, compound mentality; or does it not rather bear the marks of
+being a theory made up for the occasion, in order to evade some
+alternative explanation, objectionable, perhaps, to the sitters or
+critics?
+
+All that has been said above also applies to the theory of a _spiritus
+mundi_, or spirit of the universe, which formed so large a part in the
+cosmological theories of many ancient philosophers. It is supposed to be
+a sort of all-pervading nervous principle, having, however, a mind of
+its own, when occasion demands--for otherwise how are the results to be
+accounted for? I think this and the preceding theory can best be met,
+perhaps, by asking its supporters to produce one iota of evidence in its
+behalf. When this has been forthcoming it will be time enough to
+consider it seriously.
+
+Then there is the theory that the unconscious muscular action of the
+sitters is the cause of the movement and writing. This has been
+considered before, and it was pointed out that, even granting for the
+sake of argument that the board was actually moved by this means, the
+question still remains: How are we to account for the mentality behind
+the movement--especially when facts are given unknown to all the members
+of the circle? (For an example of this see _Proceedings, S.P.R._, vol.
+ix. pp. 93-8.)
+
+The question thus arises: _What_ did the writing? The theory of
+unconscious muscular action has been considered, and found not to
+explain all the facts. Many might contend that the board was moved by a
+principle or force as yet unknown, and think the question settled in
+that way. Of course this is a mere begging of the question, for all
+practical purposes, because, if the explanation were known, there would
+be no mystery and no argument about it. But the mere statement that the
+board is operated by a force as yet unknown merely restates the problem,
+without in any way attempting to solve it, and hence leaves us precisely
+where we were. Certainly this theory will not do!
+
+Undoubtedly, the simplest explanation--and the correct one--for the
+majority of the facts is that the subconscious mind is alone responsible
+for them. Thoughts, images, reflections, imaginations, tend to
+externalize or express themselves in this manner,--in motor
+avenues,--through the movement of the board. The vast majority of ouija
+board "communications" are to be accounted for in this way. But what of
+those other (relatively rare) cases in which supernormal information,
+unknown to the sitter, is obtained? Any theory which is advanced must
+explain these cases also, as well as the movement of the board, and pure
+subconscious activity does not. We should still have to account for this
+knowledge, unknown to the writer; so that we shall have to seek further
+yet, in order to discover the true cause of the intelligence doing the
+writing.
+
+We seem to be driven, then, into one of two alternatives: (1) that
+unconscious muscular action pushed the board, and that the supernormal
+information given was obtained by telepathy, clairvoyance, etc.; or (2)
+that spirits did the writing. Let us examine each of these hypotheses in
+turn a little more carefully. It seems to me that the first theory is
+practically unable to account in any satisfactory way for many
+communications that have been received. On the other hand, it would be
+perfectly absurd to invoke the agency of "spirits" for every one of the
+messages that have been written out--I mean supernormal messages. On the
+contrary, there are many experiments that point to clairvoyance or
+telepathy as the true explanation. It is highly probable, it seems to
+me, that the same agency is not involved on every occasion, but that
+there may be spirits (granting such to exist) on some occasions;
+telepathy and clairvoyance on other occasions; and purely unconscious
+muscular action on most occasions, when no supernormal is involved. It
+is only the prevailing tendency to cover all facts by a single
+explanation that has led to the difficulty. If we were willing to admit
+that there may be operative many different influences and causes, on
+different occasions, it seems to me that much of the difficulty would
+vanish.
+
+There can be no doubt as to the fact that the ouija board is a far more
+mysterious little instrument than the majority of persons suppose--or
+rather, the forces and the mentalities behind the movement of the board
+are exceedingly complex, and but little understood. As the author of
+_The Planchette Mystery_ said: "A wonderful jumble of mental and moral
+possibilities is this little piece of dead matter, now giving utterance
+to childish drivel, now bandying jokes and badinage, now stirring the
+conscience by unexceptionable Christian admonitions, and now uttering
+the baldest infidelity or the most shocking profanity; and often
+discoursing gravely on science, philosophy, or theology." Any theory
+that is advanced to explain the facts must take all this into
+consideration, and much more. Let us turn for a few minutes to consider
+the automatic script, as frequently obtained.
+
+There are, very frequently, answers to mental questions--questions, too,
+the answer to which none of those having their hands on the board could
+possibly know. Often, again, remarks are volunteered conveying
+information not possessed by any one of the writers. The distinct
+characterization of a personality is frequently seen,--and a personality
+of a very detestable sort. The language employed, frequently, is quite
+unprintable. The "ouija" lies as coolly and confidently as it tells the
+truth; in fact, it is dogmatically positive that its statements are
+correct in every case, even when they are glaringly incorrect at the
+very time they are written. This spirit of dogmatism is shown in many
+passages, and suggests to us the attempt at domineering on the part of
+an intelligence unused to such a position, and rejoicing in its
+supremacy.
+
+I wish to insist primarily upon the action of the board itself, and its
+apparently _human_ characteristics--quite apart from any information
+which it volunteers; and this will be of the greater interest, I fancy,
+for the reason that such observations have, to the best of my knowledge,
+rarely been made. I can perhaps best illustrate my point by giving a few
+concrete examples.
+
+There can be no question that the board has _moods_. It gets angry on
+occasion, for example, and at such times will tear round the table like
+a living thing, pointing first to one letter and then to another, and
+accentuating its meaning or calling attention to certain letters that
+are important, or that have been omitted in the rapid spelling, by
+rapping impatiently on the latter with the point--the point being lifted
+off the board at such times half an inch or so, and the board remaining
+planted on its two hind legs. I have seen the front leg of the board rap
+a dozen or so times on a letter that had been omitted; and sometimes the
+board would get so violent that it had to be quieted--just as the hand
+in automatic writing has to be quieted. Then, again, the board gets a
+certain "technique" of its own, acting in certain ways on certain
+occasions, and in other ways on other occasions; and frequently assuming
+a perfectly definite _form_ of movement with certain persons--a certain
+sweep or an erratic manner of pointing to letters which it maintains
+uniformly so long as that person has his or her hands on the board.
+Occasionally the ouija will assume a different personality, according to
+the communicating intelligence, and not according to the person having
+his hands on the board. Just as raps or tables assume distinct
+personalities (see Dr. Maxwell's book for examples of this), so the
+ouija board assumes a perfectly definite personality, on occasion, and
+moves and writes according to that personality's idiosyncrasies. And
+this becomes all the more marked when we take into account certain
+peculiarities of the board--for example, its unwillingness to give names
+and dates, or to furnish any definite information about itself. I have
+observed over and over again that, whenever the intelligence doing the
+writing is closely questioned about itself, it will become angry, and
+refuse to give this information--either sulking or swearing at the
+writers. On the other hand, the board has some good points. It refused
+to disclose secrets about other persons, and got angry in the same way
+when pressed. Another exceedingly interesting and suggestive thing is
+that the intelligence operating the board occasionally gets tired. "Give
+me a rest now" is an expression frequently observed, and would seem to
+indicate that the "intelligence" gets confused and fatigued by the very
+process of communicating its thoughts--just as the "controls" do in the
+Piper case.
+
+The very movements of the board frequently showed great skill and
+intelligence also; for instance, if the ouija encountered a rough or
+uneven place in the paper on one occasion it would always avoid crossing
+that spot in the future, and would go carefully round it, so as to avoid
+catching its legs in the hole or rough place in the paper. Still more
+striking was the manner in which the board pointed to certain letters on
+occasion. Many times the board was unable to point to a certain letter
+because the point of the ouija was in an awkward position, or on the
+edge of the table, or for some other reason. On such occasions the board
+backed one of its hind legs around until one of these legs pointed to
+the desired letter! Those having their hands on the board had many a
+hearty laugh over these antics, and particularly this one, which always
+reminded them of a horse backing itself round in this ludicrous way. It
+was always entirely unexpected, and was the source of great amusement.
+But what was the intelligence guiding the board when the only person
+having her hands upon it was not looking at its antics, or paying
+attention to what it was spelling out? Was it a spirit? If so, how did
+it manage to move the board? Did it act directly upon the matter of the
+board, and push it with its hands, as a material being would push it,
+or did it act in some more mysterious manner? Granting, for the sake of
+argument, that a spirit of some sort was involved in the production of
+the writing, how are we to assume its interaction with the matter of the
+board and its movements?
+
+Two theories will at once present themselves to the reader: (1) that the
+spirit acts directly upon the matter of the ouija board, and pushes it
+as any mortal would push it; and (2) that the spirit acts only through
+the brain and nervous and muscular system of the person or persons
+having their hands on the board. I leave these for the present, because
+they have been discussed so often before. The following is _the ouija
+board's own theory_ of such action--so we can at least listen to it with
+interest. In the course of some writing obtained, the following
+explanation of the action of the board was given by the "spirits"
+controlling it. I quote from the record:
+
+     "... Two spirits can always, when it is in divine order, readily
+     communicate with each other, because they can always bring
+     themselves into direct _rapport_ at some one or more points. Though
+     matter is widely discreted from spirit, in that the one is dead and
+     the other is alive, yet there is a certain correspondence between
+     the two, and between the degrees of the one and the degrees of the
+     other; and according to this correspondence, relation, or
+     _rapport_, spirit may act upon matter. Thus your spirit, in all its
+     degrees and faculties, is in the closest _rapport_ with all the
+     degrees of matter composing your body, and for this reason alone is
+     able to move it as it does, which it will no longer be able to do
+     when that _rapport_ is destroyed by what you call death. Through
+     your body it is _en rapport_ with and is able to act upon
+     surrounding matter. If, then, you are in a susceptible condition, a
+     spirit can not only get into _rapport_ with your spirit, and
+     through it with your body, and control its motions, or even suspend
+     your own proper action and external consciousness by entrancement;
+     but if you are at the same time _en rapport_ with this little board
+     it can, through contact of your hands, get into _rapport_ with
+     _that_, and move it without any conscious or volitional agency on
+     your part. Furthermore, under certain favourable conditions, a
+     spirit may, through your sphere and body combined, come into
+     _rapport_ even with the spheres of the ultimate particles of
+     material bodies near you, and thence with the particles and the
+     whole bodies themselves--and may thus, even without contact of your
+     hands, move them or make sounds upon them as has often been
+     witnessed. Its action, as before said, ceases where the _rapport_
+     ceases; and if communications from really intelligent spirits have
+     sometimes been defective as to the quality of the intelligence
+     manifested, it is because there has been found nothing in the
+     medium which could be brought into _rapport_ or correspondence with
+     the more elevated ideas of the spirit. The spirit, too, in frequent
+     instances, is unable to prevent its energizing influences from
+     being diverted by the reactive power of the medium into the
+     channels of the imperfect types of thought and expression that are
+     established in his mind, and it is for this simple reason that the
+     communication is as you say often tinctured with the peculiarities
+     of the medium, and even sometimes is nothing more than a
+     reproduction of the mental states of the latter--perhaps greatly
+     intensified."
+
+Such is the theory originated by "ouija" itself--ingenious enough, if
+not very scientific. The majority of my readers will probably prefer to
+believe, either that some external intelligence moved the board
+directly; or that the sitter himself did so--from purely subconscious
+motives, or because he was thereby externalizing or acting as the
+channel for the expression of ideas imparted to him from without. In
+view of the reality of physical phenomena, I should be inclined to leave
+the question open as to which of these two interpretations is correct in
+any specific case. But there can be no doubt that, in most instances at
+least, the board is moved by the subconscious muscular activity of the
+sitter; and this is the most sane and rational view to take until
+definite proof to the contrary be forthcoming.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] More properly, "the psychology of ouija board _writing_" or "of
+writing obtained by means of the Ouija Board." This general title is
+shorter, however, for a chapter heading.
+
+[46] I have in mind especially one remarkable (but hitherto unpublished)
+experiment with Mrs. Piper. A certain lady of my acquaintance--an old
+Piper sitter--has tried to convey a certain word to "Rector"
+telepathically--to be given by automatic writing through the trance.
+Several attempts failed. Finally, one day, the lady in question wrote
+out the word on a blackboard, and sat looking at it for about half an
+hour. The word was given the next day through Mrs. Piper. The blackboard
+was in the lady's own house, distant some 800 miles from Mrs. Piper, in
+Boston. This certainly seems to show that there is a peculiar "magic" in
+thoughts or things that are objectified in this manner. It serves to
+explain why it is that many clairvoyants cannot read thoughts and
+questions--e.g., until written out on paper--as in the case of Bert
+Reese, whom I have frequently seen.
+
+[47] Dr. W. J. Crawford's experiments have since confirmed this.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+WITCHCRAFT: ITS FACTS AND FOLLIES
+
+
+It has frequently been pointed out that, "where there is so much smoke
+there must be some fire"; also that there is, probably, and almost
+necessarily, some grain of truth in any popular superstition, no matter
+how absurd it may appear at first sight. This is not less true of
+witchcraft--though it would be difficult to convince the average person,
+in all probability, that there was anything connected with it but the
+grossest and most repulsive superstition. Taken all in all, it most
+assuredly is that, and very little else; and, before proceeding to
+examine the _residuum_ of truth that probably exists in connection with
+this subject, it will be well for us briefly to examine the other and
+darker side of this curious relic of mediaeval superstition, and to see
+it in its most sombre hues. A belief for which more than nine million
+persons were either burned or hanged since it sprang into being; in
+whose cause five hundred persons were executed in three months in 1515
+in Geneva alone, is not to be put aside as unworthy of a moment's
+consideration; but should, on the contrary, be considered as a most
+extraordinary and lasting delusion--helping to colour the times in which
+it occurred and influence the whole course of a nation's history.
+
+The first trial for sorcery in England was in King John's reign; the
+last within the past two hundred years. In England, America, Germany,
+France, Italy, Spain, Russia--every country without exception--witches
+have lived, flourished, and been burned at the stake. Laws were enacted
+against witches, and they were condemned on the most trivial and even
+ridiculous evidence imaginable. If an old woman were seen to enter a
+house by the front door, and a black cat was seen to leave the house by
+the back door, it was deemed sufficient evidence that the old woman was
+a witch, without further evidence or investigation--and indeed much of
+the evidence was not nearly so good and circumstantial as this! When a
+witch was caught, she was questioned and generally tortured; but it was
+soon ascertained that torture was a very unfair and unsafe method of
+extracting the truth (here as elsewhere), for the reason that a weak
+soul, even if innocent, might confess, and a strong and stubborn one
+would hold out and contend for her innocence to the last, whether guilty
+or not. For these reasons, it was finally given up before the burning
+was abolished.
+
+Witches were supposed to be possessed of the most extraordinary powers
+for evil; they could bewitch a man, woman or child--even the cows and
+flocks--by casting an "evil eye" upon them, by uttering an imprecation,
+or in other ways casting a spell upon them. This power was derived
+directly from the devil himself, with whom witches were supposed to be
+in direct compact; consequently their influence was all for evil. These
+deeds were practised daily throughout the year; but every year there was
+a grand meeting of the demons and witches--a "Sabbath," as it was
+called--and here were recounted all the evil deeds of the past year,
+and here the witches saw and conversed with the devil himself, and
+received their instructions from him. It would be almost impossible to
+conceive a more grotesque and gruesome picture than some of these
+Sabbaths were supposed to be: every impossible and inconceivable thing
+that man's mind could invent was apparently attributed to these
+meetings. In order to form some faint idea of men's beliefs in those
+days, I quote the following, supposedly from a more or less contemporary
+account, of what actually transpired at these Sabbaths:
+
+     "A witch should be an old woman with a wrinkled face, a furred
+     brow, a hairy lip, a gobber tooth, a squint eye, a squeaky voice, a
+     scolding tongue, having a ragged coat on her back, a skull cap on
+     her head, a spindle in her hand, a dog or cat by her side. There
+     are three classes or divisions of devils--black, grey, and white.
+     The first are omnipotent for evil, but powerless for good. The
+     white have power to help, but not to hurt. The grey are efficient
+     for both good and evil.... The modes of bewitching are: by casting
+     an evil eye (fascinating); by making representations of a person to
+     be acted upon in wax or clay, roasting this image before a fire; by
+     mixing magical ointments, or other compositions or ingredients; or
+     sometimes merely by uttering an imprecation.... Witches can ride in
+     sieves on the sea, on brooms, or spits, magically prepared. The
+     meeting of the witches is held every Friday night--between Friday
+     and Saturday.... They steal children from the grave, boil them with
+     lime till all the flesh is loosed from the bones, and is reduced to
+     one mass. They make of the firm part an ointment, and fill a
+     bottle with the fluid; and whosoever drinks this with due ceremony
+     belongs to the league, and is capable of bewitching.... Every year
+     a grand Sabbath is held or ordered for celebration on the
+     Blocksberg Mountains, for the night before the 1st of May. Witches
+     congregate from all parts, and meet at a place where four roads
+     meet, in a rugged mountain range, or in the neighbourhood of a
+     secluded lake or some dark forest; these are the spots selected for
+     the meeting....
+
+     "When orders have been issued for the meeting of the Sabbath, all
+     the wizards and witches who fail to attend it are lashed by demons
+     with a rod made of serpents and scorpions. In France and England
+     the witches ride upon broomsticks; but in Italy and Spain the Devil
+     himself, in the shape of a goat, supports them on his back, which
+     lengthens or shortens according to the number of witches he is
+     desirous of accommodating. No witch, when proceeding to the
+     Sabbath, can go out by a door or window, were she to try ever so
+     much. Their general mode of ingress is by a keyhole and of egress
+     by the chimney, up which they fly, broom and all, with the greatest
+     ease. To prevent the absence of the witches being noticed by their
+     neighbours, some inferior demon is commanded to assume their shapes
+     and lie in their beds, feigning illness, until the Sabbath is over.
+     When all the wizards and witches arrive at the place of rendezvous,
+     the infernal ceremonies begin. Satan, having assumed his favourite
+     shape of a large he-goat, with a face in front and another in his
+     haunches, takes a seat upon the throne; and all present in
+     succession pay their respects to him and kiss him on his face
+     behind. This done, he appoints a master of the ceremonies, in
+     company with whom he makes a personal examination of all the
+     witches to see whether they have the secret mark upon them by which
+     they are stamped as the Devil's own. The mark is always insensible
+     to pain. Those who have not yet been marked receive the mark from
+     the master of ceremonies--the Devil, at the same time, bestowing
+     nicknames upon them. This done, they all begin to sing and dance in
+     a most furious manner, until some one arrives who is anxious to be
+     admitted into the society. They are then silent for a while until
+     the newcomer has denied his salvation, kissed the Devil, spat upon
+     the Bible, and sworn obedience to him in all things. They then
+     begin dancing with all their might, and singing.... In the course
+     of an hour or two they generally become wearied of this violent
+     exercise, and then they all sit down and recount all their evil
+     deeds since last meeting. Those who have not been malicious and
+     mischievous enough towards their fellow-creatures receive personal
+     chastisement from Satan himself, who flogs them with thorns and
+     scorpions until they are covered with blood and unable to sit or
+     stand. When this ceremony is concluded, they are all amused by a
+     dance of toads. Thousands of these creatures spring out of the
+     earth, and, standing upon their hind legs, dance while the Devil
+     plays the bagpipes or the trumpet. These toads are all endowed with
+     the faculty of speech, and entreat the witches there to reward them
+     with the flesh of unbaptized infants for their exertions to give
+     them pleasure. The witches promise compliance. The Devil bids them
+     remember to keep their word, and then, stamping his foot, causes
+     all the toads to sink into the earth in an instant. The place
+     being thus cleared, preparations are made for the banquet, where
+     all manner of disgusting things are served and greedily devoured by
+     the demons and witches--although the latter are sometimes regaled
+     with choice meats and expensive wines from golden plates and
+     crystal goblets; but they are never thus favoured unless they have
+     done an extraordinary number of evil deeds since the last period of
+     meeting. After the feast they begin dancing, but such as have no
+     relish for any more exercise in that way amuse themselves by
+     mocking the holy sacrament of baptism. For this purpose the toads
+     are again called and sprinkled with filthy water, the Devil making
+     the sign of the cross, and the witches calling out [oath omitted].
+     When the Devil wishes to be particularly amused, he makes the
+     witches strip off their clothes and dance before him, each with a
+     cat tied round her neck and another dangling from her body in the
+     form of a tail. When the cock crows they all disappear, and the
+     Sabbath is ended...."
+
+There, reader, is a very fair idea of the monstrous form of belief held
+during the Middle Ages. Scarcely anything that was fanciful and
+diabolical was not conjured up to the mind and said to happen at these
+Sabbaths. There was also a certain amount of ingenious theorizing afoot
+in order to account for certain facts, as, for instance, the cloven
+hoof, which it was said must always appear, no matter how concealed--it
+being due to the fact that the devil took the form of a goat so often
+that he finally acquired the hoof. Sir Thomas Browne explains it to us
+thus:
+
+     "The ground of this opinion at first might be his frequent
+     appearing in the shape of a goat, which answers this description.
+     This was the opinion of the Ancient Christians concerning the
+     apparitions of the ancient panites, fauns, and satyrs; and of this
+     form we read of one that appeared to Anthony in the wilderness. The
+     same is also confirmed from exposition of Holy Scripture. For
+     whereas it is said, 'Thou shalt not offer unto devils,' the
+     original word is _Seghuirim_, i.e., 'rough and hairy goats,'
+     because in that shape the Devil most often appeared, as is
+     expounded by the rabbis, as _Tremellius_ hath also explained; and
+     as the word _Ascimah_, the God of Emath, is by some explained."
+
+It will be noted that the word "Devil" is invariably capitalized by the
+mediaeval writers, and to them he must have been a very real personage,
+and these curious beliefs terrible truths. Indeed, if true, what could
+be more terrible? Even so learned a man as Bacon, we are told--whose
+soul was promised to the devil, no matter "whether he died in or out of
+the church"--endeavoured to cheat the devil out of his due, and had his
+body buried in the _wall_ of the church--thus being neither in nor out
+of it--and so he hoped to cheat the devil of his due!
+
+With the coming of Reginald Scott there arose a certain scepticism
+throughout Europe, which was later echoed in America. Scott wrote a
+monumental work entitled _The Discoverie of Witchcraft_, in which he
+bitterly attacked the credulity of the people, and showed himself
+entirely incredulous of any of the alleged phenomena. Some years before,
+had he published such a book, it was likely that he would have been
+burned himself; but the times were probably ripe for just such a
+publication; there was already much unrest and uneasiness afoot, and his
+book appeared in the nick of time. Scott attempted to account for the
+phenomena of witchcraft on a rational basis, and showed himself
+completely sceptical of the reality of most of the manifestations. He
+even went so far as to attack many of the older "miracles," which
+apparently supported the newer, even taking the very bold course (in
+that day) of attacking some of the Biblical miracles. Thus we read:
+
+     "The Pythoness (speaking of the Witch of Endor) being
+     _ventriloqua_, that is, speaking as it were from the bottom of her
+     belly, did cast herself into a trance, and so abused Saul in
+     Samuel's name in her counterfeit hollow voice."
+
+Indeed, something was necessary to check the rank credulity of the
+times. If an old woman scolded a carter, and later on in the day his
+cart got stuck in the mud or overturned, it was positive evidence that
+he and his cart and horse had been "bewitched"! If an old woman kept a
+black cat or a pet toad, it was most assuredly her "familiar," and she
+was branded as a witch forthwith. If cows sickened and died, it was
+because a "spell" had been cast over them; and so on and so on. The
+superstitions of witchcraft were as innumerable as they were
+extraordinary. Are there any facts, amid all this superstition and
+ignorance, tending to show that genuine supernormal phenomena ever
+occurred at all? And if so, what are they?
+
+It must be remembered that, in the days of witchcraft, virtually nothing
+was known of hysteria, epilepsy, the varied forms of insanity,
+hallucination, hypnotism, or of the possibilities of mal-observation and
+lapse of memory: while such a matter as first-hand circumstantial
+evidence seems to have been lost to sight entirely. If any mental or
+extraordinary physical disturbance took place, if the witch went into a
+trance and described things that were not, this was held to be proof
+positive that she was bewitched and under the influence of the devil.
+But we now know that most of these facts really indicated
+disease--mental and bodily--or the results of hysteria or trance,
+spontaneous or induced. Possibly there were also traces of hypnotism and
+telepathic influence, upon occasion. Of course, fraud pure and simple
+would account for many of the phenomena--the vomiting of pins and
+needles, for instance. But there remain certain facts which cannot be
+accounted for on any of these theories. Let us see, briefly, what these
+are.
+
+First there are the "witches' marks." These were anaesthetic patches or
+zones on the body that were quite insensible to pain. They were searched
+for with the aid of sharp needles, and often found! It was thought that
+these were the spots which the devil had touched; this was his
+"trade-mark," so to speak, by which all witches were known. Now we know
+that just such anaesthetic patches occur in hysterical patients, and are
+not due to supernatural causes at all, but to pathological states.
+
+Then, again, there is the possible occurrence of hallucinations. Edmund
+Gurney pointed this out in _Phantasms of the Living_, vol. i. p. 117,
+where he said:
+
+     "We know now that subjective hallucinations may possess the very
+     fullest sensory character, and may be as real to the percipient as
+     any object he ever beheld. I have myself heard an epileptic
+     subject, who was perfectly sane and rational in his general
+     conduct, describe a series of interviews that he had had with the
+     devil with a precision and an absolute belief in the evidence of
+     his senses equal to anything that I ever read in the records of the
+     witches' compacts. And further, we know now that there is a
+     condition, capable often of being induced in uneducated and simple
+     persons with extreme ease, in which any idea that is suggested may
+     at once take sensory form, and may be projected as an actual
+     hallucination. To those who have seen robust young men, in an early
+     stage of hypnotic trance, staring with horror at a figure which
+     appears to them to be walking on the ceiling, or giving way to
+     strange convulsions under the impression that they have been
+     changed into birds or snakes, there will be nothing very surprising
+     in the belief of hysterical girls that they were possessed by some
+     alien influence, or that their distinct persecutor was actually
+     present to their senses. It is true that in hypnotic experiments
+     there is commonly some preliminary process by which the peculiar
+     condition is induced, and that the idea which originates the
+     delusion has then to be suggested _ab extra_. But with sensitive
+     'subjects' who have been much under any particular influence, a
+     mere word will produce the effect; nor is there any feature in the
+     evidence for witchcraft that more constantly recurs than the
+     _touching_ of the victim by the witch. Moreover, no hard and fast
+     lines exist between the delusions of induced hypnotism and those
+     of spontaneous trance, or of the grave hystero-epileptic crises
+     which mere terror is now known to develop."
+
+Unquestionably, hypnotism and hallucination played their part; also
+perhaps telepathy; and, as Gurney points out elsewhere, "The imagination
+which may be unable to produce, even in feeble-minded persons, the
+belief that they _see_ things that are not there, may be quite able to
+produce the belief that they _have seen_ them, which is all, of course,
+that their testimony implies" (p. 118).
+
+Doubtless a large part of witchcraft, particularly that portion of it
+which relates to the Sabbath and the scenes said to be enacted there,
+can be explained as being due to the morbid workings of the mind while
+in a trance state. It is asserted on good authority that salves and
+ointments were rubbed into the pores of the skin all over the body; and
+that soon after this the witch would feel drowsy and lie down, and
+frequently remain in a semitrance state for several hours. During that
+time she would visit the Sabbath,--so it was said; but her body remained
+on the bed meanwhile, clearly showing that _it_ had not been there.[48]
+
+One of the most curious beliefs prevalent at the time was the belief in
+_lycanthropy_, that is, that certain individuals can, under certain
+conditions, change their bodily shape, and appear _as animals_ to
+persons at a distance! Frequently this animal would be injured, in which
+case the person whom the animal represented would be found to be
+injured in the same way, and in exactly the same place. The witch in
+such cases would frequently be lying at home in bed in a trance state,
+while her "fluidic double," in the shape of the animal, would be roaming
+about "seeking whom he might devour." The following is a typical case,
+which I quote from Adolphe D'Assier's _Posthumous Humanity_, p. 261:
+
+     "A miller, named Bigot, had some reputation for sorcery. One day,
+     when his wife rose very early to go and wash some linen not very
+     far from the house, he tried to dissuade her, repeating to her
+     several times, 'Do not go there; you will be frightened.' 'Why
+     should I be frightened?' answered she. 'I tell you you will be
+     frightened.' She made nothing of these threats, and departed.
+     Hardly had she taken her place at the wash-tub before she saw an
+     animal moving here and there about her. As it was not yet daylight
+     she could not clearly make out its form, but she thought it was a
+     kind of dog. Annoyed by these goings and comings, and not being
+     able to scare it away, she threw at it her wooden clothes-beater,
+     which struck it in the eye. The animal immediately disappeared. At
+     the same moment the children of Bigot heard the latter utter a cry
+     of pain from the bed, and add: 'Ah! the wretch! she has destroyed
+     my eye.' From that day, in fact, he became one-eyed. Several
+     persons told me this fact, and I have heard it from Bigot's
+     children themselves."
+
+How does our author attempt to account for such a fact as this? He says:
+
+     "It was certainly the double of the miller which projected itself
+     while he was in bed and wandered about under an animal form. The
+     wound which the animal received at once repercussed upon the eye of
+     Bigot, just as we have seen the same thing happen in analogous
+     cases of the projection of the double by sorcerers."
+
+Without endorsing such a view of the case, it may be said that recent
+experiments have shown it to be less incredible than might at first
+appear. Thus: We read further:
+
+     "Innumerable facts, observed from antiquity to our own day,
+     demonstrate in our being the existence of an internal reality--the
+     internal man. Analysis of these different manifestations has
+     permitted us to penetrate its nature. Externally it is the exact
+     image of the person of whom it is the complement. Internally it
+     reproduces the mould of all the organs which constitute the
+     framework of the human body. We see it, in short, move, speak, take
+     nourishment; perform, in a word, all the great functions of animal
+     life. The extreme tenuity of these constituent molecules, which
+     represent the last term of inorganic matter, allows it to pass
+     through the walls and partitions of apartments. Hence the name of
+     phantom, by which it is generally designated. Nevertheless, as it
+     is united with the body from which it emanates by an invisible
+     vascular plexus, it can, at will, draw to itself, by a sort of
+     aspiration, the greater part of the living forces which animate the
+     latter. One sees, then, by a singular inversion, life withdrawn
+     from the body, which then exhibits a cadaverous rigidity, and
+     transfers itself entirely to the phantom, which acquires
+     consistency--sometimes even to the point of struggling with
+     persons before whom it materializes. It is but exceptionally that
+     it shows itself in connection with a living person. But as soon as
+     death has snapped the bonds which attach it to our organism, it
+     definitely separates itself from the human body and constitutes the
+     posthumous phantom."
+
+This interpretation of the facts, it will be seen, forms a sort of
+connecting link between apparitions, ghosts, materializations,
+vampirism, and witchcraft; it is also in accord with the statements of
+the theosophists as to the astral body, conforms with certain statements
+made through Mrs. Piper and others as to the fluidic or ethereal body,
+and accounts for many of the phenomena of "collective hallucination" and
+haunted houses. I am far from saying that I think such a theory proved,
+but it is at least consistent and plausible; it is also in accord with
+many facts, and explains them as no other theory can or does.
+
+Colonel A. de Rochas, in his article on "Regression of Memory" (_Annals
+of Psychical Science_, July 1905), claimed that he had experimentally
+produced one of these doubles in a mesmerised subject. After several
+seances, and while the subject was in a deep trance, the following
+occurred:
+
+     "The astral body is now complete. M. de R. tries to make it rise,
+     to send it into another room. The body is stopped in its journey by
+     the ceiling and the walls. M. de R. tells Mayo to stretch towards
+     him the astral right hand, and he pinches it; Mayo feels the
+     pinch."
+
+Experiments such as these could be multiplied _ad infinitum_. There are
+cases on record in which the astral form has been pricked with needles,
+while the "sensitive" felt the prick, and so on. These experiments are
+suggestive, and if they should prove an etheric body, or anything
+corresponding to it, that would be at least one great step in advance in
+psychic research. It would also enable us to understand many of the
+phenomena of witchcraft, which are at present looked upon as mere
+superstitions.
+
+A word, finally, as to the phenomena of "exteriorization of
+sensibility," to which reference was made in the last paragraph. Many
+French observers have, apparently, obtained these phenomena; but there
+seems to be much scepticism regarding them in England and America, where
+they are generally considered to be due entirely to "suggestion." For my
+own part--while I do not uphold past experiments in this direction as
+being particularly convincing--I must confess that I see no inherent
+improbability in the facts themselves. If we have an etheric body, this
+is doubtless more or less detachable, at times--indeed, the ingenious
+author of _The Maniac_ suggests that the premature loosening
+of this body is the cause of much insanity. (See also my own remarks
+along the same general lines in the _Annals of Psychical Science_,
+October-December 1909, pp. 657-67; "Concerning Abnormal Mental Life.")
+This etheric body is doubtless highly sensitive to external forces and
+energies acting upon it, and would also feel physical pressure, etc.,
+when applied. If this were true, we should have a ready explanation for
+these cases of exteriorized sensibility.
+
+But it would not even be necessary for us to assume this! If the
+phenomena of exteriorization of _motivity_ be true (the phenomena
+produced by Eusapia Palladino, for example) then we have here nervous
+energy or "fluid" existing beyond the periphery of the body--that is, in
+space, detached from the nerves. And if a motor current can exist and
+travel in this manner, why not a sensory current? It would only have to
+travel in the opposite direction. For these reasons, therefore, I am
+disposed to regard the phenomena of exteriorized sensibility as highly
+probable, if not actually proved.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[48] See the article on "Witches' Unguents" in the _Occult Review_,
+April 1912, pp. 275-77.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+SCIENTIFIC TRUTHS CONTAINED IN FAIRY STORIES
+
+
+How many of us, re-reading the fairy stories of our childhood have for a
+moment believed that many of these tales might be based upon scientific
+truths? Of course it is probable that most of these stories have _no_
+basis of fact behind them, but that they are merely the product of the
+story-teller's imagination--just as similar stories today are produced
+in this manner. But, on the other hand, it is quite conceivable that
+many of the seemingly fabulous accounts are in truth based upon
+realities; and that genuine occurrences may have happened, giving birth
+to these tales. We all know the general character of many of the
+legends. I may mention, as typical of the marvellous things done:
+becoming visible and invisible, as did "Jack the Giant Killer"; the
+existence of giants and dwarfs, as in _Little Tom Thumb_; incredibly
+rapid growth of vegetation, as in _Jack and the Beanstalk_; being
+suddenly transported without effort through immense distances and seeing
+at the other end of such a journey scenes and events actually
+transpiring at the time--as occurred in many of the _Arabian Nights_
+stories; cases in which plates and dishes washed themselves, and many
+other household feats were performed, as in _Prince Hildebrand and
+Princess Ida_; cases of long sleep, such as the _Sleeping Beauty_;
+cases in which human beings have been transformed into animals, and vice
+versa, as in _Beauty and the Beast_; cases in which palaces have sprung
+up over night, existing on the desert plain, only to vanish the next
+night and leave it as barren as before--as so often happened in the
+_Arabian Nights_.
+
+Let us first of all consider the cases in which persons have caused
+themselves to vanish and reappear at will. This power of becoming
+visible and invisible to others is not limited to mythical times, but
+may be reproduced today by artificial means. If a sensitive subject be
+hypnotized (and there is some analogy to the hypnotic pass in the fact
+that the fairy invariably waved her wand before the eyes of the
+onlooker), hallucinations of various types may be induced. Thus, our
+subject may be persuaded to see, for instance, a dog walking across the
+carpet, whereas there is no dog there. He may be persuaded that there is
+a stream in front of him flowing through the drawing-room, and that it
+is necessary for him, in order to prevent his feet from becoming wet, to
+take off his shoes and socks, and turn up his trousers. Hypnotic
+suggestion will perform this, and it may be said that suggestion alone,
+even when the subject is not in the hypnotic state, may be employed to
+produce many of these hallucinatory pictures. On the contrary, it is
+possible to suggest to our subject that such and such an object is
+gradually diminishing in size, and finally that it disappears
+altogether. He sees and describes this diminution, and finally looks in
+vain for the object which, he asserts, has vanished, but which, as a
+matter of fact, is perfectly visible to all others not under the
+influence of the suggestion. We frequently suffer from these "negative
+hallucinations," as they are called, in our ordinary daily life. We
+cannot find an object which is perfectly visible--resting in the very
+centre of the area over which we are searching diligently. Suddenly we
+discover it; it seems incredible to us that we have not seen it before;
+it seems to have sprung into being as though placed there by some
+invisible hand. Nevertheless it had remained throughout in the one
+position, and the only remarkable factor was our inability to see it.
+Such cases are well known to psychologists (the power of suggestion in
+inducing both positive and negative hallucinations), and this--both in
+the normal and the hypnotic state--is well recognized.
+
+Now it is only necessary for us to extend our conception somewhat in
+order to see the scientific truths contained in many fairy stories, in
+which one of the characters--hero, fairy, or what not--becomes visible
+and invisible at will. It is only necessary for us to conceive that some
+degree of mental influence had been brought to bear upon the minds of
+the onlookers, and that suggestion had been skilfully employed, in order
+to account for many of these stories. I know of a case in which the
+operator made his subject, who remained practically in a normal state
+throughout, see him floating about the room--whisking over chairs and
+tables, as though the law of gravity had no further influence upon him!
+
+We might, perhaps, also account for "invisibility" in one or two other
+ways. Thus, the magician or fairy might possess the power of interposing
+some veil or screen between himself and the seer--etheric or
+physical--by some act of will. Or we could suppose that some chemical
+might be applied to the body, rendering its structure and tissues
+transparent. (One is here reminded of H. G. Wells' _Invisible Man_.) Or,
+we might assume that the magician possessed the power of neutralizing
+light-waves, reflected from his body, by some method of
+"interference"--thus rendering himself invisible. This might be due
+either to a greater understanding of the laws of physics--i.e., the
+ability to manipulate light-energy in this manner, or to some purely
+psychic power--volitional, etc. Precise instructions for doing this have
+indeed been published (_Equinox_, vol. iii.). Of course, all such
+speculations as these are purely fantastic, until some proof of their
+possibility be forthcoming.
+
+It may be thought that this knowledge was not possessed by the ancients
+to the requisite extent; but there is abundant evidence to show that
+"mesmerism" has been practised from very ancient times. It is probable
+that the passage in Exodus vii, 10, 11, 12, refers to this, when it
+says: "Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh and before his servants,
+and it became a serpent. Then Pharaoh also called for the wise men and
+the sorcerers: and they also, the magicians of Egypt, did in like manner
+with their enchantments. For they cast down every man his rod, and they
+became serpents; but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods." It is
+interesting to note that Professor S. S. Baldwin, otherwise known as
+"The White Mahatma," recently saw a very similar feat performed in
+Egypt, and gives an account of it in his book, _The Secrets of Mahatma
+Land Explained_. Doubtless the effects in both cases were produced by
+suggestion, and a species of hypnotic influence. That the ancients were
+well versed in magic, and the power of suggestion and personal
+influence, is best illustrated by an old Egyptian papyrus at present in
+the British Museum, which contains an account of a magical seance given
+by a certain Tchatcha-em-ankh before King Khufu, 3766 B. C. In this
+manuscript it is stated of the magician: "He knoweth how to bind on a
+head which hath been cut off; he knoweth how to make a lion follow him,
+as if led by a rope; and he knoweth the number of the stars of the house
+(constellation) of Thoth." The decapitation trick is thus no new thing,
+while the experiment performed with the lion, possibly a hypnotic feat,
+shows hypnotism to be old.
+
+In the _Arabian Nights_, and in various other fairy tales, we also read
+of the sudden appearance and disappearance of palaces, castles, and
+other buildings of monumental character. This strange phenomenon has
+frequently been paralleled in recent times. It is a species of
+hallucination, induced by auto-suggestion or hetero-suggestion--that is,
+suggestion given to oneself, or suggestion from outsiders. Madame
+Blavatsky, in her _Nightmare Tales_, relates an interesting experience
+of this character:
+
+     "A curious optical effect then occurred. The room, which had been
+     previously partially lighted by the sunbeam, grew darker and darker
+     as the star increased in radiance, until we found ourselves in an
+     Egyptian gloom. The star twinkled, trembled, and turned, at first
+     with a slow, gyratory motion, then faster and faster, increasing
+     its circumference at every rotation until it formed a brilliant
+     disk, and we no longer saw the dwarf, who seemed absorbed in its
+     light.... All being now ready, the dervish, without uttering a
+     word, or removing his gaze from the disk, stretched out a hand, and
+     taking hold of mine he drew me to his side, and pointed to the
+     luminous shield. Looking at the place indicated, we saw large
+     patches appear, like those of the moon. These gradually formed
+     themselves into figures, that began moving themselves about in
+     higher relief than their natural colours. They neither appeared
+     like a photograph nor an engraving, still less like the reflection
+     of images on a mirror, but as if the disk were a cameo, and they
+     were raised above its surface--then endowed with life and motion.
+     To my astonishment and my friend's consternation, we recognized the
+     bridge leading from Galata to Stamboul spanning the Golden Horn
+     from the new to the old city. There were the people hurrying to and
+     fro, steamers and caiques gliding on the blue Bosphorus, the
+     many-coloured buildings, villas, palaces reflected in the water;
+     and the whole picture illuminated by the noonday sun. It passed
+     like a panorama, but so vivid was the impression that we could not
+     tell whether it or ourselves were in motion. All was bustle and
+     life, but not a sound broke the oppressive stillness. It was
+     noiseless as a dream. It was a phantom picture.... The scene faded
+     away, and Miss H---- placed herself in turn by the side of the
+     dervish."
+
+We thus see that expectancy and suggestion alone may induce sufficiently
+abnormal mental states to ensure the occurrence of such
+images--especially in a mind previously wrought by imagination,
+superstition, love, or any emotion tending to bring about its temporary
+lack of balance. The visions induced would, of course, be mental, and
+not physical, in their character; they would nevertheless appear just as
+real to the onlooker.
+
+Closely akin to these visions are those in which, it is reported,
+journeys have been made through space on a magic carpet--as in the
+_Arabian Nights_--or merely at the wish or command of some fairy or
+magician. Frequently, in such cases, it is reported that a vision is
+seen at the other end of the journey, coinciding with reality. It may be
+that the princess is, at that moment, being captured by a hideous giant;
+or that her lover is in great danger of losing his life. These visions
+have stirred the recipient into action, the result being that he or she
+arrives in the nick of time to prevent some fearful catastrophe. Such
+visions, too, have foundation in fact. There are many cases in which
+distant scenes have been visited in sleep, and places accurately
+remembered--the seer never having visited that locality in his life.
+Very much the same has happened in hypnotic trance, and even
+occasionally in the waking state, spontaneously. This is a species of
+clairvoyant vision; operative either during sleep, hypnotic trance, or
+daydream; and while it accurately represents scenes transpiring at a
+distance, here too, it will be noted, there is no corporeal
+transition--only mental adjustment from one scene of activity to
+another. Yet the subject remains under the distinct impression that he
+has been there in person, and actually visited the spot indicated.
+
+The Sleeping Beauty is an example of a story, typical of many, which
+illustrates the tradition that on certain occasions persons have passed
+into a sleep-state in which they have remained for long periods of time
+without apparent injury. While we must assume that the periods over
+which this sleep-state extended have been greatly overdrawn, the
+reported cases of hypnotic trance, and of voluntary interment, among the
+Hindus and elsewhere, lend probability to these stories, because of the
+fact that long periods of trance have been undergone by various
+individuals--who awakened from these states in apparently perfect
+health, and none the worse for their remarkable experience. Several
+spontaneous cases have been reported quite recently, in which the
+subject has passed several months, or even a year or more, in a
+sleep-state--awaking every few days or weeks, speaking a few words,
+taking perhaps a little nourishment, and then lapsing into oblivion! The
+older cases of extended sleep thus find a close parallel in the newer
+cases.
+
+One of the chief constituents of every fairy story is the giant or
+dwarf, who occupies a central position. That giants and dwarfs exist
+today there can be no doubt. They are frequently to be seen in the
+side-shows, and even in public life. But it is now known that giants and
+dwarfs suffer from a certain disease, which renders them particularly
+short-lived; and they are, generally speaking, muscularly weak for their
+size. They are not the stalwart, fierce race of beings imagined in the
+fairy stories, and which popular belief still pictures them. For the
+fairy tale, the giant is always enormous and powerful, and generally
+cannibalistic in his habits! Have giants of this character existed?
+Could such a race have existed? To this question it is almost certain
+that we must answer "No." M. Dastre, of the Sorbonne, Paris, has gone
+into this question at great length, and has given us the result of his
+researches in his essay on _The Stature of Man at Various Epochs_. Here
+he says:
+
+     "It is incontestable that beings of gigantic size do appear from
+     time to time.... Giants are men whose development, instead of
+     pursuing a normal course, has undergone a morbid deviation, and
+     whose nutrition has become perverted. They are dystrophic. Their
+     great stature shows that one part has gained at the loss of
+     another. It is a symptom of their inferiority in the struggle for
+     existence. Their condition is not only a variation from the
+     ordinary conditions of development--that is to say, they are
+     'congenital monsters,' the study of which belongs to the science of
+     teratology--but it is a variation also from a state of health,
+     physically and normally sound. In other words, they are diseased,
+     and fall within the domain of the pathologist. Here then, as
+     Brissaud says, you have your giants despoiled of their ancient and
+     favourite prestige. Mythology yields the place to pathology."
+
+The _causes_ of gigantism and of dwarfs are now well known. In the brain
+there is a tiny gland known as the pituitary gland, weighing little more
+than half a gram, and divided into two portions--the "anterior" and the
+"posterior" lobes. Hypertrophy of the _anterior_ lobe causes gigantism.
+The bones grow to an exaggerated length; the hands, feet, and bones of
+the face grow enormous. When, on the contrary, the secretions of the
+anterior lobe are insufficient, the body remains small, undergrown and
+delicate. The secretions of the _posterior_ lobe, on the other hand,
+insure the undue accumulation of fat, and disturb the functional
+activities. Other ductless glands in the body also affect the mental and
+physiological functions of the whole organism.
+
+Nevertheless it is realized that beings have existed from time to time
+far larger and more powerful in every way than the ordinary human being,
+and the mythopoeic tendency of the human mind has doubtless supplied the
+rest, and accredited to them marvellous powers which they did not in
+reality possess.
+
+In not a few fairy tales we read that the plates and dishes, which were
+upon the fairy's table, ran of their own accord to the kitchen, washed
+themselves, and came back to the table; that a cake was cut by a knife
+held by no visible hand; a decanter of water, of its own accord, moved
+about from place to place on the table, refilling the glasses of the
+guests; and in various other ways duties were performed which we are
+accustomed to consider as necessarily performed by ourselves. All this
+was accomplished by the objects without any external assistance, and of
+their own accord. Incredible as such accounts may appear, they are,
+nevertheless, not so extraordinary, viewed in the light of some newer
+researches--which in fact, if proved to be true, render phenomena of
+this sort quite credible. During seances held with Eusapia Palladino,
+objects were moved from place to place in the room without visible
+contact, and apparently of their own accord. They were also lifted from
+place to place and floated about in the air without visible support.
+These phenomena have been observed for a number of years by scientific
+men on the Continent, and they are unanimous in asserting that
+manifestations of this character do in fact take place, and that they
+are not due to any force or forces known to physical science. On one
+occasion, for example, a glass decanter was seen to be moved from the
+sideboard on which it stood on to the seance table, and thence rise and
+float around the room, no one touching it--there being no possibility of
+any connection between it and any object in the room. Finally, the glass
+bottle held itself, or was held by invisible hands, to Eusapia's mouth,
+and she thereupon drank some of the water it contained. The same thing
+happened to an investigator, another member of the circle. The glass
+decanter was then transported back to the sideboard, and a pile of
+dishes and other objects were moved on to the table.[49] Similar
+phenomena are said to have occurred in the presence, or through the
+mediumship, of D.D. Home. Sir William Crookes informs us that on several
+occasions a bunch of flowers was carried from one end of the table to
+the other, and then held to the noses of various investigators in turn,
+for them to smell. Some of those present at the seance saw a white hand,
+visible as far as the wrist, carrying the bouquet. Others saw merely a
+whitish cloud-like mass connected with the bunch of flowers. Still
+others saw nothing--save that the flowers themselves were transported
+through space without visible means of support.
+
+Here, then, we have phenomena, attested by scientific men, all happening
+within the past few years, rivalling any of a like nature that are
+reported to have occurred in fairy stories! If _invisible beings_,
+possessing intelligence, constantly move about us, and are capable, at
+times, of affecting the material world, surely there should be no
+objection to many of these fairy stories, since the difference in the
+facts is one merely of _degree_ and not of _kind_; and this would be
+true even were the phenomena proved to be due only to the action of some
+force or forces (under more or less intelligent control) within
+ourselves, producing the phenomena.
+
+Other extraordinary narratives will doubtless occur to the mind. The
+bean-stalk which grew overnight, might be referred to; and it is
+possible to compare this with cases of electrically or artificially
+forced vegetation. But, of course, the majority of the wonders reported
+in fairy stories find their probable interpretation in those tricks of
+the imagination which have now been duplicated by artificial means, and
+which science is beginning to understand and interpret according to
+well-known psychological laws. Fairy stories may thus present (in many
+instances) the germ of a truth, which it has taken many centuries to
+elaborate and comprehend in detail.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49] _Journal S.P.R._, vol. vi. p. 356. All this was observed by Sir
+Oliver Lodge, Prof. Ch. Richet, Mr. Myers, and Dr. Ochorowicz.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Problems of Psychical Research, by
+Hereward Carrington
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